MAIN LM2PARV J^d-UC. THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. TORONTO THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT REPORT TO THE AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION BY THE COMMITTEE ON INSTRUCTION CHARLES GROVE HAINES, Chairman J. LYNN BARNARD MABEL HILL EDGAR DAWSON FRANK E. HORACK WALTER L. FLEMING JAMES A. JAMES fork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1916 All rights reserved COPYRIGHT, igi6 BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916. 'N LHBRARV PREFACE VARIOUS national organizations are vitally interested in the effort to improve the teaching of government in the schools. The American Political Science Association is naturally one of the foremost among these and from the time of its formation has given special attention to methods of instruction in political science. As a result of the interest manifested in the first ses- sions of the Association a committee of five was appointed to investigate and report upon the teaching of government in secondary schools. The report of this committee and the con- clusions resulting therefrom mark an important stage in the movement to improve civic instruction. To supplement the work of the committee of five and to extend the scope of its investigations it was voted at the annual business meeting of the Association held at Buffalo in December, 1911, "that a committee of seven members be appointed to consider the meth- ods of teaching and studying government now pursued in Amer- ican schools, colleges and universities, and to suggest means of enlarging and improving such instruction." The following members were appointed by the President to constitute this committee: James A. James, Professor of History, Northwestern University; Mabel Hill, Associate Director Garland School, Boston, Massachusetts; Frank E. Horack, Professor of Political Science, State University of Iowa; Edgar Dawson, Professor of Political Science, Hunter College, New York City; Walter L. Fleming, Professor of History, Louisiana State University, J. Lynn Barnard, Professor of History and Government, School of Pedagogy, Philadelphia; and Charles Grove Haines, Professor of Government, University of Texas. vi PREFACE The committee first prepared a survey of the activities of other organizations which are interested in civic instruction. Among such organizations particular attention was given to the discussions and reports of the American Historical Asso- ciation, the National Municipal League and the National Edu- cation Association, as well as the report on secondary schools by the committee of five of the American Political Science Asso- ciation. After completing this survey it was decided by the committee to secure information through: (i) an investigation of courses in political science offered in colleges and universities; (2) an inquiry regarding courses and methods of instruction in elementary and secondary schools; (3) a consideration of the aid and encouragement given to instruction in government by state departments of education and other organizations and societies. Preliminary reports dealing with instruction in col- leges and universities were presented at the annual meetings of the Association in Washington, December, 1913 and in Chicago, December, 1914. At the meetings of the committee held during the sessions of the Association in Washington, December, 1913 it was decided to continue working along the following lines: first, to pursue the investigation of the teaching of political science in colleges and universities in order to obtain a more complete report; second, to report upon the progress recently made in the teach- ing of government in secondary schools; and third, to prepare for teachers concrete suggestions as to courses and methods of instruction to be submitted along with the proposals of the committee relative to elementary and secondary schools. On account of the difficulties involved in securing a meeting of the committee at a time and place convenient to all members, group conferences were held in Washington, D. C., New York City, and Chicago. Through these conferences and through the submission in advance of all proposed recommendations a full discussion has been secured on all phases of the report PREFACE vii and a unanimous approval is accorded by the members of the committee to the recommendations offered. Moreover, one session and two conferences during the annual meetings 1913-15 were devoted to the presentation and discussion of various phases of the report. The committee aims to offer primarily such information and data as are available relative to the present status of instruction in government with some recommendations and suggestions to teachers. Its report is presented with a view to aid in the process of reconstruction which is now well on its way as to the teaching of government in the schools. In the pursuance of investigations and in the collection of data the committee is under great obligations for assistance re- ceived from many instructors who prepared reports on local con- ditions and from state committees comprised of teachers and administrators actively engaged in public school work. To the Honorable P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education, acknowl- edgment is also due for the privilege of sending circulars to sec- ondary schools and colleges through the medium of the Bureau of Education. Naturally, in a report of such an extensive char- acter dealing with many controverted problems of instruction the Association is not committed to all of the expressions of opinion and suggestions herein contained. CONTENTS PART I RECENT PROGRESS IN THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT PAGE I. STAGES IN THE ADVANCEMENT OF Civic INSTRUCTION i 1. Study of the Constitution 2 2. The Deductive Method 2 3. Community Civics 5 II. EFFORTS TO IMPROVE THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT .... 