THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 
 Psychoanalysis 
 
 Its Theories and Practical Application 
 
 BY 
 
 A. A. BRILL, Ph.B., M.D. 
 
 Lecturer on Psychoanalysis and Abnormal Psychology, New York 
 
 University; Formerly Adjunct Professor of Psychiatry, 
 
 Post Graduate Medical School, N. Y. 
 
 TEIRD EDITION 
 THOROUGHLY REVISED 
 
 PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 
 
 W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY 
 1922
 
 Copyright, 1912, by W. B. Saunders Company. Reprinted May, 1913. Revised 
 
 reprinted, and recopyrighted April, 1914. Reprinted December, 1917. 
 
 Revised, entirely reset, reprinted, and recopyrighted January, 1922 
 
 Copyright, 1922, by W. B. Saunders Company 
 
 MADD IN D. S. A. 
 
 PRBISS OF 
 I. SAONDBRS OOMPAmr 
 PHIL,AI>EII.PHIA
 
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 TO MY ESTEEMED TEACHER 
 
 PROFESSOR DR. SIGMUND FREUD, LL. D. 
 
 WHOSE IDEAS ARE HEREIN REPRODUCED THIS 
 BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED 

 
 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION 
 
 Since the appearance of the last edition of this work, 
 psychoanalysis has made unprecedented progress both as a 
 therapeutic agent and as an expounder and interpreter of 
 subjects and phenomena which are not strictly medical. 
 As a result of its successful application to a large number of 
 psychoneuroses precipitated by the war, psychoanalysis 
 has gained many new adherents among physicians who 
 were hitherto unacquainted with it. In other scientific 
 fields it has opened up new vistas in biology, psychology, 
 belle lettres, sociology, and the alHed sciences; this is shown 
 by the numerous works, references, and discussions in the 
 literature on these subjects. As pleasing as this is one 
 cannot altogether ignore some of the discordant notes, and 
 disregarding the foolish ranting hurled at psychoanalysis 
 now and then by ignorant individuals, one is struck by 
 some misunderstanding even among those who are se- 
 riously interested in the subject. As most of these 
 difficulties arise from a lack of understanding of the psycho- 
 sexual problems, a knowledge of which is predisposed in all 
 students of psychoanalysis, new material was added with 
 a view of clarifying some of the specific sexual phenomena, 
 especially masturbation and homosexuality. The other 
 new chapter on Paraphrenia, deals with a class of rather 
 mild psychoses, which the average physician rarely recog- 
 nizes, and upon which psychoanalysis throws considerable
 
 2 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION 
 
 light. The rest of the material consists of new cases and 
 illustrations referring to various problems treated in the 
 book. 
 
 It is the writer's wish that this edition, for the tardiness 
 of which he alone is responsible, will continue to stimulate 
 sympathetic interest in the great works of Professor Freud. 
 
 A. A. Brill. 
 New York City. 
 January, 1922.
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 Adhering to the original object of this book, as set forth 
 in the first preface, it was thought best to add to this volume 
 new illustrative material of a practical and instructive char- 
 acter. This was effected by the insertion of analyzed 
 dreams, interesting cases, and two new chapters. In addi- 
 tion, the book has been thoroughly revised and greatly 
 enlarged by many supplements. The new material com- 
 prises discussions on artificial dreams, the unconscious 
 factors in neuroses, collecting manias, pathologic homo- 
 sexuality, and fairy tales as a determinant of dreams and 
 neurotic symptoms. At the suggestion of many readers 
 a glossary of psychoanalytic and psychosexual terms was 
 added. 
 
 Although there has been an enormous increase in the 
 
 psychoanalytic literature since the appearance of the first 
 
 edition no need was felt for modifying any of its essential 
 
 principles. The new material either confirmed Freud's 
 
 theories or provoked discussions of a purely academic nature 
 
 which cannot here be entered into. Our local critics have 
 
 not changed; they are constantly rehashing what was said 
 
 abroad, and what was adequately answered long ago.* 
 
 They have not offered a single new idea of their own. Such 
 
 * Those who are interested may read Bleuler: Die Psychanalyse 
 Freud's; Jahrb. f. Psychoanal. und Psychopathol. Forschungen, Bd. 11, 
 1911; and Ibid.: Kritik der Freudschen Theorien, Allegemeine Zeit- 
 achrif t fiir Psychiatric, LXX, 5. 
 
 3
 
 4 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 blind criticism will not stem the progressive advance of the 
 Freudian views. Indeed, the psychoanalytic theories have 
 been accepted in part or wholly by some of the leading 
 active psychiatrists in this country and abroad. To quote 
 Jones: "Assent has been given to the chief of Freud's con- 
 clilsions by such men of scientific eminence and sane judg- 
 ment as Professors Bleuler, August Hoch, Jung, Adolph 
 Meyer, and Putnam. * Many other names of equal promi- 
 nence could now be added. Any one conversant with 
 medical and lay literature readily sees the great significance 
 of Freud's psychologic principles in modern thought, and 
 the influence of psychoanalysis on the treatment of nervous 
 and mental cases. 
 
 As gratifying as this is, attention must be called to one 
 great danger, the danger of the psychoanalytic method in 
 untrained hands. The necessary training and other 
 requisites for this work have been discussed in the preface 
 to the first edition, but, in view of later developments, it 
 will not be amiss to emphasize a few more points. 
 
 As psychoanalysis deals with mental factors, it is only just 
 to expect that those employing it should have a training in 
 psychiatry and neurology. The normal and abnormal men- 
 tal trends and reactions of each patient must be known be- 
 fore psychoanalysis is undertaken, and these can only be 
 correctly diagnosed by those trained in mental work; for 
 not every nervous and mental case lends itself to analysis, 
 and proper selection of cases would obviate many failures 
 and criticisms. The writer has seen much harm done to 
 patients by "wild psychoanalysts," who had no conception 
 
 * " Reflections on Some Criticisms of the Psycho-analytic Method of 
 Treatment," American Journal of the Medical Sciences, July, 1911.
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 5 
 
 of what they are doing. Those who wish to take up psycho- 
 analytic work should proceed in the same manner as in any 
 other specialty. The reading of some theoretic works about 
 the eye or throat does not make an ophthalmologist or 
 laryngologist, nor does theoretic knowledge make a psycho- 
 analyst. It must be remembered that all the pioneers in >j 
 this field have been neurologists and psychiatrists first. 
 To practice psychoanalysis without previous training in men- 
 tal work is as dangerous as practicing surgery without a 
 knowledge of anatomy; and, as in surgery, no definite rules 
 can be laid down, one must be guided by what he finds; 
 proficiency depends on a sound preparation and much 
 experience. 
 
 As the two new chapters have originally appeared in the 
 New York Medical Journal, I am indebted to the editor for 
 permitting me to use the same. 
 
 A. A. Brill. 
 
 New York City.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Like many others in the field of nervous and mental 
 work, I received my training in the State Hospital for the 
 insane. It was my fortune to enter the hospital service 
 at a very important period of its development. Dr. 
 Frederick Peterson was then president of the Commission 
 in Lunacy, and it was mainly through his untiring energy 
 that the New York State hospitals were thoroughly modern- 
 ized and put on a firm scientific basis. It was also mostly 
 through his efforts that Dr. Adolf Meyer became director 
 of the Pathological Institute at Ward's Island, N. Y. 
 
 The advent of Dr. Meyer marks a new epoch in the 
 N. Y. State hospital service. An accomplished neuro- 
 pathologist and psychiatrist of long experience, he soon 
 instilled new life and interest into the work by giving 
 regular courses of lectures and demonstrations to the 
 interns on the theories and methods then in vogue. The 
 old way of writing a one line note about the patient's 
 mental and physical condition every three or six months 
 had to stop despite the grumbling of the "old timers," 
 and we were required to make frequent and comprehensive 
 examinations of our patients and note carefully what we 
 found. These examinations were made in accordance 
 with a scheme thoroughly worked out by Dr. Adolf Meyer, 
 the underlying principles of which were the teachings of 
 Kraepelin, Wernicke and Ziehen. This good work has 
 continued up to the present with excellent results. Since 
 
 I left the state service I have visited and worked in some 
 
 7
 
 8 PREFACE 
 
 of the best psychiatric clinics in Europe, and I am glad 
 to say that all things considered the work of the New 
 York State Hospitals compares very favorably with the 
 work done in most of the hospitals abroad. 
 
 What I say in reference to the N. Y. State hospitals 
 can be readily applied with some modifications to most of 
 the hospitals for the insane in this country. It is well 
 known that within the last ten to twelve years the manage- 
 ment and treatment of the insane in this country have 
 undergone a marked transformation, which is of great 
 benefit to the patient, the doctor and the public. The 
 State hospitals are now treating the patients as patients 
 in the true sense of the word; they are rapidly filling up an 
 enormous gap in the medical profession by training doctors 
 to treat the insane, and they are gradually abolishing 
 the popular prejudices against hospitals for the insane. 
 The medical schools, too, are now paying more though not 
 enough attention to mental diseases; and last, but not 
 least, excellent and commendable work is being done by 
 the Social Service Departments and the National Society 
 for Mental Hygiene. 
 
 The progressive evolution in the study of mental dis- 
 eases has called attention to another neglected field in 
 which the most important work is still to be done. I 
 refer to the so-called "borderline" cases, the neuroses 
 and mild psychoses which never reach the State hospitals, 
 but form the greatest proportion of clinic and dispensary 
 practice. In the ten years from 1900-1909, 21,290 patients 
 were examined by the assistants in the neurological depart- 
 ment of the Vanderbilt Clinic, N. Y., and about 25% of this 
 number were diagnosed as neurasthenia, psychasthenia,
 
 PREFACE 9 
 
 hysteria, and as mild forms of the functional psychoses.* 
 Although I am not ready to give statistics, I do not hesitate 
 to assert that the same conditions prevail in almost every 
 clinic and dispensary. A striking feature in these border- 
 line cases is the fact that the great majority run a chronic 
 course. Up to within recent years no real effort has been 
 made to understand these unfortunates. It is gratifying 
 to note, however, that a complete change has taken place 
 in this direction. Physicians now realize that the old 
 adage mens sana in corpore sano is not to be taken in the 
 strict sense, and hence do not rely on physical treatment 
 alone. All enlightened and progressive physicians recog- 
 nize psychotherapy as an important therapeutic agent in 
 the treatment of these borderline cases .of mental diseases. 
 Now as there is a demand for psychotherapy, the ques- 
 tion naturally arises as to which is the method of prefer- 
 ence. Without entering into the merits and demerits of 
 the different systems of psychotherapy, admitting that in 
 competent hands they are all good and useful, and that I 
 myself employ them in selected cases, I do not hesitate to O 
 assert that psychoanalysis is the most rational and effective 
 method of psychic therapy. I say this after having prac- 
 tised for years the existing psychotherapeutic methods. 
 Psychoanalysis is the only system of psychotherapy 
 that deals with the neuroses as entities instead of treating 
 symptoms, as do hypnotism, suggestion and persuasion. 
 To hypnotize a patient because he suffers from obsessions 
 or phobias is equivalent to treating the cough or fever 
 regardless of the disease of which it is but one of the mani- ~^ 
 
 * Jelliffe and Brill : Statistical Summary of Cases in Department of 
 Neurology, Vanderbilt Clinic, for Ten Years, 1900 to 1909, Journal 
 Nervous and Mental Diseases, July, 1911.
 
 [ 10 PREFACE 
 
 festations. Hypnotism takes no cognizance of personality, 
 it simply imposes blind obedience which at best lasts 
 until worn off. Psychoanalysis always concerns itseK with 
 the individual as a personality and enters into the deepest 
 recesses of the mind. It is for that reason that the results 
 of psychoanalysis are most effective; and it is only through 
 psychoanalysis that we can hope to gain a real insight into 
 the neuroses and psychoses, a thing of prime importance 
 in the study of mental prophylaxis. 
 
 These assertions are not based merely on the reading of 
 a few scattered papers, but on about six years of hard 
 work and almost constant occupation with the subject. 
 For it is only through hard work and long experience that 
 one can acquire a thorough knowledge of Freud's psychol- 
 ogy. Recently I had the pleasure of talking to some 
 who claimed to have used psychoanalysis in the treatment 
 of patients, and who spoke rather discouragingly, saying 
 that it produced no result. Thus one endeavored to cure 
 a case of so-called congenital homosexuality in about a 
 dozen sessions. Another stated that although he ques- 
 tioned a young woman for hours about sex she showed no 
 improvement in her hysteria. 
 
 Such statements readily show the gross misunderstand- 
 ing of the work. For it is not the treatment of a few 
 hours, weeks or even months that cures; it is the psychic 
 elaboration accomplished during a long period by one 
 thoroughly conversant with the work. I do not think 
 that it is too much to ask of one who wishes to make use 
 of a certain technical method that he should first learn 
 its basic principles. One cannot expect to become 
 proficient in psychoanalysis unless he has mastered at least
 
 PREFACE 11 
 
 Freud's theories of the neuroses, the interpretation of 
 dreams, the theories on sex, the psychopathology of every- 
 day Hfe, and his book on wit, and last but not least nas 
 had a training in nervous and mental work. Besides 
 these qualifications one must know how to select his cases. 
 It has been wrongly supposed that we claim to be able 
 to cure everything. Neither Freud nor any of his pupils 
 has ever advanced such claims. On the contrary, Freud 
 has repeatedly emphasized that psychoanalysis has a limited 
 field, and that it should be used only in limited cases. Let 
 us hear what he says: 
 
 "The former value of the person should not be over- 
 looked in the disease, and you should refuse a patient 
 wjio does not possess a certain degree of education, and 
 whose character is not in a measure reliable. We must 
 not forget that there are also healthy persons who are good 
 for nothing, and that if they show a mere touch of the 
 neurosis, one is only too much inclined to blame the dis- 
 ease for incapacitating such inferior persons. I maintain 
 that the neurosis does not in any way stamp its bearer as 
 a degenere, but that, frequently enough, it is found in the 
 same individual associated with the manifestations of 
 degeneration. The analytic psychotherapy is, therefore, 
 no procedure for the treatment of neuropathic degenera- 
 tion — on the contrary it is limited by it. It is also not to 
 be applied in persons who are not prompted by their own 
 suffering to seek treatment, but subject themselves to it 
 by order of their relatives. 
 
 ''If one wishes to take a safe course he should limit his 
 selection to persons of a normal state. Psychoses, con- O 
 fusional states, and marked (I might say toxic) depres-
 
 12 PREFACE 
 
 sions, are unsuitable for analysis, at least as it is practised 
 to-day. I do not think it at all impossible that with the 
 proper changes in the procedure it will be possible to disre- 
 gard this contraindication, and thus claim a psychotherapy 
 for the psychoses. 
 
 "The age of the patient also plays a part in the selec- 
 tion for the psychoanalytic treatment. Persons near or 
 over the age of fifty lack, on the one hand, the plasticity 
 of the psychic processes upon which the therapy depends — 
 old people are no longer educable — and on the other hand, 
 the material which has to be elaborated and the duration of 
 the treatment are immensely increased. The earliest age 
 limit is to be individually determined; youthful persons, 
 even before puberty, are excellent subjects for analysis. 
 
 "One should not attempt psychoanalysis when it is a 
 question of rapidly removing a threatening manifestation, 
 as, for example, in the case of an hysterical anorexia."* 
 
 From my own experience I fully agree with Freud, and 
 I would add: do not analyze your relatives, and when in 
 private practice do not analyze any patient without 
 receiving some compensation for it. 
 
 As the actual working method will be described later, 
 I shall confine myself here to a few facts, which, although 
 strictly speaking belong to the epilogue, may nevertheless 
 be worth mentioning in this connection. With the begin- 
 ning of the analysis I investigate the patient's dream life. 
 I instruct him to write down his dreams on awakening. 
 This is very important because dreams give us the most 
 reliable information concerning the individual, and they 
 
 * Freud: Selected Papers on Hysteria and other Psychoneuroses, 
 2d Ed., p. 181. Trans, by A. A. Brill, Jour. Ner. and Men. Dis. Pub. Co,
 
 PREFACE 13 
 
 invariably show some relation to the symptoms. I never 
 attempt, however, to analyze a dream before knowing 
 the patient for at least two weeks. Dreams cannot be 
 analyzed unless one has the full cooperation of the 
 dreamer, and this is only possible after a certain rapport 
 has been established between the doctor and the patient. 
 It is this rapport, or the transference* as we will call it, 
 with which one must start. Nothing can be done without 
 it, and unless this is properly managed little can be done 
 for the patient. One may get excellent results in surgery 
 or in any other specialty without seeing the patient's face, 
 but psychoanalysis presupposes an intimate acquaintance- 
 ship. There must be a mutual understanding and liking 
 between doctor and patient. One must, however, be on 
 his guard lest the transference be carried too far. One 
 must remember that one is dealing with people whose 
 libido is striving for fixation, and care and tact must there- 
 fore be exercised to remain good friends only. One must 
 remember the intimate relationship existing between love 
 and hatred, and that one can be readily changed into the 
 other. There are few neurotics, or for that matter normal 
 beings, who remain absolutely indifferent. They either 
 like or dislike. In one of his essays, Charles Lamb tells 
 of two men who never met before who began to fight as 
 soon as they looked at each other. This sounds very strange 
 to us, though it is comprehensible in savages, children 
 and animals. As is known, neurotics are dominated by 
 
 * Freud: Zur Dynamik der Ubertragung, Zentralb. f. Psycho- 
 analyse, 2. Jahrgang, Heft 1 und 4. Stekel: Die verschiedenen 
 Formen der tJTsertragung, Zentralb. f. Psychoanalyse, 2. Jahrgang. 
 Ferenczi: Introjection und Ubertragung, Jahrbuch f. Psychoanalyst. 
 u. Psychopath., 1910, Bd. i, p. 451. Jones: The Action of Suggestion 
 in Psychotherapy, Jour, of Abnormal Psychol., January, 1910.
 
 14 PREFACE 
 
 their infantile or repressed material, they suffer from a 
 failure in repression; hence behave in a way like children. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to mention that we are criticised 
 for delving into sexuality. This is quite true, but is it a 
 question wheter it merits criticism. Our critics seem 
 to have no conception of Freud's idea of sexuality. To 
 us the term is very broad, it really comprises the whole 
 love-life of the individual. As soon as we enter into the 
 intimate life of the patient we are sure to find sex in some 
 form, indeed the surest indication of an abnormal sexual life 
 is an apparent absence of the sexual factors. It is natur- 
 ally advisable to be very careful in approaching the subject 
 so as not to shock the patient. Moreover, psychoanalysis 
 presupposes a knowledge of not only Freud's theories of 
 sex, but also a broad knowledge of psychosexuality in 
 general. Only those who are themselves free from all 
 sexual resistances and who can discuss sex in a pure- 
 minded manner should do psychoanalytic work. 
 
 In conclusion I wish to say that the main object of this 
 book is to present the practical application of Freud's 
 theories in one volume, hoping thereby not only to remove 
 many false conceptions entertained concerning psycho- 
 analysis, but to stimulate further interest in Freud's 
 original works. 
 
 As some of the material given here has been published 
 before in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology, the 
 American Journal of Insanity, the N. Y. Medical Journal, 
 the Medical Record, and the N. Y. State Journal of Medi- 
 cine, I take this opportunity to express my thanks to the 
 editors of these journals for allowing me to utilize the 
 same. A. A. Brill. 
 
 New York City.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I Paqb 
 
 The Psychoneuroses 17 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 PSTCHOPATHOLOGT OF EvERY-DAY LiPE 40 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 Dreams 78 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 The Actual Neuroses 127 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 Masturbation 146 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 The Compulsion Neuroses (Obsessions, Doubts, Phobias).. , 163 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 The Unconscious Factors in the Neuroses 184 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 Psychoanalysis and the Psychoses 199 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 Studies in Paraphrenia or the Milder Psychotic States. . . 250 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 Psychological Mechanisms op Paranoia 270 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 Homosexuality 289 
 
 15
 
 16 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XII Paqi. 
 
 Htsterical Fancies and Dreamy States 310 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 The CEdipus Complex 329 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 The Only or Favorite Child in Adult Life 348 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Fairy Tales as a Determinant op Dreams and Neurotic 
 Symptoms. Their Relation to Active and Passive 
 Algolagnia 363 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 Anal Eroticism and Character 390 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 Freud's Theory op Wit 400 
 
 Glossary 450 
 
 Index 455
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 ITS THEORIES AND PRACTICAL 
 APPLICATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 
 
 The Development of Freud's Conception of the Psycho- 
 neuroses and Psychoses, Their Relation to the 
 Psychology of Dreams, Sex and the Psy- 
 chopathology of Every-day Life 
 
 The psychoneuroses, the step-children of medicine, have 
 of late received more attention in medical literature than 
 before. Both here and abroad it has been realized that 
 there is a large group of diseases, the so-called border line 
 cases in mental diseases, the understanding and treatment 
 of which have been sadly neglected, and it is gratifying 
 to know that at least some steps have been taken to meet 
 these deficiencies. The wave of psychotherapy which has 
 swept the continent has also made its presence felt in this 
 country through its numerous discussions in both lay and 
 professional journals. Abroad its adherents claim brilliant 
 results; one need only review the numerous works of the 
 Nancy and other schools to be convinced that psycho- 
 therapy is no empty term, but an actual branch of medi- 
 2 17
 
 18 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 cine, and that in the psychoneuroses it is the only effective 
 remedial agent. 
 
 Yet, whereas all schools agree that the psychoneuroses 
 should be treated by psychotherapy, they all disagree as 
 to the nature of the psychoneuroses. One need only scan 
 the recent works to see what diverse views are expressed 
 by the different investigators on the subject. These 
 diversities, in my opinion, are due to the fact that most of 
 the investigators in question have ignored one important 
 factor, namely, individual psychology. Without individ- 
 ual psychology the riddle of the neuroses, like the riddle 
 of the psychoses, must remain unsolved. 
 
 Among the different views expressed on the neuroses 
 those of Freud stand out most conspicuously. No recent 
 theories in medicine or psychology have evoked so many 
 controversies and discussions. After years of careful and 
 painstaking labor Freud evolved not only a system of 
 psychotherapy, but a new psychology. Unlike all other 
 investigators he discarded all generahties and confined 
 himself to the individual. The individual factors which 
 had escaped the notice of other investigators he found to 
 be of the utmost importance in the psychogenetic devel- 
 opment of personality. 
 
 As early as 1895 Breuer and Freud published the 
 "Studien iiber Hysteric." They found that hysterical 
 symptoms like neuralgias, paralyses, epileptiform attacks, 
 etc., could be traced to actual psychic traumata which the 
 patient could not consciously recall, but which could be 
 readily demonstrated when the patient was put in the 
 hypnotic state. In other words, they found that the 
 hysterical manifestations were not accidental, but had an
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 19 
 
 actual cause. The connection between cause and effect 
 was often quite obvious; thus, "A very sick child falls 
 asleep and the mother exerts all her will power to make no 
 noise to awaken it, but just because of this effort she 
 emits a clicking sound with her tongue (hysterical counter- 
 will) which was repeated on another occasion when she 
 wished to be absolutely quiet. This developed into a regu- 
 lar tic which lasted for years. "^ In some cases the connec- 
 tion is not so simple, there being only a symbolic relation 
 between the cause and the hysterical phenomena; thus, 
 psychic pain may cause a neuralgia and moral disgust may 
 cause vomiting. Breuer and Freud then concluded that 
 these psychic traumata, or the memory of them act like 
 foreign bodies in consciousness, and even long after their 
 occurrence continue to influence like causative factors. To 
 quote Freud, "The hysteric suffers mostly from reminis- 
 cences."^ Their symptoms are remnants and memory 
 symbols for certain (traumatic) events. A deeper under- 
 standing of these symbolisms will perhaps be gained by 
 comparing them with memory symbols of other spheres. 
 Thus the statues and monuments with which we embel- 
 lish our big cities are such memory symbols. ' ' If you should 
 take a walk through London you would find a richly 
 decorated Gothic column in front of Charing Cross, one of 
 the largest railroad stations of the city. On the occasion of 
 removing to Westminster the remains of his beloved queen, 
 Eleanor, one of the old Plantagenet kings in the XIII 
 century ordered that Gothic crosses be erected at every 
 station where the funeral procession halted, and Charing 
 Cross is the last of the monuments commemorating this 
 funeral procession. In another place in the city not far
 
 20 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 from London Bridge you will notice a modern lofty column 
 which is briefly referred to as 'The Monument.' It is 
 supposed to commemorate the big fire which started near 
 there in 1666 and destroyed a large part of the city. These 
 monuments, therefore, like the hysterical symptoms, are 
 memory symbols. So far the comparison is justified. But 
 what would you think of a Londoner who would even to-day 
 halt in grief before the monument of the funeral procession 
 of Queen Eleanor instead of continuing on his way with the 
 required haste of modern business conditions? Or what 
 would you think of another who would stop before 'The 
 Monument' and bewail the conflagration of his beloved 
 native city? Yet hysteric and neurotic individuals behave 
 exactly like these two impractical Londoners. Not only do 
 they recall the long forgotten painful events, but they cling 
 to them with all their emotions. They cannot get away 
 from the past and neglect for it the reality of the present. 
 This fixation of the psychic life on the pathogenic traumas is 
 one of the most important, and, from a practical view- 
 point, one of the most significant characters of the 
 neurosis."^ 
 
 That the hysterical symptoms are only reminiscences 
 was proven by the fact that the individual hysterical 
 symptoms disappeared without returning if one succeeded 
 in thoroughly awakening the memories of the causal 
 process with its accompanying affects and if the patient 
 circumstantially discussed the process, giving free play to 
 the affect. The reason for the strangulation of the emo- 
 tion was because at the time of its occurrence it could 
 not be adequately worked off. We all know that it 
 is not always possible to give vent to our feelings, and that
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 21 
 
 an insult retaliated leaves quite a different impression than 
 one that has to be swallowed. 
 
 The treatment called "catharsis" consisted in recon- 
 ducting the sum of excitement from its false paths to the 
 original conscious idea and then working it off by means of 
 intellectual labor and speech. The patient was hypnotized 
 and questioned about the origin of the symptoms and 
 while recalling the original injuries, either in hypnosis or 
 the normal state the hemmed-in emotions were discharged 
 and the symptoms disappeared. This is the so-called 
 "abreagirung" — ahreaction — which means to work off some- 
 thing by living through it again. It was noticed that the 
 affect appeared with special intensity during the reproduc- 
 tion of the scenes which gave origin to the symptom 
 and completely disappeared with their termination. 
 On the other hand, no result was noticed when the 
 scenes evoked were not accompanied by any emotional 
 feeling. 
 
 This is rather a brief review of the conceptions 
 originally expressed by Breuer and Freud. It is from 
 these principles that Freud developed his present 
 conceptions of the psychoneuroses and his revolutionary 
 psychology. 
 
 When Freud continued to practice his cathartic treat- 
 ment he was confronted with one special difficulty. He 
 found that not all persons were hypnotizable and as 
 hypnosis was absolutely essential for the broadening of 
 the patient's consciousness, many patients had to be given 
 up as they could not be hypnotized. He even went so 
 far as to take one of these patients to Bernheim, at Nancy, 
 but after applying all his skill Bernheim had to admit that
 
 22 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 he, too, could not hypnotize the patient. * This and a num- 
 ber of other reasons caused Freud to avoid hypnotism and 
 to adopt a new procedure which he calls the psychoanalytic 
 method. 
 
 On asking the patients in the waking state whether they 
 remembered the first motive of the symptom in question, 
 some knew nothing while others recalled something rather 
 vaguely. Freud then applied the same method which 
 Bernheim used in awaking the manifestly forgotten impres- 
 sions produced during somnambulism. He found that 
 by urging and assuring the patients that they did remember 
 and telling them that all they had to do was to concentrate 
 their attention and repeat the thoughts which would occur 
 to them they finally recalled the pathogenic ideas without 
 hypnotism. But as this urging necessitated much exertion 
 on his part, and showed him that he had to overcome great 
 resistance in the patient, he formulated the following theory : 
 "Through my psychic work I had to overcome a psychic 
 force in the patient which hindered the pathogenic idea 
 from becoming conscious."'* The resistance was due to the 
 fact that the ideas which had to be disinterred were all of a 
 nature adapted to provoke the affects of shame, reproach, 
 mental pain and a feeling of injury — they were altogether 
 of that kind which one would not like to experience, and 
 prefers to forget. 
 
 This gave rise to Freud's idea of repression; the patho- 
 genic idea being of a painful nature is incompatible with 
 the ego, and is therefore treated by it as non-arrive. The 
 patient wishes to know nothing about it, he wishes 
 
 * That not every person can be hypnotized has been long acknow- 
 ledged by all e.-perienced observers in this field.
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 23 
 
 to forget it. But as this repression, or fogetting, never 
 succeeds completely, the pathogenic idea continues to 
 strive to come to the surface, and is constantly inhibited 
 by the psychic censor. This struggle of the two opposing 
 forces results in a compromise. Each foregoes a part of 
 the original demand, thus meeting the other half way, 
 and the result of this mutual accommodation is then trans- 
 formed into a hysterical symptom, usually by the process 
 of conversion. In this manner the ego frees itself from 
 opposition, the original painful idea or unattainable wish is 
 forgotten, and instead it becomes burdened with a memory 
 symbol which remains in consciousness as an unadjusted 
 motor or sensory innervation. We thus see that the main 
 character of hysteria is not the spHtting of consciousness 
 as asserted by Janet and his school, but the abihty to con- 
 vert the sum of strangulated emotion either totally or 
 partially, into that motor or sensory innervation which 
 is more or less connected with the traumatic event. In 
 brief the study of the psychoneuroses shows conclusively 
 that there was a failure in the repression of the idea con- 
 cerning the unattainable wish. To be sure the painful 
 idea is crowded out of consciousness and memory, and the 
 individual thus spares himself a great deal of pain, but the 
 repressed wish remains in the unconscious and lurks for an 
 opportunity to become active. When it succeeds it brings 
 to the surface a distorted and strange substitutive forma- 
 tion which soon becomes connected with the same pain the 
 individual got rid of through the repression. This sub- 
 stitutive formation is the symptom and in hysteria it is 
 produced by the process of conversion. 
 
 There are, however, predisposed persons in whom there
 
 24 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 is no adaptation for conversion. Here, if an unbearable 
 idea enters consciousness it meets with the same contrary 
 forces as those mentioned above, the affect becomes de- 
 tached from the idea, but instead of being converted into 
 the physical, it remains in the psychic sphere. The weak- 
 ened unbearable idea remains apart from all association in 
 consciousness, but its detached affect or the sum of excite- 
 ment allies itself to another indifferent idea,^ which on 
 account of this "false" connection becomes an obsession; 
 or the unbearable idea is so changed that the patient does 
 not recognize it. He no longer thinks of the painful or 
 disagreeable, but instead he is burdened with an obsession, 
 the absurdity of which he realizes, but from which he can- 
 not rid himself. The advantage thus gained by the ego 
 in the transposition or dislocation of the affect is not as 
 great as in the hysterical conversion of psychic excite- 
 ment into somatic innervation. The affect remains un- 
 changed and undiminished, but the unbearable idea is 
 suppressed from memory. 
 
 The same mechanism holds true for the origin of phobias, 
 and both come under the heading of compulsion neurosis. 
 It was found that the unbearable ideas underlying the 
 compulsion neurosis (obsessions, doubts and phobias), 
 also have their origin in the sexual life. In the words of 
 Freud, "the obsession represents a compensation or sub- 
 stitute for the unbearable sexual idea and takes its place 
 in consciousness."^ 
 
 Both hysteria and compulsion neurosis belong to the de- 
 fense neuropsychoses; their symptoms originate through the 
 psychic mechanism of defense, that is, through the attempt 
 to repress a painful idea which was incompatible with the
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 25 
 
 ego of the patient. In both neuroses the idea is robbed of 
 its affect, and excluded from associative elaboration, re- 
 maining, however, in consciousness. 
 
 There is still another far more forceful and more suc- 
 cessful form of defense, wherein the ego misplaces the 
 incompatible idea with its emotion and acts as though 
 the painful idea had never come to pass. When this 
 occurs the person merges into a psychosis which may be 
 called "hallucinatory confusion." To illustrate this form 
 of defense I will cite a case which, through the kindness of 
 Dr. M. S. Gregory, I saw in the psychopathic pavilion 
 of Bellevue Hospital. It concerned a young married 
 man of about thirty years, a New Yorker, who, being 
 out of work, tried his fortune as a farm-hand up the state. 
 Things did not go as smoothly as he expected, and one day 
 the farmer gave him a rather severe thrashing, and dis- 
 missed him without paying him his salary. He sought 
 redress, but could get none so that he had to walk to New 
 York City penniless. When he returned home he made a 
 number of attempts to obtain justice for himself, but was 
 told that he could do nothing. He kept on brooding over 
 it for some time, when one day he suddenly became excited 
 and confused. He became boisterous, cursing the farmer, 
 and accompanied his utterances by violently kicking the 
 bedstead and the pillows. He imagined that he was 
 punching the farmer. He was so excited and confused 
 that his wife sent for the police who took him to the psycho- 
 pathic pavilion of Bellevue Hospital. 
 
 Here the idea was so painful that the individual was 
 unable to. resign himself to it, and in the tremendous effort 
 to retaliate the ego tore itself away from actuality, but as
 
 26 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the painful idea was inseparably connected with reality 
 the ego had to exclude itself wholly from it and resort to 
 hallucinations. Such cases give us an insight into the 
 nature of psychoses. Thanks to the genius of Freud and the 
 Zurich schooF stimulated by Bleuler we no longer fear to 
 face the hitherto considered perplexities of the insane mind. 
 As will be shown later every insane utterance, every morbid 
 perception, has a definite meaning and a definite raison 
 d'etre when analyzed. Truly there is method in 
 madness. 
 
 In tracing the psychic traumas which are supposed to 
 be at the basis of hysterical symptoms or compulsion 
 neuroses, one invariably comes to sexual experiences of 
 childhood. This is so conspicuous that it led Freud to lay 
 great stress on the sexual impulse and to formulate the 
 following sentence: "In a normal vita sexualis no neurosis is 
 possible."^ This, I know, sounds rather strange, but I 
 would Hke to call attention to the fact that the sexual 
 impulse is one of our strongest impulses. It is the one 
 impulse that must be subjected to the greatest amount of 
 repression and for that reason it has always been the 
 weakest point in our cultural development. It must 
 also be borne in mind that Freud's conception of sex 
 is very broad. It is just as broad as our English word 
 "love" or the Greek word "eros," and does not at all limit 
 itself to gross sexuality. Moreover, it must be remem- 
 bered that sexuality is more complicated than one thinks. 
 Hypocrisy and prudishness have from time immemorial 
 tabooed all things sexual; the word itself carries with it 
 the ideas of lewdness and loathing. As a result of this 
 the ignorance displayed in matters sexual is appalling.
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 27 
 
 That accounts for the righteous indignation evinced by so 
 many physicians, especially of the older schools who never 
 had any instruction in sex except in the treatment of 
 venereal diseases. They do not realize that the vast field 
 of psychosexuality which is surely as important as the 
 somatic parts of sex, is absolutely unknown to them. 
 What does the average laymen or physician know about the 
 problems of masturbation, homosexuality and the other 
 perversions? Nothing worth while. He knows just as 
 little about the normal psychosexual development which 
 can easily change into abnormal sex. Whatever is, has a 
 reason and it is the duty of every scientific worker to view 
 the cold facts honestly and fearlessly. Much unhappiness 
 and misery would be eradicated if we would not leave the 
 poor sexually distressed victims to charlatans and quacks 
 who add to their misery and often drive them to suicide. 
 Thus we are led to believe that there is no sexuality be- 
 fore a certain age, the age of puberty, yet when we look 
 back to our own youth we find that long before that age 
 we were subjected to certain feelings which were unmistak- 
 ably of a sexual nature. Freud maintains that sex is 
 born with us, that it manifests itself in infancy, and that 
 its development shows three distinct divisions, an infantile, 
 a latency and an adolescent period. "It seems certain," 
 he says," "that the newborn child brings with it the germs 
 of sexual feelings which continue to develop for some time 
 and then succumb to a progressive suppression, which is, 
 in turn, broken through by the proper advance of sexual 
 development and which can be checked by individual 
 idiosyncrasies."^ He also tells us that the sexual impulse 
 in man consists of many components and partial impulses,
 
 28 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 and that many essential contributions to the sexual excite- 
 ment are furnished by the peripheral excitement of certain 
 parts of the body, such as the genitals, mouth, anus and 
 bladder outlets. All these so-called erogenous zones are 
 active in infancy but only some of them go to make up the 
 sexual life. The first libidinous manifestations are of an 
 autoerotic character, and the sexual manifestations dis- 
 played by the child are the almost universal infantile mas- 
 turbation which serves to prepare the genitals for their 
 future functions; thumbsucking, according to many 
 observers, connects directly or indirectly with autoerotic 
 sexual activities.^" I have studied a number of patients 
 who retained this autoerotic sexual manifestation until 
 late in life and I could definitely ascertain that it was a 
 sexual activity pure and simple. In a number of cases 
 thumbsucking continued until masturbation started and 
 in a few cases both were practised together. I know a 
 young widow of thirty-five years who, in spite of all efforts 
 to break herself of the habit, sucked her thumb until she 
 married at twenty-five years and resumed it with the be- 
 ginning of her widowhood. She told me she had no diffi- 
 culty in stopping it soon after marriage, but that it returned 
 a few weeks after her husband's death. Another apparently 
 normal woman who sucked her thumb until a few months 
 after marriage returned to it eleven years later when her 
 husband became impotent. I have recently seen an old 
 man of 74 years who suffered from senile dementia and 
 was also aphasic. His memory for recent events as well 
 as his impressibility were almost gone but his past reminis- 
 cences which he reproduced in characteristic senile way 
 were erotically tinged. He v/a,s very childish in his emo-
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 29 
 
 tional output and almost constantly sucked his thumb 
 when left to himself. His children aptly designated this ^ 
 action as a return to his second childhood. 
 
 The anus and the bladder outlets are also erogenous 
 zones of infantile life, and neurotics often retain them as 
 such in later life.'^ Thus Z., twenty years old, had an 
 uncontrollable desire to withhold his urine. He stated 
 that there was much pleasure in the discomfort and that 
 that was the reason for indulging in it. His mother told 
 me that he wet the bed to the age of fifteen, and that as a 
 child he would remain on the chamber for hours before he 
 could be made to move his bowels. 
 
 The autoerotic sexual manifestations gradually disappear 
 in the normal individual, and the growing child must more 
 and more depend on the outside world for his pleasureable 
 outlets. At the age of puberty he consciously demands a 
 love object. 
 
 Besides the manifestations evinced through the erogenous 
 zones the child shows those components which are desig- 
 nated as partial impulses. Among these we have the 
 impulse for looking, touching, showing off, and for cruelty 
 which manifest themselves somewhat independently of the 
 erogenous zones and later enter into intimate relationship 
 with the sexual life; but along with the erogenous sexual 
 activity they are noticeable even in the infantile years as 
 separate and independent strivings. In later life the 
 infantile sexual manifestations are repressed and sub- 
 jected to the primacy of the genitals which serve the 
 functions of procreation. Most of the energies emanating 
 from them are then deflected from the sexual and directed 
 to important social aims. This is the so-called process of
 
 30 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 sublimation. Thus, sublimation of the homosexual com- 
 ponent gives origin to the psychic process of loathing and 
 morality; the sublimation of the infantile sexual curiosity 
 and exhibitionism gives rise to shame, and the sublimation 
 of the sadistic and masochistic components to pity, disgust, 
 and similar feehngs. These reactions formed during 
 the sexual latency period — from the fourth year to the 
 beginning of puberty, eleven — make up the character of 
 the person and later give us a good indication of his early 
 sexual life. I regret that I am unable to discuss here 
 more fully the sexual theories expounded by Freud; those 
 who are interested in the subject should study his interest- 
 ing and profound book, "Three Contributions to the 
 Theory of Sex." I will merely add that after carefully 
 studying sexual development in its relation to normal and 
 neurotic individuals, Freud concluded that the constitu- 
 tional sexual predisposition of the child is " polymorphous- 
 perverse" in our sense, and that from this constitution the 
 so-called normal behavior of the sexual function results 
 through a repression of certain components. The child 
 has no conception of moral or esthetic feelings, and it is 
 only after the primitive impulses are repressed that the 
 normal being evolves. By referring to the infantile char- 
 acter of sexuaUty one can note the relation between normal 
 sexuaHty, perversions, and neuroses. Normal sexuality 
 results through the repression of certain partial impulses 
 and components of the infantile predisposition and through 
 a subordination of the rest under the primacy of the genital 
 zones. Thus a normal adult can obtain pleasure through 
 looking and touching but these acts are quite different from 
 similar acts observed in children who have not yet been
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 31 
 
 subjected to the force of civilization. The perversions 
 correspond to disturbances of this relationship due to a 
 superior compulsive-like development of some of the partial 
 impulses, as when the normal sexual curiosity develops 
 into the voyeur, while the neuroses can be traced to a 
 marked repression of the hbidinous strivings. However, 
 it must be remembered that the symptoms do not by any 
 means result only at the expense of the so-called normal 
 sexual impulse (at least, not exclusively or preponderately), 
 but they represent the converted expression of impulses 
 which might be designated as perverse if they could mani- 
 fest themselves directly in phantasies and acts without 
 deviating from consciousness. The symptoms are, there- 
 fore, partially formed at the cost of abnormal sexuality. 
 "The neurosis is, so to say, the negative of the perversion."^* 
 Thus the constant sufferer from hysterical disturbances 
 of hearing may have repressed a strong sex pleasure ob- 
 tained formerly through his sense of hearing. 
 
 Moreover, there is a congenital variation in the sexual 
 constitution of persons, the existence of which can naturally 
 be established only through its later manifestations. It 
 manifests itself in a preponderance of one or another of the 
 manifold sources of the sexual feehng and it must always 
 come to expression in the final result even if it should 
 remain within normal limits. To be sure, certain varia- 
 tions of the original disposition even without further aid 
 must necessarily lead to the formation of an abnormal 
 sexual life. This may be called "degenerative" and 
 considered as an expression of hereditary deterioration. 
 In this connection Freud states that in more than half 
 of the severe cases of hysteria, compulsion neuroses, etc.,
 
 32 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 treated by him by psychotherapy he positively succeeded 
 in demonstrating syphilis in their fathers before marriage. 
 The patients showed absolutely no sign of hereditary 
 lues, so that the abnormal sexual constitution was to be 
 considered as the last off-shoot of the luetic heredity. 
 In my own cases I found even less than a third in which 
 syphilis could be demonstrated in parents. 
 
 If in the course of development certain strong com- 
 ponents experience a repression the following result takes 
 place: the sexual excitations are produced as usual, but 
 are prevented from attaining their aim by psychic hin- 
 drances and are driven off into many other paths until 
 they express themselves in symptoms. The sexual life 
 of such persons begins like that of perverts. A consider- 
 able part of their childhood is filled up with what one would 
 call later, perverse sexual activity which occasionally 
 extends far beyond the period of maturity, and then for 
 some inner reasons a repressive change results before or 
 after puberty and henceforth there appears a neurosis 
 instead of a perversion. And, confining ourselves for the 
 present to hysteria, it may be said that hysteria is the result 
 of a conflict between the libido and the sexual repression, 
 and that the hysterical symptoms ho^ve the value of a com- 
 promise between both psychic streams. We must bear in 
 mind that it is the mental conflict which is the essential 
 causative factor and not the sexual factor as such. The 
 resultant compromise of such conflict generally causes 
 the sexual wishes to be consciously rejected and uncon- 
 sciously accepted. The wish is then repressed, but the sum 
 of excitement finds its way into bodily innervation and 
 forms the hysterical symptom.
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 33 
 
 Let me cite an example: 
 
 A married woman of forty-nine years who suffered from hysteria 
 for more than twenty-two years showed as one of her symptoms a 
 very painful contracted and paralyzed right arm which had been so 
 for more than three years. The muscles of the arm and shoulder 
 region were completely anesthetic and deep needle pricks were not 
 perceived, but the sUghtest attempt to straighten out the member 
 was most painful. Indeed the pain was the chief symptom. 
 It would be impossible for me to give here the fuU analysis 
 of the symptom. I will merely mention some of the psychic 
 constellations. 
 
 Due to a number of sexual traumas sustained in childhood all sexual 
 feelings were repressed and, as a result, she was totally frigid when she 
 was married. Indeed, coitus was both painful and disgusting to her. 
 This produced marked marital unhappiness. Her husband failed to 
 understand her condition, and what made matters worse was the 
 fact that he found her masturbating in her sleep. When he first 
 noticed it he was very indignant and tried to call her to account for it, 
 but she continued to sleep; he tried to arouse her, but she did not 
 respond. He thought at first that she was shamming, but finally 
 concluded that "she had a fit" and reported the matter to the family 
 physician. This somnambuUstic state during which she masturbated 
 was repeated on an average of five to six times a week. There was 
 complete amnesia for this action. She at first refused to beheve it, 
 but she was finally convinced of it by her own sister, who saw her mas- 
 turbate on the occasion of sleeping with her. She then sought the aid 
 of a physician who gave her large doses of bromide and advised her to 
 wear a sock over her hand and firmly tie her arm in complete flexion. 
 While she was being treated for her masturbation it was reported to 
 her that her husband carried on some illicit relations with one of the 
 girls she employed. She absolutely refused to believe this, and no 
 amount of urging on the part of her husband's own relatives could 
 induce her to dismiss this girl. The latter was the daughter of a very 
 poor woman, and it was out of compassion that she took her into her 
 millinery estabhshment and taught her the profession. This state of 
 affairs continued for months. She was extremely jealous, yet her 
 pride would not allow her to take any action in the matter. It was 
 after a quarrel about some other matters, during which her husband
 
 34 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 grasped her by the right arm, that it became painful and developed 
 into the condition noted above. As she was the moving spirit in the 
 millinery establishment the business had to be given up, as she was 
 totally incapacitated by her malady. 
 
 Here we see the conflict was between the Hbido and the 
 repression. The repressed sexual feehngs made her con- 
 sciously frigid, but unconsciously passionate. When 
 her masturbation was brought to her consciousness she 
 took all the precautions to stop it, but as usual she was 
 unsuccessful. Her husband's faithlessness gave rise 
 to another conflict. Her pride gained the upper hand 
 and she absolutely refused to believe what everyone else 
 saw and what she herself could not fail to see. When 
 her husband grasped her by this arm, which was the 
 cause of so much mental pain — it was the one with which 
 she masturbated — the conversion took place. The symp- 
 tom, as Freud puts it, was the result of a compromise 
 between two opposing affects, one of which strove to 
 bring to a realization a partial impulse or a component 
 of the sexual constitution, while the other strove to sup- 
 press it.^' This symptom, as we see, served a double 
 purpose. It stopped the masturbation and incapacitated 
 her to such an extent that her business had to be given 
 up and the girl who caused her so many pangs had to go. 
 The pain was also the punishment for the underlying 
 sexual desire. She never masturbated with her left hand, 
 nor has she ever been seen masturbating since she was 
 cured by psychoanalysis. 
 
 In analyzing neurotic symptoms Freud found that the 
 dream played a great part in the individual's life. This 
 gave origin to the epoch-making book, "The Interpretation 
 
 I
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 35 
 
 of Dreams."* The dream is not at all absurd and sense- 
 less, but has a definite meaning when analyzed, and in 
 the experienced hand it is the most valuable instrument 
 for penetrating the mind. In the neurotic patient the 
 subject of his dream often refers to the origin of the neurosis, 
 i.e., to the repressed material, but because of the many- 
 distortions and transformations only few and hidden 
 associations show allusions to the repressed experience. 
 Psychoanalysis explains the different components of 
 the dream and thus reveals the repressed ideas which 
 are at the basis of the neurosis. The dream is divided 
 into manifest and latent thoughts. The former are 
 remembered by the dreamer on awakening, while the 
 latter represent the thoughts of the dream before they 
 were subjected to the distortion. When the translation 
 is complete we find that the latent thoughts of the dream 
 contain the fulfilment of a repressed wish.^* The same 
 holds true of psychoneurotic symptoms. In the words 
 of Freud, "The hysterical symptom, like all other psychic 
 formations, is the expression of a wish fulfilment. "^^ 
 
 In the same way the repression continues to evince 
 itself in normal conscious life; in other words, the wish 
 fulfilment normally manifests itself during the waking 
 state just as it does in the dream and in the neurotic 
 symptoms. This can be seen readily if we analyze the 
 abnormal or the so-called accidental actions of every-day 
 life. In his very interesting and instructive book, " Psycho- 
 pathology of Every Day Life,"^*' Freud shows that mere 
 lapses of memory, speech and writing, as well as the com- 
 
 *Translated by A. A. Brill. George Allen, London, and the Mac- 
 nullan Co., New York.
 
 36- PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 mon mistakes, are not at all accidental, but when analyzed 
 have a reason. Thus, the forgetting of a name which we 
 have once known implies that either directly or indirectly 
 there is something painful or disagreeable connected with it. 
 A mistake in talking usually reveals the speaker's real mean- 
 ing. In other words, the repression influences our waking 
 state just as it does the dream and the psychoneurotic 
 symptoms. Just like the latent thought of the dream, the 
 psychoneurotic symptom represents a fulfilled wish, and 
 both the dream and the neurosis seem incomprehensible 
 until explained by psychoanalysis. To illustrate how 
 complex some of these mechanisms are I will cite a brief 
 analysis of an obsession. 
 
 One of my patients, a young man twenty-six years old, suffered from 
 a typical compulsion neurosis, the main symptom being an obsessive 
 action which consisted in a rapid upward movement of his arms, as 
 though holding back or pushing up something. This action became 
 very annoying to him and his family. He was often compelled to do 
 it in pubhc, and it interfered with his work as a diamond cutter. Be- 
 fore proceeding with the analysis I will mention something concerning 
 the technique. 
 
 On analyzing psychoneurotic symptoms the patient is 
 required to lie on his back on a lounge and the physician 
 sits behind the patient's head at the head of the lounge. 
 The object of this position is to avoid all muscular exertion 
 and distraction, thus allowing a thorough concentration 
 of attention on the patient's own psychic activities. We 
 then ask the patient to tell all he knows of the symptom 
 and we usually find a number of memory gaps. These 
 he is urged to fill in by concentration of attention on the 
 subject and by repeating all thoughts originating in this 
 connection. Before proceeding we must have the pa-
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 37 
 
 tient's promise that he will frankly repeat to us all the 
 thoughts occurring to him in the order of their sequence, 
 even thoughts that are unimportant, painful or embarras- 
 sing. This is Freud's method of free association. We are 
 also alive to the fact that the psychoneurotic symptom is 
 often a symbolic expression of the original repressed thoughts 
 and we therefore resort to Freud's method of interpretation, 
 that is, we look for symbolic expression, psychopathological 
 actions and make use of the analysis of dreams. For 
 unless one has mastered the triad of Freud's psychology, 
 "The Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex," "Psycho- 
 pathology of Every Day Life," and "The Interpretation of 
 Dreams," one is unable to use or judge Freud's psycho- 
 analytic method. With this digression we will now return 
 to our patient. 
 
 On being questioned concerning his obsessive action it was found 
 that it concealed the obsessive thought " God may get into me." This 
 thought obsessed him for months, and realizing the absurdity of it, 
 he was ashamed to tell it to anybody. This was then followed by the 
 obsessive action described above which was a protective mechanism 
 against the thought and signified "I will pull Him out again." As 
 the word "God" seemed to be the most important word in the obses- 
 sion I asked him to concentrate his mind on this word and tell me all 
 the associations it recalled to him. He gave the following: "God — 
 father — I am always bothered by the foolish thought that God will 
 get into me." He suddenly stopped and on being urged to continue he 
 said that something just occurred to him which had nothing to do with 
 the thought of God and which he would not like to tell unless it was 
 absolutely necessary. On being told to continue he stated that it 
 recalled to him that about six months ago while being at work a 
 fellow workingman asked him to look out of the window where he 
 saw two dogs in the act of copulation and remarked: How would you 
 like to be the top dog? This was very embarrassing to him. He 
 turned his eyes away from the scene, but he could not banish a number 
 of thoughts and fancies which then came to his mind. One thought 

 
 38 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 was " How would it be to get into the dog?" He soon repressed these 
 thoughts and kept on repeating to himself "I will not get into the dog, 
 the dog may get into me." Now if the word dog is read backward you 
 will find that it spells God and gives the key to the whole obsession. 
 
 For years this patient was in the habit of turning words about. 
 He showed me a diary, which was filled with mirror writing which he 
 used because he did not want anyone in the house to know his affairs. 
 We note that he at first consciously changed the idea "to get into the 
 dog" into "the dog may get into me," and as the idea was disagreeable 
 it was repressed and the word "dog" was then unconsciously changed 
 into God. This completed the obsession.* 
 
 As will be shown later the same mechanisms are found 
 in dreams, in the neologisms of the insane and in the 
 normal. I am sure that the majority of my readers are 
 aware of the fact that the Sesrun Club is the nurses' club, 
 but perhaps few know that the Yvel Jewelry company is 
 the Levy Jewelry company. The basis of both crypto- 
 grams is a painful idea. Nurses' Club neither looks nor 
 sounds as dignified as Sesrun Club, which may pass as a 
 millionaires' organization, and the Yvel Jewelry company 
 looks better and is perhaps more profitable than would 
 be the Levy Jewelry company. 
 
 This is a very simple example of the psychoanalysis of 
 an obsession, perhaps too simple to impress some of you 
 with the gravity of the work, but we cannot change the 
 workings of the mind. Those who analyze psychoneurotic 
 symptoms and the utterances of the insane can always find 
 mechanisms. Do not, however, think that the analyses 
 of this obsession and the afore-described hysterical 
 paralysis were as simple as I presented them. I merely 
 give you the result obtained after weeks and months 
 of painstaking work. It would have been impossible 
 
 *For detailed description of compulsion neurosis see Chapter IV.
 
 THE PSYCHONEUROSES 39 
 
 to give here the full analysis on any of the cases, as an 
 entire volume would be required for a detailed account 
 of any one. Indeed, psychoanalysis takes time; the 
 treatment of a chronic case usually takes from six months 
 to a few years, but the most refractory chronic cases have 
 been cured by this treatment. Both cases mentioned 
 were cured by psychoanalysis after everything else was 
 tried in vain. 
 
 In order to demonstrate the close connection between 
 the so called normal and abnormal activities, I shall next 
 confine myself to the discussion of those faulty actions 
 which although found in normal individuals, nevertheless 
 show the same mechanisms as dreams and symptoms. 
 References 
 
 1. Freud: Selected Papers on Hysteria and Other Psychoneuroses, 
 p. 2, Trans, by A. A. Brill, Monograph Series Mental and Nervous 
 Dis. Pub. Co., 3d Ed. 
 
 2. L. c, p. 5. 
 
 3. Freud: Ueber Psychoanalyse, Deuticke, Wien, 1910. 
 
 4. Freud: Selected Papers, p. 87. 
 
 5. Freud :L. c, p. 125. 
 
 6. L. c, p. 126. 
 
 7. Cf. Chap. VIII. 
 
 8. Selected Papers, p. 188. 
 
 9. Freud : Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex, p. 38. Trans, 
 by A. A. Brill, Monograph Series. 
 
 10. Cf. Holt, Diseases of Infancy and Childhood, p. 739, Second 
 Edition. 
 
 11. Cf. Chap. XVI. 
 
 12. Freud: L. c, p. 27. See also Chapter VI V. 
 
 13. Selected Papers, p. 198. 
 
 14. Cf. Chap. III. 
 
 15. Freud: L. c, 197. 
 
 16. Freud : Psychopathology of Every Day Life. Trans, by A. A. 
 Brill, T. Fisher Unwin, London. The MaeMillan Co., N. Y.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 
 
 Freud's Conception of Consciousness, Unconscious and 
 Foreconscious 
 
 "Men's little ways are usually more interesting and often more 
 instructive than their grand manners. When they are off guard they 
 frequently show to better advantage than when they are on parade." 
 — Dr. Henry Van Dyke. 
 
 In my discussion of the psychoneurotic mechanisms I 
 have attempted to show that they are the result of a conflict 
 between two psychic streams of contrary tendencies, 
 each striving for expression, the ultimate outcome of which 
 is a compromise between them. Each has to make con- 
 cessions, thus meeting the other half way, and the result 
 of this mutual accommodation is then a dream or a psycho- 
 neurotic symptom which represents the fulfilment of a 
 wish. These mechanisms are not conscious, but rather 
 unconscious processes. Unconscious, according to Freud, 
 includes all those psychic manifestations of which the 
 person is unaware. He actually does not discover them, 
 and they can only be brought to the surface by analysis. 
 The unconscious is made up of the repressed material, 
 that is, the sum total of those psychic processes which 
 have been crowded out of consciousness from the very 
 beginning of childhood. Thus, all the primitive impulses 
 that have been curbed and inhibited with the development 
 
 of the individual are in a state of repression. They form 
 
 40
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 41 
 
 points of crystallization for the later repressions which 
 mainly consist of erotic material. The later experiences 
 are naturally not subjected to the same amount of repres- 
 sion as the earlier and more primitive ones, hence some of 
 them may remain in what Freud calls the foreconscious. 
 
 As will be shown later the dream is the function of two 
 separate systems. One subjects the activity of the other to 
 a critique, which results in an exclusion from consciousness. 
 The criticizing system is in closer relation to consciousness 
 than the one criticized. The former, the foreconscious, 
 stands like a screen between the unconscious and conscious- 
 ness. Both are unconscious in the psychological sense, but 
 the unconscious is incapable of consciousness without exter- 
 nal aid, while the foreconscious can reach consciousness after 
 it fulfils certain conditions regarding censorship. It is the 
 latter that directs our waking life and determines our volun- 
 tary conscious actions. Consciousness, as such, plays a 
 very small part, and is conceived by Freud as a sensory organ 
 for the perception of psychic qualities. The repressed 
 material or the unconscious consists of wishes which are 
 always active and strive for expression whenever they have 
 an opportunity to unite with affects from conscious life. 
 They thus determine all our actions, and our character is 
 mainly based on memory traces of those repressed impres- 
 sions that have influenced us most strongly — those of 
 our early youth — which almost never become conscious. 
 
 Besides the infantile repressions we also have the later 
 repressions that are made up of painful and intolerable 
 thoughts which are intentionally crowded out of conscious- 
 ness. The individual intentionally strives to forget them 
 and he seemingly succeeds. This is a protective mechanism
 
 42 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 for the good of the organism, for what would happen to us 
 if we were always confronted by the numberless painful 
 and disagreeable incidents of life? However, what we 
 imagine to be forgotten remains in the unconscious in a 
 repressed state and forms a complex. The complex remains 
 in an inert state until incited by some association. Thus, an 
 elderly woman experiences a feeling of uneasiness whenever 
 she by chance sees a red-haired person. She is unable to 
 account for it, and of late it has especially annoyed her because 
 on^ of the members of her club happens to be of the Titian 
 type. Analysis showed that forty-eight years ago she had a 
 very unpleasant experience with a red-haired schoolmate. 
 She was not at all cognizant of this incident each time she felt 
 that "sense of uneasiness" and was wont to attribute it to 
 the popular prejudice. But as she considers herself above 
 such prejudice she could not understand her rude manners 
 toward the woman of the Titian type. It was only after 
 a lengthy analysis, after all the resistances were broken, 
 that the original incident became conscious to her. An- 
 other interesting example reported to me by Dr. Christian 
 Brinton is the following: A scholarly gentleman of eighty 
 seven years showed all his life an extreme aversion to yellow 
 colors. Besides being a litterateur of high standing he was 
 also a recognized connoisseur of art and his bUnd dislike for 
 yellow in any painting struck his friends as pecuUar. One 
 day when this subject came up his son who is learned in psy- 
 choanalysis asked his father for "continuous association" 
 to yellow. It was soon found that when the old man was 
 seven years old he and an older boy discovered in a barn a 
 hen's nest containing old eggs. The older boy threw some 
 of these mal-odorous eggs at him which not only caused
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 43 
 
 him considerable disgust but also punishment from his 
 parents because his clothes were besmirched with yellow 
 rotten eggs. This example not only demonstrates the 
 tenaciousness of impressions — it was definitely ascertained 
 that the old gentleman did not recall this episode for over 
 eighty years — but also unconscious resistances. 
 
 These resistances are always active and only during 
 sleep do they partially slacken. It is then that the 
 repressed material comes to the surface in the form of 
 dreams, but as the resistances never lose their full power, 
 they distort everything that passes them to such an 
 extent that the dreamer cannot recognize his repressed 
 thoughts or his unattainable wishes. But it is not only in 
 the abnormal states and in the dream that the repression 
 strives to fulfil wishes. We find that the same influences are 
 also evinced in our waking states in psychopathological 
 actions of every-day life. 
 
 By psychopathological actions we understand those 
 incorrect psychic activities which the individual daily 
 performs, but of which he is not conscious at the time 
 being. Among these different manifestations may be 
 mentioned lapses of memory, of talking, writing, mistakes, 
 etc.i 
 
 Among the lapses of memory we may have the common 
 occurrences of forgetting names, of forgetting words in 
 poetry or foreign words. In all these cases we must first 
 assume that the person in question does not suffer from 
 any nervous or mental affection producing qualitative or 
 quantitative memory disturbances and that the things 
 forgotten have once been well known. Everyone is 
 famiUar with the feeUng of being unable to recall a name
 
 44 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 or a word. We think of a person whose name we knew 
 well, but try as hard as we may the name cannot be 
 recalled. We see the person in our mind's eye. We 
 think of hundreds of incidents and associations connected 
 with him, but despite that his name cannot be recalled. 
 Often other names occur to us which we immediately 
 recognize as false, yet they persist in thrusting themselves 
 into our minds. This may continue for hours or days 
 until the correct name comes unexpectedly or we ask some- 
 one for it. We never think of the cause of our forgetting 
 because it is so self-evident nor do we try to find why we 
 suddenly recalled this long-sought-for name or word. 
 
 Freud tells us that the reason for this forgetting is, in 
 many cases, due to its direct or indirect association with 
 something repressed — that is, something disagreeable 
 or painful. This has been fully confirmed by such observ- 
 ers as Bleuler, Jones and others. Personally I can state 
 that in every case amenable to analysis I could corroborate 
 Freud's observation. The following examples will serve 
 as illustrations: 
 
 I. FORGETTING OF NAMES 
 
 (a) A young newspaper man to whom I explained 
 Freud's ideas concerning the forgetting of names insisted 
 that this could not be true and to prove his assertion he 
 related the following incident: 
 
 "My friend Jack left the city recently and the other day I wrote 
 him a letter. On addressing the envelope I failed to remember his 
 surname. I began with 'Jack' and for the life of me I could not 
 proceed. After at least five minutes thinking I finally recalled that 
 his surname was Murphy. Now as he is my best friend I fail to see 
 the disagreeable or painful connection." I then proceeded to analyze 
 it by the "continuous association" method. I asked him to concen-
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 45 
 
 trate his mind on the word Murphy and tell me all the associations it 
 evoked. He produced the following: "Murphy recalls my friend 
 Jack. We went to school together and have been friends since." 
 He then continued to give a number of incidents connected with their 
 school life, all of which were of a rather pleasant nature and added: 
 "You see, I could talk about Jack and myself for hours." Asked 
 whether he knew any other Murphy he was at first pretty sure that 
 he did not, but he soon recalled his friend's brother for whom he 
 entertained great regard. After awhile he recalled another Murphy, 
 Mr. Murphy, of Tammany fame. He disUkes Tammany Hall and 
 its leader "as every good RepubUcan does, but that is no reason for 
 forgetting Jack's name." He then continued to associate freely from 
 one idea to another until he suddenly broke into laughter and then 
 remarked: "It is funny that I did not think of it before. I now 
 remember another Murphy, a newspaper man whom I know very 
 well." Asked to tell something about him he said: "This is the 
 only man I hate" and then delivered a long tirade against this Mr. 
 Murphy. 
 
 We can now understand why he could not recall his 
 friend's name. The name Murphy was under repression 
 because it represented a person whom he hated. His 
 own friend's name was also Murphy, but to him it was 
 always Jack. He always called him Jack and in his mind 
 it was Jack and not Murphy. He never corresponded 
 with him before. This was the first time he was obliged 
 to use Jack's surname. He could not recall it (1) because 
 it was directly connected with something unpleasant to 
 him and (2) he could not resign himself to give Jack the 
 name of the man he hated. 
 
 The last mechanism is often observed in such slips of 
 the -tongue as the following: While conversing Mrs. S., 
 inquiring about a mutual friend, said: "How is Mrs. 
 Brown?" She was immediately corrected by a "You 
 mean Mrs. Blank" to which she replied "Yes, Mrs.
 
 46 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Blank. I made a mistake." There was only one reason, 
 I thought, why she called Mrs. Blank by her maiden name 
 which was Brown and to test my theory I said: "What 
 is wrong with Mr. Blank?" She thoughtlessly answered 
 "Oh, I don't like him," and then becoming conscious of 
 what she said she showed her embarrassment by blushing, 
 but she added consciously "I never liked him; I am sorry 
 she married him." 
 
 Here the mistake showed her dislike for Mr. Blank. 
 The repression fulfills her wish in not recognizing the 
 marriage by continuing to use the maiden name. It is 
 of quite different significance, however, if the lady herself 
 continues to use her maiden name after marriage. Freud 
 mentions the case of a lady who years before her divorce 
 continued to use her maiden name in signing documents, etc. 
 
 (b) While reading one day the text recalled to me a case 
 which I had published years before. I desired to make a 
 marginal note to that effect when I suddenly found that 
 I could not recall the name of my patient. This patient 
 was under my personal care for months and the features 
 of the case were such that I had daily spent hours with him, 
 so that it was the more remarkable that I could not 
 recall the name. As usual I made a great effort to recall 
 it and it was only after some time that I thought of Freud's 
 theories and decided to test them by analyzing this lapse 
 of memory. The case in question had presented so many un- 
 usual and interesting aspects that I was advised to publish it. 
 After a painstaking preparation I was ready to send it to 
 the publisher when I was informed that my senior had 
 decided to read a paper on this very subject before a 
 medical society and that I was to have this paper ready for
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 47 
 
 him on a certain date. My feelings on hearing this can 
 readily be imagined. The thought of having labored for 
 days and of some one else getting the credit for it caused me 
 indignation and depression. My colleagues sympathized 
 with me, but all they could do was to make merry over it. 
 This continued until the day before the meeting when I 
 was informed that owing to unforeseen circumstances I 
 was to attend this meeting myself and read the paper. 
 I read this paper as directed, but very few of the members 
 knew the true circumstances of the matter. Most of them 
 thought that I was merely sent to read the paper. The 
 reports of the meeting as given in the different medical 
 journals gave the name of my senior as the reader of the 
 paper. The reader will pardon my indulging in person- 
 alities. It is indispensable in psychoanalysis and here it 
 serves to show the marked displeasure and pain which 
 caused the repression. 
 
 When one attempts to follow Freud's method of "free 
 association" he soon finds himself in a maze. The longer 
 he proceeds the more complicated the problem seems to 
 become and to the inexperienced it appears like an endless 
 confusion. Now and then our thoughts, as it were, stop. 
 We call this an "obstruction" or a "blocking" and 
 experience teaches us that this phenomenon generally accom- 
 panies or precedes some important complex. In analyz- 
 ing psychoneurotic symptoms the patients often stop and 
 say "That's all. I cannot think of anjrthing else." After 
 considerable urging they finally, perhaps after blushing, 
 laughing or stammering, do think of something else. Fre- 
 quently the mind makes use of symbolic expressions and 
 ambiguous terms which the physician must always be
 
 48 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 alive to. All these are due to the inhibitions of the psychic 
 censor against the painful and disagreeable thoughts. 
 
 On beginning to discover by analysis the name of my 
 patient I soon found myself in a very complicated milieu. 
 I distinctly saw his features in my mind. I reviewed all 
 the circumstances connected with the case and noted all 
 my associations. Page after page was filled and time 
 flew faster than it seemed. I suddenly found that I had 
 spent five hours of assiduous appUcation and filled over 
 two dozen pages, but was seemingly as far from getting 
 the name as when I first started. Frequently my thoughts 
 stopped only to start anew. I was most desirous not only 
 of recalling the name, but of testing Freud's theory, as it 
 was my first attempt. It would be useless and impossible 
 to recall the different associations, but the following will 
 suffice to explain the analysis: On seeing the patient in 
 my mind's eye the name Appenzeller presented itself to 
 me. Appenzeller was one of my patients in the psychiatri- 
 cal clinic at Zurich where I was an assistant physician at the 
 time of the analysis. There was no resemblance between 
 the two patients except that my New York patient was 
 a psychic epileptic and Appenzeller suffered from motor 
 epilepsy, yet the latter name persistently emerged from the 
 association mass. The scenes connected with my New York 
 patient as well as numerous other hospital experiences 
 continued to pass in a panoramic review. Some were 
 especially persistent and vivid, recurring with greater 
 frequency than the others. Thus, one scene, an actual 
 occurrence, was especially vivid. It recalled a forest 
 fire near the hospital. I stood watching the fire with 
 my senior, Dr. Z., who played such a great part in the
 
 FSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 49 
 
 episode, and Dr. X. joined me. Many rabbits driven 
 out by the fire were shot. While thus standing Dr. Z. 
 turned to a hospital attendant and asked him for his 
 shotgun as a rabbit was seen running from the under- 
 brush. He waited for the animal to come within range 
 and then got ready to fire, remarking: "Let me see whether 
 I can get this rabbit." A crack was heard, but the rabbit 
 scampered away. Dr. X. and I looked at each other 
 smilingly, but quickly changed countenance when Dr. Z. 
 turned to us and said "My finger slipped on account of 
 the rain." This scene persistently recurred from time to 
 time, but I attached no more weight to it than to the hun- 
 dreds of others. Yet whenever my supply of associations 
 seemed to be exhausted and I started over again, the name 
 of Appenzeller and this scene continually reappeared. I 
 finally tired of the whole process and thought of giving it 
 up, but despite my willingness to do so I could not banish 
 the numerous scenes from my mind. While thus con- 
 templating I again saw the rabbit scene and heard Dr. Z. 
 say, "Let me see whether I can get this rabbit," and just 
 then the name of the patient suddenly came to me. It 
 was "Lapin" which is the French for rabbit. 
 
 It can readily be seen that had I been keen enough it 
 would have saved me hours of pabor for during the 
 analysis this scene occurred twenty-eight times more than 
 any other. But owing to my inexperience at the time 
 and my intense desire to get the name I overlooked the 
 very thing Freud lays so much stress upon — that is, the 
 symbolic expressions, etc. This whole rabbit scene 
 symbolizes the Lapin episode. Dr. Z. attempted to get 
 the rabbit (Lapin) but missed it. To be sure, it must be 
 
 4
 
 50 ' PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 remembered that although I am conversant with French, 
 in my mind Lapin was always translated into rabbit 
 because I think in English. In fact I distinctly recall 
 that I had frequently translated mentally the name Lapin 
 into rabbit. If we now bear in mind the French pronuncia- 
 tion of Lapin we can understand why Appenzeller con- 
 tinued to substitute itself. The first part — Appen — 
 phonetically resembles Lapin — Appen, Lapen. Further- 
 more, both patients suffered from epilepsy. The case 
 clearly shows how a name may be repressed on account of a 
 disagreeable experience. 
 
 (c) A colleague who was acquainted with Freud's 
 theories asked me to help him recall the name of one of 
 his patients whom he treated almost daily for three months 
 up to five weeks before he spoke to me. He was thinking 
 of him on his way to see me and was surprised to have 
 forgotten the name. Analysis gave the following associa- 
 tions: "He is a broker who was once well to do. For 
 three months he was under my care. I cured him of a 
 grave illness. He has not paid me for treatment, though 
 he promised long ago to do so. The last time he came 
 to see me he wanted me to sign some papers for him which 
 I refused to do as I did not care to make any false state- 
 ments. Since then I have not heard from him. It now 
 occurs to me that the name ends with 'son.'" He then 
 gave a number of names ending with "son" all of which 
 he recognized as incorrect. Again the patient's ingrati- 
 tude. "When I cured him he was grateful. He kept on 
 saying that he would never forget what I had done for him 
 and that as soon as he returned to business he would pay 
 me what he owed me" — sudden blocking — then recalled
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 51 
 
 his own ingratitude. He, too. is under obligations to a 
 distant relative whom he dislikes, but to whom he owes 
 much. He received a letter six weeks before, requesting 
 the loan of a sum of money, but after reading it he mislaid 
 it and never thought of it again. His relative's name is 
 Brown — suddenly recalls his former patient's name 
 "Bronson." 
 
 Here the forgetfulness was determined not so much by 
 his patient's action as by the disagreeable feehng con- 
 nected with his own affair. He was under obligations to 
 Mr. Brown. He really should have sent him the money 
 requested but "times are bad" and, strange to say, he 
 mislaid the letter and never thought of it. In this connec- 
 tion it may be mentioned that this is the usual mechanism of 
 mislaying. Things which we really value we never mislay. 
 
 (d) A man was urged by his wife to attend a social 
 function in which he not only took no interest, but which 
 he was sure would actually bore him. Yielding to his 
 wife's entreaties he began to take his dress suit from the 
 trunk when he suddenly thought of shaving. After 
 accomplishing this he returned to the trunk and found 
 it locked. Despite a long, earnest search, the key could 
 not be found. A locksmith could not be found on Sunday 
 evening so that the couple had to send their regrets. On 
 having the trunk opened the next morning the lost key 
 was found within. The husband had absentmindedly 
 dropped the key into the trunk and sprung the lock. He 
 assured me that this was wholly unintentional and uncon- 
 scious. It must, however, be borne in mind that he 
 did not wish to go. There was a motive, as we see, in 
 the mislaying. A lover never misplaces a letter from his
 
 52 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 sweetheart nor does he ever mislay or forget to mail a 
 letter written to her. We only mislay what we do not 
 want. We are more apt to mislay letters containing 
 bills than checks. 
 
 (e) The same mechanism comes into play in the mis- 
 sending of letters. One of my patients was corresponding 
 with a woman to whom he was favorably disposed. One 
 day he received a letter from her which, on opening, 
 he found was meant for another man who was also one 
 of her admirers. In this letter she refused a proposal 
 made by the latter. The mistake served to show my 
 patient that he was not her only admirer and thus stirred 
 him to greater activities. At the same time it showed the 
 other fellow why he was rejected as the letter which he 
 received and which was meant for my patient was a very 
 amorous epistle. 
 
 The last two examples may also be classified under erro- 
 neously carried-out intentions, another good example of 
 which is the following: 
 
 (/) A young married woman requested me to explain to 
 her why, instead of pushing the button to light her room, 
 she pushed the button for the waiter. The explanation 
 was not difficult. This lady lived in one of the big hotels 
 while she was in New York being treated by me. The 
 afternoon before the episode she with two other ladies went 
 to a fashionable public the Dansant and were very disap- 
 pointed. After paying a high admission fee they found 
 the place almost deserted and no one to dance with. One 
 of her friends remarked: "The waiter is the only interesting 
 person here." She was not more fortunate the following 
 day. The people she met were uninteresting and bored
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 53 
 
 her. It was in this state of mind that she returned to the 
 hotel late in the afternoon and made the mistake mentioned. 
 It is significant that although she started out with the -in- 
 tention of lighting her room she failed to notice that her 
 room remained dark, and only recalled her intention after 
 she was surprised by a visit from the waiter. Her erro- 
 neously carried-out action had a motive — the "waiter was 
 the only interesting person to whom she could talk." 
 
 n. FORGETTING A RESOLUTION IS DUE TO SIMILAR CAUSES 
 
 (a) While absorbed in reading S. interrupted himself, 
 opened a box containing numerous books, pamphlets and 
 papers and began to rummage through them. He soon 
 stopped, however, not knowing what he was looking for. 
 He was sure that he wanted something from the box, 
 but he could not recall what it was. He looked over 
 many things, but did not recognize what he wanted. On 
 trying to recall the motive for opening the box he was 
 attracted by the open book which he left on the table 
 and then thought that there must have been something 
 in what he was just reading which caused him to open the 
 box. With this in view he began to re-read the page and 
 plainly recalled its contents as far as he had read, the last 
 sentence being, "We feel more than we know." It was 
 while thinking of this sentence that he stopped and 
 opened the box. On freely associating to this last sen- 
 tence he obtained the following: "We feel more than we 
 can ever know. I feel that I ought to marry, but I do 
 not know whether I really should. I used to feel that my 
 fiancee did not really love me, but, as a matter of fact, I 
 was not sure of it. I worried much over it, but it was
 
 54 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 merely a lover's doubt. I am now sure of her love. She 
 wants to marry as soon as I return and wishes to have an 
 elaborate church wedding which I dislike. But perhaps 
 that will not come to pass. Something might happen. I 
 have recently read of the stormy seas. An accident 
 might happen to me while crossing the ocean," (feeling of 
 fear and jealousy) and the thought "after all I may 
 also be a specter bridegroom" suddenly recalled that 
 he had been looking for Washington Irving's ''Sketch 
 Book." 
 
 This incident occurred while S. was abroad and his 
 fiancee was in the United States. While abroad he was 
 asked to translate for a foreign periodical a short story 
 from English literature and he selected the Specter 
 Bridegroom from Washington Irving's "Sketch Book." 
 The day before the incident recounted above he had received 
 a letter from the editor of the Revue telling him that under 
 separate cover he was sending the proof sheets of the 
 translation for correction. He thought of looking for the 
 "Sketch Book" which he had in the box, but failed to do 
 so just then. It was while unconsciously ruminating over 
 the above cited sentence that the Specter Bridegroom came 
 to his mind and he set out to find it, but as he unconsciously 
 identified himself with Count von Altenberg, the unfortunate 
 hero of Irving's sketch, who was killed while on his way to 
 his bride, the painful thought was quickly repressed, taking 
 with it all the concomitant associations. 
 
 (6) A confrere tells me the following experience: He 
 started to make a call on a patient in a certain street, but 
 instead of going there he called upon another patient. The 
 reason for this was very simple. Patient number one
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 55 
 
 paid his bill every January, while patient number two 
 paid for each visit. That morning the doctor was in need 
 of money, hence he would have preferred to go to patient 
 number two. 
 
 (c) One of my patients, a music teacher, told me a 
 similar experience. On going to see a pupil in New York 
 City he unexpectedly landed in Brooklyn. The music 
 teacher carried on a secret love affair with his pupil's sister, 
 and was accustomed to see her every evening after the lesson. 
 He usually gave the lesson in the evening, but this time 
 he was told to come in the morning. He knew well that 
 he would not see her in the morning because she would be at 
 work, but he did not like to refuse lest it might arouse 
 suspicion. On going to give the lesson he simply rode too 
 far, "having been absorbed in his newspaper." As it 
 was too late to return from Brooklyn and give the lesson 
 in the morning he was forced to postpone it till the evening. 
 He assured me that he really intended to go to his pupil's 
 house. 
 
 (d) Another patient invited two ladies to spend an 
 evening at the theater. It was decided by the ladies to 
 see the play "Alias Jimmy Valentine." On getting into 
 the cab he unconsciously ordered the driver to take them 
 to another theater and did not notice his mistake until 
 they arrived at the wrong theater. Then it was too late 
 to rectify it. Here it was the case of a homosexual person 
 who was in constant fear of the law and who disliked to 
 see a play dealing with convicts and prisons. The theater 
 to which he ordered the driver to take him presented the 
 play "The Three Daughters of Mons. Dupont," which 
 deals with a selJSsh father who was finally brought to
 
 56 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 reason by his own children. He disliked his own father 
 and was constantly trying to show him how to live prop- 
 erly. His mistakes served to exchange a disagreeable 
 for an enjoyable evening. 
 
 These examples show that forgetting a resolution is 
 exactly the same as forgetting to recall a name or word 
 — that is, it is always determined by a painful motive. 
 
 III. MISTAKES IN SPEAKING, READING AND WRITING 
 
 Mistakes in speaking show a similar mechanism. The 
 disturbing influence is either a single unconsciously re- 
 maining thought which manifests itself through the mis- 
 take and can often be discovered only after detailed analy- 
 sis, or it is a general psychic motive directed against the 
 whole thing spoken. 
 
 (a) At a private theatrical rehearsal the hero, instead 
 of saying "I love you, Emma," said "I love you, Helen." 
 The latter was the name of the girl with whom he was 
 really in love. 
 
 (6) Recently an acquaintance asked me to introduce him 
 to one of my friends who was about to leave for Europe. I 
 did not like to do it, but I could not possibly refuse. 
 After hesitating for awhile I said "Come around next 
 Sunday and I'll take you to his office." My wife, who was 
 near, interposed with ''Why, he sails Saturday." I 
 immediately corrected myself, saying *'I meant Friday." 
 Here the mistake was the answer to the thought, "I wonder 
 how I can avoid this." Fortunately my acquaintance 
 knew nothing of Freud's mechanisms. 
 
 (c) A lady, talking about her husband with whom she 
 lived a very unhappy life because he was addicted to
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 57 
 
 drink, said among other things, "I can never discuss with 
 him any intelHgent topic because he is so full," meaning 
 "dull." 
 
 (d) A friend described to me a nervous patient and 
 wished me to know whether I could benefit him. I re- 
 marked "I believe that in time I could remove all his 
 symptoms by psychoanalysis because it is a durable case," 
 wishing to say "curable." It was not merely the sound 
 association between the two words which caused the mistake. 
 From the description I diagnosed the case as chronic 
 hysteria and experience teaches that such cases generally 
 require a very protracted treatment, hence durable. 
 
 (e) A young man, talking about an old woman who was 
 foolishly in love with him, said "I am thinking seriously 
 of burying her" instead of marrying. Here the lapsus 
 lingua) betrays his inner feelings in the matter. He would 
 marry this old and wealthy woman if he should know that 
 she would soon die and leave him her money. 
 
 (/) A woman wishing to say that her brother had recently 
 lost in weight and that he weighed only 175 pounds, said: 
 "And now he weighs only $1.75." The slip becomes clear 
 when we know that her brother was at the time being tried 
 for bankruptcy. 
 
 (g) While walking one night with a friend we acci- 
 dentally met a colleague. Dr. P. whom I had not seen for 
 years and of whose private life I knew nothing. We were 
 naturally very pleased to meet again and on my invitation 
 he accompanied us to a cafe where we spent about two 
 hours in pleasant conversation. To my question as to 
 whether he was married he gave a negative answer and 
 added, "Why should a man like me marry?"
 
 58 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 On leaving the caf6 he suddenly turned to me and said: 
 "I should like to know what you would do in a case like 
 this. I know a nurse who was named as co-respondent 
 in a divorce case. The wife sued the husband for divorce 
 and named her as co-respondent and he got the divorce." 
 I interrupted him saying "You mean she got the divorce." 
 He immediately corrected himself, saying, "Yes, she got 
 the divorce" and continued to tell how the excitement of 
 the trial had affected this nurse to such an extent that she 
 became nervous and took to drink. He wanted me to 
 advise him how to treat her, etc. 
 
 As soon as I corrected his mistake I asked him to explain 
 it, but, as is usually the case, he was surprised at my ques- 
 tion. He wanted to know whether a person had no right 
 to make mistakes in talking. I explained to him that 
 there is a reason for every mistake and that if he had not 
 told me that he was unmarried I would say that he was the 
 hero of the divorce case in question and that the mistake 
 showed that he wished he had obtained the divorce instead 
 of his wife; so as not to be obhged to pay the alimony and 
 to be permitted to marry again in New York City. He 
 stoutly denied my interpretation, but his emotional agitation, 
 followed by loud laughter, only strengthened my suspicions. 
 To my appeal that he should tell the truth for science 
 sake, he said " Unless you wish me to lie you must believe 
 that I was never married and hence your psychoanalytic 
 interpretation is all wrong." He, however, added that it 
 was dangerous to be with a person who paid attention to 
 such little things. Then he suddenly remembered that he 
 had another appointment and left us. 
 
 Both my friend Dr. Frink and I were convinced that my
 
 PSTCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 59 
 
 interpretation of his lapsus linguae was correct and I decided 
 to corroborate or disprove it by further investigation. 
 The next day I found a neighbor, an old friend of Dr. P., 
 who confirmed my interpretation in every particular. 
 The divorce was granted to Dr. P.'s wife a few weeks 
 before and a nurse was named as co-respondent. A 
 few weeks later I met Dr. P. and he told me that he was 
 thoroughly convinced of the Freudian mechanisms. 
 
 (h) A homosexual whom I treated for some time and 
 who considered himself cured made this mistake on leaving 
 my office: instead of saying "I shall now go to the Hotel 
 Robespierre" he said, "I shall now go to the Hotel St. 
 Pierre." I noticed his mistake and asked him whether he 
 knew of a hotel in New York City by the name of St. 
 Pierre. He stated that he had never heard of a hotel 
 named the St. Pierre and that he meant to say the Hotel 
 Robespierre. 
 
 The analysis furnished the following associations: 
 "St. Pierre — St. Peter — Rome — adoration," — he recalled 
 having seen the devout kiss the toe of St. Peter while he was 
 in the Cathedral at Rome — from Rome he went to Pompei 
 where he saw some remnants of the old phallic worship — 
 the big toe recalled one of his phallic symbols (as a child he 
 was a toe sucker) — he then thought of fellatio which, he 
 said, no longer had any attraction for him as he was now 
 heterosexual and very pleased over it — he then stopped and 
 again thought of St. Peter and Rome and said: "They 
 stand for the old order of things, strict adherence to the old 
 orthodox religion — they are against all reforms — Robes- 
 pierre reminds me of revolution, complete change of the 
 order of things, including religion — they stopped worship-
 
 60 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 ping Christ and worshipped instead the Goddess of Reason, 
 a woman of questionable reputation." 
 
 His stock of associations was exhausted and I did not 
 urge him to continue as I could now interpret his mistake 
 in speaking. When he was about to leave my ofl&ce he 
 intended to visit his mistress who lived in the Hotel Robes- 
 pierre. His mistake showed his unconscious resistance 
 to heterosexuality. He would still prefer to cling to the 
 "older order of things," of worshipping the man rather 
 than the woman. 
 
 (^) My traveling companion, who for some reason, took 
 particular pleasure in raihng at the medical profession, 
 remarked once, "The most appropriate name for a doctor 
 I ever heard of I read in this morning's Sun. It was Dr. 
 Slayers, etc." I became interested and asked him to 
 show me the article and to his surprise the name was not 
 Slayers, but Salyers. Here his unconscious thought 
 "Doctors are butchers" took advantage of the close simi- 
 larity of the words and caused this metathesis. 
 
 (j) A young bride who was obliged to remain at home 
 on Sunday morning and transcribe her husband's manu- 
 script instead of attending church, as was her custom, 
 wrote Bridle March instead of Bridal March and parson 
 instead of -person. 
 
 (k) On re-reading an abstract which I made from a 
 foreign journal I was surprised to find that instead of 
 writing "Markuse even went so far as to recommend 
 sexual intercourse as a therapeutic agent for unmarried 
 women" I wrote "the great Markuse, etc." I then re- 
 called that while reading about Markuse's very bold 
 recommendation I was most surprised and said to myself
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 61 
 
 "Such courage could only be evinced by either a very 
 great or an eccentric man" and knowing the scientific 
 attainments of Markuse I readily eliminated the second 
 part of the postulate. Having decided that he was a 
 great man my unconscious thought found it easy to pro- 
 duce by metathesis from Markuse the Greek word Makros 
 (long, big, great). 
 
 {I) A gentleman of leisure who up to the age of forty did 
 nothing constructive decided to change his ways after he 
 was analyzed. About six months after I discharged him 
 as cured he wrote me a letter in which he said : " I am really 
 making a strong effort to find some suitable vocation," 
 he betrayed his resistances to work by writing "vacation" 
 instead of "vocation." 
 
 Mistakes in printing are of a similar nature. As a 
 classical example of this type may be cited the "Wicked 
 Bible" so-called from the fact that the negative was left 
 out of the Seventh Commandment. This authorized 
 edition of the Bible was published in London in 1631 
 and it is said that the printer had to pay a fine of two 
 thousand pounds for the omission. 
 
 IV. SYMBOLIC ACTIONS 
 
 Symbolic actions, according to Freud, are those per- 
 formances which a person does unconsciously and auto- 
 matically and which he considers as meaningless, 
 indifferent and accidental when his attention is called to 
 them. Such actions, depending on their determinations, are 
 either simple or complicated and manifest themselves in 
 either such insignificant acts as scribbling aimlessly with 
 one's lead pencil, jingling the coins in one's pocket, kneading 
 of soft substances, etc., or in more complicated acts. All
 
 62 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 such performances generally conceal sense and meaning 
 for which any other outlet is closed. 
 
 SymboHc or accidental actions can be observed both 
 among normal and abnormal persons. They are of special 
 interest to the doctor who finds many valuable hints for the 
 interpretation of symptoms and to the student of human 
 nature to whom they tell volumes. The popular saying 
 "actions speak louder than words" is especially true of the 
 manifestly insignificant and accidental ones. Such actions 
 often refer to a person's complexes, which show a tendency 
 to become split off from consciousness and repressed into 
 the unconscious. We are wont to look at everything under 
 the guise of a particular complex. Thus the misreading of 
 Slayer for Salyer is an example of complex constellation. 
 This gentleman had some unpleasant experiences with a 
 doctor, hence the misreading is merely a symbolic expres- 
 sion of his repressed complex. Such complex sj'-mbols 
 are expressed in pecuUar complicated acts. Jung cites 
 the case of a young lady who " when promenading wished 
 to take along a baby carriage. The reason for this, as 
 she blushingly admitted, was because she desired to be 
 looked upon as married. I know an old maid who wears 
 a wedding ring, especially when traveling. Her reason for 
 wearing it is "because it was my grandmother's. Other 
 examples of symbolic actions are the following: 
 
 (a) A woman song writer and poet who led a very un- 
 happy Hfe continued to write on the happiness of matri- 
 mony and just before she obtained a divorce she gave out 
 a song entitled "How to Keep a Husband." Another 
 writer on "The Home Beautiful" recently asked the court 
 to divorce her from her husband.
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 63 
 
 (6) A noted artist and writer of sonnets on the 
 happiness of perfect marriage forsook his first wife for 
 an affinity, maltreated his second wife, for which he 
 was arrested and punished, and now that he is finally- 
 divorced, he is going through similar experiences with a 
 third wife. 
 
 (c) The patient to be mentioned below, while despairing 
 of his life because he imagined himself afflicted with an 
 incurable disease, continued to occupy himself with Ibsen's 
 "When We Dead Awaken." 
 
 (d) A New York embezzler who was discovered by 
 detectives in a Philadelphia public library was found 
 reading a book entitled "Will I Ever Go Back?" 
 
 (e) The selection of Washington Irving's Spectre Bride- 
 groom for translation in the aforementioned example is 
 another symboHc action of this kind. Names of com- 
 mercial houses and institutions often betray similar mechan- 
 isms. Thus, Sesrun and Yvel mentioned above belong to 
 this type. Similar examples are the following: A hotel for 
 colored people at a neighboring summer resort bears the 
 significant name of "The White Isle." The home for the 
 blind is named "The Light House," and our street-cleaners 
 are called "White Wings." Selections of certain profes- 
 sions are usually symbolic actions. Thus, I know an actress 
 and a lawyer who are very bad stutterers: here the pro- 
 fessions serve to conceal the real defect, for no one would 
 ever think that an actress or a lawyer could lack the most 
 essential requirement of their calhngs. It is said that our 
 blind senator greets people with the stereotyped expression, 
 " Glad to see you," and always holds some note-paper in his 
 hands while addressing an audience.
 
