'" yr^^^mvPT^'Y THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID [Partly repriiiteJ from ILe QUARTERLY JOURNAL OK VETERINARY SCIENCE IN INDIA. A- m;a.nu"a.l OF TllK DISEASES OF THE CAMEL AND OF HIS MANAGEMENT AND USES, BY JOHN HENRY STEEL, v.s., a.v.d., v.k.c.v.<^., f z.s., FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BOMBAY, PRINCIPAL AND PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY SCIENCE, BOMBAY VETERINARY COLLEGE, EDITOR OF THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE IN INDIA, AUTHOR OF SUNDRY WORKS ON VARIOUS BRANCHES OF VETERINARY KNOWLEDGE. [Illustrated.] NDIAN VETERINARY MANUALS, /IDa&ras: PRINTED AT THE LAWRENCE ASYLUM PRES.S, MOUNT ROAD. BY (i. W. TAYLOR. 1890. [All righis reserved.'] r\ TO J. H. B. HALLEN, f.r.c.s.e., f.r.s.e,, INSPECTING VETERINARY SURGEON, I.V.D., GENERAL SUPERINTENDENT OF HORSE BREEDING OPERATIONS. SMALL WORK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED AS A TESTIMONY TO HIS Long and persistent efforts to promote VETERINARY PROGRESS IN PREFACE. When I brought out tbe companion work to this, on the Elephant, an ingenious critic rated me soundly because I had not detailed information on diseases of the mighty pachyderm comparable on even terras with our knowledge of the surgery and medicine of the horse, ox, and man. That critic will have lots of scope in scarifying me over this book, for Cameline Pathology is sadly in arrears and the English in India, the Russians in Central Asia, the French in Algeria, and the Arabs in North Africa and South-Western Asia are but slowly accumulating exact knowledge of diseases of the Camel. Had I chosen to bring pure theory to bear I might have posed as a grand promoter, indeed as the originator, of Cameline Pathology and have given a full and elaborate account for correction hereafter b}'" practical observers. Such has not been my object ; I have aimed at " holding a mirror up to nature," and have painted Cameline Pathology " with all its warts ;" for I believe that by making the utmost of what we d.o know, by systematic arrangement, and by scientific expression I best prepare the subject for future advances. It is no slight step forward when we learn our ignorance of a science ! J. H. S. Bombay, 1890. ivi373G54 ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate 1. Aden Camel Market,° ... ... ... Frontispiece. „ 2. One and two-humped Camels in good condition To face p. 2 ,, 3. The forehand of a Soudanese Baggage Camel° „ „ 6 ,, 4. A Soudanese warrior on a Sowari Came]° „ ., 8 ,, 5. The Stomachs of a Camel opened longitudinally* ,, ,, 60 „ 6. Histological diagrams of various structures* „ „ 67 „ 7. Gastric mass of a Camel (Colin) and some anatomi- cal and histological details* ... ... „ „ 68 „ 8. Temporal glands and Female generative organs* ,, „ 83 „ 9. Sarcoptes Cameli* ... ... ... „ „ 92 „ 10. Various Surgical details : — (a) Method of tying down the Camel (after Gil- christ). (b) Serwan's implements (after Leach). (c) Ligature for bleeding, and splint for lower jaw (after Gilchrist). (d) Structure of the humps (after Lombardini). (e) Histology of the humps (after Lombar- dini) ... ... ... ... „ „ 103 „ 11. Heart bone and diaphragm bone of Camel* \ ,,. Skeleton of the Camel* ... ... •' ,, 12 — 19. Diagrams illustrating dentition ... ... „ ,, 161 ,, 20. Map of Camel distribution ... ... ... „ ,, 164 * After Lombardini. ^ From photographs casually obtained. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction: Gciionil Essay on tlu; Suljji'ct ... ... pp. i\ — xvi (^H.vrxER I : The Camel as an animal of Transpori. — Opinions on tlic camel vary. Uses of tlio dilYcrcnt parts of a cainel after death. He is the transport nninial for certain couiiti-ies. Varieties ; Afghan, Pahari, J?actrian, Scindi, I'linjabi, Beloochi, Bikanir, North-West Provinces and Oudli, Taloocher, Persian, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. The two-humped camel, Turkestani (Tuya). Kussian experi- ences. Algerian varieties ; want of judgment in .selection of varieties of camel for service. Enrojjcans do not understand camels. Camel as an animal of Transport sel- dom properly cared for. Qualities which affect his value as an animal of Transport, effects of rutting or " must," hardihood — loads — pace — advantages of camel convoys. "Want of versatility ; use for guns and in harness. Care in management of camels, Arab and Turkoman experiences. Effects of state of road on progress of camels. Crossing rivers and nullahs. Food and feeding. 'I'he regulation ration — grazing — fodders. General routine of camel man- agement. Watering. How often should camels^ be watered? Inspection, arrangement of lines, night guard. Care of saddlery and other gear — loading — jhools — camping grounds. Castration. Selection of camels for ])ublic service. Dentition as denoting age. Method of examining a camel as to fitness for Transport service. Age limits to efficiency. Attendants — the gait of camels — procurabilit}'. JS'unn on names applied to camels of different sizes. Breeding. Natural history of the camel ... ... ... pj). 1 — 132 Chaftek II : Clencral considerations on diseases of the Camel. — Special fcatuies of cameline pathology. Information resulting from Veterinary Science. General symptoms of ill health. Fever. The pulse. Internal temperature. Ivespirations. State of excreta — prognosis. Treatment ... pj). o2 — 38 CH\nER III : Cameline Tlierapeutics and. Materia Medica. — Mussauls. Na'nass or snuff. Lapes or ointments. Unjuns or lachry- mants. Firing. Bleeding ; general and local. Fomen- tations. Laxatives and eal hartics. Fnemata. Sedatives. Stimulants, Ac. I)os:;s. i\lethous of adniinisti-alion. MeaJis ol restraint. ]\lisccllaucous considerations ... pp. '68 — i-j CiiAi'TER IV : The Blood and Us diseases. — Anatomy and physiology of tho blood. Anemia or debility. Surra (Khanhog and Doaia). Anthrax (Chhalie). Fatal but obscure disorders of camels. Haslam's record from Suez. Foot and mouth disease. Rinderpest. Camel pox v. Variola cameli (Mata, cheechuk). Glanders. Pinseekamurz. Pakdar. Strangles. Rabies Tuberculosis. Rheumatism. Zerbad. Hydatid cysts. Hasmatozoa. Poisoning. Problems to be solved concerning blood diseases of camels. ... ... ... pp.45 — 59 Chapter V : The Digestioe system and its disorders. — Anatomical pecu- liarities of the alimentary canal. The teeth, palu, stom- achs. Colin on the dimensions of the Alimentary Canal, (.rahasha or Inflammation of the Palu. Sore throat, three forms. Parotiditis, glossitis, vomition ; Hoven or flatulent colic ; Impaction of the Rumen. Enteritis (Bhao, one forml, Ascites ; constipation or costiveness ; Diarrhoea, purging, dysentery. Lombardini on the digestive system of the camel. Teeth. Tonsilar concretions. On the functions of the water sacs. Umbilical Hernia. Indigestion. Vahee golah (Gilchrist). Intestinal parasites. Appendix. The pancreas. The liver. Congestion of the liver. Hepatitis Hydatid invasion of the liver ... ... pp.59 — 71 Chapter VI : Circulatory system. — The heart. Burke's rapid cirrhosis. Anatomy. Venesection ... ... ... PP- 71 — 72 Chapter VII: The Respiratory apparatus. — Nasal catarrh (Khoorka). Laryngitis, cough. Kapaulee and obscurity of its pathology. Ulceration of the nostrils. Nose peg injuries. Maggot in the nose. CEstrus cameli or the camel Bot. Diseases of the chest. Pneumonia. Pleuropericarditis (Lombardini). Pul- monary Apoplexy. Strongylus filaria. Chronic lung disease. Hydatids. Tubercular Phthisis PP- 72 — 81 Chapter VIII: Urinary disorders. — Retention of urine. Dj'^suria. Haema- turia (Soozark). Renal and urethi'al calculi. pp. 81 — 82 Chapter IX : Generative apparatus. — Temporal glands and their secre- tion. Lai'rey's observations on genetic furor. Pendulovis penis. Castration. The generative organs of the female and their functions. Apfendix 1. On the diseases of young camels. Ulcerative Stomatitis. Appendix 2. Analyses of milk of female camels ... ... ... pp- 82 — 84 Chapter X : Tl/e Nervous apparatus. — General remarks. Megrims; Ver- tigo. Tuj) Surga (Leach). Murghcc ka murz (Gilchrist), rumaun ka murz 'Gilchrist) •'Cold Struck." Cerebritis. Ahrcn bhao (Gilt). CiBuurus cerebralis. Paraplegia (Jolay. Tetanus. He wa or Heat Apoplexy ... pp. 85 — 8S vn Chaptek XI : Cutaneous system. — Miiiigcor itch ( Kliarisk). Its viirietins. Kc-zoiua. tlir non-parasitic form. PrcvciiLivf ticutmont. ( 'inc. The •* mange insect," Sarcoptcs cajucli. (\)mtniiiiiciil)lity of Iruemangeto mankind. Causes. Symptoms. Ti-eutmeiit: pii;- ventive and curative. Various metliods : Leach's, Haslam's, Clayton's, Yaldwin's, Gilchrist's, Bennett's, Montgcmiery plan (Nunn), Carbuccia's, Lombardini's. Major Elliot on the problem of treatment of skin disease of camels on service. Other diseases of the skin. Eczema, Agheen bhao. Ecior.na. Jehun (lice). The Seroot fly. The Debab fly ... pp. 88—102 Chapter XTI : Minor Snnjical condiiioiis. — Wounds in general ; bullet wounds. Branding sores. Contusions. Galls. Of nose. Injuries to tail. Ulceration of the tail. Crupper galls ; inju- ries of the jaw and mouth. Elbow gall. Boss or pad galls. Soreback or saddle gall, its causes and treatment. Hump injuries and Cancerous disease. Abscess (phora) : of neck glands, of chest, of groin (el magoub), outside thigh, over eye, gomri or kapaulee, subcutaneous boils, chandri or chhahliyan ... ... ... pp.102 — 113 Chaptkr XIII : The Locomotan/ system. — Description of the leading peculi- arities of the skeleton. Fractures and dislocations. Anchy- losis. Bone spavin. Anchylosis of Vertebrae. Sprains (Lutchuk), levelled legs, swollen joints, sprained shoulder, atrophy of limb muscles, laceration of the ham muscles. I'umours rare. Fibroma ... ... ... pp. 113 — 115 Chapter XIV : The organs of the Special Sense. — Paucity of our knowledge. The £'ar, canker of the ear. The i^ye, injuries. The pedal apparatus. Postures of the camel, paces, structure of the foot. Diseases of the foot : overgrown toe nails, inflam- mation of the elastic pad, whitlow (riuittor, guzmah, tahkne), sarpo, mooroos, pedal fibroma ... ... pp. 115 -Votes and Appendices. [These have been gradually collected while the chapters of this book were passing through the press, and could not well have been inserted Avithout interference with the simplicity of the original work, which there are strong reasons for I'etaining]. Appendix I. — Notes on Camel Corps, after Burn ... 181 „ II. — Records of the Suakim Camel Corps ... ... ... 121- ,, III. — Camel notes at a Camp of Exercise (Steel) 125 I'ara. 4. The feeding of camels on grain. Camel attendants ; Ectozoa, Musthi, wound treatment and complications. Illustrative cases. Arguments for castration. List of more important cases. Diarrhea duo to parasites. Xeod of Veterinary supervision for camels. Appendix IV. — Notes and additions ... ... ... 131 Note 1. Froducts of the camel and his uses in various farts of the iforld. The wool, skin, bowels, and bones, as articles of trade. The flesh as human food. Boisse's information on this subject. „ 2. Different hinds of camels, their peculiarities and designation, sources, and distribution : — Bactrian. Influence of marsh land. Arabic names for camel. Dromedaries from Scinde, Bikanir, Oman, Kathiawar, &c. „ 3. Camels employed along the Nile (Burn). Range of the Camel in Africa, Europe, America, and Australia. ,, 4. Camel losses on service. „ 5. Procurability of camels. ,, 6. Walters on camels in the Soudan Campaign (1885). ,, 7. Fentoh on camels of the Suakim Expeditionary Force. „ 8. Camel loads of the world (Lord and Hsbines). „ 9. Camel guns. „ 10. Camels as a means of Transport for the sicJc. „ 11. Transport of ca')nels by rail and sea. „ 12. Opinions as to the value, relative and absolute, of camels for trans. port on service : — Queriple, Pringle, Po^^ser ; outcome of ex- periences up the Nile. ,, 13. Watering of Military camels. „ 14. Saddles by Burt and other Veterinary observers. „ 15. Camel Management on service, swimming across the Nile. (Queriple). ,, 16. Average rations. „ 17. Sample rations for service, ,, 18. Camel grazing at Suakim (Smyth). „ 19. List of plants eaten by camels (Watt). „ 20. Precautions against skin disease. ,, 21. Clothing and bedding. ,, 22. Weight and dimensions of camels. „ 23. Examination as to soundness : — According to Burn and " Snipe." „ 24. Minor notes on camel sickness. „ 25. Poyser on an outbreak of disease. „ 26. Danakil Equine Typhus fever or African Glanders (Hallen). „ 27. Soudan Catarrhal Fever. ,, 28. Rheumatism. „ 29. Farasites : Filaria Evansi (Lewis). „ 30. Cobbold and Colin on camel parasites. „ 31. Poisoning. ,, 32. Formad and Vedernikoff on enzootic disease, ,, 33. Lady Anne Blunt on camels in Arabia. Appendix V. — Dentition as indicating age ... ... ... ... 161 „ VI. — A few notes on the History and Literature of the camel, principally after Lombardini ... ... 164 „ VII. — Megnin on Sarcoptes Cameli ... ... ... ... 166 „ VIII. — Materia Medica and Therapeutics 167 1. List of Medicinal Agents (Pharmacopoeial). 2. Do. do. do. (extra Pharmacopoeial). 3. Samples of prescriptions for cnmel treatment. 4. Forraularium. INTRODUCTION. (The following elemcntaiy paper on the Cauioi, as I'oud before the Bombay Natui-al History Society, on 10th July 1889, will lead up to our subject by giving a sketchy outline of its popular bear- ings. It has been reprinted by kind permission of the Society.) In dealing with a subject so largo and so interesting as the camel one hardly knows where to begin and where to leave ofF. It is extraordinary how various estimates have been formed of his value. Mahomed says of him that he is the greatest of all the blessings given by Allali to mankind ; recent writers have represented him as ugly, spiteful, unreliable at work, stupidly pblegmatic, malodorous, and endowed with all the bad qualities; under the sun ; his very virtues, especially steady endurance of excessive toil, being attributed to want of sensibility and of even the faintest gleams of intelligence. .The songs of the Arab of the desert are about the camel, as one of the most beautiful of created beings; the remarks of the British soldier and transport regimental officer about his baggage camels are not suited to cars polite ! Who is right and who is wrong ? We can have no hesitation in taking tho side of the Arab. Still there is some excuse for the recent military opinion on this subject, because undoubtedly in the Soudan, along the Nile, and in Afghanistan, camel transport has not been a success, and tho poor beasts have died wholesale as a rule. The Russians in Central Asia, tho French in Algeria, and, recently, the Italians in Massowah, have been cpiito as unsuccessful as we in our various campaigns as regards keeping camels in health and eflSciency. Individual officers have solved the problem of how to keep camels at work and to prove them valuable on a campaign; but our troops hare most certainly not been successful ; how- ever;, sureljj if overladen animals have not their saddles removed for a fortnight, we cannot wonder to find horrible sores on their backs ; if animals remain ungroomed and tied up in lines or on the march for months together, we cannot wonder if they get mange in an aggravated form ; and if animals get no food nor water for a week, we cannot wonder that they at last fall and die under their heavy burdens. To sum the matter up in a few words. If men have in war emergency suddenly to deal with an animal about which they know nothing whatsoever, the animal must not be blamed that the results are not altogether satisfactory. The knowledge of the camel possessed by the untravelled Briton is easily summed up. Firstly, he is certain that the animal is the ''ship of the desert.'^ Secondly, that it has some- thing to do with the eye of a needle. Thirdly (and most posi- tively) it is a sort of travelling reservoir, consisting of inexhaus- tible water tanks and never needs to drink. Fourthly, it has a hump and long legs and neck. Finally, it is an uncanny brute of strange habits, suited only to the wandering Bedouin of the desert and the inimitable Barnum. When called on in the emergencies of service to take charge of camels, the principle an Englishman works on is to treat them as much as possible like the beast of burden with which he is most familiar, the horse. Where this has been carried out thoroughly the results have been not unsatisfactory, for when groomed regularly the camel does not get mange, when properly saddled and loaded he does not get sore back, and when properly fed and watered he remains serviceable and does good work. It is when one soldier is given several camels to take care of, and is aided only by a lot of lazy, cowardly coolies, who know as little about a camel as he does and have no intention of trying to do anything whatsoever for their pay, that the poor camels fail. The water*tank theory is an unfortunate one. Certainly a XI cainol can 'g"o for seven days without water wlien properly cared for, but ho ou^ht to be watered ouce a day whouevcr possiblo and stinted in this respect only in extreme emergency. There are jioneiies in his stomach, and they aro frequently, after death, found to contain fluid ; but that they aro reservoirs pure and simple is doubtful ; and it is very certain that the parched tra- veller who das to cut open his dying camel and obtain its accumu- lated stores of water, will thus procure onl}'- a very little fluid, of a temperature of about 90° Fahr., a mawkish sub-acid flavour, and an unpleasant odour. It is evident that the time-honoured water-tank theory needs much modification, and is a danger- ous one to insist on as a guide to practice during campaigns. As a matter of fact, the active and special services of camels in war and peace have been most extensive and valuable. That they have been associated with enormous losses is due to our ignorance and mismanagement, and is decidedly not the camel's fault. In Afghanistan, the Punjab, Sind, and Beluc"histan; in Abyssinia, Egypt, and the Soudan, the camel has been essential to success of the operations ; and it is certain that when we need to fight in China, Central Asia, Western Asia, Arabia, and North Africa, the. services of this extremely valuable baggage aninuil will be again called for. The camel is, I believe, under a cloud now in official estimation, but, like the Royal Marines, he has done good service on many an occasion, and is always ready to do it again and sure to turn up when there is hard work going. Although the camel spits and grumbles when beino- loaded, though he makes unpleasant noises in the camp at night, and though he is generally considered unlovely in the extreme — and certainly no European nose can appreciate his odour — these unpleasant habits and conditions are to my mind more than redeemed by the undaunted and plucky manner in which he plods on with his load until he actually falls dead, by the stolid manner in which he remains quiet after a mortal wound until he rolls over on his side to die, and by tin; ^vay in which he steadily plods on mile after mile under his heavy load until the halt is called, even for a march of considerably more than regulation lenirth. The peace services of tiie camel are not less meritorious tlian his war services. His function as ship of the desert is gradu- ally being taken away from him by the spread of railways, as in Rajputana, Scind, Central Asia^ and Egypt, and we have historical evidence that his range has been limited to an extent since the iime when the westward and eastward waves of the Mussulman invasion extended from Spain in the West to Southern India and China in the East. A few representatives remain in Spain, very few in Mysore, and in Europe practically the only camels are the stunted race of Pisa, which seems to have been introduced somewhat recently from Tripoli. I believe there are camels in Constantinople and European Turkey ; I observe that General Gordon writes of them in Turkey. I noticed recently in the Royal Dublin Society's Museum a sowari camel on a real and antique Irish harp as its prominent decoration : how it came there I cannot surmise ! I have somehow arrived at the impression that in Asiatic Russia, and iu the Caspian region and Crimea especially, of European Russia, the range of the two-humped camel is becoming restricted by railway development. Expansion of range is taking place in the Southern States of America, where imported camels have done well and are multiplying rapidlj^, and in Australia, whither they have been imported from India, and where have been established breeding stations. It is con- sidered that the camel will prove specially valuable in opening up Central Australia. In Mongolia, Western China, the Central Asian Desert, the Khanates, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Asia Minor, Arabia, and the whole desert area of Northern and Central Africa the camel reigns supreme as a means of transport for goods and travellers. Tradition has it that the camel iu- vn.ded Africa by way of the Isthmus of Suez ; he has invaded America and Australia by sea. It is reasonably surmised that the camel is decreasing in numbers ; one of the Caliphs, for example, is credited with assembling 120,000 camels for a journey to Mecca. Here we are face to face with one of those difficulties constantly appear- luo- before naturalists. Some allowance must be made for oriental cxagg-onitioii in tlio actiuil statomt«ut ol" nuinbers, aud for luiin- teiitional multiplication in quality and quantity hy Uiudtdorcs temporis acti, jieoplo wlu) systematically run down tho ])rcscMit in comparison Avitb tho past. The t\vo-lunn))od or ]5actrian camel is muck less frequent than tho true dromedary or cine-humj)ed species. I'nlgravo, the celebrated traveller, is responsible for introducing serious confusion between the terms dromedary and camel. Ho has tried to restrict the former to the hygeen or running camel, known to us as sowari, and to make it out to bo a distinct breed. This is not correct. The fact of the case is, that wheresoever camels are freely used and bred there arc found well-bred light animals suited for sowari, and heavier, coarser- bred individuals suited for baggage duties. According to the requirements of tho locality the former or the latter predominate. There arc very many local varieties of the camel, but only two species faj the Southern, Arabian, one-humped camel, or true dromedary, and fbj the Northern, Bactrian, two-humped, or " true " camel. Where the two meet is the line of the Euphrates aud Tigris ; a few Bactriaus have passed into Arabia, and I believe tho two-humped camel is the one which has been im- ported into North America by the United States Government. In Northern Persia and Afghan-Turkestan the two species are found, and sometimes they cross and produce a hybrid. It is the one-humped camel which has invaded Australia, that of Bikanir in Rajputana, which shares wath Jessalmir the honour of being the best places in India for camels. Tho Bactrian camel is very tolerant of cold, he works across snow on the Steppes, aud is said to eat snow when he becomes thirsty ; the dromedary is intolerant of cold, but will stand a remarkable amount of heat. JMoisture in the air is probably the condition of climate of which the camel is least tolerant. No animal will travel better over sand, for Avhich the peculiar structure of the foot, the deliberate action, and the length of limb well suit him ; mountainous passes are trying only to plain camels ; even deep rivers with sandy bottoms can be forded by this animal, but a .clay bottom and slippery soil proves very trying to him, especially under a heavy load ; and deep ditches or cracks in the soil prove serious impediments, because camels cannot do much in the way of jumping, except occasionally performing some awkward and grotesque gambols. One great desideratum in a ti'ansport animal is that he be capable of use in various ways ; the camel can hardly be con- sidered very inferior in this respect. Besides sowari and pack work he carries small guns or will drag larger ones ; he is used in high, peculiar, double-storey carriages (in the Punjab for example). General Gordon writes that camels are used for ploughing in Turkey, and that they make excellent tramway animals ! The products of camels are most useful — fuel, milk, excellent hair for shawls, cloths, and various fabrics, both coarse and fine, are obtained from the living animal ; tlesh-food, leather, bones, and various other useful substances from the dead. No part of the dead camel should go to waste. In camel cou.ntries these animals are used to afford amusement by combats, running races, or are trained to special performances, such as dancing. The adaptations of the camel to the desert which is its home are numerous and evident. Among others they are his height giving wide range of vision ; his length of neck enabling him to reacli far on either side of the track to the shrubs suited as food ; ears very small, and nostrils capable of closure to keep out the sand ; eyes prominent and protected by an overhanging upper lid, limiting vision upwards and guarding from too powerful rays of the sun ; his horny pads to rest on when he lies in the hot sand ; his peculiarly cushioned feet ; his hump or reserve store of nutriment; his water reservoirs in connection with the stomach ; his patient, plodding habits. It is a great mistake to consider the camel ugly. ''Handsome is who handsome does" applies well in this case ; but it is universally admitted that though a mangey dromedary in a show or transport Hues is not handsome, a well kept camel in his native place is not ugly but quite the reverse ! In the loneliness of the desert travellers recognise the camel and his movements not only as suitable but sometimes as graceful, and even grand. We have this opinion in many well-known w-orks of travel. It is well Avorth the while of any of my hearers who has not looked into the eye of a camel, XV to do so on tliG earliest possible occasion ; I particularly admire its rich colour, its larp^e size and clearness, ami the sfcni :is[)(>( t produced by the overhanging' brow. C'aniols arc iniicli lilaincJ for objecting to their packs being ])ut on, but they are as a. rule fully justified in doing so, for the loads arc (as they hav(> almost invariably been found in the past) uncomfoi'table in the extreme, not unfrequently absolutely cruel. 'I'lu^ jX'Ciiliar arrangcincur, of the camel's tcetli makes his bite very fnnnidable, and gives him a specially ferocious expression. IK; alone of ruminants has incisor teeth in the upper jaw, nut in nr.iny other respects he is an aberrant ruminant, many of his anatomical details more resembling those of the horse than of the ox. Here I am in a position (through the kindness of Mr. W. Home, of Jodhpore, and Mv. Phipson) to exhibit a most remarkable specimen — a horn ta.ken from the forehead of an Indian camel. This may be a simple keratoid tumour accidentally occurring in this situation, but it gives scope for the general conclusion that the camel may, very occasionally, be found with a horn, indicating his zoological affinities with other ruminants. This will not seem very far-fetched if we remember the undoubted fact that horses occasionally have frontal horns. The shape of skull of both horse and camel is such as would lead the zoologist at once from it to conclude that the animal was hornless. Even in cattle and sheep, when the temporal fossae become very large, the horns are shed by a species of natural amputation. Charles Steel records having observed in Afghanistan that the Bactrian camels sometimes have an extra rudimentary toe, and so are specially sure-footed. 'i"he hump of the camel resembles that of the ox in structure, but is much less muscular. The one-humped camel has a rudimen- tary second hump, so that this distinction is not so very con- siderable after all. In camels low in condition the hump almost disappears, the animals are described as " living on their humps.'' Finally, 1 trust I have succeeded in establishing to the satis- faction of my hearers that the camel has been much and unde- servedly maligned by Europeans, and that the Arab's estimate of him is more just and in accordance with the services he has rendered to mankind in the past and continues to render in the present. I can honestly say that my personal and professional contact -vvitli the camel in the course of journeys,, on the line of march, in camp, and in cantonments, has impressed me with a high sense ot the value of these long-suifering and most useful animals. CirAi'TEi: 1.— TlIK (".\.MI^:L AS AN AXl.MAL OF TRAXSJ^OUT. There is a tenJeucy among Kun>})oaiis to clospise Camels and to iffuore the important services which thev have rendered us in or ^ our wars in the East. Some few observers have, in the interests of Military Service, given the Camel special attention; others have somewhat studied its diseases, and it has been found that under suitable circumstances and conditions the camel proves the most useful of Transport animals, but under unfavourable surrounding* influences he is the most unsatisfactory beast of burden with which we have to deal. Though he is unsavory, unlovely in body and mind, and considered very liable to disease, yet Mahomed has written " The Almighty has created nothing as an animal preferable to the Camel " and Daumas, in his work on the Horses of the Sahara, quotes the Arab aphorism " Horses for a dispute. Oxen for poverty, Camels for the desert." And shows that, apart from his services as the " Ship of the Desert," the Camel affords in his_//t'tt'^ material for making tents, ropes, and clothes; in his .s7i-//i leather for shoes and saddles; iu the milk a nutritive food and pleasing drink especially valued as a very nourishing food for foals*; iu his (hivg a useful fuel; nnd in his Jlc^li a valuable meat food, the hump being a groat deli- cacy ; similar uses of the animal are made in Tui'kestan, where a sucking camel is highly prized and occasionally indulged in by the rich — but the camel is too valuable to the Arab to be utilized in these ways unless he be sick or incurably injured. We must accept M. Vallon's conclusion that 'Miis good and bad qualities render him essentially the Transport Animal of the desert. This * " In the autumn season with good milking the female camel will yield 2 or 3 Shtoffs (square bottles containing about 1/10 part of a bucket-ful) iu the 21- hours, but she will not give uiorc> than GO pailsfiil in the whole year " (Kostcnko). lias been amply proved in several ways. Recently Giles found that in crossing tlie Central Australian desert camels " travelled splendidly'^; Napoleon in his Egyptian Campaign of 1798-9 raised a Camel Corps in Egypt which did excellent service against the Arabs ; and (the best proof of the suitability of any animal for army transport purposes) there are numerous parts of the world in which camels supersede all other animals used in ordi- nai*y trade — -such places are unsuitedfor draught work, deficient in water supply, and, as a rule, level and sand}^, but there are varieties of the camel which are used in uplands and even in mountainous countries such as Afghanistan and the Tell in Algeria. Central Asia, the desert of North Africa, Turkish Arabia, Asia Minor, the w^estern parts of China, and Scinde are the centres of distribution of the camel. The Afghan Campaigns have thrown much light on the varieties available for use in operations on the North- Western Frontier of India, some of the conclusions from the observations of different writers may pos- sibly prove useful for reference in future emergencies : — • 1. Afghan Camels, as obtained from the Kabuli traders of Northern Afghanistan, are small in consequence of the shortness of their stout, large-jointed limbs but remarkably robust — with wide chests, strong loins and quarters, long lleeces almost black, and sleek soft skins. Tliey may be obtained from Ghilzai traders, also from Koochees or pastoral nomads. They are good climbers, stand cold well, hardy, and capable of living on herbage only. They are very tractable being accustomed to travel in flocks and without nose ropes. They are devoid of odour (except the must male), and did excellent service in the Kuram Valley (Oliphaut). 2. Paliari or Hill Camels have enormous hind extremities and are very hardy. Some of them used in the Kuram \ alley were Jowakis, the property of the Afridis, being big, bulky animals, of a light colour varying from brown to a fawn tint (sometimes almost white). They were taken up among the hills during the hot weather and marched in the cool of the evening or at night (Oliphant) . 3. The Badrian Camel (with two humps) is seldom seen in India. It is found in Oran (Algeria), Asia Minor, and the Crimea —and can be crossed with either of the one humped varieties, which are correctly speaking Dromedaries. A few Bactrian -^ A M^5^>?^ Fisr 1. The one-humpbd Camel ia full coat and condition. Fig. 2 The Bactrian or two-hcmpfi- Camel in good condition VRtNCf AStLUM PRt*M»AO«W Camels arc kept in Southern Asia Minor to bo crossed with Arabian Dromedaries, tlie jn-oduct conatitnting tlie most useful form for this part of the world (Anderson) and cross-bred animals are said to bo preferred by the Arabs as having much vigour of constitution. It is said that if the dam be a dromedary and the sire a camel the progeny works well in a cold climate, but if the dam be a camel the offspring is ill-tempered and intractable. This conclusion has not been proved.* 4. The Scindl Camel is a large animal with well developed, in fact enormous, forehand, noble looking, with short fine coat, but extremely susceptible to climatic changes, being very much affec- ted by cold and not hardy. His long limbs suit for journeys over sandy plains and he can do much work in a dry land under a hot sun but the mortality of animals of this variety in Afghan- istan, especially with the Candahar Force, was enormous, few of any other kind were used in South Afghanistan (0. Steel). 5. Funjahi Camels are very similar to those found in Scinde. The best are procurable AVest of Jhelum and the kind known as Bajri found near Hissar is especially good. Camels fit for tran- sport used to be procurable in serviceable numbers on the North Western Frontier but few can be obtained there now. In the Punjab desert camels known as " Bar-ke-unt" are found but they are of inferior quality (Yaldwin). "The Camels of the Punjab are much more surefooted than those of the lower parts of the Bengal Presidency and, if moderately loaded, will travel in very rainy weather over slippery clay soil quite as well as horses" (Meyrick) • The information given recently about camels in the Punjab District by V. S. Nunn is of great value. He shows that Shahpur is the great camel breeding ground of the Punjab, both in the Bar and Thall are found large fine animals with light hair, and the breeding of which is denoted by a depression between the nasal and frontal bones. These are available in large numbers, they carry salt from the mines and the males are let out by their owners in strings to merchants but the females, are kept at work near home with a view to their utilization for breeding. The ThuU Camels are used for pack, any required for riding purposes are imported from Jesselmeer and Bikaneer ; Stud Animals, also *The two humped species is almost the only ouc seen in Mongolia (Prjevalski). are imported. In Montgoraery are found tliree kinds; Sohdwd, brownj with long lips, medium sized head and tMck skin; Ganda, grey, Avitli large head, small mouth, and thin skin^ (the best variety) ; Hazara, red, with a very small tail (the worst variety); Baqga, white; and Batta, red or bay; these two latter are in- ferior. Here, also, Sowari Camels are imported from Bikaneer and Jesselmeer. In the Hazara districts are few camels and these have come into use since the British occupation led to making of roads. A few are bred in the District, but most, called '' Beloochies," are imported from Kalabagh on the Indus in Bannoo. They are large, thick-set animals with long dark hair and probably come from Afghanistan. 6. Bikaneer Gamels come from Eajpootana, those of Bagri and Harotiya being considered especially good. Like those of Punjab and Scinde these camels suffer much from cold. Eajpoo- tana supplied the camels used in the Siege of Delhi. 7. Some Gamels are bred in the North-West Provinces and Oicdh but ai-e not of much value for transport purposes. Those from Thull, near Bahawalpore are useless, meanspirited beasts, although to all appearance very fine. They are called by the natives Taloo- cher and do not make good bag'gag-e animals. 8. Persian Gamels resemble those already described as Paha- ree or Hill Camels. Col. Stewart (Lecture before Royal Geogra- phical Society, Proceedings, September 1881) notices the Seistan Camels ridden by Beloochi marauders of the Persian frontier. These camels are remarkable for their speed. " They can go 70 or even 80 miles a day, carrying one and sometimes two men and a little food" * * * * These camels require water every other day and can on a jmsh last three days without water ; they " find enough grazing in the less arid spots of the desei*t to support life, assisted by a little food supplied by their owners in the form of barley meal mixed Vf^ith just enough water to make a paste. A camel can exist in this way for a few weeks ouly while the foray lasts." The Beloochis generally water their camels at lonely springs in the desert every second day. {Marvin's Reconnoitering Central Asia). Dunlop Anderson tells us that Camels are not numerous in the Isorthern parts of Asia Minor where the dense forests and gene- rally clayey soil cause the mud to remain long on the ground. makino- travel dano-erous to thcso auimals. Tho Camels of Tur- kish Arabia are very g-oocl aud as procured in Mesopotamia cost between seven aud eight pouuds stovlini^- cacli. A nuiiiber of Arab Camels were carried to tho Crimea in ISol aud they all died without being able to do any "work iu the cold climate. Tiie two humped variety is used in waggons and under pack by the natives of the Crimea. This^ known as the Tuya, is the most common camel of Turkestan. Col. Hamley mentions them as " especially fine animals ; large, well fed, sagacious looking aud covered with smooth brown hair, very different from the gaunt mangy dromedaries of Barbary.'^ Burnab}^ in his " Ride to Khiva," contrasts with the huge sleek ships of the African fSahara or the Libyan sands the " undersized shaggy camels with liouliko manes, provided by nature with every requisite for resisting a bitterly cold climate, which can stride through snow four feet deep where horses would not be of any avail," as found on the Steppes of Kirghiz. The Tiussians iu their invasion of the Turkoman Country cap- tured 1,200 camels in one day from the Akhal Tokkcs, and utiliz- ed them in carriage of ammunition boxes and water casks ; they lost fully as many iu the Tekke country as we did in Afghanistan. Id Mongolia the best camels are bred among the Khalkas ; ^Hho stubborn camel becomes the Mongol's docile carrier" (Prejeval- sky). The Tartars use the camel very extensively for trade pur- poses in the Mantchu country (Fleming), and the earliest known work on the diseases of the caniel is in the Chinese Language. Col. Malleson, in his work on '' Herat," tells us that '^ Andhko (in Afghan Turkestan) is a relic of the past. Less than a century ago it possessed camels of a very remarkable breed called Ner, distinguished by abundant hair streaming down from neck and breast, a slim slender figure, and extraordinary strength. This rare breed of camels is fast disappearing." It is sometimes still seen in Turkestan, but only in the south, as it endures frost badly ; at Tashkand a camel costs about G guineas. Kostenko tells us that during tho Khivan Campaign of 1839-40 more than 10,000 camels Avere procured for the Russian detach- ment at 10 Roubles (£U) apiece, and that for the Khivan Expedi- tion of 1873, 8,800 camels were equiped for the Turkestan detachment alone, and to these another thousand had soon to be added. The Kizil Kum Kirghiz furnished most of these animals ; but some hundreds were sent by the Amir of Bokhara. The contract metliod of Camel Transport lias proved to be the best in Russian experience^ but General Ivanin advocated a per- manent Camel Train as more secret and as affording also the re- quisite number of camel men (Lautchis). However a Committee decided that this ari-angemeut would be too expensive. The French keep up permanent camel train of 500 animals with di'ivers in Laghouat, the most southernly post of Algeria, whicli suffices for a flying column available for quelling insurrections. Prior to the Khivan expedition the requisition system was brought into play by the Russian military authorities in all Steppe Campaigns ; the camels thus obtained were paid for at so much per head, at rates determined by Local Administration, and the natives were expected to provide one man for every seven camels. But the worst and weakest camels were supplied and the poorest men who hadnever owned a camel and were, therefore, ignorant and devoid of interest in their charges were sent as Drivers causing great difficulties in the way of transport and much loss of camel life. The Turkestan Detachment in the Khivan Expedition (1873) obtained camels by requisition and had no little trouble ; the Orenburg Detachment by contract transport and did well. The latter system was expensive, but expense is a secondary consi- deration in war (Journal United Service Institution of India, XII. No. 56). M. Vallon found two varieties of Dromedaries in common use in Algeria, (1) a small and active kind, used for riding across the desert (such as we, in India, would term the sowari), and (2) a large strong beast found especially in the plains, suitable for heavy pack work. Some of our most valuable information about the Camel in health and disease has been obtained from the Veterinary Officers of the French Army of Algeria. This has been recently, to an extent, supplemented by experience gained in Egypt and the Soudan by British Veterinary Officers. I. V. S. Walters has confirmed the value of the Sinde Camel, as obtain- able through Karachi, for desert warfare ; the camels from Aden and Berber were very serviceable but less powerful, those from the Nile Delta were quite unsuited for work in the Desert. From perusal of the above details as to varieties of the Camel llTHO».fC«v lAwRtNCI «»TLUM PHE6S, MADRAS BV ALEX: BARKEN. the roador will concludo that fJicrc is tuds (lbs. 648). During the movement of troops the several loads are reduced to 12 puds (lbs. 432)" (Kostenko). The ordinary camel load of the Arabs is about 550 lbs. (2 tellis of wheat). (6) The camel, although a slow and deliberate worJier, can traverse much ground daily and lisep up with an army. His average rate of marching is 2 miles per hour, and varies from 3 miles on a good road to 1 mile per hour in a close country. This rate of progress can, if the animal be allowed to browse as he walks, be sustained in case of emergency for 10 or 12 hours — a march of 17 or 20 miles per diem is not too much for a reasonably-loaded, well-fed camel but it must be remembered that as a rule after arrival at the halting place these animals have to collect their own fodder."