7 1. National Education Association 8 2. American Historical Association n 3. National Municipal League 18 4. American Political Science Association 21 III. THE PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTION IN GOVERNMENT 27 1. Aims of Civic Instruction 27 2. Civics for the Education of the Electorate 28 3. Civics and Social Service 31 4. Danger in Civics Teaching 32 IV. METHODS, MATERIALS AND DEVICES 34 1. Ways of Rendering Instruction Practical 35 2. The Community Survey 39 3. Reference Library on Civic Affairs 40 4. State and National Government 42 5. Thoroughness 44 PART II REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS I. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF SEVEN IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION 46 II. SOME DATA ON THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS 65 ix y Su CONTENTS PART III COURSES OF STUDY PAGE SUGGESTIONS AS TO COURSES OF STUDY AND METHODS OF APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF GOVERNMENT 77 1. Suggestions for Civic Topics in Elementary Grades . . 78 2. Community Civics for Junior High School 82 3. Suggestions for a course in Civics for Senior High School ioo 4. Bibliographies for Teachers and School Libraries in A. Some References on Methods of Teaching in B. Bibliographical Suggestions for Teachers 119 C. Bureau of Reference for Study of Civic Affairs 133 PART IV REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES I. PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 135 II. TABLE OF COURSES IN POLITICAL SCIENCE IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 141 III. OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 184 1. Inadequate Provisions for Government Instruction 184 2. The Function of College Instruction 187 3. Attendance in Courses 190 4. Textbooks 192 5. Methods of Instruction 193 6. Types of Courses 195 7. Suggestions for the Improvement of Instruction. ... 196 IV. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF COLLEGE INSTRUCTION 198 APPENDIX REPORTS OF STATE COMMITTEES ON THE TEACHING OF CIVICS IN ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS I. MEMBERS OF STATE COMMITTEES AND STATE REPRESENTA- TIVES SELECTED TO AID THE COMMITTEE ON INSTRUCTION 226 CONTENTS xi PAGE II. REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF Crvics 231 1. Alabama 231 2. Arkansas 233 3. California 234- 4. Colorado 238 5. Georgia 239 6. Illinois 240 7. Iowa 244 8. Kentucky 244 9. Maine 246 10. Maryland 248 11. Massachusetts 251 12. Michigan 255 13. New Hampshire 258 14. New York 260 15. North Dakota 264 16. Ohio 264 17. Virginia 266 18. Washington 268 19. West Virginia 274 20. Wisconsin 279 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT PART I RECENT PROGRESS IN THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT RELATING CHIEFLY TO INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS IT is difficult to determine the exact time at which instruc- tion in civil government was begun in the public schools. One of the first evidences of an interest in the study of the subject is to be found in the plea for civic instruction before the National Education Association in 1859. Information as to the nature of the course offered at this time is indefinite. It seems that the first result of the special plea for the study of civil government was the introduction of a course devoted to the Constitution of the United States. This course at first involved merely a reading of the Constitution with general comments on the special fea- tures of the fundamental law. I. Stages in the Advancement of Civic Instruction. Since the meagre beginning made in the third quarter of the nineteenth century, the teaching of civics has progressed through three rather well marked stages: 1. Study of the Constitution. 2. The Deductive Method. 3. Community Civics. 2 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 1. Study of the Constitution. Civic instruction, which was at first based primarily upon the Constitution, resulted in the preparation of certain man- uals taking up the Constitution clause by clause. This type of manual was the natural outcome of that veneration for our national charter which has won both admiration and caustic comments from foreign critics. It is undoubtedly true that a spirit of veneration for American institutions and for the prin- ciples embodied in federal and state governments was thus fostered. Although no very exact or useful knowledge of prac- tical political affairs resulted from this type of course, it never- theless marked the first step in anything like definite instruction in government. The influence of this period of civic instruction is still apparent in certain texts which are in use in the schools of some of the states. Fortunately, the scope of instruction has been broadened and texts which cover a wider range of matters of general interest to the citizen have rapidly replaced all but a few of the former constitution manuals. 2. Deductive Method. The formal presentation of the provisions of the federal Constitution was soon expanded into a more comprehensive plan of course involving also a consideration of the state constitution and including in most cases a list of officers, federal, state and county. Although changed in its scope, this course was very similar to the earlier constitution study. It was based upon a deductive method, beginning with the provisions of the constitution and going on to the names, terms, salaries and the formal functions of these officers as determined by law. The method ordinarily pursued required chiefly an exercise of the memory in learning sections and divisions of constitutions and the names, duties and salaries of public officers. Just as the old constitution manual has remained despite the many evidences of change and progress in civic training, so the deductive method RECENT PROGRESS 3 is still retained by many who are trying to educate the young minds in the ways of citizenship by a memory process in the temporary accumulation of a host of facts which are fortunately soon forgotten. This method of instruction likewise dealt chiefly with the federal Constitution and government and gave only an incidental and cursory consideration to state and local affairs. There was