 64 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 When I became interested in this question I asked some 
 of my confreres how they came to study medicine and I 
 received very interesting answers of which I will mention 
 two. Dr. W. stated that since his early youth he thought 
 of studying medicine. As an infant, he became afflicted 
 with infantile paralysis, the effects of which he still shows, 
 and as [the doctors could not help him he thought of 
 finding a cure himself. Dr. B. could give no definite 
 reason, but finally recalled that when he was very young 
 he overheard a conversation between his mother and 
 another woman. The latter asked his mother in what 
 month he was born and on being told that it was October 
 she dryly remarked "He will be either a doctor, a butcher 
 or a murderer. He will have to shed blood." As he 
 did not care to adopt the last two professions he became a 
 doctor. Some may thing that the compromise includes 
 them all. I can definitely assert that in this case it was 
 an unconscious process.* 
 
 It is interesting to see what part such symbolic actions 
 play in every-day life. 
 
 (a) A young married woman asked her husband for 
 money to make some purchases on their way home. 
 While talking she suddenly threw away the ten dollar 
 bill as though it were a valueless piece of paper. Her 
 husband noticed it and picked it up without her perceiving 
 it. Not until she reached the store did she notice that 
 she had lost the bill. This woman was wont to con- 
 tribute ten dollars monthly to a charitable society before 
 
 *For other unconscious motives underlying the selection of certain 
 vocations, see my book Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis, 
 p. 315. Harcourt Brace and Co., New York, 1921.
 
 PSTCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 65 
 
 her marriage. While promenading she spoke to her 
 husband about it and he said that it would be best to 
 stop it for the time being, to which she had to acquiesce. 
 It was after this conversation that she threw away the 
 bill. This action was the equivalent of the thought 
 "You do not allow me to give it to charity so I throw it 
 away so that some poor person may find it." That is, 
 it was meant as a sacrifice. 
 
 (6) A woman continued to oversalt everything she 
 cooked for her husband. At the same time she persis- 
 tently forgot to place salt on the table. By this she 
 meant to express "I am in love, but you are not." For 
 it is said that when a woman is in love she oversalts the 
 food. In fact she always talked of her husband's indiffer- 
 ences and her ardent love. 
 
 Some symbolic actions continue to manifest themselves 
 for long periods, sometimes for life, and are considered 
 personal characteristics of the individual evincing them. 
 Such activities are very often only reactions of some re- 
 pressed impulses and are either the symbolic expressions 
 of the repressed wishes or represent contrasts of the same. 
 A good example of the last type is the woman to be men- 
 tioned later who insisted upon paying cash for everything. 
 Another example of this kind was a young man of twenty- 
 eight years who was very religious and over-scrupulous in 
 everything. In fact his relatives and intimate friends con- 
 sidered him "a bit too religious and over-conscientious." 
 Examination showed that his outward expression of piety 
 and conscientiousness was a contrast manifestation 
 of his unconscious. For years he had been struggling 
 with sexual temptations. He saw sex where no one else
 
 66 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 did. He went through the usual conflicts of the mastur- 
 bator, the struggles against illicit sex and finally thought 
 he was victorious. For two years before he came to me, 
 he led what he called "a pure life." He shunned the 
 society of women and his moral sensitiveness verged on 
 eccentricity. A few examples obtained from himself 
 will show his personality. When a woman addressed 
 him and asked to be directed to a certain street he turned 
 his head away from her fearing that she might arouse sex 
 fancies. He was once present at a social gathering 
 at which a dispute arose between a young man and a 
 young woman as to who was the taller of the two. To 
 settle this they stood back to back and asked the others 
 to express judgment. He became excited over this and 
 left the room. He thought that their action was immoral. 
 Yet while he was an ardent member of the church and 
 was held up as a model young man he spent hours in 
 disreputable neighborhoods. In fact his time was divided 
 between the church and the slums. To be sure his object 
 in frequenting these places was "to do good." He 
 wished "to eradicate the canker that eats its way into 
 innocent minds." To effect this he would allow himself 
 to be accosted by prostitutes and then have them arrested. 
 On a few occasions he really yielded to temptation which 
 naturally increased his zeal for "eradicating the canker." 
 In reality, however, he did all these things because he 
 unconsciously desired them and his every-day piety was 
 a symbolic contrast expression. 
 
 Some apparent accidents which may result in injury or 
 may even end fatally may be included under symbolic 
 actions. Prof. Freud and others have reported such cases
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE • 67 
 
 and of the many actions of this type studied by me I shall 
 report the following : 
 
 A young woman of twenty-seven was actively courted 
 by two men. A. was jovial, very attractive, but unsteady. 
 He was willing and at times even anxious to love much but 
 laughed at the idea of marrying her. She was "madly in 
 love " with him. B. was an old friend, tried and found true, 
 very patient. He bored her. After a few years of conflict, 
 during which she did not know what to do — she could 
 neither reject one nor the other — she heard rumors that A. 
 was very interested in another woman. Indeed, she 
 became convinced that A. was never serious with her and 
 that she may as well resign herself to it; but all her friends 
 knew how much she loved him, and that she has repeatedly 
 threatened to kill herself in the event of his finding another 
 girl. After brooding over the situation for a few weeks 
 she met with a serious accident in which she was severely 
 burned. She was dressed in neglig^, and while carrying a 
 sterno lamp she somehow set fire to her gown. But it so 
 happened that she had filled the bath tub a few minutes 
 before, so she jumped into it screaming, attracting the 
 attention of her old friend, B., who was waiting to visit her. 
 He and others came to her assistance, extinguished the fire, 
 leaving her with pretty severe burns. As soon as I heard 
 of it I suspected that it was a symbolic action, and on 
 investigation I found that that morning she received a 
 letter from A., but as she promised me not to communicate 
 with him or receive any communications from him, she 
 was about to send it back to him. It was a great struggle; 
 she was very anxious to know what he wrote, but she sol- 
 emnly promised me and her friends to cut all communica-
 
 68 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 tions between her and him. It was while holding this letter 
 that the accident happened, which incidentally burned the 
 letter. The accident solved her conflict; she did not send 
 the letter back to him, nor did she read it herself. In this 
 way she had not altogether severed her relationship 
 with him. On the other hand, she redeemed herself 
 with her friends by actually sustaining some physical 
 injurj^, which might have resulted fatally. Her injuries 
 were symbolic of the suicide with which she threatened 
 her friends. As a matter of fact, she was invalided 
 for about two months, during which time she lost all 
 affection for A. 
 
 Symbolic actions of long duration which are the direct 
 results of repressed wishes furnish a wide field for collect- 
 ing-manias or peculiar hobbies. I do not refer to those 
 who confine their activities to the collection of valuable 
 or scientific objects such as books, paintings, etc., but 
 I mean those persons who collect things without any 
 definite aim, who can give no reason for their activity 
 and whose collections as such are of no scientific value. 
 I can best explain what I mean by giving the following 
 examples : 
 
 (a) An unmarried woman of thirty-six years took a 
 great interes'. in mushrooms. She not only took her 
 vacation during the mushroom season so as to be able 
 to study and gather them, but she also collected many 
 works on the subject, especially those containing colored 
 charts. She had no scientific interest in the subject and 
 could give no reason for her action. She only knew that 
 mushrooms fascinated her. Analysis showed that she 
 began to take an interest in mushrooms a few years
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 69 
 
 before while she was on her vacation. She passed a 
 restless night, having been troubled bj^ many nightmares. 
 While taking a walk early in the morning she found some 
 mushrooms. This was the beginning of her interest in 
 mushrooms. Further investigation showed that at the 
 time she resisted many sexual temptations which would 
 also account for her insomnia and nightmares.- The 
 interest for mushrooms was aroused by their resemblance 
 to the penis. Phallus is the scientific name for some 
 species of mushrooms. 
 
 (6) Some years ago while traveUng in Europe I hap- 
 pened to be in the same railroad compartment with a 
 western gentleman. He was a hail-fellow-well-met so 
 we soon became acquainted. He was a man of means 
 who was travehng for his health and discovering that 
 I was a physician he soon became confidential. He told 
 me that he was suffering from a nervous disease and 
 asked me to recommend him some professor in Paris. 
 We were together for about twelve hours and as we had 
 to pass two boundary lines I noticed that he carried with 
 him a small suit case which he guarded very carefully. 
 It was filled with stick-pins of all descriptions which he 
 bought as souvenirs in every European city of importance. 
 To my remark that he must have a great many very good 
 friends to buy for them so many stickpins he replied 
 that they were not meant to be given away. He stated 
 that he would not be foolish enough to give away so 
 many valuable presents, but that he collected them for 
 his pleasure. "Some people," he said, "when they 
 travel collect pictures. I made up my mind to collect 
 stickpins." He did not know just why he collected them.
 
 70 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 "I bought a few for myself," he said, "and then I just 
 kept it up." 
 
 As I said before the man came to Europe to seek relief 
 from a nervous trouble. When he asked me to recom- 
 mend him some professor I was compelled to ask him to 
 explain his ailment as I could not see anything organic- 
 ally wrong with him. He then told me that he has been 
 suffering for years from psychic impotence and that he 
 had consulted many specialists in the United States 
 without obtaining any relief and that he met with no 
 better success in Europe. He described his malady in 
 the following words: "I have the desire, and I have erec- 
 tions when I am alone, and sometimes I can even have 
 an erection when I am with a woman, but I can't stick it 
 in. When I try this the erection fades." May we not 
 assume that his collection of stick-pins was an unconscious 
 activity to get that which he most desired in reality? 
 
 In this connection the following letter will be of interest; 
 it was sent to me by a gentleman with permission for publica- 
 tion after he read the first edition of this book : 
 
 "Dear Doctor Brill: 
 
 "The fascinating habit of making odd collections becomes signifi- 
 cant to one's mind after reading in your book about the man who col- 
 lected stick-pins. While you are making a collection of collections j'ou 
 may care to have an odd one — a true tale from pioneer days of Indiana. 
 
 "My grandfather (1813-1896) was born and reared a strict Scotch 
 Presbyterian and played the part all his life. According to his own 
 word — whispered to a few in the old days — he was quite a boy among 
 the girls and sewed some wild oats. He reared a family of nine, was a 
 strict disciplinarian, a regular churchman, thrifty, active, a good 
 farmer and horse-trader, and lived well. He was also known as a man 
 of pronounced amorous tendencies. Even after he was seventy years 
 old he worried his old rheumatic wife with his youthful actions until
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 71 
 
 she fairly cried out. After her death he began to visit some "white- 
 trash" family where there was a girl who received men for compen- 
 sation. He intended to move this family on his farm, when his son H. 
 got "wind" of it and set fire to the log cabin. He married a second 
 time a few years before his death a weU-preserved woman of nearly 
 seventy years. This did not prevent him from fondling the breasts of 
 the hired girls whenever he was able to do so. 
 
 "When the old home was broken up and grandfather left the old 
 place to his sons, they found tons of horseshoes about the old shop. As a 
 child I looked upon that old shop and the collection of horseshoes with 
 wonder. Grandfather would pick up horseshoes everywhere in the 
 pubUc road, and even when found on strange farms. He was never 
 known to sell them, and had thousands safely stored in the garret. 
 
 "Did every horseshoe represent one or more thoughts of a lady's 
 'seat of love' to this dear old Scotch churchman?" 
 
 Whether our correspondent's question can be answered 
 negatively or affirmatively must remain open, but there are 
 many points in the case favoring the assumption that this 
 collecting mania was a symbolic action on the part of the old 
 gentleman. He unconsciously collected what he desired so 
 much in reality. 
 
 Those who object to this analysis as being far-fetched, 
 arguing that the horseshoe is a well-known popular talisman 
 for good luck, may be reminded of the origin of this popular 
 belief. Inman^ states: "It was the universal practice 
 among the Arabs of northern Africa to stick up over the 
 door of their houses or tents the genital parts of a cow, 
 mare or female camel, as a talisman to avert the influence 
 of the evil eye. The figure of this organ being less definite 
 than that of the male, it has assumed in symbolism very 
 various forms. The commonest substitution for the part 
 itself has been a horseshoe, which is to this day fastened 
 over many of the doors of stables and shippons in the
 
 72 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 country, and was formerly supposed to protect the cattle 
 from witchcraft." 
 
 Other collecting manias that came to my notice were those 
 of three men who collected very old furniture. As far as I 
 could discover there was no special object in these collec- 
 tions; the old furniture was bought and stored away. 
 These three collectors were old bachelors who were strongly 
 attached to their mother ideals; they all lived in the past 
 and never expected to marry. 
 
 Some of the collections reported to me were extremely 
 bizarre. Thus, I heard of a very intelligent man who col- 
 lected the cheap collar buttons one finds in laundered shirts. 
 He asked his friends to save those buttons for him, and I 
 was told that he is the happy possessor of many boxes filled 
 with such collar buttons. Another man is collecting corks. 
 He is supposed to possess many thousands, which he guards 
 very jealously. A young girl of seventeen years is an 
 ardent collector of candlesticks. An elderly woman sud- 
 denly decided a few years ago to collect pocketbooks; she 
 possesses hundreds of pocketbooks from which she would 
 not part. My informer tells me that this woman could 
 offer no explanation for her strange collecting activity. A 
 similar case of a woman who collects pitchers was recently 
 reported in the New York Times, under the title of " In the 
 House of the Thousand Pitchers." 
 
 Collectors of the type here described are not indigenous 
 to our own age; it seems that they have always existed. 
 Pelman,"* who devotes some space to the subject, reports 
 many odd cases of which I shall mention the following: 
 
 A naval officer collected uniform buttons; a man collected 
 corkscrews for thirty years; the obstetrician Braun collected
 
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 73 
 
 pubic hair, which he skilfully acquired while examining his 
 patients. The most curious collection was left by Countess 
 Chavan Narischkin. It consisted of a great many bed-pans 
 belonging to historical characters, for which she paid fabu- 
 lous sums. Among the bed-pans of her collection were 
 those of Ann of Austria, Diana of Poitiers, Mary Stuart, 
 Marie Antionette, Pompadour, Du Barry, Catherine II of 
 Russia and many others. 
 
 The meaning of such collecting manias is often apparent; 
 there is no doubt that they are all symbolic actions. The 
 collecting mania is an activity motivated by the uncon- 
 scious. It is a reaction to an inner feeling of voidness con- 
 cerning some particular craving. This is best seen among 
 the insane, who often show the collecting mania in a very 
 pronounced form. Those who are actively engaged in the 
 practice of psychiatry know how troublesome such patients 
 are. They constantly fill their pockets, the lining of their 
 clothes with rubbish of all descriptions. They have to be 
 searched from day to day, otherwise they accumulate heaps 
 of rubbish, and they act like children whose toys are taken 
 away when they are deprived of these senseless collections. 
 When they are at home they often fill whole rooms with 
 pieces of paper, glass, stones, rags and similar useless 
 objects. The last few cases observed by me showing such a 
 collecting mania were all controlled by delusions of poverty. 
 One of these patients, a woman of means, collected such 
 rubbish and locked it up in her safe. When I asked her why 
 she collected all these things, she said: "Every little thing 
 counts." The mental deterioration in such patients blurs 
 their sense of value, and they thus blindly follow the im- 
 pulse. This impulse may be a reaction to delusions of pov-
 
 74 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 erty, or an expression of insatiableness found in children 
 which one often finds in mentally deteriorated patients. 
 
 Music, too, is used to give expression to one's complexes. 
 While doing some experimental work in the same laboratory 
 with Dr. L. he continued to whistle for hours an old melody. 
 It was the refrain from the old song "Don't Be Angry, 
 that cannot be." Having been acquainted with the con- 
 tents of this song I wondered whether his mechanical 
 whistling expressed the feeling of a rejected love. On 
 asking him why he whistled so much he characteristically 
 replied "I don't know myself." I then asked him whether 
 he knew what he was whistling, but he assured me that 
 he did not. "It is some street song," he said. "I have 
 a habit of whistling while I work." I then told him the 
 words and jokingly asked him whether he had been rejected 
 by the girl he loved. He emphatically denied it, but his 
 emotional reactions only strengthened my suspicion so 
 that I continued my investigations. That evening we 
 met at a cafe and after I had gained his confidence, 
 he disburdened his heart. Only the evening before he had 
 proposed and had been rejected. 
 
 These examples show that there is nothing arbitrary or 
 fortuitous in our actions. No matter how trivial or 
 voluntary, analysis always shows that this action is fully 
 determined by unconscious motives. Those who beheve 
 in a free will naturally dispute this theory, but it is always 
 possible to demonstrate to their own satisfaction that 
 whatever they consider a voluntary act done with a free 
 will is nevertheless unconsciously determined by definite 
 motives. One of my unbelieving patients forgot his 
 umbrella in my office and then asked me to explain this
 
 PSTCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 75 
 
 forgetting. " Surely," he said, " I did not wish to lose a new 
 umbrella." I fully agreed with him for if he wanted to lose 
 it he would have left it elsewhere. He came to see me 
 daily and as the rain ceased during his visit he could leave 
 it until his next visit. Moreover, every psychoanalyst 
 knows that patients who are pleased with the treatment 
 often forget things at the doctor's office. This simply 
 means that they expect and wish to return. We never 
 forget anything valuable where we do not wish to return. 
 The same holds true for losing things. We never lose what 
 we value highly and, other things being equal, whatever 
 we lose we usually don't want. A distant relative of 
 Prof. Freud, who on account of family jealousy, disputed 
 his theories, spoke one day very disparagingly about his 
 theory of wit. I observed that he had no conception of the 
 subject in question and did not hesitate to tell him this. 
 His excuse was that he could not read the whole book 
 because he lost it. Here, of course, the losing was inten- 
 tional. An excellent example of definite determinism is 
 related by Dr. Ernest Jones. One of his unbelieving 
 acquaintances produced the number 986 and defied him to 
 connect it with anything of special interest in the mind. 
 Jones made use of the free-association method and the 
 acquaintance recalled the following associations: Six years 
 before on a very hot day he had seen a joke in an evening 
 newspaper which stated that the thermometer had stood 
 986° Fahrenheit, evidently an exaggeration of 98.6" Fahren- 
 heit. Jones was curious to know why this memory had per- 
 sisted with such vividness as to be so readily brought 
 out, for with most persons it surely would have been 
 forgotten beyond recall unless it became associated with
 
 76 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 some other mental experience of more significance. The 
 next thought was the general reflection that the conception 
 of heat had always greatly impressed him, that heat was 
 the most important thing in the universe, the source of life 
 and so on. Jones thought that the young man's prosaic 
 attitude needed some explanation and he therefore pressed 
 him for more associations. The next thought was of a 
 factory stack which he could see from his bedroom window. 
 He often stood watching the flame and smoke issuing out 
 of it in the evening and reflecting on the deplorajDle waste 
 of energy. "Heat, flame, the source of life, the waste of 
 vital energy issuing from an upright hollow tube — it was 
 not hard to divine from such associations that the ideas of 
 heat and fire were unconsciously linked in his mind with the 
 idea of love, as is so frequent in symboHc thinking, and that 
 there was a strong masturbation complex present, a con- 
 clusion that he presently confirmed. His choice of a 
 number was therefore far from being a free one, being in 
 fact related to a very significant personal constellation." 
 
 As an example of how one takes up innocent associations 
 for the purpose of giving vent to one's complexes I will 
 relate the following episode : 
 
 A husband read a joke in some periodical which struck 
 him as being particularly funny so that he laughed heartily 
 at it and then repeated it to his wife. The joke was 
 something like this: Teacher (to class of boys): ^'Having 
 more than one wife is 'polygamy. Now, Johnny, if a man 
 has only one wife what would you call that?'' Johnny: 
 "Monotony." To the surprise of the husband his wife 
 was not at all affected by the joke. Indeed she couldn't 
 see why he laughed so much over it. A few days later
 
 PSTCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERY-DAY LIFE 77 
 
 while visiting a friend the conversation tui'ned to the general 
 topic of man's fickleness and so on. The wife wistfully- 
 remarked: "I know exactly in what channels Frank's 
 (husband) mind runs" and to explain herself she repeated 
 the aforementioned joke, but when she came to Johnny's 
 answer she said "Monopoly" instead of "monotony." 
 
 The mistake here corrects the tendency of the joke. 
 She dishked to hear her husband laugh over a joke the 
 underlying thought of which was to the effect that one 
 wife means monotony. She realized that his hearty 
 laughter signified his agreement with the thought under- 
 lying the joke. It pained her to think that her husband 
 should find her monotonous and laugh at a joke that 
 suggested polygamy. Her mistake cleverly expressed 
 her disapproval of the idea implied by the joke and at the 
 same time shows in what she believed. She wanted a 
 monopoly on her husband. 
 
 Such complex indicators expressed in every-day con- 
 versations and actions are not rare. The careful observer 
 finds them everywhere. For nothing can be concealed. 
 Repressed thoughts forever strive to come to the sm'face 
 and just as the insane reaHze their ideals in their insanities, 
 we reahze their wishes through our dreams and in the "little 
 ways" of every-day life. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Freud: Psycho pathology of Every-day Life, trans, by A. A. Brill. 
 T. Fisher Unwin, London. 
 
 2. Jones: On the Nightmare, Am. Jour, of Insanity, Jan., 1910. 
 
 3. Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian SymboUsm, p. 114. 
 
 4. Psychische Grenzzustande. Cohen, Bonn, 1910. 
 
 5. Jones: Papers on Psycho-analysis, p. 41. Balliere Tindal & Cox, 
 London 1918.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 DREAMS 
 
 Their Structure and Mechanism, Technique of Interpreta- 
 tion, Symbolism and their Relation to 
 the Neuroses and Psychoses 
 
 "Der miide Gebundene der in Fesseln liegt kann nicht 
 erwachen, der miide Gebundene traumt von Freiheit." — 
 Hauptmann. 
 ' /From time immemorial dreams have been the subject 
 of. much interest and speculation. Since the early Greek 
 period numerous theories about dreams have been pro- 
 pounded and entertained in the realms of religion and of 
 science^ but ngt until within recent years has investigation of 
 dreams proceeded on a true psychological basis. It 
 would be superfluous and quite impossible to review 
 here the many curious theories held at different epochs 
 in the world's history concerning dreams; suffice it to say 
 that ancients and moderns differ very little in their views. 
 The ancient Greeks believed that the dream was an inspira- 
 tion of the gods, that it was simply a warning or prophecy 
 of things to come and hence always gave credence to it. 
 Kindred thoughts are expressed in the Bible. Joseph 
 interpreted all dreams as a foreboding of the future, "what 
 God is about to do he showeth unto Pharoah;" and 
 as the Scriptures inform us steps were immediately taken 
 to prepare for the approaching famine. These views 
 
 have come down to us traditionally and disregarding 
 
 78
 
 DREAMS 79 
 
 here the numerous scientific and pseudoscientific theories, 
 we may say that the present popular belief in dreams 
 differs in no wise from that of the classical Greeks and the 
 ancient Egyptians. Every race and religion still looks upon 
 dreams as something supernatural and objective, as an 
 inspiration coming from above; and the laity still continues 
 to believe in their importance. The gambler dreams his 
 horses or lottery numbers, the Indian medicine man his 
 remedies, and not seldom we hear even of " dreams coming 
 true." 
 
 Modern psychology has continued the work of ancient 
 writers and as a result we have numerous valuable con- 
 tributions to the problem of dreams; numerous attempts 
 have been made to show the relation of dreams to normal 
 and abnormal life,^ but so far as I know no author has 
 solved the problem so ingeniously and successfully as 
 Professor Freud." As mentioned previously, in developing 
 his psychology of the psychoneuroses, Freud found that 
 dreams played a very important part in the psyche of the 
 individual. The dream is not a senseless jumble, but a 
 perfect mechanism and when analyzed it is found to contain 
 the hidden fulfilment of a repressed wish; it always treats of 
 the inmost thoughts of personahty and for that reason gives 
 us the best access to the unconscious. '' No psychoanalysis 
 is complete, nay possible, without the analysis of dreams. 
 The dream not only helps us to interpret symptoms, but 
 is often an invaluable instrument in diagnosis and treat- 
 ment. The causative factors of the neuroses and the 
 psychoses are extremely vague and mostly unconscious to the 
 patient, and it is by means of dreams that the underlying 
 etiological factors are often disclosed.
 
 80 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 In order to understand the mechanism of dreams it 
 will be necessary to bear in mind Freud's conception 
 of repression.^ To forget is a part of human nature; this 
 is so obvious that we never even stop to think about it. 
 Yet when we examine the things forgotten we soon find 
 that there is a method in forgetting; our forgetting seems 
 to follow a kind of selection. It was Freud who first 
 called attention to the motives of forgetting. If we 
 exclude organic brain disturbances, we find that we are 
 most apt to forget painful or disagreeable impressions. 
 This forgetting, as everyone knows, is purposeful and 
 desired. The individual strives at all times to rid him- 
 self of the unbearable either by settling the situation in 
 question when possible or by directly crowding it out of 
 his mind. When we meet with mishaps or failures to 
 which we cannot adequately react, we grieve over them 
 for a time and then make desperate efforts to forget them 
 — that is, we repress them. Moreover, phantasies which 
 as will be shown later, are wishes consciously entertained, 
 and common to both normal and abnormal persons, may 
 be of a disagreeable nature, or present something unattain- 
 able and must therefore be repressed. It often happens 
 that such phantasies are repressed before they are really 
 grasped by full consciousness. Habitual day dreamers 
 often state that they are only vaguely conscious of what 
 they are dreaming. The repressed material, or, the 
 complexes are pushed into the unconscious and there they 
 remain in a dormant state.^ Now and then they are 
 recalled by some association, but like disturbed ghosts 
 they soon return to their resting place. The experimental 
 work of the Zurich school has likewise shown that they
 
 DREAMS 81 
 
 can be artificially evoked. In this country this has also 
 been corroborated by many observers. Continuous repres- 
 sion is not, however, always possible, and as I shall show 
 later whenever there is a failure in repression a splitting of 
 consciousness may result. The repressed complexes or 
 past emotional experiences then strive for expression and 
 the resultant psychic conflict may produce a psychosis or 
 neurosis. In brief both normal and neurotic individuals 
 resort to a certain amount of repression. In the former 
 this usually remains inert, manifesting itself only now and 
 then in psychopathological actions or dreams, while in the 
 latter it may form in addition symptoms of neuroses or 
 psychoses.^ But no matter in what form the repression 
 comes to the surface — whether in the form of dreams, in 
 psychoneurotic symptoms, or in the utterances or other 
 manifestations of the insane — it is always so distorted as 
 to be unrecognizable to the individual. Neither the patient 
 nor the persons of his environment have any idea that the i 
 resultant illness has any connection with his past experiences./ 
 What causes this concealment or distortion? When we 
 examine the literature of the past and present we observe 
 that writers frequently resort to all sorts of detours, 
 euphemisms and symbolisms when they wish to express 
 something which would sound either harsh or objectionable 
 to polite society. Thus we find that the words "thigh" 
 and "staff" are often used in the Bible to express that 
 part which represents the male* and nowadays journahsm 
 makes use of exactly the same devices. Witness the car- 
 toons and jokes in the daily papers.' We all know that 
 many of the jokes of our best comedians would be con- 
 
 *See Genesis xxiv, 2, and Ixvii, 29; Hebrews xi, 21. 
 6
 
 82 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 sidered extremely offensive if direct expression were given 
 to their underlying thoughts. The reason why such mech- 
 anisms are necessary is quite obvious. It is the fear of the 
 censor. We all know what would happen to the comedian 
 who, instead of uttering some innocent quibble as "Willie 
 Rose, rose, because he sat on a pin" would venture to give 
 the bare underlying thought. This censor is the product of 
 civilization and has been established by society for its 
 own protection, the stricter the censor the more concealed 
 and funnier are the means of representation. The distor- 
 tions in dreams and in psychotic symptoms are also the 
 work of the psychic censor. This, too, is a protective 
 mechanism for the good of the organism and the older the 
 individual or the race the greater is the censorship; primi- 
 tives and children have no need for distortions. One 
 might say that children and primitives act in accordance 
 with their true feelings, when a child wants something, it 
 makes an immediate effort to procure it but, as it grows 
 older and dreams about the things that it cannot get, one 
 has no difficulty in seeing the wish. 
 
 The formation of dreams is brought about by the 
 working of the two psychic forces (streams or systems), 
 one of which forms the wish of the dream, while the other 
 exerts its censorship on this wish and thus produces the 
 distortion. The reason for our belief in this second 
 psychic force possessing the power of censoring is as 
 follows: The latent thoughts of the dream are not known 
 until the dream has been subjected to analysis. What 
 we remember on awakening are the manifest contents 
 of the dream emanating from the former. We can there- 
 fore assume that the admission to consciousness is the
 
 DREAMS 83 
 
 prerogative of the second psychic system. Nothing from 
 the first system can reach consciousness without having 
 passed through the second system, and the latter allows 
 nothing to pass without exercising its prerogative of 
 censoring. At the point of transition between the two 
 systems we have the psychic censor, which after exercising 
 its function allows to pass only that which is agreeable to 
 it or concealed from it and restrains everything else. 
 Whatever is rejected by the censor remains in a state of 
 repression. As was shown this psychic censor is nothing 
 but the inhibitions formed throughout our whole Ufe by 
 our civilizing religious and ethical training. 
 
 As mentioned before the dream is divided into the 
 manifest and the latent dream contents. The former 
 comprise all the delusive sensory impressions which are 
 recalled by the dreamer on awakening; while the latter 
 comprise the fundamental thoughts of the dream as they 
 existed before being subjected to the distortion of the 
 psychic censor. The manifest content of the dream seems 
 absurd and incoherent, but by psychoanalysis it can readilj'- 
 be translated into the latent thoughts, which always show 
 the fulfilment of a wish. 
 
 When we watch the development of a human being 
 especially during the first few years of its existence, we 
 are particularly impressed with one fact, to wit : that the 
 child is insatiable in its desires. As soon as the child 
 sees the light of this world it makes known its wants and 
 as soon as it grows older they become proportionately 
 greater. At first these desires are very simple, but with ad- 
 vancing age they become more complicated. Thus a child of 
 a few days old cries when hungry or uncomfortable, while at
 
 84 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 a later age it may cry because it is not rocked to sleep or 
 because it is not allowed to suck its thumb. Here we no 
 longer deal with necessary wants, but with pleasurable 
 desires; for the child could fall asleep without being rocked 
 and could get along without thumb sucking. When we 
 observe a child at about the age of two, or at an older age, 
 we can clearly see that it is a constant pleasure seeker. 
 All its activities as expressed in playing and other manifes- 
 tations are directed toward the reaUzation of both neces- 
 sary and pleasurable desires, especially the latter, and the 
 older the child becomes the more its wants. It would be no 
 exaggeration to assume that if this condition were allowed 
 to continue, the whole world would be too small to supply 
 the wants of a single individual. This idea is very well 
 expressed in a pretty fable which I read years ago, I beUeve 
 in Socin's Arabic Grammar. The story tells that Alexander 
 of Macedon, while traveling after his numerous victories, 
 one day came unexpectedly to a strange place. He wanted 
 to enter, but the door was locked. He knocked on the 
 door and asked to be admitted. After being ignored for 
 some time he was finally told that he was at the door of 
 Paradise and that no mortal could enter there. "But I 
 am Alexander the Great," he remonstrated. "At least 
 give me some memento that I may be able to say I was 
 here." A hand was extended through the door and gave 
 him a human eye. Alexander was chagrined and baffled. 
 He could not understand the significance of the souvenir. 
 In his distress he appealed to the wise men of his entourage 
 and after considerable study and rumination one of these — 
 the wisest of them all — undertook to solve the riddle. He 
 ordered that a scale be brought and he placed the eye upon
 
 DREAMS 85 
 
 one side of it. He placed Alexander's jewels upon the 
 other. The eye was heavier. More gold and jewels were 
 placed on the other side, but the eye still outweighed the 
 treasurers. To the surprise and consternation of Alexander 
 the Great no amount of precious stones or gold was heavy 
 enough to counterbalance the eye. The scale containing 
 it bore down steadily. The wise man thereupon covered 
 the eye with some earth and, behold! the scales turned. 
 The eye balanced no more than its actual weight. The 
 explanation by the wise man was as follows: the eye 
 uncovered signifies the Hving eye, the covered eye signifies 
 one dead. While man lives he is insatiable; the more the 
 eye sees the more it desires. Once it is covered with earth 
 it has no need of anything. This souvenir was therefore 
 intended as a rebuke to Alexander's unbridled ambition. 
 That this moral lesson left little impression on the insa- 
 tiable conqueror is shown by the fact that he died of his 
 insane excesses at the early age of thirty-two years. 
 
 To-day there are no mdre worlds to conquer, but we 
 are all Alexanders, none the less. Each of us who is not 
 afflicted with the emotional deterioration of the Schizo- 
 phrenic is dominated by ambitions and never can be per- 
 fectly contented. And were it not for the severe checking 
 the individual constantly experiences from the very begin- 
 ning of his childhood, which causes him to give up most of 
 his desires, it would be impossible to live in any society, 
 savage or enlightened. 
 
 This inhibiting process begins in childhood and is con- 
 tinued throughout life. Thus a child of fifteen months 
 cries for a bird kept by her parents as a pet. She is not 
 satisfied with merely looking at it and hearing it sing,
 
 86 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 but she wants to touch and handle it. As this would be 
 detrimental to the well being of the bird she is made to 
 forego this pleasure in spite of her bitter crying. A httle 
 girl of four years wants toys belonging to other children. 
 She is very unhappy and irritable because she cannot 
 get them, but with her mother's help, she finally abandons 
 this desire. At an earlier age this same child uncere- 
 moniously appropriated other children's toys and it was 
 only after being punished that she desisted from this 
 highway robbery and developed the sense of property. 
 So, throughout the whole coiu-se of our existence, society 
 (religion and ethics) teaches us to curb our desires and 
 to give up much of what we want. We want very much 
 and we get comparatively little, but we never stop wanting. 
 When we try to examine how children learn to give up 
 their desires we are soon struck by the fact that they 
 never really give up anything entirely. A girl of four 
 years after being told by her mother that she cannot get 
 a certain toy which she saw in the hand of another 
 child, brooded over it for a while and then drew on the 
 sidewalk with chalk what she thought was a picture of 
 this toy and played with it as though it were the real toy. 
 The little girl of fifteen months forgets the bird and is 
 always appeased when she gets a wooden bird or a picture 
 book of birds. You all know how boys ride on sticks for 
 want of horses and that nearly all the games played by 
 children represent unattainable desires. Nor do we 
 see those actions only in early Hfe when the child cannot 
 differentiate between fiction and reality. If we continue 
 to observe we find that these same children as they grow 
 older and know that a stick is not a horse and that a
 
 DREAMS 8/ 
 
 drawing of a toy is not a real toy, nevertheless still en- 
 deavor to attain in fancy what they want. Thus a little 
 boy goes to the Zoological garden where he sees tigers. 
 He remarks that he would like to have a few tigers. His 
 father laughs at him and points out that he would have no 
 room for them in the apartment if he had them. The boy 
 then dreams that he had j5ve little tigers in a bird cage 
 hanging in his room. Such examples show that the human 
 mind possesses the faculty of overcoming difficulties and 
 attains its desires in spite of the obstacles raised by nature 
 and society or rather by reality. This mode of coping with 
 reality forms the basis of Prof. Freud's theory of wish 
 fulfilment. In brief this theory states that whatever is 
 denied us in reality we can nevertheless realize in some other 
 way. In his sleep the poor man has much money, the 
 prisoner his freedom, the lame man runs races, and the 
 ambitious man sees himself at the goal of his ambition. 
 In other words, the dream when analyzed represents 
 the realization of a wish; its motive is a wish. 
 
 In this respect dreams are divided into three classes: 
 1. Those which represent an unrepressed wish as fulfilled, 
 as seen in the so-called convenience dream and in chil- 
 dren's dreams. For example, we often dream of enjoying 
 cold fresh water after a supper of sardines, olives or other 
 salty food. The thirst incites the dream which tries to 
 appease the sleeper so as to avoid disturbance of sleep. 
 A boy of five dreams of finding pennies and nickels and 
 on awakening expresses his disappointment by crying for 
 his money. A little girl of four dreams of chocolate 
 almonds and on awakening insists that someone has 
 taken her "big box of chocolate almonds." 2. Those 
 
 i^
 
 88 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 which represent the realization of a repressed wish in an 
 entirely concealed form, examples of which I shall give 
 later. 3. Those which represent the realization of a 
 repressed wish in a form insufficiently or only partially 
 concealed. The last group of dreams is generally accom- 
 panied by anxiety, which interrupts the dream and takes 
 the place of the distortion found in the second group. Dreams 
 accompanied by anxiety are of a gross sexual nature; 
 the ideation causing the anxiety in the dream once be- 
 longed to a wish which was later subjected to repression.^ 
 There are some dreams of a painful nature which are not, 
 however, perceived as such by the dreamer. These merely 
 show the insignificance and lack of psychic validity of the 
 dream, but they do not show a true wish. Thus, one of 
 my patients dreamed that she saw her oldest boy laid out 
 in a casket, and yet she was totally unconcerned about it. 
 Having been told previously that a dream represents the 
 hidden fulfilment of a wish she now insisted that this theory 
 must be wrong, as she would never entertain any such 
 wish regarding her boy. Psychoanalysis, however, revealed 
 the following facts: her husband had died and left her with 
 two children; she had then married a widower with two 
 children. They were very happy, but as they already had 
 four children they could not afford to rear any more. She 
 has frequently expressed the wish "to have an offspring as 
 the result of her second marriage, as it would strengthen 
 the union, but having four children in the family, this was 
 out of the question." The dream fulfils her wish by show- 
 ing her that there are only three children in the family. 
 
 A man of thirty dreamed that he saw his brother's head 
 split open and bleeding and was not at all worried about it.
 
 DREAMS 89 
 
 He, too, objected to the theory of wish fulfilment. Analysis 
 showed that he referred to his brother M., a boy of sixteen 
 years, whom he had thought incorrigible. He had read 
 recently an article in a Sunday newspaper saying that bad 
 boys could be cured by trephining the skull and exposing 
 the brain — which at once caused him to think of his brother. 
 The dream realized his wish by showing him his brother 
 with his brain exposed. 
 
 Recently a patient came to me and disputed the theory 
 of wish fulfilment. To prove his assertion he stated that 
 the night before he had dreamed that he had syphilis. 
 I could readily prove that the dream showed the realiza- 
 tion of a wish. This patient was being treated by me for 
 psychosexual impotence and the day before his dream we 
 discussed promiscuous sexuality. I called his attention 
 to the dangers of infection and spoke about proper pre- 
 cautions, etc. He grimly remarked "There is po danger 
 of my becoming infected. I couldn't if I tried." The 
 dream realized his wish that he could become infected; 
 meaning that he would be no longer sexually impotent. 
 
 vStill another patient suffering from the same disease 
 dreamed that he was bald. He too objected to the 
 theory of wish realization inasmuch as he is only thirty- 
 five years old and he surely would not like to be bald. I 
 told him that except with children and so-called conveni- 
 ence dreams, a dream should never be judged by the mani- 
 fest content. When he began to give "free associations" 
 to the dream he suddenly thought of a smutty joke which 
 he was unwilling to reproduce. I insisted that he should 
 tell me everything, otherwise the analysis would have to be 
 dropped. The joke is credited to one of our witty states-
 
 90 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 men and tells how at a social gathering a young lady heard 
 this statesman use the word "eunuch." Not knowing the 
 meaning of the word she then turned to the statesman and 
 said " Mr. X — ,1 heard you use the word 'eunuch.' What is 
 a eunuch?' The statesman was embarrassed and hesitatingly 
 answered" A eunuch is a balled (bald) man." The young 
 lady looked at his head and said "Then you are a eunuch. 
 "Oh, no," he replied, "I am too bald (two balled)." My 
 patient heard this j oke the day before the dream and he laugh- 
 ed very heartily over it, but his loud and prolonged laughter 
 was only hiding his inner pain, for this smutty joke brought 
 to mind his own complex; he was a eunuch himself. The 
 dream was, therefore, a reaction of this mental pain and 
 showed him that he was not a eunuch. He is too bald 
 (two balled) like the statesman in the story. The other 
 determinants are the identification of the bald head with 
 the head of the penis, an identification which I have 
 repeatedly observed in dreams and psychoses. One of 
 my patients, a young prsecox, had one mannerism which 
 was shown by a constant rubbing of the top of the head. 
 After doing this for a few months he had a good-sized 
 tonsure which was rapidly increasing. I could definitely 
 ascertain that the patient went through a form of masturba- 
 tion. When he was admitted to the hospital he mastur- 
 bated frequently and shamelessly so that he had to be 
 constantly watched by the attendants. He gradually 
 began to rub his left hand, then his arm and finally the top of 
 his head. It was a clear presentation of the mechanism of 
 displacement from below to above so often observed in 
 conscious and especially unconscious mental actions. 
 Another determinant for the baldness in this dream is the
 
 DREAMS 91 
 
 fact that, like sexual impotence, baldness, too, is considered 
 as a sign of physical weakness and senile decay. These 
 examples show that even dreams which are, in the manifest 
 content, the opposite of wishes, nevertheless contain a 
 wish when we find the latent content. 
 
 The dreams just given show well what the function of I 
 the dream is. In all of them the dreamer had a problem I 
 to solve. Consciously or unconsciouslj'- the dreamers were \ 
 absorbed and worried by the problems involved and the C 
 effort was made to solve them or realize the unattainable. 1 
 In other words the actual thoughts had to be subjected to / 
 many delicate processes before they assumed the form o^ 
 the manifest dream. How is that accomplished? 
 
 The transformation of the latent into the manifest 
 content of the dream is effected as follows by the so-called 
 "dream work:" During our waking state a number of 
 thought structures are constantly being formed. This 
 activity is never finished during the day, and the sum of 
 energy required for the production of these thoughts would 
 be sufficient to hold the interest of the individual to such 
 an extent as to interfere with sleep. This tension can 
 only be set free by granting the individual his wishes, 
 that is to say, the day remnants which contain these 
 wishes must be changed into dreams which realize the 
 dreamers strivings and thus remove the elements threatenr 
 ing disturbance of sleep. The dream is, therefore, the 
 guardian of sleep. But in order that the dream work may 
 act properly the day remnants must be capable of wish 
 formation, for it is the wish that forms the nucleus of the 
 dream. 
 
 When we compare the latent thoughts of the dream with
 
 92 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 its manifest content we find that the former is per- 
 fectly comprehensible as soon as we discover it, while 
 the latter is usually incomprehensible and absurd and 
 comparable to hieroglyphics or a rebus. We are also 
 struck by the marked condensation, which takes place in 
 the transformation of the thought into the content of 
 the dream.* The manifest dream when written may 
 fill a few lines, while the analysis containing the thoughts 
 underlying the dream usually fills many pages. This 
 condensation is effected by the omission and the subse- 
 quent compression of syllables, words, pictures or situa- 
 tions which have been present in the thoughts underlying 
 the dream. This accounts for the many gaps, absurdities 
 and neologisms in the manifest content of the dream. 
 Thus, one of my German speaking patients saw a monkey in 
 his dream, and by freely associating to the word "monkey" 
 we got monkey — chimpanzee — Schimpfen Sie McKenzie 
 (which may be translated here by "Give it to him, 
 McKenzie ")• This recalled a quarrel between two laborers, 
 McKenzie and X. the day before the dream. The patient 
 actually heard this very exclamation, "Give it to him, 
 McKenzie," and as a diligent student of English he imme- 
 diately translated it into the above German sentence. 
 This is further determined by the fact that the features 
 of the pugnacious McKenzie made him think of a monkey 
 and that the quarrel took place near a zoological garden. 
 It is through this process of condensation that the mani- 
 fest thoughts of the dream are "overdetermined." The 
 individual thoughts of the dream are not only repre- 
 sented in the dream by many elements, but the elements 
 *Condensation is a fusion of events, pictures and elements of speech.
 
 DREAMS 93 
 
 of the dream are manifoldly determined by the thoughts 
 of the dream. In the analysis of dreams one often finds 
 all kinds of composites such as composite pictures and 
 collective personalities, all of which are produced b}'^ this 
 process of condensation. 
 
 Another effect of the dream work is brought about by 
 the process of displacement. Thus the elements which 
 seem most conspicuous in the content of the dream do 
 not necessarily have corresponding importance in the 
 thoughts of the dream. An insignificant element may 
 represent the main thought and vice versa, events, thoughts, 
 sentences, words and pictures may be turned around. 
 By the process of overdetermination the psychic validity 
 of the main element may be displaced or transferred to 
 some triviality. The same process is met in the obsessions 
 of neurotics.^ The formation of the dream is chiefly due 
 to these two processes of displacement and condensation. 
 
 Besides the processes of condensation and displace- 
 ment which we have found so effective in the transfor- 
 mation of the latent into the manifest thoughts we must 
 take into account two other factors, viz., the manner of 
 representation and the secondary elaboration, to which 
 I shall only allude. There is no intellectual activity in 
 the dream. What in the manifest content impresses us 
 as a process of reasoning or judgment is not due to the 
 work of the dream, but has reached the manifest content 
 from the thoughts of the dream to which it properly be- 
 longed. Logical relationships are not represented in the 
 dream. The dream makes use of visual pictures, which 
 are reproduced by similarity, identification and symboliza- 
 tion. Thus a dreamer, wishing to express that his business
 
 94 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 competitor was getting the better of him, dreams that he and 
 his competitor are running to catch a steamer and that the 
 latter is way ahead of him. Their business was carried on 
 by steamer transportation. The affects are not influenced 
 by the dream work, though they are very often displaced. 
 The dream also omits all the "ifs" and ''buts" and whatever 
 may be in the subjunctive mood in our waking state is 
 transferred into the indicative present in the dream. 
 This accounts for the fact that in the dream the blind 
 see, the lame run and the poor are wealthy. The "if I 
 were" is changed in the dream into "I am." 
 
 To illustrate the relation of the dream to the neurosis I 
 shall cite the following case: 
 
 Case: Miss G., twenty-eight years old, American, came to me in 
 January, 1908, because she had been "very nervous" for about three 
 months. Her family history showed that her father died of nephritis 
 and had a "stroke" (left hemiplegia) a few months before he died. 
 She had been well until three months before. Since then she had 
 suffered from insomnia, irritabiUty, loss of appetite, constipation, 
 headache, uncalled for worry, crying spells and anxious expectation. 
 Her mother stated that she had entirely changed, that she expressed 
 pessimistic ideas, often repeating that she would like to die. Exami- 
 nation showed all the symptoms enumerated. The patient was 
 pretty, she showed no stigmata and was above the average in intelli- 
 gence. While reciting her storj' she showed the typical belle indiffer- 
 ence often found in hysteria. She smiled when I asked her why she 
 felt so depressed and could give no reason for it. She knew that she 
 really had nothing to worry about and that she had everything to live 
 for, yet she could not "shake off the blue feeling." One of the most 
 distressing thoughts was that something might happen to her mother. 
 To those acquainted with the language of hysteria this means just the 
 opposite. It was merely a reaction of the wish that she might lose her 
 mother, and, as we shall see later, there was a reason for that wish. 
 Physically there was nothing worth mentioning. I diagnosticated 
 the case as a mild anxiety hysteria^" with imperfect conversion.
 
 DREAMS 95 
 
 I saw her a number of times, but made no progress in the treatment. 
 To my question she always answered " I feel about the same." I then 
 thought of psj^choanalysis and with that in view I asked her to write 
 out her dreams and bring them to me. She was sure that she never 
 dreamed except when her stomach was out of order, but promised to 
 comply with my request if ever she should and one day brought me 
 the following dream : 
 
 "/ dreamed that I was in a lonely country place and was anxious to 
 reach my home in Ldconow or Liconor Bay, but could not get there. Every 
 time I made a move there was a wall in the way. It looked like a street 
 full of walls. My legs were as heavy as lead. I could only walk very 
 slowly as if I were very weak or very old. Then there was a flock of 
 chickens, but that seemed to be in a crowded city street, and they — the 
 chickens — ran after me and the biggest of all said something like "Come 
 with me into the dark." 
 
 This dream seems absurd enough and as the dreamer 
 remarked, "It is so ridiculous that I am ashamed to tell 
 it. Whoever heard of such a thing as chickens talking?" 
 She was assured that it must mean something and the 
 analysis proceeded. 
 
 It would be too long and immaterial for the purposes 
 of this work to give here the whole analysis which, when 
 recorded, covered over eight pages of foolscap. Only 
 the principal associations and symbolic expressions neces- 
 sary to explain the dream will be enumerated. 
 
 On asking the dreamer what the most vivid part of the 
 dream was she answered that it was the second part 
 relating to the chickens. When asked to repeat the 
 thoughts evoked by concentrating her mind on the word 
 "chickens" she gave the following: "I could only see 
 the biggest chicken, all the others seemed blurred; it was 
 unusually big and had a very long neck and it spoke to 
 me — The street recalls where I used to go to school — I
 
 96 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 graduated from public school when I was thirteen — The 
 block was always crowded with children from school" — 
 she then began to blush and laugh and when asked to 
 explain her actions said: "It recalls the happy school 
 days when I was young and had no worries — I even had 
 a beau, a pupil from the male department. There was 
 a male and female department in the same school and 
 most of my girl friends had beaux — we used to meet after 
 school hours and walk home together. My beau's name 
 was F. He was lanky and thin and the girls used to 
 tease me about him. Whenever they saw him coming 
 they said, 'Belle, here comes your chicken' — that was 
 his nickname among the boys. On being asked if she 
 now understood who the chicken in the dream was she 
 laughingly said: "You don't mean to say that the chicken 
 with the long neck was Mr. F?" When asked if she still 
 kept up her acquaintance with Mr. F. she stated that she 
 had not seen him for the last few months, but prior to 
 that she saw him quite often. On further analysis it was 
 found that this early schoolday love was still kept up. 
 He had proposed to her no less than three times, but she 
 had never given him any definite answer. She only "liked " 
 him and her family opposed him on account of his financial 
 position. The last time she met him was at a military ball. 
 He was an officer of a military organization and "he looked 
 quite handsome in his smart uniform." He danced with 
 her and "was very kind," but he did not propose. She 
 frankly admitted that she looked for a fourth proposal at 
 this ball and that she was quite ready to accept him. 
 She had heard only recently that he was paying attention to 
 another young lady, a thing which caused her considerable
 
 DREAMS 97 
 
 annoyance — to put it in her own words, " I can only- 
 blame myself and I will have to forget it." 
 
 We see that the most impossible and ludicrous part of 
 the dream, that is, "the talking of the chicken," is now 
 quite plain. The "chicken" is simply the nickname of 
 Mr. F., who is the hero of the dream. There were other 
 chickens, but they were blurred, that is, there were other 
 young suitors, but they were relegated to the background. 
 
 The chicken said "Come with me into the dark." The 
 w^ord "dark" evoked the following associations: indis- 
 tinct — obscure — mystery — marriage. She recalled that 
 after her father's death her mother once spoke sympathet- 
 ically of Mr. F. saying "Money is not all," and philoso- 
 phized on marriage in the following remarks: "You will 
 never know a man until you have eaten a peck of salt 
 with him" and "Marriage is a mystery," These words 
 made a deep impression on her and the last Biblical 
 quotation frequently recurred to her. We then see that 
 in her mind the word ''dark" was used synonymously 
 with mj'-stery and marriage, and hence we can under- 
 stand its meaning in the chicken's speech. Briefly stated 
 it was the fourth proposal of Mr. F. 
 
 The first part of the dream reads, "I ivas in a lonely 
 country place, etc. " She stated that she recalled the beautiful 
 country around H. Bay where she had been the preceding 
 summer. She could not quite understand what Liconow 
 or Liconor Bay meant and gave the following associations : 
 Liconow — Lucknow — meaning a painting representing the 
 famous battle of Lucknow which she had recently seen. 
 The soldiers recalled the military organization at whose ball 
 she had met Mr F. The word "Liconor "suggested by sound
 
 98 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 association Lucarno and Lugano, two places which she had 
 visited while abroad two years before. H. Bay often recalled 
 the beautiful Italian lakes, Lucarno and Lugano, whither she 
 hoped to go on her honeymoon. Finally, Liconor Bay 
 resolved itself into LIK-ONOR BAY which, by sound 
 association, can be readily recognized as like, honor and 
 obey." If "like" is substituted by "love" it gives 
 the familiar formula well known to all maidens seriously 
 comtemplating matrimony. The dreamer used "like," 
 because, as aforesaid, she thought she only "liked." 
 Such condensations of words and ideas are not at all rare 
 in dreams. 
 
 If we now rewrite the first sentence it will read as fol- 
 lows: " I was in a lonely country place and was anxious to 
 reach my home in 'LIKe (love), hONOR, and oBEY,'" 
 that is, I was lonely and anxious to get married." 
 
 The next sentence reads "But could not, etc." She 
 stated that her legs "were as heavy as lead," she was 
 alone and was afraid that something might happen, but 
 she was unable to make any headway. The sensation 
 of inhibition experienced in dreams, like the inability to 
 make any headway when one most desires to do so, sig- 
 nifies a marked mental conflict. Here, too, it merely 
 shows the great mental conflict in our dreamer's mind. 
 She is anxious to marry. She "likes" Mr. F. Moreover, 
 she is of an advanced age and, as the dream shows, she 
 could walk only very slowly as if "she were weak or very 
 old," that is, the difficulties on the road to matrimony 
 increase with advancing age. She is weak and old, that is, 
 she is an "old maid," an expression by which she often 
 jocosely referred to herself in her waking state. All of
 
 DREAMS 99 
 
 these arguments are in favor of accepting Mr. F., but 
 then her family is opposed to him. He is a nice enough 
 young man, but he is unable to care for her in a manner 
 befitting her station in life. 
 
 The dream continues: "Every time I made a move there 
 was a wall in the way, it looked like a street full of walls, 
 etc." A street full of walls signifies Wall street, hence 
 money — that was the real obstacle. When told of the 
 interpretation she laughingly remarked ''That's it exactly. 
 I even thought very seriously of helping him along, as 
 Pa left me some money, but then everything is invested 
 in Wall street and there is a tacit understanding among 
 ourselves that the whole estate shall be left intact until 
 mother's death." 
 
 We now understand the latent thoughts of the dream. 
 The first part can be translated as follows: I am twenty- 
 eight years old, an old maid, and I am anxious to marry 
 Mr. F., but then he is not rich enough to take care of me. 
 I perhaps can help him financially. In the second part 
 we find the wish realization, as here Mr. F. actually pro- 
 poses to her for the fourth time. 
 
 These were the actual thoughts which had occupied 
 our dreamer's mind for the past months and which, as she 
 quite frankly admitted, she tried hard to forget. It is 
 quite obvious that the dream deals here with the thoughts 
 which a young lady would not consciously disclose even 
 to her physician, and we can also understand why she was 
 "ashamed to tell it" because she understood it uncon- 
 sciously, though not consciously. The dream never 
 deals with trivialities, and, no matter how simple and 
 innocent it may seem, the analysis invariably shows that
 
 100 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the thoughts behind it belong to the inmost recesses of 
 personality. This accounts for the many resistances 
 encountered during the analysis. The psychic censor 
 constantly inhibits the painful or disagreeable complexes 
 from becoming conscious and is also responsible for the 
 rapid forgetting of dreams on awakening.* 
 
 Dreams often help us to make a correct diagnosis. 
 This is especially true in the anxiety states and homo- 
 sexuality. People who are subject to nightmares or 
 who have anxiety dreams usually suffer from lack of sexual 
 gratification. I do not mean merely the gross sexual, 
 but I use the word in the Freudian sense. We must 
 be very careful in our examination, otherwise we may 
 make mistakes. Thus a married woman suffered from a 
 pronounced anxiety hysteria and was subject to frequent 
 nightmares, but on being questioned she stated that her 
 sexual life was normal. A few weeks later I discovered 
 that she was suffering from frigidity and although she was 
 married six years she never experienced an orgasm or any 
 pleasure in coitus. 
 
 I have made many diagnoses of homosexuality from 
 the patient's dreams. Many homosexuals go to doctors, 
 but do not tell them the true state of affairs. They are 
 usually sensitive and not knowing how the physician will 
 look upon them they complain of something else. Thus, 
 a homosexual whom I saw in the Vanderbilt clinic com- 
 
 *Not infrequently patients "stop dreaming " altogether. On telling 
 one of my patients that the sudden forgetting of all his dreams was 
 due to an unconscious resistance, he remarked: "I'll get you some 
 dreams tomorrow if I have to stay awake the whole night." His 
 words only confirmed my diagnosis, for no one can stay awake the 
 whole night and dream at the same time.
 
 DREAMS 101 
 
 plained of pain in the thigh. His dream told me the true 
 story. The patient unconsciously displaced his trouble 
 to his thigh because he did not dare tell his real malady. 
 It also happens that the patients do not know that they are 
 homosexual. This is usually the case with women, but I 
 have seen at least two men who were ignorant of their being 
 homosexual. Their dreams first called my attention to the 
 fact. But it should be remembered that one is not to 
 judge by the manifest content of the dream as does Nacke,*^ 
 for a dream may not show anything of the gross homo- 
 sexual in its manifest content and still be a homosexual 
 dream. This is shown by the following dream brought to 
 me by a man of thirty-five years: "7 saw two men. One 
 looked at an open newspaper and the other watched him 
 sidewise, reading his thoughts like a detective. Suddenly 
 the latter stabbed the man with the newspaper by plunging a 
 dagger into his heart. Great commotion — crowd." 
 
 After reading the dream as it was written by the patient 
 immediately on awakening three hours before, I asked 
 him to tell me the dream from memory. He reproduced 
 the dream correctly, but made one mistake; instead of 
 saying that the dagger was plunged into the heart he 
 said that it was plunged into the back. My object in 
 asking him to reproduce the dream was this: From the 
 association experiments of the Zurich school^^ we know 
 that a failure of reproduction is a complex indicator; that 
 is, whenever the answer is forgotten it shows that the 
 word or passage in question is of marked emotional accen- 
 tuation and contains something cryptic. It has the same 
 mechanism as the lapsus linguae or any other mistake. 
 Now let us take up the analysis: A crowd in the dream
 
 102 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 signifies a secret. The two men were readily identified as 
 the dreamer himself and a young man with whom he spent 
 the evening of the night of the dream. The dreamer was 
 treated for homosexuality — passive pederasty — and the 
 murderer of the dream is a young man with whom he is 
 secretly in love. Those of my readers who may be ac- 
 quainted with dream analysis know that the dagger is a 
 symbol for the penis. Women suffering from lack of 
 sexual gratification often dream of being attacked with 
 knives, daggers, etc. Here the dream shows the realiza- 
 tion of "a wish to act as a passive pederast for the young 
 man he loves. The stabbing taking place in the heart 
 shows the familiar mechanism of displacement from below 
 to above. The lower part of the body being tabooed, 
 the action is transferred to the upper part; but the mis- 
 take very nicely pointed to the patient's true wish; the 
 dagger was plunged into the back.^^ 
 
 Other examples showing how dreams solve the problems 
 of the neuroses are the following: 
 
 An unmarried woman, Z., of thirty years, was treated by me for 
 hysteria. One of the distressing symptoms was morning nausea 
 with occasional vomiting from which she was suffering from periods 
 of two and three months for the last five years. She stated that she 
 was treated for it during all these years, but without success. I soon 
 concluded that the symptom was hysterical and paid no particular 
 attention to it as it was only one out of many others. One day she 
 told me the following dream : 
 
 1. "/ dreamed that Mgt. and I were 'pregnant and in some way or 
 other I thought that birds were connected with this pregnancy. 
 
 2. "Then I dreamed of looking down on my own or some one's else 
 bare toes. Each toe became the head of a man as I looked and they all 
 seemed to be smiling or laughing. One of the heads looked like S. V., a 
 male acquaintance."
 
 DREAMS 103 
 
 A few facts before proceeding with the analysis, z. was bi-sexual 
 and since the age of sixteen years had many homosexual amours. 
 Mgt. was her friend with whom she had been in love for years. Mgt. 
 was aware of it and as she is not homosexual they were forced to 
 remain apart. They saw each other now and then and were very 
 friendly. Z. came to me in 1910 and at that time she suffered from 
 fits of depression following periodic debauches of masturbation. 
 Mgt. was the object of her masturbatic fancies. 
 
 When I asked her to focus her attention on the idea of 
 pregnancy and repeat her associations she stated that 
 there was a time were she was in mortal dread of being preg- 
 nant. At the age of nine years she was seduced by a farm 
 hand and had sexual relations with him. When she was ten 
 years old she heard that girls became pregnant as a result 
 of such relations and she was terrified at the thought of it 
 because she imagined that she was pregnant and that her 
 parents would discover her relations with this man. Her 
 first sexual instructions were received at a very early age. 
 An older child called her attention to the sexual acts of the 
 poultrj^ which she watched with great interest. She 
 imagined that women laid eggs like chickens. The day of 
 the dream she yearned for a child. She spoke with Mgt. 
 about the voidness in their lives and both agreed that they 
 would be contented if they each had a child. She herself 
 had had this wish for years as she is very fond of children. 
 Birds to her mean chickens. She was brought up on a 
 farm and the poultry was always referred to as birds. 
 The fir^t part of the dream, therefore, realized the wish 
 that she and Mgt. were pregnant and the second part of the 
 dream, as will be seen, shows who was responsible for it. 
 When asked to associate to the word "toes" she thought 
 of a foot as this brought to her mind that when she carried
 
 104 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 on her affair with the farm-hand he was in the habit of 
 touching her with his bare feet in forbidden places while the 
 family was sitting around the table. The toe is also a 
 symbol for the penis. The toes resolved themselves 
 into the heads of laughing men and one looked like S. V. 
 She dislikes the latter because he has a "dirty mind." He 
 has the reputation of being a libertine. He is, therefore, the 
 right man in the right place and, though she consciously 
 rejects him, he is accepted by her unconsciously. There are 
 many more subtler determinants for this dream which I am 
 forced to omit here. 
 
 At the age of twenty-four she discovered for the first 
 time that pregnancy was accompanied by morning nausea 
 and vomiting. Some time after she began to suffer from 
 the nausea and vomiting. The symptom was therefore 
 the expression of a wish realization and I could definitely 
 show that it came on when the wish was especially strong. 
 With the analysis the symptoms disappeared. 
 
 A young married Englishman suffering from a compulsion neurosis 
 was obsessed by the thought of socialism. The obsession came on 
 during the notorious McNamara trial and persisted with increasing 
 vigor until he came to see me a few months ago. No matter in what 
 surrounding he was, whether at his desk or in the theater, he would 
 have to discuss with himself socialism. He would wake up mornings 
 with the question "Is sociaUsm a correct theory, is sociahsm a true 
 theory of economics?" and he would then argue for and against it. He 
 would read boolcs and pamphlets on the subject, but could never come 
 to any decision. While tallying with friends the idea would obtrude 
 itself: "It will be terrible when the government will control every- 
 thing and some new conditions will come into being which will 
 influence me materially. I wonder whether the president is convinced 
 of the truth of the socialistic doctrines, etc." While attending a play 
 he would be bothered by the idea that it was wrong for him to spend 
 money on luxuries when there were other persons starving. Indeed
 
 DREAMS 105 
 
 the patient stated that there was not half an hour when he was free 
 from thoughts on socialism. With the characteristic arguments of 
 folie raisonant he went through the most absurd and abstruse argu- 
 mentations. Lest there should be some misunderstanding I will 
 state that ordinarily the patient had no interest at all in socialism; 
 he professed Catholicism and was quite conservative in his ideas. 
 He reaUzed the absurdity of his compulsive thinking, but was power- 
 less to control it. 
 
 After coming to me for a few weeks he brought the following dream: 
 "Bernard Shaw, the writer, was the guest at some affair and I was there, 
 too. There was another man there who, when he removed his peculiar 
 wig, I noticed was the humorous writer 0." 
 
 The determinants of the dream were as follows: A few 
 days before he had read that the Governor General of 
 Jamaica is a socialist and that he once shocked the English 
 aristocracy by inviting Bernard Shaw to one of his social 
 gatherings. The day before the dream he had read a refer- 
 ence to Brieux's play "Damaged Goods," a play dealing 
 with sex to which Bernard Shaw wrote a preface. On con- 
 tinuing the association he recalled the story of "Man and 
 Superman," Shaw's play; how everyone was shocked be- 
 cause a girl was supposed to have been pregnant and how 
 the hero. Tanner, defended her saying that she was going 
 to perform the noblest function of womanhood. He, too, 
 is liberal on the question of sex. The lady's name was 
 Violet. His wife's name is Viola. 
 
 According to the rules of association there must have 
 been a close relationship between the sexual lives of Shaw's 
 heroine and his wife and further investigation actually 
 showed that this was so. In brief he admitted that for 
 some time before marriage they led a sexual life and that 
 on a few occasions she had reason to fear pregnancy. 
 The subject of pregnancy came up again the night before
 
 106 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the dream because he imagined that his wife was getting 
 stout. He stated that he did not have the shghtest 
 apprehension about it as the proper precautions were 
 taken; that everything was well when he left home a few 
 weeks ago (he returned the day before the dream). He 
 refused to proceed with the associations, but upon being 
 urged he reproduced a rather intimate scene between 
 himself and his wife. For some reason he was depressed 
 and kept on asking his wife "Aren't you all mine, aren't 
 you all mine?" and despite all her assurance he asked the 
 question over and over again. I told him that judging 
 from this scene one would think that he was not sure of 
 his wife's fidelity. He readily admitted that while it 
 did not enter his mind during this scene, he has entertained 
 ideas of jealousy since he first became acquainted with 
 his wife. To my question he answered that he is not 
 jealous of any particular man, that the idea is vague and 
 that he suppresses it as soon as it crosses his mind. He 
 then recalled that before he met his wife he was inter- 
 ested in another girl to whom his parents objected. His 
 mother said that "she was a rag on every bush," meaning 
 that she was owned by a great many men. This recalled 
 to him that while he was separated from his wife he met a 
 great many women who were "a rag on every bush." He 
 did not yield to temptation, but entertained a great many 
 forbidden fancies. 
 
 The associations making up the elements of the dream 
 thus far reproduced brought to light a complex of marked 
 emotional feeling, the content of which was jealousy. He 
 suspected his wife of infidelity, but be had no particular 
 person in mind. It was simply a general jealousy.
 
 DREAMS 107 
 
 When asked about Mr. O. in the dream he stated that 
 he did not know it was Mr. until he removed his wig. 
 He is not acquainted personally with O., but knows him 
 by sight. He heard that although O. is married he does 
 not disdain light flirtations when he is away from his 
 wife. He excuses O.'s actions b}^ saying that he belongs 
 to a rather passionate type of man. His description of 
 O. corresponds to himself and when I called his attention 
 to it he at once corroborated it by saying that he was 
 aware of the remarkable resemblance between them and 
 that strangers have noticed it. When I asked him about 
 the wig he stated that O. recently wrote a pseudoscientific 
 paper on hair culture. For many delicate reasons which 
 cannot be explained he himself had of late something to 
 do with hair. 
 
 These associations, as well as others that need not be 
 mentioned, not only explain the dream fragment but also 
 the obsession. The dream deals with the most intimate 
 factors of the dreamer's Ufe. In brief he is not sure of 
 his wife, and although he is an admirer of Shaw he is not 
 quite willing to accept his views on sex. He does not 
 beheve in freedom of sex, he wants his wife to have no 
 other man beside himself. While he was separated from 
 her he was restrained in his temptation by the thought 
 that he had no right to practise what he would abhor in 
 his wife. He does not believe in collective ownership 
 when it concerns his own wife. In the dream, however, 
 he identifies himself with O., who, according to his belief, 
 is quite free in his marital views. In other words, what's 
 right for the goose is not necessarily so for the gander. 
 This conflict which has existed since his betrothal, and
 
 108 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 is very painful to him, therefore appears under the obses- 
 sion of socialism which, to our patient, is " collective owner- 
 ship, common possession." The truth of this assumption 
 was confirmed by the fact that the obsession disappeared 
 as soon as its true meaning became known to the patient. 
 
 I saw Miss A. for the first time in August, 1911, when she was re- 
 ferred to me by Dr. Morton Prince, of Boston. At that time she 
 suffered from fits of depression and despondency, which were the 
 results of sexual conflicts. She was bisexually predisposed, more 
 homo- than hetero-sexual, and before coming to us had gone through a 
 number of unhappy homosexual affairs. Due to her unrequited 
 libido she masturbated rather excessively, and suffered from the usual 
 conflicts of the chronic masturbator. The conditions were not 
 favorable for a regular course of psychoanalytic treatment, so I saw 
 her only a few times a month, and after a few months she left me very 
 much improved. She returned about six months later, and since then 
 I have seen her periodically two or three times a month. I shall not 
 enter into the various mechanisms at play, as I have no intention of 
 describing the case as such. I will simply state that besides the 
 symptoms mentioned she showed many others of a hysterical char- 
 acter, and I will here describe the analysis of one of the symptoms. 
 
 When she came to me last fall she told me she was getting along very 
 well, except for the following complaint: she imagined that she had 
 cancer in the right breast. She had no definite pain, but felt a pecuUar 
 annoying feeling. There was no growth or mark of any kind to justify 
 the sUghtest suspicion, as is usual in such cases. She herself reaUzed 
 that she had no cancer, still she could not shake off her obsessive 
 fear. I tried to get some Hght on the subject, but I could discover 
 nothing important. A few weeks later she brought me the following 
 dream : 
 
 " / dreamed that I was inspecting a cellar belonging to an Italian woman. 
 The cellar was, or we were, exposed to the view of a man. It seemed that 
 I knew that in the cellar there ivas gold or some other valuable thing. I saw 
 this man watching me. I went down and he followed me. He was tall, 
 young, rather well dressed, but brutal looking. I was sure that he intended 
 to do me some harm in order to get the gold or valuables, and I managed 
 to call, 'Police! Police! Police!' I was surprised that I could call out
 
 DREAMS 109 
 
 at all as I was very badly frightened. Then I called, 'Help! Help! Help!' 
 hut my voice could not carry very far. Then the man quickly plunged a 
 stiletto into my right breast, just below the fleshy part. I felt a sickening 
 sensation and began to swoon. I then reached my hand up and began to 
 pull out the dagger. I could hear the queer noise it made separating from 
 the bones and flesh, and felt a wet feeling around it. I pulled it only a 
 little way when I woke up." 
 
 As soon as she began to focus her attention on the dream she dimly- 
 recalled that she had a similar dream before she perceived the feeUng 
 in the chest, which was later formed into the cancer obsession. This 
 led me to think that we dealt here with a resolution dream, that the 
 dreamer resolved to do a certain thing, and the dream continued to 
 represent it as realized because it was not accomplished. Now let us 
 see what the dream represents as fulfilled. The associations to cellar 
 were the lower part of the house, filthy cellars in tenements, a dark, 
 mj'sterious opening, the female genitals. This was also corroborated 
 by the fact that she was aware in the dream that the cellar contained 
 some gold or other valuable thing. The description of the man 
 corresponds to the type of man that plays a part in her fancies. 
 She is very masochistic and of the very petite type, and a "tall, young, 
 rather well-dressed, but brutal looking man," would just suit her. 
 This is shown in the dream by the fact that she was sure that he in- 
 tended to do her some harm in order to get the gold or valuables. The 
 stiletto and the stabbing in the breast are symboUc of coitus, and show 
 the mechanism of displacement from below to above. This is 
 further determined by the fact that at the age of nine years the 
 dreamer had sexual relations with a man of the type described in the 
 dream. The dream is, therefore, a symbolic expression of coitus, 
 which played a very great part in the dreamer's mind at that time. 
 The feeling in the breast, or the phobia, was the remnant of the dream, 
 which, through conversion, became a hysterical symptom and 
 symbolized pregnancy, which was her strongest wish. This case 
 shows the influence of dreams on waking life, as described by 
 Jones, ^* and dreams as determinants of the form of sjonptoms as 
 described by Waterman^^ and others. The symptom disappeared 
 with the analysis. 
 
 It is not only in diagnosing gross neurotic symptoms 
 that the dream is of service, but it also helps us to diagnose
 
 110 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 and cure so-called peculiar traits of character. To illustrate 
 this I will cite the following case : 
 
 A young married woman of twenty-six years consulted me and 
 decided to come to me for regular psychoanalytic treatment. When 
 she was about to leave she wished to pay me for the consultation. I 
 told her that it was my custom to send monthly statements to my 
 patients and that she might wait until the end of the month before 
 pajdng me. She thanked me for my offer, but emphatically declared 
 that she would pay at the end of each consultation, adding that she 
 always pays cash, be it to the doctor, druggist, grocer, milliner or 
 dressmaker. Knowing that she was a woman of means I naturally 
 thought it strange and I remarked something to that effect. She 
 then told me that all her friends and acquaintances, including her 
 husband, think that she is peculiar in this respect, but that does not 
 alter her desire not to "run up any bills" and to pay cash for every- 
 thing. She came to me daily except Sunday and always paid before 
 leaving. After coming to me for a \yeek or two she once forgot to pay, 
 but within a few minutes she returned excitedly and although I was 
 busy with the next patient she insisted upon seeing me. She was very 
 profuse in her apologies despite my assuring her that there was no 
 need for her returning, let alone for apologizing. The following week 
 the same thing happened again with the same results. A week later 
 she actually forgot to pay and did not recall it until she returned 
 home. She telephoned, however, and insisted upon sending my fee 
 to me by special dehvery. 
 
 Considering the financial experiences we physicians sometimes have 
 with patients I should have had no cause for complaint and that was 
 exactly what one of my colleagues who is interested in psychoanalysis 
 thought. But when I asked him the meaning of the patient's 
 extreme scrupulosity he stated that judging by the fact that she had 
 forgotten to pay on a number of occasions it would seem that she was 
 not quite pleased with the treatment and hence did not like to pay for 
 it. His reasoning was in accordance with psychoanalytic experience 
 as we are taught that there is no accidental forgetting and that there 
 is always a purpose in forgetting. We usually forget what we do not 
 wish to remember. But I pointed out to him that both she herself 
 and her friends assert that this feeling — "the terrible honesty," as 
 one friend called it — has existed since girlhood so that it could not 
 
 K
 
 DREAMS 111 
 
 have any special bearing on her feeling toward the treatment. More- 
 over, I was very sure that she was satisfied with the progress she was 
 making in the treatment. A few weeks later she brought the following 
 dream : " / was invited to tea at the house of J., but I did not go. Instead 
 I went with a large party of school girls on some sort of picnic. When it 
 came to be 7 o'clock I was sorry that J. had been waiting for me all 
 the afternoon and knew that I ought to telephone her. I went out to 
 telephone and found that I had no money. I saw a gold piece lying 
 before me. I knew to whom it belonged, in fact people were looking for 
 it, but as I needed money to telephone I did not give it up. I knew I 
 was a thief and I was sorry, but I kept the money just the same. Then 
 I began to borrow everything — money, gloves, etc. — and people all seemed 
 to be afraid I would not return the things I borrowed." 
 
 For many reasons I am only giving a fragment of a long 
 dream, but it will suffice to demonstrate what I wish to 
 point out. The dream was determined by the following 
 experiences of the day before: She was invited to a tea 
 and did not like to go. She received a letter from a school- 
 mate inviting her to visit her. She had some conversation 
 about money matters with her husband. There were 
 many associations which I shall omit as not absolutely 
 necessary and will confine myself to those directly bearing 
 on the complex. When I asked her to focus her attention 
 on the gold piece she suddenly became very emotional. 
 She begged me not to press her to tell me this particular 
 thought as it was very painful, etc., etc. After much 
 argument and protest she gave the following associations: 
 Her mother was not faithful to her father, and as he was 
 frequently away on business she entertained many intrigues. 
 It was when my patient was a little girl of about seven or 
 eight years that she came into the room unobserved by her 
 mother and saw the latter going through the pockets of one 
 of her paramours who was too intoxicated to protest. She
 
 112 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 left as she entered, but she never forgave her mother for it. 
 She said nothing, but for a long time she felt a strong 
 resentment and aversion toward her mother. Never- 
 theless, shortly after while at school she imitated her mother 
 by stealing a few pennies from a classmate's pocket. She 
 was never discovered and she never stole anything else and 
 soon thereafter, at the age of ten or eleven years, became 
 a model of honesty. 
 
 This dream may be called a contrast dream as it shows 
 the reverse side of the person and explains that our dream- 
 er's "terrible honesty" is simply a reaction to her un- 
 conscious dishonesty. This patient identified herself with 
 her mother in almost every respect. She led the same 
 life as her mother and treated her husband just as her 
 mother treated her father. The picture would have been 
 the same had she continued to show a tendency to dis- 
 honesty, but as this was repressed, the reaction had to 
 be a scrupulous honesty. Like the character in Ibsen's 
 "Pillars of Society" she had "to hold up the banner of the 
 ideal." That accounts for the fact that she often forgot 
 to pay, as she actually desired. For some time before the 
 analysis of this dream she would pay in advance to make 
 sure that she would not forget. The conversation with 
 her husband was about her allowance. She asked for 
 more and he granted her request. Owing to the fact 
 that she was at the time in love with another man her 
 conscience pricked her and she said to herself: "I am 
 nothing but a thief and I have no right to his money." 
 This was the main determinant of the dream. After every- 
 thing was analy2!;ed and her unconscious complex was laid 
 bare to her she was quite willing to "run up " a bill with me.
 
 DREAMS 113 
 
 Having referred so often to symbols in dreams it will not 
 be amiss to say a few words about symbolism in general. 
 Madeline Pelletier defines a symbol as "a false perception 
 of a marked relation of identity or analogy between two 
 objects which, in reahty, present only a vague analogy." 
 This definition is confirmed by the study of philology. 
 Primitive writing consisted of a collection of symbols; the 
 Egyptians, for example, used figures to represent ideas 
 and the original alphabet consisted of a collection of sym- 
 bols. Thus the original letter B did not stand for the 
 consonant, but it was a picture of a crude outline of a 
 house and meant to represent the idea "house." With the 
 advance of civilization the alphabetic sj^mbols lost their 
 original meaning and became consonants and vowels. 
 Symbols, therefore, represent a lower form of thinking for 
 they identify objects which have only a very remote 
 analogy. Children and primitive races still make use of 
 this form of expression. Thus a child calls a stick a horse 
 simply because it can ride on it. The analogy between 
 the stick and the horse is very remote indeed. As the 
 child grows older and becomes able to discriminate and 
 compare it no longer forms such vague analogies. The 
 symbols that we use in our daily life though more complex 
 and specialized are symbols none the less. The Statue 
 of Liberty, the cross, the masonic emblems, the barber's 
 pole, are examples of this nature. Language is full of 
 symbols. A symbol is a form of short-hand writing. One 
 word may express an idea or have many meanings, e.g., 
 the word "green" may represent a color or stand for the 
 idea hope. Rehgion swarms with symbolisms and the 
 more primitive the form the more prolific the symbolism.
 
 114 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 It has also been found that diminished attention favors a 
 lower form of thinking and that a disturbance of attention 
 causes shallow reaction types. This accounts for sym- 
 bohzation in hallucinations, delusions, dreams, wit and 
 poetry;* that is, one is apt to find symbols in all those pro- 
 ductions that come from unconscious mentation. When we 
 have our f|ill attention and can compare and discriminate 
 we are not likely to form any remote analogies. On the 
 other hand, whenever these factors are disturbed or absent, 
 as in dreams and psychoses, and under certain conditions 
 even in the waking state, we make use of symbols. In 
 this connection the following experience related by an 
 acquaintance will be of interest: While walking with two 
 friends their attention was attracted by a big bird in the 
 distant height. One of them suggested that it was a crow 
 and remarked that it was rather unusual to see this bird 
 in the city. As it came nearer they were sure that it was 
 a stray or escaped eagle, and finally it turned out to be a 
 flying machine. The reason for these mistakes at first was 
 the inability to judge and discriminate, and had they left 
 before the machine came near enough to afford the oppor- 
 tunity for proper comparison and judgment they would 
 have been convinced that they saw a crow or an eagle. 
 During my service in the Clinic of Psychiatry at Zurich 
 I was often present while my former chief Prof. Bleuler 
 examined the patients. One of the tests, principally for 
 attention, was to expose pictures very rapidly and ask the 
 patient to tell what he saw. The pictures used were from 
 
 * An excellent paper on Poetry and Dreams was published by Pro- 
 fessor F. C. Prescott in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol. 
 VII, 1 and 2.
 
 DREAMS 115 
 
 a booklet containing over two hundred pictures, both 
 simple and complex, of everything imaginable. Among 
 the pictures of the vegetables was the asparagus, and when- 
 ever this was rapidly exposed the patients almost always 
 believed that it was the penis. I have repeated this same 
 test hundreds of times with the same result. The patients 
 are shown more than ninety pictures before they get to 
 the picture of the asparagus and whether the answers 
 are correct or not they are usually given promptl3^ When 
 the asparagus is shown they invariably hesitate; some 
 give no answer at all; their expression, however, plainly 
 betrays their thoughts. Others claim that they have 
 not seen distinctly enough, and some of the bolder ones 
 simply laugh. It is also interesting to watch their fea- 
 tures when they discover the real picture. Some are plainly 
 disappointed, others are very relieved, and, lately, one 
 patient exclaimed, "I didn't know I was so evil-minded." 
 They all admitted that they first thought of the penis. 
 Here the mistake is plainly due to an inability to discrimi- 
 nate between two objects having a vague resemblance, 
 and is caused by insufficient attention owing to the rapid 
 exposure. It is such vague analogies which, when found in 
 dreams we call symbols, which have given cause to so much 
 controversy. Those who find it so strange should remember 
 that we are not even pioneers in the use of symbolism, but 
 Hke in a great many other things we pay attention to some- 
 thing which our opponents never think worth examining. 
 Anyone making a real effort can find symbolisms in every 
 psychosis; to be sure nothing can be discovered by super- 
 ficial questioning, sometimes resorted to by our biased 
 critics. Besides the necessary knowledge, experience and
 
 116 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 skill, it requires considerable time. Those who are too lazy 
 to investigate naturally find it easier to deny and sneer, 
 yet symbolisms exist. This fact often finds corroboration 
 from convincing sources. In this connection the following 
 quotation from one who himself went through the expe- 
 rience will be of interest ^^ : 
 
 " There was, however, another reason for my frequent re- 
 fusal to take food, in my belief that the detectives had 
 resorted to a more subtle method of detection. They now 
 intended by each article of food to suggest a certain idea, 
 and I was expected to recognize the idea thus suggested. 
 Conviction or acquittal depended upon my correct inter- 
 pretation of their symbols, and my interpretation was to be 
 signified by my eating or not eating the several kinds of food 
 placed before me. To have eaten a burnt crust of bread 
 would have been a confession of arson. Why? Simply 
 because the charred crust suggested fire; and as bread is the 
 staff of life, would it not be an inevitable deduction that life 
 had been destroyed — destroyed by fire — and that I was the 
 destroyer? On one day to eat a given article of food meant 
 confession; the next day, or the next meal, a refusal to eat 
 it meant confession. This complication of logic made it 
 doubly difficult for me to keep from incriminating myself 
 and others." 
 
 Such statements, which are almost always found in the 
 anamnesis of every patient, convince one of the truth of 
 symbolisms. 
 
 That so many symbolic expressions in dreams are sexual 
 is not at all surprising when we consider the extent of sex 
 repression and the enormous symbolization of sex in the 
 waking state. Let those who object to sexual symbols in
 
 DREAMS 117 
 
 dreams reflect for a moment and they will soon find any 
 number of sex symbols in their own conscious minds. Be- 
 cause sex is the strongest impulse we possess it has been sub- 
 jected to constant suppression, and for that reason one 
 finds it both symbolized and undisguised in the unconcious 
 and in literature. When the poet says, " And Maidens, be- 
 coming bottles, cry aloud for corks" (Pope — The Rape of 
 the Lock), he uses gross sexual symbols concerning which 
 there can be no mistake. I have found the very same and 
 similar symbols in many dreams. In the unconscious pro- 
 ductions there is no limit to sexual symbolization. Klein- 
 paul justly remarked "Man sexualizes the universe." An 
 examination of our colloquialisms, stage wit, popular songs, 
 etc., will convince one of the truth of this statement. In 
 his interesting book, "Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian 
 Symbolism," Inman says:^'^ 
 
 "As civilization advanced, the gross symbols of creative 
 power were cast aside, and priestly ingenuity was taxed to 
 the utmost in inventing a crowd of less obvious emblems, 
 which should represent the ancient ideas in a decorous 
 manner. The old belief was retained, but in a mysterious 
 or subUmated form. As symbols of the male, or active 
 element in creation, the sun, light, fire, a torch, the phallus 
 or linga, an erect serpent, a tall straight tree, especially the 
 palm and the fir or pine, were adopted. Equally useful for 
 symbolism were a tall upright stone (menhir), a cone, a 
 pyramid, a thumb or finger pointed straight, a mast, a rod, a 
 trident, a narrow bottle or amphora, a bow, an arrow, a 
 lance, a horse, a bull, a lion and many other animals con- 
 spicuous for masculine powxr. As symbols of the female, the 
 passive though fruitful element in creation, the crescent
 
 118 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 moon, the earth, darkness, water, and its emblem a triangle 
 with its apex downward, "the yoni," a shallow vessel or cup 
 for pouring fluid into (cratera) a ring or oval, a lozenge, any 
 narrow cleft, either natural or artificial, an arch or doorway, 
 were employed. In the same category of symbols came a 
 ship or boat, the female date-palm bearing fruit, a cow with 
 her calf by her side, the fish, fruits having many seeds, 
 such as the pomegranate, a shell (concha), a cavern, a 
 garden, a fountain, a bower, a rose, a fig and other things 
 of suggestive form, etc." 
 
 To illustrate how the dream makes use of symbolisms I 
 will cite the following dreams: A woman of forty years 
 related this dream: "7 saw my son L. jammed in the fire- 
 place and tried to get him out, but I couldn't. I was 
 awfully frightened and called out, 'Papa, papa.'" She 
 laughingly added, "You will probably find something 
 sexual in it." 
 
 When the dreamer finds it necessary to add such a re- 
 mark it is always well to think of the saying, "Many a 
 truth is said in jest." When I questioned her about the 
 dream, she stated that "papa" in the dream did not mean 
 her father but her lodger, who is so nicknamed. As she 
 could give no associations to "fireplace" I took it to be 
 a symbol for the vagina. The other facts are as follows: 
 This woman has been a grass widow for years and suffered 
 much from lack of sexual gratification. She was anxious 
 to enter into an amour with "Papa,"- but was deterred 
 by the fear of pregnancy. She had an affair before and 
 had to go through a rather bad abortion. Her son who 
 was in the fireplace in the dream is nineteen years old. 
 She recalled that when she became pregnant with him she
 
 DREAMS 119 
 
 went through a severe hysterical attack. She was afraid 
 of pregnancy and childbirth and implored her family 
 physician to produce an abortion. He refused to help 
 her so she herself tried everything she knew of, but to no 
 avail. The dream, therefore, repeats an incident of 
 nineteen years ago. At that time her son was jammed 
 in the "fireplace" and she couldn't get him out. For the 
 previous few weeks she was occupied with a similar 
 situation. She often said to herself "if he (Papa) would 
 take care, I would have nothing to fear." In the dream 
 she actually calls upon him to do this, but the erstwhile 
 embryo is replaced by her son as he is now. 
 
 The following dream symbolizes a popular sajring: Miss ^. dreamed 
 that she " passed a very tall building, from which smoke came out. Then 
 some flames burst forth. I could feel the awful heat." 
 
 Analysis: Miss S. is not very fortunate in love. She is well edu- 
 cated, intelligent and good-looking, but a little too reserved to suit the 
 average young man. She had many admirers, but for some reason or 
 other the ehgible man either failed to appear or made httle progress 
 toward matrimony. The day before the dream she visited a friend, 
 who jokiugly teased her about T., one of her admirers. She heard that 
 he was a "steady caller," as she put it, and wanted to know when the 
 engagement would be announced, and so on. Miss S. was embar- 
 rassed, and protested that there was no truth in the rumor, that it was 
 nothing but idle gossip. Secretly, however, she cherished the thought 
 that T. might marry her. The conversation ended with the signifi- 
 cant remark from her friend: "Where there's smoke there must be 
 fire." The dream fulfils her wish. The very tall building is herseK — 
 she is very tall. She sees the smoke, then the flames and can feel the 
 awful heat. The saying, "Where there is smoke there is fire," is 
 simply visuaUzed by the dream, and as the dreamer is the chief actor 
 of the dream she is the tall building. A building or house, as is well 
 known, is an old symbol for the body.* We often speak of the body 
 as the house we Uve in. Fire and heat are symbols of love. The 
 
 *Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams, p. 319.
 
 120 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 dream thus shows that it is not mere gossip, but that there is not 
 only smoke but fire. 
 
 This symboHc dream was brought by a young married woman, and 
 reads as follows: "Mr. E. sent two stick-pins, one to my husband and one 
 to my sister, and I was angry because he didn't send me one. There 
 was also something about a brush." When I asked the patient to tell me 
 something about Mr. E. she stated that he was her husband's friend, 
 that she was very fond of him, but that she did not like his outspoken 
 plain way of expression. Thus, she went on to say, "The last time I 
 saw him was at the theater. He sat next to me, and his excuse for 
 coming late was that he witnessed a cow dropping a calf." Being an 
 overmodest woman, she was very much shocked to hear him tell this. 
 When I remonstrated with her that a married woman ought not to be 
 shocked by such news, she said that she was not the only woman tak- 
 ing exceptions to his waj^ of talking, and that although a perfect gentle- 
 man he had the reputation of being very fond of the ladies. When I 
 asked her to tell me about her sister, L., she said she meant the one 
 who married recently a man much younger than herself, who is a mere 
 boy. She then volunteered the information that she took her sister to 
 Doctor X. (a well-known gynecologist), and as her sister does not think 
 much of doctors, she found it very difficult to get her to go to a physi- 
 cian for examination. When I asked her what was wrong with her 
 sister, she finally told me that she first suspected pregnancy, but that 
 after the examination the doctor told her that her sister was still a 
 virgin and that there must be something wrong with her husband. If 
 I add that her own husband suffered from a relative impotence, we can 
 understand why Mr. E., who symbolizes the virile man, sends her sister 
 and her own husband stick-pins.* We have still to explain the last 
 part of the dream in which there was something about a brush. \\Tien I 
 drew her into conversation, I discovered that when some of the more 
 interested members of the familj^ suspected pregnancy they were not at 
 all pleased. The young husband was in no position to take care of his 
 wife, let alone of children, and one of the cousins, hearing that she was 
 going to be examined by a doctor, said to my patient, "If the doctor 
 finds that she is in the family way get him to brush it out." We can 
 now see that this dream, too, is a symbolic representation of hidden 
 wishes, and how nicely the associations tell the story. Mr. E., the 
 virile ladies' man; the reminiscence of the cow and calf, which shows 
 
 *For a similar symbolization of stick-pins, cf. p. 69.
 
 DREAMS 121 
 
 that the dream deals with childbirth; the stick-pins, which symbolize 
 the male member, and the brush which stands for abortion, all these 
 were very important factors in my patient's life. 
 
 The symbolism in the dream is the same to-day as it 
 was in the Bibhcal times when Joseph acted the part of 
 the oneiroscopist, and as we still see it in the dream books. 
 But, whereas the ancients and the laity of to-daj'^ ignore 
 their own subjective mind and seek interpretation 
 from magicians and dream books, we allow the dreamer 
 to interpret his own dreams and to find the symbolisms 
 in his own mind. What we do is simply to call his atten- 
 tion to the different connections which he himself generally 
 cannot see because of his own critique, prejudices and 
 resistances. 
 