^ Halts during the day's march are a mistake, they are not required for camels and the animal is only the longer kept under the load and the arrival in camp delayed. On the other hand camels must not be hurried — the nose rope should be kept neither slack nor too tight to prevent browsing. The camel of the desert travels, at his fastest, 5 miles per hour for 8 to 10 hours per diem (Warren). The French found that the large Algerian Camel will do 25 miles (40 kmrs.) as a maximum daily journey, whereas * Priiigle advocates halting for two days per week when inarching with camels to give them grazing (Report in No. 13 of Q. J. V. S. in India). 13 tho small Snliaran running cainol will do (80 — 100 kinrs.) 50 — 05 niilos p(U' diem. Ydung camels scarcely yield to liorses in the quickness of their gallop. Kostcnko puts the rate of a camel's trot at GiJ mile per hour ; Daumas s,a.ys " li not overdriven the camel can go from dawn to sunset^ if allowed to pluck herbage from the roadside as it passes, it will cover 10 — 12 leagues (24 — 29 miles) in 21 hours and every fifth day must be permitted to rest." When used with caravans 20^ — 26 1 miles is the length of the average stage. The ordinary Kirghiz summer daily move amounts to 16§ miles (Kostenko). We may agree with Leach in his estimate that 12 to 15 miles per diem is the proper distance for camels on service to march. Martin's estimate 17 to 20 miles can apply only when traversing level sandy country. Thus the camel is the slowest paced animal we ordinarily use for transport and so should be taken neither on flying columns nor on long imper- fectly protected lines of communication with a rapidly moving front, but he is eminently useful as a pack animal with an army advancing slowly and securing itslines of communication carefully. (7) Camel convoys are capable of long daily marches, and, con- sidering the weight carried, they comprise few attendants and oc- cupy a small space. 500 camels in Indian file occupy one mile whereas mules or ponies carrying the same load would occupy two miles ; also 2,500 maunds carried by camels in lieii of ponies lessens the number of attendants by 293 (Yaldwin). These are most important considerations as indicating : — (a) A mai'ked re- duction in the nvimber of noucombatants to be protected, fed, and carried when sick and wounded, {h) Also in the number of com- batants to be diverted from work at the front to protect the con- voy. Some camels, as those from the hills of Afghanistan, will work in a drove, but this, however advantageous for protection, is generally inadmissible in a convoy and the ordinary method of having the camels in strings of three, the nose ropes of the second audthirdbeingattachedto the tail or saddle of the first and second respectively, is found to be best. It is well when opportunity offers to march on a broad front when the country traversed is hostile, but the drivers prefer to go in long train and will take up this formation unless made to arrange themselves otherwise. It is remarkable that the French in Algeria consider that for the general purposes of army progress the camel is the " swiftest by 14 far of our draught auimals and that even while pickiug up nour- ishment by the way he can go as fast as most of our pack ani- mals.^' This, of course, refers to progress over saud or loose ground where the elastic cushion-like feet of the camel stand him in good stead. Ordinarily on the march in India when the semi- dry sandy bed of a river has to be traversed the camels come into Camp first (elephants always excepted) and the bullock carts last ; but where there is no impediment of this kind the mules arrive in camp first and the camels last. (8) The most serious drawback to use of the camel in Army Trajisport is his ivant of versatility — in that he is essentially a pack animal, suited for certain climatic and geographical ranges only, and working at a disadvantage except on certain kinds of roads, (o) We have shown that the Camel can carry an enor- mous pack-load for a considerable distance ; he can carry small guns, such as the gatlings suggested by Col. Maxwell and those used in the Aden Battery. Lieut. Elliott of the 3rd Bengal Ca- valry, in a paper piiblished in the Journal of United Service Ins- titution of India, mentions some occasions on which Camels were utilized in war emergencies for purposes other than Transport. "In 1842-3, Sir Chas. Napier mounted a Company of 13th Light Infan- try on Camels, each soldier being seated behind a native Camel driver. In the mutiny of 1857 and for some time subsequently two Camel Corps were organized, one Company from the Rifle Brigade and another from the 92nd Highlanders. At the battle of Calpi, in May 1858, the Rifle Brigade was brought up opportu- nely on Camels to relieve the hard pressed line." The Punjab Frontier Force, Guides, and Hyderabad Contingent, as well as many of the Native Armies, have Camel Sowars attached in the present day, mainly for use as swift orderlies. The camel is used extensively in Arabia similarly, indeed the running camel of the desert is very different from the slow beast of burden, and has sometimes, in the conveyance of despatches, done good service in covering a wonderful distance of desert in a very short space of time. In some parts of India camels are used in carts for draught work but for this their habits, slow pace, and figure render them thoroughly unsuited. Kostenko, however, tells us " The Kirghiz often harness this animal to their carts, the shafts of which are attached to cords fastened to the foremost humps. When 90 made use of tbe Camel will draw a weight of 720 lbs. -and this as au ordiuarj' rule; when harnessed to a properly construct- ed cart a Camel can easily draw from 1800 — 21G0 lbs. weio-ht." The camel then is essentially a pack animal, but in emofi,'-(nicit' s of hunger or thirst he has been slaughtered to afTord flesh or fluid for men — in the latter respect hois entirely special, and jirobably there is much exaggeration in the stories we read of Camels slaughtered in the desert saving their owners' lives by the supply of water from the pouches of the stomach. The camel, it may be concluded, is not, like the mule or ox, available for draught as well as pack — he is not, to express the matter roughly, ^^such a good animal all round" for Transport, (h) Nor can he withstand vicissitudes of climates and stress of bad weather, or change of country, so well as most other Transport animals. No doubt this is largely due to a want of pi-ecautious in transferring caiuels from one climate to another and in taking pi'oper care of them, still it cannot be doubted thai the adaptibility of the camel to changes of climate is slight — all our evidence goes to support this view. The Arabs find that much care and experience is neces- sary in camel management '^ after 15th April they are not sent out to feed until the afternoon because it has been remarked that the grass is covered with a sort of dew that lays the foundation of fatal diseases" (Daumas). Also they are prevented eating what remains in the morning of the small quantity of grass given to the horses over-night. Throughout the whole winter, the end of autumn, and the beginning of spring they may be permitted with advantage to browse on shrubs with a salt flavour, but in the beginning of April and at the end of May they must not be allow- ed to do so for more than 5 or 6 days. The Arabs of Tell take their di'omedaries into the interior annually at the approach of the winter months and they annually give them a turn at the Salt Lakes (Letang). The Camels of Turkistan moult in the begin- ning of the spring, hair remaining only on the head, lower part of neck, and thighs ; leathern jhools are then put on them. In summer jhools are found absolutely necessary to protect from gad- flies. The country along the central and lower course of the Sir, and even at the mouth of the Amu, is so infested with these pests that cattle simply cannot exist there in the summer season (Ivos- tenko). In June the camels sweat on the neck and under the 16 saddle^ and gall easily^ for the whole coat is then shed_, and the animal should be sent to graze for 3 months. They generally die or remain permanently in bad condition if worked in the summer months (Martin).* Oliphant was informed that the natives are of opinion that Camels cannot live through a summer in the Kuram valley- In this want of adaptibility to climate the camel is infe- rior as an animal of Transport to the ox or the mule, (c) Differ- ent kinds of roads influence the progression of camels variously. On a level sandy road camels will travel as fast as any other ani- mal, and they will continue at work for a greater length of time and under a hotter sun than any other Transport animal ; under such circumstances the large plain Camel is the most useful but proves quite unfit to cope with the difficulties of an uphill or down- hill road across a pass, which can be traversed with facility by the Paharis. Most camels are bad climbers and unsuited for journeys over undulating or mountain roads and must be given only short marches and judiciously halted to rest before the fati- gues of a long ascent commence. Stony roads are an impediment to camels if the stones be rounded and liable to roll under their feet, on the other hand sharp stones are apt to injure the foot-pads. But over shingle or where stones are frequent but not large, sharp, or rounded, camels go well. Moisture impedes pro- gress and sadly diminishes the value of the Camel Transport ; it was found by the French that in the mountains and valleys of the Tell a day's rain or snow suffices to stop a whole convoy of camels. The moisture renders rock and clay slippery and falls ai-e fre- quent and serious among the laden camels,t which become rapidly tired in consequence of the difficulty in keeping on theii' feet. Yaldwin tells us that the Bactrian Camel has a sort of claw or toe projecting beyond the pad of the foot which enables him to go over ice and snow safely. With regard to the ordinary impedi- ments met with in travelling through those countries in which the camel is principally used, he can traverse deep fords, which * But the Tartars of Kii-gliiz use them during tlie summer witli light loads ■which they gi^adually increase as the animals regain condition. f In passing slippery places the Serwans pass a rope round the hind legs in such a way as to allow of only short steps being taken and to prevent divergence of the limbs so abruptly as to " split the animal up," one of the most frequent accidents to camels on the march. 17 he does with cautiou, stopping very high. If ho gets into a quicksand he is apt to "lose liis head'' and exhaust himself seri- ously in his struggles — but places which have a shifting sand bottom are often passable by mules, oxen, &c., only after the bottom has been hardened and rendered firm by the passage of a number of camels ; when the bottom is slippery the camel is apt to get into difficulties. When the water is very low and practi- cally the river is but a wide stretch of sand the camel traverses it with facility. Over deep wide rivers they may best be conveyed in long boats, they will kneel down transversly in a row and remain very quiet. With regard to swimming camels, it is much better to ford a river if possible. This may be attempted even when the water is 3 or 4 feet deep if the bottom be good and the current not too rapid. As even a narrow trench will absolutely check the progress of camels, it is always advisable to, as was found essential in Afghanistan (Martin), carry on the leading camels gangboards 8 ft. by 3 ft. to act as Camel-bridges ; many a very vexatious and prolonged delay will thus be prevented. A camel weighs about 14 maunds with 5 maunds as load, we must, therefore, have somewhat stout boards with which to make these bridges. (9) . The Camel is an easy animal to feed and requires only simple management while on active service to preserve him in work- ing order, but even this has not been granted to him iif recent campaigns. Martin tells us that in the Kuram valley "a very large number of camels perished. The camel appears to have remained a comparatively neglected animal and his diet, treat- ment in sickness, habits, capability of marching, &c., appear to be only partially understood. When camels were attached to regiments as Regimental Transport they fared better than when on general duty. The Sepoys and Camel-men foregathered and the beasts and their drivers obtained a larger share of considera- tion, the officers of the regiment naturally interesting themselves in them." It is very evident that Camel Transport has never had a fair trial, for it has never been under good management, as eusurable only by adequate curopeau supervision. It is to be anticipated that things will be much improved under the present Transport Organization for India which supplies experienced Transport Officers and Non-commissioned Officers, but, unfortu- nately, not iu sufficient numbers. li Food. — It is extraordinary what a variety of common plants can be used by tlie camel as food and under what emergencies he will obtain enough to support life. Tassy urges in his favour as an animal for army transport that '^ the Dromedary will find nourishment where a horse or ass would starve and will during 20 — 30 days do 36 — 40 kilometers daily with only such food as he can pick up. If required to go longer a small amount of corn or a few dates will suffice." The French allow Dromedaries in Algeria a daily ration of 4^ lbs. grain while on the march; in the Crimea 9 lbs. barley meal and 12 lbs. chopped straw was given daily or in lieu of the latter 9 lbs. barley^ manifestly an improper diet for a ruminant ; but the results of Camel Management in the Crimea were such as to prove instructive in forewarning us against similar errors in the future. The Regulation Diet of Transport Camels in India is : — Conditions. Grain lbs. Fodder — either. Salt. Dry. Green. Bhoosa. In Cantonment. 4 25 lbs. 40 lbs. 20 lbs. One di-achm. On Command... 6 25 lbs. 40 lbs. 20 lbs. At Graze o At Sea 3 20 One drachm (Waters gallons) In Bengal 2| annas per mensem is allowed for mussals. Pro- vision is evidently made in the article of fodder for the substances obtainable by browsing on the road and by grazing around the Camp. Camels will remain alive and capable of a certain amount of work on the food obtained by grazing alone, but on service they have not sufficient time to procure fodder, also they require grain food, as they are doing hard work and because they arrive in camp too tired to procure their living by grazing. If a tired camel is turned out to graze he is liable to poison himself by eat- iug everything that comes to hand, but an absolutely fatigued camel will remain hungry rather than get up and feed. However it seems that camels turned out to graze seldom pick up poison- ous herbs ; perhaps, also, they have an instinctive knowledge of what branches and shrubs are best suited to their state of health, as most other animals seem to have. Nunn informs us that in 19 Sliahpur camels browse on the bushes in the Bar and get no other food. Nini and Bnrgot are considered very good food; Peepul and Babul are stimulant and specially suited for the cold weather. Yaldwiu mentions also the following as useful fodder : — Goolur, Kateela, Phulai, Behr, Jhana, Jhari, Goolalee, Hees, Kurrul, Jawassa, Karouda, Kair-Lana, also Kusseel, Mote in any stage of ripeness, Sarson, and Tara Mora in seed, each in its season. Martin tells us that Jowasir (the Camel Thoi-n) and Falai (an acacia) and other acaciae constituted the principal fodder in Afghanistan and nourished the camels well. Leach mentions Gocru and Missi as used near lloorkee duriug the rains. Gilchrist considers that the use of Peepul combined with Banyan leaves causes colic. " The animal can })ass three days without food. But either deprivation of solid food for tw'o days, or of liquid food for four consecutive days, greatly weakens it, and in order to prevent it perishing under such privations its load must be immediately and very materially reduced, the full weight not being re-imposed until the lapse of a week from the date of the restoration of the named necessaries" (Kostenko). It is evident that our knowledge of the fodder required for Camels is veiy general at present and we must rely to a great extent on the instinct of the animal in deter- mining what is suitable and what ought to be rejected — we shall seldom, if ever, have to regret having done so. The fodder must be varied in character, and sufficient in quantity to give the bulk essential for the due performance of Pumination. We must never, as was done in the Crimea, imagine that increased amount of grain can compensate to a herbivore, especially a ruminant, for loss of its fodder. Camels maybe given grain or pulse food of various kinds. The Arabs object to barley as liable to bring on diarrhoea in a few days ; and Yaldwin, in writing of his observations in Afghanistan, expresses his opinion that barley is a poor substitute for gram or mote. He considers a mixture of wheat flour with ghee and ghur excellent, or barley flour may be used made up into balls with mutton fat, and lu'ges the necessity for weekly administration of stomachic mussauls. There is reason to believe that these latter are beneficial especially for camels kept on bhoosa and other non-stimulant forms of fodder. At ccrtaiji times of the year the camel men ap])ly for Kharisk or Itch mussauls, which are of a more tonic character and also should be considered 20 admissible to keep the animal in fair health while shedding the coat and to render superfluous the change of air which the Afghans and Arabs seem to consider absolutely essential to health. Grain should, generally, be prepared either by crushing or soaking to render it digestible, otherwise much of it escapes mastication. Even when the cool thee is prepared by soaking I have observed that much remains unutilized not nearly so much, however, as in the case of ox. Each camel in Madras carries a hide (Chursali) in which the gram is soaked and which is carried over the saddle and jhool on the march to protect them from wear. The General Routine of Camel Management when on the march consists : — in unloading immediately on arrival in camp. It should be arranged, if possible, that this take place at about 8 — 9 A.M., so that the camels are not unnecessarily exposed to the sun and are on the move during the cold time just before and after dawn ; the day's march of 12 — 18 miles may have been com- pleted before nine o'clock. Then a little bhoosa should be thrown down before the animals or they may be turned loose to graze. In any case the saddle should be removed in about an hour's time. The natives have a prejudice in favour of leaving on the saddle from one end of the journey to the other, but this is a very bad plan to work on, it hides the falling off in condition of a camel which is being robbed of its grain and mussauls, it prevents our noticeing the hollowness of flank which denotes deficiency of fodder, it hides galls as caused by bad saddling and sadly ag- gravates them and increases their number by a part pressed upon gaining no ease ; finally, it is quite enough for the camels to carry their gear while at work. Before being brought in from grazing, at 4 p.m., they should be watered. Much has been written about the tolerance of thirst exhibited by the camel and his powers in this direction have been exaggerated and it has been supposed that camels of all kinds can rely on their internal accumulations of water. This is an import- ant error to start with. Again, it seems, from Colonel Warren's observations, that if the camel '' has for a month or two been em- ployed where he can get water daily he will drink suflBcient for only one day and nothing will persuade him otherwise. Conse- quently some camels, although true desert ones, are apt to be lost on first starting into the desert. They require to be trained to 21 taking in a four days' supply." This is done by men pouring five or six gallons down their throats ; but a Bactrian camel can only lay in and retain half this amount (Yaldwiu). Tho Arabs say that in winter the camel never drinks (Daumas), but Charles Steel records as the opinion of an experienced Serwan that in Afghanistan during the hot weather they should be watered daily and in the winter at least every third day, and states that if depriv- ed of water for five days the camel will die. However, Giles, in crossing Australia, found that once when he could get no water for his camels for ten days only one old cow camel died, and she succumbed just on reaching the water ; he thinks that in summer the camel can go four or five days without drinking water and in winter much longer ; we may conclude that camels should be watered once daily — at about 4 p.m. They should not be allowed to drink from streams when they cross unless very hard pressed — contrary as this may seem to our general management of animals on the march there is reason in it and we must guard ourselves against the somewhat common mistake of finding fault with Ser- wans for not letting their camels drink.* They know very well that if the animals are watered daily it is superfluous to allow them to drink while on the journey, that there is a special natural pro- vision for moistening the throat and retaining moisture while on the march, and, lastly, that a drink of water tends to bring on rumination and the animal becomes lazy and tries to lie down and chew the cud. The Arabs encourage tolerance of thirst on the part of the camels by never allowing them to drink until they reach a camping place. Some camels will not drink before noon — by which time the chill is taken off the water; still water is much preferred and a marked dislike of running water in cold weather is exhibited, although, according to Kostenko, the camel " will drink every kind of water, no matter how brackish, stag- nant, or putrid.'^ After watering, the camels should have a small amount of fodder thrown down before them and be groomed. This process con- sists in carefully rubbing down the animal and scraping him over " with a wooden comb like a large blunt paper knife to excite the skin and to remove all dust, knots, and tangle, especially from * Yaldwin, Journal of the United Service Institution of India, 1880, Yol, ix, No. 4:^ 22 the parts under the saddle" (Yaldwin), or, preferably, an ordinary mnne comb and one of those hand gloves known in India as Copois. In hot weather (and annually in Arabia) camels are sheared,* one shear per 25 camels being allowed by Government; an allowance of oil to protect the body surface from the sun is also given. The Camel should after grooming be carefully examined as to freedom from galls, bruises to the feet, thorns in the foot pads, or sole overworn, and other contingencies frequent on the march. This, too, is the time for careful inspection of the animals by the officer in charge or responsible for their condition ; apart from the general appearance of the animal reliance must be placed on the fulness o£ the depressions above the eyes, plumpness of the hump, and absence of a " tucked up" look and traces of diarrhoea. The nose should be examined as to its fi-eedom from lacerations, and the skin pads as to the absence of bruises. The animals should then be fed with their allowance of grain. The whole amount may be given as one feed, it is not sufficiently bulky nor allowed in such an amount as to cause inconvenience to a ruminant. In permanent lines mud troughs may be made for the animals to feed from but on service all camels should be formed up in one or two lines, the ration of each placed before him on the chursah and those which do not get on very well may be hand-fed ; the Serwan taking a full right handful, placing his left hand on the camel's nose and throwing the grain in Avhen the animal turns its head and opens its mouth as it will do when ready for another mouthful. All the grain having been thus given, the camels may be fastened for the night, their saddles put on, and, left with fodder before them. It is advisable to put the saddles on overnight before it gets dark, because they cause no inconvenience to the animal, if adjusted in the dark of the early morning galls would be more frequent from hasty and care- less work, also loading camels is a matter of time and if the sad- dles be left on ready for the morrow's march the camels need be disturbed fully half an hour later than if they had to be saddled. Again, sleeping in the saddles keeps the camel warm and there is no greater enemy to the efficiency of a camel transport than cold nights and imperfect protection from rain. * lu the Punjab camels are shorn in March and give about 3 lbs. of hair. 23 During the day time each ISerwan slioukl see to tlio gear of liis three camels aud keep it in repair. It consists of : — Fuldn or pack saddle^ composed of a wooden tree and panels or pads of taut stuffed with bhoosa, coarse grass, or rice straw, the latter is the best form of cheap stuffing — the grass is cut into pieces one foot three inches long and laid horizontally in in the pulan. The culm of this grass (Sink) must not, however, be used, as it is too hard (Leach). The tree must bo kept tightly braced, to this end the Arabs cover it with raw camel's hide which they allow to shrink on it. Martin advocates that, when a numnah is not obtainable, the saddle have an undressed sheepskin fixed in it with the wool inwards. He also insists that the pads shall have no sharp points, the corners being turned up and rounded by stitching ; an opening (9 in. by 15 in.) being in the centre to keep it clear of the hump, jiroduced by three tightly drawn stitches through tbe pad and round the central horizontal stick of the tree. This weighs 21 seers inclusive of the Fastening Ropes, three in number : — Goorband or throat strap ; Dumchi or crupper ; and Tung or girth — which is a thin rope running behind the Kahafay or breast pad. " Each camel should have its own saddle, as the pads very soon take the shape of theanimaPs back, and if put on another would rub it'^ (Leach). The loading rope, by means of which the load is fastened on the saddle weighs about four seers. The head collar, leading rope, and nose string together, one seer ; the jhool and suleetah each 8 seers. The total appoint- ments weighing 1 maiind 2 seers, for wbich allowance must be made in telling off the weight to be carried. A margin, also must be left for such contingencies as tents getting wet and roads proving extra-difficult to traverse either in consequence of impediments or as the result of a shower. In Loading, the greatest possible care should be taken to have the load evenly divided and well balanced. The pulan having been found to be placed over the hump, squarely and evenly ad- justed, the animal should kneel down to receive the load and not be caused to get up until it is necessary to move on. If, in the course of the march, it is essential to halt for any length of time the camels should be allowed to kneel down and rest themselves. "When a camel will not rise with his load, before forcing him see that the load is not excessive and also that it is properly adjusted 24 so as not to hurt him. It is a most painful thing to see a camel which has attempted to rise under an excessive load lying in agony with his thighs stretched horizontally one on each side. When the ground is somewhat slippery camels are apt to fall suddenly into this position and lacerate the muscles of the inner side of the thigh. We read of camels serving in Afghanistan so weak as to be unable to rise with their loads, and, accordingly, laden while in a standing position. Of course the emergencies of active ser- vice compel us to exact from animals all the work they can do — but if the regulation, which lays down that 10% spare camels shall accompany a force and that these shall not be unnecessarily laden, be attended to, it will generally be possible to subject ani- mals only to loads which they can bear. This will prove in the end much more effectual, not to touch upon the question of humanity, than that terrible want of system which sacrifices camels in large numbers to overweighting. Except under very extreme emergency every sixth day a halt for resting purposes should be given to the camels. '' One Jhool per camel is requir- ed ; usually made of tat lined with blanket or numnah. To make a jhool two pieces of tat, nine yards long, nine inches broad, and half a blanket are requisite" (Leach). This jhool is to be carried over the saddle in cold weather (and as part of the load in hot) and covered by the grain hide while on the march ; it is absolutely essential in cold weather. The Arabs after shearing their camels in the latter part of April compensate for loss of the fleece by use of a jhool, which not only serves to protect from cold but also from the attacks of insects. When camels have to work in the sun the head may advantageously be protected by a wad- ded cloth, as suggested by Gilchrist. On the march a high ground* sheltered to windward if the weather is cold, with good natural drainage, should be chosen on which to picket camels — in hot weather topes, if not damp, are to be preferred (Gilchrist). " During winter moves great care is required on the part of those in charge of camels because this animal cannot rest where there is snow. In such cases the ground must be thoroughly swept and cleared beforehand, otherwise the heavy perspiration which * The Tartars avoid localities where stagnant water lies and generates moisture in the atmosphere, for they find moisture most prejudicial to the camel. 25 exudes from this animal would quickly cause it to catch cold, moreover tiie uioisturo generate*! by this (>xudation would, alter cooling, freeze the animal's hair and fasten it to the earth, from which it would be difhcult to disconnect it" (Kosteidco). All stones should be carefully removed as being liable to bruise the animals when they are lying down ; it is to be remembered also that care must be taken lest, in loading or unloading', camels kneel down on stones. Martin suggests that in standing-camps the ground should be picked up to the deptli ol one foot Avhen it becomes hard baked, and carefully s\vc))t. Yaldwin j^refers pic- keting in circles facing inwards as economising space and sentries, and he tells us that a circle with a radius of eleven paces will contain 50 camels, Avith their food, gear, and attendants. This, doubtless, is the best system on a campaign. Leach advocates it in preference to placing them in parallel lines "as it is Avhat they have been accustomed to, and custom should never be needlessly interfered with either in the case of camels or their drivers.'^ From a sanitary j)oiut of view ])icketiug in parallel lines is pre- ferable, but, as the attendants must be accommodated somewhere, it is questionable wliether there is any economy of space. How- ever objectionable it may seem at iirst sight to have human beings and camels huddled together in the circular picket, we have no evidence that it does harm in movable camps and the men like it and pay more attention to their camels tlian if: bivouacing farther away from them. In the Madras Presidency on the march the Serwans voluntarily live among their camels and picket them iu no regular order each animal to a single peg nut far from the others. Males and fenuiles must be encamped separately and well apart from one another, the females being some distance to lee- ward and out of sight of the males. They must be kept apart also on the line of march, and according to the Bengal i-egulations the proportion of establishment to be kept up for troops is § males, i females, but males and females in equal proportions may be told off for duty. The necessity for these precautions might easily be obviated in the case of camels by castration. The Testes (occupying the position of those of carnivora) arc easy tt) remove. 'J'he Mongols castrate regularly at three or four years of age, with a view to rendering the males more tractable, better workers, and to pre- vent indescriminate breeding. The periodically recurrent sexual 4 26 desire of the male is termed Must ; it necessitates the special pre- caution of tying the tail round to the saddle lest it be continually switched about and thus urine when passed be sprinkled over drivers^ loads, and other camels (Leach). Indeed the provision of nature whereby the urine is expelled in a backward direction often against the tail seems not very satisfactory. It has been urged that thus the animal is to an extent prevented from having to stand with his hind feet in a puddle of urine such as would soften their horn and cause disease, but the male elephant, which has more tender feet than the camel, urinates forward. It cer- tainly is a great advantage for camels not to have to take the first step after a halt from a slippery patch of ground moistened by urine. The Serwan judiciously whenever possible moves his camel a yard or two to either side of the place where he has urinated directly he has completed the act. These experienced men halt their camels regularly about every ten miles to allow them to " make water." The camel averages eight feet in length, and it is estimated that 500 in single file occupy one mile. In Bengal hired camels are procurable through Grovernment for the use of military officers. We are told that, in loading, bags are to be preferred to boxes, but camel trunks are supplied by Government for medical and veterinary stores, and prove very capacious and convenient. When camels and mules are both available, the former are to be used for baggage and heavy loads. Public camels are to be branded in letters three inches long on the near side of the neck with the last two figures of the year of purchase ; care is to be taken to avoid blemishing, and carbolic dressing is alloAved to keep off flies from the brand marks while healing; cast animals are branded on the buttock. Camels when purchased for the public service are to be between six and eight years old, and not less than 6^ feet high at the shoulder. The Russians make their camels work with loads from two years of age upwards — the full load being attained at five years, when the camel is considered full grown — but he becomes worn out early by age and ill treatment. In the Montgomery Dis- trict young camels are broken to the Nakala (nose string) when three years old, and usually put to work at four years with three maunds this being gradually increased to the full load of eight maunds. The age may be determined by the teeth, I. V. S. 27 Olipliant has carefully oxaminod this niattei' from a practical point of view. Hr fouiul ilmt of {'aniels sent up tlio Kuram Valley, 35% were uusorvieeabic as being- either too old or under five years of age. V. S. Chas. Steel found out of 70 dead camels at Quctta2(j undi-r two years of age ; evidently camels for the last Afghan ^Var were very badly selected. I'o prevent too young or too old animals being rushed across the frontier with a view to their owners obtaining compensatiou for loss, Mr. Oli- pliant gives the following information for ofhcers appointed to select camels : — Dkxtition of Camkl as dpjxoting age — At two years of age there are of the front teeth two temporary in the upper jaw and eight in the lower. At three years of age they are more worn, so that by four years old the lower ones become simply peg-like fangs wide apart in the jaw and discoloured. At about five years the first permanent incisors are cut, the animal is now called do uk (previously chatri) ; at abont six years the lateral permanent incisors appear (the animal becoming a choicga) ; at seven years the corner incisors are obtained (the camel being a chiga). Between seven and eight years the lower tushes are cut and are quickly followed by the upper. At eight years they are even with the incisors which form a level series the corner pair, only, being unworn (the camel is now termed nesh or jewan and is in its prime). The two npper secondary tushes are cut later and are somewhat irregular in their time of appearance. The true tushes at first slant forwards, then become npright and finally curve backwards ; in very old animals they become worn by mutual friction. The incisors become indented by wear on their sides and tops, the latter caused possibly by friction in the act of jerking the head to break off foliage in browsing. The condi- tion of the teeth of the animal between four and six years of age renders him little fit for grazing and certainly unfit for active service {Veterinary Journal, Vol. xi. Page 244). The following is the best routine Method of Examinhig a Camel as to Fitness for Transport Service : — (a). Determine age. (6). Height. (r). Condition and general state of health (especially freedom from pregnancy). (c/). Strength, as shown by rising and sitting down under a fair load without undue trembling. 28 fej. Paces good, and free from lameness. ffj. Xose not torn ; pads sound and free from sinuses; back, sides, &c., free from galls; no elbow brusliing*; feet neither over-worn, bruised, ulcerated, nor otherwise dis- eased ; tendons firm aoid clear ; hump well nourished. fgj. Eyes good and sound. The camel lives about 18 to 25 years according to the Arabs and Turkestanis, but in India attains a greater age (40 years in ]\Iontgomeiy, Nunn). Nothing will induce Mongol camel owners to use their camels under a certain age, the Arabs bring the males into work at the fifth year, when they attain the state of puberty, after Avhich they fill out, and the hump becomes fully furnished at seven or eight years of age. One Attendant is allowed, now, for every three camels. Unfor- tunately, although it is urged as an objection to the use of camels that they require skilled attendants, in time of emergency, when careful management is especially required, men who are not Ser- waus, mere kahars or common coolies, are hurried up and the camels entrusted to their tender mercies in spite of the facts that they do not know how to handle or manage camels, ill treat them and rob them of their food and clothing, desert in numbers when danger threatens, and pilfer stores on every available occasion. The Russians find the same difficulties in dealing* with camel drivers as we do. " They comprise a disorderly set of great numerical strength, possessed of no discipline, ready to desert at any moment, prone to plunder, and a source to demoralization to the troops themselves. In the expedition of 1839-40, under General Perovski, there were with the detachment, numbering 3,000 men, 2,000 drivers, who immediately they got to the Steppe took to flight. The General was therefore obliged to shoot two of the number who were caught. Desertion was thus stopped, but the worry with these men continued, and to such an extent that the detachment became, so to speak, an escort for its own camel drivers" (Kostenko). True Serwans are hardy, useful men, of sufl&ciently high caste to necessitate you being careful lest your long shadow fall on the food they are cooking at evening stable time and render it polluted and unfit for consumption. They are shrewd, careful men as a rule and very kind to their animals, * An especial point to look to in purchase of a camel is that the elbows be well turned out otherwise the loading rope galls tbera (Nuun). 20 ■which good feeling is reciprocated. There is a prevalent idea that camol men snlTrr IVom s\)\no disease and die yoinig, but I don't think \vc liavo siitlicitMit evidence of the coi-rcctness of this. "The gait of camels is pecnliai-," says Burnaby, " they go like a ])ig with the fore and like a cow with the hind legs. The nielion is deeidedly rongli." Another writer sums up the I'eel- ino's and sensations induced bv a camel ride across the desert as " very different from the exhilaration produced by riding a horse; this is soon replaced by a feeling of extreme discomfort/' Possibly the latter remarks refer only to the heavy caravan ani- mal, and the light sowari dromedary, travelling his ten or twelve miles an hour over the desert, may impart a less tedious and try- ing sensation to his rider — at any rate the motion seems to be one to which peo})le soon become used but a tight Kamar band is very necessary for the rider. The question of Procurdhilltij of (Jamcls remains to be dealt with. In this respect India labours under no difhculty — sufficient numbers of camels to meet all our requirements for trade and war can be obtained from internal and foreign sources of supply if reasonable system be exercised. But this has not been the case hitherto. When an emergency has aiisen animals of all kinds have been accepted for transport ; thus camels old and worn out, too young, pregnant, physically unfit, and incapacitated by dis- ease were hurried towards the front in Afghanistan after having been subjected to examination not even by a competent transport official, much less by a Veterinary Surgeon. Now transport officers are gaining considerable experience in camel management, some steps are being taken for aniuuil census in India Avith a view to information as to where animals available for transport are procurable, and we ma}"- note Avith satisfaction the success of camel supplies to the Soudan from India recently as contrasted with the unsatisfactory local supply from the Nile Delta. As yet no measures seem to have been taken for regulation of the breeding and repression of communicable diseases among camels. Very much might be done to inqorovc the breeds in different parts of India and to encourage mitive breeders to obtain animals of the most useful stamp and to castrate weedy males — possibly a stud system for obtaining a valuable breed of sires would be a great gain to the country. Something in this direction, has, we believe been tried at the Hissar Cattle Farm, so but there is good scope for more extensive operations of this kind. Camels are not expensive animals to buy, they are capable of doing an enormous amount of pack work; they are inexpensive to feed on service, and only in very few countries has fodder to be carried for them. When properly selected for service and well managed they witlistand the exigencies of a campaign fairly well. Thus there is much to be said in favour of camel transport, but I. V. S. Oliphant strongly advises that ''if occasion should arise in the future only 'local ' carriage be used, the animals remaining in the hands of their owners and carriage paid for by weight." It was proved that the government drivers took little or no interest in their charge in Afghanistan and the owners of the hired class were little better — preferring compensation to carrying out their contract. The system sugre-ested by Mr. Oliphant, too, would do away with the costly, ponderous operations of a " Camel Compen- sation Committee,'^ greatly to the advantage of Government. Nunn informs us that the Bikaneer Camel in the Shahpur dis- trict is worth Rs. 200, and other breeds Rs. 80 — 50 according to their carrying power, but the price has much risen since the Afghan war. In Montgomery a ganda (or gi'ey camel of superior class) is worth Rs. 100 — 120, and an inferior camel Rs. 90 — 50. He gives {Vide Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science in India, Vol. Ill, p. 162,) the following:— Names applied to Camels of different sizes : — MxVLES. 