little or no effort to educate toward a citizenship in the com- munity surrounding the children by a study of the simpler and more interesting functions and responsibilities of the school, the home and the community. Those things which could be of the most general and distant interest were emphasized to the exclusion of the many matters of vital importance and local concern which affect profoundly political and social con- ditions of the community. Much attention was given to the President, Congress, the cabinet officers and their multifarious duties, a slightly less complete account of the state govern- ment, and a mere passing consideration to county officers and their legal duties. National affairs usually occupied the greater portion of the short time allotted, leaving opportunity for only passing reference to state and local matters. American History and Civil Government. On account of the close relationship between American his- tory and the civil government course based on a study of the federal Constitution an arrangement was eventually devised by which these two subjects were combined, especially in the high school curriculum. American history dealt largely with political and constitutional matters, and government was thought to be comprehended in the continuous evolution and unfolding of the federal fundamental law. There was thus evolved a combination course American history and civics. Teachers began to adopt one of three methods of procedure: first, to announce a combined course but to give all of the time 4 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT to history, on the theory that all that is worth while in govern- ment was of necessity comprehended within the scope of his- tory; second, to announce and offer the two in combination by means of a special elaboration of such topics as were deemed to be governmental in nature, this differing from the first only in that there was a tendency at least to give some separate con- sideration to government; third, the major part of the time was given to history, but a few periods ranging from a week to four or five weeks were given to a study of government. Under this plan an effort was sometimes made to deal briefly with the various divisions of government, federal and state. Such a plan offered an opportunity to the conscientious teacher to give at least a modest and not altogether futile introduction to the study of government. The arrangement might have proved fairly satisfactory except for the fact that as a rule the time for government was not definitely set apart and when the claims of the history outline were met there was not even enough time to give an introduction to government as a functioning or- ganization. A compromise was sometimes effected by which his- tory was given full time and the children were encouraged to be- gin their training in citizenship by reading, incidental to the course, a civics manual. It is needless to suggest the result. This condition has been gradually superseded either by an ar- rangement which gives three hours per week to American history and two hours to civics throughout the fourth year of the high school or by giving half of the year to each of the two subjects. The latter plan is growing in favor particularly in the schools of the South and West. No one would be so foolish as to propose to neglect the close relationship between history and civics. Nor would anyone attempt to deny that history and civics should be closely cor- related throughout the entire curriculum. It is only intended to emphasize here that civics comprises a content and method which cannot be treated adequately in connection with history, RECENT PROGRESS 5 since the subject can no longer be regarded as simply a study of the constitution and framework of government in its historic development. If the public schools are to fulfill their function in a country where democratic theories and practices prevail, if they are to contribute to the development of civic intelligence, provision must be made in the elementary schools, in the secondary schools and in the colleges for thorough courses in the "co- operative functions of society," and above all to that organiza- tion in which these functions are concentrated and unified. In fact it is now coming to be recognized that instead of a meagre allowance of a week or two here or there in the school curricu- lum civic instruction must be placed on a par with such subjects as English and the natural sciences and be given prime considera- tion in the making of school programs. 1 That this consideration is already being given to the subject by progressive educators is evidenced in the interest manifested in a revised and vitalized study of social affairs under the designation community civics. 3. Community Civics. The study of the constitution manuals, and the use of the de- ductive method have been slowly giving way to a form of course commonly referred to at this time as the new civics or com- munity civics. The new civics practically reverses the method of procedure which was formerly pursued. Instead of starting with officers and legal duties as outlined in constitutions and in statutes, the study begins with community needs and the meth- ods by which government satisfies these needs. It is based essentially upon the theory that those things which are near at home are of more vital importance and should receive consider- ation prior to those more remote and, as a rule, of less direct 1 For a very able and suggestive discussion of the function which the public schools should perform in the United States consult Democracy's High School by Principal W. D. Lewis in the Riverside Educational Monographs. 