 We also differ from the ancients and laity by not seeing 
 in the dream the future, but rather the past. Yet, in a 
 way, the dream is also related to the future inasmuch as 
 its fulfilled wish represents what we are striving for. This, 
 in my opinion, explains the ancient and modern super- 
 stition regarding the future reahzation of dreams. It 
 has its origin in incidents resembhng the dream of Miss G. 
 and those of the children mentioned before. Thus both 
 children forced their parents to fulfil their wishes. In 
 order to appease her little girl the mother had to procure 
 for her some chocolate almonds and the boy did not stop 
 crjang until his mother gave him the money of his dreanv' 
 
 There are dreams which continue to manifest themselves 
 for weeks and months until the wish they contain is 
 actually realized. A chronic alcoholic showing delusions 
 of jealously disHked a dog because his wife ''was more 
 attached to the dog than to him." He continued to dream
 
 122 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 at different times that the dog was run over, taken away 
 by the dogcatcher, etc., until one day during his wife's 
 absence he really disposed of it. Here the dream osten- 
 sibly treated of the future, at least so the wife thought 
 on her return home. "Poor Fido," she exclaimed, "John 
 (husband) dreamed only last week that he was caught 
 by the dogcatchers and now the dream has come true." 
 This is the so-called resolution dream. '^^ The person 
 resolves, perhaps unconsciously, to do a certain thing 
 an d the dream continues to represent it as realized 
 until it is actually accomplished. This explains the 
 mechanism cf the "dreams that come true." I have 
 analyzed a number of such dreams and all showed that the 
 wish always preceded the event in question. Thus one 
 of my patients dreamed that her brother who lived in 
 another city was dead, and after relating her dream to 
 her husband received word that her brother had really 
 died. The analysis showed that her brother suffered from 
 chronic tuberculosis which the doctors declared fatal 
 months before. She was fully aware of the gravity of his 
 malady and often thought that he would be better off 
 dead than alive. Her mother lived with her, but, owing 
 to her brother's illness she stayed with him. She was 
 nearing the end of a pregnancy and daily hoped that her 
 mother would return before her confinement. This 
 recalled similar experiences of childhood when her 
 mother often neglected her for the same brother because 
 he was very delicate and sickly. As a child she often 
 wished him dead, a thing quite common among children 
 to whom the idea of death means simply to be away. 
 The conscious wish he would be better off dead than
 
 DREAMS 123 
 
 alive" became the dream inciter because it succeeded in 
 arousing a similar infantile wish. For, as Freud says, 
 "The conscious wish becomes a dream incitor only when it 
 succeeds in arousing a similar unconscious one," and "The 
 wish as represented in the dream must be an infantile one," ^^ 
 
 The reahzation of our waking dreams shows precisely 
 the same mechanisms. This can be observed not only in 
 the individual, but in whole races. We all know that the 
 Leitmotif of orthodox Judaism is and always has been the 
 reestablishment of a Jewish nationahty, the "return to 
 Jerusalem;" and should Zionism ever succeed in obtaining 
 Palestine, the Bibhcal dreams, the prophecies would be con- 
 sidered as having "come true." Popular language 
 expresses the idea in the saying, "Where there is a will there 
 is a way." 
 
 What was said of real dreams is also true of artificial 
 dreams. By artificial dreams we understand those dreams 
 which a person consciously makes up at the request of the 
 physician. The patient is requested to make up a dream 
 by imitating what he regards as a real dream. He is in- 
 structed to talk at random without guiding his thoughts. 
 The production obtained in this manner is analyzed in 
 accordance with the rules. I resort to artificial dreams 
 whenever a patient fails to bring me dreams, claiming 
 that he does not dream, or whenever a patient suddenly 
 stops dreaming because of some unconscious resistance. 
 Analysis of such a dream usuallj'- brings to the surface the 
 factors which were at the bases of these resistances, which 
 can then be removed. The following dream was "made 
 up" by a young lady of twenty-nine years who suffered 
 from a very deep depression: "/ see a horrible ghastly
 
 124 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 object, it is some animal; it breathes under the water; I wish 
 ' to pull it out but I cannot. Now it is coming up. 
 
 With extreme difficulty she gave enough associations to 
 
 5 show the exciting cause of her malady: An illicit affair, 
 
 mnsuccessful attempts to produce an abortion which was 
 
 ^finally finished by a kindly disposed family physician. 
 
 /Many more examples could be given to show that there is no 
 
 , material difference between natural and artificial dreams."*' 
 
 These brief analyses distinctly show the connection 
 between dreams, psychoses, and neuroses. I am quite 
 convinced that had we not analyzed the dream, the psychic 
 conflicts underlying the neurosis of Miss G. could not have 
 been discovered, as they were unconscious to the patient, 
 and that she would have merged into a chronic neurosis. 
 Very soon afte-r the complexes were discovered and brought 
 to her consciousness her symptoms began to disappear 
 and within two months she was perfectly cured. It must 
 be added that besides analyzing the dream her other symp- 
 toms had to be explained to her. Thus her abnormal 
 attachment to her mother disappeared as soon as she be- 
 came conscious of the fact that it was hiding a repressed 
 wish that her mother might die so that she could use the 
 estate to assist Mr. F. The insight and psychological 
 education which she gained during the analysis also helped 
 her to overcome some of her false pride and prudishness, 
 and as a result she is now happily married to Mr. F. Thus 
 her wish was realized. 
 
 RESUME 
 
 1. As Freud has shown, dreams are perfect psychological 
 mechanisms. They have a definite meaning which always 
 deals with the dreamers most intimate life.
 
 DREAMS 125 
 
 2. As the function of the dream is to guard against 
 disturbances of sleep it is perforce a wish fulfilling 
 phenomenon. 
 
 3. Dreams like neurotic and psychotic symptoms are 
 always based on unrealizable mental and emotional occur- 
 rences. 
 
 4. Dreams are distorted or symbolic expressions of 
 actual or fancied experiences which had to be subjected 
 to repression in consequence of their contra social character. 
 
 5. As cultural society demands more control and suppres- 
 sion of sex than of any other biologic function, every 
 dream contains some factors of the dreamers love life. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Sante de Sanctis. Les Maladies mental et les reves, 1897. 
 Extrait des Annales de la Society de medecine de Gand. 
 
 Ideler: Ueber die Entstehung des Wahnsinns aus Traumen. 
 Charite Annalen, III, p. 284, 1862. 
 
 Fere: A Contribution to the Pathology of Dreams. Brain, IX) 
 1887. 
 
 Lasegue: Le Delire alcoolique nest pas u delire mais un reve. 
 Archives general de medecine, 1881. 
 
 Sully, J.: The Dream as a Revelation. Fortnightly Review, 
 March, 1893. 
 
 2. Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams. George Allan Co., 
 London, and The Macmillan Co., New York. Translated by A. A. 
 Brill. 
 
 3. Freud: Selected Papers on Hysteria and Psychoneurosis. Trans- 
 lated by A. A. Brill, Monograph Series of Journal of Nervous and 
 Mental Dis. Co. 
 
 4. Jung: The Psychology of Dementia Prsecox. Translated by 
 Peterson and Brill, Monograph Series Journal of Nervous and Mental 
 Dis. Co. 
 
 5. Freud : The Psycho pathology of Every Day Life, Unwin, London. 
 Cf. also Chap. II.
 
 I 
 
 126 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 6. Cf. Chap. VIII. 
 
 7. For the mechanism of jokes cf. Chap. XVII. 
 
 8. CJ. Chap. IV. 
 
 9. For an excellent example of this mechanism see Chap. I, p. 29. 
 
 10. Stekel, W.: Nervose Angstzustande und ihre Behandlung, p. 
 117. Jl 
 
 11. Die Diagnose der Homosexualitat, Neurolog. Zentralbl., 1908, 
 p. 338. 
 
 12. Cf. Chap. VIII. 
 
 13. Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams, p. 234. 
 
 14. Papers on Psychoanalysis, p. 346. 
 
 15. Dreams as a Cause of Symptoms, Jour. Abn. Psychol., Oct.- 
 Nov., 1910, p. 196. 
 
 16. Beers: A Mmd that Found Itself, pp. 39, 40, 2d ed. 
 
 17. Inman: Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism, 
 p. 115. 
 
 18. Freud: Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Zweite 
 Folge, p. 59; Deuticke, Wien, 1909. 
 
 19. Freud: The Intrepretation of Dreams, p. 439. 
 
 20. Similar views were expressed by Bleuler and Stekel.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 
 
 Neurasthenia and Anxiety Neurosis; their Symptoms, 
 Mechanism, Etiology and Relation to the 
 Psychoneuroses 
 
 Freud divides the neuroses into psycho- and actual 
 neuroses. The psychoneuroses comprise hysteria and 
 compulsion neurosis (doubts, obsessions and phobias) 
 while the actual neuroses include neurasthenia and anxiety 
 neurosis. The sexual life plays an important part in the 
 determination of both classes. But whereas hysteria and 
 compulsion neurosis are altogether of psychogenetic 
 origin, neurasthenia and anxiety neurosis are due to so- 
 matic sexual injuries. 
 
 As the typical symptoms of neurasthenia Freud men- 
 tions headache, or pressure in the head, spinal irritation, 
 dyspepsia with flatulence, and constipation. By adhering 
 closely to these symptoms one can easily differen- 
 tiate the real neurasthenia from the pseudo-neurasthenias 
 such as the organically determined nasal reflex neurosis, 
 the neurotic disturbances of cachexias and arterio- 
 sclerosis, the early stages of general paresis, and some of 
 the psychoses. Concerning the etiology Freud says 
 "Neurasthenia always originates whenever the ade- 
 quate (action) or unburdening is replaced by a less adequate 
 one, like the normal coitus under the most favorable con- 
 ditions by a masturbation or spontaneous pollution."^ 
 
 127
 
 128 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Bearing in mind this symptom-complex, neurasthenia 
 ceases to be the "big garbage can," as Forel fitly calls it, 
 and becomes a rather limited entity. For it is known to 
 every observer in this field that neurasthenia in the gener- 
 ally accepted sense may comprise almost anything from 
 anxiety neurosis to psychoses proper. Well developed 
 cases of dementia prsecox, paresis and other psychoses are 
 often diagnosed and treated for months, even years, as 
 neurasthenics. The more neurotics I see the less neuras- 
 thenics I diagnose. 
 
 That anxiety plays a part in the neuroses was fully 
 recognized by almost all writers on this subject; but its 
 isolation into a separate entity and its reference to a 
 special sexual etiology was first established hy Freud in 
 his dissertation, ''On the Right to Separate from Neuras- 
 thenia a Definite Symptom Complex as Anxiety Neurosis. "^ 
 
 Before going into the etiology of anxiety neurosis I will 
 first enumerate the clinical symptoms which are as follows: 
 
 1. General irritability. This frequent symptom espe- 
 cially expresses itself in auditory hyperesthesia and is a 
 frequent cause of insomnia of which more than one form 
 belongs to anxiety neurosis. 
 
 2. Anxious expectation, which manifests itself in an 
 uneasiness and a tendency to pessimistic conception of 
 things, or in a tendency to "make mountains out of mole 
 hills." Persons showing this symptom evince a frequent 
 tendency to pangs of conscience, scrupulosity and ped- 
 antry. Thus a man who suffered from anxious expec- 
 tation thought that something might have happened to 
 his mother because there was a thunder-storm while she 
 was riding in a train. He was anxiously waiting for news
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 129 
 
 of some disaster and was not relieved until he heard 
 that she had reached her destination. Anxious expecta- 
 tion is the most essential symptom of the neurosis. There 
 seems to be a quantum of freely floating anxiety which is 
 forever ready to attach itself to suitable ideations. 
 
 3. Anxiousness can also suddenly break into conscious- 
 ness without being aroused by the issue of an idea. Such 
 attacks consist either of the anxious feeling alone without 
 any associated idea or they deal with the most obvious 
 interpretation of the destruction of life, such as ideas of 
 sudden death or threatening insanity. The anxious feeling 
 may be combined with a disturbance of one or many somatic 
 functions, such as respiration, cardiac activity, the vaso- 
 motor innervation and the glandular activity. The pa- 
 tient may complain of ''heart spasm," "heavy breathing," 
 "inordinate appetite," "profuse perspiration," "feeling 
 badly," etc. 
 
 4. The proportion in which these elements mix varies 
 extraordinarily, and any one of the accompanying symptoms 
 may constitute the attack. Accordingly, there are rudi- 
 mentary attacks of anxiety and equivalents for the attack of 
 anxiety. The following equivalents may be mentioned: 
 
 (a) Attacks of disturbance of heart action, ranging 
 from palpitation, transitory arhythmia with longer con- 
 tinued tachycardia, to grave states of heart weakness. 
 These are not always easy to differentiate from organic 
 heart affections. It may also manifest itself in pseudo- 
 angina pectoris, a delicate diagnostic sphere. 
 
 (6) Attacks of respiratory disturbances, many forms of 
 nervous dyspnoea and asthma-like attacks. 
 
 (c) Attacks of profuse perspiration, often nocturnal.
 
 130 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 (d) Attacks of trembling and shaking which may be 
 readily mistaken for hysterical attacks. 
 
 (e) Attacks ©f inordinate appetite, often combined 
 with dizziness. 
 
 (/) Attacks of diarrhoea. 
 
 (g) Attacks of locomotor dizziness. 
 
 (h) Attacks of congestion embracing also the so-called 
 vasomotor neurasthenia. 
 
 (i) Attacks of paresthesias (these are seldom without 
 anxiety or a similar discomfort). 
 
 (i) Sudden terrified awakening. 
 
 (k) Frequency of micturition. 
 
 (I) Cramplike muscular attacks. 
 
 5. Nocturnal frights (pavor nocturnus of adults) 
 usually accompanied by anxiety, dyspnoea, perspiration, 
 etc., are only a variety of the anxiety attack and determine 
 a second form of insomnia in the sphere of anxiety neurosis. 
 The pavor nocturnus of children belongs to the same 
 neurosis. 
 
 6. A prominent symptom of anxiety neurosis is vertigo 
 which in its lightest form may be designated as "dizziness." 
 Attacks of vertigo with or without fear belong to the 
 gravest symptoms of the neurosis. This form of vertigo is 
 neither a rotatory dizziness nor is it confined to certain 
 planes or lines like Menier's vertigo. It consists in a 
 specific feeling of discomfort accompanied by sensations 
 of a heaving ground, sinking legs, of the impossibility of 
 remaijiing in an upright position, and at the same time 
 there is a feeling that the legs are as heavy as lead, that they 
 shake and give way. This vertigo almost never leads to 
 falling.
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES. 131 
 
 7. Two groups of typical phobias develop on the basis 
 of the chronic anxiousness, anxious expectation on the 
 one hand, and the tendency to vertiginous anxiety 
 attacks on the other. In the first group we have the 
 fear of snakes, thunderstorms, darkness, vermin, etc., 
 as well as the typical moral overscrupulousness and the 
 forms of folie du doute. The available fear is here used to 
 strengthen the instinctive aversions implanted in every 
 man. The second group comprises agoraphobia with 
 all its accessory forms, all of which are characterized by 
 their relation to locomotion. The phobia is usually de- 
 termined by a precedent attack of vertigo. 
 
 8. The disturbances of the digestive functions are few, 
 but are characteristic. One often finds the sensations of 
 nausea and sickly feeling. The symptom of inordinate 
 appetite with or without congestion may serve as a rudi- 
 mentary attack of anxiety. The tendency to diarrhoea 
 which is a chronic alteration analogous to the anxious 
 expectation has occasioned the queerest diagnostic 
 mistakes. 
 
 9. The paresthesias which accompany the attacks of 
 vertigo or anxiety associate themselves into a firm sequence 
 resembhng the sensation of the hysterical aura. These 
 associated sensations are changeable and atypical, but 
 they sometimes become converted into physical sensations 
 like rheumatic pains. 
 
 THE OCCURRENCE AND ETIOLOGY OF ANXIETY NEUROSIS 
 
 In some cases of anxiety neurosis no etiology can be 
 readily found, but in such cases one can usually find a 
 marked hereditary taint. Whenever the neurosis is
 
 132 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 acquired one can always find "that the etiologically 
 effective factors are based on a series of injuries and 
 influences from the sexualHfe."^ These injuries and influ- 
 ences may be either found alone or are reinforced by other 
 banal injuries. 
 
 To give a more precise description of the etiological 
 determinants of anxiety neurosis Freud separates those 
 occurring in men from those occurring in women. Re- 
 gardless of disposition anxiety neurosis appears in women 
 under the following forms: 
 
 (a) As virginal fear, or anxiety in adults. Many definite 
 observations show that an anxiety neurosis almost typic- 
 ally combined with hysteria can be evoked in maturing 
 girls at their first encounter with the sexual problem, 
 either through seeing or through hearing or reading of sex. 
 
 (6) As fear in the newly married. Young women who 
 remain anesthetic during the first coitus often merge into 
 an anxiety neurosis which disappears after the anesthesia 
 is replaced by normal feeling. 
 
 (c) As fear in women whose husbands suffer from ejacu- 
 latio praecox or from diminished potency; and 
 
 (d) In those whose husbands practice coitus interruptus 
 or reservatus. These cases go together for they only de- 
 pend on whether the woman attains gratification during 
 coitus or not. The determinant for the origin of the 
 anxiety neurosis is found in the latter case. But if the 
 husband suffering from ejaculatio praecox can repeat coitus 
 with better results immediately thereafter the wife will 
 not merge into the neurosis. Coitus interruptus is only 
 injurious for the wife if the husband interrupts coitus as 
 soon as he is about to ejaculate without concerning him-
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 133 
 
 self about bringing to an end the excitement of his wife. 
 If he waits until his wife is gratified the process has the 
 same effect on her as normal coitus, but then he may be- 
 come afflicted with anxiety neurosis. I have on record 
 more than 30 cases which fully confirm the above state- 
 ments. 
 
 (e) As anxiety in widows and intentional abstainers, 
 often in typical combination with obsessions, and 
 
 (f) As anxiety in the climacterium during the last marked 
 enhancement of the sexual impulse. 
 
 The forms (c), (d) and (e) contain the determinants 
 under which the anxiety neurosis originates in the female 
 most frequently and most independently of hereditary 
 predisposition. The determinants of anxiety neurosis in 
 the male find their analogy in the female and are formu- 
 lated into the f crowing groups: 
 
 (a) Anxiety of the intentional abstainer; this is fre- 
 quently combined with symptoms of defense (obsessions, 
 hysteria). 
 
 (6) Anxiety in men with frustrated excitement (during 
 the engagement period); persons who fearing the conse- 
 quences of sexual relations gratify themselves by handhng 
 and looking at the woman. These determinants hold true 
 also for the woman (prolonged engagements with frus- 
 trated excitement) and furnish the purest cases of anxiety 
 neurosis. I have seen so many of these cases that nowa- 
 days when a young person consults me about anxiety 
 attacks and I fail to discover any organic trouble I in- 
 variably tell him or her that he will have to stop his frus- 
 trated indulgences. The patients invariably admit my 
 assumption and wonder how I knew of their intimate acts.
 
 134 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 (c) Anxiety in men who practise coitus interruptus. 
 This form of coitus injures the woman if practised regard- 
 less of her gratification, but it may also injure the man if 
 in order to gratify his wife he voluntarily controls coitus 
 by delaying the ejaculation. 
 
 (d) Anxiety in men during the period of senility. Some 
 men go through a climacterium like women and may 
 merge into an anxiety neurosis when their potency dimin- 
 ishes and their libido increases. This case and (c) hold 
 true for both sexes. 
 
 (e) Masturbating neurasthenics may merge into anxiety 
 neurosis as soon as they stop masturbating as their former 
 life has made them especially Unfit to lead a life of 
 abstinence. 
 
 (J) This last determinant is really not of a sexual nature. 
 Both sexes may merge into anxiety neurosis through con- 
 siderable overwork, exhaustive exertion such as sleepless 
 nights, nursing the sick or even serious illnesses. Here, too, 
 I have never seen a lack of the sexual factors. 
 
 The facts thus far enumerated go to show that in anx- 
 iety neurosis we deal with an accumulation of sexual 
 excitement and that the anxiety underlying the mani- 
 festations of the neurosis is not of psychic, but of somatic 
 origin. Moreover, it has been found since that a whole 
 series of cases of this neurosis shows marked diminution 
 of the sexual desire. This is true to such an extent, that on 
 revealing to the patients that their affliction depends on 
 "insufficient gratification," they regularly reply that this is 
 impossible as just now their whole desire is extinguished. 
 All these indications favor the assumption "that the 
 mechanism of the anxiety neurosis is to be found in the
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 135 
 
 deviation of the somatic sexual excitement from the psychic 
 and in the abnormal utilization of this excitement caused 
 thereby."^ 
 
 Hence we see that the actual neuroses, neurasthenia 
 and anxiety neurosis, differ materially from the psycho- 
 neuroses, compulsion neurosis and hysteria. The latter 
 group are due to purely psychogenetic factors, while the 
 first are due to somatic sexual injuries. 
 
 I have pointed out above that the characteristic factor of 
 hysteria, according to Freud, is the ability to convert the 
 psychic into the physical. That is, whenever we find the 
 classical symptoms of hysteria, such as paralyses, con- 
 tractures, aphonias, convulsions, astasia abasia, etc., we 
 deal with a conversion hysteria. In contradistinction to 
 this, the symptoms due to somatic sexual injuries belong 
 to anxiety neurosis. 
 
 It was found, however, that no definite lines could be 
 drawn; that besides the somatic sexual injuries the anxiety 
 neuroses also showed a psychic mechanism. This psychic 
 mechanism is the same as in hysteria, but instead of 
 conversion into physical symptoms there is anxiety. 
 "The anxiety is, as it were, the only symptom into which 
 the psychic excitement is converted." The etiology, the 
 role of repression and the psychic processes are the same 
 as in hysteria. For this new class of cases Freud sug- 
 gested the term "anxiety hysteria" and the whole group 
 was first described by Stekel in his interesting and 
 instructive book.^ 
 
 My own experience, based on the observation of a great 
 many cases of anxiety neurosis taught me that there is a 
 psychic element in almost all cases. I could demon-
 
 136 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 strate it in nearly all my cases and I must confess that, 
 owing to lack of opportunity and personal resistances (it 
 concerned elderly illiterate patients from clinical dispen- 
 sary practice) I did not try hard enough to ascertain the 
 true circumstances in the others. I can say, however, 
 that even those patients were cured and some greatly 
 benefited by advising them properly concerning their 
 sexual lives. 
 
 I do not hesitate to advise the use of the condom when 
 it is a question of coitus interruptus. The condom prop- 
 erly used — lubrication of penis and moistening or lubrica- 
 tion of condom after it is in place — is the nearest substitute 
 for normal coitus. I might add that I have always been in 
 favor of instructing people in correct methods of contra- 
 ception. Aside from the fact that improper sexual relations 
 do much harm to the individual, I feel that it is wrong to 
 force normal people to reproduce offsprings when they 
 have good reasons against it. Such children invariably 
 turn out to be neurotics. 
 
 As the few remarks about masturbation in the former 
 editions of this book have evoked an unusual interest in the 
 subject I decided to discuss this subject in the next chapter. 
 
 As I said before in almost all these cases there is a psychic 
 element and when this is found we must not only correct 
 the abnormal sexual life, but to cure the patient we must 
 resort, in addition, to psychoanalysis. As an example 
 of an anxiety hysteria of this type I will give the following 
 case: 
 
 Mrs. L., thirty-eight years old, Austrian, married, having four 
 healthy children, was seen by me in the department of psychiatry 
 in the Vanderbilt Clinic in October, 1908. She complained of ner-
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 137 
 
 vousness, depression, anxiety and insomnia from which she suffered 
 for about two weeks. On questioning her I found that this was her 
 sixth attack, that the first attack came on six years ago and repeated 
 itself annually, usually lasting about two months. Like the doctor 
 who saw her before me I thought of manic depressive insanity, but 
 on closer examination I changed my diagnosis to anxiety hysteria. 
 Her family history was negative. She herself claimed that she was 
 never sick before her present illness. Anthropologically and other- 
 wise she corresponded to her type — Austrian Jewess. Physically 
 there was nothing worthy of note. 
 
 When I asked her to tell me her chief complaint she said that it was 
 a depression and anxiety. She stated that her attacks were not all 
 aUke. Thus, her first attack began very suddenly and was charac- 
 terized by marked anxiety, depression, apprehension and insomnia. 
 The second, third and fourth attacks were considerably milder, the 
 depression being the main symptom, while her fifth attack again 
 showed the anxiety and insomnia. Her sjonptoms did not in any 
 way incapacitate her. She attended to her housework as usual and 
 there was absolutely no psychomotor retardation. She maintained, 
 however, that she was afraid that something would happen to her and 
 that she often cried out without knowing why. There were no distinct 
 phobias, but in all her attacks she showed the characteristic folic du 
 douie. Thus, during her attacks she often got out of bed "at least a 
 dozen times" to ascertain whether the door was properly locked or 
 whether the gas was turned off. Besides the symptoms enumerated 
 she also showed the aforecited cardinal symptoms of anxiety neurosis. 
 What influenced me in diagnosticating anxiety hysteria was the 
 typical sexual etiology. The first attack came two years after her 
 husband left for the United States, during which time she was sexually 
 continent. For the following three years, while with her husband, 
 she gave birth to two children, and thus her emotional needs were fully 
 satisfied. After the fourth child was born she wanted no more 
 children, and her husband practised coitus interruptus. That seemed 
 to account for the difference in the symptoms of the various attacks. 
 For lack of gratification is a very frequent cause of insomnia, par- 
 ticularly in persons showing nothing else to account for it. But, of 
 course, we have accounted for the depression which was present 
 in every attack.
 
 138 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 As soon as I decided on the diagnosis I proceeded with 
 the psychoanalysis. I usually begin by asking the patient 
 to give me a full account of the origin of the disease. She 
 knew that the first attack came on about six years before, 
 just before she came to the United States. Her husband 
 left her in Austria with two children and, after having been 
 away for about two years, he sent for her to join him in New 
 York. It was while she was getting ready for her journey 
 that the first attack came on and continued for about two 
 months. She was quite certain that it had no connection 
 with her leaving Austria; on the contrary she was more 
 than glad to join her husband. The subsequent attacks 
 came on periodically every fall. She also recalled that her 
 attacks came together with the Jewish fall holidays. 
 More than this she did not know. I attempted an associa- 
 tion experiment, but either she refused her cooperation 
 or she was unable to grasp the meaning of the procedure. 
 As I attributed her depression and anxiety to the repres- 
 sion of painful or disagreeable reminiscences, and as the 
 dream is the via regia to the unconscious or the repression 
 I asked her to tell me something of her dreams. She 
 insisted that she had not dreamed for years. She finally 
 recalled, however, having had a dream before or at the 
 beginning of her first attack. This was the dream: 
 
 "/ walked on the street and a horse harnessed to a wagon 
 was running toward me. I could not get out of its way; the 
 horse was almost upon me. I put out my arm to push it away 
 when it caught my hand in its mouth and bit me. Screaming, 
 I awoke terrified." 
 
 As the dream occurred before or at the onset of the at- 
 tack I assumed that it had some relation to it, as dreams are
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 139 
 
 always based on experiences or thoughts of the day pre- 
 ceding the dream. Also, the fear in the dream pointed to 
 its being of a sexual nature, and I suspected that the horse 
 was simply a sexual symbol.® 
 
 On asking the patient to tell something about the horse 
 she stated that it was a bay horse and very spirited. That 
 was all she knew. When I urged her to tell me all the 
 thoughts that occurred to her in this connection she impa- 
 tiently remarked: "I don't know what to tell j'ou; I could 
 talk about horses for hours. I know quite a bit about 
 horses, as I lived next door to a government horse-breeding 
 station." She then displayed considerable emotivity, 
 but on being urged to tell whatever was in her mind she 
 stated that she witnessed the practical details of horse breed- 
 ing at a very early age. Indeed, she was certain that this 
 was her first conscious sexual impression. "Of course," 
 she added, *'I was too young to know the real meaning of 
 things. I imagined that the horses were fighting." This 
 sadistic conception is very common in children and as 
 Freud shows in his paper, "Concerning Infantile Sexual 
 Theories,"' children always interpret the sexual act in that 
 sense. There was a sudden blocking and when asked to 
 continue she suddenly recalled something which had no 
 connection with horses. The evening before the dream, 
 while sitting in the room with some neighbors, some ani- 
 mal, perhaps a mouse or rat, ran out of the brick stove into 
 the bed. Unlike her sex she was ordinarily not afraid of 
 mice or rats, but this time she was terribly frightened and 
 continued to be so for hours. She rummaged through the 
 bed and found nothing; still she was afraid to sleep in this 
 bed. This recalled that this attack of fright occurred a
 
 140 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 few hours after an unsuccessful attempt to sell her feather 
 beds. She again became silent and claimed that her stream 
 of thoughts was exhausted. Suspecting that her attack 
 of anxiety was the manifestation of a mental conflict in a sex- 
 ual abstainer, I asked her why she was so terrified at the 
 sight of what she imagined was a mouse or rat, if she was 
 ordinarily not afraid of these animals. Her ready re- 
 sponse was that she was never afraid of the real mouse or 
 rat, but that at that time she imagined that they were only 
 apparitions, that someone tried to exert some evil influ- 
 ence over her by magic. She laughingly added that she 
 no longer believed in such nonsense. When I asked her 
 who she thought tried to exert an evil influence over her 
 and why that was attempted, she at first refused to answer, 
 remarking that the whole thing was not worth talking 
 about, but after considerable urging she said that she then 
 believed that it was a man who offered to buy her feather 
 beds. With great emotivity and hesitation she described 
 this man, whom we will call X. as a very disagreeable and 
 impudent fellow. He wished to buy her feather beds, but 
 for some reason she could not come to any terms with him. 
 He, however, persisted in calling on her until she became 
 so tired of seeing him that she hid herself whenever she 
 saw him coming. She suddenly broke off the narrative and 
 when I urged her to continue she became very indignant. 
 She said she saw no reason for the revival of all this foolish- 
 ness; she was very sure that this questioning had nothing 
 to do with her disease, etc., etc. Such outbursts are very 
 frequent in the course of psychoanalysis and always occur 
 when we strike the main complex.^ 
 
 As soon as I knew the circumstances of the case, and
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 141 
 
 after hearing the dream, I thought of cherchez I'homme, and 
 after witnessing her emotional outbursts I was sure that I 
 had my man. As I said above the dream showed a mental 
 conflict of a sexual nature and the attack of fear, too, as I 
 will show later, symbolically represented a sexual attack. 
 Indeed the whole setting was such that there was no doubt 
 in my mind that she had some sexual experience with X., 
 and that her periodic attacks of depression merely repre- 
 sented the former libido changed into depression by 
 repression. 
 
 After calming her I frankly told her that I was con- 
 vinced that she was concealing something, that I beheved 
 she had had some affair with X. and that unless she told 
 me everything I could do nothing for her. She emphatic- 
 ally denied my assumptions, but would not explain why she 
 had to hide when she saw X. and why she thought he tried 
 to exert evil influences over her. She became very indig- 
 nant when I was equally assertive in my statements and 
 left me rather abruptly. I made no attempt to restrain 
 her or remonstrate with her because my experience taught 
 me that it is of no avail, and that it is well to give the 
 patient a chance to fully discharge her repressed emotions. 
 
 Two days later she returned, but this time she looked 
 quite dejected and penitent. A few kind remarks from 
 me helped her to disburden herself. Weeping, she made 
 the following confession: ''Since I left you I was very 
 miserable. I have cried most of the time; the whole thing 
 came back to me, I could not banish it from my mind, so I 
 decided to come and tell you all." She then assured me 
 that for the two years that she was separated from her 
 husband she had lived a virtuous life. She was hardly ever
 
 142 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 bothered by erotic thoughts and had no difficulty in sup- 
 pressing them when they came. While getting ready to 
 join her husband in America she sold her household effects 
 and X. wanted to buy her feather beds. When she showed 
 him the feather beds he joked with her about her coming 
 journey to America and alluded to her future happiness 
 with her husband. This aroused some erotic thoughts and 
 when X. accompanied his talk by touching her suggestively 
 she was surprised not to have resented it. In brief, she 
 met him a number of times, always on the pretense of sell- 
 ing the feather beds and she was afterward surprised at her 
 own weakness. She, however, assured me that she had not 
 broken her marriage vows. "That is the only thing I 
 have not done," she said. It was after she suddenly awoke 
 to the gravity of the situation that she refused to see him 
 and feared him. She was really afraid of herself; she did 
 not trust herself. These experiences which gave rise to a 
 number of erotic thoughts and fancies were then changed 
 into displeasure. It was then that she was afraid to sleep 
 alone with her children and had to ask a neighbor to sleep 
 with her. It was about the same time that the rat incident 
 occurred which made her think of magic. This was due 
 to the fact that even after she stopped seeing X. she 
 continued to have sexual thoughts and fancies. The more 
 she tried to banish them the more they came. By associa- 
 tion of ideas they recalled to her all her sexual experiences, 
 such as early masturbation, etc., which in view of their per- 
 sistence against her own will she could attribute only to 
 some external power — magic. Of course, it must be 
 remembered that there was a time in her life when she 
 actually believed in magical influence, and owing to the
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 143 
 
 mental upset the repressed complex simply came to the 
 surface. Similar mechanisms are at the basis of hal- 
 lucinations and delusions.^ 
 
 The other mechanisms of the case are quite simple. As 
 I said above the nature of the dream shows that it deals 
 with sexual emotions. We also showed that the horse 
 was intimately connected with her first sexual impres- 
 sions. She also stated that when she masturbated later 
 in life the horse often served to arouse her sexual fancies. 
 In the dream when "the horse was almost upon her," i.e., 
 when she almost yielded to temptation, her moral self 
 gained the upper hand and she "put out her arm to push 
 it away." She, however, sustained a scar, her hand was 
 bitten. That part of the dream is constellated by the 
 following facts: She was actually bitten by a horse at the 
 age of six; and her early observations of horse breeding 
 had often excited her passions and induced a repetition 
 of her habits. The same effect had been produced in her 
 by the visits of X. The horse in the dream may therefore 
 be taken in this sense as symbolizing X. who recalls her 
 early impressions of sexuahty. The dream often makes 
 use of such symboHzations. Gross sexuality is always 
 under repression, hence we see instead its inrooted associa- 
 tions. Horses, bulls, dogs, cats and chickens are often 
 sexual symbols in dreams, because it is with these animals 
 that children are first apt to see the sexual procedures.^" 
 Our patient conceived sexual relations in the sadistic 
 sense, they were first impressed upon her in childhood by 
 the breeding observations above referred to. In brief, her 
 dream merely symbolizes these relations as shown by the 
 cited association and the expression "the horse was almost
 
 144 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 upon me." The biting, too, she vividly recalled seeing while 
 watching the horses. The dream, therefore, represents the 
 hidden fulfilment of her repressed wish, while the anxiety 
 is the libido which was changed by the repression. 
 
 It still remains to explain why the depressions continued 
 to recur annually. The incidents enumerated above took 
 place before the Jewish Day of Atonement, and it was on 
 this day, which is the most solemn day for the orthodox 
 Jew, that her actions appeared to her in the most lurid 
 colors. This is the day on which all true beUevers are 
 inscribed in the "Book of Life" or "Book of Death." 
 It is a day of fasting and confession and she certainly 
 had a lot to confess. She could not consider her sins 
 forgiven, and dreaded some impending evil, perhaps an 
 accident at sea. She came to the United States about 
 five weeks later. She was still in a state of depression, 
 but it soon wore off. But every year, with the approach 
 of this solemn day, the depression returned. She merely 
 celebrated the anniversary of her painful experience. 
 She never recalled the original episode because it was of a 
 disagreeable and painful nature; the accompanying 
 emotions, however, came to the surface and constituted 
 the depression. Such depressions are quite common, and 
 are often mistaken for manic depressive insanity. I 
 have seen cases of similar depression many times within 
 the last ten years. 
 
 After the analysis was completed the patient felt much 
 relieved and grateful. I saw her a week later and there 
 was not a trace of her former depression. She was cheer- 
 ful and happy, and expressed her surprise at the sudden 
 disappearance of her symptoms. She attributed it all
 
 THE ACTUAL NEUROSES 145 
 
 to a mixture of rhubarb and soda which I gave her. She 
 has had no attack of depression since then. 
 
 This short analysis teaches a number of things. First: 
 There is a group of cases of periodic depression which do 
 not belong to manic depressive insanity. They are anxiety 
 hysterias based on somatic and psychosexual traumata. 
 I am convinced that many cases that I have seen during 
 my hospital service which were classified as manic depressive 
 insanity and "depressions not sufficiently distinguished" 
 belong to this category. Second: Freud's psychoanalysis 
 is, in my opinion, the only rational therapy for such cases, 
 as it not only unravels the hidden mechanisms, but also 
 removes the somatic sexual traumas, by correcting the 
 abnormal sexual life. Third: Not all vague depressions, 
 even those that are not typical of the manic-depressive 
 group, can be influenced by psychoanalysis. There are 
 undoubtedly many other forms of depression which have a 
 different genesis. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Freud: Selected Papers on Hysteria and Other Psychoneuroses 
 p. 149. 
 
 2. Freud: L. c, p. 134. 
 
 3. Freud: L. c, p. 141. 
 
 4. Freud: L. c, p. 148. 
 
 5. Stekel: Nervose Angstzustande und deren Behandlungen, Urban, 
 & Schwarzenberg, Wien, 1908. 
 
 6. Freud : The Interpretation of Dreams. 
 
 7. Freud: Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Zweite 
 Folge, p. 159. Deuticke, Wein, 1909. 
 
 8. Jung: The Association Method. Translated by A. A. Brill, 
 American Journal of Psychology, April, 1909. Cf. also Chap. VIII. 
 
 9. Jung: The Psychology of Dementia Prsecox. Translated by 
 Peterson and BriU, Journal of Nervous and Mental Dis. Pub. Co. 
 
 10. Ihid., p. 141. 
 10
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 MASTURBATION 
 
 Its Relation to the Neurosis and Psychosis 
 
 One of the sexual manifestations which one invariably 
 encounters in examining the patient's vita sexualis, is 
 masturbation. When you talk to the patient he will 
 invariably leave that out, but will readily admit that he has 
 "abused" himself, or that he is still doing so. He will 
 then describe in halting terms and with a great deal of 
 emotivity, how he struggles against this vice, how he 
 stopped it on a number of occasions because he read certain 
 pamphlets and heard certain lectures on the evil conse- 
 quences of it, but that he resorted to it again because 
 he has a weak will-power, that he is sure that in time he will 
 be driven into insanity. Such patients usually present a 
 very sorry plight: they are depressed, morose, and very 
 often give the impression of great suffering. If such a 
 patient appHes to the average physician or to a sympathetic 
 layman, he will always be told that he must "stop it at 
 once," otherwise something terrible will befall him. 
 
 As a matter of fact, masturbation has been the bete noire 
 of the sexual problems. No other phenomenon has 
 received as much space and consideration, no other phe- 
 nomenon has been so confusingly represented or mis- 
 represented as this subject. Volumes have been written 
 
 about it. For centuries it has been a favorite discussion 
 
 146
 
 HASTUKBATION 147 
 
 among physicians and theologians, and, like the sword 
 of Damocles, it has been hanging over the heads of almost 
 every civilized being. Nor is the question settled today. 
 One continually hears new expressions of opinion con- 
 cerning its causes and effects; and notwithstanding the 
 views of the most prominent sexologists of the day to the 
 contrary, most laymen and physicians still hold mas- 
 turbation responsible for nearly all ailments that the flesh 
 or the mind may fall heir to. This is particularly observed 
 in reference to cases of nervous and mental disturbances, 
 few of which are to be found free from masturbation con- 
 flicts. For even if the patient himself does not think of it, 
 his relatives or physicians are sure to discover it, and to 
 explain thereby the diseased process. Indeed, perhaps 
 the most noteworthy peculiarity about the subject of 
 masturbation, is the fact that notwithstanding the works 
 of such eminent sexologists as Havelock Ellis, Bloch, 
 Rohleder, Moll, and others, as well as the positive assertions 
 of the most prominent psychiatrists, the laity, as well as 
 most physicians, still adhere to the old medieval idea 
 concerning it. It is for this reason that I consider it well 
 worth the effort to review the opinions of some of those 
 authors and to add what my own psychoanalytic experience 
 has taught me about it. 
 
 When one examines the sexual life of any person, one 
 finds that at some period of his life every individual resorts 
 to autoerotic sexual outlets in the form of masturbation. 
 All authors agree that the overwhelming majority of boys 
 masturbate at some period of their lives, and some hold 
 the same to be true of girls. Thus Havelock Ellis and 
 Moll define masturbation in the narrow sense as a process
 
 148 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 by which the hands are used to excite one's self sexually; 
 and in the broader sense they apply it to all cases wherein 
 friction is used by the individual on himself for sexual 
 purposes. Concerning the universaUty they say: "Mas- 
 turbation in the broader sense is an almost universal mani- 
 festation in animals and all human beings of all lands. 
 It is so widespread that, strictly speaking, we cannot call it 
 abnormal."^ These statements express the opinions of 
 most sexologists. The statistics given by authors are 
 usually very high. They all agree that the great majority 
 of boys masturbate; some maintain that it is almost as high / 
 as 100 per cent, others give lower figures. My own findings . 
 agree with the former. I found few men who have not ^ 
 masturbated, although I cannot maintain the same per- 
 centage for women. According to Moll and others, one 
 occasional^ meets some healthy sexually normal men who 
 claim not to have masturbated. Other authors, however, 
 maintain that such persons are, as a rule, of a weak sexual 
 constitution in the first place. Out of many hundreds of 
 cases I found few men who seemingly never masturbated, 
 and these all evinced an abnormally weak sexual make-up. 
 Thus one of these men, a professional man of thirty-eight 
 years, assured me that he never masturbated and rarely 
 experienced any feelings of sex. As far as I could discover 
 in one interview he was practically a-sexual in his emotions. 
 He consulted many physicians about the advisability of 
 marrying, as he himself had no real urge to do so. The 
 others were of the same type. Moreover, it is not always 
 proper to judge by mere answers. Many deny mas- 
 turbation because of shame or fear, while still others do 
 not know that they have been masturbating. This is
 
 MASTURBATION 149 
 
 especially true of women who masturbate through friction 
 of the thighs or erotic fancies. ^ In analyzing persons it is 
 not rare to find some deny masturbation for months, only to 
 admit it later. One of my patients admitted having mastur- 
 bated for years after she had denied it for over six months. 
 
 Many observers maintain that girls masturbate less 
 frequently than boys, while others state that it is just as 
 common or even more common among girls. Guttceit, 
 basing his statement on a thirty years' experience, assumed 
 that almost all girls masturbate who attain the age of eighteen 
 or twenty without any opportunity for sexual intercourse. 
 Rohleder asserts that after puberty girls masturbate more 
 frequently than boys. Among one hundred women, he 
 found ninety-five masturbators. 
 
 Concerning its causes, all authors agree that any external 
 irritation of the genitals, such as pin worms or tight clothes, 
 may bring about masturbation in children. Servants 
 often initiate it in their charges at a very early age. Some 
 are taught to masturbate by other usually older boys, 
 while over 50 per cent of my cases started it without any 
 outside interference, after such innocent activities as 
 climbing up or sliding down a pole, leaning against a chair, 
 cleansing the parts, etc. Some boys and girls began to 
 masturbate while reading. Such reading was not neces- 
 sarily of an erotic nature; many boys were stimulated to 
 masturbation by reading about brutal acts such as are 
 depicted in Uncle Tom's Cabin, and girls often resorted to 
 masturbation after reading masochistic or sadistic scenes. 
 Judging by the many peculiar causes of a physical and 
 psychic nature given by the patients themselves it would 
 seem that there is no way of guarding against it.
 
 150 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 It is also well known that there is an infantile masturba- 
 tion, which some claim is almost universal, while others 
 maintain that it is only common. Be that as it may, there 
 comes a time in the life of every individual when the sexual 
 feehngs become manifest, and as he is not able to gratify 
 them, he usually resorts to some form of masturbation. 
 
 As I do not think it necessary to dilate further on the 
 frequency, varieties, and causes of masturbation, all of 
 which are fully discussed in the works of the authors men- 
 tioned above, I shall continue with the discussion of the 
 dangers of masturbation. Almost every layman and nearly 
 all doctors beheve that masturbation is very dangerous to 
 mind and body. These ideas are kept alive and dissemi- 
 nated by quacks who, in order to enrich themselves, 
 threaten the masturbators with all sorts of terrible punish- 
 ments. Everything is explained by masturbation — palpita- 
 tion, indigestion, aches and pains, leucorrhea in women, 
 and every form of nervous and mental diseases in both 
 sexes. Pamphlets are distributed, lectures are given which 
 describe the horrible results of masturbation, and many 
 cities still boast of museums "For Men Only" where the 
 horrors of masturbation are vividly depicted in writings 
 and in wax figures. It is sad to state that most doctors 
 entertain similar ideas. Hardly a month passes during , 
 which I do not see at least one patient whose neurotic or v 
 mental affliction is not attributed by the family physician 
 to masturbation. These ideas have been held for centuries, 
 and, although Griesinger began to dispute them in the 
 middle of the last century, they are still flourishing. Grie- 
 singer maintained that it was not masturbation that did / 
 harm, but the inner conflict that accompanied it. He said
 
 MASTURBATION 151 
 
 that it was the shame, the reproach, the self -depreciation, 
 the breaking of good resolutions which caused nervousness. 
 He also destroyed the old cherished idea that a masturbator 
 can be recognized by this physiognomic expression, such 
 as rings under the eyes, etc. Griesinger's ideas were 
 taken up by many investigators who, after careful study, 
 came to the same conclusions, and today all observers agree 
 ^ that the dangers of masturbation have been greatly exag- 
 gerated. Thus Bloch^ states, "Today all experienced 
 physicians occupying themselves with the subject of 
 onanism and its consequences are of the opinion that 
 moderate masturbation in healthy people does no harm." 
 Moll expresses himself in a similar manner. "It is more 
 than doubtful," he says, "whether, as far as adults are 
 concerned, occasional masturbation is necessarily more 
 harmful than normal sexual intercourse." Similar views 
 are held by Kiernan, Ellis, and others. Most of them 
 agree, however, that excesses may do some harm, but no one 
 has ever established what is meant by masturbatic excesses. 
 Some authors, notably Stekel"*, maintain that the neuras- 
 thenic symptoms one finds in masturbators are always of 
 psychogenetic origin, and are the result of feeUngs of guilt 
 and fear. This idea is not shared by Freud and other 
 psychoanalysts, who believe that as masturbation is not 
 an adequate sexual outlet, it may contribute to the forma- 
 f tion of the actual neuroses. Personal experience with a 
 f| / great many cases leads me to the conviction that mas- 
 I turbation does not in any way injure the brain or cord, and 
 has no direct pernicious influence on physical health. To 
 be sure, many cases came to me with rather severe nervous 
 symptoms of the "anxiety neurosis" type which were
 
 152 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 attributed to masturbation by the patients themselves. 
 But examination invariably showed that the symptoms 
 were mainly due to psychic conflicts and often to a sudden 
 stoppage of masturbation after a prolonged practice. I 
 could always definitely demonstrate to the satisfaction of 
 the patient that so long as he had no conflicts he was not 
 affected by his masturbation; but as soon as he became ] / 
 aware of the harmfulness of it through friends, books or 
 lectures, and began to struggle against it, the symptoms 
 soon appeared. Perhaps one of the most typical cases 
 that came to my attention was the following: About six 
 years ago I was asked to see a young student of twenty-one 
 years who was said to be insane. The history as given to 
 me by the physician and the patient's mother stated that 
 the patient was well till about ten days before, when he 
 suddenly became nervous and depressed. He was con- 
 stantly afraid of insanity; he was very restless and agitated, 
 paced the room, cried much, slept little, and hardly took 
 any food. The patient made the impression of an agitated 
 depression, but the picture was so varied that I was at first 
 uncertain as to the diagnosis. I soon found, however, that 
 the symptoms as he enumerated them and his attitude and 
 manner did not fit into any of the psychoses that I had in 
 mind, but they readily corresponded to the horrifying 
 description of the results of masturbation as given in quack 
 literature. On being questioned he stated that he began to 
 masturbate at the age of eleven, and continued on an 
 average of four or five times a week until about two weeks 
 before I saw him. At that time he suddenly discovered, 
 through a friend who loaned him a book on the subject, 
 that masturbation drives one crazy, etc., and soon there-
 
 MASTURBATION 153 
 
 after he began to fear insanity, and felt all the symptoms 
 enumerated in the book. Up to the time of this distm-bance 
 he was a bright student, and stood high in his classes and 
 was absolutely well. After a few conversations, when I 
 convinced him that masturbation cannot cause insanity, 
 and showed him how he reproduced every symptom given 
 in the quack book, he soon became himself. A siniilar case 
 was that of a young woman of 21 years who suddenly 
 became listless and irritable. She suffered from in- 
 somnia, lack of appetite, and was very hysterical besides. 
 Questioning soon revealed that she had been masturbating 
 since the age of fourteen about two, three times weekly. 
 The masturbation was always evoked by erotic fancies. 
 She became ill following a "Talk to Girls" in which the 
 horrors of self-abuse were portrayed by an elderly spinster. 
 All of her acute symptoms disappeared as soon as the true 
 facts were revealed to her. 
 
 That masturbation does not interfere with physical 
 health is well demonstrated when one examines masturbat- 
 ing children. E. Neter^ reported twenty-six masturbating 
 children — eighteen girls and eight boys — all of whom were 
 not above the age of six years; he found that neuropathic 
 tendencies or heredity played no essential part, and that 
 the children themselves were in good physical condition. 
 Their psychological behavior, however, showed much 
 resemblance to the adult masturbator. Similar views were 
 reported by Friedjung, and by C. W. Townsend, who 
 reported the case of a masturbating infant eight months 
 old. He says, "The child was quite healthy."^ MolF 
 instituted inquiries about patients whom he saw as children 
 because of masturbation ; and after ten, fifteen, and twenty
 
 154 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 years he has been "astonished to learn how well boys, who 
 from the age of eight, nine or ten had masturbated for 
 several years, had developed as youths and full-grown men." 
 I have had similar experiences in the case of girls. Of the 
 many cases of masturbation that were reported to me by 
 parents about their children, none showed any physical 
 disturbance that I could discover which could in any way 
 be attributed to the masturbation. On the other hand, 
 as soon as the parents or servants made them conscious of 
 committing a crime, they reacted to it almost like adults. 
 Like Moll I have kept myself informed about boys and girls 
 who were seen by me because of masturbation over ten 
 years ago. Every one of them has developed into a healthy 
 individual although some of them masturbated for years 
 on and off without conflicts. 
 
 Without citing more cases or authorities, I will repeat that 
 I agree with those who hold that masturbation does not 
 exert any harmful influence on the physical health of 
 normal persons. Those dangers of masturbation which 
 are mentioned by some authors — to wit, that it might 
 become a fixed habit or lead to excesses — I have found only 
 in some psychopathic types. The average individual always 
 passes over from the autoerotic stage to the love object, 
 and then only rarely resorts to masturbation Jaut de mieux. 
 
 However, to say that masturbation does no physical 
 harm does not in any way imply that one may masturbate 
 with impunity. While I do not consider masturbation an 
 unnatural vice, but a natural manifestation of an impulse, 
 I believe with Von Hug-Hellmuth that it should be con- 
 trolled, especially if prematurely developed or frequently 
 indulged in, otherwise it has a deleterious influence on the
 
 MASTURBATION 155 
 
 emotional or psychic characteristics of the individual.^ 
 A child who masturbates much during the latency period 
 (between 4 and 9), especially under conflicts, may injure his 
 capacity to sublimate on higher aims, such as education.* 
 Also in adult life the conflict ensues sooner or later, and 
 the person then develops definite characteristics. Accord- 
 ing to Sadger, chronic masturbators are socially timid, 
 unkindly disposed, scrupulously truthful and devout; 
 they show a tendency towards secretiveness, and entertain 
 ideas of observation and persecution.^" Such character- 
 istics, while not observed in many masturbators, do not tend 
 toward personal happiness. 
 
 Whether it is due to the fact that masturbation does not 
 gratify the mastery impulse (Bemachtigungstrieb) as 
 asserted by Federn, Reitler, Sachs, and others, and thus 
 inhibits its development, chronic masturbators are not 
 good mixers — they lack that active aggression which every 
 male animal must possess to fit him for the competitions 
 and struggles of life, especially in relation to the preserva- 
 tion of the species. I know a number of such individuals, 
 some of whom are quite successful in their various endeavors, 
 who are very backward in their love life. They are usually 
 too lazy to enter into competition of the love game, and 
 prefer to remain old bachelors. It must, however, be 
 remembered that such individuals are usually of a psycho- 
 pathic make-up. 
 
 There are many other psychological factors connected 
 with masturbation — such as its relation to the formation of 
 the psychoneuroses, its larval forms, as well as its association 
 with hysterical fancies and dreamy states^^ which need not 
 be discussed here.
 
 156 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 In view of what has been said, one can easily surmise 
 what attitude to assume when confronted with masturba- 
 tion in children. We have mentioned above that, hke 
 any other form of development, masturbation should be 
 controlled but in exercising it, the utmost care must be 
 taken. Above all, we cannot over-emphasize the fact 
 that the old pohcy of threatening and punishing never 
 cures — it usually deviates the impulse to some other 
 abnormal path — and does an untold amount of harm. It 
 is unfortunate that parents and physicians know so little 
 of the great harm that comes to masturbating children as 
 a result of threats and punishment. Only the physician 
 who later analyzes these patients discovers the enormous 
 injury that they sustained in childhood. Of the many 
 cases who gave me a history of having been punished and 
 threatened by parents or guardians, very few really gave 
 up the practice. They continued to indulge in it secretly 
 under severe anxiety and self-torture, an indulgence which 
 was bound to leave its traces on their whole character. 
 The struggles, the depressions, and the reproaches that 
 such children go through beggar all description. Besides 
 these conscious pangs, they develop later many strange 
 psychoneurotic symptoms which may constrain or in- 
 capacitate them for the rest of their existence. To illus- 
 trate some of these influences I will cite the following case : 
 A married man was left by his wife a few weeks after their wed- 
 ding. Her parents took her home, and were ready to bring 
 about a legal separation because the young husband could 
 not consummate the marriage contract. Psychoanalysis 
 showed that he suffered from a "castration complex" as a 
 result of having been threatened by his father at a very
 
 MASTURBATION 157 
 
 early age (between 3 and 5) . He recalled that at that age 
 his father detected him playing with his genital, and threat- ^ , 
 ened to 'cut it off" if he should ever do it again. The 
 little boy was terribly frightened and cried for many hours. 
 This feeling was enhanced by the fact that shortly before 
 he cut his finger and bled considerably. For weeks he was 
 in mortal dread lest his father should make good his threat. 
 As he grew older he forgot all about this incident, but he 
 became very sensitive about this part of his body. He was 
 unable to use a public urinal for fear that some one might see 
 him. No one was allowed to come into his bed-room while 
 he was asleep or undressed — all these fears referred to his 
 unconscious fear of having it "cut off." When he married, 
 it was totally impossible for him to react normally toward 
 his wife. He was psychosexually impotent. That some 
 physicians should still instruct parents to whip masturbat- 
 ing children and resort to all sorts of stupid and barbarous 
 methods, such as, tying the hands encased in aluminum 
 gloves, tying the child to an orthopedic board every night / j 
 for many months, cliterdectomies and blistering of the 
 genitals etc., — that doctors should still be so ignorant is 
 very sad indeed. 
 
 The symptoms that the "castration complex" may give 
 origin to are naturally manifold. Hug-Hellmuth^^ holds 
 it responsible for the fear evinced by some children of 
 having their hair cut, the touching mania (D^lire de 
 toucher), which is conceived as a continual conflict between 
 the pleasure to touch the genital and the prohibition not 
 to do it, is also attributed to it. I found this complex 
 under the guise of anxiety, hysteria, compulsive ideas, and 
 paranoid manifestations. Psychoanalj'^sis furnishes abund-
 
 158 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 ant material showing that fear and punishment rarely stop 
 the practice and always harm. If a child is found mastur- 
 bating frequently, and external irritation can be excluded, 
 one should examine the psychic milieu of the child. I 
 find that children who are leading a healthful life, who are 
 associating with other children, and take an active interest 
 in child life during the day, rarely masturbate. Those who 
 came to my notice usually belonged to that class who lack 
 a normal environment; some of them were only children 
 who on the one hand, were excessively stimulated through 
 kissing, hugging and sleeping with adults and on the other 
 hand, were left to themselves most of the day; others were 
 altogether neglected and had no outlet through playing with 
 children. A change in the child's environment often stops 
 the masturbation. Parents should not become alarmed 
 when they notice masturbation in children. They should 
 quietly inquire into the causes thereof and remove them. 
 The greatest care must be taken not to make the child 
 self-conscious about its masturbation; and to avoid this, it 
 is best not to take it to those doctors who are themselves 
 in need of instruction. By approaching the subject with 
 care, delicacy, and in a spirit of kindness, the parents can 
 usually cause the child to give up the practice altogether 
 or to diminish its frequency. 
 
 It must be remembered that masturbation is a manifesta- 
 tion of the evolution of modern sex development. In both 
 children and adults it merely connotes that the individual 
 is getting much, or some, of his sexual outlet in an auto- 
 erotic manner. In the child it is a manifestation of the 
 budding sexuality and should be treated as such. It 
 hardly means anything during the autoerotic period but 
 
 /
 
 MASTURBATION " 159 
 
 one should make an effort to help the individual to get over 
 the autoerotic period and develop the need for natural 
 object love. Autoerotism in any form is not conducive 
 to happiness when practiced by any adult. Children who 
 show tendencies to linger at this period, of which masturba- 
 tion is only one sign, should be made to associate with other 
 children. Many early masturbations have ceased soon 
 after the child was sent to a kindergarten or playground 
 where they learned to give and take emotions. Some years 
 ago I was consulted about a little girl of about three years 
 who masturbated quite frequently. The parents were 
 cultured persons who were forced to live in a very small 
 community among people much below their own class and 
 consequently they hardly associated with their neighbors. 
 The only emotional relationship that the child had was 
 with its parents and an elderly woman nurse. At my 
 suggestions the mother formed a sort of kindergarten with 
 some children of the neighborhood which not only resulted 
 in her child giving up the habit but it also produced an 
 excellent change in her whole behavior. A boy of four 
 years was supposed to masturbate very frequently, he was 
 in addition very timid and secretive in his habits. This boy 
 has been jealously guarded by his neurotic mother from 
 coming in contact with other children. He was therefore 
 mentally and emotionally precocious but altogether in- 
 capable of associating with others. Here the frequent 
 masturbation was a manifestation of his inadequate emo- 
 tional outlet, and of a schizophrenic heredity. The treat- 
 ment was altogether directed towards his emotional adjust- 
 ment. His sexual life was properly directed by his parents 
 who were themselves subjected to analysis; he gradually
 
 160 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 became accustomed to animals and children and now at 
 the age of fourteen he is a healthy pubescent boy. 
 
 I could cite a great number of similar cases who if they 
 did not altogether give up masturbation have resorted to 
 it only once in a while without any deleterious effects. 
 The object of the treatment should be to direct the patient 
 towards sublimation and normal object love. 
 
 The situation is about the same in adults who tell you 
 that they began to masturbate at a certain age, mostly 
 from the age of twelve to fifteen. The same procedure 
 must be followed here, but one must remember that the 
 adult sexuality differs from the infantile sex manifestations. 
 In most cases the masturbation is here only one symptom 
 of a psychoneurosis or a psychosis, and our attention must 
 therefore be directed to the basic condition. There are, 
 however, many young people who are apparently well but 
 struggle with masturbation, or one might say that they 
 act in a perfectly normal manner as soon as they are con- 
 vinced that masturbation cannot cause any insanity or the 
 other dreadful maladies. Nor must it be imagined that 
 robbing masturbation of its horrors encourages its practice. 
 For it makes no difference whether one occupies himself 
 with sex in a positive or negative way the result is the same, 
 it is stimulated to greater activity. As soon as the patients 
 become enlightened the practice gradually decreases, and 
 as the patient has no need for constantly occupying 
 himself with sexual ideas there is less tension to be 
 removed. 
 
 There is a class of masturbators, however, who may be 
 designated as chronic because they continue the practice 
 throughout their whole life. They usually belong to the
 
 MASTURBATION 161 
 
 psychopathic class and the masturbation must be considered 
 as a result rather than a cause of the condition. 
 
 One might ask why masturbation was always considered 
 wrong and why it was associated with insanity. Anything 
 that is not done in accordance with the demands of nature 
 is conceived by the individual as wrong or as inadequate. 
 This feehng is probably organically determined; a certain 
 impulse requires a certain mode of rehef for its tension, 
 and unless that is brought about some of the tension is left 
 in suspense, as it were. Such feeling of incompleteness is 
 then readily conceived as wrong and depending on the 
 times and the individual it is either a reHgious or a hygienic 
 wrong. Formerly it was considered a sin and among religi- 
 ous people it is still so considered. Now when many are no 
 longer so reHgious as to believe that heaven will punish 
 them for it, medical science takes the place of theology and 
 masturbation is then made responsible for physical and 
 mental ailments. 
 
 Its connection with insanity is in all probabilities due to 
 
 the fact that whereas the causes of physical diseases have 
 
 been long known the science of mental diseases is still 
 
 young. It was therefore easier to make masturbation 
 
 responsible for nervous and mental diseases concerning 
 
 whose natures and origins one knew little, then let us say, 
 
 for pneumonia or indigestion. It was thus very simple to 
 
 say that neurasthenia and hysteria were the results of 
 
 masturbation because no one knew anything about the 
 
 genesis of these diseases, and because such patients usually 
 
 masturbated. Moreover, the so-called "masturbation 
 
 insanity" described by some psychiatrists of the old schools 
 
 was mostly dementia prsecox. Here the emotional de- 
 11
 
 162 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 terioration characteristic of the disease allows the patient 
 to masturbate shamelessly whenever the impulse moves him 
 to it. Long before the disease is recognized by the relatives 
 the patient is seen "abusing himself" and when he is later 
 recognized as insane, the relatives and often also the family 
 physician attribute the disease to masturbation whereas 
 in reality it is only an effect of dementia praecox. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Handbuch der Sexual wissenschaften, p. 617. 
 
 2. Cf. Chapter XII. 
 
 3. Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit, p. 471. 
 
 4. Uber Onanie, Sexual probleme, LX. Aug., 1913. 
 
 5. Die Masturbation im vorschulpflichten. Alter Arch. f. Kinder- 
 heilkunde. Vol. LX-LXI., p. 497. 
 
 6. "Thigh Friction in Children Under One Year," American 
 Pediatric Soc, Montreal, 1896. 
 
 7. Sexual Life of the Child, p. 186. 
 
 8. Hug-Hellmuth: Aus dem Seelenleben des Kindes. 
 
 9. Cf. Freud: Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex, p. 38, 
 Translated by A. A. Brill. 
 
 10. Jahrbuch fiir Psychoanalyses, Bd. LV. 
 
 11. Cf. Chapters VII and XII. 
 
 12. Axis dem Seelenleben des Kindes.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES (OBSESSIONS, 
 DOUBTS, PHOBIAS) 
 
 Their Relation to the Sadistic Component and the 
 Psychology of Love and Hatred 
 
 During the spring of 1909, the patient R., twenty-three 
 years old, born in New York City, of Hebrew parentage, 
 married, driver by occupation, applied for treatment in 
 the neurological department of the Vanderbilt clinic. He 
 was examined by Dr. C. Beling, who, after discussing the 
 case with me, made the diagnosis "compulsion neurosis, 
 probably paranoid," and referred the patient to the depart- 
 ment of psychiatry to be treated by me. 
 
 R. was in excellent physical condition. There ' was 
 nothing to attract one's attention to him anthropologic- 
 ally; his features were well formed and symmetrical, 
 mentally he was alert and intelligent, answering questions 
 readily and relevantly and his judgment and reasoning 
 corresponded to his type — a bright, thoroughly American- 
 ized young man of Russian-Jewish extraction. 
 
 According to the patient there was nothing to note about 
 
 his family history. He was the only child and as far as 
 
 he could judge there were no mental or nervous diseases 
 
 in the family. His own life was not marked by any 
 
 special events. He attended the public school up to the 
 
 age of fourteen years and was a good student. After 
 
 163
 
 164 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 leaving school he worked and then peddled, first with his 
 father and then alone in the neighboring farming districts. 
 His present position he had obtained two years before. I 
 will add here that upon entering somewhat deeper into 
 my patient's symptom-complex I soon became convinced 
 that I dealt with a case of compulsion neurosis and that 
 there was nothing paranoid in it. 
 
 By compulsion neurosis in the Freudian sense we under- 
 stand those cases which present obsessions, doubts and 
 phobias and which are commonly called psychoasthenias. 
 
 The patient sought treatment because for four years he 
 had been annoyed by the thought that all the Jews would 
 be killed by the Christians. To use his own words: "I 
 have the idea that all Jews will be killed by Christians. I 
 know the idea is foolish, but I cannot shake it off. • It is 
 always with me and at times is so strong that I almost 
 believe it. I think that I will be killed because all Jews 
 will be killed. I argue with myself about the impossibility 
 of this idea, but I always come to the conclusion that 
 although it is absurd it might happen and this naturally 
 depresses me. I begin to worry and feel sorry for my poor 
 father and I often cry over it." 
 
 What the patient himself thought strange was the fact 
 that he had absolutely no reason for such thoughts. He 
 never had any trouble with any Christian. On the 
 contrary he could number many Christians among his 
 friends. He had been employed by a Christian firm and 
 was highly regarded and the one person with whom he 
 had some differences was the only other Jew who was 
 employed by the same firm. To my question he answered 
 that on a few occasions he had thought of committing
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 165 
 
 suicide. It came to him as a sort of a command: "You 
 must die." But he argued that it would be useless to do it 
 as the Christians would then cut up his body. He stated 
 that the idea came on suddenly one day about four years 
 before. It at first surprised and seemed strange to him, 
 but he soon found that he could not rid himself of it. He 
 had to think of it or of something referring to it. When 
 asked to explain he said that he was always spinning 
 fancies around it. He elaborated upon all sorts of 
 abstruse questions in reference to it, e.g., what kind of a 
 world would it be after all the Jews were killed; what 
 would Mrs. X. do; suppose Mr. Z. escapes, etc. As a 
 result of all this he was very depressed, had no ambition 
 and could take no interest in anything. 
 
 Besides these obsessions he complained of headaches and 
 a peculiar "dull feeling" which came on from time to time 
 and during which he could not think. He also stated 
 that he was very often suspicious. He feared that some 
 one would make remarks to him. This only occurred to 
 him when he visited a public urinal. 
 
 We see then that the main feature of the case is the 
 obsessive thinking. The only detail that would lead one 
 to think of paranoia is the suspicion in public urinals. 
 
 In his observation on the defense-neuropsychoses, Freud 
 describes the essence and mechanism of compulsion neurosis 
 as follows:^ "Sexual experiences of early childhood play 
 the same part in the etiology of the compulsion neurosis 
 as in hysteria, but whereas the latter is characterized by 
 passivity the former is noted for its aggression or sexual 
 activity. The essence of the compulsion neurosis may be 
 expressed in the following formula: Obsessions are always
 
 166 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 transformed reproaches returning from repression and always 
 refer to a pleasurably accomplished sexual action of childhood. 
 The typical course of compulsion neurosis is as follows : The 
 first period, or the period of childish unmorality, contains 
 the germs for the later neurosis. There is at first a sexual 
 seduction which later makes the repression possible. 
 This is followed by the actions of sexual aggressions against 
 the other sex which later manifest themselves as actions 
 of reproach. This period is brought to an end by the 
 appearance of — the often self ripened — sexual matur- 
 ity. A reproach then attaches itself to the memory of 
 that pleasurable action and the connection with the initial 
 experience of passivity makes it possible — only after 
 conscious and recollected effort — to repress it and replace 
 it by the primary symptom of the defense. The third 
 period, that of apparent healthiness, but really of successful 
 defense, begins with the symptoms of scrupulousness, 
 shame and diffidence. The next period of the disease 
 is characterized by the return of the repressed reminis- 
 cences, i.e., by a failure of the defense. But the revived 
 reminiscences and the reproaches formed from them 
 never enter into consciousness unchanged. Instead, com- 
 promise formations between the repressed and repressing 
 ideas become conscious as an obsession and obsessive 
 affect and substitute the pathogenic memory in the con- 
 scious life. In the further course of the disease, depending 
 on whether the memory content of the reproachful action 
 alone forces an entrance into consciousness or whether it 
 takes with it the accompanying reproaching affect, we may 
 have two forms of the neurosis. The first represents the 
 typical obsession, the content of which attracts the patient's
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 167 
 
 attentiono Only an indefinite displeasure is perceived as an 
 affect, whereas for the content of the obsession the only 
 suitable affect would be one of reproach. The second form 
 of compulsion neurosis results if the repressed reproach and 
 not the repressed memory content forces a replacement in 
 the conscious psychic sphere. The affect of the reproach 
 can change itseK into any other affect of displeasure, and if 
 this occurs there is nothing to hinder the substituting affect 
 from becoming conscious. Thus the reproach (of having 
 performed in childhood some sexual actions) may be 
 easily transformed into shame (lest someone becomes 
 aware of it), into social fear (fearing punishment from 
 others), into delusions of observation (fear of betraying 
 those actions to others), into fear of temptation (justified 
 distrust in one's own ability to resist), etc. Moreover, 
 the memory content of the reproachful action may also 
 be represented in consciousness, or it may be altogether 
 concealed, which makes diagnosis very difficult. Many 
 cases of the so-called "periodic neurasthenia" or "periodic 
 melancholia" may be explained by compulsive affects. 
 Besides these compromise symptoms which signify a 
 return of the repression and hence a failure of the origin- 
 ally achieved defense, the compulsion neurosis forms a 
 series of other symptoms of a totally different origin. 
 The ego really tries to defend itself against those descend- 
 ants of the initial repressed reminiscences, and in this con- 
 flict of defense symptoms are produced, which may be 
 designated as "secondary defense." These are altogether 
 protective measures, which have performed good service 
 in the struggle carried on against the obsession and the 
 obsessing affects. If these helps in the conflict of the
 
 168 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 defense really succeed in repressing anew the symptoms 
 of return obtruding themselves on the ego, the compulsion 
 then transmits itself to the protective measures them- 
 selves and produces a third form of the compulsion neu- 
 rosis, the compulsive actions. These are never primary. 
 They never contain anything else but a defense, never an 
 aggression. Despite their peculiarity they can always 
 be fully explained by reduction to the compulsive remin- 
 iscences which they oppose. 
 
 The secondary defense of the obsessions can be brought 
 about by a forcible deviation to other thoughts of possibly 
 contrary content; hence in a case of success there is com- 
 pulsive reasoning concerning abstract and transcendental 
 subjects, because the repressed ideas always concern 
 themselves with the sensuous, or the patient tries to become 
 master of every compulsive idea through logical labor and 
 by appealing to his conscious memory. This leads to 
 compulsive thinking and examination and to doubting 
 mania. The priority of the perception before the memory 
 in these examinations at first induce and then force the 
 patient to collect and preserve all objects with which he 
 comes in contact. The secondary defense against the 
 compulsive affects results in a greater number of defensive 
 measures which are capable of being transformed into 
 compulsive action. These can be grouped according to 
 their tendency. We may have acts of penitence (irksome 
 ceremonial and observation of numbers), of prevention 
 (diverse phobias, superstitions, pedantry, aggravation of the 
 primary symptom of scrupulousness), acts of fear of 
 betrayal (collecting papers and shyness), and acts of 
 becoming unconscious (dispomania). Among these com-
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 169 
 
 pulsive acts and impulses the phobias play the greatest 
 part as limitations of the patient's capacity." 
 
 Let us now return to our patient and see in how far he 
 agrees with the description just read. Bearing in mind 
 Freud's dictum that no neurosis is possible in a normal 
 vita sexualis, I naturally made a thorough examination of 
 the patient's psychosexual development. As usual in such 
 examinations his answers were monosyllabic and evasive 
 and all that I could elicit was that he was perfectly well 
 sexually until the age of jfifteen or sixteen years when he 
 began to masturbate. He began to consort with women 
 at eighteen years, but indulged rarely. He admitted that 
 his marriage was not a happy one, but stated that his 
 sexual life was normal. Previous to marriage he went 
 through many conflicts. He was afraid that masturbation 
 would drive him crazy and therefore stopped it, but he 
 then began to suffer from frequent pollutions which worried 
 him a good deal. He entertained the usual hypochon- 
 driacal ideas of the masturbator. He seemed to be un- 
 willing to tell me anything else and I did not urge him. 
 I was sure that there was abundant material and that 
 he would tell it to me sooner or later. In the course of 
 psychoanalysis we often come to what seems a stone wall. 
 The patient has nothing to tell us and he does not dream. 
 This is only a form of resistance which the experienced 
 psychoanalysist must know how to break. 
 
 As the character of a person represents the reaction 
 formations of his latency period it is always wise to exam- 
 ine these reactions especially those that are accentuated, 
 and as our patient seemed to be very shy — he never looked 
 me in the face while talking — I asked him if he was un-
 
 170 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 usually bashful. To my surprise he answered that bash- 
 fulness or shame was responsible for his obsession. He 
 stated that he had been abnormally bashful and shy since 
 he was twelve years old. This was especially noticeable 
 when he was in the presence of women. A few years be- 
 fore he became acquainted with a young lady who invited 
 him to call. He was very anxious to do so, but was too 
 shy and bashful to accept her invitation. The following 
 morning while half awake he noticed that he was not bash- 
 ful. This gave him the idea that if he could remain in a 
 half waking state he would not be bashful. He remained 
 in this state for two days, when he suddenly began to 
 think of Jews and Christians and later of the obsession. 
 This half waking state was simply a secondary defense 
 against a painful idea. The neuroses make prolific use of 
 such mechanisms. Thus many dipsomanias are nothing 
 but flights from consciousness or means of becoming un- 
 conscious. I had occasion to analyze two female patients 
 who were subject to screaming spells. They had to scream 
 apparently without any provocation. Analysis showed 
 that the screaming was merely a flight from a painful 
 thought. With their screaming they drowned their inner 
 painful and disagreeable voices. Many hysterical fainting 
 spells show the same mechanism. Our patient merged into 
 a semi-stuporous state not only to escape from the abnormal 
 bashfulness, but from those thoughts which caused this 
 reaction. 
 
 This revelation threw no hght on the subject. From 
 the nature of the obsession and the patient's extreme 
 devotion to his parents, especially the father, I at once 
 surmised that there was probably a strong repressed
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 171 
 
 sadistic component and that the pronounced abnormal 
 bashfulness could only be looked upon as a transformed 
 reproach of sexual acts in childhood. On going more 
 deeply into the infantile sexuality I discovered the follow- 
 ing facts: R. was an only child and therefore received more 
 than the usual amount of love from his parents. ^ He was 
 idolized by both parents, especially by his mother with 
 whom he slept almost constantly until the age of four 
 years. This was favored by the fact that his father's 
 business necessitated his remaining away from home for 
 long periods. At that age something happened which 
 changed his mother's attitude toward him. The patient 
 attempted something of a sexual nature with a little girl 
 with whom he played on the roof and was severely punished 
 for it by the girl's and his own mother. The latter be- 
 came very severe with him. She allowed him to sleep 
 with her but kept him at a distance. He felt this very 
 keenly and cried in silence, but said nothing. The mother 
 instinctively reproached herself for the son's sexual pre- 
 maturity. By giving him too much affection she awak- 
 ened and kept alive his infantile sexuality which then in- 
 cited him to attempt with the little girl what his own 
 mother innocently permitted. The estrangement from his 
 mother strengthened his attachment for his father and as 
 the latter was rarely at home and made a great fuss over 
 him whenever he returned that feeling continued for some 
 time. The boy was very happy when his father returned 
 and cried bitterly when he left home. It would seem that 
 the latency period did not progress in the normal manner 
 for the patient recalled many instances of sexual aggres- 
 sion and a homosexual experience with two adults. At
 
 172 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the age of from six to seven years he was self-willed, wild 
 and very revengeful. He evinced a special cruelty to ani- 
 mals and was happy when he could kill a bird or kick a 
 cat. One of his favorite pastimes was to wring the necks 
 of chickens or to stuff up their nasal openings with wax 
 and hold their beaks until they suffocated. 
 
 We now come to the age of puberty. The patient 
 recalled that at the age of nine years he was very inquisi- 
 tive sexually and would look under girls' dresses whenever 
 he could. At twelve years a man attempted to have 
 sexual relations with him, but he refused. Soon there- 
 after he became shy and abnormally bashful. From 
 twelve to fifteen years there were no sexual experiences 
 to note. It may be called a deferred latency period. At 
 fifteen he plaj^ed with little girls and about the same time 
 began to masturbate. When he was about sixteen, while 
 peddling in the farming districts he began to exhibit in 
 the presence of women. He claimed that this action 
 gave him a "strange pleasant feeling." At the age of 
 seventeen he began to practise active pederastry with a 
 boy of thirteen which continued for about a year once 
 every three weeks. At eighteen he began to consort 
 with women, but with the exception of a few experiences 
 he led a continent life until he was married at twenty-two 
 years. Since the birth of his child he had practised coitus 
 interruptus. His married life did not seem to influence 
 his neurosis. He stated that he was especially annoyed 
 by his obsession during the marriage ceremony, and that 
 although the obsession was not so strong during the first 
 year of his married life it soon resumed its former com- 
 pulsiveness and constancy.
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 173 
 
 The facts that I have thus far obtained did not come out 
 as smoothly as you might imagine. It was a constant 
 struggle with enormous unconscious and conscious 
 resistances, the overcoming of which required much effort 
 and patience and, I might add, skill. But the patient 
 soon became interested in the work and as the resistances 
 were broken he spoke freely about his abnormal sexual 
 life. 
 
 As has been stated before, we make use of dream inter- 
 pretation, for the dream is the via regia to the unconscious. 
 At my request the patient brought me his dreams. It was 
 through these dreams that I discovered most of the details 
 enumerated above. To show how the dream gives us in- 
 formation I will cite a dream which he brought about four 
 months after the beginning of the analysis. It read as fol- 
 lows: "I passed a store and saw a mad dog, a cat and a goat. 
 A crowd was watching them. I said to somebody, ^It is a 
 wonder that they let that mad dog bite the horse.' Just then a 
 policeman began to shoot at the mad dog. He fired six shots, 
 but missed it. The policeman then got in the window and was 
 going to take the 7nad dog to the lock-up, and it looked something 
 like a horse and then it was a man." While still half asleep 
 he said to himself "I must write that down for the doctor!" 
 
 To one who knows the language of the unconscious this 
 dream tells many things. The appendix to the dream 
 "I must write that down for the doctor" very often occurs 
 in dreams in the course of psychoanalysis and regularly 
 corresponds to a great resistance to the confession 
 involved in the dream and is frequently followed by the 
 forgetting of the dream. It also means that the dreamer 
 decided not to tell anything about it to the doctor. This
 
 174 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 was also confirmed by the crowd in the dream which 
 signifies a secret. As the dreamer himself is always the 
 principal actor in the dream I concluded that he must be 
 concealed under the mad dog. This, too, is confirmed 
 by the fact that the mad dog later became transformed 
 into a man. But as the dog was also a horse, there must 
 be some community between the horse and the dog and 
 the man. The type of the dream shows that it is of a 
 sexual nature.' When I asked him to tell me what the 
 policeman brought to his mind he finally recalled a rather 
 disagreeable reminiscence. At the age of fifteen he was 
 in the habit of taking little girls on his lap and on the 
 pretence of playing with them he masturbated. On one 
 of these occasions in the Bronx Park he was suddenly 
 detected by a policeman who ran after him and threatened 
 to shoot him. Animals in dreams as mentioned above are 
 usually sexual symbols and as he could give no associations I 
 was convinced that there must have been something between 
 him and the animals of a sexual nature. These are no 
 arbitrary deductions, but they are based on psychological 
 facts which all who are interested can find in "The In- 
 terpretation of Dreams." I did not hesitate to tell him 
 my conclusions, and after enormous resistance and great 
 emotivity he admitted that he was guilty of bestiality with 
 the horse, dog and sheep. This occurred while he was 
 peddling in the farming districts, between the ages of 
 seventeen and eighteen. It was not a case of erotic zoophi- 
 lia, as he has not resorted to such practises since. It was 
 simply a case of faut de mieux in a sexually hyperesthetic 
 and very bashful boy. 
 
 Without going into any detailed discussion, I will simply
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 175 
 
 state that a study of our patient's psychosexnal life shows 
 that it agrees in every particular with what I have quoted 
 above concerning the development of the normal and 
 abnormal sexual life from the polymorphous perverse 
 infantile sexuality. Let us now see how this corresponds 
 with the patient's compulsive idea. 
 
 When I first heard the principal obsession, viz., that 
 all the Jews will be killed by the Christians, I was, perforce, 
 reminded of such personages as Catherine de Medici and 
 Gil de Rais. I was struck by the idea of such unheard-of 
 wholesale slaughter, and remembering that the symptom 
 represents the whole or a partial sexual manifestation of the 
 patient from the sources of the normal or perverse partial 
 impulses of sexuality, I naturally thought that there must 
 be a marked enhancement of the sadistic component in the 
 patient's psychosexuality. As I have shown above, my as- 
 sumption was fully confirmed. Further investigations of 
 the causes of the obsession in mature life brought out the 
 fact that it appeared suddenly at about the age of twenty 
 while the patient was seriously thinking of marrying, and 
 just after getting over an unhappy love affair. This amour 
 was with the daughter of a farmer whose acquaintance he 
 made while traveling near her home. He was very fond of 
 the girl and would have married her but for his father who 
 would not hear of his marrying a Christian. His father 
 played a peculiar part in R.'s life. There was a constant 
 struggle of the two contrary feelings of love and hatred. 
 Paradoxical as it may seem, he hated him as intensely as 
 he loved him. The continued existence of such contrasts 
 or ambivalent feelings, is possible only under special psychic 
 determination and with the help of the unconscious state.
 
 176 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 We know that the contrasting feelings of love and hatred 
 can be readily entertained in reference to indifferent persons. 
 Thus, a clerk may think that his superior is an excellent 
 executive man, but an unscrupulous lawyer. But when it 
 concerns some one nearer to us, let us say a wife or parent, we 
 strive for a single feeling and we therefore overlook the faults 
 which may provoke displeasure. But the love does not ex- 
 tinguish the hatred. It merely represses it into the uncon- 
 scious where it is kept from destruction and may even grow 
 in intensity.* The determinant of this peculiar constel- 
 lation of love lies in the separation of these contrasting 
 feelings and a repression of one — usually the hatred — at a 
 very early age. As a preliminary explanation of the com- 
 pulsion neurosis, Freud states that the sadistic component 
 of love was especially strongly developed constitutionally 
 in those cases of unconscious hatred and for that reason 
 they were subjected to a premature and thorough repres- 
 sion. The phenomena of the neurosis, then, take their 
 origin on the one hand from the conscious attachment 
 which comes to the surface as a reaction to hatred, and on 
 the other hand from the unconscious sadism in operation. 
 If we review the patient's relation to his father we find that 
 at an early age he was, as it were, his rival. Whenever the 
 father was home he had to renounce many pleasures, such 
 as sleeping with his mother. Later on when his mother 
 changed her attitude toward him he became very attached 
 to his father, but he also often had occasion to hate him be- 
 cause he was often punished. As he grew older these feel- 
 ings were intensified by the fact that his father was an 
 orthodox Jew and he wanted to be an American. He was 
 ashamed to be seen with his father because the street
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 177 
 
 urchins made derogatory remarks about him. They called 
 him Jew and Sheeny. He himself often applied the same 
 epithets to him, which was naturaUj^ followed by a re- 
 proach and an outburst of affection. When his father 
 opposed his marriage with the Christain girl the old rivalry 
 was revived. His father again stood in his way of attain- 
 ing his sexual object. Just as he kept him away from his 
 mother during childhood so he now prevented him from 
 marrying. His feeling for the girl was also characterized 
 by the contrasts of love and hatred, but whereas this was 
 largely a conscious perception, his former intense con- 
 scious hostility toward his father escaped him long ago 
 and could only be brought to consciousness in the face of 
 the most violent resistance. This was especially favored 
 by his long abstinence and recent love which thus helped 
 to enhance his libido and to take up again the old struggle 
 against the authority of the father. We may say that 
 the repression of the infantile hatred toward his father 
 gave rise to all further happenings of the neurosis. While 
 he was wavering between his father and his beloved and 
 escaped from conscious reflection by merging into a semi- 
 stuperous state, he was one day attracted by the big red 
 head lines of a newspaper about the massacre of the Jews 
 in Russia. As his father was a Russian Jew a thought 
 something like the following suddenly flashed through his 
 mind: "If my father were only there," which may be com- 
 pleted "he would be killed and I could marry a Christian;" 
 but this conscious perception was naturally at once sup- 
 pressed. A few days later he began to compare notes 
 about Jews and Christians which finally developed into 
 the obsession "All Jews will be killed by Christians." 
 
 12
 
 178 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 In other words the whole process followed the well-known 
 mechanism of projection, i.e., an inner perception is sup- 
 pressed and as a substitute its content comes into con- 
 sciousness as a perception from without after it has under- 
 gone some distortion. The distortions are effected in the 
 same way as in dreams, i.e., by substitution, displacement, 
 inversion, ellipses, etc. Here it was not a real distortion, 
 but rather a generalization which is a common mechanism 
 of obsessions.^ 
 
 After this analysis the obsession from which the patient 
 had suffered for about four years and which had caused 
 him untold misery soon disappeared. The treatment 
 lasted for about four months, during which I saw the 
 patient at first three times a week, then twice and once a 
 week. We usually spent an hour at each session. The 
 patient was by no means cured. There was still much to 
 be done. Thus his homosexual component had to be dealt 
 with,* After eight months treatment I discharged him 
 as cured. Since then he has become more ambitious. 
 He gave up his position as driver and is now the owner 
 of a well paying business. 
 
 The analysis of this case fully confirms Freud's assertion 
 that a special aggressive activity in childhood is char- 
 acteristic of the later compulsion neurosis. This activity 
 manifests itself preponderately in an intensive occupation 
 with the desire for looking and knowing. The rich and 
 active emotional life of childhood helps to develop pro- 
 fusely the feelings of love and hatred toward parents, 
 or sisters and brothers, a mechanism which will be described 
 
 * Analysis showed that his suspicion in public urinals was due to a 
 repressed wish to exhibit in order to attract those near him.
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 179 
 
 as the cedipus complex, which, in addition to the curiosity 
 concerning sex and birth, forms the central complex of 
 the neurosis. One always finds in the symptom formation 
 of compulsion neurosis a continuous struggle between 
 love and hatred for the same person, and as we said above 
 such feeling is only possible under special psychic 
 determinations. The following case demonstrates some 
 of these factors:* 
 
 A young man of twenty-three years had been suflfering from a very 
 severe compulsion neurosis since his boyhood. He was obsessed with 
 a great many very bizarre obsessions, a number of which dealt with 
 the idea of death. For years he had to argue for hours and some- 
 times for days about the idea of "killing time." Some of the ob- 
 sessive thoughts ran as follows: "Am I accomphshing anything in my 
 work, or am I only killing time?" " Is Mr. X. (a prominent architect) 
 getting the pleasure out of his work, or is he only killing time?" 
 "What is the use of doing anything if you are only killing time?" 
 When he was invited to society he at once began to argue about 
 killing time. During his visits with me he would often implore me to 
 stop the analysis and answer some of his questions about killing time. 
 He wanted to know whether I enjoyed my work, or if I was only killing 
 time. One of his oft-repeated questions was : " Do people really enjoy 
 living, or are they only killing time for want of something to do?" 
 In the characteristic manner of this disease he formed the strangest 
 sort of combinations about this obsessive thought. The patient was 
 with me for months, and, though he made much progress, I was help- 
 less when it came to this obsession. A niunber of times I felt sure that 
 I had found the solution, but while he was perfectly willing to accept 
 what I said, the obsession continued unabated, until one day when I 
 analyzed one of his dreams in which an old man, who proved to be his 
 father, played a prominent part. I wiU say, in passing, that his 
 neurosis was directed entirely against his father. His feelings toward 
 the latter were ambivalent; he was abnormally attached to him, and at 
 
 *This case was originally reported in The Journal of Abnormal 
 Psychology, December, 1913. Cf. Brill: Psychoanalytic Fragments 
 from a Day's Work.
 
 180 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the same time he hated him unconsciously. This was especially en- 
 hanced by his father's second marriage. He hated his stepmother with 
 all the possible hatred of a stepson, although on the surface nothing 
 could be detected, if anything he was believed to be devoted to her. 
 The associations to the old man of the dream recalled many old men 
 he had known, plus a mass of ideas connected with them. He con- 
 tinued to associate ideas for some time, and one set of associations re- 
 peated itself with slight variations over and over again, until it occurred 
 to me that there must be some reason for this recurrence. The asso- 
 ciations ran as follows: "Mr. X. is a fine old man. . . . Mr. Z. is 
 another nice old gentleman, whom I met while I took my trip aroimd 
 the world. He was very interested in me — he took a sort of 
 fatherly interest in me. He is not as old as he looks; his long, gray 
 beard gives him a patriarchal air; now he reminds me of Father Time, 
 who is represented as an old, patriarchal-looking man, holding a 
 scythe." When I pressed him for further associations he thought of 
 his own father, to whom he often referred as "the old man," and 
 added: "My father is not as old, and has no beard, though he shows 
 some resemblance to Mr. Z." The meaning of the obsession suddenly 
 became clear to me. "Killing time" meant killing his father, which 
 was one of his unconscious thoughts. The obsession was formed first 
 by the slight resemblance between the picture of Father Time and 
 his own father* by substituting the idea, "Father Time," for the 
 visual picture and by omitting the word father (ellipsis). The idea 
 of killing was symbolized by the scythe. 
 
 It is impossible for me to describe the patient's reaction on hearing 
 this analysis; I wish it were possible to depict it in some way. The 
 emotional reaction was marvelous; for the moment he was speechless; 
 he then cried and laughed, and exclaimed, " Now you've got it, I can 
 feel it, you have taken a ton off my head." The obsession disap- 
 peared with the analysis. 
 
 However, whenever an intensive love is confronted by 
 just as strong a hatred there always results a partial paralysis 
 of volition. It is an inability to form decisions in all those 
 actions for which love forms the motive power. This 
 
 *He finally recalled that while living abroad a few years ago his 
 father wore a full beard.
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 181 
 
 indecision does not confine itself long to one group, but 
 becomes diffused over all actions by the familiar mechanism 
 of displacement. 
 
 This gives rise to the predominance of compulsion and 
 doubt as we find them in the psychic life of compulsive 
 neurotics. "Doubt corresponds to the inner perception of 
 the indecision, which in consequence of the inhibition of 
 love through hatred usurps every intentional action of the 
 patient."^ It is really the doubt above love which should 
 be the most certain of all subjective feelings, which spreads 
 to everything else and then becomes displaced to the 
 most indifferent trifles. He who doubts his love must 
 also doubt everything of lesser importance. A few 
 years ago I was consulted by a man of fifty-six years 
 who was obsessed with the idea that he was not fit for 
 the position he occupied. He stated that he was not 
 sure of his actions, that no matter what he did he imagined 
 was wrong, and that he really made many business 
 mistakes. He resigned his position as manager of a big 
 business concern, but after examining everj^thing the 
 officers of the company were satisfied that he made no 
 mistakes at all and insisted upon his remaining with them. 
 I myself spoke with a member of the firm who told me 
 that during his thirty years service there had been no 
 complaints against him. The patient admitted that he 
 was quite capable of filling his office up to a few months 
 before but that since then he had been doubting the 
 correctness of his business transactions. In brief it was 
 a typical case of doubting mania. 
 