1 ^EMALES >. Months ••-{ Lihare or Lihara Todi . General term, Toda ••"1 ... 6 to 12 Mahata Kutela ... ■■ {-Todi. Till 3 yi-s, or after weaning Maj-at ..- Years ... 3 Trilian, Treliaii, Tehak .. Paraf, Paraf 1. ... 4 Cliliatiar .. Paraf, Lihari. ... 6 Doyak Daclu Pahlan, Trokor Second cut. ... 61 Incisor y Cliauga Daclii, Dugan, Troker. Third and Incisor Tusk cut. J ? J 9 Armosh, Arut. Chliio'O'a. Chicya. Vcsh, Nesli. 3] With rc^ui-d to Bkekdino, Nunn informs us as to tlie detail in the Moutgomery District of the Punjab. Thefomalos aro not put to the male until they are three years oldj they "come in season" iu March; one will produce nine or ten calves at intervals of two years, the calf being- carried 12A months. The calf sucks for one year; he is allowed only very small quantities of milk for the first fifteen days, and afterwards to please himself as to amount, ho begins to browse when about three weeks old. When he is weaned the udder of the dam is tied up in a bag called '' Jali.^^ The OAvncr milks half the uddor twice a day and leaves the rest for the calf; a good gauda gives about 12 seers per diem. This milk does not give butter, it is laxative in its effects on man and used in cases of enlarged spleen, but is the best kind for rearing foals on, as the Arabs also have observed. The natural history of the camel is singular in this important respect that nowhere in the present day is he known to occur in the wild state. The two forms of camclus find tlicii* nearest Zoo- logical allies iu the Llamas of the new world but, in conformation of their limbs especially, they prove interesting from an anato- mico- physiological point of view as alfording transitional charac- ters between the horse and the ox. There is, perhaps, no animal in the world which can be looked on as domesticated more thoroughly than the camel, he lives among men and in company with human beings only, he is mentioned in the earliest written records of the race of mankind. The Chinese have some literature of the camel and his diseases, Arabian works ( ancient and modern) deal with his management and uses in a semi-religious manner from which the facts can be extracted only after the most elaborate research. The French, with their usual enlightened policy in matters of science, on occupation of Algeria called on experienced veterinary officers of the army for rej)orts on the diseases of camels among other beasts of burden used in the recently con- quered country and thus much valuable information has been ob- tained and recorded, probably that which from a scientific point of view is the most valuable available on Cameline Pathology. The records made by ofiicers, veterinary and non-veterinary of the army in the Indian empire are of the greatest value from a pratical point of view but they are nuich scattered in jieriudicals, pamphlets, and inaccessible works of reference ; some of the few 32 special works on tlie subject are not to be bad by tbe general public. The anatomy of the camel is casually touched on in works of comparative anatomy and is dealt with in a few memoirs re- printed fi'om the proceedings of the Zoological and other Societies. The physiology has been mainly worked out in France through the labours of the learned Professor Colin. The diseases have been dealt with in the obsolete work of Gilchrist and the brief sketches by Oliphaut, Leech, C. Steel, and the Algerian veterin- ary officers. We have to search far and wide for information as to medicines for the camel and the special features of their action on his system. Thus our knowledge of the camel has not been focused in the foi*m of literaiy production ; it is to remove this extremely unsatisfactory state of affairs, which may fairly be considered an opprobrium to the veterinary profession in India, that this work has been prepared. Chapter II.— GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON DISEASES OF THE CAMEL. As the diseases of the ox are better understood than those of other ruminants that animal must be considered as the standard for comparison in study cf disorders of other species which chew the cud. It Avill be found that in pathology, as in anatomy generic resemblances are very close up to a certain point, but that there are many practically important matters in which differ- ences can be noticed. These differences depend not only on special features of anatomical constitution but on the life condi- tions to which the species are subjected, and, especially, the uses to which they are put by man, thus the length of neck of the camel seems to entail on that animal a liability to certain forms of epilepsy and of injury to the cervical region, dislocation and fracture, not seen very often in the ox. Also it will be found that certain ill-explained disorders of the nape of the neck and upper part of the throat are not uufrequent in the camel and, again, broken back, lacerated thigh muscles, and galls, demand special attention in Cameline Pathology, for they result from abuse cf the camel as a beast of burden. It must be con- fessed that as regards the various branches of comparative study of disorders of the ruminating apparatus we are sadly deficient in knowledge ; that the camel suffers much from disease of the 33 aliincnlary canal will bo evident to the most siiixMlicial observer. His diet dilTers from that ot" the ox in these impiti'tiint respects, that hi.s fodder is larg-ely composed of the leaves of trees and of prickly shrubs, aud that he receives little grain food and prac- tically no roots, as a general rule ho is left to shift for himself entirely in the collection of his food. The remarkable tendency in the camel for wounds to take on suppurative action and to becojne complicated with lymphaugitis is one of the first matters which attracts attention in Cameline Pathology, it is probably due to constitutional tendency to a very great extent, but cannot wholly be set down to that cause, being often duo to malpraxis in the treatment of wounds, and perhaps also to the irritant proper- ties of urine, saliva, and other secretions of the camel which probably prove as offensive to a healing wound as they do to the nostrils of any one unused to be among these animals. Abscesses occurring in the positions occupied by lymphatic glands are com- monly described as special distinct disorders of the camel, but they may almost all legitimately come under the head of lymph- angitis aud carefully conducted examination of the animal will generally show that they depend on some unhealthy wound. Thus the question early comes up for careful consideration whether there is in the constitution of the camel any intrinsic and special tendency to unhealthy action in wounds ; in considering this it must be remembered that very mary of the patients which come under our notice are in extremely low condition from under-feeding which materially lessens the reparative powers of the constitution, that in many cases it is almost impossible to secure anything like cleanliness of the wounds, and that generally, in the ab- sence of our immediate personal supervision, simple dressings are discai-ded, and, either openly or surreptitiously, the Serwan applies the acrid medicaments which native practice sanctions ; we have as yet no evidence that the tlosh of the camel is peculia rly ob- noxious to repair. Rayment is right in his estimate of the extent of the knowledge possessed by natives as to treatment of Camel Diseases.* Every Veterinary Surgeon with Indian experience can confirm his views and finds that the empirical knowledge *" A theory, icJiidt should ho, crplodcd as soon as possihle, is that natives undfirsfond the frealment of these, animals in sickness. Toniciitioii some of iljeir curative measures, lot us take Dementia : — 'I'lic}' tic tlio patient down, rover him up with blankets. light two fiies bcl'orc and two behind him, if 5 u acquired and handed down from many centuries of camel treat- ment contains here and there the germ of a sound practical truth but that the chaff so abounds as to obscure the grain and warrant us in drawing information from native sources only after most careful consideration. The habitat of the camel being as a rule dry hot countries of a desert character he is considered peculiarly susceptible to changes of temperature and the influences of climate, the various effects of a " touch of the sun" certainly are seen in the camel ; rheumatic disease, " cold-struck," and respii-atory disorders affect him frequently and readily when exposed to damp. Accidents of various kinds occur when the desert animal is removed to hilly, stony, or slippery places, his high centre of gravity renders him liable to falls but is counteracted in this respect considerably by the amount of ground the animal covers, the stoutness of his limbs and the considerable size of his footpads. These latter are liable to injury as being much less of the nature of hoofs than the horny pedal organs of other ruminants, resembling rather the hoof slippers of the elephant. Thus it is very evident that the iises to which the camel is put must be considered as the cause of by far the larger portion of the disorders from which he suffers. If sore backs, lacerated nostrils^ and foot injuries be removed from his list of diseases the latter will be found to be very short. The surgical conditions of the camel have been known and treat- ed from time immemorial, but with them were confounded certain derangements with which we shall hereafter have to deal in a more extended manner under the heading " disorders of the blood." It may be claimed for Veterinary Science that it has thrown light on the special diameter of some disorders hitherto considered ordinary in their nature ; camel-pox, anthrax, surra, and foot and mouth disease are additions made by scientific observers to the list of camel diseases from cases which were previously known as skin disease, colic, debility, and sore feet. Cameline Pathology at present presents the interesting spectacle of a branch J,licrc is in iuldifcion a hot sun all the better ! Again cow's urine is a favor- ite draught, indigo is rubbed over wounds, sinuses are filled with common salt, a slit is made in the ear for colic, &c., &c. That real Serwans under- stand the treatment, dieting, &c., of camels in healtli is of course undeni- able, but we have now many Transport Officers and Subordinates who do so just as Avcll." (Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science, April, 1886). 35 of ineditMl scit'iK-o in tlu' art ot t'iiu'i-<^('iic(' liom onpii'icisni, overy scit'iirilically oltscrvi'd t-asc is of value, lioucvcr simple it 1)0, apparently and not iiiitVcipiciilIy cnrefiil olisei'vatiou is rewarded wirli iiie'sr i'eiiiai-kal)le and valuable results. 'J'lie methods of scii'iiei' must be bruui^lit to bear on disease in caiuels and it rests \vitli (JuviM-uuKMit to i^-ive V'etiM'inary Surgeons in India the opportunities required in this line of research. The r,KNh,HA[, svMiToMs ov n,L-HKALTir in the camel are obscure to all but the expei-ienced camel managei-, wliether Native or lOuropean. 'Die camel works almost nntil he falls dead, and once he gets doMn he must be considered in a very bad way, not, however, certain "never to rise ar>-ain" as has been tauodit : refusal of food and loss of the cud are very imjxirtant <-oueral sitjns of disorder ; a dull, heavy, listless appi-arance of the eyes, very different from th(> naturally bright vigilant aspect of these b(\intiful featur(>s of the camel's face; a tendency to i-emaiu ])ersistently with the head and neck stretched straight ont and resting on the ground ; a dry, hide-bound, unthrifty appearance of the skin; increasing debilit}- as denoted by, besides the falling away in condition, the tottering and trembling of the animal when it attempts to i-ise. AVhen Fevkr is present we find, accord- ing to Gilchrist, that there is a cold stage followed by a hot. In the former shivering, restlessness, and general stiffness are present, and the limbs are cold; in the latter (which supervenes after a couple of hours) the urine is scanty and high coloured, but little dung is passed, respiration is cpiick and laboured, there is mucous discharge from the nostrils, laclnymation, and extreme thirst causing the animal when loosened to run to water and lie down in it after drinking. 'J'his condition is consideied due to exposure of the animal whih' heated but is rare, and all mention of it seems to have been excluded from Gilchrist's later editions. Leach speaks of a form of Sun Fever, under the names Gurmi Mangaya, and Sarh-ki-bimari resulting from exposure in hot weather. The animal is dull and off feed, his skin hot and dry, and Ins breathing quick but the disorder soon yields to ordinary febrifuges or a stimulant dose daily. Natives treat it by stimu- lating niussatds and they apply stimulants to the eyes, sternuta- tive powders and liquid applications to the nostrils, they foment the body and keep the aniujal in a sheltered place. This treatnjent ia 36 evident!}^ directed to rerooval of symptoms^ Gilchrist advises the withdrawal of from ^-1 gallon of blood from the jugular and purg- ing with five drachms of aloes and two of calomel made into a bolus with jaggery. Hei'e we see a noteworthy absence of recommenda- tion for use of febrifuges and one hesitates considerably before following either method ; experience tends to the support of the native S3'steni, that of sustaininr/ the strength of the animal as much as possible, which will be found a rule of great value in dealing with all diseases of the camel. The tendency of medical science in the present day is to throw considerable doubt on the alleged occurrence of fever as a disease per se especially in quadrupeds. Irritative fever the result of extensive wounds and injuries, and symptomatic fever in blood diseases and severe internal phlegmons is very common but the general term fever is losing its original meaning and becoming the name for a collection of symptoms, just as dropsy, diarrhoea, and colic are they no longer convey- ing so precise a meaning as to meet the accurate diagnostic requirements of the present day. The PULSE, taken at the heart, averages 54 beats per minute according to Gilchrist, but Colin puts the pulse of the camel at 25 to 32. The beats of the central circulatory organ may best be felt, " though not always distinctly, when pressure is made with the hand between the top of forelegs in front of the chest * * * no artery about head, neck, or extremities is to be found possess- ing a distinct aud easily recognisable pulse." This fact seriously diminishes the value of pulse records for diagnostic purposes, but it must be remembered that the pulse of ruminants is so affected by physiological processes, especially digestion and pregnancy, as to render its indications but little reliable. The internal temperature is a much more reliable and ex- act method of determination of the presence of Fever than is the pulse. The results afforded by my observations, as published in Vol. XX, of the Veterinary Journal, p. 80, are that the average internal temperature taken at the rectum in the morning is 99°F. ; the maximum reading obtained was 102"6°F. "but the animal was probably the subject of some fever (he died the following day of Anthrax) since only in two other cases was the temperature over 100°F," The minimum reading obtained was 98-2°F. I should put the health limits at 98°F. to 101°F. The camels are 37 made to "sit :" occasionally, in resentment of manipnlsition of the anus, they try to bring- the buttocks to the <>'ronu«l or violiMitly altt'iupt to l)ile or to rise, 'rwo assistants are necessary, one to hold the tail and the other the head. Often a nunil)i'r of ectozoa are collected beneath the tail; sonietinies dunj^ b;dls in t'le rectum prevent free introduction of the instrument ; occasion- nlly there is spasmodic closure of the anus. The thermometer should be kept iu for four minutes each observation. The RESPIRATIONS vary much iu frecjuency in accordance with the conditions of the animal, being nearly double as fast in the heat of the day as in the morning or evening ; as with other quadrupeds they, therefore, do not afford us much guidance in diagnosis, although the character of the efforts may ])oint to important abnormalities. Laboured breathing, quick beatino-of the flanks, and panting are found in the extremes of respiratory effort, but it is often wonderful what an amount of exertion a camel may perform when on the eve of fatality from chest disorder. This renders aiiscultalwn especially necessary as a guide in cameline diagnosis and it should be resorted to iu all cases of obscure disorder of the camel. Various sibili and rales will be found iu lung disorder, conditions quite incompatible with a free, open state of the air passages. It will generally be necessary to use a stethoscope for these observations, because of the numerous parasites and the dirt in the coat of most sick camels. Cough and nasal discharge (especially when the latter is of a rusty colour) will direct our attention to the organs of respii-atiou. The indications o'i itercussioa have not yet been sufJi- ciently worked out. The STATE OP EXCRETA niust be carefully noted. Tiic small round dung pellets expelled without effort in health, the urine passed freely in a backward direction, the animal '' campino-" him- self for its expulsion and occupying a vei-y long time in the process (the stream being very small), must be carefully looked to in diagnosis, and mucli must be learned from general observations on the state of the skin, coat, and visible mucous membranes. Prognosis in serious disorders of camels is generally un- favourable in the extreme. It is hard to get proper nursing for the animals ; if the sick be moved to some place where there is shelter from the sun and any other violent climatic influence, 38 such as considerable niiufall and high cold wind, it is generally thought the invalid is being well and sufficiently nursed. Again it is not observed that a camel is unwell, generally, until he is " in extremis" which, of course, is a matter which seriously ham- pers our curative measures and renders their effect unsatisfactory. It is constautlv assumed that the camel has no power of resisting disease but this is by no means well established. It is an assertion made of evei'v animal until our knowledge suffices for diagnosis of its diseases iu any but their latest stages ; however, it must be ad- mitted that iu many cases of treatment when the disease has been promptly and well handled, and if the patient had been a horse we might reasonably have anticipated recovery, death ensues. It is to be feared that such unsatisfactory result depends more frequently on imjierfect and unskilful handling of remedial agents tlian on specially fatal tendency of disease iu the species Camelus. Treatmkn't must for the present be to a very great extent experimental, is so far as the use of drugs is concerned. We have as yet no accurate and carefully conducted therapeutic observations made on the camel. Still the organism of this ani- mal does not differ so radically from that of the ox as to prevent our having some knowledge of the action of remedies, at any rate as to which may be given with the possibility or probability of good result and the certainty of doing no harm by their administra- tion. Armed Avith this information and with the principles of pharmacy and medical treatment, any Veterinary Surgeon is more competent to prescribe for a camel than can bo an absolute- ly ignorant individual told off to the care of camels in health, and than the experienced Serwan who wields traditional nosti-ums and shrouds his complete want of scientific knowledge in mystery. Chapter III.— CAMELINE THERAPEUTICS AND MATERIA MEDICA. The details of the subject of this chapter will be dealt with when we are writiug of individual diseases, and as regards general principles there is but little to be said except that most recent experience has amply proved the superiority of the stimulant tonic method of treatment adopted by the natives, the outcome of their experience, as compai-ed with the depletory methods adopted by Gilchrist, who objects to the native remedies as "at 30 best, inert'' or " useless, if not positively injiin'oiis" or (in some oases) as not Iiaviiij^' "even the iu\Lr:itivi' cliafaclci- of ildinw- no harm" hut " beinj»" positively in jiii-ioiis, feeihii'^- I lie disease iiis(e;itl of siibilninu;- it." Examining- ('arel'iilly native ti'eatinent as derived from various s >nrees we find it may he dividetl into nnissauls, nahass or snuffs, lapi's or un^-uenta, and nnjnns or hichryniants. The MrssAULS consist of nuniei-ous int>-ietlients, ahnost all derived from the ve<^et:ible kin<^-doin, ^-enerally of a stimulant, tonii' eharaetei-, in doses very similar to those reijiiii'cd foi' the ox, ami to I)e i^-iven in the form of a holiU'^ about the size of a- lime twice a day or every morning*. Or else the form of drrnrh is sug'g'ested, and we know that this is much preferable to a ball for a ruminant animal; water, milk, and wine are used as \-ehieles. It is evident that when a dose is made uj) of so many as fifteen ingredients, the ])racticc of the prescriber is very much on the " hit and miss ])rinciple," We observe the same peculiarities in uative prescriptions for the elephant and bullock ; witli rei^ard to the latter there can be no doubt that European practice is far ahead of the native systems, and, so, Ave are in a positi(ui to expose the utter ignorance of natives in treatment of diseases of the ox ; it is reasonable to infer that the same ignorance and pre- sumption which prevails in native treatment of cattle does so also in the case of both elejdiant and camel, and all the evidence Ave have bearing on the matter tends to prove that such is the case. We elsewhere deal with Canieliue Materia Medica in e.i'teitso. Nahass or snufp consists of aromatic substances, not so nu- merous generally as those composing mussauls, powdevi d and blown into the nostrils. Examining the iirst of these which comes to hand we find it extremely bulky and unwieldy for this form of administration, Aveighing a tola each of the following jiOAvders, barringtonia, alum, galls, calombo, long pepjier root, cloves, and assafoetida; this to be given twice a day; Avhich sounds rather "rough" on the camel. There can be no hesitfition in concluding that the bloAving of about three ounces of irritant powder twice a day into the nostrils of a camel suffering say from Pneumonia must speedily terminate the case, by death of the patient, therefore this line of treatment as suggested by the natives must not be copied by officials in charge of Transj-)ort animals. 40 Various Lapes or Ointments are constantly recommended, tliey are either of the nature of poultices or of ointments proper. A very short experience with medicines suffices to show that these native prescriptions have absolutely no special advantages as compared with the corresponding- preparations of the Veterinary Pharma- copoeia, and they are usually so complex in composition as to be difficult to remember on emergency. Their special recommen- dation is that only bazaar medicines are required in their prepara- tion, but the skilled pharmaceutist once informed what remedies are procurable in ordinary bazaars in emergency can combine them with efficiency greater than that of the unscientific recipes of the Serwans. The native recipes which seem of special value will be enumerated hereafter and it will be found that the value of lengthened experience in management of camels under disease has been neither under-estimated nor over-rated. Unjuns or Lachrymants seem in much favour with Serwans. They are pastes, powders, or unguents applied to the eyelids on the inner surface ; they, of course, irritate the animal much and produce a profuse flow of tears but it is very doubtful whether they are of any benefit whatsoever in the disorders for which tbey are used, certainly they have no more than a slight derivative action. They have long been discarded from all occidental practice except for local treatment. Firing constitutes an important feature of treatment of animal diseases by natives, who usually like to leave faiid their clients to see) distinct evidences that remedial measures have been adopted. In almost every case the unfortunate patient is extensively scored with the hot iron and it is seldom we see a camel which has entire- ly escaped this heroic measure, adopted either for cure or preven- tion of disease. W^e are constantly urged to score with the hot iron over the haunch and neck, on the head, along the sides and around the navel, from the ears to the shoulders, on the buttocks, and so on. Leach gives us some interesting details about the after treatment in cases of application of the actual cautery. " Three days after branding, a mixture of wood or cow-dung ashes and camel urine should be applied daily for seven days, when it will be found that the scab resulting from the firing has peeled off and that the abscess, if it has not already burst of itself, is ready to be lanced." Great virtue is attributed to the form of iron mark, thus the pal- 41 myra leaf pattern is called hajuria dagh, it is best for an abscess of the chest, but if the abscess occurs between the hiud legs the cart-wheel braiul fchoufnlli (h\ have no distinct evidence as to eiVectual action of tlio compounds of antimony. The sulphurets, so extensively used in native medicine, are ob- tainable in the bazaars only in most impure state and (licir action is either negative or most uncertain. Tartar emetic has l)een the subject of an interesting experiment by Gilchrist, in which he gave 25 ounces in eleven consecutive days without any appre- ciable effect, the animal feeding freely all the time in the ordi- nary manner. However it is concluded that though this drug- lias no emetic effect it is useful as an alterative in doses of 5ss-5j combined with similar doses of calomel. Stimulants, mitispas- viodics, tonics, and narcotics arc the agents principally relied on in treatment of camel diseases. The crude bazaar forms of these may in many cases be usefully supplanted by the purified drugs, but there are many agents of much value obtainable in the bazaai"s and most effectual in emergency. It must he taken as a leadinrj irrinciple in the treatment of Indian Transport Animal that the drug^ recommended he snch and in such forms as are most readily ohtainahle on emergency in most Indian Bazaars. With regard to Doses, we can only repeat the rule elsewhere projiounded that, when not otlierwise specified, the amounts suit- able for the ox should he given to the camel. MExnoDS OF ADMINISTRATION of internal remedies offer some points of interest. Where speedy action is not required the dose may be mixed with the feed, or given as Boli about the size of a lime, but in more urgent cases the agents should be given in the liquid form for immediate absorption, milk being a convenient and much appreciated vehicle. The attendants give these drinks through the mouth by means of a hollow bamboo drenching appli- ance. It is to be remembered that most of our remedial agents are of the form of Carminative Massauls and that, therefore, the animal will take them by ordinary hand feeding from the Serwan and much benefit medicinally may often he gained by alteration of the diet of tlie animal, the naturally varied nature of which gives us great facilities for action in this direction except under the emergencies of a campaign. ^Teans of restbaint are few in number; the camel bears pain 44 Well in the course of operations. His means of resisting the infliction of pain consist in biting, lateral movement, and, very occasionally, kicking. The head is held firmly by two or more men, and the attention of the animal diverted by jerking at the nose peg ; it is preferable, however, to tie up the head as the animal is in the couchant position. Much camel surgery may be done while the animal is sitting and retained in that position (for slight and rapid operations) by the camel man stand- ing on the forearm, in other c ises by fastening the fore legs in the bent position, as described for bleeding. The double shackle to the hind legs is necessary in cases of abscesses of the groin and other parts of the hind limbs, otherwise the patient treads impatiently sideways on to the toes of the operator. However, absolutely the most formidable offensive means of the camel is his teeth. The bite of a camel is notoriously severe and liable to be followed by extensive loss of tissue and blood poisoning ; the effects of which the natives compare to leprosy and very much dread. It is, therefore, very carefully guarded against, and when a man has been bitten his wounds should be promptly cleansed from the offensive and irritant secretions of the mouth and, with advantage, thoroughly cauterized. As a rule, however, the latter process is more or less imperfect, for the wounds are jagged and deep. The flicking of the tail bespattering the operator and the freshly cut surfaces with acrid urine is also to be guarded against by tying up that organ or having it firmly held. The operator soon gets used to the grunts, gurglings, and discontented utterings of the camel, which are apt to distract the attention of the inexperienced. As a rule to be constantly enforced we must "never ' lose a chance' ivith a camel/' avoid approaching him except when properly held by the man in charge, and generally he should be made to kneel before our approach ; these, of course, are matters soon learned from experience. In the treatment of external injuries of the camel the greatest difficulties are experienced in keeping the parts clean ; thus band- ages, protective coverings, and boots for foot injuries are found especially necessary. Camphorated oil to protect from flies is of great value ; and experience has proved that it is often absolutely necessary to form an artificial scab over the abraded surface by means of the actual or potential cautery. As a rule error is made iu excessive depoiulenco on blue stoue, liot pitch, and other caus- tics. It must be rouiembcrcd that camels are in case of irritation jiiible to liicerato the itching parts by biting- aiul scratching, measures nmst therefore be always taken to lessen irritation of wounds and skin eruptions by the use of substances having a local anodyne action. Recipes for Kharisk or Itch especially need to bo anodyne in their influence, for this disease seriously upsets the natural stolidity of the camel. Stimulating a])plications externally applied best assume the form of lapes, simple blisters are very liable to bo torn and so generally are dispensed with or use of the hot iron substituted. Cooling mnssauls are febrifuge, antiphlogistic, diuretic, and laxative in action. They find but a small place in the native pharmacy and in respect to them canielino therapeutics has much benefited by the introduction of European methods of treatment and medicines, whiich, in a negative way has also proved beneficial by exclusion of urine, fa!ces, and even more objectionable cxcipients, from the Pharmacy. Chapter IV.— THE BLOOD AND ITS DISEASES. There is a peculiar bluish tint about the blood of the camel which results probably from the fact that his red corpuscles present the peculiarity so noteworthy among mammals, of being- elliptical. This resemblance to the corpuscles of fishes, and reptiles does not seem to entail on Camelida) any appreciable correspondence in habits or structure with non-mammalian verte- brates. The globules arc l-23ord of a millimeter (Colin) iu mean diameter, thus resembling those of other mammals to a fair degree of approximation being smaller than those of the Elephant (1/100 mm.). Dog (1/139 mm.). Ox (1/1(38 mm.), ITorse (1/181 mm.), and Sheep (1/209 mm.), and larger than those of the Goat (1/250 mm.). There will be noticed a marked tendency to the formation of yellowish clots in the blood vessels of the camel pos^ mortem probably due to the frequent occurrence of anaemia in this species generally resulting from imperfect nutrition or prolonged attacks of unrecognised exhausting disease. Anjemia or Dei3IL1ty is denoted by the animal being very thin and its hum]) very small, having difficulty in rising with its h)ad, shivering when attempting to rise or to lie down, being" sluggish and dull and evidently weak and unsuited for work. He some- 46 times sits foi' day after day in the same place refusing the most tempting morsels of food, and looking a perfect picture of emacia- tion until lie stretches his head out or bends it round and dies quietly. This condition, known among the natives as Dhoobla, is often associated with diarrhoea, dysentery, and, especially, mange. Dropsy (Zharbad) combined with paralysis (Jolay) generally sup- ervenes before death or the attack of aneemia assumes this form from the commencement. On post mortem examination a consi- derable amount of serum may be found present in the serous cavi- ties, partially white clots in the larger vessels and heart, gelatinous matter replacing the fatty material in the grooves of the surface of the heart, complete absence of adipose material, and, very frequently, numerous hydatids in liver, lungs, or spleen. In these cases ari-angements must be made for feeding the patient by himself (as the disease sometimes results from his not getting his fair share of the food given for the three camels of one driver) Tinder i-eliable supervision on palatable fodder, such as neem and burgot, in as large amounts as he will consume, and on boiled oodoodh instead of ordinary gram ; excuse him from all work but give exercise daily ; groom freely and thoroughly and administer vegetable and mineral tonics, for which milk will in extreme cases be found the best vehicle. This disorder in camels is often merely the most marked indi- cation of the disease known as Surra, which recent researches have proved to be Relapsing Fever due to the presence of spiral oro-anisms in the blood. Yaldwin speaks of Surra as very com- mon and fatal — the result of overwork in the sun and want of water. As indicated by loss of crispness of the hair and by loose- ness of the hair of the tail. He termed the disease '' Heat Struck," and suggests its treatment with one pound of Ardawa daily or a handful of gfeen Tel soaked with a little salt all night and given in the morning. Dr. Evans added materially to our knowledge of this disease. Ue drew attention to the very considerable losses in camels experienced of the Punjab Frontier Force annually from this disorder, thus for example, in 1878 the 4th Sikhs lost 29 camels almost all from Surra, in the following year 41, and in 1880, 28. The disease was well known to natives in charge of the animals and attributed by them to a fly, Bura Dhuug, which in May comes from jungle land that has been under water, is very 47 uumerous in Juno and July, but at the conimcnccmont of October is obtainable with difficulty. It bites cattle and donkeys without ill effect, men with the result of h ])aiiiful swelling at the scat of attack, and horses and cauiels causing tlio disease known as Khanhog, Doaia, Surra, (in its various stages), and Phipri in camels. KluutJiog is the first stage of the disease; the animal is off feed, sluggish, and his urine is high coloured, if he be treated early he may recover from the disease at this stage. In Doaia, the second stage, the patient swells all over the chest : in the third stage there is dropsy of the abdomen and legs and proo-rcs- sivc ana?mia. Recovery is now almost hopeless, but if it occurs the animal is useless for two years, the urine becomes hio-h coloured during the hot season but is natural during the cold weather. The attack occasional!}^ lasts only a week and seldom exceeds four months in duration. Dr. Evans found that the Snrra parasite lived longer by some hours in the blood of the camel after its removal from the body than in that of the horse. This disease has not yet been recognized among the few camels found in Southern India, but there can be little doubt that it is much more widely spread than has been hitherto supposed and that Evans is right wdien he attributes much of the extraordinary fatality among camels in our Afghan Campaigns to Surra. As we are still quite in the dark concerning the origin of this aifec- tion the views of natives attributing it to the bite of a fly deserve some attention and investigation. It is, in so far as we know, impossible to cure Surra, and considering the number of diseases (anthrax, dropsy, simple fever, &c.), with which it has been con- founded we must accept the opinion of its curability with reserve. Its prevention consists in sound hygiene for camels, care in avoidance of stagnant drinking water, and protection from vicis- situdes and extremes of climate. Aai'TiUAX {CliliaJic) is described by Nnnnas destroying in Shah- pur District only hundreds of camels annuully and by Oliphant as '^a very serious malady in the camel which caused immense loss in the space of a few weeks in the Kurani Force spreading* rapidly and running its course in a very short time." The latter oflBcer records that at one station out of 919 camels 419 died in seventeen days (22nd July to 7th August), and the camel colunni of the force was annihilated, 1,400 animals dying in July, 48 August, and September. Recently Burke has studied the dis- ease at Cawnpore in Transport Camels* noting a fatality of about 18°/q of animals grazing together in churraees or jungles and of about 50°/q of cases affected ; this outbreak seemed clearly traceable to contagion but the period of incubation was uncertain, also the duration of persistence of virulence. It was observed that some animals which recovered suffered from a second attack often not many days after the first. Nunn men- tions two forms of anthrax as occurring in the Montgomery District, termed respectively Bil (Dysenteric) and Barr (Apo- plectic) ; Burke divides the disorder into internal and external forms, he finds that the latter often recover. Oliphant " noticed but few cases in which the effusion was in the areolar tissue in immediate contiguity to the skin but found generally tumours of extravasated coagulated blood on the surface of internal organs especially the lungs and spleen. Gilchrist does not record this disease as a distinct pathological state but he probably had seen cases and noted them as zaarbadh, jolay, apoplexy, and so on. It has been supposed that camels do not suffer from anthrax but experience has amply proved the incorrectness of this view ; the characteristic organisms have been seen in the blood, in the tissues of aborted f cetuses, and even in the milk (Burke) . The disease is most frequent during and after the rains — it is protean in its manifestations and not unfrequently has run its course unobserved so that the patient seems to fall dead suddenly or after having been for an hour or so in distress. As a rule the first signs noticed are dark coloured urine, the animal refusing food and drink, and becoming suddenly and rapidly emaciated. The internal temperature will be found high, rumination sus- pended, and the limbs apparently stiff and rigid. In external anthrax the skin becomes affected with boils and eruptions of various kinds which Burke has by observation of Bacilli in them demonstrated as true features of the disease. Diarrhoea and heemorrhagic evacuations, sometimes associated with protrusion of the rectum, occur in some cases and a peculiar putrid and offensive smell of the animals before death with rapid decomposi- tion of the carcase after death (Nunn). The disease under this latter form has possibly been confounded with rinderpest. Burke * Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science in India, No. 14, Vol. iy., p. 224. 