6 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT significance. The new civics comprises then a study of commu- nity functions and emphasizes rather the physiology of govern- ment than its anatomy or framework. It begins with the local environment the immediate community in which the child lives and with which he comes in daily contact. And then from village or city activities the study reaches out to the wider func- tions of state and nation. The analysis of what the govern- ment is doing to protect health, life, property and social needs in every direction becomes more important than constitutional provisions. A knowledge and appreciation of what the govern- ment of a community is accomplishing to satisfy community needs, and government activities in their immediate touch upon the citizen, come in for consideration and study. On the other hand, the new civics does not necessarily result in a neglect of the study of constitutions and of governmental forms. All of the essential phases of organization may be re- tained in the new course. Constitutions, statutes, officers and their duties are merely approached from the standpoint of the functions which are being performed by the agents of govern- ment in any political unit. The natural steps are, first to raise the question, what methods are devised to protect the health, the life and the property of the community. The answer to these queries will lead, secondly, to the consideration of the functions of local and state officers as well as to the services rendered by the federal government. Thus, that portion which is of real value in the earlier form of civil government is retained. To be sure, some minor details are necessarily eliminated, but usually those which have no relation to citizenship, and it will be no loss to drop them from the courses now given in our public schools. Matters of detail such as the names of officers, the salaries received and the statu- tory provisions of official duties give but little indication of the part performed by government officials and they can be dis- pensed with, thus saving the energy of memorizing a mass of RECENT PROGRESS ^ petty and useless stuff, immediately forgotten when the course is completed. Such facts as are necessary for the study of government functions can readily be rendered available in a reference manual which can be prepared for use along with the text-book. It is community civics and the group of ideas compre- hended therein that have resulted in a nationwide movement to reorganize the courses in government, to revise the methods of study and to vitalize a subject which has heretofore shown little promise of value either to the individual citizen or to the community. It is of interest to consider the efforts by which instruction in government is being revised and to trace the in- troduction into the schools of courses based upon the new con- tent and revised methods of instruction. II. Efforts to Improve the Teaching of Government. In considering the steps which have been taken along this line, it is necessary to note a surprising lack of interest in the subject on the part of many administrators and teachers in the public schools. The plea of no time for the study of civics has been so frequent and widespread that it might be supposed that the public schools have no interest in nor any relation what- ever, to the state, its organs, activities and departments. To quote Dr. George Kerchensteiner, "Schools totally ignored the fact that while the economic conditions of the present day require a technical and commercial training from the worker, the social conditions imperatively demand for him a civic train- ing. In a word, it was forgotten that civics is at least as neces- sary an element in the syllabus of our schools as are drawing and arithmetic." 1 In contrast with this opinion it has been customary to dispose of the subject with the rather typical comment, "If no class in civil government can be organized, let the teacher give some instruction in this line during general 1 "Hygiene, Civics and Trade History." See pp. 38-39. 8 TEE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT exercises. Let us strive to teach an intelligent patriotism." There was time for Latin, history, geography, geometry, al- gebra, botany, and physics and for a number of other no less important and useful branches of study, but the common reply of many of those who prepared school programs was that no separate time could be found in the curriculum for the study of government. It was suggested occasionally that the public school itself and all that it is undertaking is the result of government and that school administrators were inclined to ignore this fact. It is the state that is giving life and being to the public school; it is the money of the state secured through its methods of taxa- tion that keeps the school going; it is the law of the state through which the school performs its functions, and it has been inti- mated that the school could not refuse to give some considera- tion to the organization which brought it into life and made possible its very existence. There was a protest that some time must be found in the school curriculum for the study of that most important of all social and political organizations the state. And slowly time has been discovered. First a few weeks were allowed, then a few weeks more, and finally the importance of further study resulted in extending the time in both elemen- tary and secondary schools. An account of the developing ap- preciation of the vital need of civic instruction is to be found in the activity of the great national organizations interested in the reconstruction of our educational system and in the evidences of a recent trend toward the social viewpoint in industrial and political affairs. A brief survey of the activities of each of these national organizations will show the impetus given within recent years to the advancement of government instruction. i. National Education Association. The effort to improve instruction in the various fields of study in the secondary and elementary schools began in an organized RECENT PROGRESS 9 way through the interest and activities of the National Educa- tion Association. To be sure, the improvement of other subjects was begun very much earlier, and much more definite and effective results have been secured than in the teaching of civil government. Prior to 1893 the only interest manifested in the subject of civics is evidenced in an occasional