 The analysis revealed that the neurosis became manifest 
 when he was about to marry a young woman who was
 
 182 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 twenty-two years his junior. He at first worried over the 
 fact that he would not be able to" make good "as a husband, 
 because he believed himself to be sexually impotent. This 
 doubt then became generalized and displaced to all his 
 business transactions. Long before he consulted me he no 
 longer thought of his sexual impotence, but occupied him- 
 self constantly with absurd questions concerning legitimate 
 business affairs. 
 
 The same doubt which produces uncertainty and leads 
 to continued repetition in the protective measures, in 
 order to drive away uncertainty, finally brings it about 
 that these protective acts become just as impossible of 
 accomplishment as the originally inhibited decision of 
 love. Thus a patient recommended to me by Dr. Pierce 
 Bailey of New York was in the habit of praying for an 
 hour and sometimes even longer before retiring. His 
 father stated that he could not be stopped and that he 
 usually fell asleep while praying on his knees. This 
 patient was not very religious. He told me that his 
 prayers were constantly interrupted by extraneous 
 blasphemous thoughts which usually repeated the opposite 
 of what he was praying for. Investigation showed that 
 his prayers were usually offered for those who played the 
 leading part in his neurosis and that the fancies obtruding 
 themselves contained the opposite impulse of that which 
 the prayer was to ward off. 
 
 The compulsion, however, is an attempted compensa- 
 tion for the doubt and a correction for the unbearable 
 state of inhibition as evidenced by the doubt. If any of 
 the inhibited resolutions is finally decided upon, it must 
 be brought to completion. To be sure it is no longer the
 
 THE COMPULSION NEUROSES 183 
 
 original one, but its dammed in energy will not abandon 
 the opportunity of finding an outlet through the substitu- 
 tive action. It therefore manifests itself in commands 
 and prohibitions depending on whether the loved or the 
 hostile impulse occupies the path of discharge. If the 
 obsessive command cannot be brought to execution it 
 produces an unbearable tension which is perceived as 
 marked anxiety. 
 
 These are some of the deeper mechanisms of compulsion 
 neurosis. I realize that some may find them somewhat 
 too complicated to follow, but the only way of obviating 
 these difficulties is close study and personal experience. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Selected papers on Hysteria, p. 155. 
 
 2. Cj. Chap. XIV. on The Only Child. 
 
 3. C/. Chap. IV. 
 
 4. Jahrb. f. Psychoanal. u. Psychopath. Forschungen, Vol. I, p. 375. 
 
 5. L. c, p. 419. See also, The Adjustment of the Jew to the 
 American Enviroment, Mental Hygiene, April, 1918. 
 
 6. L. c. p. 416.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 THE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN THE NEUROSES 
 
 One of the rules that I invariably follow in my psycho- 
 analytic work is not to analyze the patient's dreams until I 
 am fairly well acquainted with the "lay of the land" of his 
 mental make-up. Dream analyses require the full coopera- 
 tion of the dreamer. He must conceal absolutely nothing 
 that enters into his consciousness during the analysis and be 
 ready to answer all questions put to him. It often happens 
 that I hear dreams that could be analyzed without any 
 assistance, but, as a rule, it is impossible to get at all the 
 facts without the dreamer's help. To obtain this one must 
 have the patient's confidence; there must be some rapport 
 between patient and doctor, and it usually takes a few 
 weeks before this is established. Now and then, however, 
 one is forced to make an exception, and rarely it is even 
 necessary to utilize dream analysis to bring about this 
 rapport. It is of such an experience that I am about to 
 speak. 
 
 A very brilliant but rather skeptical woman of thirty-six 
 
 years — she was a doctor's daughter — was referred to me for 
 
 psychoanalytic treatment because of a very severe neurosis 
 
 from which she had been suffering over fifteen years. She 
 
 soon learned from friends and acquaintances that I was a 
 
 dream interpreter, and was anxiously waiting to find out 
 
 the meaning of her dreams. At my request she brought me 
 
 dreams every day, but I refused to tell her their meaning. 
 
 184
 
 THE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN THE NEUROSES 185 
 
 She then sought information from the Hteratiire, and, con- 
 trary to my wishes, read my translation of Freud's Selected 
 Papers on Hysteria. One morning she brought the follow- 
 ing dream: ''/ was with a crowd of people, and we wanted 
 to pick some flowers, or rather wanted to steal them. We 
 came to a garden and I saw beautiful flowers. I was about 
 to steal some when suddenly I descried a man looking out 
 of a window. Fearing that I was detected, I asked him 
 whether I could pick some flowers. He juinped up and cried: 
 'Now I know who has been stealing all these flowers.' I was 
 frightened, started to run away, and awoke.'' 
 
 When she finished reciting the dream she teasingly 
 demanded its meaning, and when I reminded her that I did 
 not analyze dreams for the first few weeks, she mockingly 
 accused me of not knowing what the dream meant and 
 harassed me with the question: ''What does it mean to pick 
 flowers in a dream?" until I was forced to take up the analy- 
 sis. When I asked her to focus her attention on the dream 
 and repeat her thoughts she insisted that nothing came to 
 her mind. This answer, "Nothing comes to my mind," is 
 often heard from beginners who are not accustomed to 
 "continuous associations," from people who are impeded 
 by conscious or unconscious resistances, and, last but not 
 least, one hears this answer where the element of the dream 
 refers to a symbolic expression. In the last case the mean- 
 ing is found in the symbol or double meaning expressed in 
 the element of the dream. It did not take me long to decide 
 that we dealt here with the last theory, and the meaning of 
 the dream soon became clear to me. As a prologue to the 
 interpretation I shall relate the following facts: As I said 
 above, I was aware that the patient had read Professor
 
 186 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Freud's book, and when she kept on hurling at me the ques- 
 tion of flower picking in the dream some passages in the book 
 flashed through my mind. These passages deal with the 
 mechanism of the therapeutic effects of the psychoneuroses. 
 Thus, we are told that the "psychoneuroses are distorted 
 substitutive gratifications of impulses, the existence of which 
 one must deny to himself and to others;" that "their 
 capacity to exist rests on the distortion and misjudgment;" 
 and that with the solution of the riddle they present, and 
 with the acceptance of the solution by the patients, these 
 morbid states become incapable of existence."^ In brief, it 
 is asserted that the morbid symptom disappears as soon as 
 psychoanalysis discovers its hidden meaning and brings it to 
 the surface. By way of illustration, Freud mentions the 
 fact that the visual hallucination of the Holy Virgin used to 
 be a frequent occurrence among peasant girls, and as long 
 as such a manifestation drew a large crowd of believers, and 
 even resulted in the erection of a chapel over the holy 
 shrine, the visionary state of these girls remained inac- 
 cessible to suggestion. To-day even the priesthood has 
 changed its attitude toward such manifestations. They 
 allow the doctor and the policeman to take charge of the 
 visionary girl, and consequently the Holy Virgin seldom 
 reveals herself nowadays. To illustrate further, he says: 
 "Let us assume that a circle of ladies and gentlemen of good 
 breeding have agreed upon making a day's excursion to 
 some country place. The ladies have decided among 
 themselves that if one of them should desire to satisfy a 
 natural want she was to say aloud that she was going to pick 
 some flowers. But a mischievous joker discovered this 
 secret and put on the printed programme sent to those
 
 THE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN THE NEUROSES 187 
 
 invited: 'If the ladies wish to ease Nature they should say- 
 that they are going to pick flowers'. Of course, none of the 
 ladies would then wish to make use of this covert allusion, 
 and this also made impossible the use of a similar formula." 
 These quotations from Freud's book came to my mind 
 and, as you can see, furnished the key to the dream. How- 
 ever, to verify my assumption, I ascertained that she had 
 finished reading the book the evening before the dream. I 
 might add that the passages cited are from the last two 
 pages of the book. She saw no connection between my 
 questions and her dream, but took my "irrelevant ques- 
 tioning" as further evidence of my ignorance of dream 
 analysis. I was inquisitive to know whether she would 
 discover the connection between the dream and the story 
 in the book, but despite all my leading up to it I was finally 
 forced to call her attention to it. This was followed by a 
 mingled reaction of shame and laughter, lasting for a few 
 moments, and ending by her remarking, "And shall I add 
 that I took a dose of calomel before retiring, and was 
 awakened by it. 
 
 Now, let us consider the psychologic principles that 
 gave rise to this dream. On the day preceding the dream 
 I had a long discussion with the patient about certain sexual 
 experiences of her life. She refused to give me any informa- 
 tion beyond what her physician wrote me. Although 
 married for years and the mother of a few children, she 
 looked upon sex with the greatest disgust. The very word 
 was disagreeable and nauseous to her. From her physician 
 I learned that for some time after marriage she evinced an 
 abhorrence to any intimate relations with her husband. 
 Later she became more tolerant, but always became hys-
 
 188 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 terical over it, and always expressed her disgust for it. 
 In brief, she was a marked natura frigida, and evinced a 
 typical infantile sexuality. She had an enormous craving 
 for affection, she loved to be fondled and petted by her 
 husband, and stated that she would be perfectly happy in her 
 married life if only sex would not come in. When I tried to 
 to have her go into details about a definite phase of her 
 history she refused to do so because it touched upon sex. 
 She made a great many efforts, but I saw that she really 
 could not continue. I anticipated some of her thoughts and 
 told them to her. She was very much impressed, and re- 
 marked : " Why don't you tell me every thing if you know it ? 
 I wish you would talk instead of asking me questions." I 
 retorted that it was necessary that she should do the talking 
 herself. She agreed to do so the next day, as our session was 
 then at an end. It was shortly after she left me that she 
 read the part of the book which I have cited. 
 
 What were the psychologic mechanisms that entered 
 into the formation of this dream? When the patient left 
 me she debated with herself whether or not to reveal to me 
 what she called the disagreeable part of herself. She 
 reflected over some of the thoughts that she would have to 
 disclose and could not make up her mind to tell them. 
 This struggle continued throughout the day, but now and 
 then it was crowded out from consciousness by other 
 thoughts. On falling asleep this stream of thought, endowed 
 with so much interest, though dulled by the desire to sleep, 
 nevertheless retained some of its activity. Experience in 
 dream analysis teaches that in order to form a dream the 
 stream of thought in question must succeed in arousing 
 and in forming a connection with one of the unconscious
 
 THE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN THE NEUROSES 189 
 
 repressed tendencies from childhood. It is through this 
 reinforced energy that this stream of thought, or day rem- 
 nant, attains sufficient force to reach consciousness in the 
 form of a dream. The patient's dream was the expression 
 of the wish to disclose to me that part of herself which was 
 under very strong repression and suppression. The deter- 
 minant of the dream was the conflict of the previous daj'- 
 about her hidden sexuality, which continued its activity 
 during sleep and aroused anj'' number of associations from 
 early life. Once the connection was formed, the thoughts 
 obtruded themselves upon consciousness, as in the dream; 
 but the vigilance of the psychic censor is plainly visible: 
 The story she had read the day before impressed her very 
 much because it showed the futility and ridiculousness 
 of prudishness, and because it expressed the identical ideas 
 that entered into our discussion. The dream, therefore, 
 makes use of the beautiful formula, "to pick flowers," in 
 order to hide a contrasting idea "to ease Nature." As I said 
 before, our patient was altogether infantile in her sexuality. 
 She knew absolutely nothing of adult sexuality when she 
 married. She made no distinction between the vagina 
 and anus (Freud's cloaca theory) ; both were equally ta- 
 booed, hence to ease Nature was equivalent to a sexual act. 
 The allusion in the dream to something immoral and forbid- 
 den is nicely expressed by the fast that she was not merely 
 going to pick flowers, but to steal them. The man in the 
 dream was myself; I discovered her sexuality, audit was from 
 me that she was trying to run away. At the same time this 
 expresses the wish to be detected and seen, which goes back 
 to the wish expressed the day before that I should tell her all 
 that was to be known of sex, and not ask her any questions.
 
 190 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 and to a marked childhood exhibitionism and immorality 
 which later gave the reaction of extreme bashfulness and 
 prudery. I might add that this dream nicely illustrates the 
 part played by an organic stimulus. When the patient first 
 told me the dream, she purposely omitted that she was 
 awakened by the griping of the calomel and had to empty 
 her bowels. It was only after I called her attention to the 
 meaning of flower picking that she corroborated my inter- 
 pretation by telling me the part played by the dose of 
 calomel. As can be seen, there was an effort to render 
 harmless the stimulus, the griping, as a sleep disturber. 
 This is always the case in all the so-called convenience 
 or laziness dreams,^ where the sensory stimuli are taken 
 up by the dream and woven into a wish. As a rule, however, 
 such dreams are undisguised. Here the disguise was essen- 
 tial and followed the tendencies of the patient's mental 
 make-up. The consciousness of the real meaning of the 
 dream would have been very disagreeable, and throughout 
 her whole life she was accustomed to invest everything with 
 a poetic atmosphere. 
 
 Bearing in mind the dream and its interpretation, it may 
 be said that the different stages of the whole process were 
 the following: (1) A mental stream produced during the 
 day; (2) a subsequent forgetfulness of the same; and (3) its 
 reappearance in consciousness in a disguised form in the 
 dream. The last stage — the dream — is totally foreign or, we 
 may say, unconscious to the patient. In other words, the 
 original thoughts or impressions underwent a certain change 
 before they reappeared in the dream, and the only way to 
 find their meaning was by comparing them with the latent 
 thoughts. The latter, though unconscious to the patient.
 
 THE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN THE NEUROSES 191 
 
 were, nevertheless, the active elements of the dream. This 
 mechanism shows the striking analogy to the so-called 
 "posthypnotic suggestions." As we know, Bernheim and 
 others do this experiment in the following manner: A person 
 is hypnotized, and while in this state ordered by the doctor 
 to perform a certain task at the expiration of a certain time 
 after awakening. He is then awakened and is in normal 
 condition; he has no recollection of his hypnotic state, and 
 yet at the appointed time he is seized with an impulse to per- 
 form the task assigned to him and he does it consciously and 
 rationally without knowing why. When questioned about 
 it he usually finds some excuse for his action. Here it must 
 be said that the order had been present in the mind of the 
 person in a latent or unconscious state until the designated 
 time, and then suddenly merged to consciousness. In 
 normal life this is noticed in such actions as mailing letters, 
 etc. It is to be noted that not everything comes to the 
 surface. Thus the command, the influence of the doctor, 
 the recollection of the hypnotic state remains unconscious — 
 all that is remembered is the idea of the act to be performed. 
 Moreover, the idea of the action ordered in the hypnotic 
 state not only becomes conscious at a given time, but it also 
 becomes active as soon as it reaches consciousness. But 
 as the real stimulus to the action was the order of the physi- 
 cian, it must be conceded that the idea of the physician's 
 order became active, too; but as it remains unconscious 
 we are justified in saying that it was active and unconscious 
 at the same time.' 
 
 The fact of posthypnotic suggestions finds full corrobora- 
 tion in the works of Pierre Janet, Breuer and Freud, Morton 
 Prince, and others. All these investigators found that hys-
 
 192 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 terical patients evince many active yet unconscious mecha- 
 nisms. This has been especially demonstrated by Freud 
 and his school. In our psychoanalytic work we always 
 find that the psychoneurotic symptoms are governed by 
 motives of which the patient is entirely unconscious. Thus, 
 I have reported two patients who went through major and 
 minor hysterical attacks, lasting from a few hours to days, 
 which on analysis proved to be unconscious reactions to 
 former erotic experiences and episodes.^ Such patients 
 prove with complete certainty the existence of an uncon- 
 scious activity, which is largely made up of infantile erotic 
 wish feelings which experienced repression during the 
 developmental period of childhood. In all cases fully 
 analyzed one finds an infantile stage evincing a polymor- 
 phous perverse sexuality, a repression or emotional trans- 
 formation during the developmental period of childhood — a 
 return and a revival of the latter, either as a consequence 
 of the sexual constitution or in consequence of unfavorable 
 influences of the sexual life. To illustrate such unconscious 
 activity I will cite the following case: 
 
 J. L., thirty-three years old, single, drug salesman, was referred to 
 me for treatment by Dr. Beverly R. Tucker, in the beginning of April, 
 1911. The patient had been an active sufferer since 1904, the main 
 symptom being a mysophobia. A letter written by Doctor Tucker 
 reads: "About five years ago he got into the habit of washing his hands 
 very freqently. This dirt phobia has expanded until now he is 
 afraid to touch almost anything for fear of transmitting poison or filth 
 in an infinitesimal amount to himself or some other person." The 
 patient was almost entirely incapacitated by his neurosis. He could 
 do nothing without getting into trouble. He was afraid to touch any- 
 thing that had any dust on it. If he noticed spots on his clothes he 
 immediately washed his hands over and over agaui because he imag- 
 ined that he had touched them. He would get into a state of excite-
 
 THE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN THE NEUROSES 193 
 
 ment over it, which manifested itself in anxiety and perspiration. 
 His hands were almost always wet with perspiration. He was espe- 
 cially worried by poisons, and, having been a drug salesman, he saw 
 poison in everything. Thus, he did not use a match for years because 
 matches contain phosphorus or sulphur. When he wanted to light a 
 cigar he always managed to do it in some other way. Usually he went 
 into cigar stores, where one can always find a cigar hghter. When a 
 box of matches was left in his room he became very much excited over 
 it, asked the maid to remove it, and had the spot scrubbed and 
 cleaned. On the other hand, he carried in his pocket a silver match- 
 box containing matches which he never used, and which was a con- 
 stant source for new phobias. His phobia for odors was just as 
 marked. When he first came to New York he lived in a hotel, and on 
 entering his room one afternoon he perceived a pecuhar odor. He 
 inquired about it, and was told that the floors were cleaned with some 
 preparation containing carboUc acid. This caused him to leave the 
 hotel; he was in fear lest his coat might have touched the floor, taken 
 up some of the poison, and transmitted it to others. He was afraid 
 to pass certain sides of the street because he noticed a paint shop 
 there; paint suggested lead, which he knew was a poison. He would 
 not touch any metallic door-knob because it might contain some 
 "canker" which he thought was especially f>oisonous — by canker he 
 meant the greenish substance one often finds on exposed metals. 
 It was for this reason, too, that he found it hard to drink water coming 
 from the hydrant. These are only a few of the main phobias which 
 constantly obsessed the patient. Here I simply wish to point out 
 the various stages in the development of this mysophobia, tracing 
 it throughout the patient's life. 
 
 It was during the analysis of psychoneurotics that Freud's 
 attention was first called to dreams, the psychology of which 
 he has later studied and developed. At present, however, it 
 may be asserted that psychoanalysis is founded upon the 
 analysis of dreams, as dream analysis is the most finished 
 part of psychoanalytic investigation. It was for this reason 
 that I began with the analysis of a dream when I wished 
 to demonstrate the unconscious elements in the neuroses. 
 
 13
 
 194 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Like the dream, these phobias seem absurd and strange to 
 the patient and the outsider; yet, as in the dream, the enig- 
 matic absurdities and the exaggerated emotions disappear 
 as soon as the analysis is completed. 
 
 Starting, therefore, with the formula that "the neurosis is, so to 
 speak, the negative of the perversion,"^ I investigated the patient's 
 infantile life. I shall mention here only those elements that are 
 absolutely essential to explain the phobia. I found that the patient's 
 childhood was characterized by the usual polymorphous perverse 
 sexuality, but that instead of undergoing the usual repression it 
 continued throughout the whole latency period. From his eary child- 
 hood he displayed a very strong aggressive activity in his sexual life. 
 As far as he could recall he indulged in sexual looking, despite frequent 
 punishment. He displayed a strong desire for coprophihc activities. 
 He took an unusual interest in feces and urine, he liked the odor of 
 water-closets, and one of his favorite indulgences was to put his 
 finger between his sweating toes and then smell them. He was often 
 punished for these acts by both parents, and especially his father. 
 He began to masturbate long before the age of puberty, and his 
 first love affair began between ten and eleven. In brief, there was no 
 latency period to speak of — all the infantile activities were continued 
 to adult life, with only little conflict. However, a reaction took place 
 and from fourteen to fifteen he began to be troubled with all sorts 
 of religious and moral conflicts, and he also became very neat in 
 his appearance. He led what he called a pure life in every way 
 until the age of nineteen, when he consorted with a prostitute. This 
 was followed by many reproaches, so that he had very few such 
 experiences thereafter. His neurosis really began at the age of 
 twenty-one, when he was very scrupulous, very moral, and very 
 conscientious. I may add that throughout his whole life he evinced 
 a very strong attachment for his mother. Whatever he did was 
 for his mother; he was guided entirely by her wishes. For his father, 
 who died when he was about fourteen, he entertained absolutely 
 no regard; on the contrary, he talked about him in a contemptuous 
 manner. 
 
 To translate what has been found into psychoanalytic language, we 
 may say that so far we have an individual of normal make-up whose
 
 THE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN THE NEUROSES 195 
 
 early sexual activities were accentuated to an extent that there was 
 hardly any latency period such as one finds normally. This was fol- 
 lowed by a correspondingly strong suppression and repression in adult 
 life, and resulted in a more or less inhibited life, owing to his incapacity 
 to subhmate properly. This maladjustment was shown in a great 
 many ways. When his father died he left a wholesale and retail drug- 
 store, the management of which he later undertook. He always 
 disliked the drug business, and had it not been for his duty to his 
 mother he would have taken up something else. His mother was 
 aware of his feelings, and urged him to adopt some other occupation. 
 He made many attempts, and obtained good positions in which he 
 made good, but always had to return home and resume his old 
 work. "I felt that I owed it to my mother; it was my love for her 
 that made me give up everything else," he said when discussing this. 
 His love and regard for his mother was enhanced by the fact that she 
 was ailing much of the time, and because she had a great deal of trouble 
 with the other children. Thus, his older brother, to whom he had 
 looked up when young, turned out to be the black sheep of the family. 
 He was a drunkard, and guilty of theft, bigamy and desertion from 
 the army. To add more mortification for his mother two of his sisters 
 eloped, so that he, always having been his mother's favorite, was her 
 only consolation. She continually urged him not to be Uke his brother. 
 He promised her everything and tried to live up to his promises. He 
 got along fairly well until the following episode took place: In 1899 he 
 made the acquaintance of a woman who tempted him, and in a 
 moment of passion he once touched her vulva. He was immediately 
 seized with remorse and fear. He thought that he had committed a 
 terrible crime against his mother. He had the impulse to go and 
 explain everything to her and ask her forgiveness, but could not make 
 up his mind to do it. Whenever he was ready to make the confession 
 he thought of the great worry that it would cause her, and so refrained 
 from doing it. 
 
 For a period of about five years he apparently suffered from a mild 
 mixed neurosis. He was obsessed by the idea that he might be shot by 
 this woman's father or brother for having insulted her, and showed 
 many other neurotic symptoms. His mother's condition grew worse, 
 as she had cancer of the liver, and he was with her a great deal. 
 During the last days of her life she often admonished him to lead a 
 clean, upright life. It was shortly before she died, in 1904, that he
 
 196 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 began to show the hand-washing mania which expanded later into the 
 other phobias. What happened may be described as follows : The sexual 
 libido, active during childhood and adult life, was suddenly repressed. 
 Now and then there was an attempt at readjustment of his libido 
 through some erotic experience in the form of a love affair or gross 
 sexual experience. Occasionally, he would go out with his friends 
 and drink and carouse. Such experiences were always followed by 
 terrible reproaches, as they were incompatible with his reUgious and 
 ethical training inculcated by his mother. Continuing in the drug 
 business despite his dislike for it, he was unable to sublimate his sex 
 energy on something higher. All his libido was, therefore, centered 
 on his mother; she was his ideal in every respect, the only person he 
 could love. All his attempted love affairs turned out failures. 
 The high tide of libido which became detached with his mother's 
 death, therefore, caused a regressive revival of his auto-erotic sexual- 
 ity.® He could find no outlet elsewhere, hence he had to resort to 
 himself. But as his auto-erotic sexuaUty dealt with coprophilic 
 activities, which were entirely incompatible with his present ego, 
 they had to manifest themselves in a negative form. Had they re- 
 turned in their original form he would have suffered from perversions. 
 The motive power of the phobia was, therefore, the repressed hbido, 
 while the determinants were furnished by actual occurrences at the 
 time of the onset. Thus, the hand-washing signified a moral stain, 
 and was determined by the touching of the vulva. The usual general- 
 ization then took place, and the patient feared all stains, and, by a 
 form of rationalization (as fitly expressed by Ernest Jones), he thought 
 that he feared the stains because they represented drugs and poisons. 
 The phobia for "canker" appeared after his mother died, and was 
 simply a sound association of cancer. The immediate onset of the 
 symptoms was probably helped by the fact that for days before she 
 died his mother's stools were very offensive. 
 
 The morbid gain of the disease was twofold: First, it served as a 
 sexual gratification and represented some components of his sexual 
 life;^ second, it took him away from the occupation he disUked. 
 
 These analyses serve to show the part played by the unconscious 
 activity in the neuroses; they amply demonstrate the futihty of the old 
 Anschauungen in the examination and treatment of the psycho- 
 neuroses. This patient was treated for years by the orthodox methods. 
 He received his share of medicines and rest-cures at home and in sana-
 
 THE UNCONSCIOUS FACTORS IN THE NEUROSES 197 
 
 toriums without the sUghtest improvement. He was with me about 
 five months when I discharged him as cured. I had the pleasure of 
 seeing Doctor Tucker during his recent visit to New York, and I was 
 gratified to hear that the patient was perfectly well. Last January 
 the patient himself paid me a social visit while here on business. I 
 found him to be in perfect health, showing absolutely no trace of his 
 former trouble. While talking to me he remarked that he was no 
 longer in the drug business, and for the moment I was somewhat 
 shocked; but he anticipated my thoughts and laughingly said: "No, 
 it was not on account of phobias that I gave it up; I did not dare give 
 it up while I was sick, but since getting well I thought I could do much 
 better in some other business, and I finally found something that is 
 much more lucrative than selling drugs." I was both surprised and 
 interested to hear that he was selling perfumes — a compromise form- 
 ation serving a useful purpose which throws some hght on the psy- 
 chology of trade selection.' 
 
 Now, I have been asked repeatedly how psychoanalysis 
 cures. The last questioner argued: "Suppose I grant you 
 that this means that and that that means this, how is the 
 patient cured?" To answer this question I related a story 
 which I shall here repeat. A German professor of astronomy 
 invited his colleagues to take luncheon with him. After 
 the cigars were served he asked them to accompany him to 
 his garden, of which he was very proud. In European gar- 
 dens one often sees hollow iridescent glass globes placed on 
 sticks between the bushes. While walking, one of the 
 guests, a professor of physics, happened to touch one of these 
 globes and was surprised to find it very hot. What puzzled 
 him was the fact that the heat was not on the side heated 
 by the sun, but on the opposite side. On touching the other 
 side he found it comparatively cool. He called his col- 
 league's attention to this phenomenon and asked them to 
 explain it. The discussion that followed first became 
 very animated, and then even personal. As soon as one
 
 198 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 offered a theory it was disproved by the others. Not one 
 of these learned men could explain this phenomenon. 
 While they were thus quarrelling the gardener approached 
 unobserved, and, upon discovering the dispute, turned to the 
 host, and said: "Professor, just before you came here with 
 the gentlemen I turned the globe around. I do this every 
 day at this time. " 
 
 Of course, the arguments and quarrels ceased in a trice; 
 there was nothing left to dispute about. Had the gardener 
 not made his appearance, would these learned men have 
 ever settled the problem? Surely not. The energy that 
 they were trying so hard to explain away did not belong 
 there — it was displaced. We may say the same of the 
 phobias and obsessions, the exaggerated afifect is justified in 
 its right place, but it does not belong to the symptom. The 
 gardener has turned the globe around. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Selected Papers on Hysteria, 3d ed., p. 213. 
 
 2. The Interpretation of Dreams, p. 104. 
 
 3. Freud: A Note on the Unconscious in Psychoanalysis; The Society 
 for Psychic Research, Part LXIV, Vol. XXIV. 
 
 4. Cf. pp. 311-317. 
 
 5. Freud: Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex, p. 38. 
 
 6. Cf. pp. 275 and 287. 
 
 7. Freud: Selected Papers, p. 198. 
 
 8. C/. p. 63.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 
 
 The Work of the Zurich School — the Association Experi- 
 ment — Complex Theory — Mechanism of 
 Delusions and Hallucinations 
 
 The conclusions reached by Freud as expressed in the 
 theories of the psychoneuroses, dreams and the psycho- 
 pathology of everyday life were fully confirmed by the 
 Zurich school after a thorough investigation on the 
 basis of experimental psychology. Stimulated by Bleuler, 
 Jung, Riklin^ and others collected a large number of associ- 
 ations from noimal persons with the intention of finding out, 
 first whether there existed any regularity in the reactions 
 and, second, whether there were definite reaction types. 
 They soon discovered that the process of association is a 
 very flighty and variable psychic process and that it is 
 beyond the hmits of the objective control. They also 
 found that attention plays the greatest part in the process 
 of association, and that although it directs and modifies the 
 associative process it can nevertheless be most readily 
 controlled experimentally. They therefore decided to 
 investigate experimentally the following questions: 1. 
 The laws of fluctuation in associations in the normal, and 
 2. the direct effects of attention on the process of association 
 especially whether the validity of association diminishes 
 relatively with the distance from the fixation point of 
 
 consciousness. 
 
 199
 
 200 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 They examined many educated and uneducated persons 
 by giving them a hundred stimulus words and noting the 
 reactions. The reaction time was measured with a one- 
 fifth second stop watch. The second series of experiments 
 consisted of 100 associations with internal distraction. 
 The third series consisted of 100 associations taken during 
 external distraction by means of a metronome. The 
 results obtained from 12,400 associations showed many 
 interesting facts of which only few will interest us here. 
 
 After classifying the associations it was found that there 
 was a distinct fluctuation in the numerical relations of 
 single individuals. The main reason for this was the 
 intensity of attention, which accounted for the fact that 
 some reacted with inner and others with outer associa- 
 tions. It was found, for example, that although every 
 person had manifold qualities of associations at his dis- 
 posal, the reactions elicited nevertheless depended on the 
 degree of attention evoked by the stimulus words. Thus, 
 whenever the test person was distracted he always reacted 
 with outer and sound association rather than with inner 
 associations, i.e., he followed the lines of least resistance 
 and reacted with habitual and easy speech combinations. 
 It was concluded that whenever there is a disturbance of 
 attention one must expect shallow reaction types or sound 
 associations and, conversely, whenever one finds sound 
 associations one must presuppose a disturbance of attention. 
 
 Without entering into the theoretical part of associa- 
 tions in general, I will now show the practical side of the 
 work as it is applied in the Clinic of Psychiatry at Zurich. 
 
 One hundred words are usually employed for analytic 
 and diagnostic purposes. They are designated as test
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 
 
 201 
 
 words and were selected and arranged in a manner to 
 strike almost all of the common complexes. The test 
 words are printed in rows with enough side space for the 
 test person's answers or reactions. The experiment is 
 carried out with the test person sitting in front of the 
 physician who calls out each word in a loud and clear 
 voice, measuring at the same time with a one-fifth of a 
 second stop watch the time elapsing between the utterance 
 of the test word and the reaction or the answer from the test 
 person. The average reaction time is generally taken 
 as 2.4 seconds. Before the experiment is begun the test 
 person is instructed to pay attention to the test words and 
 answer as quickly as possible the first word that comes to 
 his mind. The answers, as well as the reaction time, 
 are carefully noted and after the whole list has been gone 
 through, the stimulus words are repeated and the patient 
 is asked to reproduce the original answers which are again 
 noted. Depending on the case in question some special 
 words may be inserted, but as a rule the following 100 
 words are used 
 
 1. head 
 
 14. 
 
 stem 
 
 27. 
 
 lamp 
 
 2. green 
 
 15. 
 
 to dance 
 
 28. 
 
 to sin 
 
 3. water 
 
 16. 
 
 village 
 
 29. 
 
 bread 
 
 4. to sing 
 
 17. 
 
 lake 
 
 30. 
 
 rich 
 
 5. dead 
 
 18. 
 
 sick 
 
 31. 
 
 tree 
 
 6. long 
 
 19. 
 
 pride 
 
 32. 
 
 to prick 
 
 7. ship 
 
 20. 
 
 table 
 
 33. 
 
 pity 
 
 8. to pay 
 
 21. 
 
 ink 
 
 34. 
 
 yellow 
 
 9. window 
 
 22. 
 
 angry 
 
 35. 
 
 mountain. 
 
 10. friendly 
 
 23. 
 
 needle 
 
 36. 
 
 to die 
 
 11. to cook 
 
 24. 
 
 to swim 
 
 37. 
 
 salt 
 
 12. to ask 
 
 25. 
 
 voyage 
 
 38. 
 
 new 
 
 13. cold 
 
 26. 
 
 blue 
 
 39. 
 
 custom
 
 202 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 40. to pray 
 
 41. money 
 
 42. foolish 
 
 43. pamphlet 
 
 44. despise 
 
 45. finger 
 
 46. expensive 
 
 47. bird 
 
 48. to fall 
 
 49. book 
 
 50. unjust 
 
 51. frog 
 
 52. to part 
 
 53. hunger 
 
 54. white 
 
 55. child 
 
 56. to take care 
 
 57. lead pencil 
 68. sad 
 
 59. plum 
 
 60. to marry 
 
 61. house 
 
 62. dear 
 
 63. glass 
 
 64. to quarrel 
 
 65. fur 
 
 66. big 
 
 67. carrot 
 
 68. to paint 
 
 69. part 
 
 70. old 
 
 71. flower 
 
 72. to beat 
 
 73. box 
 
 74. wild 
 
 75. family 
 
 76. to wash 
 
 77. cow 
 
 78. friend 
 
 79. luck 
 
 80. lie 
 
 81. deportment 
 
 82. narrow 
 
 83. brother 
 
 84. to fear 
 
 85. stork 
 
 86. false 
 
 87. anxiety 
 
 88. to kiss 
 
 89. bride 
 
 90. pure 
 
 91. door 
 
 92. to choose 
 
 93. hay 
 
 94. contented 
 
 95. ridicule 
 
 96. to sleep 
 
 97. month 
 
 98. nice 
 
 99. woman 
 100. to abuse 
 
 Now it would seem that any intelligent person could 
 give a fluent answer to any of these words but one soon 
 becomes convinced that such is not the case. As one 
 proceeds with the experiment he finds that not all stimulus 
 words are reacted to with the same smoothness and 
 facilit5^ In his "Association method "^ Jung shows that 
 all apparently adventitious mistakes in the association 
 experiment have a definite reason and that contrary to 
 the belief of the test person his answers are not at all 
 arbitrary, but generally betray his inmost secrets. Hence 
 whenever we find any impediments in the experiment such 
 as a prolonged reaction time, a lack of, or a faulty reaction, 
 a repetition of the stimulus words or a failure of repro- 
 duction we have a complex indicator. That is, the mis-
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 203 
 
 take indicates that the stimulus word has touched a com- 
 plex* and thus retarded or completely inhibited the reaction. 
 The value of this experiment is quite obvious. Whereas 
 the patient may refuse to enter into conversation about 
 his morbid productions he is usually quite willing to cooper- 
 ate in the experiment. He sees no harm in answering the 
 first word evoked by the stimulus as he is entirely unaware 
 of its import. Some think it is a "sort of game" which has 
 no bearing on their condition. But as soon as a few com- 
 plexes are found and the association correctly interpreted 
 the patient readily recognizes the superiority of the examiner 
 and generally talks freely. As I will show later this is 
 not as simple as it may seem. To illustrate the actual 
 work I will cite the following cases: 
 
 Case I. — I. S., set. thirty-nine, single, bank official, was transferred 
 to the psychiatric clinic of Zurich, November 16, 1907, from the 
 Bohemian asylum of D. where he had been for about four months. 
 From the abstract we learned that the patient went through an acute 
 attack lasting only a few weeks. He was markedly confused and 
 hallucinatory, but gradually improved. He had not, however 
 regained any insight into his condition and still entertained numerous 
 false ideas. 
 
 On admission he was orderly and well behaved. He seemed to take 
 a lively interest in things, but was inclined to be seclusive and uncom- 
 municative. When drawn into conversation he gave a fair account 
 of his experiences, but now and then he only vaguely intimated things, 
 absolutely refusing to enter into details. His orientation was perfect, 
 no hallucinations of any kind could be elicited, though he showed no 
 insight into his condition. Physically, besides diminished knee-jerks, 
 nothing abnormal could be found. He gave a fluent account of his 
 vita anteacta and only here and there was it necessary to question him. 
 
 *The word is used in the sense designated by the Zurich school, 
 i.e., as a complex of ideas of marked emotional accentuation which 
 was split off from consciousness and repressed into the unconscious.
 
 204 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 He stated that he was born in W. near Zurich. His mother was an 
 invaUd for years. She suffered from some "nervous trouble" and 
 died when he was about ten years old. His father, an octogenarian, 
 was still living. He knew nothing about the other members of his 
 family for since his eleventh year he had been brought up among 
 strangers. Up to his sixteenth year he was under the guidance of a 
 clergyman who brought him up very religiously. He attended school 
 up to his seventeenth year when he began his business career and since 
 his twentieth year he had worked in the bank at B. He saw his father 
 quite frequently up to 1903 when there was a disagreement between 
 them ending in a complete estrangement. When asked about the 
 cause of this quarrel he at first refused to speak of it, but on being 
 urged he said: "The last time my father was in B. I told him that I 
 would hke to marry my landlady, a widow, in whose house I Uved for 
 more than seven years. He strongly objected and threatened to 
 disown me should I disobey him. He also upbraided me for my 
 mode of living. He is very religious and antisemitic while I was an 
 agnostic and worked among Jews for eighteen years. I reminded 
 him that I was old enough to follow my own inclinations and so 
 we parted. Since then I have written to him a number of times, but 
 all my letters have been returned to me." 
 
 His psychosis he described as follows: "I was always well until the 
 beginning of February, when I suddenly became thoughtful. I did 
 not sleep well and was very nervous. On February 3, 1907, at 
 7 p. M., I was alone in my room when I began to feel a strange power 
 influencing me. I felt ecstatic, but I knew that there was something 
 peculiar in me. It was like an electric magnetic p>ower or ether. It 
 suddenly forced me down on the floor on my left knee. My hands 
 were pressed together in an attitude of prayer and with great force 
 I cried out: 'Lord, have mercy on suffering humanity.' I spoke 
 with a stentorian voice like a preacher. I repeated the 'Our Father' 
 hundreds of times. I felt an influence of the Egyptian gods Isis and 
 Osiris. I was also forced to repeat numerous times 'Am I Parisfal, 
 the guileless fool?' (Parisfal reinster Thor). This state continued 
 for seventy-two hours during which I did not sleep at all. I also 
 imagined that I was very wealthy. The whole thing was like a colos- 
 sal suggestive influence and the Jews played some part in it. After 
 four days I got out of bed and took a walk which refreshed me, but 
 I caught a cold which continued for six weeks. During that time I
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 205 
 
 was under the magic of a peculiar suggestive inspiration in which the 
 Jews played a great part." 
 
 Asked whether he heard voices talking to him he stated that he 
 heard none during the first crisis. "It was only a magnetic suggestive 
 force." Continuing, he said: "I then wrote a letter to my firm with 
 whom I had been for eighteen years, teUing them that my present 
 views did not permit me to work for a Jewish firm. Following an 
 inspiration I went to Lucarno where I remained until April 5. I then 
 returned to B. and in order to recover completely I went to a country 
 place near the sea where I remained for five weeks. In June I went 
 to see my father, who lived in K., Bohemia, but was not permitted 
 to see him as his doctor forbade it, saying he was too sick. I could 
 not believe that the doctor told me the truth. It was certainly 
 remarkable that my old father should estrange himself in such a 
 manner from his only son. At the end of June I was offered a position 
 in Munich, but when I arrived there I found that the head of the firm 
 was a Jew so I refused it. On July 14, a letter sent to my father was 
 returned marked 'Moved. Address unknown.' I again became 
 excited and felt the peculiar suggestive inspirations. Such inspira- 
 tions were never in me before and probably had their reasons. . . 
 I again went to K., arriving there on July 16. My father's residence 
 was locked and the neighbors told me that he had moved to D. I 
 decided to follow up my investigations the next morning, but 'Man 
 proposes and God disposes.' I passed a fearful night. I was con- 
 tinually under influences. I dreamed that I cUmbed a high mountain 
 or mountains and all of a sudden I became 'like nailed' and I could 
 not move any further. I was afraid of falling and was extremely 
 terrified. At dawn I arose and decided to take a walk in the forest, 
 but no sooner did I leave the hotel when I suddenly heard a voice in 
 my ears. I looked about alarmed, but saw no one. The voice 
 asked me peculiar questions and gave still stranger commands. It 
 was something like telepathy. I almost lost my mind. I noticed 
 two poUcemen and I appealed to them for protection. They took 
 me to the police station and then I only faintly recollect being taken 
 to a hospital in a cab. I was in an unconscious, pecuhar, feverish 
 state. I heard voices constantly, but they were very indistinct. I 
 saw silhouettes like bluish angeUc forms. I saw my father. He was 
 God and I was the Son, and Superintendent R. was the Holy Ghost. 
 I was in that condition for about one week and then I recovered my
 
 206 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 senses. They then sent me to the asylum in D. and on November 
 16 I was transferred here." 
 
 The last part of the patient's statements concurs with the hospital 
 records from D. He finished by paraphrasing Hamlet, "There are 
 more things in heaven and earth, doctor, than are dreamt of in your 
 psychiatry." 
 
 An attempt was made to have the patient explain some of the 
 individual points, but he became diplomatic and suspicious, saying 
 that he had told everything to the best of his ability and that he 
 really could not remember any more. Besides he was sure that no 
 doctor could understand this or explain it to him, that he was perfectly 
 well now and only wished to be discharged so that he might go and 
 see his old father. When asked what he thought of the whole affair 
 he said that he was sure the whole thing was something divine and 
 supernatural and also implied that he understood it all. No amount 
 of urging, however, could induce him to enter deeper into the question. 
 
 In the ward, besides his seclusiveness, nothing abnormal could be 
 noticed. He spent most of his time in reading. He also wrote 
 numerous letters to his father and friends, telling them about his 
 strange experiences, and assuring them that he was now completely 
 changed and perfectly well both physically and mentally. During 
 my visits he was always affable, but, except concerning his discharge, 
 he evinced no desire to enter into conversation. When an attempt 
 was made to question him he immediately stated "that it was time 
 wasted and that he had told me all he knew," and always ended with 
 his preferred quotation, mentioned above, "There are many things, 
 doctor, etc." Only on a few occasions was it possible to induce him 
 to explain some of the details. 
 
 This condition remained essentially unchanged for more than two 
 months when he was discharged: Diagnosis, dementia prsecox. 
 
 For those who work up their cases on a Kraepelin- 
 
 Wernicke basis the problem, if not solved, is finished. To 
 
 be sure the case could be elaborated upon. A detailed 
 
 description of the various incidents could be given, but 
 
 no matter how extensive and detailed it might be made, 
 
 if we followed Kraepelin the personal factors would be 
 
 very meagerly, if at all, considered. Indeed, Kraepelin
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES . 207 
 
 in all his works, gives very accurate and faithful descrip- 
 tions of his cases, but he does not go beyond that. It makes 
 no difference what the nature of a special case may 
 be so long as it fulfils certain conditions as regards the 
 emotional status, morbid perceptions, delusions, manner- 
 isms, etc. In other words Kraepelin totally ignores 
 individual psychology. 
 
 However, both on the continent and in this country the 
 tendency now is to pay more attention to individual 
 psychology. Instigated by the valuable discoveries of 
 Freud, the Zurich school took up the problem and the 
 results, as every one knows, are most gratifying. In this 
 country A. Meyer and August Hoch approached the prob- 
 lem from a somewhat different standpoint but came to 
 essentially the same conclusions, namely, that attention 
 must be paid to the actual cases and that a mere general 
 description does not suffice. The works of Bleuler, Jung, 
 Riklin and others show how effete and soulless the old 
 routine methods of description appear in comparison to 
 the very interesting psychoanalytic methods where one 
 finds a definite relation between cause and effect. In 
 making these statements I do not wish to detract in any 
 way from the great merits of Kraepelin whose epoch- 
 making works in modern psychiatry everyone duly recog- 
 nizes; but the superiority of Kraepelin's methods over 
 those of his predecessors only serves to emphasize their 
 deficiencies when compared to the psychoanalytic methods. 
 
 As aforesaid it was impossible to draw the patient into 
 ordinary conversation for any length of time, so that I 
 started by taking his associations and then analyzed them. 
 The following associations are given:
 
 208 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 Time* 
 
 Reproduction 
 
 1. Coal 
 
 Burning Material 
 
 3.4 
 
 xt 
 
 2. Moderate 
 
 Temperance 
 
 4.2 
 
 Wine Beer 
 
 3. Song 
 
 Singing Club 
 
 3.6 
 
 X 
 
 4. To Suppose 
 
 To Doubt 
 
 5.2 
 
 Religion 
 
 5. Pain 
 
 Body 
 
 2.6 
 
 Phjsical Pain 
 
 6. Lazy 
 
 Schoolboy 
 
 4.2 
 
 Urchin 
 
 7. Moon 
 
 Heaven 
 
 3.6 
 
 Venus 
 
 8. To Laugh 
 
 Society 
 
 2.6 
 
 X 
 
 9. Coffee 
 
 Drink 
 
 4.4 
 
 Co£fee Table 
 
 10. Broad 
 
 Board 
 
 2.4 
 
 X 
 
 Ass. 1, "coal-burning material" shows a long reaction 
 time. This is frequently seen in the beginning of the 
 experiment. On analysis it recalls many reminiscences 
 of his youth when he lived in the coal region of B. Ass. 2, 
 "moderate — temperance — wine, beer" refers to his com- 
 plex of drink. At the age of twenty-five he drank much 
 beer, his father often spoke to him about moderation. 
 Ass. 3, "song — singing club," recalls the singing club of B. 
 which patient often visited, it especially recalls a dirge 
 which he once heard and this recalls his dead sweetheart. 
 Ass. 4, "to suppose — to doubt — religion " refers to the com- 
 plex of religion. He supposed that there was no God and 
 he doubted all religion, but now he is quite convinced that 
 the contrary is true. Ass. 5, "pain — body — physical 
 pain" refers to rheumatic pain to which he is subject, but 
 mainly to the pains caused by his father's behavior in 
 ignoring him. Ass. 6, "Lazy — schoolboy — urchin" refers 
 to the seven-year-old son of the widow with whom he 
 boarded. Patient showed numerous resistances and 
 obstructions and finally refused to continue with this 
 
 *The time is indicated in seconds. 
 fX = correct reproduction.
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 
 
 209 
 
 association. Ass. 7, "moon — heaven — Venus." Asked 
 to explain this strange association he said: "On March 
 28, I awoke during the night and there was a beauti- 
 ful moon. I had a suggestive dream. I thought that it 
 could be possible to walk on the water and be born like 
 Venus was. He then refused to continue, but after many 
 obstructions and inhibitions he said that by water he means 
 the Atlantic and Venus refers to his sweetheart who died 
 in America. The day before, he saw a picture in the 
 Berliner lUustrierte Zeitung of a newly discovered "sea- 
 people" with webbed fingers and toes who either barked 
 or prayed to the moon. Ass. 9, "coffee — drink — coffee 
 table" recalls a friend in Guatemala, a coffee planter, who 
 just married a Swiss girl and this recalls his "first and only 
 sweetheart" who married in America. This may also 
 refer to his drinking complex. Ass. 10, "broad-board" 
 recalls a broad tree trunk, broad breast (sud- 
 den obstruction). 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 11. 
 
 Air 
 
 Ether 
 
 12. 
 
 To frighten 
 
 Oh terror 
 
 13. 
 
 Plate 
 
 Table 
 
 14. 
 
 Tired 
 
 Walk 
 
 15. 
 
 Intention 
 
 Resolution 
 
 16. 
 
 To fly 
 
 Bird 
 
 17. 
 
 Eye 
 
 Head 
 
 18. 
 
 Fruit 
 
 Vegetable 
 
 20. 
 
 To work 
 
 Office 
 
 21. 
 
 To sail 
 
 Ocean 
 
 22. 
 
 Modest 
 
 Virtue 
 
 23. 
 
 SoU 
 
 Earth 
 
 24. 
 
 To wliistle 
 
 14 
 
 Schoolboy 
 
 Time 
 
 31/ V,!^*-"-* 
 
 Reproduction 
 
 3.4 
 
 Body 
 
 4.2 
 
 To collapse 
 
 2.0 
 
 X 
 
 3.2 
 
 X 
 
 6.0 
 
 Determination of 
 
 
 wiU 
 
 1.8 
 
 X 
 
 4.8 
 
 Angel 
 
 3.0 
 
 X 
 
 2.2 
 
 X 
 
 4.8 
 
 X 
 
 7.4 
 
 Quality 
 
 3.2 
 
 X 
 
 2.2 
 
 X
 
 210 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Ass. 11, "air — ether — body" refers to ether which filled 
 his body during his first attack. Ass. 12, "to frighten — 
 oh terror — to collapse" is explained as follows: ''When I 
 first heard the voices in K. I became so terrified that I 
 almost collapsed. It was so real, as though some one 
 was near me. I remained 'like nailed.' Then I called 
 out 'who talks to me and what is your name?' The 
 voice replied 'water, drink — water.' " (See Ass. 7.) It 
 was so terrible, especially after the frightful night, I 
 did not sleep at all during that night. I thought some one 
 was in the room and I looked under the bed, but I found 
 no one. I also dreamed of climbing mountains. I arose 
 at 5.30 and then a suggestive thought almost like a voice 
 said: 'Jump from the fourth floor window and if you 
 believe you will rise unharmed.' Then another sugges- 
 tion said 'How can you do it, you are only a sinner' and 
 then I left the hotel. Ass. 14, "intention — resolution — 
 determination of will" is explained as follows: "Between 
 1890 and 1895 I drank considerably. Then I formed a 
 resolution not to drink and I was a total abstainier until 
 1899 when I was operated upon for hemorrhoids. Since 
 then I drank moderately. I also resolved never to 
 marry. When I was twenty-two I had a sweetheart, a 
 very pretty girl, Marie Biere. I was very anxious to 
 marry her, but my father objected to it, saying that I was 
 only a young fool, etc. In 1887 she went to America, to 
 Pittsburgh, Pa., but before going we promised to be true 
 to each other. In 1888 I heard she married a Swiss in 
 Pittsburgh. I was very dejected. It was my first real 
 and true love. I had many sweethearts after that, but I 
 never loved another woman. I then went to Paris and
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 
 
 211 
 
 just cast myself into the whirl so as to forget everything 
 and I finally forgot her. In 1891 I heard she died." 
 While reciting this the patient became very emotional) . Ass. 
 17, "eye — head — angel" recalls his father's head, "he has a 
 wonderful eye like Bismark — it is God's eye." (He has 
 only one eye.) (In his delirium his father was God, etc., 
 see above.) Ass. 21, "sail — ocean" shows a very long 
 reaction time. He thinks of America where he was so 
 very anxious to go, but his father objected. Ass. 22, 
 "modest — virtue — quality" cannot be explained. He 
 began to speak of modest women but suddenly stopped. 
 It probably has some erotic sense.* Ass. 23, "soil — earth" 
 shows a long reaction time due to a perseveration of former 
 reaction; probably refers to dream about birth of Venus. 
 Ass. 24, "whistle — schoolboy" is another reference to the 
 boy mentioned in Ass. 6; he showed many obstructions 
 and finally asked not to be questioned about it. Ass. 25, 
 "aim — intention" is a perseveration of the former — he 
 says "Everything has its reasons, dress is only to cover 
 the body" — probably some erotic complex. 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 Tirrn 
 
 J Reproduction 
 
 25. 
 
 
 
 
 26. Hat 
 
 Summer 
 
 3.4 
 
 X 
 
 27. Hand 
 
 Body 
 
 2.6 
 
 God's hand 
 
 28. To wake 
 
 In bed 
 
 2.4 
 
 To get out of bed 
 
 29. Apple 
 
 You have I believe 
 
 3.8 
 
 Fruit tree vegetables 
 
 30. Evil 
 
 QuaUty 
 
 2.6 
 
 X 
 
 31. Mouth 
 
 Head 
 
 3.6 
 
 Boy 
 
 32. To drink 
 
 Thirst 
 
 3.4 
 
 An inn 
 
 33. Bed 
 
 To sleep 
 
 2.6 
 
 X 
 
 * The word is used in its original Greek sense, as anything apper- 
 taining to love — eros.
 
 212 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 Time 
 
 Reproduction 
 
 34. Pretty 
 
 Pretty girl 
 
 4.4 
 
 Beer 
 
 35. Danger 
 
 Mountain 
 
 5.0 
 
 Mountain fall 
 
 36. To visit 
 
 Friends 
 
 3.0 
 
 X 
 
 37. Laborer 
 
 Mason 
 
 2.2 
 
 X 
 
 38. High 
 
 Mountain 
 
 2.6 
 
 X 
 
 39. Axe 
 
 Instrument 
 
 2.4 
 
 Carpenter 
 
 40. To observe 
 
 Adjective 
 
 4.0 
 
 School. 
 
 Ass. 27, "hand — body — God's hand" is not explained, 
 but it probably refers to his religious complex. Ass. 28, 
 "to wake — in bed — to get out of bed" refers to expression 
 "wide awake boy" and this again recalls the son of his 
 landlady (obstruction emotivity). Ass. 29, "apple — you 
 have I believe — fruit tree vegetables" is a perseveration of 
 former reaction, or may have an erotic sense — he is 
 unable "to explain it." Ass. 30, "evil — quality" evokes 
 "bad boy" meaning the landlady's boy as does the following 
 Ass. 31, "mouth — head — boy" which he explains as 
 "human mouth connected with chewing, eating, etc." — 
 mother's mouth — "I have never done such dirty things." 
 Asked to explain what he means he at first refused to 
 continue and on being urged he said "I think of the scenes 
 that I witnessed- in Paris." This was followed by a sudden 
 outburst of excitement. He jumped up and talked very 
 excitedly. He saw no reason why he should be forced to 
 talk of such dirty things, that he never would think of it 
 if not for the experiments, etc. He was so irritable that 
 the analysis had to be stopped for a week. Ass. 32, 
 "drink — thirst — inn" refers to his alcoholic complex. 
 Ass. 34, "pretty — pretty girl — beer" refers to his sweet- 
 heart whose name was Biere. Ass. 35, "danger — mountain 
 — mountain fall" refers to his dreams of mountain climbing.
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 
 
 213 
 
 He also stated that he was once in danger of falling off 
 a steep mountain and was only saved by the timely 
 arrival of a mountain guide. Ass. 38, " high — mountain" 
 again refers to his mountain climbing and also to the 
 frightful dreams about climbing at the onset of the second 
 crisis. Ass. 40, "to observe — adjective — ^school" refers 
 again to the schoolboy and, as usual, the patient could not 
 "explain it." 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 Time 
 
 Reproduction 
 
 41. Road 
 
 I also think of a la'mi 
 
 4.0 
 
 Forest 
 
 42. Round 
 
 Globe 
 
 2.2 
 
 X 
 
 43. Blood 
 
 Operation 
 
 5.2 
 
 Knight 
 
 44. To state 
 
 School 
 
 4.2 
 
 Schoolboy 
 
 45. Attention 
 
 da-danger 
 
 4.8 
 
 QuaUty 
 
 46. Gay 
 
 Society- 
 
 3.2 
 
 X 
 
 47. Market 
 
 Stock market 
 
 4.2 
 
 Money 
 
 48. To forget 
 
 Time 
 
 5.4 
 
 Love 
 
 49. Drum 
 
 Carnival 
 
 3.6 
 
 X 
 
 50. Free 
 
 Air 
 
 4.8 
 
 X 
 
 Ass. 14, "road — I also think of a lawn-forest" refers to 
 the morning of his second attack when he arose early to go 
 into the forest. Ass. 43, "blood — operation — knight" the 
 patient states that in 1899 he underwent an operation for 
 hemorrhoids during which he lost much blood. It also 
 recalls the blood of the grail referred to in Parsifal. From 
 blood he also goes to the word "bluttd" which means 
 naked and this recalls a dream fragment about arms and 
 breasts which he had on the night of July 16. Ass. 44, 
 "to state — school — schoolboy" refers again to his land- 
 lady's boy. Ass. 45, "attention — da-danger — quality" 
 refers to his last attack when the voices addressed him. 
 Ass. 47, "market — stock market — money" refers to his
 
 214 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 trade complex. Ass. 48, "to forget — time — love" he 
 explained as follows: "love is in time forgotten." Ass. 50, 
 "free — air" refers to his confinement. 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 Time 
 
 Reproduction 
 
 51. Religion 
 
 The living word 
 
 4.2 
 
 Thomas 
 
 52. Jews 
 
 Deutches Volksblatt 
 
 3.4 
 
 Rich 
 
 53. Isis 
 
 Osiris 
 
 3.0 
 
 Banker 
 
 54. Widow 
 
 Wehrli 
 
 2.6 
 
 X 
 
 55. Parsifal 
 
 Knight 
 
 4.0 
 
 Guileless fool 
 
 56. Father 
 
 Love 
 
 2.8 
 
 X 
 
 Ass. 51, "religion — the living word — Thomas" was 
 explained as follows: "Despite my being brought up 
 religiously I became a free-thinker and for years I never 
 thought of religion. I scoffed at everything. I was the 
 real 'doubting Thomas.' I studied Nietzsche and espe- 
 cially Max Stirner, whose last book *Der Einzige u. 
 sein Eigentum (The Ego and His Own) ' has the motto, 
 'All things are nothing with me.' It is a very dangerous 
 book. But all my ideas and plans have been crushed 
 because I could no conceive the real and holy religion. 
 What happened to me within the last year is a sign sent 
 from above, 'the true living word' which forces me to 
 seek God. I have still something of the 'doubting Thomas,* 
 but it will soon disappear." Ass. 52, "Jews — Deutsches 
 Volksblatt — rich." Patient denied bearing any animosity 
 against Jews. He worked eighteen years with Jews 
 and always got along very nicely with them. " They are 
 very nice rich people," he said, but for some reason which 
 he is unable to explain he was a regular subscriber to the 
 Deutsches Volksblatt, which he claims is an antisemitic 
 journal. Ass. 53, "isis — Osiris — banker" refers to Mr.
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 215 
 
 Osiris, a very wealthy banker in Basel, who died before 
 the patient's first attack. The patient says that he now 
 recalls that during the first attack he had the idea that 
 this banker left him 30,000,000 francs. Some one told 
 him so. He denies ever having had any relations with 
 Mr. Osiris. Osiris is a contiguous association of Isis. Ass. 
 54, "widow — Wehrli" refers to Mrs. Wehrli, his land- 
 lady, with whom he boarded for seven years. He stated 
 that he really did not love her, but he liked her and 
 seriously thought of marrying her. In 1903 he spoke 
 about it to his father who objected to it. After Christ- 
 mas, 1907, he resolved to save money and then marry her, 
 but since the last attack he gave up the idea. Ass. 55, 
 ''Parsifal — knight — guileless fool" refers to Parsifal as 
 depicted in Wagner's opera, where he is named the 
 guileless fool. Patient seemed to identify himself with 
 the knight, but did not fully explain it. Like Parsifal he 
 had to undergo many vicissitudes before recognizing the 
 true religion. But we shall return to this later. Ass. 56, 
 "father — love" is not fully explained. Patient said: 
 "There were times during which I almost hated my father, 
 but now I am very much concerned about him and am 
 very anxious to see him." 
 
 One hundred and fifty associations have been taken from 
 the patient, but the given associations are sufficient for the 
 explanation of the principal complexes and to give us a 
 fair understanding of the symptomatic ideogenesis. The 
 main characteristics of the associations are the long 
 reaction times and faulty reproductions. As we have 
 said above the average reaction time of persons of his type 
 is taken as 2.4 seconds. In the associations given about
 
 216 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 84 per cent, are above the normal reaction time and only 
 about 43 per cent, of the reactions are correctly reproduced. 
 These are the so-called complex-indicators and wherever 
 they occur are taken as signs of complex constellations. 
 The stimulus word either consciously or unconsciously 
 touched the complex and this evoked the intervention of 
 an idea of strong emotional tone. This always happens 
 in normal and neurotic individuals, and Jung has shown that 
 the same holds true in Dementia Praecox. 
 
 When we examine the nature of the associations we 
 find that sixteen (3, 7, 9, 15, 21, 22, 23, 25, 29, 31, 34, 35, 
 45, 53, 54, 58) belong to the erotic complex, seven (4, 11, 
 12, 27, 43, 51, 52) to the complex of religion and six (6, 
 24, 28, 30, 31, 40) directly concern the "boy." Unfor- 
 tunately the last associations were not satisfactorily 
 explained by the patient. Judging from the very strong 
 repression which dominated them we are quite certain 
 that they play a great part in the patient's psyche. Two 
 suppositions should be kept in mind: 
 
 (1) Patient may be the father of the boy. 
 
 (2) There may have been some homosexual relations 
 between them. In favor of (1) is the fact that he boarded 
 for more than seven years with the boy's mother the letters 
 exchanged between the patient and his landlady point 
 to that. If he is not his son there probably was some 
 homosexual relation between them as shown by Ass. 31. 
 We are therefore perfectly justified in adding these six 
 associations to the erotic which gives a total of twenty- 
 two. The religious complexes, too, are intimately con- 
 nected with the erotic. 
 
 Bearing this in mind we can form an idea of the part
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 217 
 
 played by the erotic in the patient's psyche. We can say 
 that almost all his psychical components when thoroughly 
 analyzed show some relation to it. This may seem 
 peculiar, but it is not at all unusual, it is found in all 
 psychoneuroses as well as in the normal. According to 
 Freud all so-called day dreams in women are of an erotic 
 nature.^ In men they may be of an erotic or ambitious 
 nature, but whenever it is possible to analyze the ambitious 
 reveries they, too, may be found to belong to the erotic. 
 All great actions and accomplishments, heroic or commer- 
 cial, are generally done for the purpose of pleasing some 
 woman and to be preferred to other men. That our 
 patient is no exception to the rule is quite natural. 
 
 RECAPITULATION 
 
 We have here a man of thirty-nine years old suffering 
 from a psychosis of a year's duration. He cannot account 
 for it. He thinks it came on suddenly. Only a few days 
 before the onset he was thoughtful and nervous. This 
 psychosis is characterized by two distinct crises with a 
 transitional period of about five months. Both crises 
 were of the delirious, confusional, dream-like type, the 
 first lasting three days, and the second about one week. 
 The period of transition is characterized by marked rest- 
 lessness, delusions and hallucinations. The second crisis 
 was not followed by any recovery in the strict sense, as he 
 still entertained false ideas which he did not try to correct. 
 On the contrary he considered all attempts in that direc- 
 tion futile and unnecessary. The strange manifestations 
 he recognized as supernatural, divine and purposeful;
 
 218 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 they were intentionally sent to compel him to change his 
 mode of living and return to the religion of his father. 
 He sees in all this the "Hand of God." In other words, 
 we see here a gradual and systematic change of personality 
 which we have every reason to believe is only the process 
 of transformation and will probably lead to further system- 
 atization and dissociation.* 
 
 Both the abstract of the history and the patient's 
 katamnestic account give a fair gross picture of the psy- 
 chosis, but do not in any way explain the psychogenesis 
 of the symptoms. The associations, as can be seen, have 
 thrown considerable light on the subject, they uncovered 
 many obscure points and called forth many new ones, 
 but we are still in darkness concerning the causal deter- 
 minations of the symptoms which we shall now proceed to 
 examine. 
 
 That the psychosis did not come on as suddenly as 
 would appear is quite certain. When we thoroughly 
 examine the patient's antecedent history we find that for 
 a number of years his mind was gradually being pre- 
 pared for it. Since his twenty-second year he sustained 
 a number of psychic shocks of different degrees. The 
 first and most important was his love affair with Miss B. 
 which ended so unfortunately. To form an opinion of the 
 effect it left on the patient it was only necessary to watch 
 his mimicry while he recited this episode. As we know it is 
 very difficult to evoke an adequate affect in such patients, 
 but when this unhappy love affair of sixteen years ago 
 was touched he immediately lost his wonted taciturnity 
 
 * Nothing has been heard from the patient since his discharge 
 from the hospital.
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 219 
 
 and indifference, his eyes brightened and his face red- 
 dened. He was again the young lover of twenty-two. 
 He spoke fluently about his ardent affections: "I was then 
 innocent and really loved. It was my first and true 
 love. All the other love affairs which I subsequently 
 entertained were dulled by this first one." He became 
 enraged when he recalled his father's attitude in this 
 affair. "Whenever I think of it I am compelled to hate 
 him," he said. It is not difficult to see that this love was 
 always in his mind in a repressed state and that it mark- 
 edly influenced his actions. 
 
 In 1901 he loved another woman, Miss I. W. "It was 
 only sexual love," he said, "but I would have married 
 her." She proved false to him and married an army 
 officer. In 1903 he decided to marry his landlady and his 
 father again objected. This time, however, he disregarded 
 his father and resolved to follow his own inclinations. As 
 a result his father severed all relations with him and 
 he neither saw nor heard from him for three years, yet 
 this did not seem to disturb him. But in spite of all he 
 did not marry Mrs. W. For reasons unexplained he 
 kept on putting it off until Christmas, 1907, when he 
 finally resolved to save his money and marry her. But 
 at the same time there was a reawakening of paternal 
 sentiment. He sent his father letters and his photograph, 
 but they were all returned. This irritated him and he 
 decided never to write to him again. As we have shown 
 he did not keep his resolutions. 
 
 Besides the episodes mentioned there were probably 
 other psychical disturbances, but unfortunately the 
 patient was not very communicative. We also see quite
 
 220 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 plainly that for a number of years he was subjected to a 
 mental conflict. As a youth he was brought up amid 
 religious surroundings. His father was antisemitic and 
 naturally the same ideas were inculcated in the son. 
 When he became older he changed completely. He 
 became an atheist and worked among Jews for eighteen 
 years. This was undoubtedly a resistance to his father. 
 He no longer attended church, but studied Nietzsche, 
 Stirner and others. Now and then his father upbraided 
 him for it, but without avail. That he did not entirely 
 rid liimself of his early religious training, but only repressed 
 it, is shown by the fact that he kept on subscribing to an 
 antisemitic journal and during the Dreyfus affair, he was 
 the only anti-Dreyfussard in his office. He could not be 
 convinced that Dreyfus was not guilty (symbolic actions). 
 Unconsciously his early training remained in a dormant 
 state. It is not at all easy for one who has been brought 
 up in a certain rehgious atmosphere to his sixteenth year to 
 entirely free himself from it. Many persons imagine that 
 they are entirely emancipated from their early religious 
 training and are manifestly so until a grave moment inter- 
 venes. Then, provided they are mentally strong, the 
 repressed ideas reassert themselves. This accounts for 
 the many so-called conversions and recantations during 
 grave diseases or on deaths beds. 
 
 Both the patient's crises show some connection with 
 religious events. Christmas, 1907, marks the manifest 
 beginning of his restlessness. At this time his feeUngs 
 toward his father suddenly changed. The suggestive 
 dream referred to under Ass. 7 was on the evening of 
 Good Friday and marked the beginning of the second
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 221 
 
 attack.* The day following the dream he set out on the 
 journey which finally landed him in the hospital of K. 
 
 We see, then, that we have at least two psychic instances 
 of great moment which have long been repressed and 
 which now suddenly reasserted themselves. The question 
 arises — how did this come about? A personal predispo- 
 sition is presupposed. The conflict existing for years 
 caused an " ahaisment du niveau mental" (Janet). ^ The 
 repressed unconscious complexes gradually freed them- 
 selves from the domination of the ego-complex^ and then 
 manifested themselves in the form of automatisms, such 
 as suggestions and inspirations and finally as hallucinations. 
 The obnubilation which followed allowed the appearance 
 of the manifold senseless manifestations which were 
 brought about by the dream mechanisms described by 
 Freud. 
 
 If this supposition is true, the individual symptoms 
 ought to be psychically constellated by the complexes. 
 I shall forthwith show that this is really the case. 
 
 When we look at our cases in the wards we are often 
 struck by their strange utterances and peculiar behavior. 
 Until recently we were quite satisfied to note that the 
 patient is delusional and demented, that he utters sense- 
 less phrases and goes through a number of peculiar actions. 
 Thanks to Freud we know that all actions and speech in 
 both normal and abnormal individuals are psychically 
 determined.® Jung, following Freud, made thorough 
 analyses of cases of Dementia Praecox showing that 
 all the patients' absurd utterings were quite relevant 
 
 *The episode in Wagner's Parsifal also revolves around Good 
 Friday.
 
 222 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 when analyzed and, furthermore, that all the speech 
 and motor manifestations were distinctly traced to the 
 complex.'' 
 
 Let us now examine the individual symptoms of our 
 patient. The crises which we went through can be readily 
 compared to the normal dream. Like the expressions 
 in dreams our patient's utterances at first sight seem quite 
 senseless, but have a meaning as soon as analyzed. The 
 first crisis began with an ecstatic feeling. He was forced 
 into an attitude of prayer by an invisible force. He had 
 to cry out, "Lord, have mercy on suffering humanity." 
 This is nothing but a powerful reassertion of his repressed 
 religious presentations, which by his impaired judgment 
 can only be interpreted as an external power. The com- 
 plex of religion intimately connected with his father gained 
 the upper hand and he was therefore forced to assume an 
 attitude of prayer and cry out, "Lord, have mercy, etc." 
 He also had to repeat the "Our Father" hundreds of times. 
 As we know his father played a great part in this attack, 
 hence the frequent repetition. The directing thought 
 being absent the vacuum of association causes the stereo- 
 typed repetition. It must also be remembered that he 
 identified himself with Christ and his father with God. 
 Hence he repeated the Lord's prayer. 
 
 The influence of the Egyptian gods, Isis and Osiris, is 
 explained in Ass. 53. The death of Mr. Osiris naturally 
 interested him as he was a bank official. It is quite likely 
 that either consciously or unconsciously he expressed 
 a wish that some of the money would be left to him. The 
 delirium, like the dream, fulfilled that wish and he, there- 
 fore, imagined that the banker left him thirty million
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 223 
 
 francs. Osiris, is a contiguous association of Isis. Hence 
 he felt the influence of Isis and Osiris. 
 
 Why was he forced to repeat "Am I Parsifal, the guile- 
 less fool?" In order to understand this analysis it is neces- 
 sary to bear in mind the original German. He kept 
 on repeating "Am I Parsifal reinster Thor." Those who 
 recall the methods of analyzing dreams know what a 
 great part is played by "condensation" and "contami- 
 nation."* On carefully examining the patient's doings 
 of the day before his first crisis it was found that on looking 
 over some old papers and correspondence he found many 
 letters from his old sweetheart. He stated that he did 
 not attempt to read them, but he happened to notice the 
 following sentence: "I am in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 
 with a family named Thaw." This was the first letter she 
 sent him from America in which she told him that she was 
 a servant in the Thaw family. She remained with, this 
 family for some time and he corresponded with her regu- 
 larly for about a year. He stated that after noticing this 
 sentence it "sort of possessed him" and for hours he was 
 compelled to repeat in his mind "Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Thaw." He spoke English fairly well and had a 
 very good reading knowledge of it. On being requested to 
 write this phrase he wrote it as follows: "Pa., Pittsburgh, 
 Thaw," remarking at the same time that Pa. is the abbrevia- 
 tion for Pennsylvania. I now venture the following ex- 
 planation. The memory picture of the word Pennsylvania 
 may be the whole word or its abbreviation Pa., hence in 
 the mind they exist simultaneously as Pa., Pennsylvania. 
 
 Condensation is a fusion of events, pictures, and elements of 
 speech. Contamination is a fusion of speech only.
 
 224 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 The dream does not find it difficult to condense Pa. Pennsyl- 
 vania into Pannsylvania and then form it into PANNSYVL- 
 ania which by sound association corresponds to Parisfal. 
 The resemblance between Thaw and Thor is quite obvious. 
 If we now place the two sentences parallel to each other we 
 have the following: 
 
 PANNSYVLania Pittsburg THAW 
 
 PARSIFAL reinster THOR 
 
 All letters for the pronunciation of "reinster" can 
 readily be found in the word Pittsburgh and the remnant 
 of Pennsylvania. Such condensations and transpositions 
 happen quite frequently in dreams and wit, especially if 
 there be another determining factor. Our patient im- 
 perfectly identified himself with Parsifal as shown in 
 Ass. 55. 
 
 "The Jews played some part in it" is all we could get 
 from our patient. He insisted that he never had any 
 differences with Jews. What part they played in his attack 
 cannot be explained, but it may simply have been a forc- 
 ible reassertion of his father's doctrines. 
 
 Thus we see that all the known senseless utterances of 
 the first crisis are fairly well determined. Let us now 
 turn to the second crisis. 
 
 He was quite sure that during the first attack he heard 
 no distinct voices. Everything was accomplished by 
 some strange power which he designates as magnetic 
 electric mental suggestion. These suggestions, although 
 abating after the first crisis, did not entirely cease. He 
 said that he was all the time more or less under sugges- 
 tions. On July 16 he reached K. and passed a very rest-
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 225 
 
 less night there. He slept but little and was constantly 
 troubled by frightful dreams. 
 
 When the patient was asked to recount the dreams 
 he only remembered about "cUmbing a high mountain 
 or mountains," that he suddenly became "like nailed" 
 and could go no further, and that he "experienced in- 
 tense fear." (On another occasion he claimed to have 
 dreamed about round arms and breasts. See explanation 
 of Ass. 43.) When an attempt was made to analyze it 
 he absolutely refused all collaboration. Notwithstanding 
 this we know enough about dreams to enable us to venture 
 an opinion. Since the first crisis he was under great mental 
 stress. The conflict was "Shall I abide by my decisions 
 and marry Mrs. W. or shall I comply with my father's 
 wishes." As we know he had for years planned to marry 
 in spite of his father's objections and about Christmas 
 time was fully determined to do it when a sudden reaction 
 set in and his repressed complexes or his father's domination 
 predominated. The mountain chmbing is a symbolic 
 representation of this struggle. He was aboiit to consum- 
 mate his determination when he became "Hke nailed and 
 could go no further." In the dream, as was shown, the 
 sensation of being inhibited, such as not being able to 
 move or rim when one most desires to do so, means "no." 
 There is a conflict of the will. One begins to do something 
 and the censor says "No, that shall not be done." He was 
 about to overcome all parental scruples. After years 
 he finally decided to disregard his father and marry when 
 he was suddenly checked. 
 
 This is quite a plausible and innocent interpretation, 
 
 but like every harmless self evident dream it is only con- 
 is
 
 226 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 cealing something deeper and more intimate. The fear 
 and anxiety in this dream show us that we deal with in- 
 tense psychic resistance the content of which belongs to 
 the erotic. Dreams accompanied by anxiety always belong 
 to the sexual. ''Anxiety is a libidinous impulse emanat- 
 ing from the unconscious and inhibited by the fore-con- 
 scious." (Freud.) In the waking state we find its counter- 
 part in the psychoneuroses.^ We know also that he 
 dreamed of "round arms and breasts." Round arms and 
 breasts are woman's arms and breasts. The mountains or 
 mountain in the dream probably meant "mons veneris," 
 The German expression for mons veneris is well known to 
 the patient. As shown above he also dreamed of Venus 
 and of her birth. This shows the sexual part of the dream. 
 This is further strengthened by the fact that since his first 
 crisis he was a sexual abstainer. Suppressed sexuality 
 manifests itself in anxiety. 
 
 The onset of the second crisis was even more intense 
 than the first. It began with suggestions and soon 
 merged into distinct voices. While dressing the suggestive 
 thought "almost like a voice said 'jump from the fourth 
 floor window and if you believe you will rise unharmed." 
 Then another suggestion said: "How can you do it, you 
 are only a sinner?" Here we see very nicely the marked 
 activity of the unconscious and the part played by the 
 teleological suggestions. Both Bleuler^ and Jung^"^ give 
 good examples of this mechanism. It is a quite common 
 contrast automatism and generally manifests itself in 
 strong dissociations. Here we see it at the height of the 
 disease. 
 
 As soon as he left the hotel the suggestion changed into
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 227 
 
 auditory hallucinations. It was impossible to find out 
 the contents of the hallucinations, but during the analysis 
 of Ass. 12 he stated that the voice said "water, drink 
 water." This likely refers to the Atlantic (Ass. 7) or to 
 his complex of drinking (see Ass. 2). We know, how- 
 ever, that the voices so terrified him as to cause him to 
 apply for police protection. 
 
 What followed he remembers but dimly. He was in a 
 deUrious dreamlike state for about a week. He was in 
 heaven. He heard indistinct voices and saw "many 
 bluish angels." His father was God and he was Christ 
 and his former Superintendent R., for whom he had no 
 particular love, was the Holy Ghost. He was now 
 reconciled to his father and his religion. This was a 
 hyperbolic realization of the normal dream. Says Freud: 
 "The conscious wish becomes a dream incitor only when 
 it succeeds in arousing a similar unconscious one," and 
 "The wish as represented in the dream must be an 
 infantile one."^° The wish reahzation in our patient's 
 deUrium certainly fulfils all these conditions. It sounds 
 like a fragment of a child's conception of heaven and 
 recalls such religious paintings as Hofmann's Ascension 
 or Zuccaro's Christ Surrounded by Angels, 
 
 Thus the problems are solved. The repressed complexes 
 as typified in his father now dominate the ego-complex 
 and influence all thoughts and actions. His personality 
 underwent a complete transformation; he was again united 
 to his father. He was no longer a follower of Stirner but 
 considered the "Ego and his Own" as dangerous. From 
 the avowed philosopher and atheist he changed into the 
 devout believer of the supernatural and hence his preferred
 
 228 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 quotation. "There are more things in heaven and earth, 
 doctor, than are dreamt of in your psychiatry." 
 
 Case II. — A. St., twenty years old, law student and journalist, 
 was admitted to my service in the clinic of psychiatry, Zurich, on 
 January 22, 1908. His friend and colleague stated that the patient 
 was a Hungarian jomrnaUst who came to Zurich to study law. He 
 was considered very diligent and brilliant, but somewhat eccentric. 
 He seemed to have been depressed for some time, remaining in bed 
 for days and taking very little nourishment, but for the previous 
 two days he had shown some improvement. He attempted to shoot 
 himself at about 12 o'clock on the day of admission. He discharged 
 five shots and beyond grazing his shirt, striking a candle which 
 stood near his bed and a picture of Ibsen on the opposite wall he 
 did no damage. The reason for the attempted suicide was supposed 
 to be unrequited love. In the beginning of December he had made 
 the acquaintance of a lady student with whom he soon became 
 infatuated. His love was not reciprocated so that he became des- 
 pondent, neglected his work and uttered pessimistic and gloomy 
 ideas. The informant stated that as soon as the shots were heard 
 he ran into the room and found the patient Ijdng on the bed in a 
 deUrious condition. He was confused, murmured to himself and 
 asked meaningless questions, repeating "Where are the white horses?" 
 The last question he also repeatedly put to the physician who was 
 called in soon after the shooting. 
 
 An anamnesis was also obtained from the patient's father about a 
 week later. He denied any psychic abnormalities in the family, but 
 he himself was neuropathic and it was afterward learned that one of 
 his daughters was hysterical. He stated that the patient was always 
 somewhat deUcate, but developed normally. As he grew up he was 
 "indifferent, cold, seclusive and obdurate, but very bright." He 
 was always at the head of his class. His teachers referred to him as 
 a prodigy and his professors predicted a great future for him. At a 
 very early age he manifested a great talent for writing and since 
 his fifteenth year he had supported himself by journahsm. His 
 feuilletons were sought for by the leading Hungarian journals. Due 
 to the divorce of his parents he had Uved apart from them since his 
 fifteenth year. He, however, kept on corresponding regularly with 
 his father and paid him an occasional visit.
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 229 
 
 On admission the patient was exceedingly apathetic and took 
 absolutely no interest in his surroundings. WTien addressed he 
 showed some confusion. He seemed to be unable to comprehend the 
 questions and his answers were monosyllabic and laconic. He did 
 not care what would happen. "Do what you please," he would say. 
 In appearance he was under-developed and small. His head seemed 
 too big for his body, probably due to his long, black hair which hung 
 over his shoulders. The physical examination revealed nothing in 
 particular. In the ward he was quiet and indifferent. He lay on 
 his back motionless, either keeping his eyes shut or staring vacantly 
 into space. He expressed no desires and when an attempt was made 
 to draw him into conversation he became mute. He took very httle 
 nourishment and this only after much urging. When seen the next 
 morning he was essentially unchanged. The nurse reported that he 
 slept well, but paid absolutely no attention to anything. 
 
 The main features were dulness, apathy, somnolence and probably 
 hallucinations as shown by his asking for white horses. This condi- 
 tion continued for four days after which he gradually became brighter 
 and at the end of a few days more he was apparently his former self. 
 
 He was discharged on January 31 to go to Vienna with his father. 
 Diagnosis, schizophrenia. * 
 
 We have here a precocious youth, slightly burdened by 
 heredity, who, having been disappointed in love, lost his 
 mental equilibrium and merged into schizophrenia. He 
 made an unsuccessful attempt at suicide and later he 
 was delirious and hallucinatory, uttering senseless stereo- 
 typed phrases. This was followed by a short period of 
 apathy, mutism and dulness, after which he gradually 
 improved. 
 
 As soon as conditions were favorable an attempt was 
 made to draw the patient into conversation so as to have 
 him explain some of the obscure points, but, as is generally 
 the case, nothing of importance could be elicited. He 
 
 * The patient has been perfectly well since his discharge from the 
 hospital.
 
 230 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 was suspicious or simply unwilling to enter deeply into 
 the questions. A hundred associations were therefore 
 taken and analyzed by the psychoanalytic method, i.e., 
 after the complexes were found I resorted to the continu- 
 ous associations. The words employed were the usual 
 100 words used for psychoanalytic and diagnostic purposes. 
 Some of the words, however, were changed and others 
 bearing directly on the incident were inserted. 
 
 The following are some of the associations obtained 
 from the patient: 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 Time 
 
 Reproduction 
 
 4. To suppose 
 
 Freedom 
 
 3.8 
 
 X 
 
 5. Pain 
 
 Bad 
 
 2.2 
 
 X 
 
 6. Lazy 
 
 Early 
 
 1.8 
 
 X 
 
 7. Moon 
 
 Sun 
 
 2.6 
 
 X 
 
 12. To frighten 
 
 Epilepsy 
 
 3.4 
 
 X 
 
 14. Tired 
 
 Rest 
 
 2.0 
 
 X 
 
 15. Intention 
 
 Evil 
 
 2.8 
 
 X 
 
 16. To dance 
 
 Polish 
 
 3.0 
 
 X 
 
 17. Eye 
 
 Eye 
 
 3.8 
 
 X 
 
 19. To aim 
 
 I 
 
 3.8 
 
 Candle 
 
 Ass. 4, "to suppose — freedom" refers to his complex of 
 confinement. He supposes that he will soon be dis- 
 charged from the hospital. Ass. 5, "pain — bad" explains 
 that he had much pain over this love affair, but, as shown 
 by the reaction time, it provoked no emotion whatever. 
 Ass. 6, "lazy — early" refers to his being lazy. He 
 never likes to rise mornings. It also recalls that he was 
 too lazy to commit suicide in the morning and waited 
 until noon. Ass. 7, "moon — sun" was explained as 
 follows: While walking one day with Mina (his beloved), 
 they stopped to look at a photograph representing a man
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 231 
 
 and woman riding on a crescent (moon). At that time 
 the position of the two young persons on the crescent 
 rather pleased him, and he remarked to her that he would 
 Uke to ride with her on the moon. He then recalled some 
 things which he did not wish to explain — probably some 
 erotic thoughts. Ass. 12, "to frighten — epilepsy" refer- 
 red to an incident in the ward. An epileptic had a fit 
 which frightened him as it was the first time he ever saw 
 such thing. Ass. 14, "tired — rest" referred to his state 
 before admission to the hospital. Ass. 16, "to dance — 
 Polish" was explained as follows: "On Saturday evening, 
 December 7, I went to the Polish dance where I met my 
 three lady acquaintances, Heda, Mina and Dina. My 
 main object in going there was to gather some material 
 for an article on the Hfe of the Russian and Polish students 
 in Zurich." He stated that when he got there he saw 
 Miss Dina, whom he had known for some time, in the 
 company of some gentlemen. He was not indifferent to 
 her. He always found "something pleasant in her." 
 She impressed him differently from the others because 
 she was somewhat outspoken. On a number of occasions 
 she did not hesitate to tell him that he was only a poseur, 
 etc., a thing which rather wounded his vanity. Yet, 
 he did not know why, she continued to be of more interest 
 to him than the others. For some reason when he noticed 
 her at the dance he purposely turned to another direction, 
 but did not lose sight of her. On that evening he felt 
 some change coming over him. Of a usually cynical 
 and taciturn disposition he suddenly became very cheerful 
 and loquacious. The music exerted an unusual influence 
 on him. He said and did things which are still enigmatical
 
 232 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 to him. The women especially pleased him and, realizing 
 this, the words of Mephistopheles recurred to him: "Du 
 siehst mit diesem Trank in Leibe, Bald Helenen in jedem 
 Weibe." Many women seemed to make advances to him. 
 They sent him all kinds of notes and made flattering 
 remarks about him. One elderly woman made such 
 remarks as "Just see this handsome boy," etc. Another 
 woman, totally unknown to him, sent him a senseless note 
 about "loving, human and erring." Another sent him a 
 gillyflower. On later losing his necktie he stuck this 
 flower into his collar and wore it for the remainder of the 
 evening. Another peculiar action was this: Everybody 
 was requested to wear numbers which were distributed 
 to everyone present. The gentleman and lady drawing 
 the same numbers were supposed to exchange souvenir 
 cards. When he received his number he scratched it out 
 and wrote on the card a big "I" and this he wore the 
 entire evening. He further recalled that he was very 
 restless for a few days previous. He spent money use- 
 lessly, went to many concerts, felt freer than usual, and 
 thought of traveling. Ass. 17 "eye — eye" refers to his 
 own eye. He thought that his left eye was somewhat 
 smaller than his right and this he considered a sign of 
 paresis. This gave rise to a number of hypochondriacal 
 and depressive ideas. In a letter written to his father 
 long before this suicide episode took place he signed him- 
 self "Candidate for Paresis." Ass. 19, "to aim — I — 
 candle" he explained as follows: "At the moment that 
 I grasped the revolver I felt some fear, but aimed at my 
 breast. The discharge confounded me. I was convinced 
 that I had struck myself and dropped the revolver, but
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 
 
 233 
 
 I immediately grasped it again and fired fom- times. I 
 seemed to look for something to aim at. I remember 
 distinctly aiming at the candle standing not far from the 
 window and at a picture of a bust of Ibsen on the opposite 
 wall." More of this later. 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 Time 
 
 Reproduction 
 
 22. Modest 
 
 Violet 
 
 3.2 
 
 X 
 
 23. Ground 
 
 Seed 
 
 4.6 
 
 Onanism 
 
 27. Death 
 
 Accidentally 
 
 3.0 
 
 X 
 
 30. Bad 
 
 Very 
 
 3.2 
 
 Night 
 
 34. Pretty 
 
 Fairly 
 
 2.0 
 
 X 
 
 40. To crack 
 
 Arms 
 
 2.0 
 
 X 
 
 47. Weapon 
 
 Unskilled 
 
 3.6 
 
 X 
 
 48. Forget 
 
 Love 
 
 3.0 
 
 X 
 
 51. To dare 
 
 To win 
 
 3.8 
 
 3t 
 
 Ass. 22, "modest — violet" was explained as follows: 
 "The violet is a symbol of modesty. Miss Dina always 
 repeated that I was nOt modest. Many people reproached 
 me for the same thing, but I always sought refuge in 
 Goethe who says 'only scamps are modest.'" Ass. 23, 
 "ground — seed — onanism." By way of explanation he 
 quoted the Bible "He (Onan) spilled it on the ground 
 lest that he should give seed." When asked whether he 
 masturbated he at first denied it, but when told that the 
 associations gave distinct evidence of it, he said: "Well, 
 since you know it, I may as well tell you. I began to 
 masturbate when I was fourteen and continued it up to 
 about a year ago. I then knew what harm it did me 
 and I stopped it." When asked in what way it affected 
 him he said that he read or was told that one is liable to 
 get paresis and many other diseases from it. Ass. 27,
 
 234 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 "death — accidentally" referred to his attempted suicide. 
 He fitly remarked "I could have died through accident." 
 Ass. 30, "bad — very — night" referred to the night of 
 January 15, which he claimed to have passed very rest- 
 lessly. He was frequently terrified by his rocking chair, 
 the coverings on which made him think of the dying 
 Bajazzo. On the 12th, Mina and the others went to 
 see Bajazzo. He was to have gone, but at the last moment 
 he changed his mind and remained at home. This also 
 recalled a conversation with Dina. She told him that 
 his mania for originality, etc., was simply a desire to pose. 
 He retorted by saying: "but don't you think that there is 
 something tragic even in the poser, in the comedy-playing 
 Bajazzos. If they really perceive the real feeling, such 
 apparent comedies may sometimes lead to tragedies." 
 Ass. 34, "pretty — fairly" referred to Mina. Ass. 40, 
 "to crack — arms" means the revolver with which he 
 attempted suicide. This recalled his friend, R., concern- 
 ing whom he had read that he had attempted suicide by 
 shooting himself in the head. This happened some time 
 before the Polish dance, and on the day of the dance he 
 received a letter from his friend describing the attempted 
 suicide and stating that it had concerned a woman, and 
 that he was well. Ass. 47, "weapon — unskilled" refers 
 to himself. He said "I never in my life used any firearms 
 ,and when I made up my mind to kill myself I selected a 
 pretty little revolver." Ass. 48, "forget — love." He said: 
 "I am trying to forget my love." Ass. 51, "to dare — to 
 win" was not explained. He began to speak about courage 
 and daring and he suddenly stopped, not wishing to 
 continue.
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 
 
 235 
 
 Stimulus Word 
 
 Reaction 
 
 Time 
 
 Reprodtiction 
 
 54. Quick 
 
 To press 
 
 2.4 
 
 X 
 
 55. ChUd 
 
 Big 
 
 3.2 
 
 X 
 
 56. Enjoy 
 
 Life 
 
 2.2 
 
 X 
 
 61. Stone 
 
 To cast 
 
 2.2 
 
 X 
 
 80. To understand 
 
 Saying 
 
 3.6 
 
 X 
 
 83. Sofa 
 
 To sit 
 
 2.8 
 
 Girls 
 
 87- Snake 
 
 Eve 
 
 3.4 
 
 X 
 
 94. To write 
 
 Feuilleton 
 
 3.2 
 
 Spirit 
 
 95. Horse 
 
 Ghost 
 
 3.0 
 
 Rosmersholm 
 
 Ass. 54, "quick — to press" referred to his suicide. He 
 was frightened when he grasped the revolver so that he 
 quickly pulled the trigger. Ass. 55, "child — big." Mina 
 often called him a child, which greatly offended him as 
 he considered himself a man "in every sense of the word." 
 Ass. 56, "enjoy — life." He said "I was tired of living 
 and wanted to die, but now I would like to be discharged 
 so as to enjoy life. Ass. 61, "stone — to cast" recalled the 
 sentence: "He that is without sin among you, let him 
 cast the first stone." He always condemned persons 
 who committed suicide. He never liked a play or a book 
 where the heroes ended their lives. He thought of writing 
 a different ending to Ibsen's Rosmersholm. Ass. 80, "to 
 understand — saying" — the saying is, "'To understand all is 
 to forgive all' — that is what she said to me when she 
 rejected my proposal. Her friend told me afterward that 
 she was abnormal and was unable to love any man." 
 Ass. 83, "sofa — to sit — girls" referred to a dream which he 
 had while in the hospital in which the three girls were 
 sitting on a sofa, etc. Ass. 87, "snake — Eve." "A 
 snake was the cause of Eve's fall," he said. "A cat and 
 a snake are symbols of falsehood." Snake made him 
 think of penis. Ass. 94, "to write — feuilleton — spirit"
 
 236 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 he explained thus: "When I decided to commit suicide 
 I immediately thought of writing a number of articles, 
 one a dialogue, a witty interview between A. St., the 
 collaborator of the Pesti Naplo and his spirit. I also 
 intended to write to Dina that just as Tshepurnoy (the 
 reference is to Gorky's 'Children of the Sun') saved the 
 honor of the veterinary surgeons by committing suicide, 
 I saved the honor of the 'posers.'" Ass. 95, "horse — 
 ghost — Rosmersholm" referred to the white horses which 
 play such a part in Ibsen's Rosmersholm. 
 