49 lias fouurl that prcguaut auimals abort citlior dnving the attack, during convalescence^ or even after recovery : the milk in this disease is thick and scanty and contains blood from the first. A not nnfrequent feature is the occurrence of local swellings, espe- cially involving the posterior part of the body, and an interesting question for solution by future enquirers is whether the camel, like the ox, suffers from a form of true external anthrax (Emphy- sema infectuosum) due to a distinct bacterium differing from that of the internal form of anthrax. Sooner or later in the attack, after continuous shivering collapse sets in, the animal lies on the ground raises its head occasionally or bends the neck and throws the head backwards, maintaining that position persistently until death occurs. Prognosis is always unfavourable. The natives consider the disorder quite incurable, although they give certain medicines such as gugal, gnr, aromatic substances, and the seeds of Lepidium Sativum. They sometimes try the effect of the actual cautery, burning a line all round the body or branding across the spine, and a certain amount of curative virtue is some- times found in the fresh blood of a goat. European methods for treatment of blood diseases have hitherto been but little tried for the camel, Burke considers he has obtained good results from use of carbolic acid and oil but his views need to be confirmed; he has pointed out au interesting secondary condition worthy of attention in the treatment of this affection in that there occurs a ''fever of re-absorption,^^ the temperature rising to 101°, 102°, and 103° on the third, fourth, and fifth days after apparent recovery (Veterinary Journal, January 1886). Often there is absolutely no time for treatment the animal being admitted in the moribund state. Treatment of a preventative nature is, therefore, more to be relied on than curative measures. Pasteur's system of Anthrax Vaccination has not yet been tried with camels, in so far as I am aware, but Government ought to at once attempt to reduce fatality by this means. The methods suggested, and en- forced in so far as the emergencies of active service would allow, by Oliphant in the Kuram Valley are as follows : — (1) division of the total number of animals into several herds, (2) strict attention to cleanliness and a general sanitary condition of the camel lines, (3) supply of green food, (4) destruction of diseased animals, and (5) the disposal of their carcases by fire. To these 7 50 raay be added disinfection of localities, attendants, and affected animals ; whenever possible removal of tbe camels still unaffected to a fresh locality where there is good range and plenty of fodder, and it must be remembered that this disease affects other animals also and is communicable to them especially by carcases and inoculation. Every care should, therefore, be taken in avoidance of places where post mortem examination or burial of anthrax carcases has occurred, and in making a post mortem examination the operators should adopt every precaution against their being inoculated. It is said that during the Horse Plague in Egypt in 1876 many camels died from anthrax and it is not at all improbable that camels and other transport animals have in many cases acted as unsuspected sources of anthrax conveyance to troop horses. Even under present arrangements it is wonderful how long even extensive fatality may be going on in the transport lines of a station, especially among camels, before the Veterinary Surgeon of the British troops at that station receives any notifi- cation of it ; things were, however, much worse before the trans- port was made a separate branch of the Commissariat. Post mortem Examination shows, generally, amber-coloured fluid in the serous cavities, especially the peritoneal sac, blood extravasations either as petechiae of serous membranes, or masses of coagulated blood in the substance of parenchymatous organs. Emphysematous diffused patches of sero-sanguinous fluid may be found in various parts of the body, and gelatinous deposits at the sublumbar region and replacing the fat around the heart. In some cases there are no appreciable abnormalities and the appearance of the blood differs little (if at all; from its normal purple colour. It is not unfrequent for outbreaks of a very fatal but obscure nature to occur among camels especially on service. One of these has been recorded by Veterinary Surgeon Haslam in the December 1885 number of the Veterinary Journal, and its facts are well worthy of notice. It seems there was a certain amount of doubt as to whether the animals did not succumb to poisoning, anthrax, or sunstroke, but the conclusion arrived at that " It is a fact that ad libitum watering immediately after a large meal in this climate will cause enteritis, peritonitis, and death in other- wise healthy camels" must be considered as not proven. V. S. 51 Haslam records tliafc a severe fatality occurred among camels at the Desert Camel Camp, SiieZj in Juno 1885. He found the gait difficult and painful, movements slow and tottering, lying down, quietly rolling on to the side ; bending back the head or looking round at the Hanks ; an uneasy helpless look of the eye ; no vio- lence; pulse frequent, Aveak, and full ; great tympanitis, breathing- laboured, flanks drawn up ; gradual exhaustion ; ultimately stop- page of respiration and circulation and death in — 8 hours after last meal. Fifty-six dead ones lay on their left side, liumeno- tomy proved successful in slight cases ; in others Mr. Haslam tried very gentle exercise, one pint w^arm water every two hours as a drench and feeding on wanii bran-mash. Sixty-four camels died : post mortem examination showed diffuse inflammation of the alimentary canal from cardia to anus, diffuse peritonitis, stomach full of unchanged food and water with much gas (chiefly COo). Brain and spinal cord unaffected. In about 40% the heart had undergone partial or total miicuid degeneration (the right side generally, sometimes even the left ventricle was attack- ed). All but twenty-seven were in poor condition. Some cases disembarked on the day previous to death were suffering from pneumonia, but not sufficient to account for death. Division I. Disembarked after a six days journey, marched to the desert and watered on following morning shortly after a full meal of bhoosa and barley. Twenty-one deaths occurred within 16 — 24 hours after disembarkation, some on the line of march, some after arrival in camp. The distance traversed was four miles in the hottest portions of a not excessively hot day. Death took place more by shock (Syncope) and exhaustion than by the inflammatory state." A few of these suffered from scabies : simultaneously in Camp 4o died, but most of them 26 in number, all suffering from scabies, had disembarked on 25th and marched up on 26th. Those ani- mals which had not marched up lately were the weakest and most severely affected with scabies in the camp ; of them twelve were suffering from severe wounds, skin inflammation, fever, &c., and were unexercised. Five of the camels were strong and well. These camels were watered in the morning on account of the unusual heat ot" the day and a Khamsin wind commencing to blow which caused the camels to get loose and obtain drinking water freely. vSome were watered at the fresh water canal where they got embedded in the nmd and struggled severely. 52 Foot and Mouth Disease undoubtedly affects the camel and proves a source of considerable losses especially on service. Gil- clirist seems to have observed it for he speaks, under the heading zillay haaz, of ulceration of the mouth and tongue of an aphthous character; the animal being off its feed and feverish. The vesicles become pustules and then ulcers, and in severe cases the nostrils are invaded by them. The tongue is very white and rough from enlargement of papillae. The treatment adopted was a cathartic internally, camphorated oil and astringents locally. Pringle (Veterinary Journal, September 1880) has given us an interesting account of this disorder as it prevailed in Afghanistan. The sym'ptoms are those of fever, and a tendency to kneel facing the sun was observed. The feet swell all over, not in the cleft only, and are sore, as showed by the animal's gait. On the third day the entire foot is much swollen and seems to sweat, the skin is glistening and its hair on end. The mouth is less affected than the feet, being swollen and red inside, there is profuse salivation. On the fifth day rery small vesicles appear in a circle all round the foot, in the cleft and to three inches above the border of the sole. Then vesicles in the mouth appear, rather like boils ; they burst and leave nasty sores and an acrid discharge. The hair drops off the feet and the skin of the affected part peels off leaving a red coronary band which from a short distance " looks exactly as if small bundles of little red berries had been hung round them. At this stage the animal seems to suffer pain in all his joints.'^ The fever usually subsides in eight or nine days. In bad cases the sole pad sloughs off. Even in health, scars in the mouth from prickly herbs in the food may be seen, these must not be confounded with foot and mouth disease ulcers. Fatality in this disorder occurs from inanition the result of inability to collect green food, from high fever, or from exposure to the sun^s rays. The disease is communicable from and to other transport cattle. KiNDERPEST is recorded by Nunn as occuriug among camels in the Punjab. The ordinary dysenteric form is called Zahmat or Zahmat osat in Montgomery District, Mori in Hazara. Animals so affected are not treated, for the disease is considered due to Kismut and, so, allowed to take its course. This disorder corres- ponds to the Murrain in Europe and affects also Indian bullocks and is known as the Burra Azar. Gilchrist gives a good descrip- 53 tion of the disease from wliich wo learn that the serous aud mucous membranes of the licad, hings, aud bowels are the scats of the affection, the luugs and air passages being, also, most com- monly disordered. The symptoms observed are those of apo- plexy, the animal has a wild look aud becomes delirious then falls, breathes stortorously, and dies. Sometimes at the commence- ment of the attack there is lethargy and confused demeanour the patient walks round and round its picket aud attempts to lie down without doing so until the lethargy becoiues great, then he falls heavily, breathes stertorously, and. dies from pressure on the brain. Sometimes the nostrils are aifected there being mucopurulent discharge and the animal frequently rubbing the nose against the ground or some neighbouring object and being restless and uneasy and uttering a guttural sound. In other forms the throat, uvula, and lungs are aifected. When the bowels are the main seat of disorder there is purging, the evacuations being foetid, slimy, often bloody. The belly is SAvollen and rumbles freely Tongue pale and dry. Animal is off feed and restless. Autopsy shows one or all of the following lesions, effusiou on the brain, pneumonia, congestion of the brain or lungs, and inflammation and thickening of the bowels. Gilchrist completes his notice of this important disorder by recommending in the way of treatment prompt bleeding, sedulous fomentations of the body, good nurs- ing, and purgation (if the bowels are the principal seat of the disorder), or common salt in four ounce doses. Camel Pox or Variola Cambli has been observed frequently and seems to vary in severity much in different places. Hodgson describes it, under the name Gheechuch, as a slight disorder from which camels soon recover without treatment. A few cases of confluent small pox were destroyed in Afghanistan, The disease is known to the natives as Mata, and in one case, certainly, proved communicable to man (Oliphant). Masson has shown that children inoculated from affected camels show a more or less general eruption which usually is malignant and occasionally is mortal, the eruption being like that of cowpox in mankind ; Agnelli states that the Arabs protect themselves from small pox by camel pox inoculation. The disease seems to be frequent in Algeria (Fleming). Glanders has not yet been recorded as affecting the camel. 54 Tassy tells us tliat the Arabs have seen Farcy but not Glanders, probably the disease referred to is nonspecific lymphangitis. Gilchrist describes, as not common a disease, Pinsee ha murz, of which the cause is not very apparent. The membrane lining the nostrils becomes hypereemic and then the seat of confluent ulcers with a profuse, foetid, and sanguineous discharge. Sometimes the ulceration involves the outer wall of the nostrils. It yields to stimulant and detergent ointments but generally camphorated oil is necessary to prevent the appearance of maggots. This disease may be nonspecific and no experiments seem to have been made hitherto on the conveyance of glanders to the camel by inoculation. Pukdar, Pockdarie, Phitgaya, Purana piirgaya, Dalon se nihle gaya, and other names have been applied to an epizootic form of inflammation of the lungs, the exact relations of which with pleuro-pneumonia zymotica of the ox have not yet been establish- ed. Leach found it prevalent in Afghanistan and that but few animals recovered from it. It was considered contagious and convej^ed from diseased to healthy animals by the medium of the picketing grounds. The diagnosis is difficult, but Leach tells us that " a certain method of recognizing it is to examine the urine by wetting a handful of clean earth with it and then smelling it If the animal is diseased the urine will have a fishy smell, although not differing in appearance from that of other camels.^' The disease is denoted by staring coat and slight ulceration of the lips (?) Animals suffering from it often start on the line of march apparently quite well and shortly afterwards simply lie down and die. Prompt segregation of affected animals is neces- sary ; infusion of Babul bark and a mussaul consisting of aroma- tics, salt, and baobarang are used in treatment. The isolation, it is stated, should continue a month after recovery. vStrangues. — Sore throat with abscess is of frequent occurrence in the camel but whether of a specific nature and pathologically ideatical with the pyogenic fever of horses has not been esta- blished. Nunn mentions it as frequent, among riding camels especially, in Abbotabad and known as Khuk or Huk, whereas in Shahpur it is known as Hubbi. Apparently this is the same disease as was described by Gilchrist as Mumps, Choodee, or Cuppray. The leading symptoms are swelling and soreness of 56 the throat, sometimes associated with ulceration of the lining membrane of the pharynx and fauces. The swelling' generally begins in the glands on each side of the throat behind the lower jaw and may extend as far down as the sternum ; it is painful and much difficulty is experienced in swallowing. High fever, catarrh, free flow of saliva are present, the ])atieut takes even liquid nourishment with difficulty and so falls off very much in condition and not unfrequently dies exhausted, or bursting of the abscess gives relief. Strangles occurs most frequently in the hot weather, but cases come in for treatment at all times of the year, young animals especially are affected. Natives treat by poulticing the wound with medicated cataplasms, such as those of viola, vitex, margay root, or solanum nigrum with amaltus. If the abscess tends to recede or '^ hangs fire" they apply the actual cautery. The correct treatment is to support the strength and encourage suppuration as in horses- Gilchi'ist bleeds, purges, and foments the whole head. He attributes the disorder to the animal drinking or being washed when heated with exertion. We should bear in mind that it is possibly contagious. Rabies. — Baron Larrey when in Egypt noticed with regard to Hydrophobia that camels suffer from a form of madness during the time of rut, and bites from them in this state are dangerous, but the disease is not contagious. The symptoms are the escape of an abundant thick saliva, constant bellowing, horror of water, wasting-, fever, falling off of the hair, and bad temper which showed itself by their pursuing men and other animals. If excited the symptoms increased and often ended fatally (Lancet). There seems to have been in the mind of the learned French Surgeon a considerable amount of confusion in this matter, some of the symptoms described are simply those of genetic phrensy, others seem imaginary (such as horror of water), others again seem not unlike those of true Habies which undoubtedly affects the camel, as was long ago observed and reported in India, the disease being familiar to natives as Dewanah Kootlia ka niurz, and as such described by Gilchrist who I'ccords a case which he saw. The patient was bitten on the lip and two days after went oft' feed, became restless, got loose, and ran away. He was secured and tied up but kept trying to get loose and in doing so frequently fell down, and frequently started convulsively as from fear, froth- 56 ing at tlie moutli, wild aspect, terror when approacliecl. On the fonrth day after the bite he became insensible, and then died. The natives treat with opium and jingili oil, but ineffectually. Tuberculosis has been described as affecting the camel, espe- cially the pulmonary form of the disorder. Rheumatism is almost universally considered of frequent occur- rence in the camel. It is known under various names Ghurrum (Hodgson) , Jakar Jana in Shahpur, Tak or Akra, ''stiff," in Montgomery (Nunn), Aker or Bhai (Leach), Vahee ka durudh (Gilchrist) . This disease especially affects the joints ; it occurs in the cold season when the animals, are not sheltered at nights or are exposed to vicissitudes of climate. Probably it is the disease described by Yaldwin as " cold struck." Errors in diet are considered by the natives a fruitful source of this disorder thus Nunn speaks of the opinion that it results from eating dry talli leaves (Dalbergia) and Leach that it follows feeding entirely on Mulberry or Shisham leaves. It is most frequent in old animals or those out of condition (Grilchrist) . The symptoms are lameness, swelling and pain of the affected joints, generally those of the limbs — difficulty in rising (sometimes necessitating assistance in the act) or lying down, occasionally rolling in pain. Sometimes there is muscular rheumatism, according to Gilchrist, but he does not tell us how to diagnose it. Treatment comprises rest, good feeding, cordials, and laxatives; hand rubbing to the affect- ed parts. In protracted cases the natives fire. They sometimes give the urine of another camel for three or four days or a mix- ture of coarse sugar, ashes of burnt horse skull, and putrid water, than either of which a much more clean and satisfactory alkaline solution might be administered. It is probable that as we learn more about the diseases of camels we shall find rheumatism much less frequent than hitherto supposed. Zerbad is a term applied to debility with dropsy, especially when the limbs are the seat of oedema. It is a frequent disorder and well known to all camel men ; probably some forms of it are specific others simple. Hodgson speaks of it under the name Bisova, Nunn considers that the English equivalent of Zerbad is Lymphangitis, Gilchrist mentions that it is sometimes known as Kussooree. There can be no doubt that many cases of anthrax, surra, and pei'haps also purpura have been described under this 67 lieadiny- as woll a:^ simple lynipliangitis and simple anasarca. Charles Steel remarks that Zerbad was infrequent in his experi- ence during tlie South Afghanistan Campaign (1878) but Olipliant noted it as frequent in the Kurnni Valley. The order of frequency in whicli the several parts of the body are invaded is legs, belly, below chest, neck, head, thus it extends from below upwards. Some fever may be present but the bowels generally remain normal. Gilchrist describes under the name Hooka Zaarbahd extreme and often incurable cases the result of frequent attacks or neglect of the disease; these are always tedious. Zerbad is of frequent occurrence during convalescence from other dis- orders, it is not generally fatal, but seriously reduces the animaFs condition. It is most prevalent in cold weather and. during the rains. Gilchrist advises after bleeding, physicking, and reduc- ing with antimonials and mercurials for a week to give tonic mussauls, in Sooka cases after a pui-gative he gives tonics alter- nated with alteratives. The natives fire (in a most barbarous manner, Xunn), and adopt the judicious treatment of stimulant aromatics from the first with salt. Kalaziri^ Gur, and Ajwain are given in balls " of about the size of a cricket ball rammed down with a stick" (Olipliant). Autopsy shows a sodden, drop- sical condition of the tissues, pale heart, often much gelatinous lymph with serum in the pei'itoneal, pleural, pericardial, and arachnoid sacs. Cysts are generally found in considerable num- bers in the lungs, liver, and spleen and they must be considered, as a very serious factor in production of the debility. Experi- ence shows that these Hydatid Cysts are of very frequent occur- rence in the camel, and one writer of authority has not hesitated to term them '' a very common cause of loss in camels." They are commonly by nonprofessional observers considered to be abscesses and described as such, an error which should be most carefully avoided, as complicating statistics. Abscess does not occur in the lungs, liver, or spleen without inflammation of those oi'gans to a considerable extent but these hydatids (which are the larval form of Ta3nia echinococcus, a tapeworm of the dog) increase in size very gradually and cause only such irritation as suffices to condense the connective tissue in their immediate proximity whereby is formed the white cyst of fibrous substance in which they are contained. This cyst is generally so elastic as to squirt the watery fluid which it contains to a considerable 58 clist:auce "wlien it is punctured and on slitting open the cyst we may give exit to a number of bladder-like masses, the larval tseniBe, or may find the contents, if the cyst be old, gritty and dried up from calcareous degeneration of the larvae — thus gritty nodules are found in the lungs and other viscera which must not be mistaken for tubercular deposits. The cysts vary in size from that of a pea to that of a cricket ball; tliej cause anaemia solely by replacing the useful substance of the organ in which they are situated and so can prove the cause of death only when extremely numerous. Very occasionally, however, they prove fatal when ruptured by falls or other accidents in man and perhaps also do so in the camel. A.11 parts containing these parasites should be destroyed after autopsy by fine. It is probable that the immature Tsenife gain their situations for development into Hydatids by direct Ixjring through the tissues, one of the earlier stages of development being a minute larva with six chitinous or silicious hooks. The only h^ematozoon (if the surra organism be not an animal) hitherto described is Filaria Evansi, discovered by Dr. Evans in blood clots from the camel and described by Dr. Lewis. Poisoning may here be noticed. It presents but few special features as concerns camels. We have no evidence that like cattle and horses in India they are apt to be poisoned for the sake of their hides, but this may be so. The men in charge when collecting fodder for their camels are careful to avoid certain plants some of which are unsuited to the time of year while others ai-e known to be poisonous ; Charles Steel remarked the care with which in South Afghanistan the plant called ateri was avoided. Yaldwin has known many hundreds of animals die from eating the Oleander-bush, the Leghumai, and the Gungao in Afghanistan. Outbreaks of communicable disorders, such as Rinderpest, and especially Anthrax, are apt to be mistaken by nonprofessionals, for poisoning, an error to be specially avoided during advance of an expedition into a new country, whether for hostile purposes or exploration, thus jjoisoning is described as frequent at first starting into the Australian desert. We must rely on future research to solve the following problems among many others with regard to blood diseases : — (a) Does the camel suffer from true glanders and farcy obtain- able from the horse ? 59 [h) Or from Plcnro-puomnonia Contagiosa and Rinderpest pathologically identical with those diseases in the ox ? (o) Does the camel recover from Surra and wliat is the natural history of this disorder and its spirilloid in canielidfo ? (d) Is Jiheumatism st) frequent in the camel as is generally sup]iosed ? fej Is Strangles of the camel the same disease as Strangles of the horse? (f) Is Zerhad of camels ever a distinct specific disorder and if such be the case how may we distinguish betAveen true Zerbad and Anthrax, Surra, and other disorders liable to be confounded with it? CHAriER v.— THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND ITS DISORDERS. The alimentary canal of the camel presents some extremely interesting peculiarities of anatomical conformation. The ar- rangement of the teeth, the peculiar appendage to the soft palate, the water cells of the stomach, also the lengths and capacities of the several parts of the intestines are worthy of note. The teeth are 36 to 38 in number, the anterior ones, incisors and tushes, being essentially cutting and puncturing organs, the posterior or molars being rough on their edges and sharp, having Crusta Petrosa of a black colour and generally five in number on each side of the jaw, the three anterior of each set being more or less rudimentary. The P^lu or Uvula did not fail to attract the attention of the older anatomists and most varied ideas have been expressed as to its physiological value. My researches show that it is a loose sac of highly glandular mucous membrane depending from thq antero-inferior surface of the fixed and pendulous portions of the enormously developed soft palate. The stomach presents the ordinary ruminant arrangement in that it consists of more than one compartment, but it is much more simple than that of the ox and sheep. It varies in detail of structure in the Camel, Dromedary, and Llama; but in all consists, in the main, of two compartments more or less subdivided, the first into Rumen and Reticulum, the latter into Abomasum and, sometimes, an extremely rudimentary Omasum. The following summary of the description by the late Professor Garrod from Nature, 3rd June 1875, will be found accurate and interesting :— 60 Ruonen globose : muscular baud from right of cardia runs along ventral surface, and opposite the middle of this a long and narrow aggregation of water-cells starts to run transversely to the left side of the organ. On the right side of this band a much larger collection of deeper cells embraces the right posterior part of the rumen in its crescentic mass. Reticulum in usual position^ deeply honeycombed, with villi and slight muscular walls. Mucous membrane of rumen thin and smooth. The water-cells are formed on a frame-work of many intersecting muscular sheets arranged in layers with intervals of less than an inch between them one-half being at right-angles to the other so as to form rows of quadrila- teral cavities. These are again incompletely divided up by secondary septa; diaphragm -like membranes partly close the orifices of the cells. One muscular fold represents the two of the oesophageal grove. A single cavity follows the Eeticulum and represents the third and fourth compartments (but the •psalterimn is really absent). In the Bactrian Camel there is a small constriction serving to indicate the boundary line of it. The measurements made by Colin have shown that the intes- tine of the Camel is about fifteen times the length of the body, that is one-fifth as long again as in the horse and three quarters the relative length of that of the ox. The small intestine is about two-thirds of the intestinal canal (63*37); which is relatively short, for that of the horse, ox, and sheep is about four-fifths. The cascum, too, is (like that of the sheep) small. With regard to the capacity of the alimentary canal and its parts, the total capacity is put at 302^ litres (ox, 356^ litres ; horse 21H litres) . Of this the stomach contents constitutes 810 parts in a thousand, small in- testine 131, c£ecum 11, colon and rectum 48. Thus the stomach is ten times as capacious as that of the horse, the small intestine not half as large, the ceecum about one-fourteenth the size, and the remainder of the large intestine about one-tenth, these pro- portions being relative. Thus, if we may judge from size, diges- tion in the camel as compared with that of the horse must be much more gastric, and, as far as intestinal digestion goes, mainly in the small intestine. As compared with the ox and sheep gastric digestion predominates in the camel by about one-eighth, but this about corresponds to the capacity of the water sacs, which compensates for the extraordinary smallness of the caecum. (a) fEs(.!.iul^,.^ (!>) SnimUli lin- ing of Rameii. (c) & (r) Siicculi »r " water jiouohRH." (rf) Jleticuluin IIKU8 pillar (/I ()peninf( into omasum (>j) Omasum with transvorsc plicfc- {III Abumasuni with longitudinal folds. (t) Tcrininul dila- tion of fourth stomach. i./'i Pylorus (A-) Pyloric dila- tations of duO" denum. (/) Duodenum, tubular part Glands? of th« sac- culi of the Eumen. ill) double peptic with spheroidal epitheliuni. {c) Simple peptic gland with ditto, (6) Single and spi- rai with colum nat fpitholium tliroTighout (mu ecus) 10 stomachs of a camel opened longitudinally. (After Lombardinij. LlTHOS FOR LAWRtNCE. ASYLUM PRtSS ; M AORAS , 1890 BY ALCH: BARREN. 62 non is associated with a peculiar gurgling sound and is especially seen when the animal is in the condition known as Must. The physiological value of the Palu is obscure. It has been currently accepted as a means of moistening the throat and mouth when the animal is '^di-y" through a feverish state of the system or as a result of work in dry hot air. Gilchrist alludes to Inflammation of THE Palu as Gahasha, the result of accidentally wounding' the part by biting the " uvula and loose skin about the top of the throat which he can protrude at will/' but, occasionally; this state is seen as a result of constitutional condition. The patient is off feed on account of pain in swallowing, and the upper part of the neck is painful on pressure, as shown by a distinctive grunt of pain, which may occur even without pressure being made. The disorder yields to astringent emollient gargles, fomentation, externally, and antiphlogistics. Three forms of Sore Throat are described in addition to that just referred to, i.e., Sulfa ka mnrz or Zillay Baaz and Choodee kamurz, catarrhal affections Avhich occur in cold or rainy weather. The former seems to have its seat in the mouth and larynx the tongue being pale and rough, there being some difficulty in breathing, and the patient frequently grinding the teeth. The latter resides in both larynx and pharynx there being swelling of the throat, no cough, lachrymation. It results from sudden cooling of the animal when heated. The third form of sore throat is a peculiar swelling of the larynx said to result from the animal overstretching the neck when reaching to a high branch to obtain food, or otherwise over- straining the parts at the top of the wind-pipe. These disorders must be treated by good nursing, stimulant mussauls, and fomentations. The natives use sternutative powders (errhines) largely for them. A case of sore throat may, it must be re- membered, prove either strangles or nonspecific inflammation ^of the throat glands, Parotiditls, exhibiting the symptoms and requiring the treatment for that disorder when seen in the horse, as in the case described by V. S. (1st CI.) Thos. J. Symonds in the Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science for October 1885. A simple Glossitis has been described under the name Kookra ; it readily yields to emollients and, therefore, can only in the earliest stages be confounded with Gloss-anthrax. G3 VoMTTioN, Joogal, is (lescT-ibcd by (rilclirisfc as duo to inflam- mation and distension of tlio stomach ospecially durino- tlio hot weather. It also results from consumption of the leaves of a Dekhan plant known as gumchi. Tn such cases Nature must ho assisted in relieving the distended or inflamed stomach. Two principal disorders of the Rumen are described. Hovj:n or Flatulent Colic. Bissel (Leach) is probably the disorder here referi*ed to, but the seat is sometimes the intestines. The disease most frequently occurs in cold weather and is associated with a certain amount of fever ■which indicates that there is more mischief going on than simple gaseous accumulation, indeed there seems to be in these cases a subacute inflammation of the mucous lining of the alimentary canal; the urine is generally scanty and always high coloured ; the bowels are torpid or loose, and in slighter cases it is noticed that the dung-balls are not properly formed. The patient suddenly goes off his feed, becomes restless, moving from one hind leg* to the other, uneasy when touched, and irritable in the extreme, as denoted by a tendency to bite his neighbours; the belly becomes swollen and he sometimes lies down and rolls violently or simply presses the belly against the ground, champs his jaws and shows other signs of pain. Occasionally a little wind may be passed per anum. Dietetic errors of various kinds, excess of green food, especially with dew on it, bad food, and, sometimes, poisonous plants give rise to this disorder. It must be treated on the ordinary lines, namely by active fomentation, administration of agents suited to disperse the accumulated gases, and endeavours to allay pain by hand-rub- bing or stinnilants to the belly ; warm glii or til — or taramera oil in half seer doses may be given followed by active purgation and great care in selection of food. The natives fire in two lines from shoulder up the neck to the ear and with the palm leaf bi'and on each shoulder. They give, daily, beef, sarson oil, salt, and aromatics (Leach.) Severe cases are termed by the natives Soale, milder ones Malote (Gilchrist). A very severe form (termed also Sul) is mentioned by Nunn as attacking animals of about two months old aud carrying olf large numbers annually. It is con- sidered quite iucurable. Another form of colic is spoken of by Hodgson in the VeU-rinarian for 1852 under the name of Rns, as attacking animals under a mouth old. 64 Impaction of the Eumen has recently been observed as a fatal disorder amono- camels used in Avarfare in the Soudan, dae to long periods of dry fodder feeding- witliout supply of water for drinking purposes. The symptoms are those of not-very-urg*ent colic, some benefit results from pouring numerous bottles-full of water down the throat and from frequent doses of oil, combined with the ordinary treatment for colic. Enteritis is disease insidious in its approach and most dan- gerous in its results. It seems to generalh^ have its seat in the small intestines in the camel and to assume a subacute character. It is one of the numerous disorders known to the Serwans as Bhao. There is fever, as denoted by warmth of the surface of the body and panting, exhaustion indicated by a pendulous state of lower lip, staggering gait, and tlie patient resting on its side stretched out; twitching of the ears, firm closure of the jaws, and nasal breathing are also given as symptoms. This state generally results from impaction of the intestines and leads to Ascites, when the belly, at first tucked up, becomes round and full and may contain as much as six gallons of fluid (Grilchrist) . The best treatment seems to be opium or bhang in considerable doses combined with calomel and hot water applications or blisters to the belly. Gilchrist mentions " tapping the belly" for ascites but does not state if he ever performed the operation. By most authors Costiveness or Constipation is considered a disease per se. Leach describes it under the name SuJchhund, Hodgson Gitptul Hiiclha, and Gilchrist Giittud ha Murz. The animal with bowels persistently confined becomes dull, weak, off feed, restless, and drowsy, and a certain amount of tympany may set in, or severe abdominal pain supervene. When a seer of warm ghi or two ounces of aloes in a pint of milk has opened the bowels the evacuations will be found hard and scanty, often coated with slime, and of a dark colour and fetid odour. The urine is scanty and high coloured. Enemata, laxatives frequently repeated, and fomentations to the belly and, subsequently, calomel in drachm doses will be of benefit. Post-mortem examination, for this state not rarely proves fatal, shows the liver in a pale flabby condition and the bowels ulcerated. Indeed Chronic Constipa- tion must bo considered a form of Enteritis. DiAREHffiA, Purging, Dysentery have long been noted as fre- 65 qncnt aud severe in the caiuol especially duriug the exigencies of active service. Even iu private camels constant care is needed to guard against these very fatal conditions, changes of weather or diet, exposure when heated, a severe day's work, leaving the animal without a covering on a cold night, in fact almost any chill or change, may bring on an attack of diarrhoea. Tassy speaks of purging on service from eating acrid plants especially one described as Bonnafao var. Alpha. Gilchrist alludes to tho disease as arising " spontaneously during rainy and cold weather or the result at the commencement of the rainy season of the animal eating of the young and tender growth of the plant called Kaatamoal, of which the animal is very fond and which at a greater age is a very nuti-itious diet." The plant is also called Junglee Erundee or Wild Castor Plant. Feeding on gram only, or on too much grain, have been found to produce this disorder, as also have irritants of any kind in the bowels, such as coarse indigestible fodder ; neglect and hard work, cold, and continuous non-supply of green fodder are active factors in the production of dysentery on service. Young camels suffer most, and, as Nunn has shown, it causes great fatality among them in the Punjab where it is known as Rik and treated by giving rice and bhang with the milk of a drying-np cow. It is not unfrequently associated with liver disorder. Both diarrhoea and dysentery prove very fatal by exhausting the patient, generally a severe case of skin disease results in fatal diarrhoea. I have recorded, in the Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science in India, Vol. II., p. 136, a case of fatal diarrhoea in which the lining membrane of certain parts of the alimentary canal was studded with round nodules either the results of tubercular deposit or of parasites, and I have on record a case of fatal diarrhoea due to the presence of whip-worm (Trichocephalus Cameli) in the intestine. This latter case is the more important to remember because Gilchrist did not succeed in finding parasitea in the alimentary canal of the camel. Symptoms ; the ffecal evacuations vary in liquidity and colour, and they generally smell most offensive; the skin dry and coat staring, the eyes look dull and heavy, the urine is scanty and high coloured, the patient dull or showing slight signs of abdo- minal pain, some flatulence may be pi-esent, appetite is capricious, and the patient falls awav in flesh very rapidly- Simple purging G6 is termed by the natives Dust Jvldb or Soolee; dysentery, in which blood is jjresent in the evacuations^ is Penchees. Dysentery may assume a chronic character in old animals and keep them in a weak and emaciated state with unthrifty, hide-bound skin. Treatment ; the routine administration of stimulant mussauls during cold weather is beneficial for the alimentary canal as well as for the skin. On an attack of diarrhoea setting in all grain should be promptly stopped, the bowels clearfed out by doses of ghee, stimulant aromatic substances administered and, if pain is present, doses of opium or bhang. The strength must subsequently be supported with tonics, and the liver occasionally acted on by doses of calomel, for it generally after death is found pale. Rice congee is the best vehicle for medicines in this dis- order but milk of the cow may occasionally be substituted for it with benefit. If acute pain sets in the belly may be fomented or even blistei*ed. Having thus reviewed our knowledge of the diseases of the alimentary canal, we must confess its utter insufficiency from a modern pathological point of view, and must see what anatomical and physiological facts have been ascertained concerning the stomach and intestines of the camel with a view to improved pathology in the future. We have described the more striking- features, but must look in the pages of Lombardini's erudite work for details in anatomy and refer to Colin for information (scanty though it be) on physiology. The cloven condition of the upper lip and the communication of its groove by a short canal with each nostril, the enormous size of the upper lip, the length of gape of the mouth, and the pendent lower lip are familiar to all observers. The duct of the parotid passes obliquely over the masseter to pierce the cheek as usual. Miiller and Wede first studied the peculiar structure of the buccal papillae of tylopods ; these organs are remarkable as having the ducts of small glands (salivary) piercing their bases and opening on their surfaces a little below the points, there may be more than one gland to each papilla and several ducts may unite for a common opening : Eichardi avers that he has found fibres of the red muscle of the cheek entering into formation of these papillce. The molar glands pour their secretion through a number of openings against the molars J,H'\. lO >/) s < a: DC 3 ^ O >- _ ^ o z . I- ■* -J iD If) *^ S O 1/1 o 07 in linear series: the lari^'o lioriiy papilhu cover the inner surface of the cheek leaving that ut" the lips free, these papillaj look mainly back wai'tls and downwards. The pahxte, tongue, andsalivary glands do not differ materially in arrangement from those of the ox. In considei'ation of the teeth, a number of ([uestions arise. Firstly, the exact nature of the two upper incisors ; secondly, the exact nmnber of teetli in a full mouth; thirdly, the sexual variations in the number and form ; fourthly, the periods of development or variation with age. These questions cannot as yet be considered satisfactorily solved. Lombardiui "considers as in- cisors, teeth implanted in the anterior maxillary bone, and below in the anterior free margin of the inferior maxilla ; as canines those which have the alveolus hollowed out of the anterior termi- nal angle of the superior maxillary bone above and opposite the maxillary foramen below ; as premolar, the tec^th situated in the region of the jaw which is called the bar." He then fixes the dental formula at i. |; c. I; pm. 'i; m. '■^. An important point to be remembered is that the embryo camel distinctly presents the rudimentary tooth capsules of the upper incisors, as may be seen by dissection of a four months' foetus. Research seems to show : — That in the female the upper incisors are frequently absent, the premolars in the lower jaw are imper- fectly developed, often one is absent, and the i-ight is most frequently the deficient one. In the male the nundjer of lower molars is somewhat irregular. In male or female the total number (18) of molars may be differently distributed, the ten being either in the upper or lower jaw. Tonsilar Concretions. — Lombardini records a case of accumula- tion of calculous material in the tonsils. This occnpied the glan- dular orifices, being rather blue in colour near the surface and squamous but yellow and granular in tlie deeper parts. Analysis showed that the principal bases Avere calcium and magesium, there being traces of iron and sodium. Carbonates and phos- phates abounded, but sulphates and chlorides were in very small quantity. There was organic substance both azotised and noii- a/.otised. Densitv 2"'2M7. 68 Lombardini describes small guttural pouches as present in Pisan camels. He mentions occurrence of follicles of Lieber- kiilm in the rumen and reticulum ; also that .careful examina- tion of the microscopical structure of the third gastric compax't- ment proves it to be the analogue of the omasum throughout the greater part of its extent, but its posterior dilatation to cor- respond to the abomasum. The commeucement of the duodenum is a dilated pouch. The spleen is large and adheres anteriorly to the diaphragm, posteriorly to the rumen. Lombardini in discussing the functions of the so called water sacs of the rumen concludes (1) that the function of the sacs of the rumen is not really to collect and retain water, but rather to secrete the moisture necessary to enable the alimentary mass to become sufficiently soft to return into the mouth; (2) that the great secretory activity of the stomach on the one hand and the hardness of the normal diet on the other fully suffice to account for the presence of liquid matter in the rumen even two days after the ingestion of drink ; (3) that slaughter of a camel to utilize his stores of liquid can only be practised effectually within forty- eight hours after drinking, i.e., when it is hardly likely a cara- van will have exhaiisted its other sources of water-supply. Home and Daubenton wrote that the muscular fibres of the cells of the second stomach of the camel closed that cavity when the food passed from the rumen into the third stomach, but permitted the fluid to pass when solid matters were going towards the oesoph- ageal canal to be returned into the mouth. Otto, later, seeing in these sacs many muciparous cysts, considered they had some other office than simply retaining' water, but he could not establish his position by proofs. Lombardini argues that if the stomachal sacs of the camel had for their principal duty only the preserva- tion for a longer or shorter time of water ingested against its admixture with food in the rumen, then water perfectly pure ought to be drawn off on puncture of these sacs. As a matter of fact the material drawn off (from an animal bled to death) differed but little from that obtained from other parts of the rumen. This might, however, have been irom post-mortem relax- ation of orifices of the sacs. Again the position of these sacs at S S 2 be 1 !=*^==i2ii?gff^^r==^ ^ ^ ' O'S p,Sj 70 tensiou of the belly with solid matter sulpliale of soda with tartrate of antimony is advocated, and in dyspepsia table salt and o-reen food (Fogliata). The Native treatment for indigestion is to fire on the stifle three times on each side, each line being three or four inches long. Gilchrist, under the Native name of Yahee GoLAH describes a form of indigestion which is sometimes associ- ated with hydatids in the liver. It is denoted by weakness and a mangy condition of the surface of the body, often with obstinate eruption. He recommends well washing the surface of the body, giving grooming, and an occasional purgative, and putting the animal through a course of alteratives. Intestinal Parasites in the camel are considered to be rare, but certainly they sometimes cause mischief, as in cases referred to above under the heading diarrhoea. The Trichocephalus mentioned as Trich. cameli may have been either Trich. aflSnis of Rudolphi, which occurs both in the Bactrian Camel and the Dromedary, or it may have been Tricho. echinophylus described by Nitzsch in the Zeit. f. ges. Naturwiss ; 1886, xxviii, p. 271. Appendix: THE LIVER AND PANCREAS.— The Liver in the camel is discoid in form and principally remarkable for the amount of division it undergoes at its free margin, whereby it is broken up into lobes numbering over two hundred. In addi- tion to these minor fissures there are the ordinary larger furrows extending on to the anterior and posterior surfaces. The whole organ is small for the size of the animal. Its duct is small, devoid of gcdl Madder, and unites with that of the pancreas before termi- natino- in the intestine, which it does at some 58 mm. from the pylorus. The pancreas is elongated in the direction of the spine and bifid posteriorly. It occupies the usual position and sometimes has a small supplementary duct which opens into the bowel apart from the bile duct. Congestion of the Liver has been described by Veterinary Surgeon (1st Class) Symonds in the Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science in India, Volume III., page 368.* * Symptoms : dull, off feed, lying down, very uneasy, twitching of ears, respirations nasal but normal in number, mucous membrane of a deep yellow, lower lip pendulous, bowels constipated; fteces small, dirty white, 71 Hepatitis, botli acute and chronic, is recorded ])y (lilchrist as rare. It is denoted by nnnsual paleness of tlie dung, by irregu- larity of the bowels, and indigestion ; chronic disease must be diagnosed by negative symptoms. Hodgson mentioned acute Hepatitis as known to the Natives under the name Heca Belau and treated by purging and firing, Gilchrist substitutes fomen- tation and bleeding for the firing and in chronic cases he gives alteratives, especially calomel, and tonics. There can be no doubt that at post-mortem examinations frequently the liver has been considered diseased because of ignorance as to its much divided condition normally. Hydatid invasion of the livkr is extremely common, but is probably seldom a cause of death directly, although on active service it exaggerates the debility caused by the fa- tigues of campaigning. It must be remembered in making a post- mortem examination of a camel in which these larvte are found that they are only to be considered the cause of death if they have burst or if there are manifest signs of inflammation of the liver traceable to their presence or if there is practical complete h;ss of functional liver substance. The latter is sometimes the case, the organ assuming an enormous size in consequence of the presence of cysts, but whether or no actual excess in bulk of the liver may so disturb intrathoracic or intra-abdominal pressure as to cause death has not been established. Unfortunately in so far as we know at present hydatid disease of liver admits neither of exact diagnosis nor cure. The ordinary liver Fluke (Distomum hepaticum) has been found in the liver and gall passages of the BactricUi camel, but no record is to hand of it giving rise to path- oloorical conditions. Chapter VL— THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. The heart of the camel is small and sometimes undergoes fatty degeneration, but the condition most familiar in post-mortem examination is a sort of semigelatinous change due to effusion between the fibres and the fat in the furrows being entirely re- placed by yellow jelly-like substance. This appearance has given :iiul .slimy; Jibdomen (listciidcd, horly surFac-e wiu-ni, tenipcratiiic 103°F; i.ater i)iu'giiip: set in. :r Snrdee , calKHl by Leacli Klioorka, is donorcd by foviT, inditt'orent appetite, watery dis- charge from mouth and nostrils succeeded by flow of mucous or muco-purulent matter, coat dull and dry, evacuations slimy and foetid, mouth sometimes full of frothy saliva. The disorder varies much in severity, at times the bowels are a good deal out of order, cough is generally jiresent. The ])atient must be clothed and sheltered, also rested in some place free from draughts, or, if in the open, native blankets must be piled on him. Then he must be given stimulant-tonic medicine and draughts of conjee of cholum, raggy, or cuiiiboo, as Gilchrist suggests; further the chest may be fomented freely, as recommended by the same authority, but we would hesitate before adopting his further advice to purge, the utmost means we would suggest to be adopted for opening the bowels being febrifurre doses of the salines and enemata. Laryngitis was one of the diseases reported as frequent among camels on the Nile Expedition, the great extent of the mucous membrane of the larynx of the camel being supposed to make him very liable to this disoi'der. Cough (Karachna v. Dansna) is mentioned by Gilchrist under Catarrh and he advises bleeding. Leach, however, and other authorities suggest very different treatment, of which the fol- lowing are examples : give hot sheep and bullock head broth ; take of the Philiaria thowar cactus half a seer, cut it up into pieces eight inches long, tie in a cloth, cover with mud and place for an hour in hot ashes, after taking it out break it up and give with gur, one seer, daily for three days ; or soak four chitaks of Kaliziri in a seer of tobacco water oi* hooka pani for twelve hours and give the mixture daily for a week ; or take of Kattheli, cut into small pieces and of ak leaves, each half a seer, and give it with two chitaks of huldi in water daily for three days. It will be observed that mysterious as these three native methods seem they really amount to taking care of the animal for three days and giving him aromatic stimulant and narcotic medicines which could be represented by the following dose, nitrous ether, one ounce; extract of belladonna, one drachm ; tincture of ginger, four ounces, in water one quarr. 10 74 We have already noticed the different forms of inflammation of the throat found in the camel, perhaps we may best here deal with one of the mysteries of cameline pi^actice known as Kapaulee. In all unusual cases the Serwan or Salootri informs us the animal is suffering from '^Kapaulee/' even though he be showing the most varied symptoms. Gilchrist considers the term is applied to in- flammation of some part of the head, generally the soft parts of the orbits^ and that if uncontrolled it will extend to the brain and cause death, but if properly treated the inflammation may be confined to the orbit and simply destroy its contents. It not uncommonly appears to be an inflammation of the areolar tissue of the upper part of the head which if uncontrolled speedily runs on to sloughy suppuration. It usually shows itself when the animal has come off the march and has drunk plentifully and, therefore, seems due to suppressed perspiration. Tremors first occur, on the second day the neck becomes stiff, and on the third day a hard and predomi- nant tumour about the size of a small hen^s egg appears on the top of the head, or if the eyelids and the eyeball be the seat of disease these swell and there is much watery discharge, later the eyeball is destroyed by sloughy ulceration and a foul ulcer results which heals slowly. There is a discharge of unhealthy mucus from the nose and this discharge is specially profuse when, as is some- times the case, the tumour is in the nostrils. If the tumour is protracted in appearance the case will probably prove fatal, therefore treatment must be prompt. So much for Kapaulee as seen by Gilchrist, Nunn saw it in Shahpur and termed it Catarrh or Influenza. The symptoms he observed were drooping head, off feed and cud, mucus coming from the nose, and hard swelling in both ears. The natives gave aromatics and fired in circles and round the roots of the ears. Cases of Kapaulee pointed out to us as su.ch have been either ordinary cases of Catarrh in which swelling of some part or other had been caused by the cautery or obscure cases of internal disorder in which the animal had for days until death occurred been sitting with neck upright watchful of all that was going on but taking no notice of food and never chewing the cud. We have not had any opportunity of making joost-mortem examination in these cases and regret that we must OSSTRUS CiMEU i Book end a First segment b First, circle of spines II Diagrams of tli3 arrK,nge- meni; of spines in tlie two species, also in the Camel sho-vvinLT false feot formed oil lower surface {ispcoiaily at hojki^ss end. IIJ Comparison of central seyiiiOutB (under 3nrfi!,c;e). CKgTRDS EqUl IV Kooklesa end showing orifico A its labia a. Seen directly l>. Seen frofij ti})pei sid(> ^\ Last segment y. Last row o>' liooks upper surface V, General appearance of the larvie (lower surface) approximately natural siae. Bors OF THE HORSK AND CaUEI LI1B06 FOB LAWR.t^ PRE-&^, MADRAS BY ftLEX BARO.E.N 75 leave tho question of pathology of Kapauleo for solution here- after. The only observation bearing on this subject which has at all a solid basis is a post-mortem made by Queriple in ]Ogypt where ho found that in a case of fever with abscess of the head, absorption of tho cranial walls had occurred and death from bmcephalitis. Gilchrist suggesis as treatment prumpt and free bleeding (half a galloii to a gallon), purging freely with four ounces of aloes in milk or witli luilf an ounce of croton seeds, and free fomenting of the affected part. Ho tells us the natives fire on the head, give stimulating mussauls and blow acrid substances into the nostrils, but he considers this latter practice calculated to do harm in the earlier stages though beneficial later, after suppuration has set in, as clearing the nasal passages. Ulceration of the Nostrih'. — We have already seen that this condition occurs in the camel and may possibly be associated with glanders. Nasty sores are caused by dragghig out of the nose peg and invasion of the resulting wounds by maggots or their taking on unhealthy action from various causes. The most frequent cause of this is in baggage camels tying the stronger and more swift animal in front of the weaker, the latter begins to lag behind through exhaustion and the peg is dragged out; another cause is brutal violence in use of the nose rope as a guiding rein. The best dressing on service is simple cam- phoi-ated oil. Such maggots as occur in wounds must not be confused with what have been constautl}^ seen on service and described as "maggot in the nostrils." These in the Nile Expedition caused great inconvenience, an offensive sanguineous discharge from the nostrils, continual shaking of the head, dullness of the animal, and loss of appetite. They are the Q^jstrus Cameli v. Pharyngobalus. We have elsewhere written about them the followini^ information: — Inspecting Veterinary Surgeon Oliphant recorded their fre- quent occurrence in Afghanistan during the 1878-79 Campaign and Veterinary Surgeon (1st Class) Rayment noted their fre- quency in the Soudan. Veterinary Surgeon Fentou brought me some specimens when he returned from Suakim this year 76 with the Madras Troops, iVom these specimens I derive the following conclusions. The camel bot is half as big again as that of the horse, is much softer and more tapering towards the hookless extremity, whereas it is blunter and much more compressed towards the hooked end; while the section of the horse bot is evenly oval, that of the camel bob is flattened on the lower surface. In both, the body-rings hearing spines are nine in number and the spines point from the hook end. The following contrasted lisl of characters may best be given in the tabulated form : — Horse Bot. Ca3ii:l Bot. Spines. — Small, haixl, sharp, verj' Spines. — Fleshy and in smglc row, numerous on each ring, and largest very large, teafc-like, and blunt. The on the central rings. Small extra largest are in the central rings but spines alternate with the main ones not markedly so. The main spines and are situated behind and in the vary in size and tend to collect into iutei'vals between them, forming as groups with spaces between them, it were, two rows in each cii'clc. Those on the lateral pai'ts ot" the The bulging parts between the rings lower surface tend to develop into are smooth. temporary feet. On the most project- ing parts of the segments between the rings of spines are small spine- lets which below are veiy numerous and form continuous bands. In the different parts of the body the teat- like spines vary in relative position. Hooked-end. — Hooks brownish- irooZ;erf-enf?.-Hooks black, diverge at black and sharply divergent, short an acute angle and are slender, long, and much curved, situated inferiorly and little curved, situated below the near the extremity of, a long narroAv anterior extremity and beneath a hook-end. A central organ of chi- 6-lobed mass surrounded above and tine is midway between the bases of on each side by irregular circlets of the hooks, and there are a few spine- spmelets which communicate at each lets above and on either side of two extremity with the first zone of hook- well marked sense organs (situated lets above and below. This first above the hooks). These sense or- zone is a very irregular one. There gans are all but sessile. row of spines is complete. The first is no chitinous organ between the hooks. The pigmented sense organs are on long peduncles the bases of which ai-e connected by a band. There is another transverse band 77 below the liooks. Tlic Krst row of spines is deficient iuferiorly. Hookless or orifice end. — Opening Hookless or orifice end. — Opening oblong. Its cavity black throughout, an almost circular cavity, black only Its lips transversely bifid and the in two latei'al sjjots, upper lip semi- lower one much larger than the circular and with four well marked upper. The upper one continuous angles, lower bifid, consisting of a laterally with the side lobes. The tuberous part elongated transversely last segments are arranged telescopi- and also of two bifid protuberances chilly and bear no apjireciable spine- each bearing a mammillury process, lets. There arc spinclcts on tiietwo latter and on the lower lij>. The general aspect of the opening is upward. Last segment irregularly telescopic. The characters amply prove that the camel hot serves as a connecting- link between the peculiar tough horse bot and ordinary maggots. They show that the strange leather}'- spines of the horse bot are not chitinous or horny nails but true papillae, they show that these papillae tend to arrange themselves in groups and some develop into foot-like organs while the others lose their importance. By contrast of these organisms with com- mon maggots we may infer what features of structure are necessary for a grub that lives in the stomach (as the horse bot does) and what for a resident in the phai*ynx (as the camel bot). The latter, it will be noticed, is softer and less irritant than the former and probably, as having rudimentary false legs, a much better traveller. He makes his exit from the body through the nose, whereas the stomach bot of the horse passes through the anus. The diflEerence in position of the hooks is interesting; the camel parasite has them arranged like a pair of delicate anchors, which he can throw down when he wishes to ob tain a grip sufl&cing to prevent his being swallowed with food, whereas the horse parasite has much stronger grappling hooks arranged like the horns of a stag beetle and suited to enable him to hold tight in whatever direction the churning motion of the stomach may drag him. The posterior orifice-like cavity is considered a respiratory sac, but what the black materinl in it is I am not prepared to state. Why does the camel parasite have stalked eyes and the horse 78 parasite stalkless ones ? Why has the latter only the chitinous organ between the hooks ? And why should the lips of the orifice of the camel parasite develop into artistically arranged lobes while those of the horse bot are severely devoid of ornament ? All these and many other problems suggest themselves in the study of these peculiar creatures. The continuous irritation produced in the nostrils and pharynges of our poor camels exiled to the shores of the Red Sea, the probabilit}'- that a certain amount of their now historic exhaustion depended on these bots, and the certainty that in future campaigns where camel transport is used these parasites must be remembered and got rid of, give the (Estrus cameli a considerable practical veterinary interest. The escape of these larvae through the nostrils is their natural migration prior to their assuming the chrysalis form and doubtless occurs at special times of year, whether special agents such as carbolic or terebinthinafce gargles would or would not hasten removal we have no evidence, but they are worth trial. It would be interesting to know whether any one of the several forms of sore throat described owes its origin to the presence of these parasites. DISEASES OF THE CHEST, both acute and chronic, are frequent on service, especially owing to the animals being exposed to extreme cold and atmospheric vicissitudes. Want of protection by means of jhools or by keeping the saddles on at nights is a frequent cause. Some of these diseases are epizootic and very fatal ; Hodgson speaks of one Pakdar as infectious and not invariably fatal, we have already noticed it in detail. Acute pulmonary disease was not frequent up the Nile ; C. Steel reported it as of common occurrence on the road to Candahar in 1878 and he remarked on the fact that in no one instance did he find the pleura involved, though Gilchrist almost always found hydrothorax present in lung cases; he describes the symptoms of the disorder and considered it largely due to want of proper food, to neglect, and hard work. Tassy has recorded the frequent occurrence of pneumonia of acute type in Algeria. Oliphant records Pneumonia in the Kuram valley, the symptoms 79 being cough, quick and laboured breathing, and profuse rust- colourod discharge from the nostrils. To these Gilchrist adds as signs of Pieprah, Pupday, or Paj^esa ka murz considerable distress, discharge from the eyes, and cold extremities and body surface in the bronchitic Jorm ; still greater distress and disturb- ance of breathing in the jrnemnonic form in which the heaving of the Hanks is very marked. AVheu the pleura is involved the symptoms arc obscure, but painful cough is present. A case of pleuropneumonia was recorded in the Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science, Vol. III., p. 245, in which the animal died immediately after doing a long march and advanced lung disease was found. The pluck with which a camel keeps at his work without giving way even though suffering* from most serious disorder should, we submit, be rather to the credit of the camel than, as it generally is, ]nit down to his general " cussedness and contrariness of nature." Professor Lombardini records p/eiiro- pericarditis as frequent in very young camels under two months old. They first are off feed and sluggish in movement, they suck little and half-heartedly, and lie with head turued towards the belly and cry out when disturbed. Costiveness, injection of visible membranes, and ui'ine red and scanty are also symptoms. The respiration next becomes disturbed and the heart's beats violent, auscultation and percussion at first give little result, later we can determine loss of resonance of the thoracic cavitj', absence of respiratory murnur in the lower part of the chest, and supple- mentary respiration in the upper. Dyspnoea sets in and the symp- toms increase in severity and end fatally. No cough is present, but towards the later stages there may be a mucous discharge from the nostrils. In addition to ordinary causesFogliata considersthat there must be ])resent a blood derangement, he found peritoneal lesions present in some cases and marked h3'dra3mia. Autopsy also showed abundant serous ett'usion into the thorax and some fibrin intermingled with it in suspension as fiakes and recent de- posits (false membranes^ on the pariefal and visceral pleura and on the pericardium and exocardium; lungs atalectic and sometimes exhibiting the lesions of caseous pneumonia. Animals uj) to two years of age may be affected by this disorder which seems little 80 amenable to cui'ative measures. As regards ordinary pneumonia; its treatment comprises protection from inclemencies of weather, especially from wind and rain ; hand-feeding with ghee, flour, and other strengthening substances, and a mixture of garlic, methee, and salt, as recommended by Leach, to be thrown down the throat every morning. This is similar to the stimulant treatment mentioned by Gilchrist and doubtless is superior to his recom- mendation to bleed energetically, physic, and give calomel 5j, tartar emetic 5ss., made up into a ball with soap twice or thrice daily for five daj's. He recommends tonics during' convalescence. Oliphant gives opium in half tolah doses and bhang in two ounce doses, and supports the strength; and, further, applies oil of Turpentine with friction to the throat and chest. Pulmonary Apoplexy, described by Gilchrist as Budda Bhao, is a sudden death after the animal has all at once commenced to breathe laborioiisly. In autopsy the lungs are found gorged with black blood and with bloody serous effusion in the air passages. Whether this is true pulmonary apoplexy as induced by excessive work especially when the animal is out of condition and the weather trying or Avhether it is but a pulmonary form of anthrax must be determined in each case. Prompt and full bleed- ing affords the only chance of saving the animal. This is but one of the forms of severe disease terminating speedily in death termed Bhao by Natives, they have apparently no idea whatever as to its true pathology but Gilchrist tells us that they are under the impression that in inflammation of the lungs those organs become over-distended within which becomes forced into the lower part of the neck. Strongylus filaria (Rud.) has been found in the lung's of • both species of camel but there is no evidence to hand as to occurrence of Verminous Bronchitis in this animal. Chronic Disease of Lungs [Soolfay ha murz (Gil.)] is of three kinds, which must be carefully distinguished from one another in records of cases. The first is Chronic Bronchitis and Pneumonia in which abscesses may be found in the lungs and some fluid in the chest. Lombardini notices this disorder and thinks it may be considered as generally supervening on 81 ])rcvi()ns acute disease, altliouf>^li lie has not yet sufficient evidence to settle the point, lie finds tliat alTected animals may froquentlv work until the disease has become much advanced but probably many cases of chronic cough are due to such lung' changes. Ciilchrist considers it may result from neglect in treatment of acute cases. The second form of chronic lung disease is that due to Hydatids, frequently found in this organ, they vary much iu number and size and generally contain opalescent grumous fluid. Occasionally they have calcified, or have lost their watery contents and contain simply the membranous cyst. Piot of Cairo considers them a cause of considerable mortality among Government camels and reckons on an annual death-rate of 30/^ on the Government Domains from this and phthisis. Tubercular Phthisis is the third form of chronic pulmonary disease ; its occurrence is acknowledged by Bennett, Tassy, Vallon, Piot, and other writers, who have found tubercles in the lungs. These chronic disorders are generally quite undiagnosed, but in some cases persistent cough, debility, loss of condition, some deficiency in breathing, indifferent appetite, and pale visible membranes cause us to suspect the state of the animal. The effect of tonics and alteratives may be tried, housing and good diet also may prolong the life of the animal. Gilchrist considers it generally advisable to destroy the patient and suggests that, where this course is not adopted, husks of chenna or coolthee or of ooddodh will be found the best fodder and that ooddodh (urcd) grain should be given instead of gram . CHArTEU VIIL— URINARY DISORDEPS. Since the kidneys and urinary passages present nothing special as regards their anatomy, being constructed on the equine type, and as the chemical composition of the urine remains yet to bo investigated, we have but little to say upon the subject of urinary derangements. There can be no doubt as to the occurrence of RETENTION OF URINE giving rise to considerable inconvenience in animals kept too longon the march withoutthc halts uecessaiy for urination at intervals, some camels are known to be liable to this and they arc given a mixture of kattera, 2 chitiiks, witli nitro 11 82 and boraXj of each h cliitak, in water^ two seerSj three times a day. Gilchrist mentions Dysuria fPhuchnoothJ ; the urine is scant v and high coloured, the animal loses flesh, and becomes weak. The disorder is protracted though not fatal, and must be treated by making the patient drink conjee and tyre infusion freely. To Gilchrist was described by Serwans _Roosue lia viivrz or Soozark, which he considered to be H.ematuria, the principal symptoms being scantiness and the presence of blood in the urine which is passed gutiatim and with difficulty. Liberal supplies of demulcent fluids with nitre, bleeding, purging, and fomentations are recom- mended. The Museum of the Array Veterinary School, Poena, contains specimens of Eenal and Urethral Calculi from a camel. Two largo ones were taken from the kidney and a small one, the cause of death, from the urethra. A case of this disorder was recently recorded in the American Veterinary Review. CiiAriER IX.— GENERATIA^E DISORDERS. Charles Steel has noticed an oozing of red-coloured fluid fi'om an opening two inches below the ear during trying marches. This is, doubtless, from the temporal gland figured by Lombar- dini and found by him to be absent or rudimentary in females. These glands consist on each temple of two greyish lobes with several orifices of ducts, they are specially active in the rutting* male and resemble the ched gland of the elephant. Baron Larrey observed that camels in Egypt at the time of rut sometimes suffer from a kind of madness and that bites from them when in this state are severe but not contagious. The symptoms exhibited by the camel under these circumstances are flow of an abundant thick saliva, constant bellowing, horror of water (?), wasting-fever, depilatiou, and bad temper shown by their pursuing men and other animals. If the animal were excited the symptoms increased and often ended fatally. Doubtless the learned French surgeon in these records has somewhat confused phrenitis, true rabies, and genetic furor, but we record his views in order that they may be verified or controverted hereafter among the mass of uncertain and superstitious matter which cumbers Camelinc Pathology. 84 they are small and circular or larger and eliptical with irregular margins and of variable depth. They may be seen also ou the internal surface of the lips and gums. Lombardini from careful investigation of the meconium and 2^ost-mortein conditions con- cludes that this disease is one of the blood which probably comes on some days before birth and is of a typhoid nature; attempts at cure should therefore be made through the medium of the mother in the latter stages of pregnancy. Appendix 2 : A valuable series of analyses from the Records of the Eoyal University of Pisa Chemical Laboratory gives the following results, compared with those of French and Russian observers : Constituents. Milk of Cow. Camel. C. Marchetti, Carlo Marchetti. Chatin Dragendorf. Density (distill- ed water at 1-03557 1-04042 1-042 1-035 0° C = 1). Casein Albumen Grammes 2*8837 — 0-3227 3-9596 0-3842 j 40 3-67 Fatty matter . . . — 2-6603 3-2328 — 2-90 Lactose — 4-6614 5-0311 5-8 5-78 Salts — 0-7339 0-9114 — 0-66 Fixed residue by direct esti- mation 11-4915 13-7965 — 1301 Total solids . . . — 11-2620 13-5191 — 93-01 Water — 88-7380 86-4809 — 86-94 Marchetti and Dragendorf thus agree as to the greater richness of camels' than cows' milk as regards all classes of nutritive solids. We have no reason however to consider that this would be found true as regards the improved and high class milking breeds of cattle. 85 Chapter X.— THE NERVOUS APPARATUS. The nervous system is said to be more liiglily developocl in the camel than in the ox, and to closely resemble that of the horse. The brain is remarkably long, and the basal ganglia are heavy ; in these respects the camel predominates over the horse, in other respects he generally occupies a median position between equines and bovines. All the evidence tends to show that derangements of the central nervous system are frequent in the camel ; how far this depends on the length of the neck as an anatomical feature is uncertain. We have already commented on the peculiar genetic furor of the male. Oliphant has described as Mer/rims a kind of stomach staggers denoted by a state of semi-coma succeeding a period of excitement. The animal falls and remains struggling about on the ground, salivating profusely, and having his mucous mem- branes of a dark blue colour. This condition yields to purgation and extraction of blood eitlier from the jugular or the palate. AVallon noted that vertigo was frequent, and was preceded by the animal becoming furious and rushing about recklessly. Tassy records that cerebral congestion results in the camel from isolation. The above-mentioned conditions are probably the same as that described by Leach as Tiqj Surga, which the camelmen attribute to the influence of a certain wind. This is denoted by the animal shivering all over, falling to the ground, and dying very soon, or else reviving after two or three hours and recovering thoroughly in a few days. Camels liable to this are branded with three lines on each tiank and on the head, jaiful or gar is considered good for medicinal treatment. Gil- christ describes as due to exposure to severe weather, either cold or excessively hot, the state which is known to the natives as Moorghee ka murz, because the camel shows symptoms supposed to be like those of a fowl similarly affected. Not uncommonly an animal apparently healthy commences to give an occasional guttural roar and to walk restlessly round its picket ; it then falls, the neck is bent round on itself and drawn backwards, the limbs move convulsively, the animal rolls from side to side, and roars almost continuously. Several of these fits may occur at 12 86 indefinite and irregular periods in twenty-fonr liours^ each fit lasts from four to eight minutes^ and when it is completed the animal rises and commences feeding as though nothing had happened. Gilchrist goes on to say that always a morbid san- guineous fluid is found in the spinal canal on iiost-mortem examination, and the disease is considered uniformly fatal, though the natives give stimulant mussauls and errhines. He advises us to bleed with a view to protracting recurrence and lessening the number of the fits, to fire the head or blister the neck, to pui'ge with aloes and give alterative doses of Sulphide of Antimony (§ss) with Calomel (5ss) for a week and then follow them up with tonic mussauls. As a preventive the camels should be kept in a shed and sheltered. A very similar aifection is spasm of the neck described by Gilchrist as Cumaun I- a murz. The animal is suddenly attached with convulsions, its neck gets twisted, its limbs and lips quiver, and it grinds its teeth. This occurs in cold weather, and the usual firing along the back of the neck, and if fits persist, bleed- ing, purging, alteratives, and tonics are recommended j recovery is slow. The condition well known in India as "cold struck^' is des- cribed by Queriple as a form of megrims. The animal suddenly falls, with conjunctivas injected, pupils dilated, pulse slow and bounding. These symptoms are followed by apparently com- plete recovery, but shortly afterwards fits set in, recurring at intervals of ten minutes to half an hour, and duriug them the patient is apparently quite mad for about five minutes ; some- times recovery takes place. Oerehritis or true inflammation of the encephalon is considered to occur, but probably the majority of the cases recorded under this heading ai^e merely congestive. The treatment recommend- ed is to bleed the patient, tie his feet, lieap clothing over his body, and gave him stimulants. Gilchrist describes that form of the Bhao ka murz, Dhudkay^ or Ahren Bhao, which affects the brain as either cephalitis or apoplexy. The inflammatory form is Ahren Bhao, similar to the disease of that name which affects horses, and is denoted by 87 symptoms of groat urgency. The camel attempts to l)itc liis keeper or other persons, becomes unable to stand, rolls on its back bellowing loudly, is constantly restless, and has convulsions of its limbs. Ears aud body surface cold, tongue protruded, frothing at mouth, conjunctivas congested, eyes protruded, and aspect wild. This may be a cerebral form of anthrax, but it is generally due to such common causes as exposure for a long period to an ardent sun or check of perspiration by washing directly the animal comes off the march. It is seen at all periods of the year. The natives treat by stimulants, acrid substances put under the e3'elids, and application of the hot iron along the sides of the body and. round the navel. Gilchrist ])refers free bleeding (to 1 \ gallons) repeated if necessary, cold lotion to the head and warm applications to the body and, with subsidence of active symptoms, the administration of alteratives (such as sulphide of antimony and. calomel), followed by tonics. Coenurus cerebralis, the Gid hydatid, has been observed in the brain (cerebellum) of the dromedary (von Linstow). Of nervous diseases not generally seated in the brain the most frequent is Paraplegia, described by Gilchrist as jolay ka murz and. jenuk; the latter he tells us is loss of power, partial or com- plete ; in mild cases amounting simply to a dragging of the limbs but in more severe instances being a complete inability to Avalk. It is treated by purging with croton beans, firing over the lumbar region of the spine, applying friction to the hind legs and fomenting the loins. This is probably the condition described by Hodgson as Kumree or Hurva. Jolay is described as weak loins, generally with complete loss of power ; in some cases, it may be anthracoid or possibly due to Surra. The general health seems good, and there are no local signs of injury. It is incurable, though sometimes relieved to an extent by internal remedies and. firing; but these different form of paralysis (the distinction between which Gilchrist hardly makes clear) are very liable to recur on exposure to cold, and they are seldom paralysis pure and simple, being generally complicated Avith disease of lungs, liver, or bowels. Tetanus, Chiudni in liazara (Nunn), Dhadbuud ka Murz, (Gilchrist) is attributed to exposure to cold nights, aud appears to be associated with derangement of bowels, according to Grilcbrist. Nunu mentions the idea of the Panjabis that it affects riding camels witli galled or sore backs, which are left exposed to the rays of the moon, particularly of the full moon. There is a fixed state of the jaws, drooping of the under lip, pain on pres- sure of the temples, salivation, lachrymatiou, mucous discharge from the nostrils, torpid bowels, and a dull listless state of the animal. The disease is incurable, but Gilchi-ist recommends, as giving relief, a warm purgative with atonic, fomenting the head, and firing over the temples and lower jaw. Hewa or Heat Apoplexy is denoted by a preliminary stage in which the animal seems more or less foolish, then without cause he suddenly gets up and tries to bolt, his coat is staring, his ears quivering, and he refuses food and drink; the treatment is as for cerebritis. In ordinary apoplexy (Bhao or Dhudkay) the animal suddenly staggers, falls, and dies. Gilchrist suggests that cold applications to the head, hot applications to the limbs and body, free bleeding, and purging with 2^ drachms of croton seeds may be tried. Chapter XI.