 A brief examination of these associations shows that 
 most of them belong to the erotic complexes. We are 
 also struck by the slight emotivity manifested in the 
 associations directly concerned with the love episode. 
 This is especially striking when all the 100 associations 
 are examined. Indeed, whereas the associations evoked 
 very interesting and valuable points they gave us very 
 little information about the principal episode, the supposed 
 cause of this whole drama. The widest emotional excur- 
 sions were connected with the complexes extraneous 
 to this episode. From the twenty-nine associations given, 
 twelve (7, 16, 19, 27, 34, 40, 47, 48, 54, 56, 80 and 83) 
 bear directly on the drama, and on examination we find 
 that the arithmetical average of the reaction time is 2.8 
 seconds, a very minimal increase over the normal, and, 
 furthermore, there is only one failure of reproduction 
 and that in association 19. This last, however, does not 
 sensu stricto, belong to the episode, as we shall see later, 
 so that the average is still more reduced. Translating 
 this into association language, we say that the so-called 
 complex-indicators are entirely absent where you would
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 237 
 
 most expect them. Indeed, when I reviewed the 100 
 associations originally taken I found that the twenty-nine 
 selected are the only associations that in any way concern 
 the case, the other seventy-one belonging to entirely 
 different complexes. This simply indicates that there 
 are, perhaps, other more forceful factors than the mere 
 love affair, that some invisible psychic undercurrent may 
 play a greater part than the supposed cause — love. 
 
 If we orient ourselves on the incidents appertaining to 
 this love affair we find that long before the patient became 
 infatuated with Mina he was acquainted with Dina. In 
 his katamnestic account the patient says: "I was attracted 
 to her — 'Dina — by more than mere sympathy. She 
 was outspoken and called me a poseur, but I always liked 
 to be in her company." Some time after he met Mina 
 and Heda, who did not make any particular impression on 
 him and it was not until the Polish dance that he really 
 became acquainted with them. The first part of the 
 evening he had no predilection, but as the night advanced 
 Mina attracted him more than her friend. On going 
 home the next morning he walked with Mina and he still 
 was in the "Hellenic state," very cheerful and frolicsome, 
 but nothing was said of love. There were, however, some 
 allusions to "waltzing through life together," but that 
 was said jocosely and in company. The "Hellenic state" 
 he described as follows: "It seemed to me that I had no 
 ponderance. I felt infinitely light, ethereal and contrary 
 to my wonted cynicism I then felt infinitely good, well 
 wishing to everything and everybody. I felt neither de- 
 sire nor wishes. It was a drop of the blessed sea of eternal 
 contentment." This apathetic euphoria continued until
 
 238 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Sunday afternoon, when he again met the ladies in the 
 company of a gentleman. For some reason he immediately 
 took a dislike to this man and his euphoria disappeared. 
 
 On returning to his room he felt "confused and could 
 not account for my actions of last night and today." 
 He tried to repose for a few hours, as he had an appoint- 
 ment with his friend to take the girls to the theater in the 
 evening, but he was exceedingly restless and unable to 
 remain in the room. That evening he went to the theater, 
 but did not enjoy himself at all. The following days 
 continued uneventful. He frequently saw Mina and 
 her friend in the boarding house, but had no serious 
 thoughts. On the contrary he recalled that on one 
 occasion the thought of love came to him and he immedi- 
 ately suppressed it, saying to himself "Do not delude 
 yourself. Be careful lest you lose your liberty. It 
 would be like committing suicide." It was not until a 
 few days before she was to leave Zurich for her Christmas 
 vacation that he was cognizant of the fact that he was in 
 love. He, however, doubted it. She left on the 20th 
 and it was then that it became clear to him that he loved 
 her. He was distracted, indifferent to everything and 
 suddenly conceived the idea of taking to his bed. Before 
 doing so he wrote her a letter in which he told her all and 
 asked for a categoric answer. He remained in bed for 
 three days in succession, during which time he ate but 
 little and slept less. He was sure that she would reject 
 his proposal, wept much and was obsessed by anxious 
 thoughts. He then got up and immediately visited Dina. 
 She again accused him of being a poseur and he said, 
 "I am really a thorough poseur, I can delude even myself.
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 239 
 
 I could commit most terrible acts, such as marrying or 
 committing suicide." Following this visit he felt better. 
 Mina's answer was rather equivocal. She "did not know 
 what to say," etc. She returned on January 4, and 
 "strange to say, when I saw her not only was I not 
 surprised, but I even seemed to be indifferent." He 
 continued to see her regularly, but they never broached 
 the subject. From the 10th he was very excited and 
 had some fever and spent most of the time in bed. "On 
 the 14th Mina visited me and during our conversa- 
 tion she told me that she did not think she could be 
 capable of loving any one. She left me at 11 p.m. The 
 rest of the night I slept fairly well, but dreamed of Dina." 
 The following days he was very depressed and rest- 
 less, took no interest in anything, ate and slept very 
 little. On the 17th, while walking about aimlessly, he 
 suddenly decided to commit suicide and at the same time 
 he was speculating on the interesting and original letters 
 that he would write before shooting himself. He did not 
 know what he would write to Mina, but thought of writing 
 to Dina, and also a dialogue, an interview between himself 
 and his spirit. He decided to buy a revolver. "The 
 money that I expected did not come," said he. "I then 
 went to see Dina. I wanted to hear her repeat that I was 
 nothing but a poseur, but she was not at home." A few 
 hours later he again tried to visit her, but she was 
 not at home. The following day — the 18th — he again 
 called on her and again missed her. Sunday he passed 
 restlessly, but was watched by a colleague who suspected 
 him. On Monday, just about noon time he made the 
 attempt. He waited until he saw Mina and Heda go into
 
 240 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the dining room and then ran into his room, undressed, 
 and went to bed. He did not lock the door and then 
 attempted suicide as described above. 
 
 Analysis. — Strange as it may seem psychoanalysis 
 shows that the love affair played a very little, if any part, 
 in this whole syndrome. No matter how a person may try 
 to conceal things he cannot hide his emotions and uncon- 
 scious actions. The associations, like dreams, never lie. 
 The complex indicators never fail to show the complex, 
 that is, the emotionally accentuated presentations which 
 are usually split off from consciousness and repressed in 
 the unconscious. On superficial examination it may seem 
 that the psychosis was caused by the love affair, but as 
 soon as we enter more deeply into the question we are 
 struck with the marked disproportion between the exciting 
 cause and the reaction and we ask ourselves why should 
 an insignificant love episode produce a psychosis in a 
 young man who has made his way in the world since his 
 fifteenth year as a student and journalist and who, from 
 his own account, has had similar experiences before this? 
 To be sure there are those who maintain that just this 
 incongruity between noopsyche and thymopsyche is 
 characteristic of dementia prsecox, but one of the greatest 
 achievements of psychoanalysis is the fact that it conclu- 
 sively shows that in neither the psychoneurosis nor the 
 psychoses proper is there such a thing as incongruity 
 between noopsyche and thymopsyche. Wherever a 
 thorough examination is possible it is always found that 
 the reaction is quite adequate and that it simply appears 
 incongruous to us because we cannot or do not enter into 
 the patient's psyche. Moreover, when we examine our
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 241 
 
 patient's past we find that long before this last experience 
 he was depressed and listless, remaining in bed for days at 
 a time and that he evinced many peculiar actions. All 
 this distinctly shows that the love episode was only one of 
 many contributing exciting factors. 
 
 On reviewing the 100 associations we find that they 
 refer to four principal complexes, namely, love, vanity, 
 death and masturbation. Of these thirty-five belong to 
 the death complex, twenty to the complex of masturba- 
 tion, twelve to the vanity complex, and twelve to the love 
 episode. In other words, death and masturbation are 
 of paramount importance while the love episode plays 
 only a subordinate part. 
 
 The love complex we have already discussed, and of his 
 vanity both he himself and his father stated that he was 
 always very vain and of an independent nature. He 
 stated "I am not of an emotional nature. My parents 
 reproached me for being heartless, vain and cold, sajdng 
 that my blood was as cold as that of an EngUshman and 
 that I was too independent." The wounding of his vanity 
 was always associated with his suicide. In his katamnestic 
 account he stated: "I was suddenly struck with the idea of 
 committing suicide and I immediately tried to find Dina 
 so as to evoke from her the oft-repeated statement that I 
 was a 'thorough irremediable poseur.'" He was also 
 chagrined by Mina because she called him "child." He 
 insisted that he was a man in the fullest sense of the word. 
 
 Psychoanalysis of the complexes of death showed that 
 for some inexpHcable reason the patient had for some time 
 both consciously and unconsciously, occupied himself 
 with the problem of death. When asked to associate 
 
 16
 
 242 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 freely to the word "death" he gave the following reactions: 
 "When we dead awaken" — he recalled his friend the 
 actor, who was supposed to have blown out his brains — 
 Rosemersholm. On further analysis we found that " when 
 we dead awaken" refers to Ibsen's drama of that title. 
 He stated that for some time this play strongly appealed 
 to him, but since reading Rosraersholm the latter had 
 exerted a greater influence over him. He, however, did 
 not like the last act, and thought seriously of rewriting the 
 play, giving it another ending. He despised persons like 
 Rosmer and Rebecca for committing suicide. "They are 
 not people of this world," he said, "they belong to the 
 morbid, fanatic and romantic nations," While in the 
 hospital he wrote to the author: "Do I perhaps suffer 
 from neurasthenia or am I in the first stage of paresis? 
 If so I will see that it will not progress." In a letter which 
 he sent to his father long before this love episode occurred 
 he signed himself "Candidate for Paresis." Moreover, for 
 the previous year or so he signed his feuilletins with the 
 following pseudonyms "Schakal," "Sansdieu," "Enfant 
 Terrible" and "Sansculotte." Those who are unfamiHar 
 with Freud's " Psychopathology of Every Day Life "^^ may 
 consider our patient's use of the pseudonyms as purely 
 accidental, but we know that nothing is adventitious or 
 arbitrary. Just such triviahties show us the real uncon- 
 scious activity. These pseudonyms are the equivalent for 
 " I am a jackal, godless," etc. That is to say, they represent 
 ideas of self-accusation. 
 
 All this clearly shows that long before the love episode 
 the patient was hypochondriacal and restless. He 
 entertained a number of delusions of a depressive, soma-
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 243 
 
 topsychic and self-accusatory nature. He made a num- 
 ber of unsuccessful attempts to stop masturbating, for 
 he thought that it would produce paresis, and when he 
 finally noticed a sHght difference in the size of his eyes 
 he became firmly convinced that he was a paretic. He 
 also heard and read much about paresis and, as we have 
 shown, he soon began to occupy himself with the problem of 
 death. Therefore, anything referring to it interested 
 him. It was while in that state of mind that he fell in 
 love with Mina and for a brief period there was a reaction, 
 the "Hellenic state." This, however, soon disappeared 
 and long before he knew that his love would not be 
 reciprocated he again became depressed. This love 
 episode was simply the "last straw to break the camel's 
 back." That is, the conflict probably existed for years 
 until finally a compromise formation took place and the 
 result was the suicidal episode. 
 
 The situation, in brief, was as follows: "I am suffering 
 from an incurable disease — paresis — which I brought 
 upon myself by masturbation and as I will become insane 
 I had better commit suicide." Added to that there was 
 the wounding of his vanity by both Dina and Mina. 
 
 Against all this, however, there was the inherent desire 
 to live. One may say that the long-existing conflict 
 in a personal predisposition finally produced a splitting 
 of consciousness, or Janet's ahaissement du niveau mental, 
 thus allowing the repressed complexes to rid themselves of 
 the domination of the ego complex and then manifest 
 themselves in the different automatisms of the syndrom. ^^ 
 
 Let us now examine the psychic constellations of the 
 individual symptoms. In the first place, we may ask
 
 244 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 why the patient chose this method of suicide? This was 
 directly suggested to him by the shooting episode in the 
 hfe of his friend, the actor. He, himself, had never before 
 handled any firearm and there was absolutely no reason 
 why he should have deferred this affair as he did for the 
 purpose of getting money to buy a revolver. He had 
 numerous other means within his reach. He could at 
 any time have resorted to hanging, drowning or poisoning, 
 which would have been easier to accomplish. Still he 
 selected a method which was entirely foreign to him. 
 When he bought the revolver he had to ask the storekeeper 
 for instructions as to its use. I have it from Dr. M. S. 
 Gregory, who has devoted considerable time to the subject, 
 that suicides invariably follow a definite procedure. Thus 
 soldiers and others who are accustomed to firearms always 
 select pistols or revolvers for suicidal purposes; physicians, 
 druggists and chemists invariably use poison, while ordinary 
 persons follow some method suggested by suicidal incidents 
 read in the daily press or they imitate some relative or 
 friend. The same day that he attended the Polish dance he 
 received a letter from his friend, telling him that he was 
 alive and well, though he had attempted to blow out his 
 brains on account of a woman. 
 
 According to Freud all delusional formations and actions 
 are the result of a compromise. There are two psychic 
 streams opposing each other and finally each yields a part 
 of its demand and a mutual accommodation results. Our 
 patient's suicidal attempt was merely symbolic. He 
 really did not wish to terminate his life, though he wished 
 to die. He simply wished to annihilate that part of him-
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 245 
 
 self which was most repugnant to him and which was 
 responsible for his malady. 
 
 Association 19 shows that the patient aimed directly at 
 the candle. On being asked to associate to candle he 
 gave the following: "It recalls to me a picture of a big 
 candle, a big white candle on a dark background. Candles 
 always make me feel disagreeable. I used to avoid passing 
 a certain store where there was a show case filled with 
 candles. The burning candles with the dripping tallow 
 which I used to see in churches and temples nauseated me. 
 That recalled a girl named 'Baby S. ' whom I used to 
 know — that's all." When asked about this girl he showed 
 numerous blockings and then continued: "She was anaemic 
 and they used to say that — that she candled herself." 
 Again blockings, but after considerable urging he stated 
 that a candle with the dripping tallow recalls the penis 
 after masturbation, a thing which always filled him with 
 disgust. The resistance was broken and he frankly added: 
 "That has been the bane of my life. I have not done 
 it for a year because I was told that it would cause paresis." 
 
 The candle, as we see, is simply a symbohc representa- 
 tion of the penis. This is a familiar and widespread sym- 
 bol, both in this country and abroad. The general popular 
 belief that a virgin can relight with her breath a candle 
 recently extinguished probably owes its origin to the 
 same symbolic expressions^ (relight with her breath a 
 candle — reawaken lost sexual powers). 
 
 Thus we see the reason for his aiming at the candle. In 
 destroying the candle he killed that part of himself which 
 is at the basis of all his trouble. 
 
 Why did he aim at Ibsen's picture? In order to under-
 
 246 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 stand this it is necessary to cite a fragment of a long dream 
 which the patient had while in the hospital. It was as 
 follows: "I got a harp and played something melancholic 
 and the doctor stood there watching me and then ex- 
 claimed, 'Behold a lion's head arising on a feeble body/ 
 and then wishing to hide his feelings he turned away." 
 According to Freud, whenever one hears some speech in the 
 dream it generally signifies that the dreamer has heard at 
 some time the exact or similar words. The words which 
 he puts in the doctor's mouth he actually heard from the 
 doctor. On seeing the patient for the first time, while he 
 was still in the somnolent state, I was struck by the size 
 of his head and I remarked to the supervisor "He looks 
 ill and is underdeveloped. His head seems too big for his 
 body." In the dream this is changed to a lion's head. 
 On analyzing the expression "lion's head" we obtained 
 the following: "Head of a Hon — Max Lieberman, a German 
 painter, made a picture of a sphinx with the head of Ibsen 
 on it — it looks like a lion's head — thinks of his own head 
 which he believes "perhaps resembles Ibsen's head.' 
 On further analysis he identified himself directly with the 
 great poet and stated that he noticed the resemblance 
 between himself and Ibsen and that is why he bought 
 the picture. We can now understand why he shot at the 
 picture, for in doing so he again symbolically shot himself. 
 We also know that for more than a year he took great 
 interest in Ibsen's works, especially "When We Dead 
 Awaken" and "Rosmersholm." This, too, as mentioned 
 above, is a symbohc action. The title of the former play 
 appealed to him because, believing that he was suffering 
 from an incurable disease and that he would soon die, he
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 247 
 
 naturally speculated on "When We Dead Awaken." 
 Such symbolic actions are frequently observed in every- 
 day life. Only within a few days the daily press reported 
 the case of a New York embezzler who was discovered by 
 detectives in a Philadelphia pubhc library. The book 
 which he was reading at the time of his arrest was entitled 
 "Will I Ever Go Back?" Rosmersholm, too, appealed to 
 him because he directly identified himself with Rosmer 
 ' the happy nobleman who goes to death," but as the 
 "will to live" always predominated in him he at first dis- 
 liked the suicide of the lovers and even thought of re- 
 writing the last act. 
 
 What was the origin of the stereotype "Where are the 
 white horses?" Those who have read Ibsen's drama will 
 recall that whenever a death occurred in Rosmersholm 
 the white horse was sure to make its appearance. As our 
 patient identified himself with Rosmer and lived through 
 the tragic end of the "happy nobleman" he looked for 
 the white horse in his delirium and hence the stereotyped 
 question, "Where are the white horses?" 
 
 Thus we see that there was nothing mysterious or sense- 
 less in our patient's actions. All these actions and utter- 
 ances had a reason and followed the same course as that 
 of any normal individual. Indeed, those who make use 
 of the psychoanalytic method are well aware of the fact 
 that whenever the patient's mind can be entered he ceases 
 to be an enigma and his "senseless actions and utterances" 
 cease to appear senseless. On the contrary we are often 
 struck with the purposeful, nay ingenious, construction of 
 the whole scheme. Moreover, we are always sure to miss 
 — that "garbage can" of mental diseases — the "dementia"
 
 248 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 which is supposed to be the main characteristic of the dis- 
 ease. I have not seen a single analyzable case of dementia 
 praecox that showed any dementia. Those cases whose 
 minds we cannot penetrate merely because the patients 
 refuse to cooperate with us we are hardly justified in 
 calling ''demented." Every careful observer will recall 
 that now and then a "dement," who has been noted for 
 years with the familiar formula "No change, dull, stupid, 
 and demented," suddenly loses his dementia and acts in a 
 perfectly rational manner. I can now recall three cases 
 of dementia praecox that I observed in the Central Islip 
 State Hospital which were "demented" two, three and 
 five years, respectively, and then practically recovered, 
 which led me to beheve in the truth of the statement that 
 dementia praecox is often "neither a dementia nor a prae- 
 cox." The works of the Zurich school and of other inves- 
 tigators have amply demonstrated these facts and it is for 
 these reasons that my former chief. Prof. Bleuler, to whom I 
 am indebted for these cases, repudiates this meaningless 
 term, dementia praecox, and uses Schizophrenia.^^ 
 
 References 
 
 1. Diagnostiche Assoziations Studien, Vol. I, Barth, Leipzig, 1906. 
 
 2. Translated by A. A. Brill, American Journal of Psychology, 
 April, 1910. 
 
 3. Freud: Selected Papers on Hysteria, p. 194. 
 
 4. Janet: Les Obsessions et la Psychasthenic, Paris, 1903. 
 
 5. The Psychology of Dementia Praecox. Translated by Peterson 
 and Brill. 
 
 6. Freud: L. c, p. 165. 
 
 7. Jung: L. c. 
 
 8. C/. Chap. IV.
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS AND THE PSYCHOSES 249 
 
 9. Bewusstsein u. Assoziation, Diagnost. Assoziations Studien, 
 Beitrag V. and Jung, L. c. 
 
 10. The Interpretation of Dream, Translated by A. A. Brill, 
 George Allen, London, and The Macmillan Co., New York. 
 
 11. Cf. Chap. II. 
 
 12. Jung: L. c. 
 
 13. Liebman: Christhchen Symbolic, p. 76, Leipzig, Reklam Ed. 
 
 14. Bleuler: Schizophrenie, Deuticke, Wien, 1911. Cf. also Manual 
 of Psychiatry translation in preparation.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA OR THE MILDER PSY- 
 CHOTIC STATES 
 
 During the last twelve years I had occasion to study a 
 number of cases which one might call mild mental disturb- 
 ances. They concerned patients who were apparently 
 well but who were considered by friends and relatives as 
 "peculiar, crazy, or eccentric." As a rule such patients 
 seek no treatment and most of them undoubtedly go 
 through life without being seen by any physicians. Occa- 
 sionally, however, they are brought to us involuntarily, 
 and not seldom we see them because they are interested in 
 "psychic" matters and wish to discuss their ideas with 
 persons who write on such subjects. Of the many cases 
 seen by me I feel that most of them belong to a class of 
 patients which might be designated as mildly paraphrenic 
 and their disease as paraphrenia. 
 
 I use this term here in the same more or less indefinite 
 
 sense as one finds it among all writers on the subject. 
 
 Kraepelin's Paranoiden Verhlodungen (paraphrenias) have 
 
 never impressed me as something clean cut and clear; on the 
 
 contrary every case that I have finally put into this group 
 
 could easily have been added to the paranoid form of 
 
 dementia prsecox, or better to the cases we used to designate 
 
 in the New York State Hospitals, following Doctor Adolph 
 
 Meyer's suggestion, as alHed to dementia prsecox. In 
 
 using this term, I am also thinking of the suggestions made 
 
 250
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 251 
 
 by Professor Bleuler and Professor Freud, who wish to 
 designate the entire dementia prsecox group as schizophrenia 
 and paraphrenia, respectively. The cases under considera- 
 tion, although they are not typical prsecoxes or para- 
 phrenias, are very similar to them and surely would not fit 
 into any other group. A brief description of a case might 
 serve as an example. 
 
 Case. — W. M., aged forty-six, single, an expert in a big 
 concern. 
 
 He was brought to me in 1914 by a member of the firm employing him 
 because he was considered very nervous. People who knew him well 
 considered him somewhat eccentric but never imagined that he was in 
 any way mentally wrong. My informant stated that the patient had 
 been with the firm almost thirty years, and that although his accom- 
 plishments were not of a kind to produce great changes in the business 
 he was a "steady, very reUable, and verj' methodical person." Indeed 
 he was so methodical that very few people could get along with him. 
 When something even trifling was done that was not exactly to his 
 liking he would become very angry and almost furious over it. He 
 would keep up his tantrum for daj^ and weeks so that it was often 
 necessary to remove from his oflSce the person who displeased him, 
 though it was recognized that there was hardly any offense. For the 
 last eight j'ears he came into business contact with five people only, 
 the member of the firm who brought him to me, two clerks who were 
 described as very tactful, and two managers who had been with the 
 firm for years and "who knew how to manage him." His employer 
 told me that if it were not a question of sentiment the patient would 
 have been discharged long ago, he was considered a verj' diflScult 
 person to get along with and more or less of a nuisance that one had 
 to tolerate. For years he was urged to retire on a substantial pension, 
 and as he had accumulated considerable money on account of his 
 r^ular habits and unpretentious living he could have lived in more 
 than comfort, but he refused to leave the business. In answer to 
 my question, his employer stated that if it were not for his peculiarity 
 he would be considered quite useful to the firm, that whatever he did 
 was well done and that he possessed a certain amount of knowledge
 
 252 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 about a particular branch of the business which was valuable to the 
 firm. 
 
 The immediate cause of his being brought to me was this: On his 
 return from a short vacation he found that his old office chair was 
 replaced by a new one. He simply could not endure the new chair, 
 he insisted that his old one be returned to him, and as this was 
 impossible — the chair had meanwhile been disposed of — he became 
 very nervous and excitable, and for a time was unable to attend to his 
 work. This chair, I was told, must have been used by the patient 
 for at least twenty years; it was just worn out, as if dying of old age; 
 for years attempts were made to furnish him a more comfortable 
 chair but he objected, and as it was considered unsafe to let him use 
 it any longer, advantage was taken of his absence to have it removed 
 and replaced by a comfortable office chair. The episode just described 
 occurred about six weeks before the patient was brought to me and he 
 was still inconsolable over it. He thought it was a mean trick 
 and attributed it to the hostility of the manager of the purchasing 
 department. He saw no real reason for coming to me, he admitted 
 that he was a bit nervous at times, but as his employer insisted that 
 he should put himself under my care he was quite willing to do so. 
 We gradually became used to each other, and as he had been under 
 my care for a few months I learned to know quite a little concerning 
 his mental structure. 
 
 He was born in New York of Dutch-English stock. His mother 
 was considered nervous, his father was a drinker. Nothing else could 
 be found in his heredity. He was the second in the family of three 
 children; both his older and younger sisters were married and normal 
 as far as one could see. His sister, who was his senior by six years, 
 told me that the patient had always been a reserved person, that 
 even as a boy he had but few playmates, that he never had what one 
 calls chums, that he always minded his own business and that he 
 was considered by the family a very well behaved boy and a quiet 
 young man. She could not give much information about his child- 
 hood or early boyhood although she was as close to him as anybody 
 and knew much about his later life. She added that he had always 
 been very quiet, not very affectionate, and very obstinate. At the 
 age of fourteen he graduated from public school and as the father 
 was incapacitated through drink and the mother was ailing it was 
 found necessary to send him to work. All this information was
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 253 
 
 verified by the patient. He worked for brief periods in two other 
 places before he entered the present firm. His second sister also 
 volunteered the information that he was never known to have been in 
 love, that he was not at all a ladies' man, that he was, however, quite 
 attached to his parents and although not demonstrative, was very 
 generous to his sisters. The family was not brought up religiously, 
 so that the patient was not attached to any church. He said that he 
 had a rehgion of his own which was "Mind your own business." 
 When I asked him how he occupied his leisure time he said that he 
 was fond of reading philosophy (he had a fair knowledge of the subject), 
 that he occasionally went to the movies and the theatre. He was 
 well informed on the topics of the day but took only a superficial 
 interest in things; he paid Uttle attention to the war but became 
 irritable when, owing to the exigencies of the times, his firm had to 
 make many changes in its business methods. He himself told me that 
 he was considered a miser but that it was not true, that he really 
 did not care for money but "people nowadays constantly impose 
 upon you." His attitude and manner appeared quite normal. He 
 seemed alert when spoken to, was very poUte, looked very neat in 
 appearance, but one was struck by the fact that he did not keep up 
 with the times in the manner of dressing. His clothes undoubtedly 
 belonged to the last generation. He told me that he had them made to 
 order and that he did not believe in changing styles so often, he con- 
 sidered it a sign of effeminacy. His insight as to his mental condition 
 was poor, although he realized that he was slightly nervous and that 
 people thought him eccentric. 
 
 To sum up, we have here a man of forty-six years who, 
 except for chronic constipation, presented nothing to note 
 in the physical or neurological field; mentally, however, he 
 showed a picture which could be designated as paraphrenia 
 or schizophrenia. There was a dulled affectivity, some 
 weakness of judgment, and a restricted capacity for work. 
 There was no dilapidation of the inner unity of the psychic 
 life, nor did he manifest any of the accessory disturbances of 
 schizophrenia described by Bleuler (1). As far as one could 
 discover by ordinary examinations he at no time evinced any
 
 254 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 active hallucinations or delusions. The last statement 
 might be slightly modified for, as I have stated, the patient 
 showed transitory ideas of mild persecution, and close 
 association showed that he was often controlled by mild 
 ideas of reference. What struck one forcibly was the fact 
 that the patient seemed to be very restricted in his interest, 
 that he was not at all moldable, that he was unable to 
 adjust himself to new situations or ideas, that he seemed to 
 be emotionally congealed; anything unusual could only take 
 place in the form of an outburst, as if something had to be 
 torn off or cut into; it took him some time to get over any 
 affect, but once the situation was accepted he seemed 
 to forget all about it. There were many other episodes 
 like the one mentioned into which we need not enter here. 
 Not all of my patients were of this type; some showed a 
 deeper development of the symptoms. A number of 
 patients passed through one or several hallucinatory 
 episodes lasting a short period without attracting attention; 
 others represented a milder type than the case described, 
 they had considerable insight, usually realizing that they 
 needed help and invariably came to me of their own accord. 
 Some of them thought of it for years before they finally 
 decided to consult me. In a much milder form they 
 represented almost all the reaction types so excellently 
 described by Adolph Meyer (2). None of my patients had 
 ever been in a hospital for the insane, and only a few had 
 ever been under a doctor's care. The reasons for their 
 coming to me were very bizarre to say the least. Thus a 
 woman of thirty-five had a theory as to how she could be 
 cured. She felt that her organs were almost dead, they 
 were rotten and distorted, that her brain was full of de-
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 255 
 
 cayed material and entertained other similar ideas. She 
 suggested that some one like myself should take her under 
 his care, keep her secluded in the dark without any nourish- 
 ment until she was at the point of death, and then by a very 
 complex system of ceremonies which she had carefully 
 elaborated, bring her back to life, "as a new, perfect and 
 superior being." Even those closest to her had no inkling 
 of her symptoms. 
 
 A man of about thirty-eight years sought treatment 
 because his mother's teeth annoyed him so much that he 
 constantly entertained fancies of murdering her. Another 
 man came to me because he had read something about 
 psychoanalysis and felt that he had always known all 
 about it, except that his own method acted so much swifter 
 than psychoanalysis. He could cure any form of insanity 
 in a few days. 
 
 Those who were brought to me usually refused to be 
 treated, though in quite a number I succeeded in arousing 
 enough affect to keep their interest for a while at least. 
 I have in mind a young boy of nineteen who finally con- 
 sented to call on me because he was anxious that I should 
 explain some hallucinatory episodes which he experienced. 
 He delved much in literature dealing with psychic phe- 
 nomena and imagined that he himself possessed super- 
 natural powers. He was very suspicious, mildly delusional, 
 and showed considerable impairment of judgment and 
 insight. He hated his father, was entirely indifferent to his 
 mother and had absolutely no relations with his classmates; 
 nevertheless, he managed to go through college and neither 
 parent considered him worse than eccentric. I have seen 
 him on and off now for over six years and there seems to be
 
 256 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 very little change in his condition. He is a chemist and has 
 kept a steady position since graduation. He is very me- 
 thodical, apparently doing well whatever is assigned to him, 
 but in five years his salary was raised only once. He seems 
 perfectly contented. He takes absolutely no interest in the 
 opposite sex, though he occasionally has erotic dreams in 
 connection with urination and defecation. This mechanism 
 is often seen in the erotic dreams of praecox types. Object 
 love seems to be undeveloped or repressed and their erotic 
 fancies and dreams remain on an infantile basis. 
 
 The cases whose histories do not show any distinct 
 episode are often quite difficult to diagnose from psychoneu- 
 roses. Indeed, I have often diagnosed such cases as 
 hysterias and compulsion neuroses only to find out after 
 months that I had been mistaken. My experience taught 
 me that one must be very careful in venturing an opinion 
 before the patient has been carefully studied for at least a 
 month. I feel, however, that even in the mildest cases 
 where the patients seem to show distinct hysterical reactions, 
 a diagnosis can usually be made within a few weeks. With- 
 out going into a detailed differential diagnosis I will give 
 a few salient points. Bleuler urges that no diagnosis should 
 be made without knowing the patient's complexes; in mild 
 cases this sometimes takes a long time. I usually guide 
 myself by the transference. The psychoneurotic usually 
 gets a good transference — positive or negative — after a few 
 interviews. He or she either likes or dislikes the physician 
 in a normal manner. The paraphrenic either shows no 
 affect, or it evinces itself in a morbid and very inadequate 
 way. For over nine years I have been in the habit of put- 
 ting this question to all my patients: "What personage
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 257 
 
 from history or legend do you admire most, or who is your 
 ideal?" Besides those from my patients I have also col- 
 lected answers from friends and acquaintances and from 
 school children and college students. The findings are 
 very interesting. My assumption is that the person we 
 admire most, who is our ideal, is the one with whom we 
 consciously or unconsciously identify ourselves, whose type 
 of reaction appeals to us, and whom we constantly endeavor 
 to emulate. Now it will interest you to know that most of 
 the intelligent American test persons answered: Napoleon; 
 Lincoln and Washington came next. (3) The answer also 
 shows the type of transference that appeals to the person. 
 Psychoneurotics answer like non-nervous individuals, while 
 paraphrenics either cannot answer the question, they say 
 they have no ideals, or what is more often the case they 
 select a person after considerable hesitation but soon change 
 their minds and give some other name; a few days later they 
 suddenly think of it again and feel badly over their selection. 
 The personages they select are not of the usual types. This 
 is especially true of cases where there is considerable mental 
 dissociation.^ 
 
 I found that the manner of answering the question always 
 threw light on the patient's unconscious. I was once 
 
 1 Cf. Southard, The Empathic Index in the Diagnosis of Mental 
 Diseases, Journal of Ahnonnal Psychology, October, 1918. The term 
 was coined by Professor Titchener and deals with the idea of reading 
 oneself into an inanimate or animate object. As I said, the object of 
 my question was to ascertain the ideal one is constantly endeavoring to 
 emulate and has nothing to do with reading oneself into an inanimate 
 object. I feel, however, that the expression empathic index would 
 aptly fit as a generic term to designate the ideas involved in my 
 questions. I might say that the answer to my question denotes the 
 person's empathic index. 
 
 17
 
 258 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 asked to see a paraphrenic who became nervous following 
 the death of his mother. The patient was a favorite son 
 of forty-six and had the following history. He was born 
 and bred in New York city, graduated from school, college, 
 and university, and for years practised successfully his 
 profession. About ten years before I saw him, when his 
 father was eighty-six years old and his mother, who was 
 invalided through arthritis, was seventy-one, it occurred 
 to him that he ought to give his mother more of his time. 
 He started by leaving his office an hour earlier, then two 
 hours earlier, then three hours earlier. In the course of 
 time he only came to the office for an hour or two and 
 finally left the firm altogether, resigned from his guard 
 regiment and all other social organizations, and simply 
 stayed at home with his mother. In time he even refused 
 to go to the barber, neglecting his person to such an extent 
 that his former associates could hardly recognize him. 
 He explained his actions by saying that nothing was as 
 precious to him as his mother, that nothing gave him more 
 pleasure than being with her, that an hour with his mother 
 was more than a life time at clubs, offices, or regiments. He 
 also felt that his mother needed him as a protection against 
 his annoying and crabbed father. (As a matter of fact 
 there was no truth in his statements; I was told that his 
 mother strongly objected to his mode of living and constantly 
 urged him to return to normal life.) He hated his father 
 and insisted that he must be home so as to shield his mother 
 from him; his great hope was that his father would die and 
 leave him with his dear mother. When his father finally 
 passed away at the age of ninety and his mother followed 
 him a few days later, he began to show an active psychosis.
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 259 
 
 He insisted on going daily to his mother's grave, he wanted 
 to stay there all the time and blamed himself for her death 
 as well as for his father's death. The idea was, that had 
 he shielded her better she would have still lived; at the 
 same time he also felt that it was his ill treatment which 
 hastened his father's death. Altogether he presented a 
 a very typical ambivalent mechanism often seen in para- 
 phrenia. The interesting part was that although he 
 objected to his father on the ground of brutality, calling 
 him a Prussian, his first answer to my question was: 
 Frederick the Great; later he changed it to Lincoln and then 
 to Washington. One can readily see that although he 
 objected so much to his father's behavior he unconsciously 
 imitated him. At home he was an absolute tyrant and 
 his empathic index Frederick the Great showed that he 
 identified himself with his father whom he called a Prussian. 
 
 The second point in diagnosing these mild paraphrenics 
 is to find their systems. All of them got through at least 
 one emotional catastrophe followed by a partial adjustment 
 with the gradual formation of a system. Some of the sys- 
 tems are quite transparent; others are very complicated. 
 It is usually difiicult to make them give up the secret. An 
 interesting case in question is that of a paraphrenic married 
 woman who refused to live with her husband in marital 
 relations; here is her system as she described it after con- 
 siderable urging: 
 
 "When perception of the male and female organs came 
 to me, I turned them aside, or rather pushed it up. Any 
 tube suspended, or any spigot was symbolic and must not 
 be apperceived. Consequently my vision was pushed over 
 by a cloud. A, my hearing also, B, for any sound made by
 
 260 
 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 man or woman, that must not be heard. Also anything 
 that seemed to symbolize two together, a fusion or joining 
 must be turned aside. Recently I saw two boys romping, 
 one on top of the other — it must not be thought of, it must 
 be turned aside. So when consciousness touched the 
 sexual organs, discriminating male 
 from female, in the persons of my 
 parents and brothers and sisters, I 
 would not allow the joining to take 
 place. If I did allow the union to 
 take place I was a part of that 
 person, so I held it off. Just at 
 this time I was conscious of my 
 father's dominant attitude toward 
 his family, overcoming them in 
 anger, and by blows with his hand. 
 So I think the hand symbolized 
 the physical overcoming, the 
 normal sex organ of physical over- 
 coming, I have been kept from 
 assimilating on account of my 
 mother's hypermoral attitude to 
 life. Consciousness was thus de- 
 flected at E, to the rear of the body, 
 where my father had threatened to strike us children. It 
 must be understood that the male consciousness was not 
 allowed to join with the female, so unconsciously it did at F. 
 The man in my dreams was always unnamed, he had no 
 personality, and I have always turned aside mentally at a 
 person's name. This touching of the male consciousness 
 (deflected) at F of the sexual organism, produced friction. 
 
 Fig. 1
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 261 
 
 (This was ideationally represented by dream stories.) Con- 
 sciousness thus confined to the sexual organs, an intense 
 thought caused an overflow! I had feehng! something 
 passed from me. I was terrified; mortally it meant mental 
 death; I shut off with a terrific force at C — G, and H. Con- 
 sciousness has been staying there ever since, afraid to move, 
 because movement caused this feeling, and that might 
 produce a flow which meant mental death. This conscious- 
 ness that I cut off was the male sexual organ — part of it 
 was out, but the nail was terrific. I froze, became stone, 
 at F. The part that was out symbolized the nail in the 
 barbed wire fence. The fear has been terrific that I would 
 animate again at F, thus producing results at G and H — so 
 consciousness has held tight guard at G and H. Mortally 
 terrified I have been at the thought of any man, since I had 
 not been allowed to have normal mental stipulation at D — 
 it might produce it at F, which might cause feeling and 
 produce feeling at F and G and perhaps something to pass 
 from me at H." 
 
 Without going into the details of the case, her description 
 may not be comprehensible to you, but I have no hesitation 
 in stating that no psychoneurotic could give out such a 
 production. This woman is dominated by a polymorphous 
 perverse sexuality, the sadomasochistic components pre- 
 dominating, to which she reacts with a peculiar revul- 
 sion to the physical part of sex. She talks constantly of 
 cleanliness and contamination of her ten year old daughter 
 through sexual thoughts. When she first consulted me I 
 thought that she was a hysterica but I was soon struck by 
 the fact that even after two months' treatment we were 
 still strangers to each other. Instead of entering into
 
 262 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 rapport with me she paid very Httle attention to what I 
 said, she wished to do all the talking and expected me to 
 listen and occasionally answer a question. She would 
 close her eyes, assume an ecstatic and mystical mien and 
 just talk. When she recited a dream she immediately gave 
 the analysis. All she wanted of me was to act as a substi- 
 tute for her father, through whom she wished to attain her 
 paraphrenic ideals. These features, viz., the indifference 
 of the patient to the physician, in spite of the fact that she 
 was anxious to come to him, and the tendency to interpret 
 dreams as a matter of course are very typical in flourishing 
 cases. The last mechanism was first demonstrated by 
 Bleuler in his Schizophrenie and one frequently observes it 
 in the very mildest cases. 
 
 An interesting case of this kind was studied by me about 
 a year ago. The man, an only son, after a prolonged and 
 strange courtship finally married. After living with his 
 wife for about six months he left her without any particular 
 reason; at her suggestion he returned to her and about a 
 year later left her again. This process was repeated about 
 half a dozen times when his wife recognized the futility of 
 further trials. The patient seemed mentally well pre- 
 served, he made a good impression on outsiders but there 
 was something archaic about his manner. He still wore the 
 cravenette one used to see twelve to fifteen years ago, and 
 he admitted to me that all his clothes were at least as old. 
 He was, however, neat looking, and as he put it, "there 
 was no use buying clothes when you don't need them." He 
 had nothing against his wife, which puzzled the poor 
 woman very much, but long before he met her he decided to 
 marry a second cousin whom he had not seen since he was
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 263 
 
 nine years old. The reason for wanting to marry his cousin 
 was to preserve certain family traits which he feared were 
 dying out. When he came to me he had a fat portfolio 
 filled with his dreams which he analyzed without ever hav- 
 ing read anything on the subject. He came to me because 
 he accidentally found Freud's Interpretation of Dreams while 
 he was looking up something in the library. He was an 
 architect by profession. 
 
 Another differential diagnostic feature is this. In normal 
 persons and neurotics one always finds the socalled typical 
 dreams and especially exhibition dreams, which Charles 
 Dickens said are dreamed by everybody from her majesty 
 the queen to her humblest jailer. The exhibition dreams 
 are always found in people and represent the person as 
 being naked or scantily clad in the presence of strangers; 
 the person is very much embarrassed and ashamed, he 
 wishes to flee or to hide, but for some reason he is usually 
 unable to move from the spot. A dream of this kind was 
 given to me by a young married woman who dreamed that 
 she was riding on a Fifth avenue bus and suddenly discov- 
 ered that she was naked. With a great deal of difficulty 
 she ran into a subway station but there again she met crowds 
 of people and the only thing that she could find to cover 
 herself with was a telephone directory. The remarkable 
 thing about exhibition dreams is that the persons before 
 whom one is ashamed are almost always strangers and they 
 seem to be quite indifferent to the dreamer's embarrass- 
 ment (4). Professor Freud traces those dreams back to 
 early childhood. It is a recollection of the earliest period 
 of life. ''Only in our childhood," he states, "was there a 
 time when we were seen by our relatives, as weU as by
 
 264 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 strange nurses, servant girls and visitors, in scanty clothing 
 and at that time we were not ashamed of our nakedness 
 (5). Children love to show themselves naked and it is 
 only with the advance of age that the reactions of modesty 
 and shame are formed against it. But even when this 
 feeling is repressed both normals and neurotics always show 
 a mild tendency to exhibit, be it as young students on the 
 college campus or as settled business or professional men. 
 The showoff instinct is always with us and as it cannot 
 be altogether gratified we occasionally have exhibition 
 dreams. It means that there is a quantum of unattached 
 libido which the individual wishes to adjust. It is interest- 
 ing to hear Professor Freud's remarks on the manifestation 
 of the exhibition dreams in different persons. He says: 
 "One's own person, which is seen not as that of a child, 
 but as belonging to the present, and the idea of scanty 
 clothing, which became buried beneath so many later 
 negligee recollections, or because of the censor, turns out to 
 be obscure — these two things constitute the nucleus of the 
 exhibition dream. Next come the persons before whom one 
 is ashamed. I know of no example where the actual 
 spectators at those infantile exhibitions reappear in the 
 dream. For the dream is hardly ever a simple recollection. 
 Strangely enough, those persons who are the objects of our 
 sexual interest during childhood are omitted from all the 
 reproductions of the dream, of hysteria, and of the compul- 
 sion neurosis; paranoia alone puts the spectators back into 
 their places, and is fantastically convinced of their presence, 
 although they remain invisible. What the dream substi- 
 tutes for these, the "many strange people," who take no 
 notice of the spectacle which is presented, is exactly the
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 265 
 
 opposite wish of that single, intimate person for whom 
 the exposure was intended. Many stange people, moreover, 
 are often found in the dream in any other favorable con- 
 nection; as an opposite wish they always signify a secret. 
 It may be seen how the restoration of the old condition of 
 affairs, as it occurs in paranoia, is subject to this antithesis. 
 One is no longer alone. One is certainly being watched, 
 but the spectators are many strange, curiously indetermi- 
 nate people." Paraphrenics, particularly those who show 
 a deeper organization, rarely have exhibition dreams. 
 As you know the hospital patients exhibit openly when they 
 so desire and in the mild cases that feeling is changed to 
 delusions of observation. I feel that if one understands the 
 language of the unconscious mental processes he can in 
 time differentiate the mildest paraphrenic from the neuro- 
 tics. Their mode of expression is absolutely different. 
 The pantomimic expression of hysteria corresponds to the 
 metaphorical language of dreams and visions, while the 
 mental expression of compulsion neurotics and paraphrenics 
 manifest themselves in special idioms. Thus the uncon- 
 scious wish for pregnancy or the defense against it may be 
 expressed by a hysterical patient through vomiting, by the 
 compulsive neurotic through the most painful protective 
 measure against infection, and by the paraphrenic through 
 complaints and suspicion of being poisoned. (A number of 
 paraphrenics have dreams in which they are watched by 
 crowds of people.) 
 
 ■ Within the last eight years I have seen a number of so- 
 called nervous children between the ages of three and nine 
 years, and I have no doubt that many belonged to the para- 
 phrenic group, or to some disease very closely allied to
 
 266 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 dementia prsecox. Most of the acute cases showed the 
 catatonic type of reaction in the form of negative resistances, 
 mutism, stereotyped expressions and movements colored 
 by hysterical mechanisms, which kept up for weeks and 
 longer. The chronic cases were shut in, suspicious and 
 extremely resistive. Observation leads me to think that 
 the catatonic type of reaction is the simplest and most 
 primitive form and that it is more or less present in all 
 children, as a protective defense reaction. 
 
 The striking manifestation in all my paraphrenic cases 
 even in the children was some obvious sex difficulty. This, 
 as is known, is plainly seen in the flourishing cases of demen- 
 tia prsecox and paranoia, and though hidden one readily 
 discovers it in mild cases. Thus Mr. M., the case I cited 
 first, was an extremely moral person (sexually speaking). 
 At the age of from fourteen to fifteen years, a girl consider- 
 ably older than he made advances to him and he fell in love 
 with her but he soon discovered that she was very carnal, 
 and not only rejected her but the whole sex. A masturbatic 
 experience with a boy of nine years laid the foundation for 
 his later repressed homosexuality and made impossible 
 any normal adjustment to men. The strange part of it 
 was, that although he seemingly showed no interest in the 
 girl he continued to send presents to her mother and helped 
 her financially whenever she requested it. Another patient 
 was silently in love with a girl in his social circle and when 
 she married some one else he left the city, went south and 
 bought a small orange grove, where he remained five years 
 leading an isolated existence. Still another patient was 
 much in love with a girl he had known since childhood. He 
 showed his love through childish attentions whenever he
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 267 
 
 chanced to meet her, and expressed some emotivity when 
 she finally married some one else. He is now a man of 
 fifty-two years and he still loves the same girl and measures 
 every woman by the standard of his first love. 
 
 In children there is naturally no sexual rejection but 
 there seems to be a marked sensitiveness to the love life. 
 Four years ago I called to see a girl of three years who 
 showed negative resistances, stereotypy, mutism, and ex- 
 treme irritability. She was treated in the usual manner 
 without any improvement. On investigation I found that 
 her illness came on soon after her parents separated, she 
 being in her father's house with a governess. I concluded 
 that the child missed her mother's love and owing to the 
 constitutional factors in the case she was unable to transfer 
 her libido from her mother to the governess. I finally 
 persuaded the father to let the child see her mother and 
 after a few weeks the child was as well as ever. 
 
 Paraphrenics show a priori an executive weakness in 
 managing their libido, and unlike normals and neurotics, 
 any trauma to the love life results in a catastrophe from 
 which they never recover. The normal always ''forgets" 
 and finds a substitute in a new attachment, or he makes a 
 successful effort at sublimation; the neurotic changes his 
 detached libidio into a hysterical symptom or into anxiety; 
 in paraphrenia when the libido becomes deprived of its 
 object it gravitates into a special path, in some it retreats 
 from subHmated homosexuality to narcism and thus 
 forms the regression characteristic of paranoia, while in 
 others it goes back to autoerotism and manifests itself in 
 more infantile types of reaction. That accounts for the 
 'fact that none of my adult paraphrenics have ever amounted
 
 268 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 to much in their various vocations. The one thing essential 
 to normal Hfe is hbidinous occupation. Our vocations when 
 they represent a successful sublimation of our libido afford 
 us pleasure. Paraphrenics show a very precarious sublima- 
 tion, their libido is largely introverted. Most of my para- 
 phrenic patients had some income otherwise they would 
 have found it very difficult to get along, in all probability 
 it also kept them out of asylums. Their libido is sclerotic, 
 no real adjustment is possible, I have never seen a para- 
 phrenic who was in love with a woman in the normal sense. 
 One of my patients was urged by his parents to marry 
 because he was thirty-nine years old; they introduced him 
 to a woman of thirty and with the active assistance of his 
 mother he finally became engaged to her. He soon neg- 
 lected her to the extent of almost forgetting her existence 
 and was astonished when his mother called him to account 
 for it. He then became very precise in his attention to his 
 fiancee, he called on her every Tuesday evening but showed 
 no interest in her in any other way. He came to see me 
 at the advice of his parents. He claimed that he could not 
 give any more time to his fiancee because he had something 
 else for every minute of the time at his disposal. He 
 became very argumentative when I criticized his method of 
 courting and ended by saying "anyway I cannot stand the 
 way she talks, her voice makes me angry." He spoke of 
 her voice as "grayish rasping." This patient was described 
 as extremely orderly and methodical. He took the utmost 
 care of his belongings and became furious when anything 
 was moved or disarranged in his room. Unlike the flourish- 
 ing praecoxes paraphrenics are not slovenly in appearance ; 
 on the contrary they looTc very neat; one, however, soon
 
 STUDIES IN PARAPHRENIA 269 
 
 notices the same sclerotic condition in their manner of 
 dressing. One wealthy paraphrenic wore an overcoat which 
 he had had for over twelve years. He said "Every spring 
 I brush it and press it and pack it away for next winter; 
 one cannot buy such a coat nowadays." It is this mental 
 sclerosis which runs through the whole life of the patients 
 that differentiates them from the neurotic. They occasion- 
 ally make strong efforts at adjustment and then resemble 
 the psycho neurotic but they are not moldable enough, no 
 permanent impression can be made on them. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Bleitler: Schizophrenic; Deuticke, Wien, 1911. 
 
 2. Meyer, Adolph: Fundamental Conceptions of Dementia Prse- 
 cox, British Medical Journal, September 29, 1906. 
 
 3. Freud: Interpretation of Dreams, p. 203. 
 
 4. L. C.:p. 206. 
 
 5. Cp. Freud: Das Interesse an der Psychoanalssy Scientia, vol. iv, 
 1913. 
 
 6. Freud: Jahrbuch filr Psychoanalytische u. Psychopathologische 
 ForschungenjBleuler-Freud, vol. iii. 
 
 7. Cp. Chapter II.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 
 
 Its Relation to Homosexual Wish-phantasies 
 
 The subject of paranoia has always been a puzzle for 
 psychiatrists and much has been said and written about it, 
 but as far as my knowledge of the literature goes no real 
 attempt or progress has been made toward its solution. 
 It is not my purpose to enter here into an extensive dis- 
 cussion on the subject of paranoia in general, but merely 
 to throw light on some of the psychological elements of the 
 subject. I will cite the following case: 
 
 E. R., thirty-six years old, married, school teacher by occupation, 
 was admitted to my service at the Central Islip State Hospital, August 
 31, 1906. He came by transfer from the Bloomingdale Hospital 
 where he had been for some time. In brief the history of the case 
 taken from commitment papers was as follows: In infancy the 
 patient sustained a severe fall on the head, but without apparent 
 injury. In childhood he was subject to violent fits of temper. He 
 would strike his head against the wall when angry and is supposed to 
 have had some fainting attacks when frightened. At an early age 
 he was employed in a factory. He resented his vulgar surroundings 
 and blamed his relatives for permitting him to work there. He 
 entered college at sixteen and worked his way through. He stood 
 well in his classes, but was not popular with his classmates. He 
 often quarreled with them and assumed a high moral plane. He 
 refused to accompany them on frolics because he would not visit 
 common places. He graduated in 1898 and then took up school 
 teaching. Here, too, he did not seem to get along well with his prin- 
 cipal and the other teachers. He was disappointed at not being 
 promoted to teach a higher grade and suspected that there was a 
 conspiracy against him. He imagined that the principal and other 
 
 270
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 271 
 
 teachers were trying to work up a " badger game " on him to the effect 
 that he had had some immoral relations with his girl pupils. Asa result 
 of these delusions he would not permit his girl pupils to come near 
 him in the school room. In 1903 he married, after a hasty courtship, 
 and soon thereafter he took a strong dislike to his brother-in-law 
 and sister and accused them of immorality. He also accused his 
 wife of illicit relations with his brother and his brother-in-law, Mr. 
 S. These erotic delusions, in conjunction with many other delusions 
 of self-reference and persecution, became very active. The patient 
 threatened to shoot his imaginary persecutors, so that it became 
 necessary to commit him to Bloomingdale Hospital. There he 
 remained from March, 1906, to June, 1906, when he was taken 
 home on a trial visit, but as he soon began to react to his delusions 
 and became excited and threatening, he was returned to the hospital 
 after two days. One of his peculiar delusions at that time was that 
 Dr. D., the physician in charge, was his wife in disguise. 
 
 When he was brought to the Central Islip State Hospital he was 
 quite calm and natural in his conversation. As we had been class- 
 mates at college we were both pleased and sorry to meet imder the 
 circumstances. He spoke freely about his condition, but he denied, 
 or tried to explain away his many delusions. Without entering into 
 the details of his behavior during the four months he was under 
 my care, I will merely state that he presented a typical case of paran- 
 oia. Mr. S., his brother-in-law, was the arch conspirator against him. 
 He accused him of immoral relations with his wife and his mother 
 and Mrs. S., i.e., patient's sister. He often imagined that I was his 
 wife in disguise and on a number of occasions he also accused his 
 brother of being his wife in disguise. The following notes taken from 
 the patient's history nicely illustrate that point: "On Sept. 6, 1906, 
 while speaking to me, he said: 'Suppose I should tell you that my 
 brother who visited me last Saturday and Doctor Brill were both 
 
 Mrs. R. (wife) in disguise Doctor may I ask you a 
 
 frank question?' When told to do so he said, 'Did you really have 
 an interview with me last Sunday or is it only another case of Doctor 
 Jekyl and Mr. Hyde? You don't look to-day as you looked then. 
 You had all the feminine traits of Mrs. R. ; to-day you are severe and 
 look like yourself." 
 
 He also imagined that some women made signs to him and were in 
 the hospital for the purpose of Uberating him. Whenever he heard
 
 272 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 anybody talking he immediately referred it to himself. He inter- 
 preted every movement and expression as having some special mean- 
 ing for himself. There was no impairment of his orientation or 
 reasoning power. Contrary to the advice of the physicians he was 
 discharged December 11, 1906. 
 
 It will hardly be worth while to enter into the further 
 particulars of the symptomatology of this case. I will 
 simply relate the following facts: In the summer of 1908 
 the patient was returned to Bellevue Hospital by his own 
 family because he was very delusional and because they 
 considered him dangerous. After having been there over 
 three months and after a long trial before a jury in the 
 Supreme court where five physicians, including myself, 
 had testified that he was a dangerous paranoiac, he was 
 declared sane and congratulated by the Supreme Court 
 justice and the jury on his able management of his own 
 case. He did not wait for his ofl&cial discharge from the 
 psychopathic ward of Bellevue Hospital, but escaped to 
 Canada. His psychosis was apparently progressing for 
 every now and then he would send mysterious letters to 
 different persons in New York City. At that time one of 
 his delusions was that he was a great statesman and that 
 the United States government had appointed him am- 
 bassador, but that the "gang" in New York City had some- 
 one without ability to impersonate him so that he lost his 
 appointment. This led him to send many letters to the 
 State Department at Washington. On one occasion he 
 appeared there and made an unsuccessful attempt to see the 
 President's daughter. He was arrested by the secret 
 service men and returned to New York, but again a judge 
 allowed him to remain at large. He immediately returned 
 to Canada and continued to annoy the Canadian govern-
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 273 
 
 ment with all kinds of crazy letters. The Canadian govern- 
 ment was quicker than a New York Supreme Court jury 
 to recognize a lunatic, for he was arrested, declared insane 
 and deported to the United States as an undesirable alien. 
 He was again brought to the psychopathic ward in Bellevue 
 where I had occasion to examine him. He expressed his 
 former delusions, but they were more systematized and 
 complicated. He showed considerable mental deteriora- 
 tion, so that he was unable to hide his delusions. He 
 thought that the daughter of the President of the United 
 States came to visit him in the hospital and he spoke quite 
 freely about it. Indeed, the psychosis was so apparent 
 that he was soon adjudged insane and committed to the 
 Manhattan State Hospital. 
 
 The characteristic development, the delusions of perse- 
 cution, the erotomania (girl pupils. President's daughter, 
 and many women who came to set him free from the Cen- 
 tral Islip State Hospital) and the delusions of grandeur 
 (statesman, ambassador) present a typical picture of a 
 paranoid condition. 
 
 Now I do not expect to clear up all the obscure points in 
 this case. All I hope to do is to demonstrate thereby 
 certain mechanisms brought out by Freud in his psycho- 
 analytical remarks on a Case of Paranoia^ and at the 
 same time to give a rather full review of Freud's paper in 
 order to stimulate further interest in this subject. 
 
 According to Freud the paranoiac character lies in the 
 
 fact that as a reaction to a defense against a homosexual 
 
 wish-phantasy there results a delusion of persecution. 
 
 This conclusion has been reached not only by Freud, but 
 
 also by Jones, Ferenczi,^ and others,^ after having ob- 
 is
 
 274 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 served for years a number of cases of paranoia in men and 
 women of different races, callings and social positions. 
 This statement may seem strange on superficial considera- 
 tion, as it is generally known that the etiological factors 
 usually found in paranoia deal rather more with social 
 injuries and depreciations than with matters sexual, but 
 if we trace the social relations and at the same time bear 
 in mind Freud's idea of sexuality we find that they invari- 
 ably lead to unconscious homosexual wish-phantasies. 
 
 Studies made by Freud"* and Sadger^ have called atten- 
 tion to a stage in the history of the development of the 
 libido which is passed on the way from autoerotism to 
 object love. This stage has been designated as narcism 
 and consists in the fact that the developing individual, 
 while collecting into a unit his active autoerotic sexual 
 impulses in order to gain a love object, takes first himself, 
 his own body, as the love object, before going over to the 
 object selection of a strange person. This intermediate 
 phase between autoerotism and object love is normally 
 perhaps indispensable, and in a great many persons it lasts 
 for a long time. The genitals may then be the chief thing 
 in this self which is taken as the love object. The re- 
 maining road may lead to the choice of an object with 
 similar genitals and then from the homosexual object 
 selection to the heterosexual. It is assumed that those 
 who remained homosexual were unable to free themselves 
 from the desire of requiring genitals similar to their own 
 in the love object. This desire is also furthered by the 
 infantile sexual theories which attribute the penis to both 
 sexes. In the normal course of development where the 
 heterosexual object selection has been attained the homo-
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 275 
 
 sexual feelings are not necessarily abrogated or suspended, 
 but they are simply pushed away from the sexual aim and 
 directed to new uses. They help in the formation of those 
 components which constitute the social feelings and thus 
 contribute to the maintenance of friendship, camaraderie 
 and public spirit. This is the so-called process of subli- 
 mation. All the manifest homosexuals who resist their 
 sensual feeling take an unusual interest in human affairs.* 
 
 In his "Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex," 
 Freud states that every stage of development of the psycho- 
 sexuality offers a possibility for "fixation" which may 
 thus result in a type of character. Persons who do not 
 get away altogether from the stage of narcism, who are 
 fixed there on some point which may act as a morbid dis- 
 position, are exposed to the danger lest a high tide of 
 libido, finding no other outlet, might subject their social 
 feelings to a sexualization and thus cause a retrogression 
 of their sublimation which was acquired during the develop- 
 ment. Such a state may come about by anything that 
 produces a backward coursing of the libido (regression). 
 It may be brought about by a collateral reinforcement 
 through a disappointment in the woman, or through a 
 failure in social relations to the man, or through a general 
 increase in libido which becomes too violent to be dis- 
 charged by the roads open to it, and hence breaks the 
 dam at the weakest portion of the structure. As analysis 
 shows that paranoiacs endeavor to defend themselves 
 against such a sexualization of their social feelings, we 
 are forced to assume that the weak part of their develop- 
 
 *For a full discussion of pathological homosexuality see next 
 chapter.
 
 276 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 ment is to be found in the parts between auto-erotism, 
 narcism and homosexuality. It is there that their morbid 
 disposition lies. When we read the personal history of 
 E. R. we find the following passages: ''At an early age he 
 was employed in a factory. He resented the vulgar sur- 
 roundings and blamed his relatives for permitting him to 
 work there. At sixteen years of age he decided to enter 
 college and worked his way through. He worked hard 
 and stood well in the class. He quarreled with classmates 
 and assumed a high moral plane. He would not visit 
 common places when friends went on a frolic, etc." 
 
 In other words, there seems to have been some fixation 
 at the phases of autoerotism and narcism, and a failure of 
 sublimation of his homosexual component. I well remem- 
 ber how shut in and seclusive he was while at college. 
 During the noon recess when the students would chat 
 together in small groups he could be seen standing alone 
 near some wall. As far as I know he did not have a single 
 friend. From his history we gather that the psychosis 
 became manifest as soon as he began teaching school, i.e., 
 as soon as an adjustment to environment was necessary. 
 For adjustment to environments is nothing but a reaction 
 to social stimuli. It is nothing but a give and take of 
 libido. Here no transference was possible because his 
 sublimation was made retrogressive and all his social 
 feelings were sexualized. The reaction against his uncon- 
 scious homosexual wish-phantasy caused him to think 
 that he was slighted by his principal and the other teachers. 
 In his own words — "they were trying to work up a badger 
 game" on him. The normal relations between teacher 
 and pupil became impossible. He would not permit his
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 277 
 
 girl pupils to come near him because he thought they had 
 some designs on him. This simply means that he pre- 
 viously entertained some sexual ideas about them or they 
 probably represented a fixation from an early age. 
 
 In 1903 he married after a short courtship. He soon 
 began to accuse his wife of infidelity with his brother and 
 brother-in-law, Mr. S. He also accused Mr. S. of improper 
 relations with his own wife (patient's sister) and a few 
 years later he also accused him of improper relations with 
 his mother. S. was the arch conspirator and his brother 
 who was also one of the conspirators was under S.'s influ- 
 ence. There was apparently a conflict between his con- 
 scious heterosexuality and his unconscious homosexuality. 
 For a time his heterosexuality triumphed and he married 
 after a short courtship, but the unconscious homosexu- 
 ality gained the upper hand and he then began to accuse 
 his wife of infidelity with those men whom he himself 
 unconsciously loved, i.e., he projected his homosexuality 
 to his wife. 
 
 But® when we accept the homosexual wish-phantasy to 
 love the man as the nucleus of the conflict in paranoia of 
 men, we at once find that it is contradicted by all the 
 familiar principal forms of paranoia. Thus the sentence 
 "I love him" (the man) is contradicted by the delusion 
 of persecution which loudly proclaims "I do not love him 
 — I rather hate him." However, the mechanism of the 
 symptom formation in paranoia demands that the inner 
 perception, the feeling, should be replaced by a perception 
 from without. The sentence "I rather hate him" there- 
 fore becomes transformed through projection into the 
 sentence "he hates (persecutes) me which justifies my
 
 278 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 hating him." The active unconscious feeling thus appears 
 as a result of an outer perception "I really do not love 
 him — I hate him — because he persecutes me." 
 
 Observation leaves no doubt that the persecutor was 
 once loved and respected. One of my paranoid patients, 
 D. S., talked about his arch conspirator Healy as follows: 
 "I wanted him to take off all the influences, but he would 
 not do it . . . I had all sorts of pains around the heart 
 and I thought I would die. I felt like dropping. I had 
 lots of night losses. I was always drawn to him. I couldn't 
 keep away from him." (Note the association between 
 night losses and being drawn to him.) 
 
 Another point of attack for the contradiction is the 
 erotomania which maintains "I do not love him — I love 
 them," (E. R. always maintained that many ladies came 
 to help him and that the president's daughter was in love 
 with him, etc.). But the same impulsion to projection 
 changes the sentence into "I notice that they love me." 
 We then have "I do not love him — I love her — because 
 she loves me." Many cases of erotomania could give the 
 impression of exaggerated or distorted heterosexual fixa- 
 tion if we were not aware of the fact that all these loves 
 do not start with inner perceptions of loving, but are feel- 
 ings of being loved coming from without. Thus R., a stage 
 hand who was committed to the Central Islip Hospital 
 because he imagined that a certain well-known actress 
 was in love with him and who annoyed her with his atten- 
 tions, excused himself by saying that he was sure she loved 
 him. Otherwise, he said, he would not have forced his 
 attention on her. He was, however, unable to mention a 
 single instance to justify his statement.
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 279 
 
 The third contradiction would be the delusions of jeal- 
 ousy which were also present in our patient. 
 
 In the delusions of jealousy of alcoholics we fully under- 
 stand the part played by alcohol. It removes inhibitions 
 and causes a regression of sublimation. In vino Veritas. 
 The man is often driven to drink through disappointment 
 in the woman, which usually means he goes to the saloon 
 or club in the company of men who give him the emotional 
 gratification which he misses at home. But as soon as the 
 men become objects of a stronger libidinous occupation 
 in his unconscious he defends himself through a third 
 form of contradiction "Not I love the man — she loves ^m," 
 and he then suspects his wife with aU the men he attempted 
 to love. In our patient, who is a total abstainer, the alcohol 
 naturally played no part. 
 
 One may now think that the three links of a sentence 
 "I love him" would only admit three forms of contra- 
 diction, viz., the delusions of jealousy contradict the sub- 
 ject; the delusions of persecutions, the verb, and the 
 erotomania, the object. However, there is still a fourth 
 form of contradiction forming the total rejection of the 
 whole sentence. The sentence reads: I do not love at all, 
 and hence I love nobody, and as the libido must be some- 
 where the sentence is psychologically equivalent to the 
 sentence: "I only love myself." This form of contra- 
 diction results in the delusion of grandeur which we conceive 
 as a sexual overestimation of one's own ego and which can 
 be put side by side with the familiar overestimation of the 
 love object.'^ In our patient this manifests itself in his 
 delusions of being an ambassador and many similar ones. 
 
 We can now understand some of the patient's delusions.
 
 280 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Mr. S., his brother-in-law, was at first one of his best 
 friends. The unconscious homosexual transference went 
 too far and in his defense against it, the projection mechan- 
 ism turns S. into a persecutor. What are the contents of 
 the persecution? The patient answers this as follows: 
 "He is trying to ruin my home and my own immediate 
 family, that is, my wife and sister . . . he is not a good 
 man ... I accuse him of improper relations with my 
 sister (that is, his own wife). (Taken from hospital 
 records.) 
 
 I could not elicit from the patient what these improper 
 relations were. Whenever I broached the subject he 
 became excited, but uncommunicative. On a number of 
 occasions, however, he directly accused Mr. S. of being a 
 pervert and a degenerate. That points to the fact that 
 the improper relations were of that nature, for what other 
 relations between husband and wife could be considered 
 improper? 
 
 I here call your attention to a very important psycho- 
 logical mechanism, the mechanism of identification. 
 Freuds tells us that the identification mechanism enables 
 the patients to represent in their symptoms the experience 
 of a great number of persons. They can suffer, as it were, 
 for a whole mass of people and impersonate all the parts 
 of a drama by means of their individual resources. It is 
 not the simple hysterical imitation, but an unconscious 
 mechanism. It is a sympathy based upon the same etiolo- 
 gical claims. It expresses an "as though" and refers to 
 something common which has remained in the unconscious. 
 In hysteria we know identification is most often used to 
 express sexual community. Hysterics identify themselves
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 281 
 
 most easily with persons with whom they had real or 
 imaginary sexual relations or with those who had sexual 
 relations with the same person.^ Bearing in mind this 
 mechanism, we must conclude that the three persons sus- 
 pected of sexual relations with S. must have something 
 in common for the patient. This, of course, is not difficult 
 to divine. We all know that mother, sister, and wife are 
 often identified even in the normal.^ He was once in love 
 with all of them, but as they could not gratify him, he 
 unconsciously turned to homosexuality, to S. However, 
 as he had suppressed the unconscious homosexual wish 
 feeling for S., he then consciously perceived that not he 
 loves S, but they love him. In other words, an inner 
 perception was suppressed and as a substitute its con- 
 tent came to consciousness as an outer perception after it 
 had been subjected to disfigurement. This is the mechan- 
 ism of projection. This identification could also be found 
 in his other delusions as the psychosis continued to pro- 
 gress. While in the Bloomingdale Hospital he imagined 
 that Dr. D. was his wife in disguise. In the Central Islip 
 Hospital he imagined that I was his wife in disguise. One 
 incident in particular illustrates this point. On one 
 occasion I made my night rounds at 11.30 o'clock, rather 
 later than usual. He detained me for some time with 
 many irrelevant questions. The next morning the super- 
 visor brought me a letter which he wrote to his wife in 
 which there was the following passage, "I am very sorry 
 for having been so rude last night, but it was not my fault. 
 Why did you appear disguised as Dr. Brill in a strange 
 uniform? Why can't you come to riie in your own sweet 
 form?" Why did he think that the doctors were his wife
 
 282 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 in disguise? This question is very simple when we think 
 of the mechanism of transference in reference to doctor 
 and patient, with which I hope all my readers are familiar.^" 
 From my own experience with our patient I know that the 
 transference first took the same course as in any neurosis, 
 but as the patient defended himself against this homo- 
 sexual wish-phantasy, he at first identified the doctor with 
 his wife and then the idea was "I do not love him, but her. 
 It is not Dr. D. or Dr. Brill. It is my wife." But as the 
 psychosis progressed it was then transformed into the 
 idea "I do not love him — I rather hate him because he 
 persecutes me," which actually turned out to be the case. 
 After the patient was recommitted to Bellevue Hospital 
 he told me that I was one of the "gang." I was no longer 
 his wife in disguise, but his enemy. The distortion that 
 took place in the projection mechanism was an emotional 
 transformation. What should have been perceived as 
 love subjectively was perceived as hatred objectively. 
 
 But as the mechanism of projection does not play the 
 same part in all forms of paranoia and as it is also found 
 in other psychic occurrences such as in the normal we 
 cannot consider it the most essential and pathognomonic 
 element of paranoia. Let us therefore temporarily leave 
 the study of projection, and with it the mechanism of the 
 paranoic symptom formation, and turn our attention to 
 the form of repression which is more intimately connected 
 with the development of the libido and its disposition than 
 with the form of the symptom formation. 
 
 A more thorough examination shows that the process of 
 repression can be divided into three phases. The first 
 phase consists in fixation, which is the forerunner and the
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 283 
 
 determinant of every repression. The fact of fixation may 
 be expressed by stating that an impulse or part thereof does 
 not experience what may be regarded as normal develop- 
 ment, and consequently remains in an infantile stage. Its 
 libidinous emanation behaves toward the later psychic for- 
 mations as if it belonged to the system of the unconscious, 
 or as if it were repressed. Such fixation of the impulses 
 maj^ already contain the disposition for the later disease 
 and, above all, the determinants for the failure of the third 
 phase of the repression. 
 
 The second phase of the repression is the actual repres- 
 sion which we have hitherto had in mind. It emanates 
 from the more highly developed conscious systems of the 
 ego and may be designated as an "after repression." It 
 gives the impression of a real active process, whereas the 
 fixation is represented as a passive backwardness. Re- 
 pression affects either the psychic descendants of those 
 primary impulses which have remained backward if by 
 virtue of their enforcement they come into conflict with 
 the ego (or with its proper impulses) or with such psychic 
 feelings against which there is a strong antipathy for other 
 reasons. This aversion, however, would not result in 
 repression if there did not already exist some connection 
 between the repugnant strivings to be repressed and those 
 already repressed. 
 
 The third phase is the failure of the repression, the break- 
 ing through, or the return of the repression. This breaking 
 through results from the point of fixation and manifests a 
 regression of the development of the libido up to this point. 
 It stands to reason that there may be as many fixations as 
 there are stages of development of the libido.
 
 284 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 It is impossible to demonstrate these minute mechan- 
 isms in our patient. As I said above, I have not seen 
 him for years, so that I am unable to tell what has taken 
 place since then. In his profound analysis of the case of 
 Schreber, Freud shows that even after the patient returned 
 to society and found that he was mistaken in his idea that 
 the world came to an end, he was nevertheless certain 
 that the world had come to an end while he was sick and 
 what he now saw before him was not really the same 
 world. Such transformations of the world are quite 
 common in paranoia. I know a number of paranoiacs 
 who went through a stormy period lasting for years, but 
 who now live contentedly, as if in another world. They 
 do not care for anything, as nothing is real to them. They 
 have withdrawn their sum of libido from the persons of 
 their environment and the outer world. The end of the 
 world is the projection of this internal catastrophe. Their 
 subjective world came to an end since they withdrew 
 their love from it. By a secondary rationalization the 
 patients then explain whatever obtrudes itself upon them 
 as something intangible and fit it in with their own system. 
 Thus one of my paranoid patients who considers himself 
 a sort of Messiah denies the reality of his own parents by 
 saying that they are only shadows made by his enemy, the 
 devil, whom he has not yet entirely subdued. Another 
 paranoiac, in the Central Islip State Hospital, who repre- 
 sented himself as a second Christ, spends most of his time 
 sewing out on cloth crude scenes containing many buildings 
 interspersed with pictures of the doctors. He explained all 
 this very minutely as the new world system, and although 
 he labeled the doctors with their proper names he neverthe-
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 285 
 
 less maintained that there were other persons concerning 
 whom he knew much that could not be told. Thus the 
 paranoiac builds up again with his delusions a new world 
 in which he can live. The delusional formations which 
 we take up as the morbid productions are, in reality, a 
 curative attempt, a reconstruction as it were. The 
 patient usually succeeds in accomplishing this after the 
 catastrophe, and in this way he regains his relations to 
 the persons and things of this world. Hence the process 
 of repression consists in a withdrawal of the libido from 
 persons and things that were previously loved. This is 
 brought about mutely and without our knowledge. What 
 we perceive as the disturbance is really the curative process, 
 which makes the repression retrogressive and reconducts 
 the libido to the persons it originally left. It is brought 
 about in paranoia by way of projection. It was therefore 
 incorrect to say that the inner suppressed feelings are 
 outwardly projected. It is better to say that what was 
 inwardly suspended returns from without. 
 
 However, ^^ a withdrawal of libido is not an exclusive 
 occurrence in paranoia, nor does its occurrence anywhere 
 necessarily follow by disastrous consequences. Indeed, 
 in normal life, there is a constant withdrawal of libido 
 from persons and objects without resulting in paranoia or 
 other neuroses. It merely causes a special psychic mood. 
 The withdrawal of libido as such cannot therefore be 
 considered as pathogenic of paranoia. It requires a 
 special character to distinguish the paranoiac withdrawal 
 of libido from other kinds of the same process. This is 
 readily found when we follow the further utilization of the 
 libido thus withdrawn. Normally we immediately seek
 
 286 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 a substitute for the suspended attachment and until one 
 is found the Hbido floats freely in the psyche and causes 
 tensions which influence our moods. In hysteria the 
 freed sum of libido becomes transformed into bodily 
 innervations or fear. Clinical indications teach us that 
 in paranoia a special use is made of the libido which is 
 withdrawn from the object. We know that most cases 
 of paranoia evince delusions of grandeur and that the 
 delusions of grandeur may themselves constitute a paran- 
 oia. From this we conclude that the freed libido in paran- 
 oia is thrown back on the ego and serves to magnify it. 
 Thus it again reaches to the familiar stage of narcism 
 from the development of the libido in which one's own 
 ego was the only sexual object. "It is this clinical fact 
 that teaches us that paranoiacs have brought along a fixa- 
 tion in narcism and we therefore assert that the return from 
 the sublimated homosexuality to narcism furnishes the sum 
 of regression which is characteristic for paranoia."^^ 
 
 The near relations between paranoia and dementia 
 praecox are as follows: Paranoia is to be considered an 
 independent clinical type notwithstanding the fact that 
 it is complicated by schizophrenic features. Considered 
 under the guise of the libido-theory, it is distinguished 
 from dementia prsecox by another localization of the pre- 
 disposed fixation and by another mechanism of the return 
 (symptom formation). The principal character of the 
 actual repression — the removal of the libido and regression 
 to the ego — is common to both. In dementia prsecox 
 Abraham has thoroughly demonstrated that the character- 
 istic of the withdrawal of the libido from the outer world is 
 especially clear. From this character we infer that the re-
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF PARANOIA 287 
 
 pression is brought about by the withdrawal of libido. The 
 phase of active hallucinations is to be conceived as a struggle 
 between the repression and the effort toward a cure, which is 
 to bring back the libido to its object. But this striving 
 toward adjustment does not make use of the mechanism of 
 projection as in paranoia, but of the (hysterical) hallucina- 
 tory mechanism. This shows one of its market differ- 
 entiations from paranoia. The other differentiation is 
 to be found in the termination of dementia prsecox. In 
 general the outcome in the latter is more unfavorable 
 than in paranoia. The victory does not remain in the 
 reconstruction, as in paranoia, but in the repression. 
 The regression not only goes as far as narcism and mani- 
 fests itself as delusions of grandeur, but it proceeds to the 
 complete abandonment of the object love and returns to 
 the infantile autoerotism. The predisposed fixation there- 
 fore must lie further back than the one in paranoia. It 
 must exist in the beginning of development, striving from 
 autoerotism to object love. Like so many others Freud 
 considers the term dementia praecox awkward. He also 
 objects to Bleuler's designation of Schizophrenia. He 
 contends that the latter term appears right only when one 
 does not think of its verbal significance and that it is too 
 prejudical inasmuch as it makes use of a theoretically post- 
 ulated character to which the affection does not belong 
 and, in the light of the other views cannot be considered as 
 the essential one. He proposes the name paraphrenia, the 
 indefinite content of which expresses its relation to par- 
 anoia and hebephrenia.
 
 288 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 References 
 
 1. Jahrbuch fiir Psychoanalytische u. Psychopathologische Forsch- 
 ungen, Bleuler-Freud, Vol. III. 
 
 2. Ueber die Rolle der Homosexualitat in der Pathogenese der 
 Paranoia, I. c, p. 101; also, Reizung der Analen erogenen Zonen als 
 auslosende Ursache der Paranoia, Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse, 
 August, 1911. 
 
 3. Psychologische Untersuchungen and Dementia Praecox, I. c, 
 Vol. II, 1910. Similar conclusions have been reached by K. Abraham, 
 in reference to Dementia praecox: Die psychosexuellen Differenzen 
 der Hysterie und der Dementia Praecox, Zentralblatt fur Nervenheil- 
 kunde und Psychiatrie, July, 1908. 
 
 4. Translated by A. A. Brill, Moffot Yard Co., N. Y. 
 
 5. Ein Fall von multipler Perversion mit hysterischen Obszenen, 
 Jahrbuch fiir Psychoanalytische und Psychopathologische Forsch- 
 ungen, II, 1910. 
 
 6. Paraphrased from Freud, I. c. 
 
 7. Cf. Abraham and Maeder, I. c. 
 
 8. The Interpretation of Dreams, p. 126. The Macmillan Co., 
 New York. 
 
 9. Cf. Chap. XIII. 
 
 10. Cf. Ferenczi: Introjection und Uebertragung, Jahrbuc!? fiir 
 Psychoanal. und Psychopatholog. Forschungen, 1910, Vol. I; also 
 Jones: The Action of Suggestion in Psychotherapy, Journal of 
 Abnormal Psychology, Dec, 1910. 
 
 11. Paraphrased from Freud, I. c. 
 
 12. Freud: L. c, p. 64.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 
 
 "If what I have written scandalizes any prudish person let them 
 rather accuse the turpitude of their own thoughts than the words 
 I have been obHged to iise." St. Augustine. 
 
 In discussing the infantile sexuality we quoted Freud as 
 saying that it is polymorphous perverse, that is to say, that 
 most of the sexual activities of childhood if seen in the adult 
 would be considered perverse. A child knows no shame, has 
 no sense of sympathy, and lacks all the moral feelings 
 that one finds in every normal adult. Homosexuality is 
 one of the components found in every individual and in 
 its normal form serves a useful purpose, it enables the 
 individual to get along with his fellow being of the same sex. 
 During early life there is hardly any discrimination made 
 between homo- and heterosexuality; the little boy displays 
 the same interest in a little girl as in a little J^. But as 
 he grows older his heterosexual component broadens, and 
 depending on his age he assumes a definite attitude towards, 
 the opposite sex, while his homosexual component either 
 stops developing or is repressed. Beyond a feeling of 
 friendship which may even be very deep he desires nothing 
 else from a person of the same sex. Pathological homo- 
 sexuality consists in a definite feeling of love, usually with 
 gross sex manifestations for a person of the same sex. 
 
 Of the abnormal sexual manifestations none, perhaps, is 
 
 so enigmatical and to the average person so abhorrent as 
 19 289
 
 290 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 homosexuality. I have discussed this subject with many 
 broad-minded, intelligent professional men and laymen 
 and have been surprised to hear how utterly disgusted they 
 become at the very mention of the name and how little they 
 understand the whole problem. Yet I must confess that 
 only a few years ago I entertained similar feelings and 
 opinions regarding this subject. I can well recall my first 
 scientific encounter with the problem, nineteen years ago, 
 when I met a homosexual who was a patient in the Central 
 Islip State Hospital. Since then I have devoted a great 
 deal of time to the study of this complicated phenomenon, 
 and it is therefore no wonder that my ideas have undergone 
 a marked change. Tout comprendre c'est tout pardonner. 
 I have met and studied a large number of homosexuals and 
 have been convinced that a great injustice is done to a 
 large class of human beings, most of whom are far from being 
 the degenerates they are commonly believed to be. 
 
 In his "Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex," 
 Freud introduces two terms which are very useful in dis- 
 cussing sexual aberrations. He calls the person from whom 
 the sexual attraction emanates the sexual object, and the 
 action toward which the impulse strives the sexual aim. 
 Bearing in mind these terms, we may define homosexuality 
 or uranism as that form of sexual aberration in which the 
 sexual object is a person of one's own sex. That is, the 
 sexual object of the homosexual man is not a woman but a 
 man, and the sexual object of a homosexual woman is not 
 a man but a woman. It is for that reason that such individ- 
 uals are also referred to as contrary sexuals or inverts. 
 
 Most of the investigators agree that of the sexual aberra- 
 tion homosexuality is by far the most wide-spread. It is
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 291 
 
 very difl&cult, however, to give a correct estimate of the 
 number of inverts. Many attempts have been made, nota- 
 bly by Magnus Hirschfeld,^ who has had more experience 
 with homosexuaHty than any other person. Hirschfeld 
 estimates the number of male inverts of the population at 
 about 1.5 per cent. Dr. V. Romer estimates that the city 
 of Amsterdam contains about 1.9 per cent, inverts. Follow- 
 ing the direction of Magnus Hirschfeld I attempted to find 
 out the proportion of inverts in Greater New York. I 
 invoked the aid of six cultured inverts who were strangers 
 to one another, so that they moved in entirely different 
 circles. They were very anxious to assist me in this work, 
 but after about eight months' observation I found that the re- 
 sults differed to such an extent that it was impossible to com- 
 pute any definite estimate. All that I can say is that there are 
 many thousands of homosexuals in New York City among 
 all classes of society. As visiting alienist to the department 
 of correction, I examined twenty-eight homosexuals who 
 were arrested one Saturday night in a well known Turkish 
 bath. Although some of them denied their inversion to 
 the police they readily admitted it to me. I found among 
 them college men, milliners, valets, clerks and some belong- 
 ing to the higher vocations. Homosexuality is not a 
 product of big cities. When we read the works of I. Bloch, 
 M. Hirschfeld, Moll, Havelock Ellis, and others, we are 
 soon convinced that homosexuality is ubiquitous. One 
 finds it among primitive and enlightened races during all 
 epochs of history. 
 
 Nor is homosexuality confined to defectives, as is com- 
 monly supposed. Investigators agree that homosexuality 
 is no sign of mental or physical degeneration. Thus Ivan
 
 292 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Bloch^ says : " I no longer entertain any doubt that homo- 
 sexuality is compatible with perfect mental and physical 
 health." This same author quotes Magnus Hirschfeld as 
 saying that homosexuality may occur in persons just as 
 healthy as normal heterosexual persons. . Similar ideas 
 are expressed by Nacke and others. My own findings 
 concur with these views. Most of the inverts I know belong 
 to our highest type both mentally and physically and show 
 very little hereditary taints. Without entering into a 
 detailed discussion of the question I will say that I am 
 convinced that homosexuality as such is entirely independ- 
 ent of any defective heredity or other degenerative trends. 
 There is no doubt, however, that one frequently finds homo- 
 sexual manifestations among defectives, where it is only 
 one of the abnormal elements that they show so glaringly. 
 Inverts have been variously classified by different inves- 
 tigators of the subject, notably by Kiernan, Lydston, 
 Krafft-Ebing, Hirschfeld, Bloch and others, but for our 
 purpose it will suflSce to mention that there are three classes : 
 
 1. Absolute inverts, whose sexual object must always be 
 of the same sex. Most of them entertain a horror femince, 
 or are impotent when it comes to the performance of the 
 normal heterosexual act. I saw a number of patients, who 
 were ignorant of their inversion, who first consulted a 
 physician for psychosexual impotence, usually however, 
 they soon recognize their aberration. 
 
 2. Amphigenous inverts, (psychosexual hermaphrodites) 
 in whom the inversion lacks the character of exclusiveness, 
 and hence their sexual object may belong to either sex, one 
 may say that they are neither one nor the other. 
 
 3. Occasional inverts, who resort to homosexuality under
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 293 
 
 certain external conditions, especially in case the normal 
 sexual object is inaccessible. Such individuals are able 
 to obtain sexual gratification from a person of the same 
 sex.' I found quite a number of such individuals who 
 became inverted during the war. 
 
 It is interesting to note how the inverts themselves view 
 their inversion. Some take it as a matter of course and 
 demand the same rights as the normal. They are perfectly 
 contented with their lot, and seldom consult a physician. 
 "I would not for the world have anybody interfere with 
 my personality; I just wish to consult you about a modus 
 Vivendi for myself," writes a yound inverted clergyman on 
 asking me for an appointment. Some, however, struggle 
 against it and consider it a morbid manifestation. It is 
 only the latter who can be helped by treatment. 
 
 There may be some congenital inverts, but of the many 
 cases that I have analyzed I always discovered one or more 
 early affective sexual impressions which favored the de- 
 velopment of homosexuality. In others a fixation of the 
 inversion took place earher or later in life through external 
 favoring and inhibitory influences, such as exclusive rela- 
 tions with the same sex in boarding-schools, in the army, in 
 the navy, in prison, etc. It is no simple matter to find these 
 early unconscious impressions. It usually takes weeks and 
 months of psychoanalysis before they can be discovered. 
 It is therefore comprehensible why such cases have been 
 called congenital. Thus X. whom I examined a few years 
 ago insisted that his case was congenital but investigation 
 showed that at the age of two-and-a-half years an older 
 boy practiced fellatio on him at least a few times and besides 
 that he had no father since he was a year old. It is only
 
 294 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 of late that some of these cases have been studied psycho- 
 analytically by Freud, Sadger and a few others.^ Another 
 point against the assumption of congenitahty is the fact 
 that hypnotism and other psychotherapeutic means may 
 cure the inversion, which is hardly possible if it were con- 
 genital. Indeed, when we examine the literature on this 
 particular point, we find that the authors are far from being 
 in accord on the question of whether inversions are congeni- 
 tal or acquired. At first it was supposed that homo- 
 sexuality was simply a vice acquired through excesses or 
 through a suggestion in early life. (Binet, Schrenck- 
 Notzing). Krafft-Ebing assumed a congenital and an 
 acquired form. Since then there has been a tendency to 
 limit the acquired form as evidenced in the works of Moll 
 and others. Hirschfeld assumes that homosexuality always 
 contains a congenital element. Nacke refuses to recognize 
 a congenital and acquired homosexuality but suggests 
 instead the true and false inversions. He also describes 
 that form which manifests itself late in life as "tardive 
 homosexuality" and maintains that it is not acquired but 
 based on a congenital basis. All these diversities are, in 
 my opinion, due to the fact that none of these authors has 
 gone deep enough with his patients. 
 
 When we examine the theories advanced concerning the 
 nature of inversion, we are soon confronted with the theory 
 of hermaphroditism, which was brought into prominence 
 by Lydston, Kiernan and Chevalier. It starts with the 
 fact of anatomic hermaphroditism and shows that a certain 
 degree of it really belongs to the normal. This leads to 
 the conception of the original predisposition to bisexuality 
 which changes in the course of development to monosex-
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 295 
 
 uality, leaving slight remnants of the stunted sex. This 
 conception was then transferred to the psychic spheres and 
 the inversion was conceived as an expression of psychic 
 hermaphroditism. But to confirm this it would be neces- 
 sary to find a regular correspondence between inversion 
 and the psychic and somatic signs of hermaphrodism which 
 was not realized. Although one frequently finds in inverts 
 a diminution of the sexual impulse and a slight anatomic 
 stunting of the organs, it is by no means a regular or pre- 
 ponderate occurrence, so that one is forced to conclude that 
 there is no relation between homosexuality and somatic 
 hermaphrodism . 
 
 Many observers lay a great deal of stress on the so-called 
 secondary and tertiary sex characteristics which one often 
 observes in inverts. Thus Hirschfeld, who bases his experi- 
 ence on 1,500 inverts, asserts that he never saw a homo- 
 sexual who did not differ from a perfect man in structure 
 and development, among which are narrow shoulders with 
 broader hips, sparse growth of hair on face, falsetto voice, 
 etc. As much as I respect the opinion of Dr. Hirschfeld 
 I must say that I cannot quite agree with him. In my 
 little experience I have seen many homosexuals without 
 any of the secondary sex characters. I will admit, however, 
 that I have not examined my patients as carefully as 
 Hirschfeld has his. On the other hand I know that some 
 men show some of the secondary sex characters who are 
 absolutely heterosexual. 
 
 The bisexual theory expounded by Ulrich — anima 
 muliehris in corpore virili inclusa — is entirely untenable. 
 The same may be said of Krafft-Ebing's theory that the 
 bisexual predisposition gives to the individual male and
 
 296 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 female brain-cells somatic sexual organs which develop 
 toward puberty under the influence of the independent 
 sex glands. All that can be said is that, although a bisexual 
 predisposition may also be presumed for the inversion, we 
 do not know wherein it exists beyond the anatomic forma- 
 tions and that we are dealing with disturbances experienced 
 by the sexual impulse during its development.^ The 
 experiments recently described by Steinach are too young 
 to have acquired much value. 
 