— THE CUTANEOUS SYSTEM. Of all the diseases of camels perhaps the most important as regards practical value of these animals in the field is Mange or Itch. It invariably turns up on service wdien camels are present in any number; it spreads rapidly, since the conditions of service are especially those which give rise to extensive outbreaks of the disorder ; it obstinately resists such treatment as is practicable on active service ; it is an important factor in production of that serious loss of condition, which camels on service invariably suffer from; and, from its very prevalence, it is apt to be so neglected as to get a serious hold on the camel transport before it receives attention from those in charge and proper veterinary treatment. This disease, termed Garab by the Arabs, Kharisk b}^ the natives of India, and Pan on the Indus at Dhera Ismail Khan, is extremely common in all parts of the world where camels are used. The first 89 difficulty \vc have to deal with, and one which was specially felt during the Nile expedition, is the fact that the natives distinguish, and camels certainly are liable to, two forms of skin-disease known as Kharisk. Of these the least important is Eczema which is non-parasitic ; it occurs periodically due to ordi- nary causes, such as also prove predisposing and aggravating con- ditions of the true mange or parasitic form. Doubtless thelattei' exists, as Fleming asserts, at all seasons among Afghan, Scindh, Punjab, and Bikanir camels ; but we may extend the geographical range to all camel-using countries, for which statement recent experiences on the Red Sea Literal and along the Nile by British Veterinarians, and long exj)erience by French Veterinary Officers in Algeria give ns full warrant. Nunn speaks of the disease as occurring in the Montgomery District of the Punjab in August and September, and again in December and January. In Bikanir, Marwar, and Jessulmir the herds of camels are described as seldom free from the disorder in the cold season, and it disap- pears in the hot weather. Oliphant records that it is prevalent in the Kuram Valley in the later part of the year. The non- para- sitic and non-contagious eruption is considered to be due to dry indigestible nature of the food, also to insufficient diet, for it is frequent in drought years and when green food is scarce, bad and scanty drinking water also may cause it • and, indeed, it seems to depend on any cause of indigestion, as well as exposure "to hot sun, insufficient grooming, and the phenomenon of changing the coat. S.M.Smith considers that keeping the animals tied up aggravates this condition on service. Nunntells us that the natives of Montgomery consider it specially due to deficient supply of Una {Caroxylon foetidum) for feeding purposes. The sypmtoms of this form of disease are not unlike those of the coutagious form, and a srreat deal of confusion between the two exists in this as well as in other points as regards them, Oliphant in this Eczema finds the inner sides of the thighs and on the sheath favourite seats of primary eruption, a scab forming on a round white spot of smooth skin. Clayton is apparently writing of non-contagious Eczema, when he tells us that ''at this part of the year (July) the skiu is smooth to the touch and the axillary, scrotal, perineal 90 and sub-coccygeal regions are covered with a layer of hard, dry, brittle cakes of a lightish brown color, easily detached by fric- tion;" elsewhere the sides, flanks, neck, and tail are said to be specially affected, but it is evident that in severe cases the seat of eruption is no guide in distinguishing between the contagious and non-contagious enzootic skin-disease. Burt describes the disorder as follows " The indications of the disease in the early stage resemble those of eczema, and in the latter those described as ichthyosis. Symptoms : in the early stage the first symptoms observed were small bare patches about the size of a pea, with altered condition of the cuticle, consequent on eczematous erup- tion. This eruption was noticed in all parts of the body except- ing the top of the neck and back, where the hair is thickest. This did not appear to be accompanied by any marked irritation. It was followed by an apparently thickened state of the skin and increased irritation, and the patches running together ; the parts now most affected were between the fore limbs, under the chest, the flanks and inside the thighs, where the skin is thinnest and least covered with hair. It was also observed that the muzzle and the parts just above the foot-pads became affected. There was a peculiar papillated appearance of the skin immedi- ately above the feet. Later on, the skin assumes a very thick- ened and corrugated appearance, more especially between the fore legs, flanks, and inner side of thighs. About this stage, the camel, if previously in condition, begins to fall away ; even- tually the lymphatics of the part become involved, being noticed to be enlarged, and oedema of the extremities follows, accom- panied by great loss of condition and general febrile symptoms rendering the animal quite unfit for work. At the same time the top of the neck and back remained perfectly free, the rest of the body being denuded of hair. At this stage, also, many camels thus affected would be seen standing in the lines perfectly quiet, apparently showing no symptoms of irri- tation. It was also observed towards the close of the Expe- dition, that several camels, the private property of Officers, havino- received better treatment, as regards feeding and work, than other camels, were no worse than when first seen at the 91 conunenoenient of the operations, the small bare patches, however, still roiimining. Agaiu, it has also been noticed that when camels affected with this disease have been standing close to otliers, the latter have not become aJEfected, It was, however, observed that the large, coarse bred camels suffered far more than the others. I do not consider the condition of skin thus described to be due to the mange insect. No microscope could be obtained to ascertain if the acarus existed, but as far as natural vision assisted it could not be detected." Differential diagnosis must depend on observations as to actual communication by contagion, on the obstinacy in resistance to treatment, and on detection of the mange parasite. The latter is the sole absolute distinctive, and as the ectozoon is detectible by use of a hand lens or even by means of the naked eye there is no reason for reservation of diagnosis in ordinary cases. The natives of all camel countries have learned by experience the necessity for adopting prophylactic measures against the non-parasitic skin-disease. Vallon (Mem. de la Comm. de hygiene hippique, Paris, 1856,) tells us the Arabs of North Africa tar their dromedaries. The natives of India annually adopt a course of preventive treatment (tel karna), which varies somewhat in different localities as to time of year when adopted and the substances used. The Punjabis and inhabitants of Beloochistan in spring (March and April) rest their camels, give them doses of nutritive oil (about 1 seer daily from 3 to 12 days), and apply Taramera oil or mustard oil to the skin. The Egyptian camel corps was the only part of the Nile Force in which eczema was not prevalent. This seemed due to the camels having been clipped in September and smeared Avith ghi, sul- phur, and salt, also each camel having a man in charge of him and being properly and regularly groomed. Mr. Oliphant found simple administration of Taramera oil internally, and its exter- nal application caused the disease to yield readily, in marked contrast to the true parasitic form, which is proverbially obsti- nate. Liberal diet and general attention to hygiene of the patients is a matter of some importance. Whether or no this form of disorder is related to scurvy has been debated ; it probably 92 is non-specific and simply due to the congestion or inflamma- tion of the skin when exciting causes act on the organ rendered predisposed to disorder by the physiological process of shedding the coat. Although the disease is at first purely local in extent, it may involve so extensive a cutaneous area as to cause consider- able interference with the camel's health, and the amount of irritation present may be almost as considerable as in True Mange. The mange insect, Sarcoptes dromedarii (Vallon), Sar- coptes cameli (Lomb.), Sarcoptes scabiei cameli (Megnin), Acarus cameli (Haslam) of the camel was discovered (to science) on a dromedary by Professor Paulo Gervais in 1841 (Annales, Sc. Nat. II., Series XV., p. 6 — 10). Probably it was known by painful experience to camelmen in the time of the Patriachs or earlier. A^allon made some observations on it in 1856 ; Megnin has noticed in his work on the Sarcoptidse ; Haslam described it in a com- munication to the Veterinary Journal ; and Lombardini has recently given us a special detailed account of its zoological characters. As regards habits this acarus is a true sarcoptes in its method of burrowing in the true skin ; hence it is rather inac- cessible by remedial agents and difiicult to eradicate, as we shall shortly see. There can be no doubt that this parasite can be transmitted to mankind ; all the evidence tends to this view, and further to the belief that though the acarus burrows in the human skin it neither lives long nor propagates on man, but causes only temporary inconvenience. " Constantly on service camel- men are admitted with skin-disease probably taken from their camels " (Clayton) ; but it must be remembered that these camel- men are generally subject to such predisposing causes as affect their camels and herd together in a state of filth and want of sanitation, such as would be specially favorable to spread among them of human itch. Experiment, however, has decided the question of transmission of Sarcoptes cameli to man, and that it takes place somewhat readily on account of the similarity in form and characters of the species of the man and that of the camel. The question of intercommunicability of scabies in camels and other animals is manifestly one of the greatest importance, and on which we much need careful experiment. The French 93 Veterinarians have noticed in Al^-eria that a disease similar to mnno-e in camels breaks out amoii"- mules used for pack purposes and working with camels ; as it especially manifests itself under the pack saddle, tlu^ prol)al)ilit y is that il is ordinary ('((nine scabies, 1)ut we are cautioned that it is as well to keo]) mules a])art from scabby camels. The llama and giraffe are invaded by the same acarus as are the two species of camel (Megnin). The readiness of passage from one animal to another and with which are pro- duced morbid conditions is well illustrated by the fact that mange has been seen in camels two or three days old (three or four days according to Lombardiui's observations) ; middle-aged camels are said to be less liable to become affected than the young or the old. Cvi>ry animal at work as long as possible by expedients such as experience suggests ; work is good for the general health of galled animals whenever it can bo enforced without severe pain, as, for example, when the injured parts can be relieved from ])ressure. In war inefficiency of bag- gage animals cannot be tolerated and what would bo inhumanity from working galled camels in peace becomes necessity on service. The Veterinary Officer must not shirk responsibility in this matter, however much he may pity his patients he must never forget the necessities of service. The most important means of prevention lies in original selection of sound and well-formed animals, in train- ing of the transport before operations, in vigilance of executive officers to prevent slight galls and to spare galled individuals or injured parts in the course of work. Nevertheless cases will occur and get worse so as to present conditions of great severity, and will prove tardy in healing, sometimes quite incurable. We have to contend with fractured summits of spinous and transverse processes, loose portions of bono, and carious surfaces, sloughing cartilage and fibrous tissue, extensive infiltrations of pus, and sinuses, abscesses, sitfasts of enormous size, and masses of bruised skin. Often very rough and ready methods have to be resoi'ted to, the Arabs explode powder on the ulcer surfaces or they apply tar dressing mixed with grease without salt, or apply the desert plant " Dugust." Lard and Baines find leather burnt to a black crisp mass and then finely powdered and strewn over the wound useful, frequently the actual cautery is used freely, a method which practical scientific surgery will often not disdain. Gilchrist recom- mended poulticing with Kataymaht or Pahuee Cumar ka puttha, two handfulls with half an ounce of common salt pounded together and heated for ten minutes, applied every morning, as good for severe sore backs, and when the animal has to be worked he suggests putting a piece of waxed cloth over the ulcer and beneath the saddle, but insists that whenever practi- cable, the animal should be kept at rcst."^ Applications of blue *In the Soudan McDougull's shcop dip 1 lb. in watur, 1 quart, allowed 15 110 vitriol are favourite treatment among" the natives, but reprehen- sible because they simply dry up the surface and produce a false appearance of healing. This surface healing is specially to be avoided, all dead tissue must be carefully removed, depending orifices for escape of pus made, the ulcerated surfaces aroused to activity in various ways as by scraping or dissecting- off their surfaces, application of the hot iron, or other stimulant. Tonics will be found beneficial in promoting the healing process. The notes from the Nile Expedition Report concerning saddles for camels are of considerable practical value. The Hump is specially tedious in healing; it is also liable to slough and to become the seat of fistula. This part of the body is mainly composed of fat in the meshes of fibrous tissue and care- ful examination has shown that it contains some muscular structure. Its firmness is considered a guide to condition of the animal and a large full hump is a good point in a dromedary. The camel man before an expedition feels the hump critically to determine whether his animal is "fit" and aims at keeping the hump in good order. This part must be carefully examined in purchase of camels both as an index of fitness for work and also because it is liable to hump gall from the saddle, and as Vallon discovered, even when there is no outward sign of dis- ease, cancerous disorder may be going on centrally in the part. Vallon describes this state as true encephaloid, but there is reason to believe from experience in India that such a state is very rare and that the apparently cancerous ulceration is generally only ordinary traumatic lesion aggravated by neglect or maltreatment. An interesting observation by Lombardini is that even in the droinedary there is a rudiment of the second hump, the two fatty masses being separated by a well-marked septum. A diagram published by the latter observer well illustrates this point and also the relations which the humps bear to the spines of the dorsal and lumbar bones. A glance at the skeleton of the camel to cool until partly solidified, and then applied with a paint brush was found good for galls. Applied night and morning it served well to keep off flies (Byrne). Martin found a mixture of salt, flour, and burnt felt a useful application. Ill at once siio;gosts linbiiity to severe galls in consequence of tlio considerable length of the varions vertebral processes. ABSCESS, phora, is a surgical condition of special fre- quency in caTnels and which has been juuch misunderstood, if we may judge from the literature of the subject. Experience tends to show that it is almost invariably lymphangitis due to maltreatmeut of wounds and assuming a farcy-like form, the lymph vessels or glands being the seat of pus accumulation. Both Gilchrist and Leach give valuable information on the subject of abscesses. The following local abscesses have been des&i'ibed and receive special names from native camel men : — (1) Tumours of the neck glands, two in number, which are normally visible at the root of the neck. This is by Gilchrist termed Gooroosh. (2) Cliest abscess. When the prescapular glands are affected it is called Yahcud (Gilchrist) ; Leach applies the names Ghariz and Hekar to chest abscesses. It is said to occur independently of condition of the animal and of the season, to affect an animal only once, and not before it is ten years of age ; whether or no it is ever specific seems not yet to be settled. The animal is feverish, off feed, and walks with difficulty ; shortly local swelling occurs, then suppuration is evident, and sloughing takes place leaving a foul deep ulcer. Leach gives in detail the treatment adopted by natives in these cases. They fire with the palm leaf pattern (Kajuria Dagh) to cause dispersion or bursting of the abscess, and, commencing from the third day after firino-, apply for seven days paste of wood ash or cowduug w-ith camel's urine ; by the time this is completed it will be found that the abscess if it has not burst will be ready to be lanced ! This is done, all pus removed and the sore dressed daily with camePs urine to keep it healthy and keep off flies. When it becomes quite clean the following wound ointment is applied. Marking nut and pure turpentine of each a chittak, garlic 2 chittaks, sweet flag ^ chittak, and sandur (red lead) 2 chittaks, boiled in 8 chittaks of kurwa, sarson, mustard, or taramera oil, or else red pepper boiled in kurwa oil (whereby its irritant properties are removed) may be api)lied. These details are alluded to as 112 curious ; less filthy, complex, and more scientific metliods should be resorted to in such cases. (3) Abscess in the groin : Eanduk (Leach and Gilchrist), Gathar (Nunn) has been observed especially in the hot season in animals of all ages. It generally results from injury and probabl}^ also from ulceration and offensive accumulations in the sheath. It seriously disables the patient, but is curable; Nunn mentions the native treatment as application of the cautery and drenching the patient with camel's milk and turmeric every evening for a fortnight. Leach describes how the abscess is allowed to ripen, then lanced and the pus removed, after which the parts are washed with nim leaf infusion or camel's urine, and then the complex ointment recently described is applied. The disease, termed by the Arabs El magoub, is seen in the Sahara. Byrne describes it as a tumour of the sheath and to be treated by slitting up the sheath, pulling it back, and constantly applying A'inegar and water.* (4) Abscess outside the thigh, anteriorly, (Godi, Gadik, or Rusoli) is considered to be especially benefited by firing with a circle surrounding a cross (Choufulli Dagh) and subsequent treatment similar to that of the other forms (Leach). (5) Abscess over the eye giving rise to extensive infiltration of pus into the upper eyelid is evidently a result of inflammation of the temporal gland {quod vide). (G) Gomri or Kapali was mentioned long ago by Hodgson as abscess of the necTc and treated by firing first and then opening. Leach also writes of it as denoted by pain in depressing the head, and states that the firing is performed in a single line three inches long. We have elsewhere entered at length into the question of the true nature of the disease kno-wn as " Kapaulee." (7) Gilchrist writes of subcutaneous abscesses which occur, ihough rarely, several simultaneously and on any part of the bodv and prove very troublesome. This condition he terms Bale-ka-murz or Joluk-ka-gudday. If on the trunk these abscesses are called Nurbale, if on the legs Mahdeebale and * Soft swelling preventing the animal from staling may result from gall bv the bind girth (Byrne). 113 are lar<^or tlmn tlioso of tho trunk, which generally arc about two inches in (lianiettT. These tumours are recurrent, and at length nuiy rendor the animal unlit for furl her service, especially when they become iistulous and cause permanent leg swelling. Jjoils are termed llusoh, they affect all sorts of animals in all seasons, although not frequent and seldom serious enough to materially alTect the health of the animal. They average about two inches in diameter and contain liquid or caseous matter, 'iliey ulcerate, burst, and the C3-st sloughs out or slowly refills. Treat- ment comprises opening them early, dissecting out or cauterisino- the interior, dressing AvitJi stimulant anti-fly dressing, such as . 01. Camph., and giving a cathartic folhnved by alteratives. A genei*al eruption of boils is termed chandri or cliliahllijan. Chapter XIII.— THE LOGOMOTORY SYSTEM. The following points concerning the skeleton of the camel must be remembered. The skull is very like that of a carnivore in the prominence of the parietal and occipital crests, the temporal fossae are very deep and the postero-superior part of the skull is triangular. The cervical vertebra? are remarkably long and the vertebral foramina in each are so deep that they seem to be in the spinal canal. The spinal formula is C. 7, D. 12, L. 7, S. 4-5, Cocc. 12-17. The ribs arc arranged in twelve pairs. The sternal bones are numerous. The superior spines of the dorsal and lumbar regions are long, as also are the lumbar transverse pro- cesses. The sacrum is short and consists of four or five bones. The shoulder girdle consists of a simple scapula with moderate- sized coracoid process, the limb bones are long and stout, there is a double humeral groove, the ulna extends to the knee. The knee bones are seven. There are no splint bones, no traces of rudimentary digits, except inside the hind limb where in tho very young animal is a small splint. The lower extremity of the cannon bone is divided, and each part bears two sesamoids. The terminal phalanges are rudimentary, the others are long and narrow. Tho bones of the hind limb are proportionally small. The femur has a marked neck and no distinct small trochanters. The patella is rudimentary. Os calcis has a long narrow 114 process, astragulus has the usual ruminant form. The small tarsal bones are six in number. Ligamentum nuchas has a very long rope-like portion but only a small membraniform expansion. The Diaphragm has remarkably long and strong fleshy pillars and contains a bone in its central tendon. The muscular system in general is simple in arrangement. Fractures. — Vallon considered the bones of the camel fragile and very apt to become fractured on service, and it is found that when the bones of the extremities have given way mechanical difficulties exist in the way of setting the fragments and keeping them in position, so that it is generally necessary to have the animal destroyed. The non-repair in such cases is not due to any inherent defect in healing power, for when the lower jaw has been broken by violence (as from jerking at the head collar gag) union occurs rapidly if the parts be set in an iron splint. This accident is denoted by the part being depressed and the animal being unable to approximate the lips. Gilchrist had a successful case which extended over only six weeks' treatment. Dislocations were found by Tassy to be frequent among baggage camels in Algeria ; Gilchrist refers to thigh dislocation and luxation of the shoulder. The latter is the most frequent and necessitates rejection of the animal as unfit for further service, because the lesion is not thoroughly curable. In traversing slippery places it is the custom of camel men to tie the two hind legs together in such a way as to prevent their slip- ping apart and the camel "splitting up." In which latter accident there may be extensive muscle laceration and dislocation according to the severity of the case. In the Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science in India, Vol. III., p. 244, is detailed a case of dislocatio7i of the neck. Anchylosis : Bone Spavin is not rare in the camel, it causes lameness, dragging of the toe, and other characteristic symptoms ; and may be treated as in the horse. There is a good specimen of Anchylosis of Yertehrm, the result of overloading probably and perhaps of previous fracture, complicated by exostosis, in the Museum of the Poona Army Veterinary School. It was from a Bangalore Transport camel which was not known 115 to have, during its service, suffered from spinal injury. Doubtless overload and accidents give rise to such conditions much more frequently than is generally supposed. Sprains (Lutchnk) of various kinds are frequent in old and overworked camels, they are indicated by levelled legs (baed), awollen joints, and stale action or actual lameness. Gilchrist writes of sprained shoulder as Kutchwah, and Hodgson of atrophy of limh muscles as Seemuck. These conditions ai*e generally treated by firing. They result from false steps, work on slip- pery ground, over-work and over-weighting, pi'emature work, and so on ; they are tedious in treatment and necessitate pro- longed rest. Laceration of the ham muscles inside the thigh is especially frequent on service, the hind limbs being painfully and sliarply diverged. Sprains in general are most frequent in the hind limbs. Tumours: Fibroma is perhaps the most common form of hyper- trophic growth. Tumours, however, seem to be rare in camel. Chapter XIV.— THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. We have little to record under this heading. We have seen how the ears are sometimes cut off as proof of death. The conchial cartilage is small and short, which has been considered to be a special provision against the entry of sand in desert marches. Ear Canlcer is described by Byrne as rare but present- ing the usual symptoms. The Eye is large and prominent and so is very apt to be injured, especially by the end of tent poles as carried by the camel in front. Rayment mentions Op)hthalmia as one of the principal disorders treated by him among camels at Suakim in 1886. Bennett describes blindness as frequent in old camels. The Pedal Apparatus; The standing posture is pi uckily main- tained by sick camels. The animal rests freely in the position of decubitus, and is then described as couchant, camping, or sitting. From this posture he rises, sometimes in the case of good riding camels more sharply than the inexperienced rider anticipates, with two consecutive and opposite upbearings. When the camel is sitting he rests on the chest pad and belly, the trunk 116 being vertical. The limbs are folded evenly, the hind ones below the belly and fully flexed with somewliat of an inward twist at hock and stifle, the fore fully flexed at the knees. The stifle and elbow pads thus assist the Eahafay in supporting the body ; in rising the knee pads prove useful to support the weight for a sbort time. As regards the paces of the camel, Colin informs us tliat the amble of the dromedary resembles that of the giraffe (the two limbs of each side being not quite contemporaneous in action). It replaces the walk as progression becomes more rapid ; the so-called walk is a kind of half run, a little like the ordinary walk and the amble without being absolutely like either of them. Captain Peel found the stride of a camel to be 38 per minute, and each 6 ft. 6 in. to 7 ft., i.e., the pace is 2"62 geograjjhical (or 3 English) miles. The foot is considerably less cloven than that of most ruminants for the division is distinct only in its anterior part, there is one wide horny sole or hoof -slipper reminding us of that of the elephant, but as a rule, bearing only two claws or hoof walls anteriorly. Colin says — ''The dromedary is very extraordinary (in the structure of his feet). The two digits instead of being distinct and separable to their free extremity are united inferiorly by a horny, extremely supple disc, which carries at its anterior part two small caps (capuchons) serving to envelop the points of the ungual phalanges. Above the flexi- ble sole and slightly convex are two very thick ovoid cushions on which lie horizontally the two terminal phalanges of each digit. These cushions, enveloped in many layers of yellow elastic tissue and fixed to the phalanges by very strong bands, are com- posed of a special tissue, pale red in colour, slightly fibrous, mark- edly elastic, but in many respects differing from the tissue of the lio-amentura nuchae and the superficial abdominal fascia- This peculiar conformation gives the foot of the camel extreme flexibi- lity. When the weight falls on it the sole flattens, the cushions diminish in size, approach one another internally and fill to au extent the interphalangeal space, as may be plainly seen from in front. When the pressure ceases the horny disc again becomes slightly convex and the two cushions resume their original form." The tread i)f tlie catnel, liko that of tlie eU^pliaiitj has bceu noted as very silent. Diseases of the foot. These are mostly duo to injuries and are specially t'recjiient in hilly countries. They were often seen in the Knrani Valley and in Algeria, but are recorded as nob frequent in the Bolau Pass in 1878 (C. Steel). The Algerian Arabs, it seems, in traversing rocky and rough ground cover the foot with rough hide boots (Vallon). Lameness is infrequent in the camel as compared with other baggjige animals. The follow- ing causes of lameuess owing to foot injuries or disorders havo been noted : — («) Overgrown foe nails, sometimes not noticed, must be pared carefully and the hoof slipper reduced to its proper shape. (6) Injfammatlou of the el antic pad, causing the feet to swell enormously. (c) Whitlow, (jidttor, or guzniah seems to be distinguished by Gilchrist from Tahkne, fistula, but the grounds of distinction are not quite clear. The latter, he tells us, results from journeys over stony gronnd or from puncture, and proves very tedious in treatment. The former generally is due to injury, but often its cause is obscure ; sometimes it causes the toe nails to fall off. The Turkestanis speak of a disease under the name Sarpo as sometimes causing the animal's feet to fall off, but preventible by i*est and good food. There is evidently confu- sion as to pedal lesions of a local character and those due to constitutional causes such as foot and mouth disease. Byrne recommends in treatment of Sarpo to wash the entire leg of the camel from the knee downwards with camel's milk, next sew a leather cover filled with hot mutton fat round the leg, which thus is in a closely fitting mould, and that the animal be rested while the healing takes place, which is a very gi-adual process. Thullee is the name given to puncture of the foot caused by thorns or sharp stones. In all these cases the feet must be kept clean especially by a loose leather boot over the foot, the patient should be kept recumbent as much as possible, and ni neg- lected cases anti-maggot dressings, as 01. Camph., may be needed. We need not specially detail methods of treatment for quittor. 10 118 (e) Mooroos is sore feetj overworn sole, due to too long marches, especially from travelling- along bad roads. This is the condi- tion that Tassy describes as a kind of founder and which Hodgson long ago I'ecorded as treated by rest and putting the feet in wet clay. Some of the chobes recommended for elephants, or plain tar dressing, should prove useful here. Byrne considers El Mooroos as sandcrack, i.e. fissure of the sole extending from front to rear. Caused by long marches over stony ground, or by continued contact with dung or irritant mud. Kemove from such ground, rest, and keep the parts clean. {fj Pedal fibroma seems rather frequent in the camel and may attain a large size without causing lameness and apparently without proving fatal. This condition does not seem amenable to treatment although we have no evidence of malignancy in it. Early operative removal must be tried, otherwise as in a case recorded in the Q. J. V. Sc. in I., Vol. III., p. 246, traumatic Ij^mphangitis is apt to result from the surface of the tumour crack- ing or becoming injured and the ulcers irritated in various ways. Appendix L— NOTES ON CAMEL CORPS. A recent War Office publication, by Major D. B. Burn, 18th Hussars, (Intelligence Branch, War Office), deals in an interesting manner with the subject of use of camels in war forpurposes other than Transport of baggage and supplies. An epitome of the opi- nions expressed and the information given on this most important matter will doubtless prove of interest to our readers. From very ancient times camels have been used in warfare by com- batants, and actually at one time were brought to the front to take part in the fig'ht, their riders being' armed with bows and arrows to greet the enemy from a distance, and with 6 or 7 feet long swords to enable them to reach a foot soldier on the ground. Antiochus the Great, we are informed, used such soldiers against the Romans in the battle of Magueria (190 B.C.); Cyrus gained his great victory over Croesus through the cavalry of the latter, taking to flight at sight of came! -archers of the former. Thebes, in 420 A.D., was garrisoned by a Camel Corps, which rendered distinguished service in the time of the Emperor Diocletian. 119 The French have used Camel Corps lor tlioir operations in Africa. Na])oleon organised a Dromedary IJogimcnfc (that of Cavalier), wliich did good work until it sun-endered to Major Wilson in 1801 ; Desaix, in Septonihor 1700, useenelicial and am of opinion that the matter requires 127 invi'stigjitioii. Tlio coininon method of soakiii<4- gram iu tho chursah for catnch, seems to answer well and is better for service, but boiled cooltlioe is a valuable article of diet for a sick camel. The common nu'tlioJ in this Presidency of Serwans and tlioir families living iusmiill tents among their animals is not apparently deleterious to the camels, whether or no it is so to the men I can- not say. It does not, appreciably, secure for the animals that cai-e and attention from tho men in charge of them which it ouerht. These individuals are apt to think that when a little fodder is constantly kept before their camels they are well tended and are under the impression that removal of the pulan (saddle) and proper grooming are quite unnecessary. There were a number of the camels in very poor condition and much rubbed (although not actually galled) by the saddle ; consequently they looked better when saddled than stripped and the Serwans objected very much to daily inspection of the animals bare-backed. Some of tho camels were much tormented with lice and other forms, of Ectozoa, and thus required the more careful attention to grooming. Again, there is certainly much difficult}'^ in keeping the hind legs and tail of a camel clean, especially when he is "must," one of the symptoms of which condition is irritability and frequent passage of urine which is generally expelled on to the tail. The oi\gan thus dampened is flapped about, besprink- ling the hind legs with urine and seriously retarding the healing of wounds. We had several cases of long-standing ulcer under treatment. 1 found that when kept clean and dressed with 01. Acidi Carbol : (1-8) these did remarkably well, whether as a result of inherent tendency to cicatrization with great rapidity, or to the fact that now, for the first time in my experience I was using jingili oil as a vehicle, I cannot say. But it was very evident to me that the enormous ulcers cicatrized much more rapidly than in wounds of tho horse of the same kind. Within a few days of the commencement of this dressing, extensive irregular granulating surfaces became covered with new skin. I mention this fact because either it draws attention to the value of jingili oil in animal surgery or it disposes of the idea, hitherto held, that there is something in the constitution of the camel 125 — -_ — f __ — , which causes his wounds to take an unhealthy action. I am inclined to consider that both these ideas are true^ and. that the liability of wounds in the camel to take an unhealthy action is due to three causes — (a) contact with acid urine; {h) or other dirt (as from filthy standings) ; and (c) from the irritable state of the constitution during prolonged ungratified sexual desire. With regard to the first and second of these causes I may state that two cases of Traumatic Lymphangitis in the camel demanded my attention. I had treated both of these during the march from Secunderabad, and the histories of the cases are as follows : — (a). Male camel with lymphangitis on the left side of the pre- puce ; three abscesses along the course of the lymphatic opened by incision and much pus evacuated. Continued to do well until the Transport pushed ahead of the Battery, 10th January 1884. Re-admitted to treatment in Base Transport Veterinary Hospital, with a bubo forming in the corresponding groin. Fomented freely, but not fit to be opened before I was ordered to a fi-esh charge. (6). Male camel with enormous long-standing ulcer outside of thigh. Has evidently been constantly dressed with blue vitriol and other irritants. Treated with simple chalk paste as a placebo and protective ; was healing rapidly when Transport left us. Re-admitted 8th January 1884 at Base Transport Veterinary Hospital with suppurative inflammation of the lymphatics running from the upper part of the wound, the result of dirt and acrid urine. Abscesses opened, carbolic dressings. Doing well when I was ordered away. Case (a) was evidently due to accumulation of foul secretions in the sheath during Must. Now I would suggest for serious consideration that male camels for the public service ought to be castrated as a matter of service routine. The following argu- ments are in favour of this : — (1). Must makes the animal troublesome to work, filthy, weak, and irritable for some time in the year. (2). It prevents male and female camels being freely inter- mingled and sometimes causes serious trouble and insubordination when camels of opposite sexes come near one another. 129 (3). It probably materially assists other influencos in koepiiifi: male animals poor and weak. {'I}. It certainly makes surgical cases much more serious than they otherwise would be. (5). Judging from the effects of this process on oxen and horses, castrated animals would bo decidedly more useful for ai*my purposes than uncut males and perhaps, if the operation Avere pcrfdrniod when the animals are young, their frames would become larger and they would be adapted to more work on less food. (G). Camels for trade purposes are often castrated, as especially in Mongolia. (7). There is every reason to believe that, owing to the position of the testicles, the operation could be performed with facility and without danger, and by ordinary salootris. (8). Castration of males least suited as sires, would check indiscriminate breeding. One camel Avas treated for obscure lung disorder, another for punctured and cracked foot-pad, and both were doing well. As out-patients in this section of the Hospital, we had cases of each of the following disorders : — Suppurating tumour of the elbow pad (1), of the rahafay or breast pad (1), sinuous ulcer of the temporal fossa (1 ), abscess in the cheek (1), gall of the thorax from inturned point of the elbow (1), chronic disorder of the eye with complete disorganization (1), ragged ulcerated tumour of the foot with thicking of its fibrous tissues (several chronic cases most unsightly but kept at work). A number of head collar galls and nose rope lacerations also came under my notice. I might have treated a number of these animals for general debility, but they were required for work and so were allowed to go on the least exacting duties. During the march from Secunderabad a number of camels suffered from diarrhoea and two, after prolonged treatment succumbed to exhaustion, and there were no facilities for post-mortem examination. A third died, probably from an altogether different cause, and I had an opportunity of opening his body. His diarrhoea had been much better for some days and the bowels showed no signs of disease 130 except what could be attributed to wliip-worms, trichocephali, which were present in the large intestine in very considerable numbers. I had previously been unable to determine the exact cause of the diarrhoea in the camels under observation, but here I found apparently as the cause of the disease worms which are known to produce fatal diarrhoea in some other ruminants, notably in sheep ; as no other cause was apparent I think we may conclude that whip-worms in the bowels may be the cause of cDzootic diarrhoea in the camel, and even produce death, and further that the treatment I adopted in the last case (internal administration of common salt, iron, and chiretta) is that most likely to prevent a fatal result. I am not yet sure whether the whip-worm of the camel is a new species or the same as is found in other ruminants. With regard to the management of camels when sick, I found that although the Serwans thoroughly under- stand the methods of restraint, with side line, rope, or hobbles, as also the administration of solid or liquid remedies, they are very deficient in such matter as tending wounds and nursing the sick, and are generally rather frightened of the animals. I am firmly of opinion that these (especially) and all other Transport animals require careful veterinary supervision to keep them in a state of efficiency for service and to protect them from the ignorance and maltreatment by Serwans. I do not believe that these latter dislike their charges but they give them as little attention as they possibly can and forget that they have to do with sentient beings. Probably the fact that the South of India is not a camel country has something to do with this and with the indubitable fact that the camels at the camp were the Transport animals in least satisfactory condition for work. Although not in a position to make an absolute statement in this matter I fear that the Transport animals told off as regimental carriage during the flying march and other operations during the latter half of the time of the camp fared rather badly as con- cerns supervision and diet. At the very time when animals especially require care and good feeding for Transport work they are apt to run short in both respects ; and through inadvert- ence, indifference, or some other cause to be left entirely to the J31 management of native subordinates. Only regiments experienced in service seem to properly care for their Transport animals. I allude to this as liaving been forced into my notice by numbers of minor observations which individually are not worth specifying, but collectively have made on my mind a very firm impression that here we have an influence at work which on a larger scale in war would prove seriously detrimental to the health and efficiency of animals of Transport. In this camp we had to deal with ani- mals thoroughly trained, in most cases adults and hardened to work, and under trained attendants, but on service partially trained, impressed, or hastily purchased animals, of various ages, and, frequently, not thoroughly efficient for service have to bo used and it cannot be wondered at that lariifc numbers of such animals succumb to fatigues of the campaign when removed from the direct supervision of the Transport or veterinary officer. They require selection of work in adaptation to their capacities, which, at best, can only bo partially carried out in the emergen- cies of service. The possibilities of these latter at any time render veterinary organization of Transport during peace imperative. Appendix IV.— NOTES AND ADDITIONS. Note 1. — Pkoducts of the Camel and uses of his various PARTS. Watt informs us the amount of the wool varies inversely to the warmth of the country in which the animal is found. The wild camel has most of all and this is much valued for its softness. In May or June in India the coat is shed, it averages 2 lbs. in India but in cold countries may attain to 12 lbs. Sacks, camlet, carpets, and paint-brushes are made out of camel hair. In Montgomery the skins are worth Rs. 2 — 3 (Nunn) each. They are made into oil and ghi vessels called Kuppas. There is little or no export trade in them, though trunks are made out of them both in Europe and India. Smaller vessels, kuppis, are made from the intestinal walls (Watt). The bones arc in Montgomery burned in fields as a cure for disease in gourds and melons (Nunn). In the desert they serve for various purposes as to mark the route, to lino wells, and for tent pegs. Iluhva is camels' milk and honey. 182 Lions are said to be very fond of camel flesh. Carbuccia considers it bardly distinofuishable from beef. The fat has a disagreeable taste but makes good candles. From the Recueil de Medecine Veterinaire, loth June 1889, we precis the following : — Boisse, Veterinary Surgeon of the 22nd Dragoons^ has dealt with the subject of use of flesh of the Camel and Dromedary for butch- ers' purposes. This habit has been prevalent or rare from time to time mainly under the influence of religion. Moses forbade con- sumption of camels, which practice was in high favour among the Patriarchs before his time. For economic reasons the camel was classed as unclean (Leviticus, chap. xi). The Arabs continued to eat camels after destroying them with religious ceremony, and do so to this day. The Arabs drew blood from living camels and made " black puddings " (moconad) of it ; also they held the camel in high honour, for Mahomed was originally a serwan and he wrote "speak ill neither of the camel nor the wind ; the camel is a benefit to men, the wind is an emanation of the spirit of God." Two young camels were slain and eaten at his marriage with Kadijah, In North Africa there is some prejudice against camel flesh but further south it is taken freely, flesh of camicls which succumb to disease even is eaten if pronounced fit. Among the Touregs the slaughter of a young fat camel is the acme of hospitality. The inhabitants of Fez and the Somalis are fond of camel. The meat is not so suited to the European palate as beef and mutton but is eatable. It is of bright red colour and, as being strongly fibrous, needs prolonged cooking. The savour is aromatic like plants and the broth not thick. The fillet and the heart are the tit-bits, next the leo'. The Emperor Heliogabalus was very fond of the foot long cooked until it resembled carpenter's glue. The Soudanese are very appreciative of the liver specially cooked. The hump consist- ing of fat and elastic tissue is not good eating, though often placed as the dish of honour, but the Arabs find fat much to their taste. The Toubons, according to Nactigal, do not cook the flesh, simply beat it into a pulp with sticks. The Touregs powder up mumified frao-ments of camels, mix them Avith blood drawn from the workint? camels, and eat them. When these people drink blood 133 they allow it to coagulate, and consume only the serum, otherwise it increases thirst. The flesh is eaten fresh, salted, or dried in tho sun. The latter is termed Kheleaa. Only camels slaughtered with due form are supposed to be eaten but this regulation is evaded, and often where an animal gets down from injury or disease the ears are cut olT as a sort of ceremony sufhcient to warrant his being eaten in the event of his dying. The horses of tlie Touregs are reputed to be madly fond of camel flesh. The Mongols cut up the hump and use it in tea in lieu of milk, or else consume it as butter. Mangey and galled camels are frequently sold to the Chinese for sale in Pekin as butcher's meat. Note 2. — Different kinds of Camels, their peculiarities and DESIGNATIONS : SOURCES AND DISTRIBUTION. — The Bactrian camel is less hardy but stronger than the dromedary and will travel freely over rocks and ice. One-humped camels are used liy the Kerghiz of Oust Ourt, they are large and strong but can't stand cold, so migrate into Khiva during the w^inter and there have bred a red-haired variety which is remarkable as being able to stand the unhealthiness of the Delta of Amou Daria which depends on stagnant of water. Although the Kathiawar people some- times graze their camels in Mangrove swamps, it must be remem- bered that the Tartars are very afraid of moist localities as causing cough and other diseases. The hybrid is said to be fertile butj its progeny still more unmanageable than the male camel itself. In Arabic Baa'reer is a male camel, Nok a female ; a running camel is Hejeen or Dolool ; a two-humped animal, Bakhti or Baibi- ron (Palgrave) . The running camel of Morocco and the Algerian Sahara is termed Mehari; the pilgrimage camel of Egypt is Agim ; the indigenous camel or mule camel of Anatolia is a Maia. Carbuccia considers the gelding the strongest camel. The process of urination is said to sometimes last 20 minutes. Professor Palmer is responsible for much confusion concerning the term Dromedary. It properly means a running camel or sowari, but has now come to mean all cnc-humped camels as contrasted with those having two humps. In Jerruch district in Scinde camels are scarce nt the sea coast but in the upper part of Delta droves of 40 — 50 are frequently- seen. 18 134 The Delta bred animal is smaller aud lighter than tlie Arabian. The Kamati tribe breed a valuable camel considered to equal in pace and hardihood that of Thar and Parkar (Sind Gazetteer)- The Bikanir breed is famous throughout India as the swiftest and best of riding camels. Oman in Arabia is for camels what Nejed is for horses (Palgrave). Of the Bombay Presidency camels thos© of Ahmedabad are less prized than those of Marwar. The Thai camel which can do its forty miles per day is much used by Sindis, the largest number is obtainable at Dhanduka and Viramgam. In Kathiawar excellent camels are bred in Okha, Navanagar, and Malia ; some good ones are also obtainable in Mahi Kantha. Note 3. — Byrne's notes on the Camels employed along the Nile are valuable, condensed they are as follows : — Aden. — Light, clean-bred, fit for riding, of uniform dun colour, short fine coats (which lessened prevalence of skin affections and facilitated its treatment when it did occur), quick stepping, hardy, said to be good at hill work, unsuited to cold climates, falling rump. Price: Sowari, Rs. 150; Baggage, Rs. 100. Sotidani. — Different breeds distinguishable by brands. 1, Bishareen, the best but small ; it is white in colour and used for fast riding work in the deserts; {a) Mekimmeh, with slash across the cheek ; (h) line on either side of upper lip ; (c) round blotch on neck ; (d) line across quarters (behind the saddle), showing it came from Assiout ; (e) short line across fore-arm; (/) circular mark on right cheek (each brand represents the house from which the camel comes). 2. Anafi (fi'om Mesalamia on the Blue Nile south of Khar- toum). Slanting line on either cheek. Larger camel than Bishareen. S. Abadi (Ababdeh tribe). Round mark (No'ala) under ear ; large. 4. Kobashi (from Kababeesh tribe), hairy and large; (a) line (et bey) passing under chest or stomach ; [b) three lines on hind legs. 5. Aboi'oof (from neighbourhood of Shen- nr ^'™S .sp™^ *°^^ , I down side behind dy), ears filled With hair, neck long, -■■ saddle. 135 (). Sliolkriya; (a) line from nose to eye; (from near Mesa- lamich). 7. Uarhami, two lines under either ear; (from Kababeeali tribe) . 8. Binne Gerrar; (a) line from eye to eye under jaw; ih) four lines on either hind leg. 9. Es Dariyat (from Siwa); (a) " Gaim Saif " on any part of body; {b) under either ear; (c) " Malf " on any part of body; (r?) El Midra on any part of body. 10. Schwam (from El Arish), very hairy and powerful. No brand in the Soudan is suitable for Artillery. The Kababeesh in and around Ba.yuda desert are larger and stronger than Bishareen; unaccustomed to grain ; live on desert grass and mimosa and therefore useful where corn not procura- ble but require time to graze. Cross Moolaid ; bigger and less fine than Bishareen; has coarser hair and head. Dongola camels from Dongolaand the South have peculiar heads, and hooked noses : camels obtained north of Assouan are superior to those south of that place but this breed is big, lumpy, and soft. Gliizeh — from near Cairo is Delta x Desert, and, accordingly, is large and very powerful and useful for Transport, much esteemed by the Arabs and high priced. Delta — large, powerful, slow-paced ; useful Un- burdens ; need much water ; unsuited for desert ; delicate. Assiout is Ghizeh x Delta — most valuable for Transport of all breeds employed in Nile Expedition. The Mehari or Algerian Sowari camel, i.e. TB x ordinary female, is very good ; cost £20 in 1883 and in Mitidja300 francs. Byrne includes among the places to which the dromedary extends Senegal, Syria, Greece, and the Canary Islands. In a recent novel "For Faith and Fi'eedom'' there is a notice of camels woi'king on the West Indian plantations in the reign of James II., apparently a well authenticated piece of antiqua- rianism. The European range of the camel comprises Constantinople, Pisa, and Spain. They were brought thus far by the Moors. In the U. S. of America they have been found to thrive on the 136 sandy slopes of Nevada. Humbold found camels at Teueriffe and the Spaniards took some to Peru. In A.D. 1701 camels were taken to Jamaica and various parts of America, including Vene- zuela, Cuba, and Bolivia. In 1841 some were taken to Santiago and in 1856 some, for use by tlie Militia, were conveyed to Texas. Later some were sent to California and, still later, to Brazil and various parts of the States. The camels of Cyprus are small, and the southern limit of camel range seems to be the great equatorial forest of Central Africa, they extend freely into Lybia. In 1860 some 24 camels were taken from India to Australia. In 1880 there were 600 camels in South Australia, there are now over 2,000. They cost £55 — 65. They have been used and harnessed eight in a dray (Byrne). It is a common sight in Egypt to see camels working in the plough or drawing water from wells. In Rajputana they are sometimes yoked to the plough. Note 4. — Camel losses on Service : In Skobeleff's Campaign of 1880, out of 12,596 camels but 350 remained. As con- trasted with this enormous fatality we may quote the case of General Harlan who with 2,000 camels of mixed (Bactrian and Arabian) breed traversed 360 miles of the Indian Caucasus over snow and ice for seven months and lost only one, and that one by accident. Grodekov considers escorts incompatible with camel convoys, except the escort be one of camel riders, also that Transport should be organised in small divisions. Byrne insists that all camels required to go beyond the base should be bought outright, as it pays owners to maim their animals and obtain compensation, there are difficulties when batches have to be broken up and the drivers strike and desert. Compensation claims for 50,000 camels are reported to have been met after the 1878-9 Campaign in Afghanistan. j^fjfg 5, — Procurability op Camels. — Numbers and cost : Oli- phant, out of 1,895 camels examined in Peiwar kotal, found 566 unfit for service and one-third unsuited as too old or too young. In Pishin Valley in 1878 good hill camels cost Rs. 60 — 70. In Afghanistan in 1879, Rs. 89. 137 Baggage camels iu Tiidiaii plains in peace, Rs. GO — 70. In 1879, Rs. 80—100. IVice in TashkanJ and Tnrkistan £0 to 10. In the Government of Turkistan alone are 390,000 camels. In Sontli Anstralia camels range in valne from £55 for a 3 years old tlirongh £G0 for an animal broken in to draught and pack to £65 for the best. For the Crimea, Consuls purchased camels in Syria. For Abyssinia, contractors brought camels in countries round the Red Sea ; Aden camels proved the worst ; Egyptian and Ber- bera the best. For Afghanistan were obtained 2,000 in Persia, G,000 in Afghanistan and from Sept. 1880 to Sept. 1881, 25,000 in India, (7,000 of them from the Bengal Presidency). For Suakim camels were brought from Lower Egj^pt, Berbcra, and India. Some thousands arc procurable within 400 miles of Aden for liberal prices. Mocha, Aden, Maculla, Berbera, and Zaila are good purchasing places : at Berbera £15 per camel was paid for animals to be despatched to Suakim. Algerian camels average £G ; Mesopotamian, £7-8 , Soudan in 1884, over £13; Egypt 1884-5, £9 — 15, baggage and £25 Sowari ; Dongola Jan. 1885, £23. Colonel Furse shows that often the owners will sell a whole batch of camels, old with young, or none at all and thus he accounts for the number of young ones sent up the Nile. Pur- chase or retention of young animals is false economy. Nvte 6. — In the Soudan in 1885, Inspecting Veterinary Sur- geon Walters found Delta camels in very large proportion inferior and unsound, unsuited to the requirements of a desert campaign. Camels of Berbera and Aden were lighter in build, smaller, and more active. Those of Berbera were fawn-coloured and specially suited for the desert. The Indian camels, both pack and sowari, were considered very fine. Of 1,872 camels admitted to Hospital, 465, died, i e., about 25 per cent. About 3,500 camels came from Suez and a similar number from India to Suakim ; the average price of the former was over £1G : of 138 camels admitted to tlie Suez Depot for diseases other than mange and injuries, all died. The average price of cast camels was three guineas. Note 7. — An interesting record of difficulties as regards Mili- tary Camel Management is given by V. S. Fenton in Vol. VII of the Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science in India, page 127. He took over Veterinary charge of the Suakim Expeditionary Force in October and found the camels in very poor condition, this he attributed largely to the absence of grazing. About one-third of the animals had died in the previous three months ?i,ndi post-mortem examination showed, congestion of lungs, hyda- tids, degeneration of the heart, and a general anaemic state of the body. The fodder given was white bhoosa, which seems not to have answered so well in Afghanistan as mixed bhoosa ; issue of compressed hay was advocated and an increased ration was given. In March the fatality ceased, but from October to April three-fifths of the camels died. Could Surra have been at the bottom of all this, or was it merely the absence of proper fodder ? yiote 8. — Lord and Baiues give camel loads op' the world as follows :— In Algeria, Morocco, -\ Tunis, and Tripoli the 1 300—400 lbs. load is ^ In Egypt ...350 — 550 ,, for country camels. Syria, Asia Minor, Tur- -\ 550 — 600,, large sized bull camels call- key in Asia, Persia, > ed " toks,^' are employed, and Tartary. ^ also hybrids (booghdee). Beluchistan, Kabul, Hin-^ dustan, Thibet, Bur- > 300 — 400 ,, (ordinary breeds). ma, and Mongolia. -^ Crim Tartary, and the ■^ borders of Southern > 300 — 500 „ (Bactrians) . Eussia. ^ Sir Charles Napier places the service load at 250 lbs. and says "we have 1,500 camels, with their confounded long necks, each occupying 15 feet. Fancy these long devils in a defile, 4i miles I3:> of thetn " ! Bynie insists tluit each camel on service should be labelled to show the weight ho ought to cany and that in load- ing restive or vicious camels the fore legs may need to be tied to prevent the animal rising during the operation. If the camel be inclined to bite, a man with a stick must hold the nose rope and inflict chastisement when necessary. Note 9. — Camel guns are light field-pieces on four animals : — (1) dun. (2) Carriage. (3) Wheels, loading rods, &c. (4) Am- munition boxes. Note 10.— Camels have been used for transport of the sick in various ways, but are so rough in motion as to be avoided when other sick transport is practicable. The following methods have (among others) been adopted : — (n) By Buonaparte in Syria, specially constructed boxes ; and Larrey had a panier on each side with a mattrass. (h) In Abyssinia, iron Kajawahs (119 lbs.) or cacolet Kaja- wahs (181 lbs.) for conveyance of two sick men per camel were tried but they gave no protection from sun or rain. ((■) The double-seated camel saddle (133 lbs.) was useful for fatigued, sprained, and foot-sore men. {d) In the Punjab Frontier Force, the Kajawahs were small litters, 4 ft. x 2 ft., with sides a foot high, slung over the camel saddle by chains or hooks, (e) A strong chain with sloping back and foot-rest. (/) An extremely heavy chair on the suspenson-canvas-chair ]irinciplo, almost a camel load when empty. Note 11. — Transport of camels by rail and sea : When camels are to be cmiveyed by rail four or five as a load are taken in open wagons with high sides. They can be made to sit down, tied, and hoisted in by means of a crane. When- ever possible they should be taken out to stretch their legs. To emharlc camels let them be rested after their railway journey, then bring them one by one to the crane, make each to sit down, let one man hold the nose rope, put on a head collar with rope (otherwise the man guiding the head will hang on to the nose rope and do mischief), blindfold the animal, and, if 140 necessary, tie his mouth or put on a muzzle, stand a man on each fore-arm and on each thigh, then slip the sling beneath the body which is easily done if the camel sits square. Haul up and place the camels around the deck looking inwards and with fore legs tied. They can stand up if there be 8^ feet between decks, and may be allowed to do so if the sea is calm. Troublesome cracks form in the bend of the knee and of the hock of camels kept squatting too long, for the sand works into these parts. The party sent by the United States Govern- ment to bring camels over hauled camels into boats by means of a special tackle and sheer force. On board they were fitted with harness and other gear and conveniences. In rough weather they were carefully tied down fore and aft {precis from Byrne on Transport). The camels thus dealt with were evidently few and valuable but were cared for with great judgment and success. Note 12, — Value, kelative and absolute, of camels for Trans- poet ON Service : The camel is reported to be ill adapted for military purposes and difiicult to deal with (Burt), of all campaign- ing animals the most delicate (Jones), very nervous, so that he often comes in for abuse and brutal treatment from attendants (Smith). His saddles are difficult to fit, loads to adjust, and his gait is rolling ; he is slow, difficult to mount and dismount and also to control ; he requires a long time for feeding and diges- tion (Burt). Queriple considers that although mules would have had to be imported they would have been better for use in the Soudan than camels, for the Military operations would not have been hampered as they were. That horses or mules would not live in the Soudan was amply proved to be an error. The reasons for preferring mule to camel transport are enumerated as follows : — (1.) "That in proportion to the amount of food required by a mule he carries as much, if not more than, the camel. (2.) That the mule would not have been subjected to the amount of cruelty that was practised. The ordinary Englishman looked upon the camel as, if I might use the term, an unknown beast, able to withstand any ill-treatment, and, consequently, but little attention was at times paid to saddlery. Ill ('^.) That the mulo galls much less quickly th;ui the camel, although I must own that Avhcu once galled his wounds will not Ileal nearly so rapidly. (■!.") That the mulo will light against adverse circumstances much better than tlie camel ; for undoubtedly the latter is devoid of spirit." These arguments, it will be observed, bear mainly on tho expedition in question and not on the general question of mule transport or camel transport. The camel is a very delicate aianial and requires a great deal of careful treatment. Camels in the hands of the average Transport driver, and looked after by experienced officers, will do as much work with as few casualties as tho samo camels will do in the hands of their owners and looked after by their own men. The Brahui or Pathan camel is the ono required for frontier work. The camel cannot work Avith a force advancing rapidl}', doing fairly long marches, say 14 miles, on consecutive days. In the Zhob Valley Expedition 89 camels were lost out of 1,722 (Pringle, Report on Zhob Valley Expedi- tion, Quartei'ly Journal Veterinary Science in India, Vol. IV., p. 83). Peyser urges the camel is difficult to feed in an enemy's country, for browsing encourages thefts and attacks. If properly managed there is no better beast of burden, ho considers. Puvers too deep for laden ponies and mules may be readily crossed and re-crossed by camels, they are excellent for gentle slopes but unsuited for steep and winding ascents and descents (Quarterly Journal Veterinary iScience in India, Vol. I., p. 544). Queriple urges the impolicy of mixing baggage and running camels together in a convoy for transport work. Tho baggago camels keep the lighter animals back and tlie latter cannot carr-y so heavy loads as the former. The baggage camel is best for general service but some trotting camels should be attached to each column for conveyance of despatches, they can traverse 6 — 8 miles per hour for several hours continuously. Sometiines trotting camels were used for baggage purposes, an arrangement in many respects unsatisfactory, but it is ciuisiderc*! thnt there 142 was only half enough transport and it was most difficult to feed what there was {Official Report ; Nile Expedition). The Marches in the Nile Expedition were too long fSO — 40 miles per diem) and often too fast (3 miles an hour^ including halts). Often the animals were loaded up long before start- ing and long after arrival at the end of the march (Jones). The emergencies of the campaign often rendered these errors un- avoidable, but it was made very evident that 20 — 25 miles per diem is quite sufficient for a camel force, that in a march of 20 miles the camels must be allowed two halts of 5 minutes each for staling, that the walking pace should not exceed 2^ miles per hour, including halts. Walking too fast interferes with rumination. Proper rest is absolutely necessary^ but when a force halts long in one place exercise should be given and is especially good in the early morning (Queriple). Col. Furse in his Nile Report quite admits that, were it practicable, parking in circles or leaving free in corrals would be preferable to tying up in lines where camels feel the restraint and are restless. The want of blankets at night was much felt. The tempera- ture at Ambigol was at times oO^F. It was urged that the blanket might be used as a jhool at night and a saddle cloth in the day time, but when it was desired to issue blankets for the camels the Commissariat Officer replied he had not enough for the men.- It is noted as an exceptional fact that the gun camels were groomed; w^ashing twice a Aveek was considered good but great care was needed to avoid subsequent chill. Sir Charles Wilson objects to niglit 'marching. He urges that "camels suffer enormously; they start on empty stomachs, get no proper food or rest, their loads are badly put on, tliere is much confusion, long halts are necessary, the beasts are hurt bv marching in close order over rough ground in the dark, sleep by day is not so refreshing for man or camel as it is by night. Bennett considers that 16 miles per day of eight working hours is better than greater distances, and, since continuous marching wears out the animal, periodical days of rest should be allowed. In the trot a camel can traverse 7 — 8 miles per hour, and in the amble 4— 4\ miles. Hiding camels with despatches coustautly did 50 miles afc 5 miles per liour. The Arabs will not on any consideration work a fatigned or o-allcd animal, they always halt during the heat of (he day, and will not work in June and July ; they niareh their camels in herds, which tires considerably less than marching in file. . In umny of their practices they cannot be imitated on a campaign. They prefer to water at raid-day and once a day. Notr lo. — The officers of the Nile Expeditionary Force much discussed this question of watering. Orders were issued at Korti prior to crossing the Desert to water only once in 3 days but on the da}' of marching to let the camels take their fill of water; however the general order was to, under ordinary circum- stances, water once every 24 hours. Bennett arrived afc the conclusion that it is only necessary to water every other day when on dry food and when the weather is not too hot ; when on green food less often will suffice ; camels can be and are trained to abstinence as regards water. The same writer notes that always after death the so-called #ater sacs contain food, which fact he thinks rather opposes the view of their being special water recep- tacles. {Smith opposes the view that as camels are required to go long distances and periods without water they should be constantly practised in going without. ''He should be allowed to drink whenever opportunities occur. If the camel is made to travel long distances without water he has to suffer afterwards. He can certainly travel long periods with- out water, owing, in my opinion, entirely to the size of the rumen ; but so can cattle, as was seen when the contractor of meat drove some bullocks from Korti to Glakdal w^ells, and beyond, without w-ater. * * I believe that, but for the difference in the arrange- ment of the foot, the bullock would ti*avel as long as the camel. * * * Great patience should be exerciseel in watering camels ; they will often not drink before the sun rises or after sunset and many require a long time allowed them, being very shy." Stuart Wortley gives the following watering rules from the experience gained in the Xile Expedition : — (a.) Before a long march do not water for three days, and then allow camels to drink as much as thev like before startiutr. u {b.) At conclusion of a long march (say 4 days_, without water) only give a slight amount of water^ then set camels free^ and (c.) At end of two hours allow the animals to drink ad lib. Unloose the girths if watering while saddled. Adopt the following routine Camel management : 7 a.m. half grain^ 7-30 — 8-30 a.m. grooming, 9 a.m. — 5 p.m. grazing, 5 p.m. — C P.M. grooming, 6 p.m. h grain, about 4 p.m. water. — (Byrne.) Skinner gives an instance where the camels had been nineteen complete days without drinking: Nott puts the amount a camel drinks at one time at 30 — 40 pints. The Arabs say that in summer and autumn, the camel naturally drinks every third day, in winter only when the weather is warm, then every 8 to 10 days. Note 14, — Mr. Burt enumerates and comments on Saddles as follows :— Of the riding saddles the Egyptian (weight 42 lbs.) is the best, as being least liable to get out of order and easiest repaired. The Mounted Infantry is a modification of it but not a success, being less comfortable and less easy to sit in, also its iron seat makes it heavier (65 lbs.). It did not fit the camel and the shoulder of the hind tree frequently gave way where the cross grain of the wood begins. The wooden cross pieces sometimes broke but were easily replaced. Bennett considered the riding saddles, though prepared by contract and in a hurry, mainly answered the purpose required. Of Pack Saddles, the Cairo ones were best, but those used were badly constructed and stuffed and made of bad material. Tibben and straw were used for padding. The Sohag saddle from the South of Siout is heavy and has little to recommend it. Tho Dongola is too small and suited only to small camels (such as the Bishareen) and light loads. It is very light but was often indifferently padded and caused many galls. Bennett preferred the Esneh saddle ; he considers the following to be the defects of the service pattern saddle:— The tree is too weak, the saddles issued were all of one size and therefore unsuited to the smaller camels and difficult and laborious to alter (Col. Furse informs us that though the trees were all of one size the pads were not). The stuffing of coarse straw soon wore out as also did tho 1 lo non-durable lining-. The lumbar transverse processes ■were sub- jected to ]irossurc, the humps ovorcrushed ;uul l)ruis(:d l)uth by the Iliad and the make of the saddle and the uiiyii-Ulino- prirtion of the trees. The hide lashings often gave way letting the key binding the twt> halves of the tree come down on the withers and cause galls. He suggests : — that for hide lashings be substituted tarred rope (and in some cases this was adopted), to make the tree stronger and more stable, pads to be of two or three different sizes, the hind ones being lined with leather to ])rotect the loins, the two rear pads to be made into one by joining them at the top in order to throw its due share of weight on the spiuo behind the hump. Breast-plates of rojoe or other soft material to be alwaj's issued with the saddles. It was supposed that the saddle-tree being capable of yielding \inder pressure enables it to adapt itself to the shape of the back but Queriple's experience is that it should be solid at least in part, for under the^ present arrangement galls of the withers are constantly occurring. He thinks this is to an extent due to the natives always tying the breast-straps too tight and is of opinion the breast-strap may be discarded with advantage. Mr. Burt insists on the necessity of protection for the lumbar transverse processes. Smith says " the saddle for the camel should, in my opinion, be very differently constructed ; more attention should be paid to the natural conformation of the animal. The lumbar region was not ' fitted ' at all, the transverse processes of the vertebras in an enormous number of animals becoming diseased or broken, and very large galls existing there, rendering the animals either useless, or resulting in septicaDmia or pyaemia, and death. '^ AVhen the light division of the camel corps had to perform transport duty the parts about the hips and the sacral region became much damaged by the saddles being too large. ''The arch of the ribs was also a great seat for saddle galls, some being frightfully severe. Abscesses Avere constantly form- ing, and owing to them not being operated on often became vast open wounds, the skin being completely destroyed ; on removal of the saddle patches of the skin would be found adhering to the 14G lining pads. The work of tiie campaig-n being so heavy all camels had to be used, though many were unfit to work owing to severe wounds and their general bad condition; the result being that many of them that died were found to have suffered from blood poisoning with the accompanying fever, they marched on till they dropped and died," At Assouan the Aden drivers preferred the Aden imd. It is four feet long, and thus longer than the Transport pack saddle; so also is the Egyptian army pack saddle which extends right down to the rump (Furse). The Algerian French Saddle (pack) consists of two wooden forks 9 in. apart and 14 in. high, fastened together by two bands and a hame-shaped woollen bag, stuffed with esparto grass, encircling the hump. In front of the hump the tree is securely fastened to the padding. Two ropes pass under the animal (as far forward and aft as possible) to act as girths, the former of esparto, the latter of some softer substance, wool or camel hair because it goes under the sheath. Weight 25 lbs. (Byrne). Each camel should have its own saddle, and camels should be purchased w^ith their saddles (Byrne). The pad should, when on the ground, open well like a horse collar, so as to thoroughly clear the hump, there being a clear opening of 9 to 15 inches in the centre. Eice straw is the best and cheapest stuffing, but bhoosa is generally used. Numnas were found dirty and troublesome. On the Nile Expedition errors in loading and impractical character of loads proved fruitful sources of galls. The regulation method of adjusting the loads is by lashing the ropes round the end of the side pieces, which causes undue weight to be thrown on the trees and not enough on the centre of the back. The native practice is to suspend the loads from the middle of extra raised bars placed at the centre for that pui'pose. The Cairo saddle with nets and lashing is stated to have weighed about 100 lbs., and often the net, not gross, weight of stores was estimated in loading, this makes an immense diffei-ence in the weight to be carried by camels, and weight in itself suffices to arrest circu- lation in the skin and so cause sore back. The load should not exceed 300 lb?., exclusive of saddles, whore long and continuous M7 uuirclnui>- has to be gouo through, gross weight should bo consi- dered ill all issue of loads, whereas the Conimissariat Departineut naturally are apt to consider only net weight. The estimate of weight by soldiers is sometimes so vague as to lead tt) (JOO jkuhkIs being piled on the camel rather than 4U0 lbs. 'Die biscuit and other boxes sent out from England proved too large and tuo weighty, they were difficult to load and liable to shift and so galled the animal (Bennett). Col. Furse agrees tha,t these rectangular cases were a great source of galls and that sacks would be better than cases, as they can be better adjusted and prevented froru swaying, which form of movement especially is liable to gall. Six biscuit boxes (57 lbs. x G =>= 8J-2 lbs.), three on each side, constituted the load for one.cameb but this forms a " deep " load, the bearing of which is iiot perpendicularly do svu wards but inwai'ds, compressing the animal's ribs and sides. To reduce the depth only five boxes (= 285 lbs.) had to be assigned to eacli load, two on each side and one on the top. Note 15. — Queriple in the Nile Expedition Reports gives some very useful experiences of Camel Managemknt on Servick, especially as regards swlmniing. The Nile was crossed by the River Column twice. '' The first time on 20th and 21st February •when about 800 animals were crossed in 24 hours, only two ani- mals were lost ; being on the bank opposite to the Veterinary Surgeon there was no chance of his resuscitating them, eight subsequently arrived in a very exhausted and serai -suffocated state but were given restoratives, revived, and suffered no ill effects. Mr. Queriple reported that (1) The Veterinary Surgeon should always cross before the animals and be ready to assist any animal exhausted on arrival. (2) The head and collar rope should not be used at all as any strain on it is liable to entirely close tlie mouth and to impede the animal's breathing by draw- ing the noseband over the nostrils. (3) A plain rope should be formed into q, fixed noose round the neck. This rope should not be passed round the nose as was done in some cases. (4) Boat's crew to row slowly or the animal's head will be dragged under water. (5) Especially the heaviest camels should be supported by an inflated skin each placed on the neck and fastened to the us slioiiltlers. (G) The crossing sliould not be commenced when practicable before tlie sun is well up^ and should be discontinued at such time as will ensure the animals being perfectly dry before sunset. (7) A certain number of men should be sent over by the boat taking over the first camel of the Corps. They should move saddles and loads well away from the shore lest a block occur and impede the landing. Immediately the camels come out of the water they should be walked about until perfectly dry. (8) The crossing of the animals to be left to Officers Command- ing Corps and they to be responsible for proper fixing of ropes. Six camels suffered from ' staggers ' the result of crossing when the water was too cold and being tied up in the pickets to dr3^ Of them three had to be turned loose and deserted. Feb- rile catarrh (6 cases) and rheumatism (1 case) also i^esulted from the crossing. All the casualties occurred among camels with British Troops. The second crossing was less successful^ for the instructions were not adhered to. The camels were crossed with a half hitch round the nostrils and in a very short time ten were landed dead and many others dying. Orders to cease the half hitch were signalled over the river and no more casualties occurred that day. On the second day half a gale of wind was blowing and three were drowned. Forty-seven animals reported by the boatmen ' dead ' were revived by means of restoratives.'^ Note 16. — The average ration on the Nile was 10 lbs- of grain, either beans or dhourra, the latter being preferred, as beans, especially when given alone, cause diarrhoea. The fodder ration was 10 lbs. of Tibben, i.e., bhoosa, bruised and broken straw from which the grain has been trodden out. Green dhourra stalk (cholum, jowari) was much liked, as also was Lujoiue stalk, which was purchased when possible; of dry dhourra stalk only the thin outer investment was taken (Burt). Queriple prefers as rations 8 lbs. grain and 15 lbs. dry fodder. Feeding on grain alone the same officer found to be a cause of indigestion and diarrhoea ; barley does not agree with the constitution of the camel, and the grain should always be crushed and split. Bennett draws atten- tion to the necessity for a portable composition faediug cake for camels, but points out that the animals would require to bo 149 educated to its uso. The grazing in tho Stnidiin Avas good and no cases of poisonitig took place (Bennett). It consisted of a tuft grass and desert shrubs, sucli as mimosa, and a herb like bastard cypress. Green date leaves were also eaten. Govern- ment animals often refused to graze (Burt), and it was quite impossible to allow the animals to constantly pick mouthfuls as they marched along, as native travellers permit their camels to do. Some invalids were turned out entirely for grazing but in camp it was found essential to always picket the camels in lines, especially in lai-ge camps or in the proximity of standing crops. Note 17. — Samjyies of rations on Service: Nile Expedition 1884 : varied. 11 lbs. barley or sorghum daily, and 10 lbs. tibben or bhoosa, if no grazing procurable. Afghanistan, Khyber Ijine : 10 seers bhoosa, kurbi, or grass. March, 3 ^ Fatigue, 2 ' o t i ° i- heers barlev. Cantonment, 1 h At graze, 1 j With grazing Without Bolan lAne : Grain or jowarie. Kurbi, bhoosa, or wheat straw. 4 lbs. 8 lbs. 4 lbs. 20 lbs. Abyssinia, on first landing. Grain 5 lbs., hay 12 lbs. In the Abyssinian Campaign, 4 lbs. grain, 30 lbs. dry fodder, and 8 gallons of water per diem was given. In Egypt fresh beans and chopped straAv were given ; but beans were found too heating for the desert, so barley and cotton seed were substituted, jowari is the best grain (Dawney). Yaldwin quotes the following Indian rations : — (a). 20 — 25 seers missa bhoosa daily, no gram. {h). 6 seers missa bhoosa -f- 6 seers white or straw bhoosa + 2 seers crushed and soaked gram or mote. {c). 8 to 10 seers Avhite or sti-aw bhoosa -j- 3 seers crushed and soaked gram or mote. (Barley is a poor substitute for mote. 1 lb. ata with ghi is worth twice the qunntifv of grnm.l 20 1. Ghulaui. i> Aus. o o. Habow. ■1. Marokh. .). Palunilxi. 6. Suda-ho. t . Kora. 8. Haarighaario' <). Juhbi oo-i. 10. Amaneli, 11. Gadli. 150 Note 18. — Major H. F. Smyth, E.A., gives the following, on camel grazing hi vicinity of Suakim, Hancluh, and Otao — in April. {Soinali.) {Arabic.) Saa-mur. Slioosh. Haali laago. Aagwaid. Haiiohokh. (A description of each of these i:)ln.nts is given by Byrne.) Eli-]ab]i. Xaawaith (Ralml). Baanaibh. Toon d hoop. Sainonth. Ka-toot, refused b}" camels, of no value as food. Note 19. — Watt enumerates some fifty plants eaten by camels, as follows : — Acacia Arabica (Babul), A. Farnesiana, ^giceras majus (Halsi), Albizzia Lebbek (Siris), Alhagi maurorum (camel thorn or Siihtar Khar), which is collected in Pishin valley in October and November, beaten up into bhusa, and stored ; Amarantus polygamus et tenuifolius, Anthrocnemum indicum (Machiir) , Atriplex Stocksii, Avicennia officinalis (white mangrove), Bauhi- niaracemosa, Berberis (several species), Calligonum polygonoides, Carduus nutans, Carchorus antichorus, Cressa cretica, Crotalaria Burhia (Sis), Dalbergia Sissoo, Dodoneea viscosa (aliar) said to have not suited camels at Thul, Eclipta alba, Haloxylon multi- florum, and Hal. recurvum (the salt plant most relished by the camel in India, from it Khar-sajji is chiefly made), Halocharis violacefe, Indigofera paucifolia, Kochia indica., Lippia nodiflora, Leptadenia Spartium, Lycium europaeum, Melia azadirachta (Nim), Mimosa rubicaulis, Mollugo hirta, Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm) the ground hard kernels of the fruit and the leaves are given to camels, Pistacia integerx'ima and P. Mutica, Prosopis spicigeria, Psoralea plicata, Quercus Ilex (the Holly oak), Rubia tinctorum (Madder), Salicornia brachiata, Salsola fnetida et kali, Salvadonioleoides etpersica, Sujcda fruticosa et maritimaet nudi- tlora, Tamarix gallica, 'rnantbeiua crystallinaj et inonogyna, et pentandra, Vitis carnosa, Zizyphus nummularia (Jhari) the staple taiuel fodder in Rajputaiia, Zyg-ophillum simplex. In Australia it has been found that camels are very fond of Sterculia or native ])oplar (Brachychiton Gregorii) also of Swainsonias and Psora- leas. They do not eare for oily scented Myrtaceae such as i"]ucalyptus, IMelaleuca, &c. Byrne tells us six hours grazing a day on good ground is suffi- cient and if on Sallum or Minosa bush is better than any amount of tibbiu or blioosa. The Sahara Arabs avoid grazing wlien dew is on the ground or feeding on dew damp g-rass. Thus they do not turn out their camels to graze till midday from the middle of April to the middle of June. In case of a two days' halt on the tirst day the camel men should bring in fodder and this be used for the camels so that they can be given a thorough rest on the second day. The Kirghiz graze their camels only by day. Care must be taken that each camel gets his fair share of gTain ; weak or slow feeders must be fed separately. Salt is very necessary^ otherwise depraved appetite is frequent. Pallas (Mem du Museum, t. xvi., page 449,) states that the Cal- muck camels in winter get as food only reeds and the bark of trees. He remarks that they thrive on the steppes in proportion to the amount of salt they obtain. Note 20. — Tar dressing is applied to the skin in the Sahara annually in spring to prevent mange. The camels are made to sit down, a twitch put on the lower lip, the wool removed, and the animal smeared from head to foot ; then, as a purge, is given 1 lb. of rancid butter boiled and niixed with three or four eggs and grease of sheeps' wool. The animal is not used for ten days after this. The process is repeated evei-y tlircH) montlis, but the first application is the most thorough. Note 21, — The Central Asian nomads in very cold weal her sew a thick cloth round the animal's body. In their Central Asian campaigns, the Russians have felt the want of proper bedding, for which purpose straw, reeds, and skins were found useful. Note 22. — The average weight is put at lOcwt. ; height to top 152 of hump 7 feet, length 8 — 10 feet — (Byrne). Lombardini gives some dimensions of camels as folio lcs : — Two Bactrians stuffed, in St. Petersburg Government Museum, the measures being given in millimetres. Height from top of front hump to ground . . 1,420 & 1,880 m. m. Length from nape of neck to base of coccyx measured on one side of animal... 1,920 &, 2,500 „ Of living Bactrlan 7 or 8 years old. Length of body from point of shoulder to buttock ... 2,050 m. m. Hind hump to ground ... 2,200 Length of head from occiput to muzzle ... 652 Width of forehead at orbits ... 282 Height of front hump ... 330 Do. hind do. ... 410 Male Dromedary from (lonstantine, 5 years old. Hump to ground . . . 2,050 ni. m. Greatest length of trunk ... 1,503 Height of hump ... 340 Middle length ... 580 Length of head ... 580 Breadth of forehead . . . 342 St. Rossore female, 8 years old. Hump to ground . 1,740 m. m. Xeck to tail . . . 2,200 Breast to hump ... 1,400 Length of head . ... 440 Width of forehead ... 269 Note 23. — ExAifiNATiGX as to fitness for service : Byrne gives the following, from observations made in Egypt : — 1. Note the brand. Fawn colour better than white. Species should suit country of operations. 2. Shape. Xo elbow brushing and elbow well set out and its horny prominences of medium size. Hind legs not too angular, rather strais-hr. 3. Hump. Index to general health; :ig(.', coudiliuu ; sliould be firm, inclined to rear rather than to front and not too large, in Sowari generally small, in baggage camels largo and covered 'vith coarse hair, also look for injuries, scars, &c. i-. Hindquarters. Broad and firm and good muscle; abdomen well rounded. 5. Girth. Deep,- back and loins nniscular and free from sores or scars; chest Avide; rahafay large; round chest gives an unplea- sant rolling gait; wide chest in Sowari lessens speed. 6. Joints (especiall}' hock) free from puffiness. Limbs strong and well attached to trunk. Flexors fine and clean. 7. Teeth, sound molars. Eyes free from blindness, large neck ; head, wide and well set on ; lips closed. 8. Foot. Pad well developed, hard, sound, and free from fissures; toe nails normal. 9. Branding on the head shows animal has been treated for Kapaulee or other such disorder. 10. Paces. Should walk and trot well and not cross hind leers. In walking should show suppleness of neck and wavy motion of head. 11. Should kneel level, and get up under a 400 lbs. load easily. 12. AVell nourished healthy camel has head erect, eyes clear, ears pricked, huc2p vertical or only slightly inclined. 13. Determine the age by teeth. At about 15 years hair ou tail becomes white and from this time streaks appear in the eye. At about 20 years hollow above eyes very deep and camel has lost some of his teeth. In the Soudan the principal causes of rejection are enumerated, by Byrne, as : bent hocks (as not being up to weight), bent knees (weak as having been overworked when young), elbow brushing, mange ; skin thickening between fore legs or on outside of hind legs, as a I'esult of disease, groin swelling, skin under belly coming down too low so as to be liable to be cut by the ground, hump too leaning or too small, wide splay action uf foro legs the result of slipping up and muscle laceration indicating weakness, lifting legs very high, head hred. Loose swollen lump near external part of near fore leg vv shoulder, excessive! size of stifle callosity. 