 According to the theory of psychic hermaphroditism the 
 sexual object of inverts would be the reverse of the normal. 
 Thus the invert would succumb to the charms emanating 
 from the manly qualities of body and mind; he would feel 
 like a woman and look for the man. This conception, 
 although true in a great many cases, does not by any means 
 indicate the general character of the inversion. Many 
 homosexuals retain their virility and look for feminine 
 psychic features in their sexual object. Freud demonstrates 
 this nicely by mentioning the fact that masculine prostitutes 
 in offering themselves to inverts imitate today, as in 
 antiquity, the dress and the attitudes of the woman. 
 Moreover, among the Greeks, who numbered among their 
 inverts some of the most manly men, it was surely not the 
 masculine traits of the boy that attracted them but rather 
 his physical resemblance to the woman as well as his femin- 
 ine psychic qualities, such as shyness and demureness. 
 When the boy grew up he ceased to be a sexual object for 
 men and in turn became a lover of boys. All this goes to 
 show that the sexual object in this case, as in many others, 
 is not of the same sex, but that it unites both sex characters. 
 It is a compromise between the impulses striving for the
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 297 
 
 man and for the woman, but firmly conditioned by the 
 masculinity of the body (the genitals). I purposely para- 
 phrased Freud, as these points will have to be borne in mind 
 later. 
 
 The sexual aim of inverts shows no uniformity. The 
 popular idea of homosexual relations presupposes that in- 
 verts always practice fellatio or intercourse per anum. 
 As a matter of fact these sexual aims are least desired. 
 Many homosexuals are as disgusted at the mention of these 
 practices as normals. Some content themselves with an 
 effusion of feelings. Ten of my analyzed cases never had 
 any gross sexual relations with their sexual object. Some 
 practiced mutual masturbation, others coitus inter femora. 
 
 Strange as it may seem, the diagnosis of homosexuality 
 is not always an easy matter. In the first place it must be 
 urged that a sporadic homosexual act does not necessarily 
 mean homosexuality, nor does the absence of such acts 
 signify heterosexuality. There is naturally no difficulty 
 when one is confronted with an absolute invert who 
 acknowledges his inversion. There are, however, a number 
 of inverts who are really ignorant of their inversion. 
 Eleven out of my forty-nine patients did not realize that 
 they were homosexual, although nearly all of them had had 
 homosexual experiences some time in their lives. They 
 sought treatment for psychosexual impotence or for some 
 neurosis. I have also seen patients who were treated for 
 a long time for psychosexual impotence by prostatic massage 
 etc., who were all the time aware of their inversion. They 
 kept silent because the treatment gave them pleasure or 
 because they were ashamed or afraid to tell the doctor the 
 true state of affairs. For many reasons the average doctor
 
 298 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 is not especially affable to a homosexual patient, and many 
 a sensitive invert has had cause to regret his confidence in 
 the doctor. Thus a homosexual who struggled with his 
 aberration and never yielded to it consulted the catalogue 
 of the New York Academy of Medicine for a physician 
 who was interested in the subject. He found only a few- 
 names among whom was the name of a prominent alien- 
 ist of the old school whom he decided to see. He naturally 
 had to overcome enormous resistances in telling this vener- 
 able scientist about his inversion and when the doctor 
 finally understood he contemptuously cried: "What a 
 disgusting disease to have!" This stopped the interview 
 as neither the patient nor the doctor cared to continue. 
 The consultation fee was $25. 
 
 The diagnosis should be based on the somatic and psychic 
 elements of the case, especially the latter. Naturally the 
 psychoanalyst finds it easier to diagnose a difficult case 
 than one who does not enter into the deeper psychologic 
 mechanisms. Dreams are usually an excellent guide in 
 the diagnosis of homosexuality, but it must be remembered 
 that they should be judged by the latent and not by the 
 manifest content by which Nacke judges them. I have 
 analyzed many apparently sexual dreams whose latent 
 content showed a homosexual wish.*' We must also remem- 
 ber that not all erotic dreams of homosexuals are homo- 
 sexual,^ and that some apparently homosexual dreams 
 have nothing to do with homosexuality as an inversion.^ 
 Furthermore, many homosexuals who are anxious to become 
 heterosexual often show corresponding dreams; the dreams 
 simply realize their wishes. I have observed this mechan- 
 ism in many homosexuals, and it is for that reason that I
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 299 
 
 cannot agree with Dr. Coriat, who states that the 
 "dreams furnish us not only the best, but the most incon- 
 trovertible, (the italics are mine) evidence of the result of 
 treatment." 
 
 There is a class of patients who do not show the charac- 
 teristics of the invert who are nevertheless constantly- 
 afraid of becoming homosexual or fear lest some one should 
 suspect them of homosexuality. I have seen a number of 
 such patients who were classed as homosexuals. I also 
 saw one of these patients in consultation with Dr. Hirsch- 
 feld, who diagnosed the case as a severe psychoasthenia 
 and saw nothing homosexual in the case. If such patients 
 are questioned, one will find that they never were in love 
 with any person of the same sex — an important diagnostic 
 point — and they show besides many symptoms that one 
 does not find in the inversions. These patients may be 
 called unconscious homosexuals; and they often develop 
 paranoid states.^ I may add that the patient seen with 
 Dr. Hirschfeld is now suffering from the paranoid form of 
 dementia prsecox. 
 
 As we are dealing with a psychic manifestation, the hope 
 for a cure of homosexuality lies in psychotherapy. I can 
 never comprehend why physicians invariably resort to 
 bladder washing and rectal massage when they are consulted 
 by homosexuals, unless it be "to kill the homosexual cells 
 in the prostate so that their place may be taken by hetero- 
 sexual cells," as one physician expressed himself when one 
 of my patients asked him how massage of the prostate would 
 cure his inversion. It is an unfortunate fact that such 
 ridiculous ideas are often heard in the discussion of psycho- 
 sexual disturbances. Only a few months ago a patient
 
 300 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 told me that he was told by two physicians that his hope for 
 a cure lay in castration. 
 
 When hypnosis came into vogue a great many workers in 
 this field utilized it in the treatment of homosexuality.^** 
 It was soon found that it failed to come up to expectation. 
 Some patients could not be hypnotized, others suffered 
 relapses, and still others did not react to the suggestions. 
 Indeed, very few sexologists place much trust in hypnotism 
 as a cure for inversions. Of late Moll has advanced a new 
 psychotherapeutic method which he calls the association 
 therapy. It consists of a methodical development of the 
 normal and a methodical suppression of the perverse asso- 
 ciations." It is too early to speak of the merits of this 
 treatment; so far as my knowledge goes no one has used it 
 besides Moll. In the treatment of my cases I use exclu- 
 sively psychoanalysis. Freud, Sadger and others, have 
 used this method for a number of years, ^^ and the results 
 obtained are very gratifying. Besides, psychoanalysis has 
 the advantage over the other psychotherapeutic means in 
 so far as it enters into the deeper mechanisms of the phe- 
 nomena, and, although we have not yet a full explanation of 
 the origin of inversions, it has revealed the psychic mechan- 
 ism of its genesis and has essentially enriched the problem. 
 
 We have discussed above the close connection between 
 the neuroses and the perversions. Every neurosis regu- 
 larly shows some admixture of inversion, and during the 
 analysis of a hysteria or compulsion neurosis one invariably 
 finds a fragment of the infantile sexuality which could not 
 be successfully repressed. When we analyze a case of 
 inversion we find that the masculine ideals of the invert 
 regularly conceal the early infantile feminine ideals, usually
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 301 
 
 the mother or foster-mother, which succumbed to repression 
 at a very early age. All homosexuals that were cured were 
 strongly attached to their mothers in the first period of 
 childhood. This erotic attachment which is then forgotten 
 was favored by too much love from the mother, and by the 
 absence of the father during the childhood period. Almost 
 all my cases either lost their fathers at a very early age, or 
 had mothers who in Sadger's words were "man- women" 
 who overshadowed the weak father. According to Freud 
 "It almost seems that the presence of a strong father would 
 assure for the son the proper decision in the selection of his 
 object from the opposite sex."'^ 
 
 But as the love for one's mother cannot continue to 
 develop consciously as the boy grows older, it succumbs to 
 repression, in the following manner: Consciously he no 
 longer evinces any erotic strivings for her but his extreme 
 unconscious repressed love causes him to put himself in 
 her place, to identify himself with her, and to take his own 
 person as a model for the selection of object love. He thus 
 loves homosexually; actually, however, he returns to the 
 autoerotic period of his existence, for the boys whom he 
 loves as an adult are only substitutes or revivals of his own 
 childish person, whom he loves in the same way as he was 
 loved by his mother. This becomes manifest only at, or 
 shortly before puberty, and the permanent homosexual 
 craving is usually favored by the fact that the mother loses 
 her role as an ideal forever, or for a long time, through death, 
 illness, or other estrangements. The boy may then turn 
 to the man closest to him such as his father, older brother 
 or some other older man of his environments. But besides 
 the homosexual and heterosexual features craved by him.
 
 302 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 his own person or image always plays a part and as was 
 mentioned above, the road to that type of homosexuality 
 always goes by way of narcissism. Narcissism is therefore 
 a necessary stage of development in the transition from 
 auto-erotism to the later love object. The love for one's 
 own person, which only conceals the love for one's own 
 genitals, represents a stage of development which is always 
 present, and in a great many persons lasts a long time. 
 The remaining road later leads to the choice of objects with 
 similar genitals. As Sadger puts it: 
 
 "Every man usually has two primary and primitive sexual 
 objects, and his future life depends on whether or not he 
 finally remains fixed, and on which of the two the fixation 
 takes place. For the man these two objects are his mother 
 or foster-mother and his own person. To remain healthy 
 he must rid himself of both, and not tarry too long with 
 either of them.^^" 
 
 It is assumed that the invert could not get away from 
 himself, that is, he was unable to free himself from the desire 
 of requiring genitals similar to his own in the love object. ^^ 
 He is more successful, however, in freeing himself from his 
 mother-image which is brought about by identifying himself 
 with her and thus taking himself as the sexual object. With 
 the repression of the love for the mother there occurs a 
 repression of love for all womankind. According to Sadger 
 it follows the following trend of thought: " If the best of all 
 women, my own mother, amounts to so little, how could 
 any other woman stand the test?"^^ As soon as the analy- 
 sis is entered on, one often finds that inverts are not at all 
 indifferent to the charms of woman, but as soon as any ex- 
 citation is evoked by the woman it is at once transferred
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 303 
 
 to a male object. This mechanism which gave origin to the 
 inversion is thus repeated throughout life and the obsessive 
 striving for the man proves to be determined by the restless 
 flight from the woman. When the invert pursues boys he 
 only runs away from women and thus remains loyal to his 
 mother. 
 
 It is also noteworthy that many inverts are only or favor- 
 ite children. I have shown elsewhere that such children 
 are usually overburdened with love^^ and hence remain 
 insatiable for the rest of their lives. This accounts for the 
 fact that when they tear themselves away from their 
 mothers they often reject the whole sex. 
 
 These are some of the salient points brought out through 
 the analysis of inverts which I shall illustrate by the 
 following cases. 
 
 Case I. — W., aged 40, single, American, came to me for treatment 
 in December, 1910. He was an absolute invert, having attempted 
 heterosexual intercourse once at the suggestion of his valet and failed. 
 He showed some of the secondary sex characters. He had a very 
 delicate skin, of which he was proud because it was just Uke his 
 mother's, a scanty growth of hair on his face, and narrow shoulders, 
 and broad hips. Psychically he recalled an old maid. He was very 
 neurasthenic and crabbed, but his mood often changed to a feeling 
 of self-sacrifice and marked consideration for others. He was very 
 artistic, loved music, pictures, and took a great interest in architecture. 
 He had had many homosexual experiences; he was loved by, and loved 
 men, and never entertained any sexual feeUng for women. As soon 
 as I entered into his life I found that he had a striking poljnnorphous 
 perverse sexuality which continued into the age of puberty. His 
 desire for looking was especially strong. At the age of from 6 to 8 
 he used to lock himself in the bathroom and look at himself naked in 
 the mirror. He often put the mirror on the floor and excited himself 
 by looking at his penis. Although he at first recalled no heterosexual 
 experience, he later related many such incidents. Thus at the age
 
 304 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 of six years while visiting a relative, he slept with a servant who 
 practiced masturbation with him. She also taught him sexual 
 intercourse. Five years later at the age of eleven years he met this 
 servant and attempted intercourse with her. At the same age he 
 had a number of sexual experiences with a girl of fourteen years. 
 His homosexual experiences began at the age of nine years when he 
 was taught fellatio by a classmate. He proudly asserted that he 
 was his mother's pet. When he was young he was very much attached 
 to her, but after the age of puberty he could never be with her without 
 quarreUng with her, he showed a marked sadistic attitude towards 
 his mother. He openly hated his father for his lack of consideration 
 for his mother and himself, but spoke of him with much admiration. 
 He was as attached to his older brother as he hated his wife. There 
 was a definite homosexual transference to this brother which showed 
 itself in his homosexual relations with others. I should like to give 
 you a full analysis of this very interesting case, but 1 shall reserve this 
 for another occasion, and will simply say that this case demonstrates 
 with absolute certainty the psychologic mechanisms found by Freud, 
 Sadger and others. After six months' treatment the patient left 
 me perfectly cured and has remained so ever since. His two un- 
 successful attempts to marry are undoubtedly due to his psychopathic 
 constitution and age. * 
 
 Case II. — O., 46 years old, single, American, was referred to me 
 for treatment for psychosexual impotence by Dr. W. S. Reynolds in 
 the beginning of May, 1909. The patient stated that he attempted 
 intercourse at the age of 22 years and failed, and since then had 
 been unable to get an erection without being helped by friction. 
 For about a year before coming to me he attempted intercourse three 
 times, for experimental reasons as he put it, and succeeded in getting 
 only "half an erection." The patient was somewhat shy, and of 
 the plethoric type. He gave a clear account of his life and soon be- 
 came interested in the analysis. After studying him for two weeks 
 I discovered that his impotence was due to homosexuality. His 
 vita sexualis was characterized by a rather prolonged infantile sexual- 
 ity. He wet the bed up to the age of 13 years. Between the ages of 
 six and eight years he practiced exhibitionism with a Uttle girl. At 
 the age of twelve years he began to masturbate, a practice which he 
 continued to the time of treatment with Dr. Reynolds. He attempted 
 heterosexual intercourse at the age of twenty-two years, and his first
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 305 
 
 homosexual experience began at the age of 29 years and continued on 
 and off whenever the occasion presented itself. These experiences 
 were always accompanied by conflicts and feelings of remorse. When 
 young he was very fond of his mother, but since the age of eight years 
 she had disgusted him because "she gave birth to so many children." 
 This feeling began after he observed coitus between his parents. This 
 patient showed no definite secondary sex characters, although he 
 himself thought that he did not have enough hair on his face and that 
 his penis was small. His penis was slightly below the average. 
 When I first discovered the patient's homosexuaUty I took a rather 
 gloomy view of the prognosis. My reason for feeling so was that he 
 entertained some vague ideas of reference. He imagined that when 
 ever he came near men they made certain motions which meant to 
 him that they considered him effeminate, but after deeper investi- 
 gation I f oimd that this symptom was a reaction to his extreme shyness, 
 and represented a wish to be noticed by men. This shj^ness, according 
 to the patient, was also responsible for his marked attraction for men 
 who were inferior to him, such as Chinese, Japanese and colored men. 
 After ten months' treatment the patient left me as cured, and has been 
 well since. The analysis demonstrated almost all the homosexual 
 mechanisms enumerated above. 
 
 CaseI III. — L. was 28 years old, born in this country of American 
 stock, and an actor by vocation. This patient was very anxious to be 
 cured of his aberration and repeatedly consulted physicians. His 
 history showed that he was somewhat burdened by heredity; his 
 father was considered eccentric and his brother showed prsecox 
 trends. He himself considered his case congenital as he recalled that 
 at the age of four-five years he became excited, sexually, on sleeping 
 with his father. Investigations revealed that he was a very dehcate 
 child and consequently received more than the average amount of love 
 from his mother. As far back as he could recall he was timid and 
 shy and had many night mares. He slept with his parents, especially 
 with his mother, most of the time, and when that was refused to him 
 he would be most imhappy and cry for hours. Even at the age of 
 five-six and eight he still occasionally slept with his mother and on 
 a number of occasions he witnessed coitus between his parents who 
 believed him sound asleep. He at first conceived the act in the 
 sadistic sense and became terribly frightened over it. Soon, however, 
 he realized what it meant and became extremely irritated by it. 
 
 20
 
 306 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 He remembered distinctly that after such an episode around the age 
 of seven or eight he became so enraged at his mother that he thought 
 of killing her and his father. These reminiscences often reappeared in 
 his later dreams, particularly the following, which sUghtly modified, 
 came again and again. He dreamed that he saw his mother lying on a 
 couch or bed and a rather mannish looking tvoman or girl lay on her 
 and beat her vnth a whip or stick. This dream was always accompanied 
 by fear. He related this dream to a neurologist who "analyzed?" 
 him, and this "wild psychoanalyst" told him that this dream showed 
 that his mother was homosexual. As the patient considered his 
 malady as a degeneration he felt terribly that his old mother whom 
 he respected should suffer from the same thing. When the patient 
 later had this stereotyped dream while he was my patient, he received 
 quite a different interpretation of it, which caused him to write to his 
 former physician in no compUmentary terms about his skill as a 
 psychoanalyst. Of course, I knew nothing of the former interpre- 
 tation. This dream was determined by a loving letter from his 
 mother the day before, which made him homesick, and by a homo- 
 sexual temptation from a chorus man of his acquaintance. The 
 associations soon recalled the coitus episodes mentioned before. 
 The mannish woman on top was a condensation of his father and 
 himself. As a boy he always thought that his father was better 
 looking than his mother because he looked young and sUm while his 
 mother was stout and had some hair on her face. As the chief actor 
 in the dream is always the dreamer, he was the mannish woman in 
 the dream. The sadistic elements were partially determined, by 
 his early conception of coitus, by the irritating fancies accompanying 
 the sight of the act and by the fact that in his early hfe he was con- 
 tantly fed on sado-masochistic fairy stories. 
 
 The patient readily accepted the interpretation of this dream as 
 a coitus wish with his mother because as a boy he often entertained 
 frank fancies of this nature, but became furious when he thought of 
 the analysis given by the other physician, namely that his mother was 
 homosexual. 
 
 As more of this interesting case, as well as a variation of 
 the given dream are given in a later chapter^^ I will merely 
 state that the patient showed most of the mechanisms
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 307 
 
 given by Freud and Sadger, and after about six months' 
 treatment I discharged him as cured. 
 
 In conclusion I wish to say that I have seen hundreds of 
 homosexuals within the last twelve years but found only 
 few who are really willing to be cured, and of these only 
 some are curable by psychoanalysis. It is quite probable 
 that the latter belong to a special type of homosexuality. 
 Many so-called homosexuals are defectives who are not 
 only inverts but everything else that is abnormal or infan- 
 tile. I always refuse to take such cases for treatment as 
 nothing can be done for them. After studying a case for a 
 little while one can always tell whether he is dealing with a 
 defective, a mentally normal person who really wishes to be 
 cured, or who wants to be treated for a special selfish motive. 
 Many inverts seek treatment because they are troubled by 
 the law, others because they wish to marry a rich woman. 
 They cannot be cured. 
 
 Perhaps the most pathetic cases I have seen are those who 
 became homosexual because heterosexual outlet was denied 
 to them. Here, too, one must assume some inherent weak- 
 ness but there are some cases who show no weakness or 
 very little of it. Of the many cases I wUl give briefly a case 
 referred to me by Dr. Beverly Tucker. A clergyman of 
 over fifty years, who for many years had been honored and 
 respected in his community was found to be homosexual. 
 As soon as it was discovered by a few members of his con- 
 gregation he was driven out of the city within twenty-four 
 hours. As far as I could discover, this man was sexually 
 normal when he married but his wife was so prudish and 
 hysterical that she forever refused any sexual relations. 
 In the beginning of his married life there were some conflicts
 
 308 * PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 about it but as a preacher of the gospel he could not possibly 
 leave his wife for refusing him sex, which he was always 
 taught was a degrading function. So he lived and struggled 
 until one day, about twenty years after marriage he felt 
 attracted to a colored man and thus his homosexuality 
 began. He was soon detected and blackmailed and when 
 he sought protection of the police they gathered all the 
 needed evidence against him and then reported him to the 
 elders of the church. No effort was made to find out the 
 facts, the crime was too dastardly and the good men acted 
 accordingly. And yet that man was not a criminal but a 
 sufferer who deserved sympathy. He was a victim of a 
 rotten sex morality. 
 
 Elsewhere I hope to write more on this important subject. 
 I merely give a mere outline of these obscure phenomena, 
 hoping that it may help to remove some of the foolish 
 prejudices to which these unfortunates are subjected. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Hirschfeld, Magnus: Das Ergebnis der statistischen Unter- 
 suchungen iiber den Prozentsatz der Homosexuellen, Jahrb. f. 
 sexuelle Zwischenstufen, 1904, vi. 109. 
 
 2. Bloch, Ivan: Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit, Marcus, Berlin, 
 1909, p. 543. 
 
 3. Freud: Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex., p. 2. 
 
 4. Similar views are expressed by Coriat in his paper on Homo- 
 sexuality, New York Med. Jour., March, 1913. 
 
 5. Freud: Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex, p. 9. 
 
 6. Cf. page 55. 
 
 7. Moll: Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaften, p. 654. 
 
 8. Freud: Ueber Infantile Sexualtheorien Sammlung Kleiner 
 Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Zweite Folge, Deuticke, Wein. 
 
 9. CJ. Chap. VIII. 
 
 10. Compare the works of Krafft-Ebing and Schrenck-Notzing.
 
 HOMOSEXUALITY 309 
 
 11. See Moll, Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaften, p. 662. 
 
 12. Freud: Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex, and Leonardo 
 da Vinci, translated by Brill, Moflfat, Yard & Co. 
 
 13. Leonardo da Vinci, p. 64. 
 
 14. Sadger: Ein Fall von multipler Perversion, p. 112. 
 
 15. One of the first sexual peculiarities noticed by roany of the 
 inverts studied by me was an obsessive craving to see the male 
 genitals. 
 
 16. Sadger: Ein Fall von multipler Perversion, p. 112. 
 
 17. Cf. Chapter XIV. 
 
 18. C/. Chapter XVI.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 
 
 When we enter into the deeper mental processes, espe- 
 cially into those of hysteria, we invariably come across the 
 quaint yet familiar psychic mechanisms of fancies or 
 day dreams. Freud tells us that fancy formation is 
 common to both sexes and that the fancies represent wish 
 gratifications emanating from privation and longing. 
 Like dreams they serve to relieve the overburdened mind 
 and to secure comfort not to be obtained in reality. They 
 are called "day dreams" because they furnish the key 
 for the understanding of night dreams.^ The hyster- 
 ical fancies are jealously hidden as they belong to the 
 most intimate recesses of personality. They are found 
 in both normal and neurotic individuals, but it is in the 
 latter that they obtain prominence in the formation of 
 symptoms. I fully agree with Freud that all analyzable 
 hysterical attacks prove to be involuntary incursions of 
 day dreams. Such fancies may remain conscious or 
 merge into the unconscious. In the latter case they may 
 become pathogenic and express themselves in symptoms 
 and attacks. Under favorable conditions it is possible 
 for consciousness to grasp and bring to light such uncon- 
 scious fancies. Freud relates that one of his patients 
 whose attention was called to these fancies later narrated 
 the following occurrence: While in the street she suddenly 
 
 found herself in tears and reflecting over the cause of her 
 
 310
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 311 
 
 weeping the fancy became clear to her. She fancied her- 
 self in delicate relationship with a musician famous in the 
 city whom she did not know. In her fancy she bore him 
 a child (she was childless) ; later he deserted her, leaving her 
 in misery with the child. At this stage of the romance she 
 burst into tears. One of my hysterical patients worried 
 over the fact that every once in a while she suddenly 
 noticed that she was talking to herself, she was afraid that 
 this was a sign of insanity. I asked her to make an effort 
 to recall what she said to herself and she remembered that 
 the last time she talked to herself she said: "Oh you skunk 
 Oh you brute!" as if she was angry at some one. She did 
 not know to whom she referred, indeed she could not recall 
 that she ever used the word skunk consciously. We soon 
 found that she had many unconscious revenge fancies 
 directed against her former employer with whom she had 
 a very disagreeable affair three years before. These 
 unconscious fancies appeared when her present employer 
 began to make advances to her. 
 
 Such unconscious fancies have either been unconscious 
 from the first, having been formed in the unconscious, or, 
 what is more usual, they were once conscious and then 
 intentionally forgotten and repressed into the uncon- 
 scious. Their content usually undergoes many trans- 
 formations and the resultant symptom or attack is often 
 a very distorted mechanism. Analysis shows that the 
 unconscious fancies are intimately connected with the 
 person's sexual life. They are identical with the fancy 
 which led to sexual gratification during the period of 
 masturbation. The masturbating act originally consists 
 of two parts, the provocation of the fancy and the active
 
 312 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 performance of self gratification at its height. It is first 
 autoerotic and undertaken for the pleasure obtained 
 from an erogenous zone, but later it becomes blended 
 with a wish phantasy referring to the love object and 
 serves as a partial realization of the situation in which 
 this fancy culminates. If this masturbo-fantastic grati- 
 fication remains undone, the fancy changes from a con- 
 scious to an unconscious one. If no other manner of 
 sexual gratification occurs, that is, if the person remains 
 an abstainer and does not succeed in fuUy sublimating 
 his libido, the unconscious fancies become refreshed. 
 They grow exuberantly and at least a fragment of their 
 content forms into symptoms or attacks. 
 
 Most hysterical symptoms are merely unconscious 
 fancies brought to light by "conversion," and inasmuch 
 as they are somatic expressions they are often taken from 
 the spheres of the sexual feelings and motor innervation 
 which originally accompanied the former still conscious 
 fancy. The disuse of onanism is thus made retrogressive 
 and the final aim of the whole morbid process, the restora- 
 tion of the primary sexual gratification, though never 
 attaining perfection, always comes near to it. When we 
 analyze these unconscious fancies of hysterics we find 
 that they correspond in content to the situations of grati- 
 fication enacted by perverts consciously. Thus, an hyster- 
 ical woman of thirty years went through strange episodes 
 lasting from a few hours to days and weeks. One of these 
 attacks which recurred quite often manifested itself by 
 extreme anxiety during which the patient was very restless 
 and anxious. She acted as though she was terrified. She 
 moaned and cried, uttering the words "virtue, doctor,
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 313 
 
 heroine," and made continuous attempts to get out of 
 the room. The attack was always followed by an hysterical 
 paralysis and excruciating pain in her legs which lasted for 
 a few days. At times the attacks were characterized by 
 some variations, ending with the arc de cercle, but they 
 were essentially as described. Analysis showed that she 
 identified herself with Maupassant's Clochette who broke 
 her leg by jumping out of a second story window when 
 surprised with her cowardly lover during a tryst in a loft.^ 
 These attacks came on, first after some gossip about her 
 former love affair was repeated to her, and meant to show 
 that these statements were false, or in other words, that 
 like Clochette "she was a martyr and a noble soul." The 
 words she muttered were those repeated by the doctor 
 in the story who said of Clochette : " That was her only love 
 affair and she died a virgin." The identification was 
 determined by the following facts: She had a love affair 
 lasting for about a year which terminated with the sudden 
 disappearance of her fianc^. Some evil tongues had it 
 that she was left in a delicate state and her mother thought 
 seriously of asking the family physician to silence the 
 gossip. When she became hysterical one of her symptoms 
 was pain all over the body especially in her legs. It was 
 during a rest cure that she read Maupassant's Clochette 
 which readily took her fancy not because it showed a 
 striking resemblance to her case, but because she wished to 
 be like Clochette and be defended by her doctor. In the 
 course of time this wish allied itself with other wishes and 
 the whole thing was subjected to the influence of the 
 psychic censor. That accounted for the different variations 
 which as in dreams were produced by condensation, multi-
 
 314 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 pie identification and inversion of events, etc.^ Thus the 
 arc de cercle was simply an inversion of the position during 
 coitus. 
 
 Another patient, Miss M., thirty-six years old, an hys- 
 teric with many degenerative trends, went through many 
 minor and major attacks which were based on real and 
 fancied experiences. Her main symptom was an astasia 
 abasia which lasted for years. She could neither walk nor 
 sit up for any length of time and was forced to remain in 
 bed in a peculiar constrained attitude, her body forming 
 an angle, her head and legs being raised high by many 
 pillows. Analysis brought out the following facts: As a 
 child she masturbated herself and with other children and 
 resorted to many coprophilic activities such as playing 
 with urine and feces. This was followed by a marked 
 repression which gave rise to extreme feelings of disgust 
 and morality. This stage was followed by a failure in 
 the repression and a return of the things repressed. She 
 then evinced a polymorphous perverse sexuality and 
 practised many coprophilic activities. She refused to 
 empty her bowels for days and sometimes for over a week 
 in spite of all medications. While taking a rest cure in 
 a well-known sanatorium she made believe that she could 
 not attend to her natural wants, causing thereby much 
 worriment and alarm to the doctors and nurses. While 
 they exerted all their efforts to alleviate her apparent 
 distress she was stealing towels and used them as receptacles 
 for her excretions. She secretly threw these out of the 
 window or hid them in her room. Her fancies were very 
 prolific and the material for them was furnished by both 
 fiction and reality. She was an ardent reader and what-
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 315 
 
 ever appealed to her fancy was immediately taken up and 
 elaborated into her complexes. Her imaginative but 
 rather defective mind made no distinction between fact 
 and fancy so that whatever was once a fancy based on 
 something read or heard soon became to her an actual 
 experience. 
 
 She often recalled the typical pseudologia phantastica. 
 It was due to this that she accused every physician coming 
 in professional contact with her of having sexual designs 
 upon her. It was really comical to hear the accusations 
 she brought against at least a dozen of our most reputable 
 men in the medical profession. She stated that everyone 
 of them wanted to make her his mistress. She had abso- 
 lutely no reason to give for her belief and psychoanalysis 
 showed that they were merely suppressed wish-phan- 
 tasies which came to the surface as outer perceptions. 
 This is the usual mechanism of all hysterical accusations 
 against doctors. I have seen a number of such patients 
 who publicly and privately accused physicians and dentists 
 of sexual attacks while under the influence of an anaes- 
 thetic. In all cases it was satisfactorily shown that such 
 an attack would have been impossible under the circum- 
 stances, and when ever an analysis was done I always found 
 that the wish-phantasy preceded the operation in question. 
 Such patients belong to the sexually sensitive types who 
 imagine that every man has sex design upon them. Such 
 fears are only repressed wishes which are readily realized 
 wherever there is the slightest possibility for it; a semi- 
 conscious or unconscious state produced by an anaesthetic 
 in which one feels absolutely helpless furnishes an excellent 
 medium for such realizations.
 
 316 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 The more deeply I penetrated into the patient's uncon- 
 scious the more I became convinced that almost every- 
 one of her symptoms and -attacks was determined by some 
 former fancy. She read some erotic story and identified 
 herself with one of the characters, and then lived through 
 the whole situation over and over again. As she was 
 bisexual she often identified herself with the male char- 
 acter of the story and then lived through, as it were, his 
 part. A recurrent episode of this nature was the follow- 
 ing: She began with a period of exaltation during which 
 she would be very talkative and vivacious. She would 
 play the piano and act some part (she was once an actress) , 
 usually the part of a man. This would continue from 
 an hour to a few days and would suddenly be interrupted 
 by severe headaches, nausea with occasional vomiting 
 and a marked aggravation of the pains in her groin, abdo- 
 men and legs which she called "The three-cornered stone 
 pains." The analysis brought out the following facts: 
 At a very early age her father, wishing to stop her from 
 crying, once put his hand under her dress and pinched her 
 bare buttock and legs. This was often repeated on 
 similar occasions and always had its effect. She then 
 became very sensitive in these regions. She could not tol- 
 erate the slightest pressure there and was always complaining 
 of her shoes and stockings. On one of these occasions 
 when her father impatiently asked her what ailed her she 
 lied and said that the skin was rubbed off her foot. He 
 forced her to remove her shoe in the presence of many 
 strangers and as no abrasion was found she was very 
 much humiliated. About the same time her mother once 
 forced her to sleep with a young man because there were
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 317 
 
 many guests in the house. She again received a psychic 
 trauma in the same region. Added to this she has a rather 
 high instep which serves to accentuate her sensitiveness in 
 her legs and feet. All these traumas took place before the 
 age of five years. At the age of puberty she attended a 
 private school and one night she witnessed by chance a 
 homosexual act between a teacher and a favorite pupil. 
 Years later she was abnormally fond of X., a girl of her own 
 age. It was about this time that she read Balzac's Droll 
 Stories and was very much affected by one of them. It 
 dealt with a gay cavalier who seduced an innocent girl. 
 This story produced many erotic feelings and fancies which 
 continued for months until one day she dressed in male 
 attire and called on X. She made believe that she was 
 doing this just for fun and was demonstrating to X. how 
 well she could play the part of a gay cavalier. The demon- 
 stration ended with a gross homosexual episode between 
 herself and X., and as the latter was at the time engaged 
 to be married she became very remorseful and blamed M. 
 for leading her into temptation, adding "How can I 
 look John (fiance) in the face?" This, in turn, caused 
 reproach and self-accusation in M., who brooded over it 
 for some time and gradually repressed it. The attack 
 mentioned above appeared shortly thereafter. It repre- 
 sented a fragment of sexual activity which becomes quite 
 transparent when we think of the episode with X. 
 
 Some fancies are pure fabrications constructed of the 
 patient's wishes. Thus, an intelligent young woman of 
 thirty years sent to me for treatment by Dr. Israel Strauss 
 had one fancy which she lived through from time to time. 
 She imagined herself married to a tall, handsome and
 
 318 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 very wealthy man. She had three children, the like of 
 whom did not exist. She lived on a beautiful yacht and 
 entertained only such people as she and her husband 
 really liked. This state of blissful happiness existed 
 for a few days during which she was happy and contented. 
 Then the whole structure crumbled. Her husband and 
 children died and she was left alone in terrible depression 
 lasting for days. She assured me that her reactions 
 were very vivid and real, being mindful, however, that the 
 whole episode was only a fancy. 
 
 Besides these fancies we come across other strange 
 psychic processes which are designated as hysterical 
 dreamy states. They are not the protracted crepuscular 
 episodes followed by partial or complete amnesia which 
 were described by Ganser and others and often taken as 
 psychic equivalents of motor epilepsy, but they represent 
 these peculiar conditions so often observed in psycho- 
 neurotics which were first described by Lowenfeld'* and 
 later submitted to a thorough psychoanalytic study by 
 Abraham.^ The characteristics of these states will be 
 best described by recalling to you the familiar old fable 
 which is said to have originated in India and passed from 
 the Sanskrit versions with many variations into many 
 languages. The story selected by me tells how an oriental 
 glass vender sat cross legged wih his basket of glassware 
 in' front of him. While wishing for purchasers he merged 
 into the following reverie: "If I sell this whole basket 
 of glass I shall have ten dinars. I will buy glassware for 
 the whole sum and when that is sold I shall have twenty 
 dinars. I will then buy glass for twenty dinars and sell 
 it for forty dinars. For this sum I shall again buy glassware
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 319 
 
 and when that will be sold I shall be worth eighty dinars," 
 etc. In his reverie he kept doubling his fortune until he 
 was immensely rich. He bought enchanted palaces, lived 
 in luxury and lavished fortunes. His fancies became more 
 and more extravagant. He was very happy and elated 
 when a slight movement suddenly reminded him of his 
 basket and the thought flashed through his mind "What's 
 the use of bothering with such worthless stuff?" And 
 with that he kicked the basket over. The clanging of the 
 broken glass interrupted his day dream and brought him 
 back to himself. 
 
 Let us for a moment think of this story which, si non e 
 vero, e ben trovato, and examine the different mental opera- 
 tions which enter into its formation. It shows the fol- 
 lowing fairly well defined stages: There is a first stage 
 of fantastic exaltation, the content of which deals with 
 the individual's hopes and aspirations. The glass vender 
 is in a state of euphoria. From a poor man he is sud- 
 denly transformed into a man of wealth and his fortune 
 is rapidly increasing. This is followed by a stage of 
 dream-like withdrawal from reality. He is no longer 
 controlled by logical judgment and reasoning. His fancies, 
 therefore, run riot as it were. Everything is changed. 
 It is like a dream where time, space and natural obstacles 
 are absent. He amasses an enormous fortune and owns 
 palaces, etc. In brief, he is no longer himself. This 
 is followed by a very rapid third stage which is distin- 
 guished by a suspension of consciousness, an absentmind- 
 edness during which there are no thoughts so to speak, and 
 the whole episode is followed by depression characterized 
 by anxiety with its concomitant manifestations.® I need
 
 320 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 hardly say that our hero must have been depressed on 
 emerging from his revery. 
 
 In almost all the cases observed by me these three 
 stages, which were originally described by Abraham/ 
 could readily be distinguished, but I should like to add 
 that the first stage is always preceded by a period of 
 craving. 
 
 Without going into detailed histories I shall cite some 
 of my own observations. 
 
 Case I. — I. C. was seen by me in the neurological department of 
 the Vanderbilt CUnic in November, 1908. Among other things he 
 complained of strange thoughts which interfered with his work. He 
 stated that he was a weaver by trade and that for months he was 
 hardly able to attend to his work. He explained that weaving 
 required concentration of attention, as a great deal of counting had 
 to be done and that a single mistake spoiled the work. His 
 "foolish" thoughts would come in spite of all effort to keep them away. 
 They absorbed his mind to an extent that he forgot his work and 
 unconsciously stopped weaving and continued dreaming until aroused. 
 As examples he gave a few experiences of the previous day, which, 
 in his own words, read as follows: "I am working and unconsciously 
 I begin to think what I should do if I had two thousand dollars. I 
 start a shop and soon earn a lot of money because I oppress my 
 employees. With the money thus gained I open a big factory and 
 employ a lot of greenhorns whom I force to work long hours for very 
 little pay. I enlarge my business. I have hundreds of people 
 working for me. I become greater and greater .... when I 
 suddenly find myself crying because I have lost all my money in 
 WaU Street." 
 
 "I marry a very nice girl. She is very much in love with me, but 
 she is afraid of me. I am verj' tyrannical and brutal. She has to do 
 what I tell her, otherwise I beat her. She cries and begs me not to 
 kill her, but I pay no attention to her. I become more and more 
 excited. I hardly know what I do when I suddenly wake up wringing 
 my hands because she is dead."
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 321 
 
 He recited many more day dreams, but they were all of the same 
 nature. They all dealt with wealth and murder. 
 
 Recalling Freud's saying that the contented individual 
 does not indulge in fantasies I assumed that these dreamy- 
 states must represent some of the patient's wishes, and 
 viewed superficially one may think that the first dreamy 
 state corroborates this assumption. The patient is a poor 
 weaver who believes himself oppressed by his employer 
 and therefore dreams of changing places with his oppressor. 
 His day dream is simply a realization of his wishes. But 
 a number of questions arise as soon as we take a closer 
 view of the subject. In the first place it cannot be said 
 that it is really a wish realization as the money thus rapidly 
 gained is as rapidly lost, leaving the patient unhappier 
 than he was. It may also' be asked why the patient is not 
 satisfied with the everyday conscious day dreaming. Why 
 do these dreamy states come in attacks? Why are they 
 accompanied by complete oblivion to external impressions, 
 especially at their height, and why does the patient per- 
 ceive them as unreal and strange? Moreover, when we 
 recall the second dream, we can no longer think of any wish 
 realization, for the patient is single and is very much in love 
 with his fiancee whom he wishes to marry. 
 
 From the study of dreams we have learned that no 
 matter how absurd a dream may seem it nevertheless 
 contains sense and meaning if we find its latent content, 
 and that every dream, and for that matter every psy- 
 chotic sjonptom, contains the hidden fulfilment of a 
 repressed wish^ which usually refers to the two great 
 impulses, hunger and love. Freud has also shown that 
 certain episodic manifestations of hysteria are simply 
 
 21
 
 322 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 substitutive gratifications for the abandoned masturba- 
 tion,^ and Abraham maintains that the same is true for 
 the hysterical dreamy state. Let us see whether this is 
 true in our patient. 
 
 I regret that I was unable to make a complete analysis 
 of his case. The patient was a clinic one and, as often 
 happens in such cases, the analysis had to be given up. 
 Still the facts that I have obtained are sufficient to con- 
 firm the assumption that his dreamy states were sub- 
 stitutions for his masturbation. His history was, briefly, 
 as follows : 
 
 I. C. was twenty-two years old and had masturbated on and off 
 since the age of twelve. From a very early age he had been suffering 
 from a mixed neurosis (anxiety hysteria and compulsion neurosis) 
 which was due to many conflicts and repressions. At the age of 
 seventeen years he consorted with women and masturbated exces- 
 sively besides. He came to New York at twenty years of age and after 
 that tried very hard to abstain from sexual indulgence, but often 
 failed. At twenty-two he fell in love and decided to lead a life 
 of sexual abstinence until his marriage which was to take place in 
 March, 1909. The sadistic day dreams described above came on 
 after a few weeks of hard struggle. He was always given to day 
 dreaming, but he himself sharply distinguished between his former 
 air castles and his present day dreams, by saying that the latter were 
 beyond his control because they wei'e always accompanied by a 
 "short fainting spell." We are therefore justified in saying that 
 there was a direct relationship between the suppressed sexual activi- 
 ties and his fantastic day dreams. 
 
 If we bear in mind the different stages described above 
 and follow the act of masturbation we can at once see a 
 distinct analogy. Here as there one observes a preliminary 
 craving followed by a pleasurable stage, and the second 
 and third stages of the day dream, the withdrawal from
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 323 
 
 reality and absent mindedness fully correspond to the 
 increasing sexual excitement and its acme at the moment 
 of ejaculation. It is well known that coitus was com- 
 pared by many writers to a minor epileptic attack. Also 
 the terminal depression corresponds to the same stage of 
 coitus or its inadequate outlet, masturbation. Post 
 coitum animal triste is an old saying equally true of mas- 
 turbation which is always followed by self-reproach. 
 
 To illustrate the psychological significance of dreamy 
 states the following case will serve : 
 
 Case II. — A., was a rising journalist of twenty-six years. He was 
 addicted to dreamy states most of which showed the three stages cited 
 above. A few examples recited by himself will give us an idea of 
 their nature: "I am running a race and I feel fine because I am sure 
 of winning. I am accidentally struck in the thigh with the spiked 
 shoe of one of my competitors. I am bleeding, but I don't seem to 
 feel it. I am very excited because I am getting ahead of the others. 
 Some trainers try to stop me because they imagine I am hurt, but 
 I punch them and run on. I win the race, but collapse from exhaus- 
 tion. I am carried out amidst the applause of the crowd." 
 
 "I am taking a walk with a party of young men and women. We 
 are held up by a highwayman. We all submit to it. I stand with 
 my hands up, but taking advantage of the highwajinan's momentary 
 inattention I throw myself upon him, take away his pistol and strike 
 him on the head with it. I beat him into submission and then lead 
 him by the collar to the police station amidst the great applause of 
 my companions, who, being Jews, are astonished at my bravery. 
 
 ''I escape from home and make my way to China. I insinuate 
 myself into court and become a favorite of the Dowager Empress. 
 I am put in charge of the army which I train to great eflBciency. A 
 rebellion breaks out. I lead the army. The emperor, who is on the 
 other side is killed or dies (vague). As a reward for my services I 
 marry the Dowager Empress who looks like my mother. This 
 happiness does not last very long, for I am deposed and returned to 
 New York an exile." 
 
 The patient stated that these day dreams usually came when he
 
 324 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 was writing and that they were entirely beyond his control. He 
 himself referred to them "as a sort of absent-mindedness during 
 which I am like a somnambulist." 
 
 It is interesting to note that in both patients the dreams 
 appeared during mental concentration. This fully cor- 
 roborates what Freud states in his Three Contributions 
 to the Theory of Sex, viz., that mental application to an 
 intellectual accomplishment will often result, especially 
 in youthful persons, in a simultaneous sexual excitement. 
 Another striking point in all these dreamy states is the 
 emotional lability in the different stages. The dreamer 
 distinctlj'" realizes that the first two stages are of a pleasur- 
 able nature, while the last stage is of a depressive painful 
 nature. 
 
 I shall not go into long analytical explanations. I will 
 content myself by stating that here, too, the day dreams 
 were substitutes for the abandoned masturbation and 
 will proceed with the analysis of day dreams proper. 
 
 We have said above that the psychosexual constitution 
 of the individual is made up of many components and 
 partial impulses which run through a definite evolution. 
 These impulses are active in infancy, but normally they 
 are gradually repressed, leaving only slight traces of their 
 former existence. As we discussed this question above 
 I shall briefly refer to the impulses of exhibitionism and 
 cruelty only. 
 
 It is well known that children like to show themselves 
 naked, that is they like to exhibit. It is not at all unusual 
 to see children of both sexes exposing themselves coram 
 publico. Shame is a matter of training. I know a little 
 girl of six years, who at the age of three or four used to
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 325 
 
 invite her grown-up acquaintances to be present while she 
 took her bath and who now blushes at any allusion to it. 
 That the Golden Rule is not inherent in the human being 
 is also well known. Cruelty in our sense is common to 
 childhood. I believe it is La Fontaine who calls childhood 
 "an age without pity." That cruelty and exhibitionism 
 are intimately connected with sex is hardly necessary to 
 mention. Naturalists and anthropologists have repeatedly 
 called attention to it. Freud, who has perhaps penetrated 
 deeper than any one else, shows^° that when these impulses 
 are repressed by a process of training and education they 
 form certain reactions like modesty and sympathy which 
 go to make up the character of the individual. But as 
 no impulse is entirely suspended, one can always find 
 some traces of it in the individual's character. Thus 
 persons inclined to obscene joking usually conceal a desire 
 to exhibit and persons having a strong sadistic or cruelty 
 component in their sexuality, which is more or less 
 inhibited, are most successful with the tendency wit of 
 aggression. ^^ If for some reason these impulses cannot 
 be repressed or when later in life there is a failure of 
 repression, the individual remains either a sexual exhibition'- 
 ist or sadist, or he suffers from a neurosis in which theso 
 impulses come to the surface in some negative form. 
 One of the distressing symptoms for which A. soughfy 
 relief was an irresistible impulse to pinch women. His 
 fancies simply reflected his symptoms. The first two 
 day dreams nicely illustrate, in a rather hidden form, 
 Ms exhibitionism as well as his sadism. The third one, 
 referring to his marrying the dowager empress who looked 
 like his mother, shows a very nice unconscious mechanism,
 
 326 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the so-called Oedipus complex. ^^ His neurosis is the 
 result of a conflict between his conscious resistances and 
 his unconscious attachment to his mother. As with every 
 little boy, his mother was the first woman he loved, but 
 unlike the others his libido remained fixed on her. This 
 is a very common mechanism and, as shown by Abraham, 
 accounts for so many consanguineous marriages. Neu- 
 rotics, who are unconsciously attached to their parents, 
 either never marry because "no girl is like mother" or 
 marry some member of the family who resembles the 
 parent. As a little boy our patient often found home 
 too small for him and his father. He was his rival, as it 
 were, for his mother's affection and for that reason he 
 often wished him dead. Now as a grown-up man he 
 still finds life burdensome because he cannot tolerate 
 his superiors who take the place of his father and he con- 
 sequently entertains murderous thoughts toward them. 
 The morning before this day dream he read about the 
 war in China and that the army had been trained by 
 foreign officers. This was the main determinant of the 
 last dream, but the other elements that enter into its 
 formation are part and parcel of his neurosis. In his day 
 dreams he runs away from home and becomes a great 
 man, because in reality he dislikes the idea of having to 
 stay at home and be supported by his parents who lately 
 referred to it rather unkindly. In this rebellion he either 
 kills the emperor or he dies. Such vague statements 
 occurring in day or night dreams indicate a marked 
 repression. Here the emperor stands for his father. ^^ He 
 thus kills his father and is united to his childhood ideal. 
 But, as he is no longer a child, the dream shows the influ- 
 
 i
 
 HYSTERICAL FANCIES AND DREAMY STATES 327 
 
 ence of the incest barriers which were formed during his 
 development. He is therefore deposed and returned to 
 New York an exile. This sudden fiasco is also constel- 
 lated by the depressive emotional tone of the terminal 
 stage of masturbation which invests, so to say, the last 
 stage of the day dream and determines its character. 
 That A.'s first two day dreams lack the depressive thoughts 
 which go to make up the terminal stage of masturbation 
 is not without reason. 
 
 I have purposely selected these examples because they 
 demonstrate a rather interesting mechanism. They always 
 appeared after the patient practised interrupted masturba- 
 tion. As you know this is a common practice of mastur- 
 bators, who imagine that loss of seminal fluid is loss of 
 vitality. 
 
 Some fancies are extremely peculiar; thus a very aggres- 
 sive person in public life entertained long fancies in which 
 he played a role which was the exact opposite of himself. 
 He thus fancied himself a slave to a very brutal elderly 
 woman who was his wife. She made him grow long hair, 
 wait on her and perform all sorts of menial and degrading 
 tasks, and kept him chained under the table by a ring 
 through his nose like a bear. These fancies came contin- 
 ually in all sorts of variations which the patient lived 
 through sometimes for months at a time. Such fancies are 
 quite common and are psychic manifestations of the sado- 
 masochistic components. This man was brought up by a 
 very brutal mother who punished him severly at the slight- 
 est misbehavior on his part. In reality he felt very inferior 
 and masochistic and as a defense reaction he always acted 
 the "great fighter."
 
 328 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 In conclusion it may be said that the type of day dream- 
 ing given above is simply a substitution for the abandoned 
 masturbation. The unrequited libido seeking an outlet 
 invests those thoughts which are in some way connected 
 with the individual's hopes and strivings. Like the wolf 
 in the lamb's skin they look quite innocent at jBrst sight, 
 but on closer investigation it becomes very evident that 
 they represent repressed wishes of the person's psycho- 
 sexual life and thus constitute a concealed form of mental 
 masturbation. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Freud: Selected Papers on Hysteria, p. 195. 
 
 2. For the Mechanism of Identification, see Chap. X. 
 
 3. Freud: Allgemeines uber den hysterischen Anfall, Sammlung 
 kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Second series, Deuticke, Wien. 
 
 4. Zentralblatt fur Nervenheilkunde, August, 1909. 
 
 5. Ueber hysterische Traumzustande, Jahrbuch fur Psychoanalyse 
 Vol. II. 
 
 6. Cf. Chap. IV. 
 
 7. L. c. 
 
 8. Cf. Chap. III. 
 
 9. L. c. 
 
 10. Three contributions to the Theory of Sex, translated by A. A. 
 Brill. 
 
 11. Cf. Chap. XVII. 
 
 12. Cf. Chap. XIII. 
 
 13. This is a rather common identification, see Freud: The Inter- 
 pretation of Dreams; also Chap. XIII.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 
 
 The latent influence on normal persons; its negative 
 manifestations in the psychoneuroses and psychoses 
 
 Of the many interesting and valuable discoveries fur- 
 nished to us through psychoanalysis none is as impor- 
 tant as those facts which treat of the individual's relation 
 to the family and society. In our psychoanalytic work 
 with patients we find that parents play the leading part 
 in their infantile psychic life. This fact is so universal 
 and important that we may say that unless it is thoroughly 
 elaborated and discussed with the patient no analysis 
 is complete or effective. Studies made of psychoneu- 
 rotics amply demonstrate that contrary to the accepted 
 opinions neurotics are only exaggerations of the normal 
 and that the modes of reaction in both are about the 
 same. The only difference lies in the fact that one can 
 adjust himself to his environments while the other finds 
 it difficult or impossible to do so. If one should ask 
 wherein these difficulties lie the experienced psychoan- 
 alyst would readily point to the parents. Indeed the 
 more we study the psychoneuroses and the psychoses the 
 clearer it becomes that the most potent factor in their 
 determination is the early parental influence. That our 
 parents should play a leading part in our lives is so obvious 
 
 that it hardly needs further discussion. Thestrang e part 
 
 329
 
 330 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 of it, however, is the fact that these relations are not 
 as amicable or peaceful as seems at first sight. What I 
 mean to say is that, contrary to general belief, there is 
 usually not much love lost between parents and children 
 and that especially little children do not always love 
 their parents in a manner generally accepted. On the con- 
 trary they often show a marked dislike especially for one of 
 their parents. This statement may sound very bold and 
 unfounded, but if you will stop to think for a moment 
 you will soon feel that it strikes a familiar note. Obser- 
 vation teaches that our love for parents is not innate and 
 spontaneous and that it follows the same laws as that 
 among strangers. Although Freud gave us the true 
 psychological explanation of this conception the principle 
 of it must have been known from time immemorial. His- 
 tory and every-day life demonstrate it. We all know 
 the fifth commandment: Honor thy father and thy mother, 
 that thy days may be long in the land which the Lord 
 thy God giveth thee. Here we have a direct order to 
 honor our parents and judging by the other command- 
 ments and by our modern laws, it must be concluded 
 that to neglect parents was just as natural in the Biblical 
 times as were those impulses against which command- 
 ments beginning with "Thou shalt not" had to be imposed. 
 For it is a fact that there is no necessity of commanding 
 the individual to realize his impulses. Left to himself he 
 would constantly try to realize them, and civilization, 
 so called, simply consists of inhibitions imposed upon 
 the individual by religion and society. The more one can 
 inhibit his primitive impulses the more cultured he is, and 
 savages and children must be taught inhibition to fit them
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 331 
 
 for society. To cite Freud: "A progressive renouncement 
 of constitutional impulses, the activity of which afford 
 the ego primary pleasure, seems to be one of the basic 
 principles of human culture."^ In brief, observation shows 
 that parents are loved by children only when they deserve it, 
 that is to say, when they do not interfere with the child's 
 desires and above all when they give the child pleasure. 
 
 When we enter into the deeper mental mechanisms 
 of our patients and investigate their love lives, we usuall}'- 
 find that the little boy is more attached to his mother and 
 the little girl to her father. In other words, the first 
 woman a boy loves is his mother who forever remains as a 
 model for his later selections of women. The little boy 
 therefore finds his father in the way — he is his rival. When 
 the father is not at home the little son has no one with 
 whom to share his mother's affection. He is therefore 
 angry at, and jealous of his father and often wishes him 
 dead. The idea of death does not however, mean to the 
 child what it means to the adult, it simply means to be 
 away. One of my patients vividly recalls that at the age 
 of four years he asked his mother whom she loved more 
 him or his father, and when she said that she loved his 
 father more he became furious and cried for hours. These 
 infantile feelings of sex which later develop into adult sex 
 lay the foundation for the symptoms appearing in the later 
 neurosis. I could trace directly the symptoms of the cases 
 that I have analyzed to such mechanisms. In normal 
 persons we find the traces of this early love in the dreams 
 of the death of near relatives especially the father.^ 
 
 The sexual feeling for the mother and jealousy of the 
 father is called by Freud the Oedipus complex because
 
 332 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 antiquity has furnished us with legendary material to 
 confirm these facts. To put it in his v/ords: ''The deep 
 and universal effectiveness of these legends can only be 
 explained by granting a similar universal applicability to 
 the above-mentioned assumption in infantile psychology."^ 
 The legend referred to is the drama King Oedipus by 
 Sophocles. In brief it reads as follows: Laius, the king of 
 Thebes, married Jocasta. After years of childless marriage 
 Laius visited the Delphian Apollo and prayed for a child. 
 The answer of the god was as follows: "Your prayer has 
 been heard and a son will be given to you, but you will die 
 at his hand, for Zeus decided to fulfil the curse of Pelops 
 whose son you have once kidnapped." In spite of the 
 warning the son was born, but fearing the fulfilment of the 
 oracle, the child's feet were pierced and tied, and delivered 
 to a faithful servant to be exposed in the desert. The ser- 
 vant, however, gave the child to a Corinthian shepherd 
 who took it to his master. King Polybus, who, being child- 
 less, adopted it and called it Oedipus, meaning swollen feet. 
 When the boy grew up into manhood he became uncertain 
 of his own origin and consulting the oracle received the 
 following answer: "Beware that thou shouldst not murder 
 thy father and marry thy mother." In order to avoid 
 the fulfilment of this prophecy Oedipus at once left Corinth 
 and accidentally wandered toward Thebes. On the way 
 he met King Laius and struck him dead in an unexpected 
 quarrel. He then came to the gates of Thebes where he 
 solved the riddle of the Sphinx, driving the latter to suicide 
 and thus freeing the city from a great scourge. As a reward 
 for this he was elected king and presented with the hand 
 of Jocasta, his mother. He reigned in peace for many
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 333 
 
 years and begot two sons and two daughters upon his un- 
 known mother until a plague broke out which caused the 
 Thebans to consult the oracle. The messengers returned 
 with the advice that the plague would stop as soon as the 
 murderer of King Laius would be driven from the country. 
 Sophocles then develops the play in a psychoanalytic man- 
 ner until the true relations are discovered, namelj^ that 
 Oedipus killed his father and married his own mother. The 
 drama ends by Oedipus blinding himself and wandering 
 away into voluntary exile. 
 
 In his characteristic penetrating waj^ Freud draws 
 many interesting conclusions some of which I shall mention. 
 According to some commentators, Oedipus Tyrannus is a 
 tragedy of fate. Its tragic effect is said to be found in the 
 opposition between the powerful will of the gods and the 
 futile resistance of the human being who is threatened with 
 destruction. The tragedy teaches resignation to the will 
 of God and confession of one's own helplessness. This 
 tragedy has lately been revived by Max Reinhardt and 
 had a long and successful run in Berlin and London. From 
 what we have read, it would seem that it moves modern 
 men no less than it moved the contemporary Greek. In 
 our own times, however, one occasionally witnesses a play 
 dealing with the incest problem which is as tremendously 
 effective as the Greek drama. This seems to indicate that 
 the explanation of this fact cannot lie merely in the 
 assumption that the effect of the Greek tragedy is based upon 
 the opposition between human fate and human will, 
 but is to be sought in the peculiar nature of the material 
 by which the opposition is shown. There must be some- 
 thing in us which is prepared to recognize the compelling
 
 334 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 power of fate in Oedipus while we justly condemn the 
 situations occurring in tragedies of later date as arbi- 
 trary inventions. Witness, e.g., the storm that has been 
 produced in this country by Synge's Irish play "The 
 Play-boy of the Western World," which is a veiled Oedipus 
 complex. Freud states that there must be some uncon- 
 scious factor corresponding to this inner voice, in the story 
 of king Oedipus. "His fate moves us only for the reason 
 that it might have been ours, for the oracle has put the 
 same curse upon us before our birth as upon him. Perhaps 
 we are all destined to direct our first sexual impulses toward 
 our mothers and our first hatred and violent wishes toward 
 our father. Our dreams convince us of it. King Oedipus 
 who killed his father and married his mother, is nothing 
 but the realized wish of our childhood. But more for- 
 tunate than he we have since succeeded, unless we have 
 become psychoneurotics, in withdrawing our sexual im- 
 pulses from our mothers and in forgetting our jealousy of 
 our fathers. We recoil from the person for whom this 
 primitive wish has been fulfilled with all the force of the 
 repression which these wishes have suffered within us. 
 By his analysis showing us the guilt of Oedipus the poet 
 urges us to recognize our own inner self, in which these 
 impulses, even if repressed, are still present." 
 
 That the Oedipus legend originated in an extremely 
 old dream material which deals with the painful disturb- 
 ance of the relation toward one's own parents through the 
 first impulses of sexuality, is unmistakably shown in the 
 very text of Sophocles. Jocasta, comforting Oedipus, recalls 
 to him the dream which is dreamed by so many people: 
 "For, says she, it has already been the lot of many men
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 335 
 
 in dreams to think themselves partners of their mother's 
 bed. But he passes most easily through life to whom those 
 circumstances are trifles."^ The dream of having sexual 
 intercourse with one's own mother occurred at that time 
 as it does to-day to many persons who tell it with indigna- 
 tion and astonishment. As may be understood, it is the 
 key to the tragedy and the complement to the dream of 
 the death of the father. The story of Oedipus is the reac- 
 tion of the imagination to these two typical dreams and, 
 just as the dream when occurring to an adult is experienced 
 with feelings of resistance, so the legend must contain terror 
 and self chastisement. An uncomprehending secondary 
 elaboration tries to make it serve such theological purposes 
 as mentioned above. 
 
 From my own experience I can fully corroborate Freud's 
 claims. I have on record hundreds of dreams of sexual rela- 
 tions with one's own mother given to me by many patients. 
 These dreams were usually quite plain and there was very 
 little distortion to them. About half of these dreamers 
 reported these dreams before they ever heard of any Oedipus 
 complex, while the other half told about them after I had 
 explained the mechanism. They all assured me that they 
 were perfectly aware of these dreams and to my question 
 why they had not told me before they invariably answered 
 that it was too terrible and revolting a thing to tell, and 
 that the only reason why they told them to me was because 
 they were pleased to know they were not the only ones having 
 such dreams. I can say the same of many women who 
 dreamed that they had sexual relations with their fathers. 
 I analyzed Oedipus dreams in which only the father or the 
 mother was masked. Thus one of mj'- female homosexuals
 
 336 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 told me that the only erotic dreams in which a man played 
 a part was one of having had sexual intercourse with one 
 of our Governors, but on associating to the dream, she 
 told me that she was accustomed to refer to her father as 
 the governor. As you know the president, governor and 
 mayor in dreams usually means the father.^ 
 
 Most of the Oedipus dreams, however, usually show a 
 symbolization of the sexual act in which the parents may 
 be quite plain. One of my patients dreamed that he 
 climbed up a high water tower on a revolving staircase. 
 On reaching midway he met his mother, who accompanied 
 him to the top. The climbing became more and more 
 difficult. He had to hold on very tightly to her for fear 
 that they would both fall. They finally reached the top 
 in a very exhausted state where they both laid down in 
 bed together for a long rest. This patient slept with his 
 mother until he was eighteen years old and, from his own 
 admission, although he entertained no conscious sexual 
 feelings toward her, he wished on at least a few occasions 
 that he could marry her. To those acquainted with dream 
 analysis this dream needs no further elucidation.^ 
 
 A man of thirty-five years reported to me the following 
 dream: "I dreamt that I was in bed with my mother and as 
 she was talking aloud I told her to he quiet as I was afraid 
 that my father who was in the next room would hear us." 
 
 This patient was treated for psychosexual impotence 
 and this dream came after unsuccessfully attempting 
 heterosexual intercourse. He was his mother's favorite 
 and owing to the fact that his father was a psychopathic 
 individual who abused and terrified his family he hated 
 him and was much attached to his mother. Whenever
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 337 
 
 his father went on a rampage his mother would lock herself 
 in a room with him, and they often lived through in reality 
 the experience described in the dream. This was also the 
 reason for his sleeping with his mother up to the age of 
 ten years. Disappointed in her husband she lavished 
 all her affection on her son who supplied her with the love 
 she craved. The patient stated that for years he was sub- 
 ject to nightmares showing almost the same content as 
 the above-mentioned dream. 
 
 To understand the full significance of this dream it will 
 be necessary to review a few psychological facts. 
 
 As stated above we are all destined to direct our first 
 sexual impulses to our mothers. The first woman loved 
 is one's own mother. It is the mother who impresses on 
 the mind the woman-image which remains as a permanent 
 standard for the female ideal. Normally a repression 
 takes place and the boy gradually projects his love to 
 strangers. Investigation shows that the love life of an 
 individual begins at a very early age and as this progresses 
 the love for one's mother gradually fades from conscious- 
 ness. In the unconscious it remains forever and acts 
 as a constant guide in the future selection of a woman.^ 
 Every woman in compared to the mother-image and 
 cceteris paribus, the closer the resemblance to the stronger 
 the woman attracts us. This may shade from the normal 
 to the abnormal. As examples I can cite the following cases: 
 
 A very cultured man was attracted only by very stout 
 servants. No other type of woman appealed to him. 
 Analysis showed that his first sexual impulses were aroused 
 by a servant girl of that type who took the place of his 
 mother. 
 
 22
 
 338 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 A refined married woman of twenty-four years suffered 
 from psychosexual frigidity, but was sexually excited 
 whenever she saw a lame man. This was due to an identi- 
 fication with her mother who had an illicit love affair with 
 a man when she was three or four years old. Like a great 
 many grown-ups her mother considered her little girl an 
 unthinking being and took no pains to conceal anything 
 from her. When her paramour sustained a fracture of his 
 leg and she found it necessary to make frequent calls on 
 him she took her little daughter with her so as to avoid 
 gossip. Although what she witnessed apparently made no 
 impression on her at the time it nevertheless acted as a 
 sexual trauma and formed an association between sex 
 and lameness. This was also determined by the fact that 
 at a later age this lame man took the place of her own 
 father by marrying her widowed mother. 
 
 A young married woman who is dominated by a verit- 
 able prostitution complex carried on illicit relations with 
 men while she lived with her husband. Psychoanalysis 
 showed that she was an only daughter and although her 
 father's pet she saw very little of him during her early 
 childhood as his affairs took him away from home. As 
 far as her memory reached she recalled witnessing unholy 
 loves between her mother and "strange men." She herself 
 married a man who not only belongs to the same type as her 
 father, but who even follows her father's vocation. She 
 thus identified herself with her mother in every respect. 
 
 Many of the unhappy love affairs and marriages are 
 determined by such unconscious factors. Thus a very 
 cultured woman of thirty-four was particularly interested 
 in reforming criminals of a certain type. In her efforts to do
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 339 
 
 good she made the acquaintance of a man recently dis- 
 charged from prison who claimed that his downfall was 
 due to drink. This acquaintanceship ripened into friend- 
 ship and finally this ordinary ex-convict was bold enough to 
 propose marriage. Although all her friends and relatives 
 were shocked at the very idea of her marrying this man, 
 she could only reject him after much struggle whereupon 
 he began to drink. As soon as she heard of it she at once 
 assured him of her love and promised to marry him. 
 No sooner done than she immediately felt that she made a 
 great mistake, that she really did not love the man, that she 
 was only interested in reforming him. She broke the 
 engagement but as soon as she heard that he was again 
 drinking she again hastened to assure him that she would 
 marry him. These episodes repeated themselves many 
 times; when he was sober she could never think of him as 
 a husband but as soon as he became drunk she could 
 hardly resist him. When her friends brought her to me I 
 discovered that this man unconsciously represented her own 
 father who though cultured and refined died a drunkard. 
 
 I could quote many more cases,* but these will suffice 
 to show the unconscious parental influence. Such in- 
 fluences are found in every person and although they are 
 usually quite harmless they sometimes act perniciously. 
 This is particularly true of only or favorite children who 
 are overburdened with love. They are not allowed to 
 follow the different stages of the psychosexual evolution 
 and their libido remains fixed on the mother. ^° The result 
 of such a process may be psychosexual impotence. By 
 
 * Most of the cases described by Mantegazzo as Idiogamists prob- 
 ably belong to this category; Zeitschrift J. Sexualwissenschaft. p. 223.
 
 340 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 preventing the boy from projecting his love to strangers 
 there results an unconscious incestuous fixation on the 
 mother which then acts as an inhibition to sexual relations 
 with other women. ^^ 
 
 Let us return to the above-mentioned dream. From 
 what we know of dreams we may say that those which are 
 accompanied by fear are of a gross sexual nature. The 
 fear as was said above, is the converted libido and takes 
 the place of the distortion usually found in other dreams. 
 In other words the dream represents a repressed wish to 
 sleep with his mother and the converted libido is masked 
 behind the fear for the father. His father was furious 
 whenever he found him sleeping with his mother and our 
 patient dreaded lest he should be detected by his father. 
 The dream repeats the same state of mind and thus gives 
 us the key to his neurosis. By sleeping with his mother to 
 so late an age the incestuous feelings were kept alive and 
 fixed on her, but as he grew older he energetically defended 
 himself against them and finally succeeded in repressing 
 them from consciousness. As a reaction to these uncon- 
 scious desires he became extremely moral and religious and 
 avoided anything sexual. At the age of twenty-eight he at- 
 tempted coitus for the first time and failed. This failure 
 was repeated at every subsequent attempt. He could not 
 accomplish the sexual act because of the sexual fixation on 
 the mother. Every woman unconsciously recalled his 
 mother and, because of the marked repression of his 
 incestuous feelings, coitus was naturally impossible. This 
 was also constellated by his unconscious fear of his father. 
 The patient was cured of his impotence as soon as these 
 mechanisms were laid bare and explained to him.
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 341 
 
 Conscious incestuous feelings and experiences in adult 
 life are not as rare as one would imagine. This subject 
 has been discussed by Krafft-Ebing, Bloch, Havelock 
 Ellis and others. My own observations in this regard 
 taught me that sexual feelings and fancies about one's 
 parents, sisters and brothers are not only extremely com- 
 mon in early life in the form of fancies and speculations 
 about sex, but that they also often exist later. Nor must it 
 be imagined that whenever it is found we deal with defective 
 persons. The individual circumstances must always be 
 considered, it is well known to those who investigate the 
 psychosexual development that the sexual fancies indulged 
 in by the individual at the pubescent period invariably 
 refer to the parent. Havelock Ellis^- explains the abhor- 
 rence of incest on the basis of familiarity. He states that 
 "The normal failure of the pairing instinct to manifest 
 itself in the case of brothers and sisters or of boys and girls 
 brought up together from infancy is a merely negative 
 phenomenon due to the inevitable absence under those 
 circumstances of the conditions which evoke the pairing 
 impulse" (p. 205). "Passion between brothers and sisters 
 is, indeed, by no means so rare as is sometimes supposed, 
 and it may be very strong, but it is usually aroused by the 
 aid of those conditions which are normally required for 
 the appearance of passion, more especiallj'' bj^ the unfamil- 
 iarity caused by long separation" (p. 206). I agree with 
 Havelock Ellis as far as he goes, but it seems to me that 
 unfamiliarity plays only a subordinate part in the promo- 
 tion of certain feelings between brothers and sisters. 
 Unfamiliarity does not necessarily cause attraction between 
 strangers of the opposite sexes, but long separation, espe-
 
 342 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 cially when occurring since early life, is sure to produce a 
 strong fascination between brothers and sisters. This is 
 due to the repressed Oedipus complex. As was said above, 
 every woman that later comes into the individual's life 
 is unconsciously compared to the mother image in our 
 unconscious. It is quite obvious that the sister fits into 
 this image much better than any other woman. Who 
 resembles the mother more than the daughter? Besides, 
 the daughter has the advantage over the mother of youth 
 and beauty. In this connection I would like to give an 
 incident related to me by a colleague : 
 
 He came to this country from Germany at the age of 
 fourteen years having left at home a sister one and a half 
 years his junior. Years later he visited an exhibition 
 in the Grand Central Palace in New York City and was 
 strongly fascinated by a young lady he saw there. The 
 attraction was so strong that he lost interest in the exhibits 
 and followed her around until she left the place. Nor 
 did this fascination end here. He told me that for months 
 he acted like a man in love and for years he measured 
 every woman by his "Grand Central Girl." He returned 
 to his native city after having been eighteen years in 
 America and as soon as he saw his younger sister the 
 thought flashed through his mind, "Here is my Grand 
 Central Girl." There was, indeed, a remarkable resem- 
 blance between his sister and the unknown young woman 
 with whom he fell in love in America. His sister was the 
 picture of his mother. 
 
 Moreover in real life, daughters often take the 
 place of their mothers. I know of a few cases where 
 men first loved the mothers and then switched over to
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 343 
 
 the daughters. The daily press sometimes reports such 
 cases. ^' 
 
 It is in the psychoses, however, that one sees the marked 
 influence of the Oedipus complex. Here the complex 
 usually comes to the surface in the form of symptoms, 
 in hallucinations and delusions, and the analysis can 
 generally trace these automatisms to early repressed feel- 
 ings and experiences. The following cases will serve as 
 paradigms: 
 
 Case I. — V, twenty-nine years old, suflfers from the paranoid form 
 of dementia prsecox. He hears voices accusing him of having had 
 sexual relations with his mother. Analysis showed that as a boy he 
 entertained sexual fancies about his mother. He often looked 
 through the keyhole when she took her bath. 
 
 Case II. — Mrs. F., a married woman of twenty-eight years, is a 
 paranoid praecox. For more than a year she has been laughing and 
 talking to herself uttering words like "clean, never, respectable, not 
 at all, none." When questioned she states that she hears voices who 
 accuse her of having been "too intimate with her father and brother' 
 and the words uttered are only answers to her imaginary accusers. 
 They read as follows: I am clean. I never did such terrible things. 
 I am respectable. It is not at aU true that I had sexual relations 
 with my father and brother." 
 
 Case III. — With Dr. H. Valentine Wildman I have recently com- 
 mitted a young man to the River Crest Sanatorium. This patient 
 was paranoid and his main delusions were fairly well systematized- 
 They were directed against his mother. He called her vile names and 
 accused her of having made sexual advances to him. The following 
 remarks pointing to a retrospective falsification contain the nucleus 
 of his delusions: "I remember when I was a kid, she (mother) looked 
 at my eyes and then paced the floor as if to say 'you are for me' and 
 since then she wanted to make me her lover." The history of the 
 case shows the typical mechanisms of paranoia, that is, there was 
 fixation in narcism and mother love (he was the mother's favorite), 
 defence against homosexual wish phantasies, then failure of repres- 
 sion, as manifested in some homosexual experiences and delusions of 
 Ijersecution.i*
 
 344 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Now it may be asked whether children show by their 
 behavior any indication of the Oedipus complex and 
 whether fathers realize consciously that their sons are 
 their rivals. Anamneses taken from normal and abnormal 
 persons answer these questions in the affirmative. Also 
 the works of Freud, Bleuler, Jung, Putnam, Ferenczi, 
 Stekel, Abraham, Rank, Jones, ^* and others, show beyond 
 any doubt that this is the case. To quote Bleuler, "After 
 our attention had been called to it we found this Oedipus 
 complex more and more frequently. It is also an im- 
 portant factor in the selection of lovers among normal and 
 abnormal persons."^® I have collected many, many facts. 
 Some I have personally observed and some were given to 
 me by reliable colleagues and friends, showing that beyond 
 any doubt small children often wish to replace the parent 
 of their own sex. A mother told me that her bright and 
 healthy little boy of two years is very jealous of his father, 
 and shows it on every occasion. Seeing her talking and sit- 
 ting next to her husband he ran to her and pulled her away, 
 exclaiming, "No Mami talk Daddy, sit down talk Baby." 
 A brilliant little boy of three years, hearing that he will sleep 
 with his mother because his father was going to stay away 
 for the night, expressed his great pleasure to his mother, and 
 added, "Let us play that we are married. I'll call you 
 Mary and you call me John" (names of parents). Later, 
 when he entered his mother's sleeping room, he said, "Here 
 comes your husband." A little girl of three and one-half 
 years on being punished by her mother exclaimed in her 
 childish way, "Go away to Susie (her dead sister), I can be 
 papa's Mama (meaning his wife, as her father calls her 
 mother 'mama')." Another little girl of about four years
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 345 
 
 kissed her father and kept on repeating, *'I love you so 
 much, papa. Let's go to the Bronx and never come home 
 to mama." And on being questioned she admitted that 
 she did not love her mother. 
 
 Some parents directly encourage incestuous love by 
 sleeping with their children until a late age and thus stimu- 
 late them prematurely. This is done through ignorance 
 but unconsciously because it furnishes an outlet to the 
 parent. A striking example of this kind is the following: 
 A psychopathic mother consulted me about her eleven 
 years old boy "because of late he acted almost like a man" 
 when sleeping with her. Investigation showed that this 
 boy had slept with his mother most of the time because his 
 father, a traveling salesman, was away from home from four 
 to six months at a time. The mother stated that she was 
 afraid to sleep alone, and in spite of her observations, which 
 lead her to consult me, she refused to give up this pleasure. 
 When I tried to impress her that the boy was at the pubes- 
 cent age and that such actions must be expected if he 
 slept with her or with any other woman she accused me of 
 being an alarmist. 
 
 It is not uncommon for parents to be jealous of the love 
 shown by the other parent for the child. A glaring example 
 of this kind was reported to me by a patient referred to me 
 by Dr. Coriat of Boston. Her husband was a very promi- 
 nent business man, but somewhat eccentric. She was 
 very much attached to her only son and the more she loved 
 him the more he was hated by the father. The latter 
 openly expressed his jealousy and hatred for his son and 
 treated him most cruelly whenever he could do so. This
 
 346 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 feeling continued for more than thirty years until the father 
 died, and was the cause of much unhappiness. 
 
 In his study on incest among savages^^ Freud showed 
 that the incest shyness is an infantile trait and in striking 
 accord with the psychic life of the neurotic. Psycho- 
 analysis teaches that the first sexual object of the boy is of 
 an incestuous prohibitive nature directed against the 
 mother or sister; it also shows us how the developing 
 individual frees himself from these feelings. The neurotic 
 individual, however, regularly presents a fragment of 
 psychic infantilism. He is either unable to free himself 
 from the infantile relations of psychosexuality, or he has 
 returned to them. It is for that reason that the incestuous 
 fixations of the libido continue to play a great part in his 
 unconscious psychic life. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Sammlung kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Zweite Folge. 
 
 2. Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams. The Macmillan Co., 
 New York, and George Allen Co., London. 
 
 3. Freud: L. c, p. 221. 
 
 4. L. c, p. 223. 
 
 5. Act IV, Sc. 3, translated by Clark. 
 
 6. Freud: L. c, p. 246. 
 
 7. Freud: L. c, p. 246. On Stairway Dreams. 
 
 8. Cf. Chap. XIV. 
 
 9. For the mechanism of such traumas see Freud: Selected papers 
 on Hysteria, p. 159. 
 
 10. Cf. Chap. XIV. 
 
 11. Ferenczi: Analytische Deutung und Behandlung der psycho- 
 sexuellen Impotenz beim Manne. Psychiatrisch-neurologische Woch- 
 enschrift, 1908, No. 35. See also the works of Stekel, and Steiner: 
 Die Psychischen Storungen der Mannhchen Potenz. Deuticke, Wien. 
 
 12. Sexual Selection in Man, p. 204.
 
 THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX 347 
 
 13. Those who are interested in the problem may read an excellent 
 paper on the subject by Freud: Die Inzestscheu der Wilden; Imago, 
 Heft 1. Also Totem und Taboo (translated by A. A. Brill, Moffat 
 Yard & Co., New York), 1918. 
 
 14. For full particulars of these mechanisms, see Chap. X. 
 
 15. See especially, "The Oedpius Complex as an Explanation of 
 Hamlet's Mystery," Amer. Jour, of Psychology, Jan., 1910. 
 
 16. Dementia Praecox oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien, p.344 . 
 Deuticke, Leipzig u. Wien, 1911. Also his Manual of Psychiatry, a 
 translation of which is in preparation. 
 
 17. Freud: L. c.
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 THE ONLY OR FAVORITE CHILD IN ADULT LIFE 
 
 Fixation on early parental images; the psychology of 
 the mother-in-law 
 
 Very little attention has been given to the problem of 
 the only child, and the little literature we have at our 
 disposal deals mainly with the superficial and general 
 aspects of the question. Neter, who has written an excel- 
 lent pamphlet on the subject,^ gives a very good descrip- 
 tion of the only child's attributes, but he does not enter 
 into the deeper psychological elements. Moreover, no 
 attempt has been made outside of the Freudian schooP 
 to follow those children into adult life and to trace the 
 individual influence at play in their adjustment to environ- 
 ments. This can be readily understood when we remem- 
 ber that very little has been done in child psychology in 
 general and that only few psychologists are at present 
 occupying themselves with the subject. 
 
 Stimulated by the works of Freud^ and Jung* I have 
 investigated the subject from the psychoanalytical side 
 and shall endeavor to present some of the results. But 
 before proceeding to do so it will be necessary to orient 
 ourselves on some of the psychological principles that 
 form a part of the discussion. 
 
 In his famous essay Concerning Human Understanding, 
 
 Locke tells us that the child's mind is essentially a tabula 
 
 348
 
 THE ONLY OR FAVORITE CHILD IN ADULT LIFE 349 
 
 rasa, a blank tablet upon which nothing is written, and 
 that all knowledge rests on experience. Psychoanalysis 
 fully demonstrates Locke's empiricism, and confining 
 ourselves to the question of parental influences and rela- 
 tionships we may say that every individual's mind pos- 
 sesses certain stereotype plates or models, as it were, 
 which are the result of mental impressions produced by 
 the parents during childhood. Thus a father image^ and 
 a mother image remain permanently engraved in the mind 
 and act as standards for estimation of men and women 
 that later enter into this person's life. It is not difficult 
 to show that our behavior toward our fellow beings de- 
 pends mostly on our early relations to our parents. In 
 other words we unconsciously endeavor to fit every 
 stranger into one of our latent parental images and our 
 likes and dislikes depend in a great measure on the success 
 or failure of such correlation. Futher investigation 
 shows that children do not always love their parents as is 
 commonly supposed, but very often hate one of them. 
 The first woman the little boy loves is his mother, and 
 the first man the little girl loves is her father. The little 
 boy idolizes his mother and supplies her with that part of 
 poetic love which she no longer gets from her husband. 
 The mother calls her little boy sweetheart and tries to 
 realize in him her ideal of the man. The same thing takes 
 place between the little girl and her father. Normally, 
 however, these parental ideals vanish with the advancing 
 age, when the growing child begins to project his love on 
 strangers. The boy then no longer thinks that his mother 
 is the prettiest and loveliest woman in the world, but he 
 evinces an interest in other persons of the opposite sex.
 
 350 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 The deflection of love from the mother may also be 
 furthered by the appearance of a little brother, who claims 
 a part of his mother's love and attention. However, 
 this absence of the mother ideal is only apparent. It is 
 not eliminated, but repressed into the unconscious and 
 there it continues to exert its influence throughout the 
 whole life of the individual. Psychoanalysis of normal 
 persons shows beyond any doubt the enormous influence 
 of unconscious parental complexes. It explains the 
 important mechanism of transference^ as well as many of 
 the peculiarities of the love life.^ 
 
 Recently I was consulted by a young girl of twenty-one 
 years who was said to have become nervous as a result 
 of a disagreement with her mother. She was in love with 
 a man of forty-six years to whom her mother strongly 
 objected, not only on account of the marked difference in 
 their ages, but because the man was considered mentally 
 abnormal. During our conversation she remarked that 
 her mother had always been in her way, and by way of 
 explanation she stated that her mother was jealous of her 
 and that when she was younger she hated to have her 
 mother go along when she went out with her father. "I 
 always looked upon her as a stranger," she said. She 
 idolized her father who is her ideal in every respect, 
 although he is a paranoiac and has been for years in an 
 insane asylum. She surprised me when she told me that 
 there is as marked a difference in the ages of her father 
 and mother as there is in her own and her fiance's ages. 
 Indeed, all the features of the case unmistakably pointed 
 to an identification with her mother and an unconscious 
 desire to get her father ideal. Such cases are not at all
 
 THE ONLY OR FAVORITE CHILD IN ADULT LIFE 351 
 
 uncommon, I have reported some in the preceding chap- 
 ter and could cite many more. 
 
 From what has just been said it can be readily under- 
 stood that such parental influences may often be strong 
 enough to inhibit materially the individual's relations to 
 the other sex. Thus, too much and prolonged affection on 
 the part of the mother is apt to cause an undue conscious 
 or unconscious attachment to the parents, and thus pre- 
 vent the child from going through the various stages of 
 its psychosexual development. In this connection it may 
 be repeated that the sexual impulse of childhood is auto- 
 erotic or objectless.^ The child knows no other sexual 
 object than himself and gets his gratification through the 
 erogenous zones of his own body. As it grows older we 
 have the so-called latency period, during which the greater 
 part of the sexual excitation is utilized for aims other than 
 sexual, viz., for the formation of social feelings and the future 
 sexual barriers. Between autoerotism and the object love 
 there is an intermediate stage which has been designated as 
 narcism. Freud tells us that every stage of development of 
 the psychosexual life offers a possibility for " fixation " which 
 may result in a type of character. Thus we have shown 
 above that fixation in narcism may cause paranoia^ or 
 homosexuality, and that fixation in autoerotism may lay the 
 foundation for dementia prsecox. By giving the child too 
 much love, mothers often prolong or cause a fixation in the 
 various stages mentioned. This naturally occurs very often 
 in only children, who, having no one with whom to share 
 their parents' affection, are overburdened with love. The 
 same is true of favorite children who are subjected to 
 the same conditions as only children during the impression-
 
 352 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 able period of their existence. Since the fall of 1908 I have 
 examined hundreds of only or favorite children, and my 
 findings may be divided into (a) general and (6) specific. 
 
 (a) Whether burdened by heredity or not the adult only 
 child usually shows one prominent feature, namely, he is a 
 very poor competitor in the struggle for existence. Hav- 
 ing been carefully reared and constantly watched by his 
 loving mother, he remains forever "mama's boy." He is 
 devoid of those qualities which characterize the real boy. 
 He lacks independence, self-confidence and the practical 
 skill which the average boy acquires through competition 
 with other boys. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the only boy constantly asso- 
 ciates with grown-ups he is usually precocious even in 
 childhood, and as he grows older he finds it very hard to 
 associate with persons of his own age. Real friendships 
 begin very early in life. I know an only boy of nineteen 
 years who has not a single friend. He is practically asocial. 
 He wishes only to associate with persons much older than 
 himself and cannot adapt himself to the society of young 
 people because they "bore" him. Some time ago I was 
 consulted about another only boy, seven years old, because, 
 as his mother put it, he did not get along with other children 
 and was a real blas^. He was not interested in anything. 
 Toys, pets, books, etc., that would have been sufficient to 
 delight the hearts of a dozen children had absolutely no 
 charm for him. He was in constant need of new excite- 
 ments and as they could not be supplied quickly enough he 
 was unhappy and morose. 
 
 The only child is usually spoiled and coddled because 
 the parents gratify all his whims and have not the heart
 
 THE ONLY OR FAVORITE CHILD IN ADULT LIFE 353 
 
 to be severe with or punish him when necessary. This 
 has its evil ^consequences in adult life, for the slightest 
 depreciation, hardly noticeable by the average person, is 
 enough to throw him into a fit of depression and rage last- 
 ing for days and even for weeks. An only daughter 
 attempted suicide because her best friend received more 
 attention than she at a social gathering. 
 
 It is due to the undivided attention and abnormal love 
 that the only child gets from his parents that he develops 
 into a confirmed egotist. He is never neglected in favor 
 of sisters and brothers. He is the sole ruler of the house- 
 hold and his praises are constantly sung. It is, therefore, 
 no wonder that the only child becomes vain and one-sided 
 and develops an exaggerated opinion of himself. In later 
 life he is extremely conceited, jealous and envious. He 
 begrudges the happiness of friends and acquaintances and 
 he is therefore shunned and disliked.* A favorite son, 
 a bachelor of sixty-two years who was a wealthy retired 
 merchant, told me that whenever there was a rise in the 
 market he suffered from severe depression and fits of envy, 
 simply because he knew that some of his friends would 
 make money. He himself had no personal interest in the 
 market. Such qualities are surely not conducive to 
 happiness, and it is not at all surprising that almost all 
 such children are selfish, unhappy and morose. 
 
 (6) The specific findings are of still greater interest. 
 Of 400 cases observed years ago there were 172 men and 228 
 women. Their ages ranged from eighteen to sixty-eight 
 years. The morbid manifestations were as follows: 
 
 * A typical example is Joseph of the Bible, having been his mother's 
 oiily son (Rachel died during the birth of Benjamin) and his father's 
 favorite, he was despised and hated by his half-brothers. 
 
 23
 
 354 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 The predominant feature in about 36 per cent, of my 
 cases was the abnormal sex life. Most of them sought 
 treatment for homosexuality, psychic impotence (men) and 
 sexual anesthesia (women) ; there were also some exhibition- 
 ists, voyeurs, sadists and masochists. About 18 per cent, 
 suffered from the various types of dementia praecox. The 
 rest represented the different forms of the psychoneuroses. 
 I was unable to tabulate the hundreds of cases that I 
 have observed since I had published these cases but I am 
 quite certain that the percentages are about the same. 
 
 No statistical conclusions should be drawn from these 
 figures as most of these patients came,or were sent to me for 
 treatment because they suffered from psychoneuroses 
 or from the other maladies enumerated above. They 
 show, however, the marked prevalence of only or favorite 
 children in these classes. Bearing in mind our psycho- 
 analytic knowledge of early impressions this is not at all 
 surprising. As shown above, the foundations for one's later 
 erotic life are mostly laid by the parent of the opposite sex. 
 It primarily depends on the mother whether the son will 
 pass through normally the various stages of psychosexual 
 evolution. If for some reason she prevents him from 
 giving up his infantile erotic activities by encouraging him 
 to look for his love outlets in her only, he will perforce 
 remain sexually speaking infantile, and hence abnormal. 
 It is quite obvious that abnormal love in early life hinders 
 the normal sexual evolution. It either keeps alive or later 
 revives some of the early sexual activities. The boy can- 
 not transfer his libido on other women because his mother 
 stands in his way. As a rule this is accomplished quite 
 innocently under the guise of maternal care. Such mothers
 
 THE ONLY (^ FAVORITE CHILD IN ADULT LIFE 355 
 
 discourage social intercourse with the opposite sex because 
 consciously they wish to preserve their son's purity, uncon- 
 sciously they are extremely jealous of any other woman. 
 This may also be conscious. A number of my homosexual 
 patients told me that their mothers were actually jealous 
 of every woman with whom they chanced to come in 
 contact and behaved exactly as if they were confronted with 
 a rival. No one is good enough for such children. At 
 least that is what the parents think. This, by the way, 
 explains the difficulties with mothers-in-law. They uncon- 
 sciously want their sons for themselves and are jealous 
 of every other woman. It is a sex jealousy pure and 
 simple.* The majority of only children do not marry at 
 
 * The deeper reasons, however, lying at the basis of the hostility 
 between the proverbial mother-in-law and her son-in-law are explained 
 by Freud in his Totem und Taboo. i" He first shows that among 
 savages the world over there exist very stringent laws against any 
 familiarity with one's mother-in-law. The son-in-law and mother- 
 in-law are forced by the tribal laws to shun each other. They must 
 run away or hide when they meet by chance. In civilized com- 
 munities where, to the regret of many, there are no such laws, it is 
 extremely common to find very strained, not to say hostile, feelings 
 between mother-in-law and son-in-law. Freud uses the term coined by 
 Bleuler to describe the feeling between mother-in-law and son. 
 He thinlcs that the relation between them may be designated as 
 '•ambivalent," i. e., it is made up of both affectionate and hostile 
 feelings. Some of these feelings are quite clear. Thus, the mother- 
 in-law dislikes to relinquish her daughter to a stranger whom she 
 suspects, and shows a tendency to assume a domineering attitude 
 to which she became accustomed in her own home. The son-in-law, 
 on the other hand, is determined to resent any subordination on the 
 part of his wife to the will of any stranger. He is jealous of all 
 persons who once possessed his wife's love and, what is more, he dis- 
 likes to have his illusion of sexual overestimation disturbed. Such 
 disturbance mostly emanates from the mother-in-law, who reminds
 
 356 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 all or they frequently marry some near relative whom they 
 unconsciously identify with their parent image. ^^ The 
 probable average of my patients' ages was thirty-four years, 
 but only ninety-three out of the 400 had been married. 
 Most of them remained old maids and bachelors. 
 
 There are many other forms of sexual maladjustments 
 which one finds in such children but as they are not neces- 
 sarily peculiar to only or favorite children there is no need 
 to dwell on them. I merely repeat that parental influences . 
 play a great part in both normal and neurotic individuals, \ 
 but whereas the normal person gets away at least consci- \ 
 ously from these dominations the neurotic remains anchored \ 
 and succeeds only partially in freeing himself from them, j 
 This fixation is mainly responsible for psychic impotence, I 
 frigidity in women, and homosexuality , ^^ and its general / 
 influences can always be found in every psychoneurotic.^' / 
 
 him of his wife because of many common features between them, but,' 
 who lacks all the attractions of youth, beauty and psychic freshenss 
 which give value to his wife. 
 
 Added to that there are unconscious motives. Whenever the 
 psychosexual needs of the woman are to be gratified in marriage or 
 in family life she is always threatened by the danger of lack of grati- 
 fication through a premature cessation of the marital relations or 
 through the uneventfulness of her emotional life. The ageing mother 
 protects herself against it by living, as it were, in her children. It is 
 said that one remains young with one's children. This is really the 
 most valuable psychic gain accruing to the parents from their children. 
 This living through the daughter proceeds in the mother to an extent 
 that she falls in love with the man her daughter loves, which, in 
 pronounced cases, leads to severe forms of neurotic disturbance 
 brought on by the violent psychic conflicts. A tendency to love her 
 son-in-law is frequently observed in the mother-in-law and either 
 this feeling alone or its contrary emotion alUes itself to the tumultuous 
 struggling forces in her psyche. Quite often the son-in-law faces the
 
 THE ONLY OR FAVORITE CHILD IN ADULT LIFE 357 
 
 I know an old bachelor of forty-five years, an only son, who 
 slept with his mother until she died. He is a good business 
 man and is said to be normal in every other respect. I 
 have treated an old maid, a favorite daughter, who lost 
 her father three years ago. She still wears black and 
 cries bitterly at any allusion to her father. Her answer 
 to my question as to why she still wore mourning was 
 typical of many similar expressions that one hears from 
 such patients. " Why shouldn't I ? No one ever had such 
 a kind, generous and self-sacrificing father. There is not 
 another man like him in this world. O! how I love this 
 man, etc." This may sound like pure filial love, but 
 having analyzed her, I have definitely ascertained that 
 
 hostile, sadistic components of the emotions of love which only serve 
 to better repress the prohibited affectionate feelings. 
 
 The relations of the man to his mother-in-law are compUcated by 
 similar feelings which flow, however, from another source. As a rule 
 the road of object selection leading to the love object is followed by 
 the man over the images of his mother or perhaps his sister. The 
 deflection of his first love from these beloved persons of his childhood 
 is effected by the incest barriers in order that he should attain in a 
 stranger this prototype. In place of his mother or the mother of his 
 sister he is now confronted by the mother-in-law. This gives rise to 
 a tendency to return to the prehistoric selection which is rapidly 
 repressed. His incest shyness demands that he should not be 
 reminded of the geneology of his love selection. The rejection is 
 facilitated by the actuality of the mother-in-law whom he did not 
 know from the beginning of his existence and hence, unUke his 
 mother's, her image does not remain unchanged in his unconscious. 
 A special addition of attractiveness and repulsion to the emotional 
 mixture allows the conjecture that the mother-in-law really repre- 
 sents an incestuous temptation for the son-in-law. On the other hand, 
 it is not rare for a man to fall in love first with his future mother- 
 in-law before turning his affection to her daughter.
 
 358 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 she unconsciously loved her father as any woman loves a 
 stranger. We can readily see why such persons cannot 
 marry. This patient characteristically expressed it when 
 she said: "If I could find a man like my father I would 
 marry." 
 
 Judging from what was said about only or favorite 
 children it would naturally be best for the individual as well 
 as the race that there should be no only children. However, 
 when this cannot be avoided by virtue of ill health or death 
 of one of the parents the child need not necessarily become a 
 neurotic and belong to any of the categories mentioned 
 above. It all depends upon its subsequent bringing up. 
 
 When we read the history of only children we find that 
 only those who have been brought up in the manner 
 described develop into abnormal beings, those who are not 
 pampered and coddled have the same chances as other 
 children. As classical examples we may mention Nero 
 and Confucius, the former was a spoiled only child, while 
 the latter was a well-bred only child. For a number of 
 years I have been investigating only children from history 
 and as far as I have gone I could mention quite a number 
 of only children belonging to both types. As a matter of 
 fact if properly brought up the only child actually possesses 
 some attributes which tend towards leadership. Some of 
 the greatest leaders in all walks of life were only children 
 in the absolute or relative sense (only child for first few 
 years). An only child should be made to associate with 
 other children who will soon teach him that he is not 
 the only one in the world. This should begin at a very 
 early age. I have seen many "nervous and wild" only 
 children who were completely changed after a few weeks'
 
 THE ONLY OR FAVORITE CHILD IN ADULT LIFE 359 
 
 attendance in a kindergarten. This form of therapy is 
 effective only when applied very early in life where the 
 parents are aware that only childism is a bad disease. But 
 even in such cases the only child traits can always be 
 recognized. But what is still more important is that only 
 children should not be gorged with parental love. Parents 
 should take care that such children should not develop an 
 exaggerated idea of their own personality and think that 
 they are superior to everybody. For individuals imbued 
 with such paranoid ideas are bound to come into conflict 
 with their fellowmen. What is true of the individual may 
 also be true of a race, and history furnishes us with a very 
 nice example. 
 
 I refer to the only and favorite chUd of Jehovah, the 
 Jewish race. The Bible tells us that the Jews are the 
 "chosen people," "the only son," and even "the first- 
 born." That the Jews have displayed all the attributes of 
 the only or favorite child need hardly be mentioned. 
 From the Bible we learn that they were stiff-necked, spoiled 
 and overbearing, and considered themselves superior 
 to every other nation. Characteristics of such nature 
 have been attributed to them by almost all writers of 
 ancient and modern times, and although some are gross 
 exaggerations it must nevertheless be admitted that they 
 are essentially correct in reference to the Hebrews of an- 
 tiquity and the modern orthodox European Jews. Still 
 it is gratifying to note that this no longer holds true of the 
 great bulk of western Jews who have enjoyed a couple of 
 generations of freedom. The explanation of this change 
 is given by Dr. M. Fishberg^^ in his very interesting book. 
 He plainly shows that "Judaism has been preserved
 
 360 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 throughout the long years of Israel's dispersion by two 
 factors: its separative ritualism, which prevented close 
 and intimate contact with non-Jews, and the iron laws of 
 Christian theocracies of Europe which encouraged and 
 enforced isolation." In other words, as long as the Jew 
 has been imbued with the racial pride of belonging to the 
 "chosen people" and has been offering daily prayers to 
 Jehovah because he was not created a gentile, he per- 
 force remained exclusive and therefore was suspected and 
 disliked by his non-Jewish neighbors. When we study 
 the history of the Jews we find that their enforced isolation 
 was the result of an early, voluntary clannish exclusive- 
 ness. This shows the striking analogy to the only boy 
 who at first refuses to associate with others because he 
 believes himself superior to everybody else, and who is 
 later excluded from social relations because he is misunder- 
 stood and disliked. Dr. Fishberg also tells us that as soon 
 as the barriers are removed the Jews readily assimilate and 
 all former prejudices disappear. The only boy, too, 
 loses his identity as soon as he realizes that he is no better 
 than his fellow beings. 
 
 More could be said in reference to this problem but I 
 must reserve that for the future. Perhaps the most impor- 
 tant thing to remember is, that regardless of heredity, 
 environments here definitely stamp the individual into a 
 certain type. For no matter how careful parents are to 
 eliminate the only child attributes, the fact remains that 
 any average child who is alone for the first few years of 
 its existence always shows the only child traits. I do not 
 find it difficult to pick out from among the people I meet, 
 former only or favorite children, even if they have made
 
 THE ONLY OR FAVORITE CHILD IN ADULT LIFE 361 
 
 a good adjustment. To be sure, it is quite simple to diag- 
 nose the Aaron Burr type of only children. 
 
 Another point to remember is that the psychosexual life 
 is a part of every individual and that the infantile part of it 
 is the foundation of the adult sex life. Our civilization, 
 which is based on renunciation, demands that much of 
 the sex impulse should be sublimated to other aims and that 
 the rest of it should be controlled, that is to say, that its 
 actual biological role must be deferred for many years. 
 When parents who are ignorant of these basic facts stimu- 
 late the child with much love, because the child ofifers them 
 a love outlet, they not only spoil the normal mental evolu- 
 tion by interfering with the latency period, but the prema- 
 ture stimulation makes the child incapable of controlling 
 his sex Hfe when control is absolutely necessary. Such 
 parents fail to see that love md sex are one and the same 
 thing, and that the litt^^ boy who is gorged with love will 
 continually need more and more of it and that mere kisses 
 will not suffice at the prepubescent and pubescent age. 
 Sex must and can only be controlled and if the parents are 
 shocked at the later manifestation of love and try to exter- 
 minate the whole impulse they reopen or keep alive some 
 of the components and partial impulses of sex that are part 
 of the infantile sexuality, and thus usually making neurotics, 
 perverts or inverts. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Das einzige Kind. Gmelin, Miinchen. 
 
 2. A paper was read on this subject by Drs. Sadger and Friedjung 
 before the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, October 5, 1910. 
 
 3. Analyse der Phobie eines 5 Jahrigen Knaben. Jahrbuch f. 
 Psychoanalyse, Vol. I.
 
 362 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 4. Experiences Concerning the Psychic Life of the Child. Trans- 
 lated by A. A. Brill, Am. Jour, of Psychology, April, 1910. 
 
 5. Jung: Symbole und Wandlungen der Libido. Jahrbuch f. 
 Psychoanalyse, Vol. II. 
 
 6. Freud: Zur Dynamik der Uebertragung. Zentralblatt f. Psycho- 
 analyse, II; and Brill: A Few Remarks on the Technique of Psycho- 
 analysis, Medical Review of Reviews, April, 1912. 
 
 7. Jung: Die Bedeutung des Vaters fiir das Schicksal des Einzelnen. 
 Jahrbuch fiir Psychoanalyse, Vol. I. 
 
 8. Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex. Translated by 
 A. A. Brill. 
 
 9. C/. Chap. X. 
 
 10. Freud: Totem and Taboo, translated by A. A. Brill, MoflBat 
 Yard & Co., New York. 
 
 11. Abraham: Die Stellung der Verwandtenehe in der Psychologic 
 der Neurosen. Jahrbuch fiir Psychoanalyse, Vol. I. 
 
 12. Freud: L. c; also Ferenczi: Analytische Deutung der psycho- 
 sexuellen Impotenz beim Manne. Psychiatr. Neurolog. Wochen- 
 schrift, 1908, and the works of Stekel, Sadger and Steiner. 
 
 13. Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams, p. 224. 
 
 14. The Jews, A Study of Race and Environment. Scribner's 
 Pub. Co. For further details concerning this subject see my paper. 
 The Adjustment of the Jew to the American Environment, Mental 
 Hygiene, April, 1918.
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 
 
 AND NEUROTIC SYMPTOMS. THEIR RELATION 
 
 TO ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ALGOLAGNIA 
 
 That fairy tales should play a part in the determination 
 of character, dreams and neurotic symptoms is not at all 
 surprising when one thinks of their very intimate relation 
 to child life. It is well known that from the very dawn of 
 civilization no child ever grew up without hearing fairy tales; 
 they are found universally among all nations, savage or 
 enlightened, and it is, therefore, fair to assume that fairy 
 tales play no mean part in the moulding of the young mind. 
 
 It is but natural that those who recognize the importance 
 of early impressions as an influence on the future develop- 
 ment of morbid states should be more interested in fairy 
 tales than those who ignore the past in the examination and 
 treatment of neurotic symptoms. Yet it is a strange fact 
 that with few exceptions no psychoanalyst has written any- 
 thing about the direct influence of fairy tales on dreams and 
 neurotic symptoms. To be sure, much has been published 
 about fairy tales, myths and folk-lore,^ showing their 
 analogy to dreams and to the symbolization of praecoxes, 
 but it was left to Prof. Freud to report some dreams in which 
 fairy tales played a direct part.^ I was pleased, but not sur- 
 prised, to read this interesting contribution, as for years 
 I have been gathering material showing these relations not 
 only to dreams, but to neurotic symptoms, and I shall here 
 
 report some of my findings. 
 
 363
 
 364 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 An unmarried woman of twenty-nine years related the 
 following dream: 
 
 / was in a crowd, and when I got away I was followed by a 
 very hideous-looking man. I ran and he followed me, and 
 finally caught me. He first said he would choke me, but then 
 decided to cut my head off with a big carving knife. I could 
 see the blood flowing (terrible fright). 
 
 Analysis: The dreamer is somewhat masochistic, and 
 like most unmarried women of her age she is very anxious 
 to get a husband. The evening before this dream she 
 danced with a man concerning whom she had many intimate 
 fancies. On going home she saw a disgusting-looking 
 drunkard. She often dreams of drunkards, for whom she 
 entertains a particular repugnance. Investigation brought 
 out the fact that years before a man made love to her while 
 under the influence of liquor, and, owing to his mental state, 
 he was quite brutal in his advances. This was the last man 
 who made love to her. 
 
 The cutting off of her head recalled Bluebeard, who was 
 "frightful looking on account of his blue beard." This 
 story was read to her long before she herself could read, and 
 it produced a terrible impression on her. As she grew older 
 Bluebeard was the subject of her night-terrors, and at 
 puberty she often had dreams similar to the one just 
 described. The dream is a coitus wish, and shows the 
 mechanism of displacement from below to above.^ 
 
 Another young woman of twenty-seven years dreamed 
 as follows : 
 
 / was with C. (a little niece) in the menagerie, and all the 
 wild animals came out of the cages at the same time. I was 
 terribly frightened, as I felt myself responsible for C.'s safety.
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 365 
 
 and I knew that I was powerless to protect her. I held her 
 tightly. From all sides came lions, tigers and bears. I saw a 
 stairway, and with great effort we worked our way up followed 
 closely by the animals. After a long time I reached the top 
 of the flight and saw several doors. All were closed, and on 
 trying each in succession I found them locked. I was looking 
 for a key to open one of them, hut was still searching when I 
 awoke. 
 
 Analysis: This patient suffered from hysteria, and had 
 a terrible disgust for sex. She had had many opportunities 
 to marry, but whenever she thought of marital relations she 
 rejected all her suitors, and on one occasion she even broke 
 her betrothal. This dream occurred after most of her 
 sexual resistances were removed by psychoanalysis. The 
 free associations to the different elements of the dream were 
 as follows: Her little niece typified to her purity, innocence, 
 maidenhood, qualities which she attributed to herself, and 
 the wdld animals signified the animal passions that were pur- 
 suing her. Although consciously she had a horror for sex, 
 she was unconsciously very amorous and craved it. 
 
 The great effort to reach the top of the stairs signified the 
 mental conflict about marriage, and getting to the top sig- 
 nified the acceptance of normal sex without running away 
 from it as she was wont to do before. The whole act sym- 
 bolizes coitus. 
 
 The several closed doors which she could not open signify 
 the many opportunities to marry which she let slip. Most 
 of the men who pursued her were no longer single. The 
 locked doors also recalled the story of Bluebeard. She 
 rejected her former suitors because she feared sexual inter- 
 course, especially the act of defloration, which was pictured
 
 366 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 to her as "awfully disgusting and very painful." Since the 
 age of puberty she identified this act with being killed, and 
 thought every man a sort of Bluebeard. 
 
 In the dream she was looking for a key to open one of the 
 doors. At this part of the dream she recalled the fairy tale 
 of the Enchanted Princess, which runs as follows: 
 
 A poor soldier saved an enchanted princess by staying 
 three nights m her castle, where a wicked magician had 
 changed her into a bear. After marrying the princess and 
 living happily for some time, the soldier went on a journey 
 to his old home. During his absence all the trees dried 
 and faded. He met with many adventures, but finally the 
 south wind carried him back to the castle, where a number 
 of kings and princes were gathered to woo his wife. As 
 soon as he returned the trees revived, but as he was 
 invisible only his wife knew of his home-coming by this sign. 
 So she gave her guests this riddle to solve: "I had a wonder- 
 ful hand-made casket with a golden key to it. I lost my key 
 and never expected to find it, but suddenly the key has found 
 itself. Whoever shall guess the riddle shall be my 
 husband." 
 
 All the kings and princes tried in vain to guess it. Then 
 the princess said: "Come out and show yourself, my be- 
 loved!" The soldier took off the cap which made him 
 invisible, and taking the princess' hand he kissed her. 
 "Here is the key to my riddle," said the princess. "The 
 casket is myself, and the golden key is my husband." All 
 the wooers had to go home, and the princess and the 
 soldier lived happily ever after. ^ 
 
 This fairy tale as an association to the dream is of double 
 interest. First, it explains the meaning of the dream by
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 367 
 
 showing the patient the true state of her mind. She has 
 overcome most of her sexual resistances; she wishes one of 
 her suitors would come back; she is looking for the key. 
 Second, it also shows very nicely the symbolization of the 
 male and female genitals by the key and casket, symbols 
 that are often encountered in dreams and myths. 
 
 I could cite any number of dreams showing influences 
 of fairy tales, but I will content myself with these two, and 
 will proceed to show the part played by fairy tales in 
 neurotic symptoms. 
 
 Mr. L. is a young man of about thirty years who sufl'ered 
 from a mixed neurosis, his main phobia being a fear of 
 blood. At first he was afraid of seeing blood because it 
 made him faint. Later, the mere idea of blood produced 
 the same effect. He was afraid to talk to certain people 
 because they were likely to speak about accidents which 
 would suggest blood. The sight of a man who looked like 
 a doctor was enough to evoke the idea of operation and 
 blood with the accompanying symptoms of anxiety. By a 
 process of generalization and symbolization the idea of 
 blood became projected to almost everything. Thus, 
 measuring his blood-pressure brought on a fainting spell. 
 It is not my intention to go into a lengthy analysis of the 
 case. I merely wish to show some of the determinants of 
 the phobia. 
 
 At a very early age L. displayed a striking sexual curiosity. 
 At the age of seven years he took a girl to a water-closet and 
 practised with her mutual exhibitionism. He was detected 
 by his parents and severely punished for it. He received 
 much information about sex from street boys, who taught 
 him to repeat many vulgar expressions. At the same age
 
 368 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 he was circumcised. His father and the doctor took him 
 off the street one afternoon without any warning and put 
 him under the anesthetic. When he regained conscious- 
 ness he found himself bandaged and suffering from pain. 
 At still an earlier age he was instructed by one of his asso- 
 ciates that the vagina was like a piece of raw beef with a 
 cut in the center. Thereafter, whenever he ate steak or 
 beef, he thought of this association. During the analysis I 
 found many evidences of early impressions from fairy tales. 
 When he was quite young his nurse told him and read to 
 him some of the most gruesome fairy stories, which he 
 continued to read himself at a later age. These bloody and 
 horrible stories made a strong impression on him. He 
 would form fancies about them on going to sleep at night, 
 substituting himself for the hero. He continued this 
 fancying for years, and as he grew older they were usually 
 acompanied by masturbation. I noticed that his dreams 
 were usually divided into three parts, and investigation 
 showed that this was due to the fact that events in fairy tales 
 usually go by threes. The prince in disguise has to over- 
 come obstacles, and always succeeds the third time. When 
 he became old enough to say his prayers before going to 
 sleep he divided them also into three parts, each expressing 
 a distinct wish. This was directly determined by the three 
 wishes from the fairy tale. His dreams, too, usually 
 expressed three distinct wishes. As an illustration the 
 following dream will serve: 
 
 I was looking at some field-glasses, and there were three pair 
 that looked exactly alike, but they had different prices. Then 
 I was in a room, and it seemed that there was a woman there 
 who had a good many dogs on one chain — all on the same chain
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 369 
 
 — and we had an awful time trying to separate them. (Later 
 addition: They all wanted to bite one another's tail,) I had 
 sexual intercourse with X., and looked into her. 
 
 The following are some of the associations with their 
 analyses : 
 
 The field-glasses symbolize sexual curiosity. This is 
 determined by the fact that at the age of eight years he was 
 often very anxious to get his father's field-glasses, and when- 
 ever his father was absent he went through his private 
 desk and got them. His object was to look into the rooms 
 across the way in the hope of seeing naked women. On 
 one occasion, while looking through the desk, he found a col- 
 lection of pictures representing nude females, belonging 
 to his father, which gave him considerable food for sexual 
 fancies. The three field-glasses symbolize sexual curiosity 
 about his mother, sister and wife. When a boy he took 
 every occasion to see his mother and sister naked, and since 
 his marriage he displays the same morbid curiosity about 
 his wife. He likes to see her urinate and defecate, and often 
 begs for this privilege. The idea behind his desire always 
 has been: "How does it look inside?" He often looked 
 through the keyhole when his mother or sister were taking 
 a bath, and frequently saw them naked. This association 
 recalled the story of Bluebeard in which curiosity played 
 a great part. He related this story with many distortions. 
 "Bluebeard had three wives; he lived in a castle on the top 
 of which no one was permitted. He carried a large key 
 spotted with blood. The keyhole was also bloody," etc. 
 The distortions are explained as follows: The three wives 
 are his mother, sister and wife, whom he often identifies. 
 In this connection I would mention a strange coincidence: 
 
 24
 
 370 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 when we spoke about this identification he told me that 
 his wife and sister remarkably resembled each other; they 
 look like twin sisters, and are repeatedly mistaken for each 
 other. I will add that they are not at all related. He was 
 born on the Pacific coast, while his wife is a New England 
 girl. The resemblance is so marked that even his own and 
 his wife's relatives and his sister's schoolmates often mis- 
 take his wife for his sister. I have in my possession photo- 
 graphs of both. I have shown them to many people, but 
 none could positively distinguish one from the other. His 
 sister is the image of his mother. ^ 
 
 The bloody key recalled another dream in which the key 
 was a symbol for the penis. This symbol did not have to 
 be explained to him. He attended a boys' school where the 
 boys used to refer to the penis as " nookie." This neologism 
 stood for "new key," and was well known to all the boys. 
 The bloody key and keyhole correspond to his early con- 
 ception of the female genitals as a piece of raw beef with 
 a cut in the center, as well as to his circumcision. 
 
 Besides the story of Bluebeard, he used to build many 
 fancies on the story of the princess who was rolled in a 
 barrel into which long pointed spikes were driven, and as he 
 grew older he was fascinated by the Iron Maiden, which he 
 saw in a museum and concerning which he wove many fan- 
 cies. In other words, his sadistic component was markedly 
 accentuated and kept alive by these blood-curdling fairy 
 stories, which later formed the direct connection between 
 blood, cruelty and sex. There were other determinants — 
 thus the identification with his mother who was also afraid 
 of blood — but I cannot take them up here. 
 
 The other part of the dream — the dogs holding each other
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 371 
 
 by the tail — refers to fellatio, which he practiced as a boy, 
 and to some homosexual experiences in later life. 
 
 Doing things three times and succeeding only in the end, 
 as is so often found in the different collections of fairy tales, 
 has given rise to many superstitions. A nice example was 
 furnished me by the analysis of this dream: "/ saw three 
 long-necked bottles. One was almost broken to pieces, the 
 second was cracked and the third contained sparkling cham- 
 pagne.^' 
 
 This dream was given to me by a widow of forty-two 
 years. As far back as she remembered all her important 
 affairs of life went by threes. Before her marriage she 
 measured her suitors in this way. She never expected much 
 of the first suitor, she looked with greater favor on the 
 second and expected to marry the third. The man whom 
 she actually married had to propose to her three times before 
 she accepted him. This number-three ceremonial was 
 determined by the fairy stories she used to hear and read 
 since childhood, especially the following one, which she 
 consciously took as a model. It is the story of a princess 
 whom her father put in a castle on the top of a very steep 
 glass mountain. The knight who could get up there on his 
 horse was to receive her in marriage. The youngest of 
 three brothers, who was considered a simpleton, but who 
 was really the smartest of all of them, finally reached the 
 top on the third attempt, and married the princess. 
 
 This number-three ceremonial was really one of her 
 obsessions. For years it was subjected to all kinds of modi- 
 fications, thus, if she accidentally broke a dish, she had no 
 rest until she broke two more dishes, so that she always had 
 on hand some discarded bottles which served that purpose.
 
 372 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Whenever she broke something by accident she immediately 
 broke two more bottles. We can now understand her 
 dream. The three long-necked bottles are symbolic of 
 three men. Her dead husband is represented by the 
 broken bottle, the man who was her lover for years after her 
 husband's death is represented by the cracked bottle, while 
 the third containing sparkling champagne is meant to 
 represent the man who was paying her attention at the time 
 of the dream. The champagne in the bottle is doubly 
 determined ; it symbolizes the quality of the man, and is an 
 allusion to alcoholism to which they were both addicted. 
 
 With one exception, all the cases showing the influence of 
 fairy tales that came under my notice were usually neuroses 
 or negatives of perversions. The following case is of 
 interest, because here the fairy tales and mythological stories 
 directly determine the perversion of sadism. 
 
 This patient, a young man of twenty-eight years, was 
 homosexual, and had morbid desires to bite and stab people, 
 and to torture them in all sorts of fi.endish ways. He 
 stated that when he felt weak he indulged in horrid, sadistic 
 fancies, which gave him strength and vigor. He yearned 
 for those times when everybody carried the dirk and dagger, 
 and could kill when offended. He often carried a revolver, 
 although he never used it. He was fascinated by wild ani- 
 mals, especially the tiger, which always excited him. He 
 spent much time in the menagerie in front of the tiger's 
 cage, and when unobserved by the keeper he would tease the 
 animal in order to see him jump and hear him roar. He 
 was under the impression that he exerted a similar influence 
 on the tiger, and on other wild animals. It seemed to 
 him that the tiger became restless in his presence and
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 373 
 
 grew more ferocious when he looked at him. A fancy which 
 often recurred was the following: "I am annoyed and 
 angered by some one to such an extent that I run wild and 
 bite everybody that comes in my way, until I bite my way 
 into some person's body." 
 
 Concerning the life of this patient, whom we shall desig- 
 nate as L., it may be said that he is somewhat burdened by 
 heredity, that he is of American parentage and was brought 
 up in cultured surroundings. He always wished to be an 
 actor, and for at least two seasons he was a member of a 
 stock company. Being a delicate child, his mother was 
 particularly anxious about him and gave him more care 
 and love than to the other children. Thus he recalled that 
 he often slept with his mother up to the age of eight, and 
 also at a later age whenever he was not feeling well. He 
 was very precocious and inquisitive, and displayed sexual 
 curiosity at a very early age. At the age of six years he 
 actually forced his mother to tell him some of the true facts 
 of childbirth. He remembers distinctly that he experienced 
 sexual feelings between the ages of four and five years. 
 These feelings were of a polymorphous perverse nature, and 
 at first mainly concerned sexual looking and exhibitionism' 
 Even at that age he was morbidly attracted by the male 
 and female naked bodies, especially by the genitals. The 
 objects of his curiosity were the persons of his immediate 
 surroundings. At the age of six years he once caused his 
 little sister to perform fellatio on him. He began to mas- 
 turbate at the age of seven years, and continued on and off 
 for some time. At the age of twelve years he began to 
 suffer from the mental conflicts which usually accompany 
 masturbation, and which, finally, caused him to give it up.
 
 374 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 He never had any heterosexual feehngs, and since the age 
 of four years he began to manifest homosexual tendencies 
 which gradually developed into true homosexuality.^ 
 
 Very soon after entering into this patient's psychic 
 development I noticed that his symptoms were largely 
 determined by fairy stories, fables and myths. Thus, his 
 sadism and other symptoms unmistakably showed an 
 archaic setting. The associations to almost all his dreams 
 showed how all his inner environments corresponded more 
 to a world, as described by Andersen, Grimm, Lang, and 
 others, than to our present times. The following dream 
 fragment with its associations will show this: 
 
 On Fifth Avenue, with a crowd of people looking at a tiger. 
 Whenever the animal comes my way I fly up to the roof of a 
 neighboring house. 
 
 Associations: Flying recalled that as a child he often 
 entertained many wishes to be able to fly above the clouds, 
 among the stars and planets. * This recalled his insatiable 
 interest in astronomy at the age of seven to eight years. 
 He used to ask everybody about the stars. He thought that 
 the dog star was a real dog. He was told about the milky 
 way, and thought of it in terms of real milk. At about 
 the same period, or even earlier, he was keenly interested 
 in trees. He wanted to know where the sap came from, and 
 very often dug into the ground in order to discover it. The 
 associations then took him back to a still earlier period of his 
 life, when the interest was centered on the bodily functions 
 and on childbirth. After having been told that children 
 grow in the mother he decided that they must come out like 
 
 *This wish was realized when the patient served as an aviator during 
 the war; he is now a commercial aviator.
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 375 
 
 a passage of the bowels. This caused him to take a special 
 interest in the openings of the body,^ such as the mouth, 
 nose and anus, as well as in their gaseous emanations, such 
 as air and flatus. The interest for mysterious openings 
 was later projected to the outer world, so that he was very 
 interested in and attracted to caves. While in Sorrento he 
 made many expeditions to a subterranean passage some dis- 
 tance from the temple of Hercules, which he realized was 
 only a continuation of his childish interest for dark openings. 
 For the. same reason, he was also fascinated by the human 
 voice. This was at the age of sixteen to seventeen years, 
 and one of his few heterosexual erotic dreams at that age 
 was a stereotyped dream of hugging a woman because she 
 had a beautiful voice. He wondered what took place in 
 those dark places "way down in the mouth and way up 
 in the anus." He was curious to find out how the child 
 lives in the mother's bowels, how it came out, and wished to 
 go up there to find out all these mysteries. This fancy 
 was facilitated by many fairy stories, especially the ones 
 concerning the twelve princes, who were called One, Two, 
 Three, Four, etc., to Twelve, who went down to the bowels 
 of the earth and then became rabbits and burrowed their 
 way up, and the princes who ran away into the bowels of 
 the earth and met with many strange adventures in goblin 
 land. He gave much thought to food taken into the body. 
 He was curious to know how it disappeared and what 
 became of it. The same interest was shown for the excre- 
 ments, thus, he would urinate on the ground and then won- 
 der what happened to the urine. As almost all his fancies 
 were centered around his mother, the connection was soon 
 formed between her bowels and the bowels of the earth.
 
 376 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Indeed, all his inquisitiveness concerning the earth, trees, 
 plants, sap nourishment and excretions simply expressed his 
 struggles with the problem of childbirth and life. He was 
 very imaginative, so that the harrowing adventures enacted 
 by fairies, genii and Greek deities on which he was con- 
 stantly fed were deeply interwoven with his own life, and he 
 thus built up for himself a strange archaic world. He liked 
 to be alone, and often wandered away from his companions 
 to act through in his own way the adventures and prayers 
 which he had just heard or read. He himself traced the 
 selection of his profession, that of an actor, to these boyish 
 actions when he tried to imitate the fleet-footed Mercury, 
 some character from fairy land, the Arabian Nights or 
 some savage Indians. He thus imagined himself flying and 
 beheading monsters above the clouds, or penetrating to the 
 center of the earth in the form of some wicked magician, all 
 the time passing through the most harrowing scenes. By 
 a process of condensation he fused ancient characters and 
 episodes with persons and actions of reality, but all his 
 fancies usually began with some god or demon-like myth 
 and gradually descended to human beings. During the 
 first few weeks of the analysis he was in the habit of merg- 
 ing into a dreamy state while reproducing associations, and 
 often became so excited that the work had to be tempo- 
 rarily interrupted. Thus, the associations reproduced to 
 tiger mentioned in his dream were as follows: "A tiger 
 always excites me; I feel akin to the tiger; some people effect 
 me in the same way. My father used to have something 
 of it. My aunt X., who was once crazy, had something of 
 the tiger in her. She had a very strong personality, and 
 was very passionate. At the age of fifty years she married
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 377 
 
 a young man of twenty years. Mrs. C. (a paranoid, elderly 
 person, with whom he lived for about a year) had much of 
 the tiger in her, that is why she attracted me so much; 
 but W. (a prominent actress) has more of the tiger in her 
 than any one else." He then went on to say that some one 
 told him that the human fetus passes through many animal 
 stages before birth; that it is at first a dog or a cat, and 
 then develops into a higher animal until it becomes human. 
 He thought that animals represented only arrested 
 developments of men, and that he himself reached to the 
 stage of the tiger. This accounted for his kinship with 
 this beast. The tiger also recalled blood and animal feel- 
 ing. "The tiger gives a strange feeling all over the body, 
 especially in the genitals. When I think about him 
 I feel irritable like a caged animal. It recalls my aggressive 
 feeling — I feel restless. I see the claws, blood-rending 
 fierceness; it's horrible (marked excitement). I think of 
 flying; I see huge space and stars — they exist and we cannot 
 grasp them. I feel like rushing up and beating my head 
 against the wall. I feel like destroying everything. I 
 think of the tiger's hot breath which I'd like to inhale. I 
 have a peculiar feeling down inside like a hot blood surging 
 in me. I feel like a child. I would like to touch the stars. 
 I have a feeling of licking something. I would like to go 
 way up inside of it, or way down into the bowels of the 
 earth to the vegetation and seed to see where life comes 
 from (early conception of childbirth). A tiger comes from 
 another tiger" (referring to his own birth). He then pro- 
 ceeded to reproduce scenes from his childhood, when he 
 played in the garden where the trees were the object of 
 many fantastic speculations. The trees suggested to him
 
 378 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 life, and the sap represented vital fluid. He thought of 
 trees as living beings {Confer the talking trees in Greek 
 mythology and ^sops Fables). As a boy, they fascinated 
 him and often excited him to an extent that he desired coitus. 
 This desire came when he felt weak and depressed, and he 
 imagined that coitus with trees would give him renewed 
 vigor. When told to go on with the associations he thought 
 of a graveyard which was near the garden. To quote 
 further: "I thought of the children who were buried there. 
 I can see white bodies, and hear the tolling of church-bells. 
 I am a corpse, very cold, awfully cold. I feel the moisture 
 coming through the earth and wetting everything. Its 
 dreadfully cold and dreary. I see blood in the white snow, 
 as if some one was killed (excitement and trembling). I 
 don't wish to think of it, it's horrible; that licking sensation 
 comes over me, I feel like licking blood. I feel like killing 
 myself; I feel like destroying everything" (stopped for a 
 while and then continued). "I see a beautiful woman with 
 a skull in her hands. I love her very much. She seems to 
 be devoted to the skull. She is under ground as if after 
 death; I hear the wind blowing dead, dry leaves; spirits seem 
 to be around. We are in the bowels of the earth where there 
 is the setting sun and stars. I see a stream of very clear 
 water, and she wants to bathe in it; I want to do the same. 
 She is dressed in white ; she is very pale with long hair hang- 
 ing down her back. She now resembles my mother and 
 sister," etc. 
 
 This is a fair example of his reproductions. While recit- 
 ing these and similiar uncanny associations he usually be- 
 came very nervous and excited, so that it frequently became 
 necessary to arouse him from his dreamy state for fear that
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 379 
 
 he would do some harm. When I went still further into 
 the different components of these associations, I found that 
 they were all explained by some fairy tale or myth. Thus, 
 the flying was not only determined by flying fairies, but 
 recalled also the story of Perseus, who undertook an expedi- 
 tion against the Islands of the Gorgons, for which purpose 
 he was furnished by Vulcan with a sickle-shaped sword, 
 by Mercury with winged shoes, etc. He vividly recalled 
 the many adventures Perseus encountered, how he rode the 
 flying horse Pegasus, and how he finally cut off Medusa's 
 head, and so on. The subject of flying always had a morbid 
 interest for him. He often had dreams and fancies of fly- 
 ing above tall trees and tropical vegetations. As far as I 
 could investigate they were based on the infantile "All- 
 macht der Gedanken" (allmightiness of thought), when 
 he wished to be big and imitate the heroes of his imaginary 
 world. Later in life he noticed that the flying dreams and 
 fancies usually occurred whenever he was very depressed. 
 They thus served as a compensation for his sorrows or as 
 a refuge from reality; also, flying above the clouds and high 
 trees is the opposite of going down to the bowels of the 
 earth. The latter were identified with his mother's bowels, 
 i.e., the interior of his mother. At the age of six and seven 
 years, and perhaps even earlier, he often yearned to be back 
 in his mother's bowels. This is confirmed by the contig- 
 uous association concerning the children buried in the 
 graveyard and himself being a corpse. The earth was sym- 
 bolic of his own mother or mother earth, while the tall 
 trees producing sap symbolized his father. The strangest 
 of all his impulses was sexual union with the earth. He 
 often put this morbid desire into practice, and maintained
 
 380 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 that it strengthened and invigorated him. The moisture, 
 snow, cold, dreariness, etc., brought back many such 
 scenes from fairy tales and mythology. It also recalled 
 Eva, the heroine in the Little People of the Snow, by Wil- 
 liam Cullen Bryant, who was enticed by the snow fairy and 
 taken to a snow cave, where she went through many 
 adventures and was finally found by her parents frozen to 
 death. 
 
 The next associations concerned the beautiful woman 
 who held a skull, to which she was devoted and whom he 
 loved so much. The woman represents a condensation of 
 his mother and his sister, as shown by the woman's resem- 
 blance to them. The sister referred to was his senior by a 
 little over a year. As children they were very intimate and 
 always played together. He recalled particularly one game 
 which he himself invented. It was called "knockers," and 
 meant that everybody would be knocked on the head and 
 killed, — parents, sisters, brothers and everybody else. 
 They would then fancy how they would be the only ones 
 left in this world, how they would marry and have children 
 together and have so much fun. 
 
 The skuU represented himself and his dead father, to 
 both of whom his mother and this particular sister were 
 very devoted. 
 
 As we have to content ourselves with a small fragment 
 of this strange case, we shall proceed to the following sum- 
 mary: We have here a psychopathic individual of twenty- 
 eight years, somewhat burdened by heredity, who was 
 homosexual and evinced many perversions. His sexual 
 life was infantile in its make-up, evincing polymorphous 
 perversities. When we traced its development we found
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 381 
 
 that it did not follow the normal stages. The inversion 
 began to manifest itself between four and five years, and 
 the sadism at about the same age. These abnormal feel- 
 ings continued more or less to the age of puberty. He dis- 
 played a strong homosexual curiosity throughout his whole 
 life, and sadism cropped up every once in a while in his 
 effort at adjustment. Thus, at the age of four to five years 
 he evinced homosexual feelings for his father, and at six 
 years he was passionately fond of a doll, a dark-haired boy; 
 he invented sadistic games, knocked down and trampled 
 on little girls while playing with them; and, at the age of 
 thirteen years, while attending his aunt's funeral, he was 
 severely reprimanded because he simply could not stop 
 laughing. At the age of puberty and later his abnormal 
 feelings gradually assumed much greater proportions. 
 He was constantly obsessed with homosexual feelings, had 
 many homosexual affairs, and, although he never indulged 
 in gross homosexual practices, he was continually forced to 
 suppress strong desires for fellatio. As far as I could dis- 
 cover, it was his religious and ethical training (fear of the 
 law) that restrained him from putting his homosexual 
 desires in operation; for the same reason he held in check 
 his sadism, his masturbation and the other partial impulses. 
 Whenever he indulged in masturbation or in sexual looking, 
 he became very remorseful and passed through many reli- 
 gious conflicts. As he grew older there was a regressive 
 revival, or perhaps only an increase in his libido, and he 
 then resorted entirely to fancy formations of a sadistic 
 homosexual nature. These fancies were a substitute for 
 reality, and, as was shown above, served in a manner to 
 gratify his abnormal sexuality.
 
 382 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 But besides these fancies he sometimes indulged in very 
 strange ceremonials. I refer to his sexual impulses for trees 
 and the earth. From what was said above and other 
 material not reported here, it is quite clear that we deal 
 with erotic symbolisms which sprang into existence by way 
 of "animism," that is, like primitive man, he assumed 
 personality in objects. He considered the earth and trees 
 in the light of human beings. This is nothing but a form of 
 archaic thinking, found in the earliest stages of mental 
 evolution among savages {Confer the many myths, espe- 
 cially those of the American Indian) and in our times among 
 children and psychotics. * Here the tree symbohzes his 
 father, while the earth, his mother, symbols which may 
 sound strange only to the modern mind. In antiquity 
 those very symbols are ubiquitous. The earth or 
 mother earth and the trees are early symbols of the 
 female and the male principles found in the mythology 
 of all races,'^ thus the Latins referred to the penis as 
 arbor (tree).*t 
 
 That the patient should have adopted these symbols of 
 antiquity will not be surprising to those who are acquainted 
 with psychoanalysis, and who followed the various stages 
 that lead to this adoption. Moreover, this becomes clearer 
 
 * Even at a much later stage of civilization we find that Xerxes 
 ordered the sea scourged because his bridges across the Hellespont 
 had been wrecked by a violent storm. Recently, I had been present 
 when a child could not be appeased until a chair against which it fell 
 was spanked. Cf. also Freud's Totem and Taboo, Moffat Yard & 
 Co. New York, 1918, also the works of Nelken and Spielrein. 
 
 1 1 am indebted to Dr. Reginald Alfred Allan for calhng my attention 
 to the poem L'arbrc in Les Chansons de Bilitis, which contains a 
 description of sexual congress with a tree.
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 383 
 
 if we recall the psychological mechanisms of homosexuality, 
 all of which were found in our patient. Thus, although he 
 evinced homosexual desires at an early age he was not at all 
 indifferent to the charms of women. At the age of fourteen 
 he entertained an ideal love for a girl older than himself. 
 On one occasion he was in love with a well-known actress, 
 and had besides many adventurous experiences with other 
 women. It must, however, be remarked that none at- 
 tracted him sexually. He was always very much attached 
 to his mother, and as a child he was extremely jealous of 
 his father, so that he could not tolerate any affection shown 
 by his mother. Here, too, his sadism often became mani- 
 fest — he tyrannized over his mother and had sadistic dreams 
 in which she was maltreated. One dream, which left a 
 strong impression on him, was the following: 
 
 "A masculine woman, with yellow hair and black dress, 
 visited my mother in our summer home. She got my mother 
 on the table and nearly heat the life out of her. She caught 
 hold of my mother^ s hair and it came off as though it were 
 artificial. I was terrified and pitied my mother very much, 
 because she was so gentle. The hair that came off resembled 
 the genitals of a woman." 
 
 The masculine woman represents the type of woman of 
 "the tiger variety," whom he admired so much. The yel- 
 low color of the hair and the black dress seems to confirm 
 this association. As the chief actor in the dream is the 
 dreamer, he himself must be the masculine woman who 
 nearly beat the life out of his mother. This becomes more 
 significant when it is remembered that he identified himself 
 with the tiger which stood, as it were, for the totem of his 
 father. The tearing out of the hair which resembled the
 
 384 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 female genitalia is explained by the following associations: 
 When he was five years old he displayed a morbid curiosity 
 about his mother's genitalia ; he resorted to many ingenious 
 ways until he accomplished his desire. Thus, he insisted 
 that his mother allow him to button her shoes; he also took 
 every opportunity to sleep with her. What impressed him 
 most was the hair. The whole dream represents a sadistic 
 attack on the object he loved most.* 
 
 It is interesting to note that at the same period he had 
 nightmares in which he was run over by steam-engines. 
 The same sadistic feeling was later transferred to his sym- 
 bolic mother (the mother earth) concerning whom he talks 
 as follows: "I thought a great deal about the earth, and 
 how it absorbed everything. I liked to urinate on it, and 
 then lie down with my penis on the ground. I had a great 
 affection for it. This feeling later changed, and I then 
 wanted to punch the earth and women's genitals." (The 
 last association shows the identification between the earth 
 and the mother.) In addition he had many open (Edipus 
 dreams. 
 
 In brief, the earth and the tree were erotic symbolisms 
 which unconsciously represented to him his own mother and 
 father. The sexual impulses for these inanimate objects 
 were nothing but a return to his infancy when all his love- 
 life was centered on his parents, particularly on his mother. 
 Later in life, when this love could no longer be found in the 
 mother, and being unable to obtain it in a normal manner 
 from strangers, he returned to his symbolic mother, and, 
 
 * Prof. Freud's Kleiner Hans showed at the age of five years similar 
 conscious sadistic feehngs toward his mother. Neurosenlehre Dritte 
 Folge, p. 67, Deuticke, Wien, 1913.
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 385 
 
 like the giant Antaeus, he renewed his strength every time 
 he touched the earth — his mother. * 
 
 This case seems to confirm the views expressed by Federn 
 in his instructive paper ^ that "the active components of the 
 sexual impulse are not identical with sadism, but that they 
 can only become transformed into sadism through peculiar 
 psychic mechanisms; that this transformation takes place 
 at a period when the sexual desire is not yet consciously 
 directed toward the accomplishment of the sexual act, but is 
 perceived in a vague, immature and auto-erotic manner as 
 an active sexual impulse, with an as yet undeveloped end 
 aim of the sexual activity for the desired object, for the 
 specific sadism can be traced in all cases to the prepubescent, 
 often infantile, period of the individual." 
 
 Thus, even in our matter-of-fact times it is possible to 
 find a person who, having been surrounded in childhood by 
 a phantastic, unreal world of fairy tales, fables and myths, 
 • developed into a strange being not unlike a character of the 
 pre-Homeric period, entirely out of harmony with modern 
 cultural life.f There is no denying that this is a unique 
 case; but, although I have not seen another psychoneurotic 
 with such a pronounced archaic make-up, I have, neverthe- 
 less, observed many persons who showed the same mechan- 
 
 * I can report two more cases where the earth was connected with 
 sexual congress: (1) A mild paraphrenic had dreams of having sexual 
 relations with the earth. (2) A young married man suffered from 
 somnambulic states during which he cohabited with his wife, all the 
 time imagining that he was digging a field or the street. In both cases 
 there was a strong mother fixation. 
 
 f It is now about ten years since this patient was cured by psycho- 
 analysis. He has remained perfectly well and shows no trace of his 
 symptoms. 
 
 25
 
 386 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 isms in a lesser degree. Thus, I can mention the case of an 
 intelligent business man of fifty years, who cannot fall 
 asleep without living through for at least an hour, 
 sometimes even longer, some distorted story from fairy- 
 books or mythology. He vainly tried everything imagin- 
 able to rid himself of this disagreeable obsession, which was 
 directly traceable to his childhood when he was read to sleep 
 by fairy tales and similar stuff. As he reached puberty 
 these stories became distorted and assumed an erotic tinge, 
 and he then noticed that these episodes were regularly 
 followed by an attack of palpitation, which was worse if he 
 made an effort to abstain from his abnormal fancies. These 
 fancies sometimes obtruded themselves during the day and 
 entirely incapacitated him. I have seen two other adults, 
 both sadistic, who suffered from similar afflictions. In 
 both cases the fairy tales were so distorted as to be almost 
 beyond recognition, but there was no doubt about their 
 origin. 
 
 It is in young children, however, where one often sees the 
 evil effects of sadistic fairy tales. Within the last few years 
 I have seen a number of children who were suffering from 
 pavor nocturnus and diverse phobias, in whom the symptoms 
 were directly determined by some terrifying fairy story. 
 Thus, a boy of six years suddenly became excitable and 
 anxious, he was afraid to sleep alone, and showed many 
 typical attacks of anxiety. Investigation showed that he 
 belonged to those children who are constantly amused by 
 their parents and nurses. He was passionately fond of 
 stories, which were read and told to him for hours daily. 
 His attacks were largely determined by such stories as 
 Jack the Giant Killer, The Boy Who Did Not Know How to 
 
 I
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 387 
 
 Shiver and others of a similar nature. To be sure, the 
 anxiety as such has a different origin, but there is no doubt 
 that the sadistic and masochistic stories helped to develop or 
 to keep alive abnormal sexual tendencies 
 
 Asnaourow reported the case of a boy of five years^° who 
 was aroused sexually when his nurse told him the story of 
 Cyrus the Younger, who caused one of his most distin- 
 guished friends to be whipped. This boy later became a 
 homosexual masochist. I have observed a few similar 
 cases of which I shall mention two. A homosexual with 
 sadistic tendencies related to me that as a young boy, 
 probably at about the age of six years, he heard the story 
 of Aladdin's Wonderful Lamp, and it immediately became 
 the object of his fancies. On going to sleep he imagined 
 himself the possessor of this omnipotent lamp, and by 
 means of it caused the genii to do his bidding. Most 
 of his wishes had to do with whipping and torturing 
 some one. 
 
 Another patient suffering from active and passive algo- 
 lagnia with erotic zoophilia for horses was not only fed on 
 fairy tales of all description, but at a very early age he was 
 fascinated by Froissart's Chronicles and Bible Steps for 
 Little Pilgrims. These books, especially the former, con- 
 tain many lurid pictures of head-cutting, murders and 
 assassinations by knights on horseback. At the age of six 
 years a little girl appealed to him, and the thought came to 
 him that her head should be cut off. At the age of eight 
 years he had a dream in which he was a knight and his head 
 was about tiD be cut off. 
 
 In brief, psychoanalysis of patients often shows the direct 
 harmful effects of sadistic reading material in childhood.
 
 388 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 This is not to be surprised at when one remembers that 
 pain is intimately related to sex." 
 
 Besides the cases that I have reported I have seen others 
 who, although showing no algolagnia, are phantastic 
 dreamers entirely unfit to cope with the stern realities of 
 modern life. Having been imbued in childhood with the 
 omnipotence of the fairy-book heroes, they wish to be like 
 them, and later refuse, or find it hard, to become plain 
 citizens struggling for existence. Such individuals are 
 constantly wishing for the unattainable that could only be 
 gotten through some of the charms of fairyland, such as 
 magic boots, invisible caps, Aladdin's Lamp, the Garuda 
 Stone and so on. It is, therefore, no wonder that such 
 persons are unhappy as adults and think themselves out of 
 place among ordinary mortals. Wanke justly asks^^: 
 "Of what benefit is it for the child to read fairy tales where 
 there is so much about murder and killing, and where 
 human life is treated in the most careless manner as if it 
 amounted to nothing? What does the child gain by 
 reading about criminal acts which bring no serious conse- 
 quences on the person perpetrating them?"^^ 
 
 Cases, such as here described, clearly show the harm that 
 such reading may do. To be sure there is no objection 
 to fairy tales that are not based on algolagnia and which 
 teach moral lessons compatible with normal adjustment. 
 
 PREFERENCES 
 
 1. Cf. the works of Freud, Riklin, Abraham, Rank, Putnam and 
 Jones. 
 
 2. Freud: Marohenstoffe in Traumen, Internat. Zeitschrift f. iirzt- 
 liche Psychoanalyse, Vol. I, Heft 2. 
 
 3. Interpretation of Dreams, p. 234. 
 
 4. Russian Folk-Lore, translated by Helen Schoenberg.
 
 FAIRY TALES AS A DETERMINANT OF DREAMS 389 
 
 5. Cf. Chap. XI. 
 
 6. Freud: Ueber Infantile Sexualtheorien Neurosenlehre, 2d Series. 
 
 7. Cf. Inman: Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism. 
 p. 112; also Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams, p. 242, foot-note 
 
 8. Havelock Ellis: Erotic Symbolism, p. 5. 
 
 9. Beitrage zur Analyse des Sadismus und Masochismus, Intemat. 
 Zeitschrift f. Xrztliche Psychoanalyse, Jan., 1913. 
 
 10. Monatschefte fiir Padagogic und Schulpolitick, No. 10, 1912. 
 
 11. See above, p. 252. Cf. also Havelock Ellis: Analysis of the 
 Sexual Impulse, pp. 56-152. 
 
 12. Psychiatrie u. Padagogic Grenzfragen des Nerven und Seelen- 
 leben. 
 
 13. Quoted by Asnaourow: Sadismus, Masochismus, p. 11.
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 ANAL EROTICISM AND CHARACTER 
 
 When it was said above that the character of a person is 
 nothing but the sum total of his past impression it was 
 meant in the literal sense. For it is not only impressions 
 that the individual receives when he is a reasoning being in 
 full contact with his environment, as in the case of fairy 
 tales, that leave their imprints, but even the sensations 
 emitted by the biological functions which proceed as it 
 were, unconsciously, and automatically, work changes in the 
 individual which result in definite traits of character. 
 Such traits may begin very early in life and gradually 
 change with the advancing age. 
 
 In his Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex Freud 
 shows that the sexual impulse in man consists of many 
 components and partial impulses. Many essential con- 
 tributions to the sexual excitement are furnished by the 
 peripheral excitement of certain parts of the body, such as 
 the genitals, mouth, anus and bladder outlets which we 
 call erogenous zones. All these zones are active in infancy 
 and only some of them go to make up the sexual life. The 
 others are deflected from the sexual aims and utilized for 
 other purposes. This is the so called process of sublimation. 
 During the sexual latency period — four to beginning of 
 puberty, nine to eleven — reaction formations like shame, 
 loathing and mortality, are formed in the psychic life of the 
 
 individual at the cost of the excitements furnished by these 
 
 390
 
 ANAL EROTICISM AND CHARACTER 391 
 
 erogenous zones, which act as dams for the later sexual 
 activity. The anal zone is one of the components of the 
 sexual impulse which, though active in infancy, falls into 
 disuse in the course of development, for our present cul- 
 tural life does not use it for sexual purposes. It is the 
 reaction formation of this zone that I shall here discuss. 
 
 In the course of psychoanalysis we come across patients 
 who tell us that it took them a long time to learn to con- 
 trol their bowels. These patients recall that even in the 
 later years of childhood they occasionally met with acci- 
 dents. When we investigate still further we find that 
 they belonged to that class of infants who refused to empty 
 their bowels when placed on the chamber because defecation 
 caused them pleasure. A number of my patients clearly 
 recalled that even in later years they obtained pleasure 
 by withholding their movements, and that they took an 
 unusual interest in their fecal excretions. Others remem- 
 bered that they refused to move their bowels because 
 they did not wish to go to sleep. This usually shows that 
 their sexual constitution brought along an enhanced 
 erogenous feeling of the anal zone. As they grew older all 
 these activities disappeared, and instead they manifested 
 a triad of qualities which were described by Freud in his 
 article on Character and Anal Eroticism.^ 
 
 To illustrate this character I shall cite the following case. 
 
 X., forty-four years old, divorced, a very successful merchant, was 
 referred to me for treatment by Dr. F. Peterson. The patient stated 
 that his present illness dated back to his twentieth year. On exami- 
 nation it was found that he presented a typical compulsion neurosis,^ 
 and that some of the compulsive ideas were as follows. When eating 
 soup he would think it urine; when eating sausage he would have to 
 think of feces. The noise of an auto horn made him think of a
 
 392 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 flatus or horse's flatus, on account of which he gave up automobile 
 riding. On going to sleep he became obsessed by visions of people 
 having movements of the bowels. A woman's mouth made him think 
 of the rectum, her eyes recalled the anus. Shaking hands with a 
 person recalled a man using toilet paper. Looking at big fat persons 
 would obsess him with thoughts of their fecal excrements, the size, 
 consistency, etc. A person with protruding teeth would recall feces 
 protruding from the anus. The moon constantly recalled the rectum. 
 
 These are only a few of the many dozens of similar com- 
 pulsive ideas which forever obsessed him. Besides the 
 obsessions he suffered from chronic constipation and from 
 many other somatic disturbances. 
 
 On hearing this voluminous skatological story I natu- 
 rally thought of anal eroticism, and the more I became 
 acquainted with my patient the completer the picture 
 became. 
 
 Now Freud describes the persons showing repressed anal 
 eroticism as especially orderly, economical, and obstinate. 
 Every one of these terms embraces a small group or series 
 of allied characteristic features. Thus orderly includes 
 actual physical cleanliness as well as scrupulosity in little 
 things; its opposite would be disorder and negligence. 
 Economy may shade into avariciousness; obstinacy may 
 lead to spite and to a tendency for violence and revengeful 
 acts. It is the last two — economy and obstinacy — that 
 hang most firmly together, and are most constantly encoun- 
 tered, though the third is often found in the same person. 
 
 X. dressed and looked very neat and gentlemanly. He 
 was very conventional, moved in very good circles, and 
 tried to make the impression that he was very particular 
 about society matters. Thus, he often referred to his 
 friend as not a gentleman because he would not always
 
 ANAL EROTICISM AND CHARACTER 393 
 
 put on evening dress for theater. The sHghtest infraction 
 of the general rule offended him. He lived in the best 
 hotels and belonged to some very fine clubs. From his 
 history I found that he was extremely self willed and 
 obstinate. He hated all his brothers because they claimed 
 that he thought he knew it all, and he would give me 
 many instances to show that he really was superior to 
 them. This characteristic was not only apparent in 
 his dealings with his family, but with everyone else includ- 
 ing his doctors. He consulted physicians in almost every 
 principal city of the U. S. and abroad and spoke dis- 
 paragingly of all. He had also been a Christian Scien- 
 tist and a New Thoughter, but as these cults did not benefit 
 him he put them on the same level with the doctors. It was 
 often very amusing to hear him speak of doctors I knew, 
 and I have no doubt that I fare no better when he talks 
 to others. His obstinacy and revenge led him to enter 
 into commercial competition with his own brothers, and 
 when his older brother implored his help and threatened 
 to blow out his own brains because of financial ruin he 
 not only refused to assist him, but said to him: "Not a 
 cent! Shoot yourself; do you remember how you treated 
 me?" (revenge and spite). 
 
 As an illustration of his financial dealings I shall cite 
 an experience I had with him. As I said above he was 
 Dr. Peterson's patient, and I first saw him in Dr. P.'s 
 office. He became unusually friendly, and as soon as an 
 opportunity presented itself he proposed that if I charge 
 him less for the treatment he would leave Dr. P. and come 
 to me. I told him politely that I could not think of enter- 
 taining such a proposition, and that things would have to
 
 394 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 remain as they were. A few weeks later he saw P. unknown 
 to me, and told him that he was poor and unable to con- 
 tinue with the treatment unless his fees were reduced. 
 Dr. P., not knowing the true circumstances, reduced his 
 fee 50 per cent. That same week he invested many thou- 
 sands in a new business venture in New York City. More 
 than this, when his bill was sent him at the end of the 
 month he sent a check for about one-tenth of the amount 
 on account. For about two years after the treatment 
 ceased he still kept on sending us small amounts from 
 time to time, finally all payments stopped, and when Dr. P. 
 urged him to settle his account he wrote him a letter threat- 
 ening to report him to the higher medical authorities for 
 "splitting fees" with me. For some reason, probably to 
 avoid notoriety Dr. P. would not permit me to sue him. I 
 may here mention that he is a very wealthy man and owns 
 large interests in a number of big commercial houses. His 
 dealings with other people were of a similar nature. Thus, 
 I prescribed some medicine for him and he then com- 
 plained that the druggist was a highway robber. He lost 
 the friendship of many people because of his stinginess. I 
 have this from his own account. In fine he was what 
 people would call a miser, though to all appearances he 
 looked like a generous gentleman. As a business man he 
 was a great success because, as he said, "I knew how to 
 manage things, and I could always be relied upon." 
 
 The extreme neatness, orderliness, and miserliness in 
 our patient are nothing but reaction formations against 
 the unconscious interest in the not neat or dirty which is 
 not a part of the body. 
 
 During the analysis I found that as a child the patient
 
 ANAL EROTICISM AND CHARACTER 395 
 
 had a hard time to control his rectum. He was punished 
 and jeered for regularly soiling himself up to his sixth 
 year. At nine years he was sent home from school in 
 disgrace because he broke wind in the class room. This 
 was recalled under marked emotivity. He stated that 
 it was a mixed class of boys and girls which made it still 
 harder to bear. The following year he met with another 
 accident while following a parade. He received a rather 
 severe spanking for it because he had on a new white suit. 
 The patient also recalled that as early as in his fifth year 
 he had the habit of sticking his finger into his rectum, a 
 habit which he continued for years. 
 
 Whether he was one of these infants who held back his 
 stools I could not discover, but as far as his memory 
 reached there was an extreme interest for feces and for 
 the gluteal region. 
 
 It is not simple to connect the interest in defecation 
 with obstinacy but we must remember that even infants 
 can be self willed when put on the chamber, and that 
 painful irritations of the skin connected with the anal 
 zone (spanking) are utilized to break a child's obstinacy. 
 We all know that when people wish to express spite or 
 spiteful mocking they invite people to kiss their behind, 
 which points to a repressed pleasure. As a child our 
 patient was very often spanked not only by his parents 
 but by his older brother. One incident which he espe- 
 cially remembered was a very brutal treatment by his 
 older brother. 
 
 The relation between defecation and money though 
 seemingly remote still shows a definite connection. Some 
 of you know that the most obstinate cases of constipation
 
 396 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 can be cured by psychoanalysis. Of course they can also 
 be cured by other means such as hypnotism, but by 
 psychoanalysis they can be cured only after the money 
 complex of the patient has been thoroughly thrashed out 
 and brought to consciousness. We know that misers are 
 called filthy (filthy lucre), and that in mythology, fairy 
 tales, superstitions, and dreams money is intimately 
 connected with feces (goose that laid the golden egg). 
 In his work "El Bachiller de Salamanca," Le Sage gives 
 the dream of Zador of Vera Cruz in which the latter made a 
 compact with his satanic majesty whereby in exchange 
 for Zador's soul the devil discloses to him a gold mine in a 
 graveyard from which the poor dupe extracts enough 
 for his present needs, only to be awakened by his angry 
 wife to the mortifying consciousness that he has defiled 
 his own bed. In the old Babylonian writings gold is the 
 dung of hell.^ It is also probable that the contrast between 
 the most valuable that man has learned to know and the 
 least valuable which he ejects as refuse has formed the 
 identification. This identification is also strengthened by 
 the fact that when the erotic interest in defecation ceases the 
 interest in money, which was lacking during childhood, 
 begins. The yellow color which is common to gold and 
 feces probably forms another association. 
 
 It may also be mentioned that the triad of qualities are 
 not found in those persons who retain the anus as an 
 erogenous zone; e.g., homosexual pederasts. Those whom 
 I know are all very generous indeed. The treatment 
 of X. had to be stopped on account of his money complex 
 at the end of about two months, although he admitted 
 that he was much benefited by the analysis. When he
 
 ANAL EROTICISM AND CHARACTER 397 
 
 first came for treatment he was so annoyed by the obsession 
 caused by the noise of auto horns that he promised me 
 75 per cent of his income if I rid him of it. After a few 
 weeks' analysis this and some other obsessions were re- 
 moved. He was very pleased and surprised and thought 
 it was miraculous, but notwithstanding all this it was 
 impossible for him to pay a moderate fee for his treatment. 
 As far as I have gone the analysis showed an accentuation 
 of the anal zone in infancy, a retarded repression with its 
 reaction formation, as shown by his character, and then a 
 failure of the repression at the age of 20 years with a nega- 
 tive revival of the anal activity in the form of the skatolog- 
 ical obsessions. 
 
 Case II. — D., thirty years old, suffered for years from a compulsion 
 neurosis, which manifested itself in obsessions, doubts and phobias. 
 To save time I shall merely state that he soiled himself up to the age of 
 three years, and from his mother's account he was almost never free 
 from bowel trouble until the age of five years. The neurosis mani- 
 fested itself at fifteen years, and besides many obsessive thoughts he 
 was also troubled by an obsessive act. He could not resist the impulse 
 to rub his feces on walls, and at times on his body. D stated that 
 he had the habit of holding back his bowels because it gave him a 
 distinct feehng of pleasure and stimulated his mental activity. When- 
 ever he was confronted with a difficult task he "practised constipa- 
 tion." As an example he gave the following episode. As a reporter 
 for a newspaper he was sent to observe and report the manoeuvres of 
 the National Guard. He was very anxious to write nice reports and 
 to accomplish this he would hold back his movements for two to 
 three days until it became almost unbearable, and he would then 
 imagine himself on the battle field of Waterloo and describe what he 
 saw. Here, too, the anal activities were the result of a failure in the 
 repression of an enhanced zone.* 
 
 *I have recently learned from this patient's mother that as an infant 
 he very often held back his stools. He suffered from chronic con- 
 stipation because he almost always interrupted the act of defecation.
 
 398 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 But it often happens that in addition to an erogenous 
 zone there is also a revival of one or more of the partial 
 impulses. Whenever this occurs the symptoms usually 
 show a corresponding combination. The following will 
 serve as an illustration. 
 
 Case III. — B., thirty-nine years old, suffered from a compulsion 
 neurosis. He was obsessed with doubts and phobias v/hich referred 
 to definite ideas about people being killed. It would be impossible 
 to give here a description of this very interesting case which I hope to 
 report in full at some future date. I simply msh to state that he 
 too, showed an enhanced anal activity in infantile life, although not 
 nearly so marked as in the other cases. But the most prominent 
 factor in his infantile sexuality was the component of cruelty. B. 
 was taught to use firearms at a very early age. His greatest pleasure 
 up to the age of nine to ten years was shooting birds, squirrels and 
 rabbits. At the age of puberty he became very sympathetic, and 
 one day after shooting a squirrel he suddenly experienced feelings of 
 compassion and remorse. Since then he found it very hard to go out 
 shooting. When his neurosis developed at the age of eighteen years 
 he also began to suffer from constipation which continued ever since 
 for fifteen years. No medication would relieve him until he acci- 
 dentally discovered that the following process gave him a movement of 
 the bowels. He once played with a spool of cotton upon which was a 
 picture of a child. He rolled it and when the child's picture came 
 his way he stuck a pin into it. After five minutes of such play he 
 would have a movement. He then resorted to this practice which 
 he modified from time to time until he was cured. He carried a 
 number of long pins which he sharpened from time to time, and every 
 morning he drew a picture of a girl and thrust the pins into the region 
 of the heart. When he was very busy he could simply draw a target 
 on paper and throw his pen at it imagining that it was a girl. As 
 the years went by he resorted to many other variations. Thus 
 when he hved in the country he would shoulder his rifle and go out 
 into the garden, and by imagining that he was shooting Indians his 
 bowels were soon stimulated to activity. Sometimes he imagined 
 himself fighting, which gave the same result. On one occasion while 
 throwing his pins at a picture one of them fell through the window 
 
 i
 
 ANAL EROTICISM AND CHARACTER 399 
 
 into the garden, and as children were wont to play there, he soon 
 became obsessed with the idea that one of the children might swallow 
 the pin and die. This was the first obsession of this kind and it con- 
 tinued in different forms. 
 
 All these patients showed a special interest in their anal 
 activities in childhood and in adult life. Later when the 
 infantile activities of the anal zone remained in a state of 
 repression they belonged to that class of persons who pro- 
 long the act of defecation by reading books and newspapers 
 in the water-closet. Thus X. referred to the water-closet as 
 his library. With the onset of the neurosis which signified 
 a failure of repression, the originally enhanced anal activi- 
 ties came to the surface in the form of symptoms; i.e., the 
 neurosis represented the negative of the perversion. 
 
 The analyses of these as well as of a number of other 
 cases fully corroborate Freud's formula; viz., that the 
 permanent distinguishing traits of a person are either 
 unchanged continuations of the original impulses, sub- 
 liminations of the same, or reactions formed against them. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, 2d Series, p. 132. 
 
 2. Cf. Chap. IV. 
 
 3. Freud: Anal Erotic, I. c. see also: Ferenczi Contributions to 
 Psychoanaljrsis, Chap. XIII, 1916, and Jones, Papers on Psycho- 
 analysis Chap. XL. BailUer,TindalandCox, London,1918. WiUiam 
 Wood & Co., New York.
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 FREUD'S THEORY OF WIT 
 
 Its Relation to the Dream and Unconscious 
 
 When we examine the Hterature on wit from Aristotle 
 to our present time, we are struck by the fact that despite 
 the universality of wit comparatively little has been written 
 on the subject, and that although many excellent theories 
 have been advanced, notably by Jean Paul, Theodore 
 Vischer, and Fischer, none of these authors has gone 
 deeply enough into the subject. 
 
 Without entering into detailed descriptions I shall simply 
 state that the characteristic qualities of wit as given by 
 the most prominent authors are the following: activity, 
 the relation of the content of wit to our thoughts, the 
 character of the playing judgment, the union of dissimilari- 
 ties, contrasting ideas, sense in nonsense, the succession 
 of confusion and clearness, the sudden emergence of the 
 hidden, and the peculiar kind of brevity. 
 
 On close examination it can be readily seen that these 
 qualities, though readily demonstrable by many examples 
 of wit, represent only isolated fragments, and give us little 
 information about the deeper psychological mechanisms 
 of wit. Indeed no author thoroughly explains the indi- 
 vidual determinants of wit. Also the divisions of wit 
 are based by some authors on the technical means, and 
 
 by others on the usage of wit in speech. The reason for all 
 
 400
 
 freud's theory of wit 401 
 
 these diversities and discrepancies is that, with the excep- 
 tion of Freud, no author penetrated deeply enough into 
 the subject. Here, as in many other branches of normal 
 and abnormal psychology Freud pushed on when the others 
 have stopped, and in his book, " Wit and Its Relation to the 
 Unconscious,"^ he solves the riddle of wit as he solved the 
 riddle of the neuroses and psychoses. 
 
 Following Freud I have divided this paper into the 
 analytical, synthetical, and theoretical parts. 
 
 THE TECHNIQUE OF WIT 
 
 Disraeli once remarked that old persons are apt to 
 fall into "anecdotage." The word anecdotage, though in 
 itself incomprehensible, can be readily analysed to show 
 its original full sense; and on analysis we find that it is 
 made up of two words, anecdote and dotage. That is, 
 instead of saying that old persons are apt to fall into 
 dotage, and that old persons are fond of telling anecdotes, 
 Disraeli fuses the two words together forming a neologism, 
 anecdotage, and thus simultaneously expresses both ideas. 
 The technique, therefore, hes in the fusion of the two 
 words. Such a fusion of words as shown in the analysis 
 of dreams, is called condensation. Condensation is not a 
 simple composition formed by the joining of the two words; 
 there is a substitutive formation, i.e., instead of anecdote and 
 dotage we get anecdotage. 
 
 In a short story that I have recently read, one of the 
 characters, a "sport," speaks of the Christmas season as 
 the alcoholidays. By reduction it can be easily seen that 
 we have here a compound word, a combination of alcohol 
 
 26
 
 402 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 and holidays, which can be graphically represented as 
 follows: 
 
 alcoHOL 
 HOLidays 
 
 ALCOHOLIDAYS 
 
 Here the condensation expresses the idea that holidays 
 are conducive to alcoholic indulgence. In other words, 
 we have here a fused word, which, though strange in 
 appearance, can be easily understood in its proper con- 
 text. This witticism may be described as a condensation 
 with substitution. 
 
 The same mechanism is found in the following: A 
 dramatic critic summarizing three paragraphs to the 
 effect that most plays that have been produced in New York 
 City ten years ago were violent, emotional and hysterical, 
 remarks, " Thespis has taken up his home in Dramatteawan." 
 The substitution not only expresses the critic's idea that 
 most of the plays then produced in this city were violent, 
 emotional, and hysterical, that is insane, but it also contains 
 a clever allusion to the nature of the problems presented 
 by most of these plays. Matteawan is a state hospital for 
 criminal insane. Most of the plays were not only insane 
 but also criminal, since they treated of murders, divorces, 
 robberies, scandals, etc. 
 
 A jest which not long ago went the rounds in Europe 
 referred to the late King Leopold as Cleopold on account 
 of his attachment to an actress whose first name was Cleo. 
 This scandalous allusion is here produced by the addition 
 of a single letter.^ 
 
 The examples thus far described come under the group
 
 freud's theory of wit 403 
 
 of substitutive formation (Ersatzbildung). Brevity, which 
 Shakespeare calls the soul of wit,^ is common to them all; 
 but brevity alone is not wit, else every laconism would be 
 wit; it must be a special kind of brevity. Investigation 
 shows that the brevity of the joke is often due to a special 
 process which leaves its definite mark in the wording of the 
 wit. This is the process of substitutive formation. If we 
 apply the process of reduction to the wit, we find that wit 
 depends solely on the verbal expression produced by the 
 process of condensation. As yet, however, we do not 
 understand how the process of condensation produces the 
 most valuable part of wit, namely, the resultant pleasure 
 (Lustgewinn). 
 
 Condensation not only plays a part in wit, but also in 
 dreams. We have seen that the dream is divided into the 
 manifest and the latent thoughts.^ The latent thoughts 
 are the actual thoughts underlying the dream, while the 
 manifest thoughts, which are usually absurd and in appear- 
 ance meaningless, are those which are recalled by the 
 dreamer on awakening. The dream-work is the name 
 given to the psychic processes which are responsible for 
 the transformation of the latent into the manifest thoughts 
 of the dream, and condensation may be named as one of 
 these processes. Words, pictures, ideas, and events are 
 all subject to the process of condensation. It may produce 
 composite pictures resembling one object or person up to a 
 certain ingredient or variation which is drawn from another 
 source. Thus one of my patients saw in her dream a crea- 
 ture resembling a centaur. She soon recognized the head as 
 that of a male acquaintance, but the body, which was that 
 of a horse, presented here a sexual symbolism.^
 
 404 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 From word condensation we shall now turn to thought 
 condensation, and to illustrate this form the following 
 witticism may be cited. A corporal shouts to his recruits 
 during drill, "Keep it up, hoys; courage and perseverance 
 bring everything; the egg of Columbus was not laid in 
 a day." 
 
 This jest is formed by the condensation of two separate 
 items — the saying, "Rome was not built in a day," and 
 the anecdote of the egg of Columbus. What the corporal 
 meant to say was, "All that you boys need is practice; it 
 is as simple as it was for Columbus to stand the egg on end; 
 don't be discouraged, Rome was not built in a day." He 
 fused these two ideas, however, and thus produced the 
 substitutive formation, "the egg of Columbus was not 
 laid in a day," which on account of its absurdity and 
 incongruity carries the wit of the jest. Similar mechan- 
 isms are found in dreams, but before continuing with our 
 investigation of the analogies between the mechanism 
 of wit and of the dream, we will examine the other proc- 
 esses producing wit. 
 
 Hood once remarked that he had to be a lively Hood for 
 a livelihood. As here can be readily seen the technique 
 of this witticism is no longer condensation with substitu- 
 tive formation, as it shows neither an omission nor 
 an abbreviation. The thought is fully expressed as the 
 speaker intended it. "I have to be a lively Hood for a 
 livelihood." What, then, is the technique of this witti- 
 cism? If we apply our method of reduction we find that 
 the wit remains intact as long as we preserve the name, 
 but that as soon as we replace it by another name, let 
 us say Brown, every trace of wit disappears. This points
 
 freud's theory of wit 405 
 
 to the fact that the wit lies in a twofold application of the 
 name, first by itself, and then as a suJSix. 
 
 I recall an excellent Italian jeu d' esprit of a like nature. 
 At a court ball, in Italy, Napoleon Bonaparte brusquely 
 remarked to a very brilliant lady, " Tutti gli Italiani dan- 
 zano si male" (all Italians dance so badly), to which she 
 quickly replied, "Nan tutti ma huona parte" (Buonaparte). 
 The lady's answer has a double meaning; it may mean, 
 "Not all, but a great many" (buona parte); or the words 
 "buona parte" may be read as one word and then her 
 answer has a totally different significance. It becomes a 
 sharp retort to Napoleon Buonaparte's insulting remark, 
 "Not all Italians dance badly, but Buonaparte does." 
 The wit here lies in the double application of the name, 
 first as a whole and then divided in syllables like a charade, 
 thus, 
 
 buona parte 
 Buonaparte 
 
 The twofold application of the same words, once as a 
 whole and once divided into syllables, is not the only 
 technique differing from the technique of condensation. 
 There are a great many other ways in which the same word 
 or words may be used in order to serve as a technical 
 means of wit. A witty jest may be produced by using 
 the same words a second time, only slightly changed in 
 their order. The slighter the change the better the 
 technique. The following will illustrate the point: 
 
 At a hall in Washington a finished coquette gave Senator 
 Chauncey M. Depew her fan to hold, and asked him if he 
 could flirt a fan. ^^No," he replied, " hut I can fan a flirt." 
 (New York Tijnes, March 13, 1910.) This witty jest
 
 406 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 was produced by merely changing the order of the words 
 "flirt fan" to "fan flirt." It may also be taken as a good 
 example of repartee. 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes said, ''Put not your trust in 
 [money, hut put your money in trust.'^ Here, too, the witti- 
 'cism, depends mostly on the transposition of the same 
 words. 
 
 The manifold application of the same material can be 
 greatly extended if the word or words carrying the wit are 
 used first in one form and then shghtly modified. Thus, 
 the old classical saying, "Amantes Amentes'' (lovers, 
 lunatics) is an excellent example of this subgroup. The 
 striking similarity between the two words serves to illustrate 
 the close resemblance between love and insanity. 
 
 Some words lose their full meaning when used in certain 
 connections, as shown in the following examples. Some- 
 body observed to the younger Charles Mathews that bUnd 
 persons generally appear contented, and concluded by 
 asking, "How can the blind be happy f "I suppose/' 
 replied Mathews, "they see no reason why they shouldn't.'^ 
 This depends entirely on the word sqe in the last sentence, 
 where it has no longer the full meaning of seeing, but an 
 idiomatic significance equivalent to knowing. 
 
 The technique of wit based on double meaning forms 
 another subgroup of manifold appHcation. Under this 
 heading we have jests utilizing the double meaning of a 
 name; for example, "No more, Pistol; I would not have 
 you go off here. Discharge yourself of our company. Pistol." 
 (Henry IV, 2.) 
 
 Question: "Why have the French rejected Lohengrin?" 
 Answer: "On Elsass's account."^
 
 FREUD 'S THEORY OF WIT 407 
 
 We all know that Cardinal Merry Del Val has been 
 blamed for the awkward Roosevelt- Vatican episode, and 
 the journals the world over have predicted his downfall 
 as the Pope's Secretary of State. The following letter 
 written to the New York Times, by Eva S. Rosseau, sums 
 up this popular opinion. "All will be Merry when Del 
 says Val (e) to the Vatican." 
 
 The following may be cited as other examples of double 
 meaning. "That Mighty Pen. The superiority of man 
 to nature is continually illustrated. Nature needs an im- 
 mense quantity of quills to make a goose with, but a man 
 can make a goose of himself with one." (Christian 
 Register. ) 
 
 Here the wit depends entirely on the double meaning 
 of the words goose and quill, which are first used in their 
 original literal sense and then metaphorically. Double 
 meaning may also be produced by play upon words. 
 Here no violence is done to the word, it is not torn into 
 syllables, nor does the word undergo any modification. 
 
 Example: Hostess to her guests: "Make yourselves at 
 home; I always like my guests to be at home." The wit is here 
 produced by the play upon the words at home: 
 
 A physician, leaving the sick bed of a wife, remarked 
 to the husband, "7 don't like her looks." "I haven't liked 
 her looks for some time," was the quick rejoinder of the 
 husband.'' The physician naturally referred to the condition 
 of the wife, but he expressed his apprehension in such 
 words as to afford the husband the means of utihzing them 
 to assert his conjugal aversion. 
 
 There is one thing that strikes us when we examine the 
 various groups described above; they all show a simple
 
 408 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 and distinct resemblance; they are all special forms of 
 condensation. Thus the manifold application of the same 
 material is nothing but a form of condensation, while the 
 play upon words is merely a condensation without sub- 
 stitutive formation. In other words, all the techniques 
 mentioned above have one characteristic, namely, they 
 all show a tendency toward economy of expression. But, 
 as was said above, we must remember that not every tend- 
 ency to economize expression is witty. It must possess a 
 special form of economy, upon which the efficiency of the 
 wit depends. But before discussing the question whether 
 the economy mentioned is not counterbalanced by the 
 expenditure of intellectual effort entailed in the formation 
 of such expression, and the question who is the gainer by 
 this economy, we will briefly consider puns. 
 
 Puns belong to the lowest form of wit. They can be 
 formed with very Httle effort. A mere similarity between 
 two words is enough to recall the relationship between the 
 two meanings. Puns may be formed by a similarity of 
 structure, sound, or initial letters. Fischer defines the 
 pun as a bad play on words, because it does not play with 
 the word as a word, but merely as a sound. If we elimi- 
 nate from the pun the manifold application of the same 
 material, we find that the emphasis lies on the concurrence 
 of the two words serving to make the pun; this is only a 
 subgroup of play upon words. The following will serve 
 as illustrations. 
 
 The heading of a poetry column in a daily journal reads, 
 "Verse and Worse." 
 
 At a gathering someone spoke disparagingly of a certain 
 drama, and wound up by saying, ''It was so poor that the
 
 freud's theory of wit 409 
 
 first act had to be rewritten," "And now it is re-rotten" 
 added the punster of the gathering. 
 
 In both examples the play is upon the words, not as 
 words, but as sounds. 
 
 From the technique of witty words, which we have con- 
 sidered exclusively so far, we will now turn to the technique 
 of witty thoughts, and by way of introduction the follow- 
 ing examples will be examined. 
 
 Two Jews meet near a bathing establishment. "Have 
 you taken a bath?" asked one. "How is that/' answered, 
 the other, "is one missing?"^ 
 
 At first sight it would seem that the technique lies in 
 the double meaning of the word take. For in the first case 
 the word is used in a colorless idiomatic sense, while in 
 the second it is the verb in its full meaning. This would 
 be a case where the same word is taken now in the empty 
 and now in the full sense, for the wit disappears if instead 
 of using "to take a bath" we should substitute the simple 
 equivalent "to bathe." But on closer examination we 
 find that the reduction has not been applied to the right 
 place. For the jest does not lie in the question, but rather 
 in the answer, that is, in the counter question, "How is 
 that, is one missing?" Provided the sense is not destroyed 
 this answer cannot be robbed of its wit by any expansion 
 or variation. It is to be noted that in the answer of the 
 second Jew the overlooking of the bath is more significant 
 than the misconception of the word take. 
 
 In his distress a man borrowed money from a wealthy 
 acquaintance.^ The same day he was discovered by his 
 creditor in a restaurant eating a dish of salmon with mayon- 
 naise. The creditor reproached him in these words: "You
 
 410 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 borrow money of me and then order salmon with mayonnaise. 
 Is that what you needed the money for?" "7 don't quite 
 understand you," responded the debtor. " When I have no 
 money I cannot eat salmon with mayonnaise, when I have 
 money I am not allowed to eat it. Well, when can I ever eat 
 salmon with mayonnaise?" 
 
 Here we no longer discover any double meaning. The 
 repetition of the words "salmon with mayonnaise" is not 
 "a manifold application" of the same material, but an 
 actual, identical repetition required by the content. It 
 may be supposed that the striking thing about the answer 
 is its logical character, but as a matter of fact the answer 
 is illogical. The debtor endeavors to justify himself for 
 spending the borrowed money on luxuries, and asks when 
 he is to be allowed to eat salmon. But this is not a logical 
 question; the creditor does not blame him for eating 
 salmon on the day that he borrows the money, but reminds 
 him that in his condition he has no right to think of such 
 luxuries at all. The poor bon vivant disregards this only 
 possible sense of the reproach, and answers about something 
 else, and acts as though he did not understand the reproach. 
 In other words, the answer is deviated from the sense of the 
 reproach. 
 
 I could find no examples as good as these two taken 
 from Professor Freud's book to illustrate a new technique 
 of wit, namely, displacement. In both the examples men- 
 tioned the technique lies in the displacement of the psychic 
 accent. The deviation is especially marked in the bath 
 jest. The first says, "Have you taken a bath?" The 
 emphasis lies on the bath element. The second answers as 
 if the question were, "Have you taken a bath?" The
 
 freud's theory of wit 411 
 
 displacement of the emphasis is made possible only by the 
 wording "taken a bath." The displacement would have 
 been impossible if the question had been, "Have you 
 bathed?" The witless answer would have been, "Bathe? 
 What do you mean? I don't know what that means." 
 The technique of this wit depends on the displacement of 
 the emphasis, from "to bathe" to "to take." 
 
 Let us now examine in what relation the technique of 
 displacement stands to the expression of the wit. As 
 shown in the second example (salmon with mayonnaise) 
 the displacement-wit is totally independent of the verbal 
 expression. It does not depend upon words, but on the 
 streams of thought. The elimination of the wit cannot be 
 effected by any substitution of words as long as the sense 
 is retained. Reduction is only possible by changing the 
 stream of thought. 
 
 Another example of pure displacement is the following: 
 A rather shahhy-looking patient consulted a famous specialist 
 about his malady. After the doctor examined him and gave 
 his opinion he demanded ten dollars, his regular office fee. 
 The patient thought it vms too much, and asked for a reduction. 
 The doctor reduced his fee at first to five and then to three 
 dollars, hut the patient persisted that it was still too high a 
 fee for him to pay. The doctor becoming impatient exclaimed, 
 "If you are so poor why did you come to me? You should 
 have gone to a free clinic!^' "Nothing is too expensive for my 
 health," responded the patient. 
 
 This is certainly in general a proper attitude, but not for 
 this patient. The answer would be proper from the stand- 
 point of a wealthy man who pays his bills without 
 demurring.
 
 412 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 The analysis of these examples shows a certain logical 
 elaboration which serves to conceal a displacement of the 
 stream of thought. There are. however, jokes which, 
 instead of logic, display absurdity and nonsense, as the 
 following joke. 
 
 A servant girl having been dismissed demands a recom- 
 mendation from her mistress. The latter refuses to give 
 it, saying '^/ cannot recommend you, because you have 
 not kept the house clean. Look at the dust and filth in these 
 corners.^' ^^ Excuse me, madam,^^ replied the servant, "that 
 is not my fault; that dirt and filth was there when I came a 
 year ago." 
 
 The servant's answer is certainly absurd on its face; 
 she attempts to excuse her negligence, but succeeds only 
 in incriminating herself the more. Still, on closer con- 
 sideration, we find that her answer is not as foolish as it 
 appears; that this nonsense contains sense which turns the 
 nonsense into wit. The servant in giving this answer 
 makes herself appear foolish in order to show her mistress 
 how foolish she herself is. The reduction is as follows: 
 "You blame me for not keeping your house clean; you are 
 no better housekeeper yourself. The dust and filth were in 
 these corners when I came here; and, moreover, what 
 kind of a mistress are you to allow dirt and filth to re- 
 main in your house for over a year, and that, too, with 
 a servant in the house! You are very foolish to blame 
 me now." 
 
 The technique of this joke consists in advancing some- 
 thing apparently absurd and nonsensical, which, however, 
 Idiscloses a sense serving to illustrate and represent some 
 (further actual absurdity and nonsense.
 
 freud's theory of wit 413 
 
 Besides the examples mentioned in the two groups, 
 namely, of displacement and absurdity, we find other forms 
 of wit showing faulty logic. A good example is the 
 following : 
 
 A friend who had stopped in the street to speak to Charles 
 Lamb said to him carelessly as they were parting, By the way, 
 my dear fellow, you owe me half a crown.^' "On the contrary,^' 
 replied Lamb, "it is you who owe me half a crown; for if you 
 will remember, I asked you for five shillings, and you 
 could not lend me two and six." The wit in this anecdote 
 is due to false logic. What Lamb says may be true, but 
 it is based on a false premise, as he wrongly assumes that 
 the five shillings were his. 
 
 More typical examples of wit based on faulty logic are 
 shown in the three following Jewish jokes. 
 
 1. A marriage agent is defending the girl he has proposed 
 against the attacks of the prospective fiance. "I don't like 
 the mother-in-law," the latter remarks; "she is a crabbed, 
 foolish person." "That's true, however, you are not going 
 to marry the mother-in-law, but the daughter." " Yes, but 
 she is no longer young, and she isn't pretty, either." " That's 
 nothing; if she isn't young and pretty you can trust her all the 
 more." "But she hasn't much money." "Why talk of 
 money? Are you marrying money? Don't you want a 
 wife?" "But she's a hunchback!" "Well, what of that, 
 do you expect her to have no blemishes at allf"^^ 
 
 2. On being introduced to his prospective bride, the young 
 man is rather unpleasantly disappointed, and drawing aside 
 the marriage agent, he reproachfully whispers to him, " Why 
 have you brought me here? She is ugly and old, she squints.
 
 414 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 has bad teeth and bleary eyes! ..." You can talk louder,'' 
 interposes the marriage agent, "She^s deaf, too."^^ 
 
 3. The prospective bridegroom makes his first call on the 
 future bride with the marriage agent, and while waiting 
 in the parlor for the appearance of the family the agent calls 
 the young man's attention to a glass closet containing a hand- 
 some silver set. *'Just look at these things, you see how wealthy 
 they are." "But isn't it possible," asks the suspicious young 
 man, "that these nice things were borrowed for the occasion 
 in order to give an impression of wealth?" " What an idea," 
 answered the agent, protestingly ; "who do you think would 
 lend them amjthing?"^'^ 
 
 In joke (1) we have a girl of advanced age, ugly and 
 deformed who has little money and a repulsive mother, 
 all of which is not very attractive to the young man. 
 The marriage agent knows how to excuse each individual 
 fault, except the inexcusable hunchback, which he 
 must cope with. The girl apparently has many faults 
 which can be overlooked, but one from which you cannot 
 get away, and which is apt to hinder matrimony. The 
 agent acts as if he had removed every individual fault by 
 his excuses, forgetting that each leaves behind some 
 depreciation which accumulates. He insists upon dealing 
 with each factor individually, and refuses to connect them 
 into a whole (sum). The entire joke shows a semblance of 
 logic characteristic of sophism which serves here to conceal 
 the false logic. 
 
 The fallacy or sophism in (2) and (3) may be designated 
 as automatic. The marriage agent reacts a number of 
 times, one after another, in the same manner, and con- 
 tinues in the same manner on the next occasion when it
 
 freud's theory of wit 415 
 
 becomes unsuited and runs contrary to his intentions. 
 Falling into the automatism of habit, he fails to adapt 
 himself to the required situation. Thus the marriage 
 agent in the second story is so fascinated by the failings 
 and infirmities of the bride-to-be that he completes the 
 list from his own knowledge, which it was neither his 
 business nor his intention to do. In the third story he is 
 so carried away by his zeal to convince the young man of 
 the family's wealth, that he comes out with something 
 which upsets all his efforts. In both examples the autom- 
 atism triumphs over the appropriate variation of thought 
 and expression. 
 
 The examples given below take us to another form of 
 the technique of wit. 
 
 1. It is called college commencement because the students 
 then commence to forget what they have hitherto learned. 
 
 2. If the play is good and the star is rotten, 
 The author's famous, but the star forgotten. 
 
 If the star is good and the play is rotten, 
 
 The author gets something, the star gets nothin\f 
 
 — Collier's Irrational Weakly. 
 
 The second example may recall the group of "manifold 
 application of the same material," but in this case as can 
 be readily seen, the double meaning plays no part. The 
 important factors in these examples depend on the 
 formation of new and unexpected identities, and on the 
 production of ideas and definitions related to each other 
 and to a common third. It is a unification. Unification 
 is also a basis of the quick repartee in wit, for ready 
 repartee consists in using the defense for aggression, and
 
 416 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 in "turning the tables," or "in paying with the same coin;" 
 that is, the repartee consisting in estabhshing an unexpected 
 identity between the attack and counter attack. This 
 is well illustrated in the following examples. 
 
 A lawyer of small stature came into court to look after his 
 clienVs interests. His opponent, not knowing him, asked 
 him what he wanted, and on being told who he was, jokingly 
 remarked, ''What? Such a little lawyer? Why I could 
 put you into my pocket!" " You could," tranquilly responded 
 the former, "but then you would have more brains in your 
 pocket than in your head." 
 
 On returning to Paris after crossing Niagara Falls, Blondin 
 was the hero of the hour. Alexander Dumas, who was one 
 of his many visitors, permitted himself to doubt the feat, 
 upon which Blondin angrily exclaimed, '^Well, M. Dumas, 
 if you like, come and walk with me over the Falls." " With 
 pleasure," retorted the celebrated author, "but only on con- 
 dition that I be allowed to carry you. 
 
 The excellent repartee in the last anecdote which meets 
 an impossible demand with just as impossible a condition, 
 contains another technical moment which would be absent 
 if the answer had been, "No, I fear you will not be able 
 to carry me." To illustrate this point I will again quote 
 an example from Freud. 
 
 Frederick the Great heard of a clergyman who had the 
 reputation of communicating with spirits. He sent for 
 him and received hirn with the following question, "Can 
 you call up ghosts?" The answer was, "At your pleasure, 
 but they won't come." Here it is quite obvious that the 
 wit lies in the substitution for the only answer possible, 
 "No," its opposite. To complete this substitution, "but"
 
 freud's theory of wit 417 
 
 had to be added to "yes" which gives the equivalent for 
 "No." 
 