154 trembling- in rising or kneeling, small fore feet, thin and poor con- dition, ulceration under tail, elephantiasis of legs, broken jaw, sinew of hind leg movable to one side when felt by hand while camel is resting. " Snipe '^ in a valuable article (Quarterly Journal Veterinary Science in India, October, 1889) deals with this interesting sub- ject. Among other original suggestions he tells us to : — I. Have camel walked past and back again, then, trot- ted past and back again, note any lameness, drag- ging of hind limbs, rolling gait, friction of elbcvs against side called by the natives (bliagul luge). II. Halt' the animal and walk round him examining pads, tendons, &c,, and taking care not to get kicked with the hind legs or struck backwards with the fore. III. Make him sit down. Age him, examine nostrils, eyes, head tor swellings and scars ; humps, vari- ous seats of saddle gall (and pluck at the hair over all such places for the dealers plug up fistu- las with mud and then gum hair over all traces of the gall). Look carefully at foot pads and nails, tail, points of hocks, and insides of thighs. Examine skin carefully for mange, and do not mistake simple eczema for it IV. Load with pack, or two men ; cause to rise and note if he has any difficulty in doing so. Move him sharply forwards for a short distance to detect any crouching when caused to do so from weak- ness of loins or hind limbs. V. If a female see that she is not pregnant. A baggage camel should be short in the leg-, deep in the girth, round in the barrel, with elbows well out from the sides ; muscles of the shoulders, quarters, and thighs well developed ; hump large and round. A riding camel is longer in the leg and lighter in the bone, deep in girth, and run up to the flank like a grey- hound ; with small head and ears, eye bright and intelligent, Mnd all other marks of breeding. His paces should be fast and 1 5.5 smooth and lu; should pick up his feet well, as a stamblinn- camel is dangerous. The Kirghiz date the ago of camels from the time of c(>uj)liiig, tlierefore one year must bo deducted from the age as givou by the owuer. 'J'ho camel is full grown at 7 years of age; fit for regular, but not hard, work at G ; at his prime at 9 years ; and will work up to 25 years of ago. 'The Kirghiz rest their females three months before and three months after parturition. They breed in February and wean the young after 12 to 18 months. The male is must in December and January, so couplings usually occur in the winter. Note 24. — Being off feed shows sick camel should be led apart on march and given oats 4 lbs. per diem for eight days by which time he will have either recovered or be dead (Byrne). When a camel gets thoroughly low in condition he takes six months to recover. Among means of restraint may be mentioned at twitch put on the lower lip. Note 25. — In page 46, 9th line from bottom of page read Dlial for Tel, Rest, plenty of water, and laxative diet are said to be essential in treatment of Heat struck. Poyser, (Q. J. V. Sc. in I., vol. 1., p. 379) investigated an outbreak of what seems to have been Surra near Kalka on the Simla road. There was sudden unaccountable death of emaciated animals, aiLtopsy showed 1 — 2 qts. of citron coloured fluid in the belly, jelly-like material in the gastro-hepatic fold, pelvis of kidney full of jelly, about one pint serum in chest and some also in pericardium, clots in heart and large vessels, muddy maroon colour of blood, jelly round base ot" heart, echinococcic cysts in lungs, jelly between the membranes of brain and spinal cord, brain congested. Symptoms in the animals reported sick M'ere dulness, eyes watery, drooping eyelids, and slight trembling, not off feed nor cud, tolerably lively. Turpentine, chiretta, salt, change of grazing ground and carbolic acid in gij doses in 2 — 3 quarts of gruel or water for three or four days in succession were recommended. Note 26. — Hallen reported on Daxakii, IviiixK Typhus Fkveu 156 or African Glanders as fatal to luatiy animals, including the camel (horses and cattle) in Abyssinia in 1867. It was contagious, typhous in type, and prevailed at all seasons on the east coast of Africa being most malignant after the rains in February, June, and July. It was probably Anthrax. Symptoms : trembling, panting, stupor ; swelling of mouth, eyes, throat, jaws, and glands. Congestion of mucous membranes, petechia on gums, tongue enlarged, mouth dry, breath offensive ; pulse feeble and weak, cough, choking. Thick, sometimes bloody, nasal dis- charge, later froth}'^; urine scanty and high coloured. Treat- vient : Diffusible stimulants, extensive irritants to chest walls over lungs or heart. When fever subsides, quinine 5j — ij in ether or brandy morning and evening. Enemata if necessary, warm clothing, bandaging, green food, gruel or boiled grain, salt in food and drink, and the best practicable hygienic measures. Note 27. — In the Soudan Expedition (1887) many hundreds of the camels were affected by catarrhal fever of an enzootic character in April. It was not very fatal. Symptoms : off feed, cough, fever, nasal discharge, and general unhealthy appearance. Treatment comprised isolation, stimulants, steaming nostrils, clothing at night, and general good nursing. Note 28. — Rheumatism is caused by getting chilled after being heated ; thus the camel often becomes incapable of movement. Frost causes much loss of camels in Central Asiamainl}^ from this affection. Treatment : give stimulants and apply stimulating lini- ments and warm clothing to loins. Byrne recommends nitre Sj morning and evening in a pint of water or in moistened flour or gi'ound grain, warmth, and dietetic measures. Note 29. — Parasites — Inspecting Veterinary Surgeon Evans, (Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal, March, 1882), supplied to Lewis mature Filarias which he obtained from the blood vessels of the lungs and mesentery, where he found them in tangled masses. These were determined to be a new species and termed Filaria Evansi. The male was 3 — ih" long by -^ — -^'^ wide at widest part ; -5-517'' ^^ *^^'^^ &ndi, ■^" at about ^/' lower down. Tail tapers to a blunt point and is curled into two or three coils. Two spicules ; longer ijig-", shorter -y^-u" . Cloaca i^^" from caudal end. T^ursa small with four pairs of preanal and two of postanal papilla? ; a fifth postanal papilla near tip of tail. Mouth devoid of well marked lips, oesophagus {" long by -jW '^^^^e. Caecal commence- ment of sperm tube lies near junction of oesophagus and intestine ; sperm tube :f^'' in diameter. Intestine j4-jj" in diameter near mid- dle of body. Female geuorall}- double the size of a male, 6 — 8" long; y.\ — 3-V" across in widest part, rA^/' at mouth, which is sim- ple and somewhat pointed. Tail bent, terminates in clubbed or funnel-shaped enlargement, width at end y^T-", but a little higher is Yh"- (Esophagus -V long by y|^" wide. Intestine -|^" diameter, anus y^" from caudal end^ genital orifice y\j-" from mouth ; here and for Y' is ^hj'^ i" diameter then widens to -^hs" and sub-divided into two utero-ovarian tubes each -j^" in width and generally packed with embryos averaging -y^s'^ long by ywt^s" wide ; lower down ova and embryos are mixed together. Note 30. — Colin found Pentastoma tajuioides in the mesentery of a dromedary. Cobbold mentions as found in the camel, Fas- ciola hepatica, Echinococcus veteriuorum, Cysticercus tenuicol- lis, Coenurus cerebralis, and Trichocephalus affinis. Sarcoptes Cameli he terms a variety of Sarcoptes Scabiei. The throat Bot is Cephenomyia maculata. (laleodes, he tells ns, is a vSalpugi- dan and will bite severely any one who attempts to dislodge it from the bearer. Note 31. — Poisoning — A Hill camel avoids poisonous plants carefully, but a plain camel often falls a victim to poisoning. A kind of Iris or lily of Quetta, Peshin, and Kardanai Valleys proves fatal. In poisoning by it give in one dose when milk- warm gur and red pepper of each half a pound boiled together in a seer of wat^r. In Transcaspian Steppes, " Kindertchouk " kills in an hour. Watt enumerates as poisonous^ or at least not wholesome to camels, Acorus calamus (bachh), Calotropis gigantea et procera, Cannabis sativa, Euphorbium neriifolia et Hoyleana eo Tirucalli, Nerium odorum, Othonnopsis intermedia, Peganum Harmala, and Withania coagulans. Note, 32. — Translated by Formad for the Journal of Comparo- tlve Medicine and Surgery, April 1 889. VedernikofT, Veterinarian -'1 158 to the Kirghese herds in the Government of Astrakan reports (in the Archives of Veterinary Science) on the form of epizootic diarrhoea known to Kirghiz camel owners as Tschak. This is found in the valleys of the Caspian sea-board especially m parts of Astrakan and is supposed to have developed only within the last twenty years. In this time the character of the sea-board land has changed from flats into quick-sands. Before 1870 only isolated cases occurred and those after heavy rains followed by prolonged dryness when the stagnant rain water collected into pools which if used for watering the animals caused disease especially of the feeble and the young. Eank grass growing after subsidence of the sea water driven up by the South East winds in autumn also produces the disease. In 1881-82 the epizootic and enzootic chai-acier of the affection was first noted. In 1885 the disease raged violently sparing neither old nor young, strong nor feeble. Sometimes the suckling young became affected while the mother remained sound. In some instances whole herds were swept off, in others deaths averaged 5 — 70 °/,. The number affected and the recoveries varied in the case of different owners. The several local outbreaks varied in fatality percentage. Vedernikoff considers the disorder a severe gastro-intestinal catarrh caused by eating food or drinking water strongly im- pregnated with such sea salts as chlorine, sulphur, iodine, and bromine compounds. Of these agents the chlorides (with which Caspian water is highly impregnated) irritate the alimentary mucous membrane, by absorbing liquids they increase peristalsis and secretion of mucus and water, entering the blood the sodium salt promotes formation of blood corpuscles but the potash salt lessens this production, nitrogenous interchanges are preventedby salt and digestion interfered with. The coagulability of the blood is lessened and the blood pressure increased, whereby the pulse is slowed, the heart's beat rendered irregular, the respiration less fre- quent, and the body temperature lowered. Weakness, diminished sensibility, and sluggish motions show the nervous system is in- volved. The pancreas and kidneys are hyper-stimulated. The sulphur compounds act like the chlorides but less markedly. The brLiniidt's })roLluco more severe irrifatimi of rlie alimentary mucous 150 membrane aud excite tlie heart and vessels, producing fall of pulse and temperature. They act like chlorides on the nervous system and glands. Iodides act as more powerful irritants, causing con- gestion of the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane and vascu- lar dilatation in the stomach. Their effects on the respiration are either stimulant or the reverse. They cause increased tempera- ture and act on the nervous system and glands like the bromides. Symptoms: No prodromata : Three stages ; 1st, mild, lasts twenty days ; bowels slightly loose, dung infriable, moist, green balls of characteristic odour, faint at first. No loss of appetite or cud, a slight thirst, slight i-edness ot" conjunctiva and discharge from eyes ; respirations increased to 20 per minute, pulse 40 — 50, temperature 38°C. 2nd stage lasts about niue days. The above symptoms become more intense. Excrements semi-liquid, greyish- green or light brown in colour ; eye discharge profuse and puru- lent, white in colour ; conjimctiva bright red, respirations 25 per minute, pulse 70 irregular, temperature 40°C., off feed and cud almost entirely ; thirst more intense, patient dull, frequently lies dowm, turns head backward, grunts at the same time, rises with great difficulty, is sluggish in his movements and low in general conditions, ord stage lasts only five days ; even more intense, faeces quite liquid, dark, mixed with blood and of offensive odour. Rectal mucous membrane dark red and pirotrudes. Eye discharge thicker, milk white, glues the eyelids together. Conjunctiva florid. Respirations 20 per minute, pulse 40 ; temperature 37^C. Mouth filled with foaming saliva. Off feed and cud, and no desire for water. Animal very weak, drowsy, and grunts constantly. Weak and young animals become comatose on third or fourth day. Recovery when it takes place does so between the first and second stages, it is gradual, convalescence extending over two or three months. The state of the dung is a guide in prognosis. In favour- able cases the liquidity ceases, partially formed brittle balls are formed, these fuse together and are covered with an opaque layer, often with blood. Next the balls become the normal greyish green. The grunt may persist for a long time and the hump is a very considerable time before it returns. Aiitops;/ shows, in addition to the external fippearauces above iudicale!' a iroo]) of Dromedaries'' published in I'aris in 1811 (the latter by the (leognii)hical Society). IMiiller and Wedl in 18r)0 ])ublished at Vienna some studies on the anatomy of the two-hunija-d caniel, and l\incires at Naples contributed a nsel'id {)a])cr on thedeveloji- nient of the molar glands of the camel (1873; while Chauveau included the anatomy of this animal in his Comparativo Anatomy of Domestic Animals ('2nd and 3rd editions). In the Chinese, Arabic, and other oriental languiiges from remote times the camel has been noticed, especially as Mahonuit; was originally a camel driver and always retained his original love for the Dromedary. Some of the views of Arabs concerning, camels have been made known to ns by Daumas in his version of the words of Abd el Kadir, others are merely repetitions of the views expressed in the Kuran. What may be termed practical literature of camel manage- ment is of recent growth. Naturalists and travellers had dealt at length Avith the picturesque side of the camel as the ''Ship of the D(^sert " or with his value for carriage of merchnndise and the discomfort of his paces to the rider, but, after Gilchrist, the French Veterinary Officers in Algeria seem to have been the first to deal with him fi'om a service' point of view, their reports being published in the official and valuable records of the French Army Veterinary Service, llussian soldiers have from time to time noticed the uses and defects of the camel as an animal of war. Englishmen in India have contributed the bulk of our knowledge in the most systematic form, thus Charles Steel wrote of the Camel in Afghanistan to the United Service Institution of India ; Leach published a useful little book on camels; Martin and some others have contributed their experience; Oliphaut, Rayment, and other Veterinary Officers have dealt with the camel in their reports of active operations in the North-AVcst of India; finally, since the British ofcupatiou of Kgypt and during the warlike operations which 1(')G led up to it^ British Veterinary Officers have collected much information. Nor must we forget the Italians whose Veterinary periodicals since the occupation of Massowa have contained articles on this important subject and whose labours have cul- minated in the excellent work of Professor Luigi Lombardini, to which we are much indebted. The author of the present book has endeavoured to collect, condense, and arrange all previous knowledge of this subject. ArPENDix VII. — Megnin in his Monographie de la Trihu des Sarcoptes pmn'q7iei>, Paris, 1877, describes the sarcoptes of the camel. Female : 0-o2 — 0-36 mm. long by 0-25 — 0-27 mm. broad. Bod;/ vcllowish-white, ovoid in form and Avith a fairly regular margin, l)ut liaving a little behind the posterior limbs thi-ee or four sharp spines, some hairs about here run out transversely and some longi- tudinally, and to right and leftof the anus are small hairs unequal in size. No marked distinction between abdomen and cephalo- thorax. Head and rostrum conoid, compressed from above to below, and having a rounded blunt extremity. Palps with two setge, one long at the apex, the other shorter and at the base. Throat indistinct. Limhfi, the anterior bear each four seta3 varying in size and length. Each terminates in a cup placed on a long stalk at the free extremity. The epimercs of the first pair of these limbs unite to form two prolongations, one dorsal the other ventral. The hinder limbs are ventral at fair dis- tance from the median line with separate epimeres and each bearing a long strong seta. Shin of hack, chitinous plasti'on not very distinct. Transverse striie undulating and obscure. Small conical prominences between the epimeres of the anterior limbs and two strong hairs, behind these three circular hollows with inturned margin, then a number of transverse lines of conical papillas with wide bases. At the posterior part two diverging series each of four spinules and midway between those on the mar- gin is the anal opening. 8Mn of helhj, strife more distinct than on dorsum. Two circular hollows outside the anterior epimeres and somewhat behind them. I]ight series of conical papillw arranged 1(17 transversely, the Insr fonniiin" a kind of lar£;'e stria looking backwards. Tliu si)ines lorm a V-sliaped curve looking fonvards. (ii'nital opening's at a large slit behind the anterior epimercs. Male: 0*18 — nun. long l)y 0"11- — O'l-") nnii. hroad. Bodt/ smaller :iml loss rounded than that of female. Cephalothorax distinct from abdomen and with well marked rings. Limbs, anterior, like those of female ; posterior, brought nearer the cen- tral line of the body and having their epimercs united to form two arches, outer with a long seta, inner bearing small cnps. Genital organs, near internal posterior limbs in an eliptical opening directed from before backwards containing a chitinous apparatus consisting of two parts, the sternite and the hyposter- nite. j4«ai fi^)eri (ire, retrodorsal and on the margin of tlio body. Appendix VIII.— MATERIA MEDICA AXD THERA- PEUTICS. The Nile Expedition Regulation unit pattern medicine chest was 10 inches deep, IG inches broad, 14 inches long, and 11| lbs. in Aveight or when complete weighed 32 lbs. It contained McDougall's sheep dip, 10 lbs.; oils of turpentine and linseed of each 2 lbs. in a corked tin ; carbolic acid and carbonate of am- monia of each 1 lb. in tin ; also a syringe, drenching horn, enema funnel and pipe, tow, fomenting cloth, sponge, and metal dis- pensing bowl. The chests were fastened each by two straps and buckles, marked '^ Army Veterinary Department" and instruc- tions for use of medicines were pasted inside the lid. Queriple advocates unit chests on a more elaborate scale for use by Veterinary Sui'geons in charge of camels on service contain- ing a clyster funnel, 2 oz. syringe, firing iron, mortar and pestle, scales and weights (4 oz.), graduated glass measure (4 oz.), and bullet forceps, of each one ; Avhale-bone probes, seton needles and handle, hanks of wire, forceps, drenching horns, of each two ; needlesfor wire, 4; scalpels, 12. Also (as stores) canvas 10 yards, tow 20 lbs., sponges 12 per 100 camels for 6 months. Of medicines the following were most generally useful, amnion, carl)., aloes barb., canth. tinct., creta proep., opii pulv., ferri sulph., acid carbol., ol. tcreb., argenti nitras (OjQBcial Report). 1(38 I ^_, C K ■ QJ ' • 03 • e4H , g. ^ Oj - - • ^ ^ 1 , a- — r— ' > o o 'o S 1 -^ .:; •- M ^ >-• ^ °^ °^ K O! *- ^ S t< ■- QJ g „ o S a a „ ^' 5 § a ^ ro^ a o Q)^ *^^=a -"-«=*: 9 .o o o 1 ^i^t s g & p o ■'^ o 2 be t- ^°i2 S Ol t- ^ 2 J§53 a; a ip«= g o P5 8 C .2 S o a 1— 1 ^^ " ? g '••" 5-- ;^ ^ ^ o 2' o n '<- g § g s § i^:o=.2 -a o cS to ■5 a >-, o a a tJ. 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O '^ Sr ^ ^ o 5 ^H e y o o -y ^. -S^ « .2 03 J" O bc o 1. o o ^ ?> SD CO ■xs d .2 o p 6 o o 9s s" o o M o s o o rt OT •r^ Tl la r^ r-t ■^ tTI ^ ^ rl ■■^ ■^ o s « CJ a rtl c; to rt ^ ^ ^ f^ Eh tei !=^ Pi s O ,5 i=! **-. ''^ 9. ^^ U o ■- .S ^ T^ +3 a S '^ ^ ri o -t-j 0; o a (j M F= < o 1 1 ^ bi3 r^ --3 C5 ^ ?^ f^ S to ^ o ?H O "I I .fe H ^ O OJ cS -i-i ■-J 1=1 r:5 03 M +0" r- 1 r/i a C3 rr( cS rl ^o O • p-H S s cS H OJ r' 1 XJl u • S -?> fA? -u r^ >> 1 CO w -t3 1 03 1 1— 1 c '5S (T| (O o ft IS a ^»i Uh « > -;vlls are recomiiicMKlcd for zdvlxidh ; aJpiiiiii and aconite lor Cumaun,, malkagani and Uutki also for this ail'oc-tiou ; borax is prescribed for Pivpsa. In the disease called choodee take a scor each of jaggery, galangal, and embelia, add f seer garlic, half a seer of henbane seeds, and ,| soer ot" gopnto sathwa, with arrack enough to form amass, give one-third every morning, fomenting the head and body with an infusion ot" shumballce and phanee rnmair leaves (equal parts). In ccdir, palas papra and mudar, stem and fruit, arc coinl)incd Avith a niisccnnncous collection of aromatics and given every two hours : or silex (thabasir) and Cleome visca are used. Eathcr a flinty dose is recommended for red urine, asbestos, silex, and chloritic schist being ingredients. In purgi)ig may be given a seer each of gumbeede (soda and sulphur) and omam boiled in two seers of water until reduced to one seer, or embelia ribes and salt one seer each may be given in the same way and superpurgation controlled by a seer of rice boiled with some buttermilk or a mixture of Indian hemp and onions of each one seer, poppy capsules ^ seer, and oorud j seer may be tried. In retention of icriiie, white oats, black pepper, anise, and dab chine of each a quarter seer is given daily until relief occurs. In the form of madness associated ivlth pendulous penis, two seers of old tamarind juice with one seer of castor oil may be tried as being the simplest of several raussauls recommend- ed. For i?//e^»/la^^\s•?;t a mass ot fifteen ingredients each dose of which w^eighs twelve seers is recommended and in addition about three seers of stuff are to be poured down the nostrils ! For swollen throat glands the following is suggested : — Take of aloes and fennel each half a seer, add if soer of garlic and pound finely. Add the white of ten eggs and then a seer of marking nut mix well and apply. Hold a heated bratty to the affected part until the application dries. Passing over some hit-and-miss recipes for surdhee, dhoobia, and other diseases we come to that given, for kharish. Take ^ seer each of sulphur, Arabian cost us, turmeric, and salt ; powder them separately ; then take i seer marking nuts broken and 188 boil them Avitli five seers of sweet oil for a short time, throw away the nuts, but add the oil to the powdered drugs, mix and rub over the body of the animal. The recipes from which the above are taken were gravely republished, for the information and guidance of the British troops in Egypt, in 1885 ; there can be no hesitation whatever in stating that the majority of them are impracticable, a consider- able number are incomprehensible, a large proportion of the ingredients are unattainable especially of service (a matter of small moment as they probably were inserted for the benefit of the serwans not of the sick camels). In fact, these recipes are a mediieval barbarism like those given in GervaisMarkham's Way to get Wealth or other quartos of the time of Charles 11. The sooner it is recognised that the camel is not radically different in Anatomy and Physiology from the horse and the ox, that tonics for them are tonics for him, and that even their doses are tolerably safe for use with sick camels, the better. The Serwan in treating sick camels knew nothing of the use of surgical means, nor of the action of agents on the system ; he relied on the teachings of his fathers, and fatalities were put down to disease, not to his attempts to cure them. For some time it has been fully recognised that surgical means as adopted for other animals are suited for the camel, henceforth let the same be admitted as regards medicinal treatment ; and rescMrch be directed to determination of doses and special features of the action of particular drugs. IV. — The following recipes ibr&samphs of ivliat seccraJ v:riters on camel diseases Jiave recommended. They are a little less unsatis- factory in many cases than those given by Gilchrist as recom- mended by the head Serwans of Hoonsoor. 1. Phit'jaya (Leach). or Take of garlic 4-0 tolas. Take of Babul bark, chop- Bazbarang, mehti, and kali- ped small, 10 lbs. ; add giir, ! . . i on ^ i u „ _, - 1 1 1 M • ' ^ii'i of each 10 tolas; salt O lbs. and thoroughly l)oii m water 20 lbs. Give half this | ^^ tolas. Mix and give 4o amount morning and evening | tolas at a time every third for 15 days. ' day. 1S<) 2. Rheumatism (Leach). of eacli 10 tolas. J ) of Oiicll / 20 tolas, Garlic, ^ Rod Pepper, Turmeric, Dhania, Onions Salt Sarson oil, 40 tolas ; Water, 10 lbs. Boil with a sheep's head, and give the soup to camel. Repeat for seven days. Or, in slight attack, give 1 lb. Sarson oil in hot weather or 1 lb. Til oil in cold weather, with 4 lbs. of milk. 3. Cough (Leach). Take of Philiara Thowar (Cactus) 1 lb. ; cut up in thin lengths, tie in a cloth, covered with mud, place for an hour in hot ashes, take out, cool and break up and give with ghur, 2 lbs. daih' for 3 days. Or Kaliziri,' 20 tolas soaked in tobacco wa- ter or hooka water for twelve |> hours. Give the grain first and the water after- wards. Or Kattheli and Ak leaves of each 1 lb., Haldi 10 tolas. Pound and boil in water 5 pints, until itbecomes 2^pints, Give daily for a Aveek. then strain and cool. Give daily for 3 days. ■I-. Cough (Burn). Pop])y seed, ^ of cuich half Goor, ) a pound. Aqua, lbs. ij. Boil and give in four parts one every evening. 5. Pneumonia (C. Steel). Henbane, G tolas. Dhatura, 1 tola. Turmeric, 24 tolas. Mustard seed, 24 tolas, make into 18 balls^ and give 1, 2, or 3 daily. 0. Heat Apajplexy (Leach). Give \ pint brandy with 2 lbs. of sugar three times a day. Subsequently try. Garlic, "j Mehti, Lf each 20 tolas. Kaliziri, \ daily for 8 days. 7. Sun Fever (Leach). Sarson, 1 lb.. Salt, 20 tolas, broken up small and soaked for 24 hours in water, 1 ghurra. OrButter,llb., . Honey,20 tolas / Daily for Black Pepper, C three days 10 tolas. J 8. Indigestion (Leach). Give a seer of warm Ghee; or Majit, 20 tolas boiled in water, 5 pints, with some pieces of Jehr 25 190 Sojlina until one seer of water lias evaporated, then cool ; or Kamela, 10 tolas followed by a lota of warm water ; or Ajwan and soap of eacli 10 tolas, with salt, 1 lb., ghur 2 lbs., and sujji, 5 tolas, or Ghur, 2 lbs., \ boil in Salt, 20 tolas, f water 2 lbs., Soap, 10 tolas, i and give Katcliiry,5 tolas, ; when cool. 9. Colic (Burn). 01. lini Ojv., followed by Ammonias Carb., §js. ; Arabs fire on bellv. 10. Tympany (Burn). Country Soap, §iv. Ajwan, §iv. Boiling* water, Oij. 11. FlaUdent Colic (Leach). Take Beef 4 lbs., red pep- per and garlic, of each 20 tolas, onions and salt and sarson oil, 40 tolas; Dhania, 10 tolas. Well boil in water, 10 pints, and remove bones. Give daily for 7 days. 12. Retention of Urine (Loach). Take Katira, 10 tolas, Nitre, 5 tolas. Borax, 2h tolas, Soak for 2 hours in water, 4 pints, and give three times a day until well. 13. Diarrhcea (Leach). In mild cases give 4 lbs. mote flour in 2 lbs. ghee daily for three days. In severe cases give 10 tolas bhang with 2 lbs. Jamar leaves and 1 lb. sugar, pounded up and mixed with water. When due to bad feeding give 20 tolas Bel fruit in 2 lbs. ghur boiled in 10 lbs. water to half bulk, then cooled, daily for three days, or give in the morning a ghurra full of Mendi leaves soaked all night in water. 14. Dysentery (Burn). Linseed or Castor oil, Ojv. Powdered opium Z]-, Calomel, 5j., three Powdered Catechu, }> times Sijv I a day. Congee, Oij., J Or Opium, Sij— iij., \ Catechu, 5ij— iij., \ j^^j^._ Rum, G — 8 g., 1 Water, sufficient.. 15. Weakness from overicork (Leach). Give Salt, -n Mehti, L of each Kaliziri, ) 20 tolas, with Baobarang 10 tola.s, every eighth day, and Ghee, 2 lbs.," Milk, 4 lbs.. Black pepper, 10 tolas, every four or five days ; ll'l of each ^ 20 tolas 'riiriiK'ric, I tolas, (ilieo, 4 lbs., tlireo or tour timos per inontli. 1(5. After severe injur ij internally (Leach). A lam, 20 tolas, followed by I lb. of sarsou oil iu liot (til oil ill cold) weather daily for seven days. 17. Tonic in Abf o^ each luiU' an ounce Asafcvtida, ' Kunij enono-li to moisten. Give in pellets the size of a small orange. 2. A Stimulidtt Tonic drench, or " Piclc-me-uii.'' Take of Solution of Ammonia, half an ounce, Arrack, six ounces, Asafoetida, half an ounce. Gruel up to a quart. Give as a drink, and repeat in two to four hours as required. o. Febrifuge Mubs. Take of Common Salt, j Nitre, >of each one ounce. Sulphur, \ Jaggery, sufficient to make into a convenient mass. Give in pellets the size of a small orange. 4. Tonic Masalah. (a). Take of Sulphate of Iron, two drachms. Chiretta powdered, one ounce. Ginger powdered, one drachm. Gingili oil sufficient to give a convenient consistency. Or {h). Take "^ Chiretta powdered, I Sweet flag, ^of each half an ounce. Kootkee, i Jaggery, J Mix and srive as a bolus. 5. For cases oi iwisoning toith Acrid Sltrnhs :- Take of Wood charcoal, two ounces, Chalk, one ounce, Milk, a quart. Mix and '""ive as a drench, lOi C. In Sore-throat. (a;. Take of Opium infusion, four ounces. Spirits of Camphor, two ounces. Jaggery, four ounces. Water, enougli to make a quart. Mix and give slowly as a drench or gargle. {})). Externally apply with friction, Cantliarides powdered, one part. Spirits of Turpentine, one part. Ghee, eight parts. 7. In Simple Culic. (a). Take "^ Opium gum, I „ . ^ ^ , . , , 'or each two drachms and make Asafoetida, r • 4. t„ n i. i • x I into a ball, to be given at once. Powdered ginger, Jaggery. J May be repeated in four hours if necessaiy. Or (&). Take of Hum, half a pint- Wood ashes, one ounce, dinger, half an ounce. Turpentine, one ounce. Water as much as is required for convenience in administration as a drink. Or (c). Take of Tincture of Opium, "^ , , , o 1 • .-4 • ^o^ each; an ounce Solution or Ammonia, r i , ,p imcture or Asatuetida. J Kum, half a pint. Cold water, a pint and a half. 8. In Costiveness. (a) . Take of Ghee, Tamarind, Cassia pulp. Mix and give as a drink. [b) Take of Aloes, Ginger, Rum, Water, Mix and trive as a drink. two pints, one ounce- two drachms one ounce, two drachms four ounces, a pint and a half. 105 9. In Diarrhoon. (a). Take of Giira Opium, two Jracliins. Ciuiii Catechu, i'our driiclims Clijilk, puwderoil, one ounce. Jaggery, tour ounces. Mix into a mass and give in balls the size of an oi-ange (//). 'J'ake of Gum Benzoin, lialf an ouuce. Ajivan seeds, one ounce- Powdered galls, two di-achins. Warm water, a ([uai't. ]\[ix and yive as a drink. 10. In Dyxi'iderij. ^Fake of Gentian Root powdered, four drachms Infusion of Cliiretta, four ounces Liquor Calcis, four ounces. Powdered galls, four drachms Water, a i)int and a half. Mix and give as a drink — repeat daily. 11. For Intestinal or Gastric parasites. Take of Sulphate of Iron, one ounce. Kutki, four drachms. Palas Papra Seeds, two ounces. Treacle, as much as necessary. Powder and make into four doses, one to be given daily. 12, For Hepatic Congestion. Take Vinegar, ") <■ i ^ " ' >■ ot eacli tour ounces. Chiretta infusion, j Sal Ammoniac, one ounce. ^V'ater, a quart. Mix, ndminister, and i-epeat daily. 1.3. For Weak heart. Take Difjitalis powdered, ■) , , i , ^c „ i o I (.two drachms ot cacli. Gentian powdered, 3 Rum, half a pint. .Mix in water, one pint, and give as a dose. 190 14. For Catarrh. Take Nitre, Sulphur, ■) c i i ic ^ 'lor eacli hair an ounce, and Common salt / Mix as a powder in the feed. 15. For Cough. Take Alum powdered, two drachms. Belladonnas Ext., one drachm. Tepid water, a quart. Dissolve and give as a drench, slowly. 16. For Pneumonia. Take of Spirits of Nitrous Ether, i of each one and a half Spirits of Turpentine, j ounces. Chiretta infusion, four ounces- Oil of Til, one pint. Mix and make into a drink ; repeat daily. 17. For Fulmonary Apoplexy. Take Spirits of Ammonia, aromatic, -j Spirits of Turpentine, >one ounce of each. Spirits of Nitrous ether, -' Rum, half a pint. Mix with water one pint and give forthwith. 18. For Parasitic bronchitis [Penhale.) Take of Acid Carbolic, twenty drops. Oil of Turpentine, one fluid drachm. Chloroform, half a fluid drachm. Oil of Olives, two drachms. Mix and inject into the trachea — repeat daily for three days. 19. For Hematuria. Take of Iodide of iron, one drachm. Kutki powdered, four drachms. Arrack, four ounces. Water, one quart. Mix and administer daily as a drink. lo: 20. For Dijsxiria. Take of Nitre, ono ounce. Turpentine, half an ounce. Resin, half an ounce. Liquorice root, two ounces. Mix with sufficient Treacle and give as a mass. 21. For Rutting. Take of Ghee, half pound. Wheat flour, one pound. Onions, quarter pound. Sugar, quarter pound.] Give daily one quarter of the above as feed. 22. For Brain derangements, as a Sedative. Take of Aconite root, two drachms. Belladonnas ext., one drachm. Water, a quart. Give as a drink. 23. For Eczema. Take of Soluble phenyle, one part. Water, twenty parts. Wash the affected skin daily with this. 24. For Mange. Take of Sulphur, two pounds. Quick lime, one pound. Water, sixteen pounds. Boil together and stir continuously until the ingredients are combined. 25. For Wounds, (a) Camphorated oil (Gilchrist). Take of Jingli oil, 1 pint ") • j j- i ° ' ^ > mix and dissolve. Camphor, 3 ounces ) 26 198 fbj Dikamali ointment (Hawkes). Take of Dikamali, bees' wax, and gingli oil, each, two ounces. Powdered gall nuts, half an ounce. Boil the galls in oil, add the Dikamali, then melt and strain through a cloth ; add the wax and keep still till cold. 26. For Galls : Astringent lotion. Take of Sulphate of zinc powdered, I n , ^ ^ ^ > or each one ounce. Acetate of lead powdered, f Ghee one pint to one quarter pint. Mix and apply frequently. 27. Stimulating liniment for abscesses, sprains, &c. Take of Liquor ammonige, 4 ozs."^ Olive oil, 1 pt. mis and shake up Oil of turpentine 4 ozs. T thoroughly. Common oil, 1 pt. J 28. For Ophthalmia. Take of Nitrate of Silver 1 drachm. Rain water, 4 ounces. Instil into the eye a few drops daily 29. A Chob. Take of Aloes, wax, dammar, and grease equal parts and of catechu four parts — melt together and apply as an ointment (Hawkes) . 30. A Foot jpoultice. Take of Chlorinated lime, one part ; linseed meal, one part, bran four parts — hot water to make of proper consistency — apply when hot. ► I N D K X Vase A Abseesa ,, chest ., frroin „ neck ... Ill .. Ill ... 112 . 11-J ,. outside thigh 112 ,, over eye ... 112 „ subcutaneous 112 ,. touic for ... 191 Acaricides ... 95 Acarus Uameli ... 92 Adaptations, ana- tomical... 9 ,, to desert siv Aden camels .134,137 ., pad ... 14-6 Administratiou of medicines . . 43 Afghan camels ... 2 „ campaign.'*.. 2.7 Age,as told 1)}' teeth ItiO „ determination of 2G Agheen bhao, . . . 100 Agim . . 133 Ahreen Bhao ... 86 Aker ... 56 Akra ... 56 Algerian camels .. 6 saddle ... 146 Alimentary canal... 59 American fossil camels ... 163 Antemia ... 45 Anatomical adapta- tion to uses ... 9 Anchylosis, Verte- bral ... 114 Anthrax ... 47 „ vaccination 49 Apoplexy ... 88 Apparatus, nervous 85 „ ])edal... 115 „ respira- tory... 72 Arab's aphorism ... 1 Ascites ... 64 Asia Minor, camels of ... 2,4 Atrophy, limb mus- cles ... 115 Attendants ...28,127 Auscultation ,., 37 B Baareer 133 Back, sore 106 Bactriau camel .. '. 2,133 Bagga 4 Baibiron 133 Bairi camels 3 Bakhti 133 Bale ka mnrz 112 Bar ke unt 3 Barr 48 Bazaar medicines.., 195 Beloochi camels ... 4 Biiai 5() Bhao . ...64,80,88,185 Bhao ka niiirz 86 Bikitnir ranieLs 4 Bil 48 Bisharcen 134 Bisuva 56 Bi.'s.-.el 63 Bite of a camel ... 44 Blee ling 41 Blindness 116 Blood 45 ,, diseases 45 Boils 113 Bone, spavin 114 Bones 131 Booghdee 138 Boss galls 105 Bot 76 Brahui camel 141 Brain derangement 197 Branding, Govern- ment... 103 ,, sores ... 102 Breeding ...2 9,31 Bridges, camel 17 Bronchitis, chronic. 80 „ parasitic ...80,196 „ verminous. .80,196 Buddha Bhao 80 Bullet -wounds 102 Bumuec 104 Butchers' meat, camel flesh as ... 132 Caenurus cerobralis 87 Cairo saddles ... 144 i'ago C'alcnii urinary ... 82 Camel ... 3 ,, attendants ... 127 „ bridge ... 17 „ Compensation Committee.. 30 „ corps ...118,124 ,, emploved along Nile" ... 134 ., flesh ... 132 „ fodder ... 125 „ grazing ... 150 „ guns ...14,139 ,, hybrids ... 3 ,, in South Aus- tralia ... 2 „ lines ... 22 „ loads ... 138 „ losses on ser- vice ...5,136 „ management.. 147, 160 ,, pox ... 63 ,, sowars ... 14 Cam])ing ground ... 25 Cancer hump ... 110 Canker of ear ... 115 Capacity, intestinal 60 Cartilage of heart... 72 Castration . . . 25,83 ,, arguments for 128 Catarrh ...74,196 ,. nasal ... 73 ( ^itarrlial fever ... 156 ('athartics ... 42 Causes of saddle gall 1 06 Cephalitis ... 86 Cerebral congestion 85 Cerebritis ... 86 Chandni ... 87 Chandri ... 113 Cheechuck ... 53 Chest abscess ... Ill „ diseases of 78 Chhallie ... 47 Chhalivan ... 113 Chimukh ... 191 Chob ...118.198 Choodee ...54,187 ,, ka murz ... 62 Choufulli Dagh ... 112 Chronic broiicliitis.. 80 200 Page Chronic lung disease 80 Chursah ... 20 Circulatory system. 71 Cold ... 191 „ struck ...66,86 Colic ...187,190,194 Concretions, tonsil- lar ... 67 Congestion cerebral 8-5 of liver 70 Constipation ... 64 Contagious skin dis- ease ... 192 Contract Camel Transport ... 6 Contusions . . . 103 Convoys, camel . 13 Cooling mnssauls .. 45 Copulation ... 83 Corps, camel . . .118,124 Costiveness . . . 64,194 Cough ...73,189,196 Crimean campaign.. 6,7 Crossing rivers ... 160 Crupper galls . . . 105 Cumaun ka murz ... 86 Cuppray ... 54 Cutaneous system.. 88 D Dalon se nikal gaya 64 Danakil Fever ... 156 Dansna ... 73 Debabfly ... 101 Debility ... 46 Defects of camel as an animal of Tran- sport ... 14 Delta camels ...135,137 Dentition ...27,160 Dewanah kootha ka murz ... 55 Dhadbund ka murz 87 Dhoobla ... 46 Dhudkay ...86,88 Dhundee ka murz . . 83 Diajihragm ... 114 Diarrhoea 64,129,190,195 „ epizootic... 158 Digestive system ... 59 Dimension of camels 152 Diseases ... 32 „ of blood ... 45 „ ,, chest... 78 „ foot ... 117 ,. young camels .. 83 Page Dislikes of camels... 10 Dislocation 114 „ neck ... 114 Disorders, genera- tive... 82 „ urinary Distomum 81 71 Doaia 47 Dolool 133 Dongola camels . . . 135 „ saddle ... 144 Doses 43 Dragging out nose peg Draught camel ... 76 14 Dromedaries 6 Duration of life ... 28 Dust julab 66 Duties of camel corps 120 Dysentery ...64,190,195 Dysuria ...82,197 E Ears ... 116 Economic value of camel ... 1 Ectozoa ... 100 Eczema ...89,100,197 Egyptian campaign 6 ,, saddle ... 144 Elastic pad, inflam- mation of ... 117 ElboTvgall ... 105 El magoub ... 112 „ mooroos ... 118 Emphysema infec- tuosum ... 49 Encephaloid hump.. 110 Endurance of camel 4 Enemata ... 42 Enteritis ... 64 Epizootic diarrhoea 1-58 Esneh saddle ... 144 Examination as to fitness ...27,162 Excreta ... 37 Eye ... 115 Farcy Fastening ropes Febrifuge mass Feeding Feet, sore P'ever 64 23 193 17 118 Page Fever catarrhal . . . 156 ,, relapsing ... 46 Fibroma ... 115 „ pedal ... 118 Filaria ... 80 Evansi ...58,167 Firing ... 40 Fistula, foot ... 11'' „ hump ... 110 Flatulent colic ...63,190 Fluke in liver ... 71 Fly ... 101 Fodder for camels... 125 Fodders ... 19 Fomentations ... 42 Food ... 18 Foot and mouth disease ... 52 Foot, diseases of ... 117 „ poultice ... 198 ,, puncture ... 117 Formula, spinal ... 113 Fossil camels ... 163 Founder ... 118 Fracture ... 114 „ jaw ... 114 G Gadfly ...15,101 Gadik ... 112 Gahasha ... 62 Gait of camels ... 29 Galeodes ...101,157 Galls ...103,106,198 „ hump ... 110 „ Saddle ... 106 Ganda ... 34 Garab ... 88 Gathar ... 112 Gear ... 23 General signs of ill-health ... 35 Generative dis- orders ... 82 Geographical dis- tribution ... xii Ghariz ... Ill Ghizeh camels ... 135 Gid hydatid ... 87 Gland, temporal ... 82 Glanders ... 53 Globules of blood... 45 Glossitis ... 62 Godi ... 112 Gomri ... 112 Gooroosh ... Ill 20 1 Page Page] Page Government brand- Intestinal nu-asure- Limb muscles, ing ... 103 nionts... GO atrojjhy of 115 Grain for camels ... 126 ,, parasites... 70 Lines, camel 22 Grazing ...18,150 Itch 88 Literature of the Groin abscess ... 112 camel 163 (i rooming ... 21 J Liver 70 vums, camel ...14,139 ,, congestion ... 70 6 Pal grave ...xii,133,r:i4 Hainloy ... 5 Pallas ... 151 Haslam ...50,51,92,93,94,96 Palmer ... 133 Hodg.sou ...52,.=6,63,64,71. 78.87,1 12. Pancirea ... 164 115,118 Pasteur ... 49 Hoiiu' ... xv,()8 Peel ... 116 Humboldt ... 136 Phipson XV Piot ... 81 Iviiniii ... 6 Pliny the yoiinger ... 164 Porse ... 164 .loiics ...140,142 Potto ... 12 Poyser ...141,155 Kosteuko ... 1 ,5, 12,13,14,19,21,25,28 Prejevalsky ... 3,5 Pringle ...12,141 LaiTcy .,.55,82 Lench ... 1 3, 1 9,23,24.25,26,32,35,40, Queriplc ...75,86,90,140,141,142,14-"., 41,64,56,63,73,80,85,95,101. 147,148,167 103,111,112,165,185,188, 189,190,ir»l Kayracnt ...33,75,98,115,165 Leidy ... 163 Richardi ... &i Leo Africauub ... 164 Rudolphi ... 70 Letang ... 15 Lewis, Dr. ... 58 Sani ... 83 Liinijeus 164 Sauti " ... 164 Lombardini ...66,67,68,69,79.80,82, Savi ... 16i 83.84,92,93,97,101, Skinner ... 144 110,152,163,165 Smith, S. M. ... 69,89,140,143,110 Lord ...109,138 Smyth ... 150 " Snipe " ...101,154 Mahomed ...l,ix,132 Steel. C. ...3,7 21,26,27,32,57.58,78, Malleson ... 5 82,ll7,165.189,xv Marochetti • • • 84 Steel, J. H. ... 125 Martin ...7,11,16,17,19,23,25,94,165 Stewart, Col. 4 Marvin ... 4 Strabo ... 164 Masson ... 53 Symonds, T. J. ...62,70 Maxwell ... 14 Megnin ...92,93,165 Tassy ...11,18,54,78,81,85,114,118 Meyrick ... 3,11 Miluo Edwards ■ • 16 i Vallon ...1,6,7 8,10,81,85,91,92,110, Moses •■ 132 1U,117 Miller ...66,164 Vedernikoff ... 158 Von Linstow ... 87 Nactigal •■• i^- Napier, feir. Charles ... 138 Walters ... 6,137 Niebuhr •••- 1^4 Warren ...12,20 >v'itzsch ••• 70 Watt ...131,150,158 Nott ••• 144 Wedl .. 66,164 Xuun . . .3,18,28,30,31,47,48,.j2,54,56, Wilson, Sir, Charles ... 142 57,63,74,87,&8,89,96,112,16i) OUphant ...2,7,16,26,30,32,47,49,53, Wo is el ey Wortley (Stuart) 9 ... 143 57,75,78,80,85.89,91,92, 97,101,105,136,163,165 Yaldwin ... 3,11,13,16,19,21,22.25,46, Otto ■•■ 0=5 56,58,93,96,140 206 ERRATUM. For " Byrne " in many places ixad " Burn. ^' 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED BIOLOGY LIBRARY TEL. no. 642-2531 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recaU. 4 1970 JUL 14: 1970 8 LD 2lA-15m-2,'69 (J6057sl0)476 — A-32 General Library University of California Berkeley UC BERKELEY LIBRARIES CD4Sfl3flEDS