 Such representation through the opposite is another form 
 of technique of wit. A very pure example of this form 
 is the following: 
 
 " The woman resembles the Venus de Milo in many points; 
 like her she is extraordinarily old, and has no teeth, and like 
 her she has white spots on the yellow surface of her body" 
 (Heine). Heine thus depicts ugliness by making it agree 
 with the most beautiful. 
 
 The following anecdote will serve as another illustration 
 of this group. The great orator, Cicero, once remarked to 
 a man who told him that his wife was thirty years old, " That 
 is undoubtedly true, since I have heard it for the last ten 
 years" What Cicero really meant was, "This cannot 
 be true, as I heard you say the same thing ten years ago." 
 He said just the opposite however, "that is undoubtedly 
 true," and if the next sentence had read, "for I have heard 
 you say this before," it would have merely reinforced the 
 first. Instead it reads, " For I have heard the reinforcement 
 too far and thus indicated the opposite of what is expressed 
 in the first part. Cicero thus succeeds in making himself 
 plain by saying the opposite of what he thinks. But this 
 opposite is nothing but a very striking outdoing, which 
 forms another group in the technique of wit. 
 
 Mrs. A.: "Can you recommend your former servant? 
 Does she understand everything well?" Mrs. B.: ''Oh, 
 yes, she understands everything even better. 
 
 This is a very simple example of "outdoing'' wit. 
 Instead of saying, "No," Mrs. B, says "Yes," and rein- 
 
 27
 
 418 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 forces it with a still stronger affirmative, which, however, 
 thus gives the equivalent for "No." 
 
 Besides the technique of expression through the oppo- 
 site, wit is also produced by expression through the similar 
 and cognate, or rather through the homogeneous and coher- 
 ent. The following story illustrates this group. 
 
 An Irishman who was expected to die ivas visited at the 
 same time by his priest and physician. After they had 
 both performed their functions the dying man turned to the 
 doctor and asked, '^Doctor, how much will you charge my 
 wife for your services after I'll be gone?" The doctor was 
 somewhat relucani to answer, but on being urged he said, 
 "I will ask her for $100." Turning to the priest the Irishman 
 asked the same question, and as he was very insistent the priest 
 answered that he, too, would charge |100 for his services. 
 The Irishman paused for awhile and said, '^Doctor, will you 
 please take hold of my right arm, omd Father, will you please 
 take hold of my left arm." When they compiled with this 
 request he lay back and said, '^Now, I can die like the 
 Lord." 
 
 The Irishman's remark is quite plain; we deal with a 
 statement which could not be directly expressed. The 
 indirect expression in this story was produced in the 
 following manner. The remark, "Now I can die like 
 the Lord," suggested that being between the priest and 
 the doctor recalls the Saviour dying between the two 
 thieves. This involves the suggestion that the speaker, 
 too, is between two thieves. What he really wished to 
 say was, "You are two robbers to charge my wife SI 00 
 each." This thought is expressed indirectly by means of 
 association and in a manner designated as allusion. This
 
 freud's theory of wit 419 
 
 witticism is also an excellent example of the so-called 
 grim humor (Galgenhumor). 
 
 There are other forms of the technique of wit, but we 
 have described, if only briefly, the most common and 
 most important technical means. These will help us 
 to judge the psychic mechanism and indicate the way 
 for the future solutions of the problem. As mentioned 
 above, the interesting process of condensation with sub- 
 stitution, which we have recognized as the nucleus of the 
 technique of*the wit of words, evinces the same mechanism 
 in the formation of dreams. The technique of the wit of 
 thoughts — such as displacement, false logic, absurdity, 
 indirect representation, and expression through the 
 opposite — all these are found also in the technique of 
 dreams. It is displacement that gives the dream its 
 strange appearance and thus prevents us from recog- 
 nizing in the dream only a continuation of our waking 
 thoughts. The existence of the nonsensical and absurd in 
 the dream is the reason for the belief that there is a deterior- 
 ation of the psychic activities in the dream, and that the 
 dream shows neither reason nor logic. The popular saying, 
 "Dreams go by contraries," shows well that the idea of 
 expression through the opposite is well known even to the 
 laity. We also find in the dream indirect expressions and 
 the other mechanisms found in wit. All of this shows 
 the close resemblance between the techniques of the dream 
 and of wit, and as will be shown later this resemblance 
 is not at all accidental. 
 
 THE TENDENCIES OF WIT 
 Following the reaction it produces, we divide wit into 
 purposeful, or that which shows definite aims, and harm-
 
 420 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 less, or that which shows no particular aim. It is only 
 the former that is apt to be met with resistances from 
 hearers or persons concerned. There is no relation what- 
 soever between these classifications and those mentioned 
 above. A harmless joke may be produced by witty words 
 or witty thoughts, and any of the techniques described 
 may serve to produce a purposeful witticism. Following 
 our theoretical explanation of the nature of wit we may 
 say that the harmless wit is for our purposes of greater 
 value than the purposeful, and that the shallow wit is of 
 greater value than the profound. For the harmless and 
 shallow play upon words presents to us the problem of wit 
 in its purest forms, without danger of confusion through 
 the introduction of the tendency factor and consequent 
 false judgment. We often laugh on hearing the most 
 ingenuous and harmless joke where the pleasure experi- 
 enced cannot have originated from the idea or tendency 
 of the joke; we have then to conclude that the pleasurable 
 feeling is derived from the technique of the wit alone. 
 The technical means of wit, such as condensation, dis- 
 placement, indirect expression, etc., have the power of 
 producing in the hearer a feeling of pleasure. We cannot, 
 however, as yet see how they come to possess that power. 
 This gives us a new axiom for the explanation of wit, and 
 brings out more sharply what has been shown above, 
 namely that the character of wit depends on the mode of 
 expression. For it will be recalled that whenever it was 
 possible to reduce the wit by substituting another expres- 
 sion, this not only abrogated the character of the wit, 
 but the laughter-producing effect, that is, the pleasure 
 of the wit. The pleasurable effect of the harmless wit is
 
 freud's theory of wit 421 
 
 usually moderate; all that the hearer can expect to obtain 
 from it is a sense of satisfaction and a passing smile; and 
 even this is partially due to the idea. The sudden 
 irresistible outburst of laughter that follows the tendency 
 wit rarely follows the purposeless Vvdt. As the technique 
 is the same in both it may be assumed that by virtue of 
 its tendencies the tendency wit has at its disposal sources 
 of pleasure to which the harmless wit has no access. 
 
 Wherever wit is not harmless it serves two tendencies: 
 it is either a hostile joke serving as aggression, satire, 
 or defense, or it is an obscene joke serving as an exhibition. 
 
 To examine the way in which wit serves these tendencies 
 we will first discuss the obscene or "smutty" joke. By 
 a "smutty" joke we understand the bringing into promi- 
 nence of sexual facts or relations through speech. How- 
 ever, a lecture on the anatomy of the sexual organs or on 
 the physiology of reproduction need not necessarily have 
 anything in common with the smutty joke. The smutty 
 joke must fulfil the following condition. It must be 
 directed toward a certain person who excites one sexually, 
 and who becomes cognizant of the speaker's excitement by 
 listening to the smutty joke, and thereby in turn becomes 
 sexually excited. Instead of becoming sexually excited 
 the listener may react with shame and embarrassment, 
 which, however, only shows a reaction against the excite- 
 ment and thus signifies an admission of the same. The 
 smutty joke was originally directed against the woman, 
 and is comparable to an attempt at seduction. If a man 
 tells or listens to smutty jokes in male society it is because 
 the original situation cannot be realized on account of social 
 inhibitions. The smutty joke is an exhibition directed
 
 422 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 against a person to whom one is not sexually indifferent. 
 Through the utterance of obscene words the person attacked 
 is incited to picture the parts of the body in question, and 
 is shown that the aggressor pictures the same thing. 
 There is no doubt that the original motive of the smutty 
 joke was the pleasure of seeing the sexual displayed. As 
 shown in the "Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex, "*' 
 one of the primitive components of our libido is the 
 desire to see the sexual exposed. It is probably only a sub- 
 stitution for the desire to touch the sexual, which is assumed 
 to be the primary pleasure. The libido for looking and 
 touching is found in every person in two forms, active and 
 passive, or masculine and feminine; and in accordance with 
 the preponderance of the sex characteristics it develops 
 preponderately in one or the other direction. At least a 
 certain amount of touching is indispensable in order to 
 attain the normal sexual aim. We all know that touch- 
 ing the skin of the sexual object causes pleasure and excite- 
 ment. The same holds true of looking, which is analogous 
 to touching. Sexual excitement is frequently awakened 
 by optical impressions, and selection taking account of 
 this fact makes the sexual object a thing of beauty. The 
 covering of the body, which is introduced by civilization, 
 serves to arouse sexual curiosity, and constantly strives to 
 supplement the sexual object by uncovering the hidden 
 parts. This may be turned into the artistic ("sublima- 
 tion") if the interest be turned from the genitals to the 
 form of the body. The tendency to linger at the inter- 
 mediary sexual aim by looking is found in most normals. 
 It in a way gives them the capability of directing a certain 
 amount of their libido to a higher artistic aim. But this
 
 freud's theory of wit 423 
 
 fondness for looking may become overestimated and fixed, 
 and then becomes a perversion. We than have the 
 so called voyeurs or "peepers." The desire to exhibit is 
 readily observed in children, and where this desire does not 
 experience the sexual repression it develops into a desire 
 for exhibition, a common perversion in grown-up men. In 
 women the passive desire to exhibit is almost regularly 
 covered by the marked reaction of sexual modesty; 
 despite this, however, remnants of the desire may also 
 be seen in women's dress. 
 
 In a man a great part of this striving to exhibit remains 
 as a part of the libido, and serves to initiate the sexual act. 
 If the striving asserts itself on first meeting the woman it 
 manifests itself in speech, through which the man makes 
 himself known to woman. By having aroused in her 
 pictures, the woman herself merges into a corresponding 
 excitement, and is thus forced to passive exhibition. 
 The speech of courtship is not regularly the smutty joke, 
 but may pass over into one. If the woman is yielding 
 there is no need for the smutty wit; it is only resorted to 
 when she is resistive and on the defense. As the sexual 
 aggression is inhibited in its progress toward the act, the 
 sexually inciting speech changes into the smutty wit; and 
 the aggressor, lingering at the evocation of the excitement, 
 takes pleasure in the eifects his speech produces in the 
 woman. The unyieldingness of the woman is therefore 
 another condition for the determination of the smutty 
 wit. The ideal case for such resistance on the part of the 
 woman usually results from the presence of another man 
 whose presence excludes the immediate yielding of the 
 woman.
 
 424 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 The tendency joke usually requires three persons — 
 the first person who makes the wit, the second person 
 who is taken as the object of the hostile or sexual aggres- 
 sion, and the third person in whom the purpose of the 
 wit to produce pleasure is fulfilled. The process may be 
 described as follows: As soon as the libidinous impulse 
 of the first person meets with resistances to his gratifica- 
 tion through the woman, he immediately develops a 
 hostile attitude toward this second person and takes the 
 originally intruding third person as his confederate. 
 Through the obscene speech of the first person the woman 
 is exposed before the third person, who as a listener is 
 fascinated by the easy gratification of his own libido. 
 We can now understand what wit performs by its tend- 
 ency. It makes possible the gratification of a craving 
 (lewd or hostile) despite the hindrance which stands in 
 the way; it eludes the hindrance and draws pleasure from 
 a pleasure source which has become inaccessible through 
 the hindrance. The hindrance in the way is usually 
 nothing but the higher degree of social cultivation which 
 correspondingly increases the inability of the woman to 
 tolerate the bare sexual. The power which renders it 
 difficult or impossible for the woman, and in a lesser 
 degree for the man, to enjoy unveiled obscenities we call 
 "repression." It is the same psychic process which 
 keeps from consciousness whole complexes of emotions 
 and ideas, and has shown itself to be the principal factor 
 in the causation of the psychoneuroses. Civilization and 
 the higher education have helped in the development 
 of this repression, and have produced many changes in 
 our psychic organization. What was once perceived as
 
 freud's theory of wit 425 
 
 pleasurable now appears as inacceptable, and is rejected 
 by all the psychic forces. Owing to the repression brought 
 about by civilization many primary pleasures are now 
 disapproved by the censor and lost. But the human 
 psyche finds renunciation difficult, and hence we find 
 that tendency wit gives us the means to make the renun- 
 ciation retrogressive, and thus regains what has been lost. 
 When we laugh over a delicate obscene witticism we 
 laugh at the same thing which causes laughter in the 
 ill bred man when he hears a coarse, obscene joke. The 
 pleasure in both cases comes from the same source. The 
 coarse, obscene joke could not, however, incite us to 
 laughter, because it would cause us shame or appear to 
 us disgusting; we can laugh only when wit comes to our 
 aid.i^ 
 
 We have now demonstrated what was said at the out- 
 set, namely, that the tendency wit has access to other 
 sources of pleasure than the harmless wit, in which all 
 pleasure depends on the technique. We are, however, 
 in no position to distinguish in the tendency wit what 
 part of the pleasure originates from the technique and 
 what part from the tendency. Strictly speaking, we do 
 not know over what we are laughing. 
 
 When we examine the role of wit in the service of the 
 hostile tendency we at once meet with similar conditions. 
 Since our individual childhood and the childhood of 
 human civilization our hostile impulses toward our fellow 
 beings, like our sexual strivings, have been subjected 
 to restrictions and repressions. Even to-day we are 
 not yet ready to love our enemies and to extend to them 
 our left cheek after we are smitten on the right. Never--
 
 426 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 theless, we have made some progress in controlling our 
 hostile feelings. Higher civilization and culture trains 
 us to suppress the hostile disposition; we are taught 
 that it is undignified to use insulting language, and even 
 the means of combat have been markedly restricted. 
 Society as the third person in the combat, for the protec- 
 tion of its own interest, prevents us from expressing our 
 hostile feelings in action; and hence, as in the sexual 
 aggression, there has developed a new technique of invec- 
 tive, the aim of which is to enUst the third person against 
 our enemy. By belittling and humbling our enemy, 
 by scorning and ridiculing him, we indirectly obtain the 
 pleasure of his defeat through the laughter of the third 
 person, the passive spectator. 
 
 The wit of hostile aggression gives us the means to 
 make our enemy ridiculous, which, on account of the 
 existing hindrances, could not be effected in any other 
 way; in other words, wit affords us the means of sur- 
 mounting the restrictions and of opening the otherwise 
 inaccessible pleasure sources. Because of the gain in 
 pleasure it fascinates the hearer to take our part, even if 
 he is not convinced — just as we are wont to overestimate 
 the substance of witty remarks when we are fascinated 
 by their technique. By way of illustration the following 
 example may be cited: Wendell Phillips, according to the 
 recent biography by Dr. Lorenzo Sears, was, on one occasion, 
 lecturing in Ohio, and while on a railroad journey going to 
 keep one of his appointments, he met in the car a number of 
 clergymen returning from some sort of convention. One of 
 the ministers felt called upon to approach Mr. Phillips, 
 and asked him, "Are you Mr. Phillips?" "I am, sir."
 
 freud's theory of wit 427 
 
 ''Are you trying to free the niggers?'' "Yes, sir; I am an 
 abolitionist." "Well, why do you preach your doctrines up 
 here f Why don't you go over into Kentucky?" " Excuse me, 
 are you a preacher?" "I am, sir." "Are you trying to save 
 souls from hell?" "Yes, sir, that's my business." "Well 
 why don't you go there?" The assailment hurried into the 
 smoker amid a roar of unsanctified laughter. This anec- 
 dote nicely illustrates the tendency wit in the service 
 of hostile aggression. The minister's behavior was 
 offensive and irritating, yet Wendell Phillips as a man of 
 culture could not defend himself in the same manner as 
 a common ill-bred person would have done, and as his 
 inner feelings must have prompted him to do. The 
 only alternative under the circumstances would have 
 been to take the affront in silence, had not wit showed 
 him the way, and enabled him by the technical means 
 of unification to turn the tables on his assailant. He 
 not only belittled him and turned him into ridicule, but 
 by his clever retort, "Well, why don't you go there?" 
 fascinated the other clergymen, and thus brought them 
 to his side. The anecdote of the two lawyers mentioned 
 above shows the same mechanism. 
 
 We have now shown that the pleasure found in wit 
 is produced on the one hand by the technique, and on the 
 other hand by the tendency. We will next endeavor to 
 discover the common source uniting the two. 
 
 THE PLEASURE MECHANISM AND PSYCHOGENESIS OF WIT 
 
 In endeavoring to discover how the pleasure results 
 from the technique and the tendency of wit, and the 
 mechanism of this resulting pleasure, we find that the
 
 428 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 explanation sought for can be more readily discovered in 
 the tendency than in the harmless wit. That the pleas- 
 ure in the tendency wit results from the gratification 
 of a tendency, which gratification would not otherwise 
 take place, is quite obvious. But the manner in which 
 wit produces this gratification depends on special deter- 
 minants. There are two different cases to be considered. 
 The simpler of the two is the case in which an outer hindrance 
 stands in the way of the gratification of the tendency. This 
 may be illustrated by the following example: ''How many 
 members are there in your council of tenf" Louis XIV 
 once sarcastically asked the ambassador of the republic of 
 Venice. "Forty, your Majesty," retorted the polite Italian. 
 The wit in this case serves to return one affront for another. 
 The ambassador could not answer as he would have liked, 
 because Louis XIV could not be insulted, so he skilfully 
 made use of the unification wit, and thus paid him in his own 
 coin. 
 
 The second class comprises cases in which internal 
 hindrances stand in the way of the direct realization of 
 the tendency. As examples we may cite the answer of 
 the lawyer to his opponent, and Wendell Phillips's answer 
 to the clergyman. Wendell Phillips was prevented from 
 using invectives by a highly developed esthetic sense, 
 but wit helped to overcome the inner resistances and to 
 remove the inhibitions. The gratification of the tend- 
 ency is made possible, and in this way the suppression 
 and the "psychic damming" connected with it is evaded. 
 The mechanism of the development of pleasure is the 
 same in both cases. The only difference between the 
 cases of outer and inner hindrances consists in the fact
 
 freud's theory of wit 429 
 
 that in the one an already existing inhibition is removed, 
 while in the other the formation of a new inhibition is 
 evaded. We may add that the formation as well as the 
 retention of a psychic inhibition necessitates a "psychic 
 expenditure." If pleasure is obtained in the employ- 
 ment of both kinds of the tendency wit, it may be 
 readily assumed that such resultant pleasure corresponds to 
 the economy of psychic expenditure. 
 
 Again we are confronted with the principle of economy 
 first noticed in the technique of the wit of words; but 
 whereas the economy was there confined to the use of 
 few or possibly the same words, it seems here to comprise 
 the economy of psychic expenditure in general. The 
 secret of the pleasure secured through tendency wit seems 
 to be in the economy of the expenditure of inhibition or 
 suppression. We shall now turn to the mechanism of 
 the pleasure of the harmless wit. 
 
 In examining appropriate examples of harmless wit we 
 concluded that the source of pleasure lies solely in the tech- 
 nique of the wit. Let us now see whether this pleasure 
 can be traced to an economy of psychic expenditure. 
 
 The technique of one group of this wit, the play upon 
 words, consisted in directing the psychic focus on the 
 sound instead of on the sense of the word, which greatly 
 facilitated the psychic labor. It is known that in 
 abnormal mental states where the possibility of concen- 
 trating psychic expenditure on one place is reduced, the 
 word sounds are more prominent than their significance, 
 and that such patients react with "outer" instead of 
 "inner" associations.^^ Children who still treat the word 
 as an object, show a tendency to seek the same sense under
 
 430 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 the same or similar wording. This provides no small 
 amount of amusement for grown-ups. If wit gives us 
 pleasure by employing the same or similar words in order 
 to reach from one idea to another, we can justly say that 
 this pleasure is due to the economy of psychic expenditure. 
 
 A second group of technical means of wit — unification, 
 accordance, allusions and citations — all these evince on 
 common character; namely, one always discovers some- 
 thing familiar when one expects instead something new. 
 To discover the familiar is pleasurable. It is not difficult 
 to recognize such pleasure as one of economy and to refer 
 it to the economy of psychic expenditure. That recogni- 
 tion of the familiar causes pleasure is universally admitted. 
 We know also that the source of pleasure in rhyme, 
 alliteration, refrain, and other forms of repetition of 
 similar sounding words in poetry, is due merely to the 
 discovery of the familiar. 
 
 It may be thought at first sight that the third group in 
 the technique, viz., wit of thought, which include^ dis- 
 placement, false logic, absurdity, representation through 
 the opposite, etc., bears no relation to the technique of 
 discovering the familiar, but it will not be difficult to 
 demonstrate that this group, too, shows an economy or 
 facilitation of psychic expenditure. It is quite obvious 
 that it is easier to turn away from a definite trend of 
 thought than to stick to it; it is easier to mix up different 
 things than to distinguish them; and it is particularly 
 easier to pass over illogical conclusions. Moreover, in 
 connecting words or thoughts it is especially easy to 
 overlook the fact that such connections should result in 
 sense. These mechanisms are well known and are those
 
 freud's theory of wit 431 
 
 especially used in the techniques of the wit mentioned 
 above. It will sound strange, however, to assert that 
 such processes in the work of wit may produce pleasure. 
 
 Though "pleasure and nonsense" is almost absent in 
 our serious existence it can still be demonstrated in two 
 cases. It is visible in the learning child, and in the adult 
 under toxic influences. When the child learns to have 
 command over its mother tongue it takes pleasure in 
 playing with words. It disregards the meaning of the 
 words and connects them in order to obtain pleasure 
 through rhythm and rhyme. An excellent example of 
 this is the familiar "Mother Goose." As the child 
 becomes older it is forced to abandon this pleasure and 
 to employ the words in their senseful meaning. But 
 even later in life there is a tendency to overstep the 
 restrictions in the use of words, and adults often change 
 words by adding suffixes and prefixes and reduplications. 
 This is especially seen in the neologisms of the insane. ^^ 
 The child makes use of play in order to withdraw from 
 the pressure of critical reason which is imposed upon it in 
 the course of development. The restrictions appear 
 still greater when in the education of right thinking it 
 becomes necessary to separate reality from fiction. As 
 a persistent resistance against these restrictions we may 
 mention the formation of fancies. The force of reason 
 becomes so strong in later childhood and puberty that the 
 child then rarely dares to utter nonsense. But men are 
 untiring pleasure seekers, and find it extremely difficult 
 to renounce pleasure once experienced. The tendency 
 to skylarking in students is nothing but a demonstration 
 against the tyranny of forced study and reality, which
 
 432 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 they tolerate only impatiently. No one can fail to recog- 
 nize in our college cries and songs the nonsensical and 
 infantile play with words. These feelings are especially 
 enhanced by alcoholic indulgence under which influence 
 the grown up again becomes a child. He derives pleas- 
 ure from a free disposal of his mental stream which is 
 now unencumbered by the restraint of logic. 
 
 In reviewing the three groups of the technique of wit 
 it has been shown that the technique of the absurd 
 corresponds to a source of pleasure; and that this pleasure 
 is produced by the economy of psychic expenditure, and 
 by the relief from the restraint of reason. When we 
 traced the psychogenesis of wit we found that the first step 
 in wit is play. The child plays when it learns to use 
 words and connect thoughts, and this playing is probably 
 the result of an impulse which urges the child to exercise 
 its capacities (Groos). Through the repetition of simi- 
 larities, the rediscovering of the familiar, and sound 
 associations, it obtains pleasure which may be explained 
 as an unexpected economy of psychic expenditure. But 
 this playing is later brought to an end by reason which 
 rejects it as senseless or absurd. It is only accidentally 
 that the grown up finds pleasure in the rediscovering of 
 the familiar. This only occurs when he is in a playful 
 mood, which, as in the child, removes the critical inhibi- 
 tions. But as men do not like to wait for these propitious 
 occasions, and also hate to forego this pleasure, they seek 
 means to make themselves independent of these pleasant 
 states. This effort to evade reason and find a substitute 
 for the pleasant mood produces the second element of 
 wit, the jest.
 
 freud's theory of wit 433 
 
 The object of the jest is to bring about the resultant 
 pleasure of playing, and at the same time appease the 
 protesting reason which strives to suppress the pleasant 
 feeling. The only way to accomplish this is to give 
 sense and meaning to the senseless and absurd combina- 
 tion of words or thoughts. The whole process of wit 
 production is therefore directed toward the discovery of 
 word and thought constellations which fulfil these con- 
 ditions. The jest makes use of almost all the technical 
 means of wit. The most conspicuous factor of the jest 
 is the gratification it affords by making possible that 
 which reason forbids. Its object is to remove inner 
 inhibitions and thereby to render productive those pleas- 
 ure sources which have become inaccessible. 
 
 If we follow the development of the jest until it reaches 
 its height in the tendency wit we find that the jest's 
 effort is to produce pleasure and that it is content when 
 its utterance does not appear perfectly senseless or 
 insipid. If this utterance is substantial and valuable 
 it changes into wit. When we hear a good witticism we 
 experience a general feeling of satisfaction without being 
 able to tell at once what part of the pleasure comes from 
 the witty form, and what part from the excellent ^thought. 
 We really do not know what gives us the pleasure and at 
 what we are laughing. This uncertainty of our judgment 
 may have given the motive for the formation of the wit 
 in the literal sense. The thought seeks the disguise of 
 wit, because through the wit it recommends itself to our 
 attention and can appear to us more important and valu- 
 able than it is, but above all because this disguise fascin- 
 ates and confuses our reason. We are apt to attribute 
 
 28
 
 434 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 to the thought the pleasure derived from the witty form, 
 and we are not inclined to consider improper what gives 
 us pleasure, and in this way to close up a source of pleasure. 
 For if wit makes us laugh it is because it establishes in 
 us a disposition unfavorable to reason and conducive to 
 play. To accompUsh this the wit had to exert all its 
 effort. Although such wit is harmless, and not purpose- 
 ful, we can assume that strictly speaking the jest alone 
 shows no tendency, that is, it serves to produce pleasure 
 only. Wit, on the other hand, is never purposeless, as 
 the great tendencies and impulses of our psychic life use 
 it for their purposes. We have shown above the part 
 played by wit in satisfying the hostile and obscene 
 impulses; the hostile wit changes the original indifferent 
 hearers into haters and scorners, and thus confronts the 
 enemy with an army of opponents wherp there was for- 
 merly but one. The obscene wit makes a confederate 
 of the third person, who originally disturbed the sexual 
 situation, by giving him pleasure through the utterance 
 which causes the woman to be ashamed in his presence. 
 In the first case wit overthrows the critical judgment 
 which would have otherwise examined the dispute in 
 question, while in the second case it overcomes the inhibi- 
 tions of shame and decorum by the pleasure premium 
 which it offers. 
 
 What impressed us most on first reviewing the processes 
 of the tendency wit was the effect it produced on the 
 hearer. It is more important, however, to understand 
 the effect produced by wit on the psychic life of the person 
 who makes it, or, to be more precise, in the person who 
 conceives it.
 
 preud's theory of wit 435 
 
 In regard to its distribution we may study the psychic 
 processes of wit in reference to two persons, the wit pro- 
 ducer and the hearer. We can at present assume that 
 the psychic process aroused by wit in the hearer is usually 
 an imitation of the psychic processes of the wit producer. 
 The outer inhibitions which are overcome in the hearer 
 correspond to the inner inhibitions of the wit producer. 
 Of the different forms of the inner inhibitions one espe- 
 cially merits consideration. We designate that form by 
 the name of "repression," and it is characterized by the 
 fact that it excludes from consciousness certain former 
 emotions and their products. Tendency wit is capable 
 of liberating pleasure from sources which have under- 
 gone repression. If the overcoming of outer hindrances 
 can be traced to inner inhibitions and repressions we 
 may say that the tendency wit proves more clearly than 
 any other developmental stage of wit that the main char- 
 acter of wit-making is to set free pleasure by removing 
 inhibitions. The tendency wit reinforces the tendencies 
 which it serves by bringing to them assistance from 
 repressed emotions or it serves, the repressed tendencies 
 directly. Although we may readily assert that these are the 
 functions of the tendency wit, we must also admit that we 
 cannot understand in what manner these actions can suc- 
 ceed. This is a rather complicated process, which we will 
 attempt to demonstrate synthetically. 
 
 According to G. Th. Fechner, a meeting of pleasurable 
 conditions will produce a resultant pleasure greater than 
 the sum of the pleasure values of the separate conditions. 
 The result is greater than the sum total of the single 
 effects. The theme of wit does not give us the oppor-
 
 436 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 tunity to test the correctness of this principle. But 
 from wit we have learned something else which at least 
 comes near this principle. We have shown above that 
 in a cooperation of many pleasure-producing factors we 
 are in no position to assign to each one the resultant part 
 which really belongs to it. But the situation assumed 
 in the principle of assistance can be varied, and for these 
 new conditions we can formulate the following questions 
 and answers: What happens if in one constellation there 
 is a meeting of pleasurable and painful conditions? Upon 
 what does the result depend and can we have any previous 
 indications of it? The tendency wit particularly shows 
 these possibilities. There is one tendency which strives 
 to liberate pleasure from a certain source, while there 
 is another which works against this pleasurable develop- 
 ment, that is, which inhibits or suppresses it. The sup- 
 pressing stream, as the result shows, must be somewhat 
 stronger than the one suppressed, and is therefore not 
 abolished. But now there appears a second tendency which 
 would strive to set free pleasure by the same process though 
 from a different source ; it thus acts like the suppressed one. 
 What can be the result? This will be better illustrated by 
 an example. There is a tendency to insult a certain person, 
 but against this there is a feeling of decorum and esthetic 
 culture. If by virtue of some emotional state the insult 
 should happen to break through it would subsequently be 
 painfully perceived. The insult is therefore omitted. 
 There is a possibility, however, of making good wit from the 
 words or thoughts which would have served in the insult, 
 that is, pleasure can be set free from other sources without 
 being hindered by the same suppression. But the second
 
 freud's theory of wit 437 
 
 development of pleasure would have to be omitted if the 
 insulting were not admitted, and as the latter is admitted 
 it is connected with the new Hberation of pleasure. 
 Experience j^with tendency wit shows that under such 
 circumstances the suppressed tendency can become so 
 strengthened by the help of wit pleasure as to overcome 
 the otherwise stronger inhibition. But the satisfaction 
 thus obtained is not produced by the wit alone; jt ,is in- 
 comparably greater, in fact it is by so much greater than 
 the pleasure of the wit that we must assume that the former 
 suppressed tendency has succeeded in breaking through, 
 perhaps without an outlet. Under these conditions the 
 tendency wit causes the most prolific laughter. Hence 
 we see that the case of the tendency wit is a special case of 
 the principle of assistance. A possibility of the develop- 
 ment of pleasure enters into a situation in which another 
 possibility of pleasure is hindered, so that this alone would 
 not result in pleasure. The result is a development of 
 pleasure which is greater by far than the entering possi- 
 bility. The latter acted, as it were, as an alluring pre- 
 mium, and with the aid of a small sum of pleasure a very 
 large sum is obtained. The pleasure serving to liberate 
 the large sum of pleasure is designated as fore-pleasure 
 (Vorlust), and the principle is designated as the principle 
 of fore-pleasure. 
 
 The effect of the tendency wit can be formulated as 
 follows: It enters into the service of tendencies in order 
 to produce new pleasure by removing suppressions and 
 repressions. This it does by means of the wit pleasure 
 as fore-pleasure. When we review its development we 
 find that it begins as play in order to produce pleasure
 
 438 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 from the free use of words and thoughts. When the 
 growing reason forbids this senseless play with words 
 and thoughts it turns to the jest or joke in order to hold 
 on to these pleasure sources, and in order to be able to 
 gain new pleasure from the liberation of the absurd. 
 As harmless wit it assists thoughts and enforces them 
 against the assault of critical judgment. In this it makes 
 use of the principle of confounding the pleasure sources. 
 It finally enters into the struggling suppressed tendencies 
 in order to remove inner inhibitions in accordance with the 
 principle of fore-pleasure. It combats in turn the reason — 
 the critical judgment — and the repression. It firmly 
 adheres to the original word pleasure sources, and opens new 
 pleasure sources by removing inhibitions. The pleasure 
 which it produces, be it play-pleasure or removal-pleasure, 
 can at all times be traced to the economy of psychic 
 expenditure. 
 
 THE MOTIVES OF WIT AND WIT AS A SOCIAL PROCESS 
 
 Although the desire to gain pleasure is clearly a sufficient 
 motive of wit, there are other motives which may par- 
 ticipate in its production. Though wit-making is an 
 excellent means of obtaining pleasure from the psychic 
 processes, we know that not all persons are equally able 
 to make use of it. Wit-making is not at the disposal of 
 everybody; indeed few persons seem to possess this gift. 
 It is entirely independent of intelligence, phantasy, mem- 
 ory, etc. A special talent or psychic determination 
 permitting or favoring wit-making must be presupposed 
 in all wits. It is not often possible to investigate this 
 theme; only now and then can we enter into the sub-
 
 Freud's theory of wit 439 
 
 jective determinations in the mind of the wit maker. 
 The physician indeed occasionally has opportunity to 
 study persons who, if not renowned wits, are recognized 
 in their circle as witty; and he is often surprised to find 
 such persons showing dissociated personalities and a 
 predisposition to nervous affections. Owing, however, 
 to insuflScient investigations this cannot be put down as 
 a general rule. A clearer case is afforded by jokes of 
 Jewish subject-matter, and made exclusively by Jews. 
 The determinant for the self-participation seems to be 
 plain. It is due to the fact that the person finds it diffi- 
 cult to directly express his criticism and aggression and is 
 thus compelled to resort to byways. Jewish jokes not 
 produced by Jews never rise above the level of the comical 
 strain or the brutal mockery. The motive for the pro- 
 duction of harmless wit is usually the ambitious impulse 
 "to show off," or to give a favorable impression. It is an 
 impulse comparable to the sexual exhibition. The 
 existence of numerous inhibited impulses, the suppression 
 of which retains a certain degree of lability, produces a 
 state favorable for the production of the tendency wit. 
 Certain components of the sexual constitution may appear 
 as motives for wit formation. Persons inclined to obscene 
 joking usually conceal a desire to exhibit. Persons having 
 a powerful sadistic component in their sexuality, which is 
 more or less inhibited, are most successful with the tendency 
 wit of aggression. It is universally known that no person 
 is satisfied with making wit for himself. Wit making is 
 inseparably connected with the desire to impart it. To 
 impart the comical to another person is pleasurable, but 
 one can enjoy it alone, while wit must be imparted.
 
 440 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Apparently the psychic process of wit formation does not end 
 with the conception of the wit. There is something left 
 which strives to complete the mysterious process of wit 
 formation by imparting it. The wit producer is in need 
 of another person to whom the wit may be imparted. 
 Wit is thus a social process. Due to the wit making, the 
 person who makes the wit does not laugh at his own pro- 
 duction, but he causes inhibitions to become superfluous in 
 the hearer and thus cause a discharge of the repression of the 
 hearer through laughter. The hearer may be said to laugh 
 with the amount of psychic energy which is set free by the 
 suspension of inhibitions; that is, we laugh away, as it were, 
 this amount of psychic energy. When we laugh at a joke 
 we really do not know what we are laughing at; this can be 
 ascertained by analysis. Laughing is the result of an auto- 
 matic process and is possible only in the absence of con- 
 scious attention. It is the property of wit to exert its 
 full effect on the hearer only when it is new and surprising 
 to him. This property, which causes wit to be shortlived, 
 and forever urges the production of new wit, is appar- 
 ently due to the fact that it is in the nature of the surpris- 
 ing and the unexpected not to succeed a second time. 
 When we repeat wit the awakened memory leads the 
 attention to the first hearing. This also explains the desire 
 to impart wit to others who have not heard it before, for 
 the impression made by wit on the new hearer replenishes 
 in the wit maker that part of the pleasure which has been 
 lost by the lack of novelty. An analogous motive prob- 
 ably urges the wit producer to impart his wit to others.
 
 freud's theory of wit 441 
 
 THE RELATION OF WIT TO DREAMS AND TO THE 
 UNCONSCIOUS 
 
 It is to be regretted that we cannot here enter fully into 
 the deep psychological mechanisms of dreams, which 
 are so essential to illustrate the similar mechanisms of 
 wit. I will have to refer the reader to the last chapter 
 of Freud's Interpretation of Dreams. We may however 
 attempt to show some of the profounder relations between 
 the dream and wit. 
 
 Besides the resemblances in the techniques of wit and 
 dreams — condensation, displacement, and so on — we 
 also find that the formation of wit is similar to the forma- 
 tion of dreams; that is, a fore-consdous thought is left for a 
 moment to the unconscious elaboration and its result is 
 forthwith grasped by the conscious perception. Like the 
 dream, wit is an involuntary mental occurrence. One 
 cannot tell a moment before what joke he is going to 
 crack. One usually experiences something indefinable 
 which Prof. Freud compares to an absence or sudden sus- 
 pension of intellectual tension, and the wit then appears 
 suddenly. Brevity, too, is common to both wit and 
 dreams. In both this is the result of the process of con- 
 densation. The thought which merges into the uncon- 
 scious for the purpose of forming wit seeks there the 
 infantile play with words, for the infantile is the source 
 of the unconscious. The thought is put back for a 
 moment into the infantile stage in order to regain pos- 
 session of the childish pleasure sources. As has already 
 been demonstrated in the psychology of the neuroses the 
 peculiar elaboration of wit is only an infantile type of 
 thinking. The dream, also, wherein the child with all
 
 442 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 its impulses continues to live, has its origin in the infantile 
 life. 
 
 Besides the many resemblances between dreams and 
 wit we can also discover some differences. The most 
 important difference lies in their social behavior. The 
 dream is a perfect asocial psychic product; having origi- 
 nated in a person as a compromise between strug- 
 gling psychic streams, it remains incomprehensible to 
 the person himself, and has no interest or information 
 for anybody else. Wit, on the other hand, is the 
 most social of all the psychic functions aiming to gain 
 pleasure; it often requires three persons, and the psychic 
 process which it incites always requires the participation 
 of at least one other person. The dream is a hidden wish, 
 while wit is a developed play. Despite all its apparent 
 unreality the dream retains its relation to the important 
 practical interests of life; it seeks to fulfill the needs 
 through a regressive detour of hallucinations, and it 
 owes its existence to the strong need for sleep during the 
 night. Wit, on the other hand, seeks to draw a small 
 amount of pleasure from the free activities of our psychic 
 apparatus, and to seize this pleasure as an incidental gain. 
 It thus extends secondarily to important functions relative 
 to the outer world. The dream serves preponderately 
 to guard from pain, while wit serves to acquire pleasure, 
 but all our psychic activities meet in these two aims. 
 WIT AND THE COMIC 
 
 Comic differs from wit in its social behavior. The 
 comic is content with only two persons, one who finds 
 the comical and one in whom it is found. A third person 
 to whom the comical may be imparted reinforces the
 
 freud's theory of wit 443 
 
 comic process, but adds nothing new to it. In wit 
 the third person is indispensable for the protection of 
 the pleasure-bearing process, while the second person may be 
 omitted, especially when we do not deal with tendency 
 and aggressive wit. Wit is made, while the comical is 
 found. The comic is usually found first in persons, and 
 later by transference it may be seen also in objects, 
 situations, etc. We also know that wit occasionally 
 reopens inaccessible sources of the comic, and that the 
 comic often serves to wit as a fagade to replace the 
 fore-pleasure. 
 
 That form of comic which is nearest to wit is the naive 
 or ingenuous. The naive, like the comic, is usually 
 found and not made. It must result without our inter- 
 vention from the speech and actions of other persons, 
 and it can only be produced by persons who have no 
 inhibitions to overcome. What conditions the functions 
 of the naive is the fact that we are aware that the person 
 does not possess this inhibition; otherwise we should not 
 call it naive, but impudent, and instead of laughing we 
 should be indignant. The effect of the naive which is 
 irresistible, seems easy to understand. The inhibition 
 which is usually formed in us suddenly becomes inappli- 
 cable when we hear the naive, and is discharged through 
 laughing. As the removal of the inhibition is direct, and 
 not the result of an incited operation, there is no need 
 for a suspension of attention. We behave like the hearer 
 in wit, to whom the economy of inhibition is given with- 
 out any effort on his part. The naive is mostly found in 
 children in whom no inhibitions are developed and in 
 uneducated adults, whom we consider as children in
 
 444 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 reference to their intellectual development. The follow- 
 ing examples will serve as illustrations. 
 
 Little Boy: ''/ want the doctor to come to our house." 
 Servant: "Where do you come from?" Little Boy: "Don't 
 you know me? Why, we do business with you; we had a 
 haby from here last week." 
 
 Said a farmer: "7 understand that they make instru- 
 ments with which the stars and planets can be examined. 
 That I know is possible; but how the learned men dis- 
 covered the names of the stars and planets — that I cannot 
 understand." 
 
 The examples of naivete do not apparently differ from 
 wit in either structure or technique. It is merely a ques- 
 tion whether the speaker intends to be witty, or whether, 
 owing to his uncorrected ignorance, he is serious or means 
 precisely what he says. In the latter case we deal with 
 the naive. The naive agrees with wit in both structure 
 and content, but the psychic process of the first person or 
 producer, which is so interesting in wit, is here entirely 
 absent. The ingenuous person imagines that he is using 
 his thoughts and expressions in a simple and normal 
 manner; he has no other purpose in view, and receives no 
 pleasure from his naive productions. Thus the little boy 
 believed that children are obtained from the doctor, 
 and the farmer actually thought that every star and 
 planet comes into existence with a dfienite name, which 
 men of science have a way of discovering. All the char- 
 acters of the naive lie in the conception of the hearer, who 
 corresponds to the third person of the wit. The producing 
 person creates the naive without any effort. The com- 
 plicated technique which in wit serves to paralyze the
 
 preud's theory of wit 445 
 
 iDhibition produced by the critical reason does not exist 
 here, because the person does not yet possess this inhibi- 
 tion, and he can therefore readily produce the senseless 
 and the obscene without any compromise. 
 
 We have said above that the effective determinant of 
 wit consists in the fact that both persons should be sub- 
 jected to about the same inhibition of inner resistances. 
 We may say now that the determinant of the naive con- 
 sists in the fact that one person should have inhibitions 
 which the other lacks. It is the person provided with 
 inhibitions who understands the naive, and it is he alone 
 who gains the pleasure produced by the naive. This, 
 as we know, is due to the removal of inhibitions. But 
 in order to recognize the naive we have to be cognizant 
 of the fact that there are no inner inhibitions in the 
 producing persons. It is only when this is assured that 
 we laugh, instead of being indignant. We take into 
 consideration the psychic state of the producing person; 
 we imagine ourselves in the same, and endeavor to under- 
 stand it by comparing it to our own psychic state. This 
 putting ourselves in the psychic state of the producing 
 person and comparing it with our own results in an 
 economy of expenditure which we discharge through 
 laughing. This strange mechanism is perhaps the essen- 
 tial part of the psychic process of the comic. Looking 
 at it from this viewpoint the naive is a form of the comic. 
 The pleasure produced by the naive is "comical" pleasure. 
 It originates through an economy of expenditure by com- 
 paring the utterances of some one else with our own. 
 The comical, therefore, results in an unintentional dis- 
 covery in the social relations of men. It is found in
 
 446 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 persons, that is, in their movements, shapes, actions, etc., 
 and sometimes also in animals and inanimate objects. 
 
 The comical can be removed from the person in whom it 
 is found if the condition under which a person becomes 
 comical can be recognized. This shows that there is a 
 comical situation into which any person can place himself 
 or others to appear comical. The means which can effect 
 this are: transference into comic situations, imitation, 
 disguise, unmasking, caricature, parody, travesty, etc. 
 As can be seen, the sphere of origin for the comic is con- 
 siderably broader than that of the naive. In order to 
 trace the determination of the comic we will examine the 
 comic movement. 
 
 We laugh at the actions of clowns because they appear 
 to us immoderate and inappropriate, that is, we really 
 laugh over the excessive expenditure. The child's 
 emotions do not appear to us comical even if it jumps and 
 fidgets, but it is comical to see a little boy follow with his 
 tongue the movements of his pen when he is trying to 
 master the art of writing. We see in this additional 
 motion a superfluous expenditure of energy which we 
 should save under similar conditions. In the same way 
 we find it comical to see a marked exaggeration of expres- 
 sive motions in adults. Thus we laugh at grimaces which 
 exaggerate the normal expressions of emotions, even if 
 they are involuntary, as in chorea and tics. We laugh 
 because we compare the motions observed in others with 
 those which we ourselves should produce if we were in 
 their place. That person appears to us comical who 
 puts forth too much expenditure in his physical functions 
 and too Httle in his psychic. Our laughing in both
 
 freud's theory of wit 447 
 
 cases expresses a pleasant feeling of superiority which we 
 attribute to ourselves when we compare ourselves with 
 him. This is one of the most important factors in the 
 genesis of the comic. 
 
 The difference between the comic and wit is found in 
 the chief psychological character of the comic. The 
 pleasure source of wit we have found in the unconscious, 
 but there is no reason for the same localization of the 
 comic. On the contrary, all the analyses point to the 
 fact that the source of the comical pleasure is the com- 
 parison of two expenditures which we must attribute to 
 the fore-conscious. The main difference between wit 
 and comic is found in the psychic localization; wit is, 
 so to say, the contribution of the comic from the sphere 
 of the unconscious. 
 
 Without entering into the details of other forms of the 
 comic we will briefly discuss humor. Humor is the means 
 of obtaining pleasure despite existing painful affects. 
 If we are in a situation which causes us to liberate painful 
 affects, and motives then urge us to suppress the same in 
 statu nascendi, we have the conditions for humor. Thus 
 persons afflicted with misfortune, pain, etc., can gain 
 humoristic pleasure while the onlookers laugh over the 
 comical pleasure. The pleasure of humor results at the 
 cost of this discontinued liberation of affect; it originates 
 through an economy of emotional expenditure. Humor 
 does not require the participation of another person; one can 
 enjoy the pleasure of humor without feeling the necessity 
 of imparting it to another. To understand the psycholog- 
 ical mechanisms of humoristic pleasure it is best to examine 
 the so-called "grim humor" (Galgenhumor), where we
 
 448 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 regularly find that humor is produced at the cost of a great 
 expenditure of psychic work. Economy of sympathy is one 
 of the most frequent causes of humoristic pleasure. Mark 
 Twain's humor usually shows this mechanism. 
 
 Humor stands nearer to the comic than wit. Like the 
 comic it is located in the fore-conscious, whereas wit is 
 formed as a compromise between the unconscious and 
 fore-conscious. 
 
 We have shown that the pleasure of wit originates from 
 an economy of expenditure in inhibition, of the comic 
 from an economy of expenditure in thought, and of humor 
 from an economy of expenditure in feeling. All three 
 activities of our psychic apparatus derive pleasure from 
 economy. They all strive to bring back from the psychic 
 activity a pleasure which has been lost in the develop- 
 ment of this activity; for the euphoria which we are thus 
 striving to obtain is nothing but the state of a bygone 
 time in which we were wont to defray our psychic work 
 with slight expenditure. It is the state of our childhood 
 in which we did not know the comic, were incapable of 
 wit, and did not need humor to make us happy. 
 
 References 
 
 1. Freud: Wit and its Relation to the Unconscious translation by 
 Brill, Moffat Yard & Co., New York, 1916. 
 
 2. Freud:L. c, p. 122. 
 
 3. Hamlet, Act II, Scene II, 1.90. 
 
 4. The Interpretation of Dreams. George Allen Co., London, and 
 The Macmillan Co., New York. Cf. also Chap. III. 
 
 5. Cf. Chap. III. 
 
 6. Freud: L. c, p. 25. 
 
 7. Freud: L. c, p. 26. 
 
 8. Freud: L. c, p. 36.
 
 freud's theory of wit 449 
 
 9. Freud: L. c, p. 37. 
 
 10. Freud: L. c, p. 47. 
 
 11. Freud: L. c, p. 50. 
 
 12. Freud: L. c, p. 50. 
 
 13. Translated by A. A. Brill, Journal of Nervous and Mental dis- 
 eases. Monograph series, No. 7. 
 
 14. Cf. Chap. III. p. 44. The obscene joke formed by the sound 
 associations bald-balled fulfils all the conditions of the purposive 
 smutty joke. 
 
 15. Cf. Chap. VIII. 
 
 16. Cf. Chap. VIII. 
 
 29
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 Abasia. Inability to walk. 
 
 Abreaction {ab, off, away, and react, to act again). The 
 process of working off a past disagreeable experience by 
 living through it again in speech -or action in the presence 
 of the psychoanalyst. 
 
 Affect. Sum of excitation, or emotion. 
 
 Algolagnia (algos, pain, and lagnos, sexually excited). Sex- 
 ual excitement in causing or experiencing pain. 
 
 Ambivalent Feelings. The emotions of love and hatred ex- 
 perienced at the same time for one person. 
 
 Amnesia. A memory defect extending over a definite and 
 circumscribed period while the rest of the memory is 
 intact. 
 
 Aphonia. Speechlessness. 
 
 Astasia. Inability to stand. 
 
 Auto-erotism. Self gratification, one of the main charac- 
 teristics in the psychosexual life of children. 
 
 Bisexual (of both sexes). A sexual feeling for both sexes. 
 
 Blocking. A sudden stop in the association produced when 
 a complex is touched. 
 
 Catharsis. A mental purging produced by bringing to the 
 surface disagreeable or painful thoughts and experiences. 
 
 Cloaca Theory. The theory assumed by children and some 
 
 neurotics that the child comes out like a passage of the 
 
 bowels, because they know of only one opening that forms 
 
 an outlet from the body. 
 
 450
 
 -?r< 
 
 GLOSSARY 451 
 
 Complex. A series of emotionally accentuated ideas which 
 
 were once conscious and now in a repressed state. 
 Condensation. A fusion of events, thoughts and pictures. 
 Conscious. Mental processes of which we are aware at a 
 
 given moment. 
 Contamination. A fusion of words. 
 
 Conversion. The process by which sums of emotion be- 
 come transformed into physical manifestations. 
 Coprophilia. Liking for filth. 
 Delusion. False idea which cannot be influenced by any 
 
 logic. 
 Dementia Praecox. A form of insanity. 
 Dipsomania. A periodic uncontrollable desire for drink. 
 Displacement. A substitution of one idea for another, or 
 
 an exchange of a colorless and abstract expression in the 
 
 dream-thought for one that is visual and concrete. 
 Erogenous Zone. An organ, which if stimulated bestows on 
 
 the impulse a sexual character. 
 Erotomania. An extravagant affection for some person, 
 
 usually of the opposite sex, manifested in some forms of 
 
 insanity. 
 Euphoria. Feeling of well being. 
 Exhibitionism. Sexual gratification experienced in the act 
 
 of exhibiting the sexual organs. 
 Fellatio. The apposition of the mouth to the male organ. 
 Fore-conscious. Mental processes which cannot become 
 
 conscious unless certain conditions are fulfilled. 
 Hallucination. A sensory impression, like hearing or seeing, 
 
 which originates in the brain without any corresponding 
 
 external stimulus. 
 Heterosexuality. Love for persons of the opposite sex.
 
 452 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
 Homosexuality. Love for persons of the same sex. 
 
 Idiogamist. One capable of coitus with only one particular 
 woman, or with only a few selected ones, and either abso- 
 lutely or nearly impotent with all the rest. 
 
 Libido. Sexual craving. 
 
 Maoschism. Sexual excitement accompanied by the wish 
 to be physically subdued and hurt by the sexual object. 
 
 Narcism. A partial or complete sexual excitement through 
 the admiration of one's own body. 
 
 Noopsyche. Intellectual processes. 
 
 Over-determination. To gain access to a dream or neurotic 
 symptom every element must be connected with it by 
 many associations, hence every element of the dream can 
 have many meanings. 
 
 Pseudologia phantastica. Pathological liars. 
 
 Sadism. Sexual excitement accompanied by the wish to 
 cause pain to the sexual object. 
 
 Schizophrenia. See dementia prsecox. 
 
 Secondary elaboration. The effort to bring coherence and 
 order into the conglomerations and inconsistencies of the 
 dream content when the latter is grasped by conscious- 
 ness. 
 
 Skatologic. Relating to fecal matter. 
 
 Somatic. Physical. 
 
 Somnambulism. A state in which walking or other com- 
 plicated acts are performed during sleep. 
 
 Sublimation. The process of deviating sexual motive 
 powers from sexual aims to new aims other than sexual. 
 
 Thymopsyche. Affective processes. 
 
 Tic. Spasm of muscles.
 
 GLOSSARY 453 
 
 Transference. A displacement of any affect from one idea 
 to another, or from one person to another. 
 
 Unconscious. Mental processes which cannot be brought 
 to consciousness without external aid. 
 
 Voyeurs. Persons who attain sexual gratification by look- 
 
 * ing at sexual objects. 
 
 Zoophilia Erotic. Sexual excitement or gratification evoked 
 by the patting, touching, etc., of animals.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abaissement du niveau mental, 
 
 243 
 Abraham, 286, 287, 318, 322, 326, 
 
 344, 362, 388 
 Ab reaction, 21 
 Abreagirung, 21 
 Absolute inverts, 292 
 Abstinence, 177 
 Absurd, 412, 432 
 Absurdity, 412, 419, 430 
 Accidental actions, 62 
 Accordance, 430 
 Actions, 446 
 Activity, 400 
 
 Acts of becoming unconscious, 
 168, 169, 170 
 
 of pertinence, 168 
 
 of prevention, 168 
 
 revengeful, 392 
 Actual neurosis, 127 
 
 distinguished from psycho- 
 neurosis, 134, 135 
 Adjustment, 276, 287 
 Affects, 20 
 
 compulsive, 168 
 
 dislocation of, 24 
 
 of shame, 22 
 
 opposing, 34 
 
 painful, 447 
 After repression, 283 
 Aggression, 165, 178, 421 
 
 hostile, 426, 427 
 
 sexual, 171, 424 
 Aim, 32 
 
 sexual, 390, 421 
 Alcoholic indulgence, 432 
 Alcoholics, 279 
 Alexander the Great, legend of, 84 
 
 Algolagnia, 363, 387 
 Allan, R. A., 382 
 Alliteration, 430 
 Allusion, 418, 430 
 Ambivalent, 259, 355 
 Amnesia, 33 
 
 Amphigenous inverts, 292 
 Anal eroticism, 390, 392 
 
 zone, 391 
 Analysis of dreams, 37 
 Anecdotage, 401 
 Anecdote, 413, 417 
 Animals, 446 
 
 in dreams, 174 
 Animism, 382 
 Anus, 28, 29, 390 
 Anxiety, 128 
 
 definition, 226 
 
 dreams, 100 
 
 equivalents of, 129 
 
 hysteria, 94, 135 
 
 in climacterium, 133 
 
 in intentional abstainers, 133 
 
 in senility, 133 
 
 neurosis, 127, 128 
 
 occurrence and etiology of, 
 
 131 
 symptoms, 127, 128 
 through overwork, 134 
 
 states, 100 
 Aphonia, 135 
 Arc de cercle, 313, 314 
 Aristotle, 400 
 Artificial dreams, 123 
 Asnaourow, 387, 389 
 Asocial, 442 
 Assistance, experiment, 199, 202 
 
 principle of, 436 
 
 455
 
 456 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Associations, 35, 199, 230, 233, 
 235, 241 
 
 free, 37 
 
 inner, 429 
 
 rules of, 105 
 
 therapy, 300 
 Astasia abasia, 135, 314 
 Attention, 114, 199 
 
 suspension of, 443 
 
 test of, 114 
 Autoerotic, 351 
 
 character, 28 
 
 sexual manifestations, 28, 29 
 Autoerotism, 159, 274, 276, 287, 
 
 351 
 Automatic, 414 
 Automatisms, 221, 226, 243, 343, 
 
 414 
 Avariciousness, 392 
 
 Bailey, 182 
 Beers, 126 
 Beling, 163 
 Bernheim, 21, 22, 191 
 Bestiality, 174 
 Binet, 294 
 Bisexual, 316 
 
 theory in homosexuality, 295 
 Bisexuality, 294 
 Bladder, 28, 29, 390 
 Blasphemous thoughts, 182 
 Bleuler, 26, 44, 114, 199, 207, 
 
 226, 248, 249, 251, 253, 256, 
 
 262, 287, 288, 344, 355 
 Bloch, 147, 151, 291, 292, 341 
 Blocking, 47, 139 
 Bowels, control of, 390 
 Breuer, 18, 19, 21, 191 
 Brevity, 403, 441 
 Brothers and sisters, passion 
 
 between, 341 
 
 CopROPHiLic activities, 194 
 
 Caricature, 446 
 
 Caorit, 299 
 
 Castration complex, 156, 157 
 
 Catharsis, 21 
 
 Censor, 225 
 
 fear of, 82 
 Character, 30, 169, 351, 390 
 
 illogical, 410 
 
 of wit, 420 
 
 peculiar traits of, 110, 392 
 
 type of, 275 
 Charade, 405 
 Chevalier, 294 
 Child, 83, 431, 441 
 
 and symbolism, 113 
 
 desires of, 86 
 
 favorite, 348 
 Childhood, 351, 425, 448 
 
 second, 29 
 
 sexual impulse of, 351 
 Children, association with, 358 
 
 favorite, 303, 339, 351, 353 
 
 only, 303, 339, 360 
 Chorea, 446 
 Citations, 430 
 Civilization, 330 
 Cleanliness, 392 
 Cloaca theory, 189, 450 
 Clowns, 446 
 Cohen, 77 
 Coitus, 340, 365 
 
 disgusting, 33 
 
 interruptus, 132, 134, 136, 137, 
 172 
 
 reservatus, 132 
 Collecting manias, 68 
 among insane, 73 
 College cries, 431 
 Colloquialisms, 117 
 Comic and wit, 442 
 Comical, 440, 442, 446, 447 
 
 pleasure, 445 
 Compensation, 182 
 Complex, 42, 80 
 
 constellation, 62, 216 
 
 definition of, 203 
 
 disturbance of, 216 
 
 indicators, 77, 101, 202, 216 
 
 main, 140 
 
 svmbols, 62
 
 INDEX 
 
 457 
 
 Components, 28 
 
 homosexual, 30, 178 
 
 incestuous, 357 
 
 masochistic, 30 
 
 sadistic, 30, 171, 175, 325 
 Compromise, 23, 32, 34, 243, 448 
 Compulsion neurosis, 24, 36, 163, 
 391, 397 
 course of, 165, 166 
 definition of, 164 
 explanation of, 176 
 formula of, 165 
 mechanism of, 165 
 periods of, 166 
 Concealment, 81 
 Conception of consciousness, 40 
 
 of repression, 80 
 Condensation, 92, 98, 223, 401, 
 403, 408, 420, 441 
 
 thought, 404 
 
 with substitution, 402, 419 
 Condom, 136 
 Conflict, 32, 243, 326 
 
 in paranoia, 277 
 
 mental, 32, 141 
 Confusion, 400 
 
 hallucinatory, 25 
 Congenital inverts, 293 
 Consanguineous marriages, 326 
 Conscious incestuous feelings, 341 
 
 perception, 441 
 Consciousness, 40, 41, 83 
 
 conception of, 40 
 
 flight from, 170 
 
 function of, 41 
 
 splitting of, 23, 81 
 Constellations, 243 
 Constipation, obstinate, 395 
 Constitution, abnormal sexual, 31 
 
 sexual, 31, 439 
 Contamination, 223 
 Contrary sexuals, 290 
 Contrast dream, 112 
 Conversion, 23, 34, 312 
 
 adaptation for, 24 
 
 hysteria, 135 
 
 Conversion, process of, 23 
 Conversions, 220 
 Convulsions, 135 
 Coprophilic activities, 314 
 Coriat, 299, 345 
 Courtship, 423 
 Cravings, 320 
 Crisis, 224 
 Cruelty, 29, 172, 324, 325, 398 
 
 its relation to sex, 325 
 Cryptogram, 38 
 Curiosity, 30, 179, 423 
 
 Day dreamers, 80 
 dreams, 219, 310 
 analysis of, 324 
 remnants, 91 
 Defense, 421 
 
 mechanism of defense neuro- 
 psychosis, 24 
 neuropsychosis, 24, 165 
 Degenerative, 31 
 D61ire de toucher, 157 
 Delusions of grandeur, 273, 279, 
 286, 287 
 of jealousy, 279 
 of observation, 167 
 of persecution, 273, 277, 278 
 of poverty, 73 
 of self-accusation, 242 
 Dementia, 247, 248 
 
 praecox, 206, 216, 221, 240, 
 248, 250, 287, 351, 354 
 and paranoia, relation be- 
 tween, 286, 287 
 characteristic of, 240 
 Depreciative, 353 
 Depression, 136, 137, 353 
 
 recurrence of, 144 
 Desires, primitive, 83 
 Detached affect, 24 
 Deterioration, 419 
 
 hereditary, 31 
 Determinism, 75 
 Diarrhoea, 130 
 Dipsomania, 168
 
 458 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Discrimination, 115 
 Disfigurement, 281 
 Disguise, 433, 446 
 Disgust, 28, 30 
 Dislikes, 349 
 Disorder, 392 
 
 Displacement, 93, 178, 410, 411, 
 419, 420, 430, 441 
 
 from below to above, 90, 102 
 Displacement-wit, 411 
 Disposition, hostile, 426 
 Disproportion, 240 
 Dissimilarities, union of, 400 
 Dissociations, 226 
 Distortion, 81, 178, 282 
 Distraction, 200 
 Double meaning, 406 
 Doubting mania, 181 
 Doubts, 24, 163, 181, 397 
 Dream, 34, 35, 40, 78, 419, 441 
 
 analysis, 37, 193 
 
 contrast, 112 
 
 early Greek theories, 78 
 
 formation of, 82 
 
 function of, 91 
 
 inhibition in, 98 
 
 interpretation of, 34, 37, 138 
 
 (Edipus, 335 
 
 of resolution, 122 
 
 relation of, to neurosis, 94, 102 
 to normal and abnormal life, 
 79 
 
 resolution, 122 
 
 speech in, 246 
 
 symbols in, 113 
 
 thoughts as expressed in bible, 
 78 
 
 translation of, 35 
 
 wish of, 82 
 
 work, 91, 403 
 Dreams^ accompanied by anxiety, 
 226 
 by fear, 88 
 
 and poetry, 114 
 
 and wit, 441 
 
 artificial, 123 
 
 Dreams, classes of, 87 
 
 condensation in, 403 
 
 exhibition, 263 
 
 fair}' tales as determinant of, 
 363 
 
 forgetting of, 100, 173 
 
 formation of, 82 
 
 in diagnosis, 100 
 
 intellectual activity in, 93 
 
 judgment in, 93 
 
 logical relationsliips, 93 
 
 mechanism of, 80 
 
 of painful nature, 88 
 
 reasoning in, 93 
 
 relation to neurosis and psy- 
 choses, 78 
 
 similarity in, 93 
 
 structure and mechanism, 78 
 
 symbolic expressions in dreams, 
 116 
 
 symbolism, 78 
 
 technic of interpretation, 78 
 Dreamy states, 155, 310, 318 
 examples of, 319, 320 
 psychological significance of, 
 323 
 Dyspnea, 130 
 
 Economy, 392, 429, 448 
 
 of expression, 408 
 
 of sympathy, 448 
 Ego, 23, 286 
 
 complex, 221, 227, 243 
 
 incompatability with, 22 
 Egotist, 353 
 Ejaculatio prsecox, 132 
 ElUpses, 178 
 
 Ellis, H., 147, 151, 291, 341, 389 
 Emotion, 446 
 
 discharge of, 141 
 
 strangulation of, 20 
 Empiricism, 349 
 Enemy, 425 
 Erogenous zones, 28, 29, 351, 
 
 390, 397 
 Eros, 26, 211
 
 INDEX 
 
 459 
 
 Erotic interest, 395 
 Eroticism, 390 
 
 Erotomania, 273, 277, 278, 279 
 Erroneously carried-out actions, 
 
 52, 53 
 Esthetic culture, 436 
 Ethical training, 83 
 Eunuch, 90 
 Euphemisms, 81 
 Euphoria, 238, 319, 448 
 Excitement, peripheral, 28 
 
 sexual, 421 
 
 sum of, 21 
 Exhibit, 423 
 Exhibition, 172, 421, 423 
 
 dreams, 263 
 Exhibitionism, 29, 30, 172, 324, 
 
 325 
 Exhibitionists, 354 
 
 Fabrications, 31? 
 Factor, causative, 32 
 
 characteristic of hysteria, 135 
 Fairy tales, 363 
 False connection, 24 
 Famihar, discovery of, 430, 432 
 Fancies, conscious, 311, 312 
 
 hysterical, 310 
 
 sexual, 142 
 
 unconscious, 311, 312 
 Father image, 349, 350 
 Favorite child, 339 
 Fear in dreams, 88, 139, 225, 340 
 
 in newly married, 132 
 
 of betrayal, 169 
 
 social, 167 
 
 virginal, 132 
 Fechner, 435 
 Federn, 155, 385 
 Feelings, esthetic, 30 
 
 homosexual, 275 
 
 incestuous, 340 
 
 moral, 30 
 
 sexual, 31 
 
 among brothers and sisters, 
 341 
 
 Feelings, social, 351 
 
 Fere, 125 
 
 Ferenczi, 273, 288, 344, 346, 362 
 
 Fiction, 431 
 
 Fischer, 400, 408 
 
 Fishberg, 359, 360 
 
 Fixation, 20, 275, 277, 283, 340, 
 348, 351, 356 
 incestuous, 340, 346 
 in narcism, 286 
 
 FoUe du doute, 131, 137, 181 
 
 Foreconscious, 40, 41, 441, 447 
 
 Forel, 128 
 
 Fore-pleasure, 443 
 meaning of, 437 
 
 Forgetting, 23, 80 
 of dreams, 100, 173 
 of names, 36, 43, 44 
 of objects, 437 
 of resolutions, 53 
 
 Forgotten impressions, 22 
 
 Free associations, 37, 47 
 will, 74 
 
 Freud, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 27, 
 28, 30, 31, 34, 35, 37, 40, 41, 
 44, 61, 66, 77, 79, 87, 123, 125, 
 126, 127, 128, 132, 135, 145, 
 151, 169, 176, 185, 189, 191, 
 192, 193, 198, 199, 207, 217, 
 221, 226, 227, 242, 244, 246, 
 251, 263, 264, 273, 274, 275, 
 284, 287, 288, 289, 290, 294, 
 296, 300, 301, 310, 321, 325, 
 328, 330, 331, 333, 334, 335, 
 344, 346, 348, 351, 355, 362, 
 363, 389, 390, 391, 392, 400, 
 401, 410, 416, 441 
 
 Freudian school, 348 
 
 Friedjung, 153, 361 
 
 Frigidity, 100 
 in women, 356 
 
 Ganser, 318 
 Generalization, 178 
 Genitals, 28, 390 
 primacy of, 29, 30
 
 460 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Gratification, 132, 424 
 
 insufficient, 134 
 
 sexual, 311, 312 
 Gregory, M. S., 25, 244 
 Griesinger, 151 
 Grim humor, 419, 447 
 Groos, 432 
 Guttceit, 149 
 
 Hallucinations, 221, 442 
 
 auditory, 226, 227 
 
 teleological, 226 
 Hallucinatory confusion, 25 
 Hauptmann, 78 
 Heart spasm, 129 
 Hebephrenia, 287 
 Hellenic state, 243 
 Hereditary deterioration, 31 
 
 lues, 32 
 Heredity, 352 
 Hermaphrodites, psychosexual, 
 
 292 
 Hermaphroditism, 294 
 
 psychic, 295 
 theory of, 296 
 Heterosexual, 274 
 Heterosexuality, 277 
 Hindrances, 426 
 
 internal, 428 
 
 outer, 428 
 Hirschfeld, 291, 292, 294, 295, 299 
 Hobbies, 68 
 Hoch, 207 
 Holt, 39 
 Homosexual, 354 
 
 episode, 317 
 
 object selection, 274 
 
 pederasts, 396 
 
 relation, 216 
 
 unconscious, 299 
 
 wish-phantasies, 270, 273, 274, 
 276 
 Homosexuality, 27, 100, 275, 281, 
 289, 281, 355, 356 
 
 abhorrence to, 289-290 
 
 acquired, 294 
 
 Homosexuality, among Greeks, 
 296 
 
 bisexual theory in, 295 
 
 congenital, 293, 294 
 
 cure in, 307 
 
 diagnosis of, 100, 297 
 
 pathological, 289 
 
 secondary sex characteristics 
 in, 295 
 
 sexual aim in, 297 
 
 tardive, 294 
 
 theories of, 294 
 
 unconscious, 277 
 
 universaUty of, 290-291 
 Horseshoe as talisman, 71 
 Humor, 447 
 
 grim, 419, 447 
 
 pleasure of, 447 
 Hunger, 321 
 
 Hyperesthesia, auditory, 128 
 Hypnosis, 21, 300 
 Hypnotic state, 18 
 Hypnotism, its limitations, 21 
 Hypochondriacal ideas of mas- 
 
 turbator, 169 
 Hypocrisy, 26 
 Hysteria, 18, 32, 286 
 
 character of, 23 
 
 identification in, 280 
 
 symptoms of, 18, 23 
 Hysteric, 19 
 Hysterical accusations, 315 
 
 attacks, 310 
 
 counter-will, 19 
 
 fainting spells, 170 
 
 fancies, 310 
 
 symptoms, 18, 20, 32, 35 
 
 Ibsen, 112 
 
 Idea of sudden death, 129 
 
 of threatening insanity, 129 
 Ideas, contrasting, 400 
 
 hypochondriacal, 232 
 Ideler, 125 
 Identification, 107, 280, 314, 396 
 
 in hysteria, 280, 281
 
 INDEX 
 
 461 
 
 Identification, unconscious, 54 
 Idiogamists, 339 
 Illogical character, 410 
 
 conclusions, 430 
 Imitation, 446 
 Impotence, psychic, 356 
 
 psychosexual, 89, 157, 339 
 Impressions, forgotten, 43 
 
 mental, 349 
 
 optical, 422 
 
 repressed, 41 
 
 tenaciousness of, 43 
 Impudent, 443 
 Impulse for cruelty, 29 
 
 for looking, 29, 178 
 
 for showing, 29, 439 
 
 for touching, 29 
 
 libidinous, 424 
 
 of exhibitionism, 324 
 Impulses, 330 
 
 constitutional, 331 
 
 first sexual, 337 
 
 partial, 29 
 
 primitive, 30, 40 
 
 sexual, 26 
 
 to show off, 439 
 Incest, abhorrence of, 340, 341 
 
 among savages, 346 
 
 shyness, 346, 357 
 Indecision, 181 
 Indirect expression, 418, 420 
 Individual psychology, 18 
 
 relations, 351 
 Infancy, 28, 390 
 Infantile masturbation, 150 
 
 sexual curiosity, sublimation 
 of, 30 
 theories, 139 
 
 sexuality, 171, 289 
 Influences, toxic, 431 
 Ingenuous, 443 
 Inhibiting process, 85 
 Inhibition, 47, 48, 83, 279, 330 
 
 expenditure in, 448 
 
 inner, 437 
 
 of decorum, 434 
 
 Inhibition, psychic, 429 
 
 social, 421 
 
 suspension of, 440 
 Inman, Thomas, 71, 117, 126, 389 
 Innervation, motor, 23, 312 
 
 sensory, 23 
 
 somatic, 24 
 Inordinate appetite, 130 
 Insane, collecting manias among, 
 73 
 
 utterances, 26, 38 
 Insanity, masturbation, 161 
 Insomnia, 137 
 
 cause of, 128 
 Insatiableness, 74 
 Insult, psychology of, 436 
 Inversion, theories of, 294 
 Inverts, 290 
 
 absolute, 292 
 
 amphigenous, 292 
 
 congenital, 293 
 
 occasional, 292 
 Irritability, 23, 128, 191, 221, 
 
 243, 248 
 
 Janet, 23, 191, 221, 243, 248 
 Jealousy, 106, 344, 345, 355 
 
 delusions of, 279 
 Jest, 438 
 
 its object, 433 
 
 witt}% 405 
 Jeu de'sprit, 405 
 Jewish jokes, 439 
 
 race, 359 
 Joke, 81 
 
 hostile, 421 
 
 obscene, 421, 425 
 
 smutty, 421, 422 
 its motive, 421, 422 
 Jones, 44, 75, 77, 109, 196, 273, 
 
 288, 344 
 Judaism, 359 
 Judgment, 420, 433 
 
 critical, 438 
 Jung, 62, 125, 145, 199, 202, 207, 
 
 216, 221, 226, 344, 348
 
 462 
 
 INDEX 
 
 KiERNAN, 151, 292, 294 
 Kindergarten, 359 
 Kleinpaul, 117 
 Kraepelin, 206, 207, 250 
 Krafft-Ebing, 292, 294, 295, 341 
 
 Lapses of memory, 43 
 
 of talking, 43, 45, 56, 57 
 
 of writing, 43 
 Lapsus linguae, 56, 57, 101 
 Lasegue, 125 
 Latency period, 30, 351, 390 
 
 deferred, 172 
 Latent content, 83 
 Laughing, 437, 446 
 Laughter, 420, 425 
 Le Sage, 396 
 Libidinous manifestations, first, 
 
 28 
 Libido, 32, 274, 275, 279 
 
 fixation, 326 
 
 for looking, 422 
 
 for touching, 422 
 
 withdrawal of, 284, 285, 286, 
 287 
 Liebman, 249 
 Loathing, 30, 390 
 Locke, 348 
 Logic, 412 
 
 false, 413, 419, 430 
 
 restraint of, 432 
 Looking, 30 
 
 libido for, 422 
 Losing objects, 75 
 Love, 26, 321, 349 
 
 abnormal, 353, 354 
 
 and hatred, 179 
 
 between parents and children, 
 330, 349 
 
 deflection of, 350 
 
 doubt about, 181 
 
 object, 29, 154 
 
 projection of, 349 
 
 the struggle between, 179 
 Lowenfeld, 318 
 Lydston, 292, 294 
 
 Maeder, 288 
 
 Mania, doubting, 181 
 
 Manic depressive insanity, 137 
 
 Manifest content, 83 
 
 Manifold application, 406, 408, 
 
 410, 415 
 Mannerism, 90 
 Mantegazza, 339 
 Marriages, consanguineous, 326 
 Masculine prostitutes, 296 
 Masochistic components, subli- 
 mation of, 30 
 Masochists, 354 
 
 Masturbation, 27, 28, 33, 34, 76, 
 90, 136, 146, 169, 241, 243, 
 311, 322 
 
 causes, 149 
 
 control of, 156 
 
 controlled, 154 
 
 dangers of, 150 
 
 environment in, 158 
 
 false ideas concerning, 136, 
 150, 151 
 
 fear and punishment in, 156, 
 158 
 
 in adult, 160 
 
 in children, 156 
 
 infantile, 28, 150 
 
 insanity, 161 
 
 interrupted, 327 
 
 its universality, 136, 148 
 
 mental, 328 
 
 mutual, 297 
 
 physical health and, 153 
 
 psychological factors connected 
 with, 155 
 
 relation to neurosis and psy- 
 chosis, 146 
 
 sexual outlet, 158 
 
 somnambulistic, 33 
 
 treatment of, 160 
 
 unconscious, 33, 34 
 Masturbators, 146 
 
 chronic 60 
 
 characteristics of, 155 
 
 hypochondriacal ideas of, 16^
 
 INDEX 
 
 463 
 
 Masturbo-fantastic gratification, 
 
 312 
 Maturity, 32 
 Measures, protective, 167 
 Mechanism of obsessions, 178 
 Melancholia, periodic, 167 
 Memory gaps, 36 
 
 lapses of, 35, 43 
 
 symbols, 20, 23 
 Mental concentration, 324 
 
 conflict, 32 
 
 impressions, 349 
 Metathesis, 60 
 Meyer, Adolf, 207, 250-254 
 Miserhness, 394 
 Mislaying, 51 
 Missending, 52 
 Mistakes in printing, 61 
 
 in reading, 56, 60 
 
 in speaking, 56, 59 
 
 in talking, 35 
 
 in writing, 56, 59 
 Modesty, sexual, 421 
 Moll, 147, 151, 153, 154, 291, 294, 
 
 300 
 Money complex, 395, 396 
 Monosexuality, 294 
 Morality, 30 
 Morbid perception, 26 
 Mortality, 390 
 Morton, 191 
 Mother Goose, 431 
 
 ideal, 301, 350 
 
 image, 337, 349 
 
 influence of, 337 
 Mother-in-law, 348, 355 
 Mouth, 28, 390 
 Movements, 446 
 Muscular cramps, 130 
 Music expressing the complex, 74 
 Mysophobia, 192 
 
 Nacke, 101, 292, 294, 298 
 Naive, 443, 444, 445 
 
 functions of, 443, 444 
 Naivete, examples of,, 444 
 
 Nancy school, 17 
 
 Narcism, 274, 275, 276, 286, 302, 
 
 351 
 Natura frigida, 188 
 Nausea, 316 
 
 hysterical, 102 
 Neatness, 394 
 Negligence, 392 
 Nelken, 382 
 
 Neologisms, 370, 401, 431 
 Neter, 153, 348 
 Neurasthenia, etiology of, 127 
 
 periodic, 167 
 
 symptoms, 127 
 Neuroses, 30, 32, 127 
 
 mixed, 322 
 
 unconscious factors in, 184 
 Neurotic individual, 356 
 Nightmares, 100 
 Night-terrors, 364 
 Nocturnal frights, 130 
 Nonsense, 412 
 Nonsensical, 412, 419 
 Noopsyche, 240 
 Normal, 30 
 
 individual, 356 
 
 sexuality, 30 
 
 Object love, 274, 286, 351 
 Obscene joking, 325, 421, 439 
 Obsession, 24, 163, 397 
 
 psychanalysis of, 36, 38, 103, 
 104, 178 
 Obsessive thinking, 165 
 Obstacles, overcoming of, 86 
 Obstinacy, 392, 395 
 Obstinate, 392 
 
 constipation, 395 
 Obstruction, 47 
 Occasional inverts, 292 
 (Edipus complex, 179, 326, 329, 
 344 
 
 dreams, 335, 336 
 
 in psychoses, 343 
 
 legend, 331, 332 
 Onanism, 151, 312
 
 464 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Only child, 339, 348 
 
 attributes of, 348, 352 
 drawbacks of, 352 
 in adult life, 348 
 
 Orderliness, 394 
 
 Orderly, 392 
 
 Outdoing, 417 
 
 Painful arm, 33 
 
 idea, 23 
 Palpitation, 129 
 Paralysis, 33, 135 
 
 of volition, 180 
 Paranoia, 165, 270, 282, 343 
 
 and dementia pragcox relations 
 between, 286 
 
 psychological mechanisms of, 
 270 
 Paranoid condition, 273 
 
 ideas, 359 
 Paraphrenia, 250, 287 
 Parental ideals, 349 
 
 influence, 349, 351 
 unconscious, 339 
 Parents, fixation on, 348 
 
 influence of, 329 
 
 jealousj^ of, 345 
 
 neglect of, 330 
 
 syphilis in, 32 
 Paresthesia, 130 
 Parody, 446 
 
 Partial impulses, 28, 29, 324 
 repression of, 29, 30 
 revival of, 398 
 Passion between brothers and 
 
 sisters, 341 
 Passivity, 165 
 Pathogenic ideas, 22 
 
 memory, 166 
 Pathological homosexuality, 289 
 Paul, Jean, 400 
 Pavor nocturuus, 130, 386 
 Pedantry, 128 
 Pederasty, 102, 172 
 Peepers, 423 
 Pelletier, 113 
 
 Pelman, 72 
 
 Periodic depression, 136 
 
 melancholia, 167 
 
 neurasthenia, 167 
 Persecution, 278 
 Perspiration, profuse, 129 
 Perversions, 30, 31, 354, 356, 423 
 
 negative of, 31, 32, 399 
 Perverts, 32, 280, 361 
 Peterson, 125, 248, 391, 393 
 Phantasies, 31 
 Phobias, 131, 163, 168, 397 
 
 origin of, 24 
 Picture test, 114 
 Pity, 30 
 
 Play-pleasure, 438 
 Pleasure, 436 
 
 feeUng of, 420, 421 
 
 inaccessible, 433 
 
 mechanism, 427 
 
 of humor, 447 
 
 repressed, 395 
 
 sources, 421, 432 
 Poetry and dreams, 114 
 Polymorphous perverse, 30, 175, 
 
 192, 261, 289, 315 
 Posthypnotic suggestions, 191 
 Poverty, delusions of, 73 
 Praying, 182 
 Precocious, 352 
 Predisposition, 221, 439 
 Premium, 437 
 Prescott, F. C, 114 
 Primitive impulses, 40 
 
 thinking, 113 
 Prince, M., 108, 191 
 Projection mechanism, 178, 281, 
 
 282, 287 • 
 Prophylaxis, 358, 361 
 Prostitutes, _aasculine, 296 
 Prostitution complex, 338, 339 
 Protective measures, 167, 182 
 
 mechanisms, 41 
 Prudishness, 26 
 Pseudo-angina pectoris, 129 
 Pscadoiogia phantastica, 315
 
 INDEX 
 
 465 
 
 Pseudonyms, 242 
 
 Psychic activities, incorrect, 43 
 
 censor, 22, 23, 47, 82 
 
 damming, 428 
 
 expenditure, 429, 430, 432 
 economy of, 438 
 
 force, 22, 82, 425 
 
 hermaphroditism, theory of, 
 296 
 
 hindrances, 32 
 
 impotence, 354, 356 
 
 pain, 19 
 
 shocks, 218 
 
 state, 445 
 
 streams, 32, 40, 221, 244 
 
 traumas, 19, 26 
 
 work, 22 
 Psychoanalysis, 17, 240, 395 
 
 duration of, 39 
 
 in psychoses, 199, 203 
 
 method of, 36, 138 
 
 of anxiety hysteria, 94, 136 
 
 of hysterical symptom, 32 
 
 of obsession, 38 
 Psychoanalytic method, 22 
 Psychoasthenias, 164 
 Psychogenesis, 218 
 
 of wit, 427 
 Psychology, experimental, 199 
 
 individual factors of, 18 
 
 of love and hatred, 77 
 
 of mother-in-law, 348 
 Psychoneuroses, 17, 127, 226, 354 
 
 causation of, 424 
 Psychoneurotic symptom, 36, 40 
 Psychopathological actions, 37, 
 
 40, 43 
 Psychosexual constitution, 324 
 
 development, 169, 351 
 
 hermaphrodites, 292 
 
 impotence, 89, 157, 336, 339 
 Psychosexuality, 27 
 Psychosis, 25 
 Psychotherapy, 17, 18, 32 
 
 schools of, 18 
 Puberty, age of, 27, 390 
 30 
 
 Puberty, beginning of, 30 
 Public school, 359 
 Puns, 408 
 Putnam, 344, 388 
 
 Rank, 344, 388 
 Reaction dream, 112 
 
 formations, 390, 394, 397 
 
 time, 200 
 
 types, 200 
 Reactions, 30, 200, 325 
 Reality, 431 
 Reason, 431 
 Recantations, 220 
 Rectum, 394 
 Reduplications, 431 
 Refrain, 430 
 Regression, 275, 287 
 
 of sublimation, 279 
 Reitler, 155 
 ReUability, 394 
 Religion, 330 
 Remarks, witty, 427 
 Reminiscences, hysterical, 19 
 Remote analogies, 114 
 Removal pleasure, 438 
 Repartee, 415 
 Representation through the 
 
 opposite, 417, 419 
 Repressed impressions, 41 
 Repression, 22, 23, 30, 32, 34, 35, 
 41, 80, 81, 282, 286, 314, 
 424, 425, 435 
 
 conception of, 80 
 
 failure of, 22, 283, 397 
 
 phases of, 282, 283 
 
 retarded, 397 
 
 return of, 167, 183 
 Reproaches, 166 
 Reproachful actions, 167 
 Reproduction in association ex- 
 periment, 75, 101 
 
 of traumatic scenes, 21 
 Resistances, 43, 100, 420, 431 
 
 overcoming of, 22 
 
 unconscious, 43, 173
 
 466 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Resolution dream, 122 
 Respiratory disturbances, 129 
 Resultant pleasure, 403, 435 
 Retort, 428 
 Retrogression, 275 
 Reveries, 217 
 Rhyme, 430 
 Riklin, 199, 207 
 Rohleder, 147, 149 
 Romer, 291 
 
 Sachs, 155 
 
 Sadger, 155, 274, 294, 300, 301, 
 
 302 
 Sadism, 372 
 
 in fairy tales, 361, 362, 381 
 Sadist, 325, 354 
 
 Sadistic component, 171, 175, 357 
 sublimation of, 30 
 
 conception, 139 
 Sante de Sanctis, 125 
 Satire, 421 
 
 Schizophrenia, 229, 248, 253, 287 
 Schrenck-Notzing, 294 
 Screaming spells, 170 
 Scrupulosity, 166, 392 
 
 meaning of, 110 
 Secondary defense, 167, 168 
 
 elaboration, 93 
 
 rationalization, 284 
 Seduction, sexual, 166 
 Selection, 422 
 
 of professions, 63, 376 
 
 prehistoric, 357 
 Self-willed, 393 
 Semi-stuporous state, 170 
 Senseless, 433, 445 
 Sex, abnormal, 354 
 
 development, 27 
 Sexual aberrations, 290 
 
 aims, 290 
 
 anesthesia, 132, 354 
 
 attack, 141 
 
 barriers, 351 
 
 conception of, 26 
 
 constitution, 30, 31 
 
 Sexual curiosity, 367, 369, 423 
 
 development, 27 
 
 excitement, 28, 32 
 
 exhibitionist, 325 
 
 experiences of childhood, 26 
 
 germs, 27 
 
 gratification, 311, 312 
 
 ignorance, 26 
 
 impulse, 26, 27, 351, 390 
 
 latency period, 390 
 
 life, abnormal, 31 
 
 maladjustments, 356 
 
 modesty, 423 
 
 object, 286, 290, 346, 351, 422 
 
 overestimation, 355 
 
 perverse activity, 32 
 
 somatic injuries, 135 
 
 suppression, 226 
 
 symbols, 116, 143, 403 
 
 theories, 30 
 
 trauma, 338 
 Sexuality, 26 
 
 infantile, 289 
 
 normal, 30 
 SexuaUzation, 275 
 Sexuals, contrary, 290 
 Shaking attacks, 130 
 Shame, 30, 166, 167, 170, 324, 
 
 390 
 Shapes, 446 
 
 Similar and cognate, 418 
 Skatological, 391, 392 
 
 obsessions, 397 
 Skylarking, 431 
 Smile, 421 
 Smutty-joke, 421 
 Social aims, 29, 30 
 
 cultivation, 424 
 
 feelings, 275, 351 
 Society, 426 
 
 Somatic innervation, 24 
 Somnambulism, 22 
 Son-in-law, 355, 357 
 Sophism, 414 
 Sound association, 98 
 Spectator, passive, 426
 
 INDEX 
 
 467 
 
 Speech in dream, 246 
 
 Spielrein, 382 
 
 Steinach, 296 
 
 Stekel, 126, 135, 145, 151, 344, 362 
 
 Stereotype, 247 
 
 Stimulus words, 199 
 
 Strangulated emotions, 20, 23 
 
 Strauss, 317 
 
 Studien iiber Hysterie, 18 
 
 Sublimation, 30, 275, 276, 390, 
 
 422 
 Substitution, 178, 416 
 Substitutive formation, 23, 403 
 
 gratifications, 322 
 Suggestions, 221, 224 
 Suicide explanation of, 244 
 
 methods of, 244 
 Sully, J., 125 
 Superiority, 447 
 Superstition, 396 
 Symbol, 139 
 
 definition of, 113 
 
 gross sexual, 117 
 Symbolic actions, 61, 62, 220, 247 
 
 expressions, 37, 49, 117, 225, 
 244, 245 
 in dreams, 46 
 SymboUsm, 81, 101, 104, 121, 382 
 
 in dreams, 116, 121 
 
 in hallucinations, 114 
 
 in insanity, 114 
 
 in rehgion, 93, 114 
 Symbols, 113 
 
 Sympathy, economy of, 447 
 Symptoms, 32 
 
 as expression of wish fulfil- 
 ment, 103 
 . hysterical, 312 
 
 psychoneurotic, 36 
 Synge, 334 
 S5rphilis in parents, 32 
 
 Tabula rasa, 348 
 Tachycardia, 129 
 Teleological, 226 
 Tenaciousness of impressions, 43 
 
 Tendency wit, 325, 425, 426, 427, 
 433 
 
 hostile, 426 
 Test person, 201 
 
 picture, 115 
 
 words, 200-201 
 Thought condensation, 404 
 Thoughts, witty, 409 
 Thumbsucking, 28 
 Thymopsyche, 240 
 Tics, 19, 446 
 Touching, 30 
 
 Ubido for, 422 
 Townsend, 153 
 Transference, 276, 282, 350 
 Transformation, 403 
 Transitory arrhythmia, 129 
 Trauma, 19 
 
 psychic, 19, 26 
 
 sexual, 33, 338 
 Travesty, 446 
 TrembUng, attacks of, 130 
 Tucker, Beverly R., 192, 307 
 Twofold application, 405 
 
 Ulrich, 295 
 
 Unconscious, 40, 80, 350, 441, 447 
 
 activity, 192 
 
 and wit, 441 
 
 attachment, 351 
 
 complexes, 221 
 
 factors in neuroses, 184 
 
 homosexuaUty, 277 
 
 homosexuals, 299 
 
 language of, 173 
 
 parental influences, 339 
 
 resistances, 43 
 
 sadism, 176 
 
 the language of, 173 
 
 wit, 415, 427, 430 
 Uranism, 290 
 
 Vain, 353 
 Van Dyke, 40 
 Vertigo, 130 
 Violence, 392
 
 468 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Vischer, 400 
 
 Von Hug-Hellmuth, 154, 157 
 
 Voyeurs, 354, 423 
 
 Wanke, 388 
 Waterman, 109 
 Wernicke, 206 
 Wildman, 343 
 Wish, 41, 227 
 
 fulfilment, 35, 36, 87, 321 
 
 hidden, 88, 442 
 fulfilment of, 83, 144 
 
 unattainable, 22, 23, 43 
 Wish-phantasies, 315 
 
 homosexual, 270, 273, 274, 276, 
 277 
 Wit, 75 
 
 and dreams, 441 
 
 and the comic, 442 
 
 and the unconscious, 441 
 
 characteristic quaUties of, 400, 
 420 
 
 discrepancies in, 401 
 
 distribution, 435 
 
 diversities in, 401 
 
 divisions of, 400 
 
 harmless, 419, 420, 425, 427, 
 438 
 
 Wit, motives of, 438 
 
 obscene, 425, 434 
 
 of aggression, 439 
 
 psychogenesis of, 427 
 
 purposeful, 419 
 
 purposeless, 434 
 
 shallow, 420 
 
 social process, 438 
 
 technic of, 401, 420 
 
 tendencies of, 419 
 
 theory of, 400 
 Wit-making, 435, 438 
 Witticism, 420, 433 
 Woman, 421, 423 
 
 unyieldingness of, 423 
 Words, obscene, 422 
 
 playing with, 431 
 
 witty, 409, 419 
 World system, 285 
 
 Zones, 27 
 
 anal, 391, 397 
 
 erogenous, 28, 29, 351, 390, 
 397 
 
 genital, 30 
 Zoophilia, 174 
 Zurich school, 26, 80, 101, 199, 
 
 207, 248
 
 5bl 2
 
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