address rel- ative to instruction in this field. A definite indication of an awakening on the part of teachers to the value of this subject is shown in the Madison conference on history, civil govern- ment, and economics. The conference was held in 1892. The report and conclusions of the conference were adopted by the committee of ten, and were issued by the Bureau of Education and reprinted later by the American Book Company. It was in this conference that for the first time the claims of the social sciences were brought to the attention of the educators of the nation. The program adopted included four years of history for the grammar school and four years for the high school. While the chief interest and emphasis in the report is on histpry, and the main contribution made by it resulted along the line of the improvement of history instruction, the subjects of civil government and economics also received some attention. On the former subject the report of the committee observed: " While they are of opinion that political economy should not be taught in secondary schools, they urge that in connection with United States history, civil government and commercial geography, instruction should be given in the most important economic topics. . . . The subject of civil government they would associate with both history and geography. "They would introduce it into the grammar school by means of oral lessons, and into the high school by means of a text-book with collateral reading and oral lessons. In the high school they believe that the study of civil government may be made com- parative that is, that the American methods may be compared with foreign systems." io THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT Later the Association showed its interest in civics in the re- port of the committee of twelve on rural schools. This report goes somewhat further in its recommendations and provides for a normal training course with one half year of United States history and civil government, and among the recommendations it is suggested that "the introduction of such studies as will have a tendency to connect the school and the home, especially those having direct bearing upon the everyday life of the com- munity, is to be especially commended." This brief recommen- dation may be said to indicate the tendency to direct atten- tion to the study of community functions, which is the great feature of the new civics. With the exception of an occasional place on the annual program and some incidental discussions fostered by the Association, the subject of civics received very little consideration for a period of more than ten years. It was not until the committee on articulation of high school and col- lege was appointed and its report to the Association in July, 1911, was rendered, that civics again received serious considera- tion. The committee, as is well known, recommended that the satisfactory completion of a well-planned high school course should be accepted as preparation for college. In the definition of a well-planned high school course, it was proposed that there should be included at least three units of English, one unit of social science (including history), and one unit of natural science. With regard to the work in social science, it was recom- mended: (i) that history should always be taught so as to func- tion in a better understanding of modern events and current movements; (2) that economics should be encouraged because economic discussions are paramount, and ignorance of economic principles is appalling; and (3) that every high school student should be given a practical knowledge of affairs in his own community, political, industrial and philanthropic, of the basic principles of state and national politics, and of movements for social reform and international peace. RECENT PROGRESS n A more recent effort to aid in the process of reorganization of courses in civics has been that of the national commission chosen several years ago for the purpose of reorganizing the entire curriculum of secondary schools. Appointed as an out- growth of the movement on articulation between high school and college, this committee has arranged for a subcommittee on social studies, which is working in cooperation with the Bureau of Education and has presented a preliminary report in which the following proposed outline for five units of social studies is offered: 1. Community Civics and Survey of Vocations. 2. European History to 1600 or 1700 (including English and Colonial Amerian History). 3. European History since 1600 or 1700 (including contem- porary civilization). 4. United States History since 1760 (including current events). 5. Economics and Civic Theory and Practice. Recently this committee has aided in the preparation of a syllabus for community civics to be used in the junior high school, and anticipates the preparation of a similar syllabus for an ad- vanced course in social science for fourth year high school. As the work is carried on with the cooperation of the Bureau of Education and the National Education Association, its conclu- sions and recommendations will have a great influence upon the public schools, and consequently upon the entire educational system of the country. 2. American Historical Association. One of the first organizations to offer suggestions relative to the teaching of civics as well as that of history was the American Historical Association. The recommendations of the Association are embodied in the following reports: (a) Report of Committee of Seven, 1898; (b) Report of the Com- 12 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT mittee of Eight, 1909; (c) Report of the Committee of Five, 1911. It has already been indicated that the first step toward the improvement of the teaching of history and government was taken in connection with the Madison Conference which was largely directed by leaders interested in the subject of history. The report of this Conference was a mere prelude to the more systematic and effective work begun and completed through a series of very active committees appointed by the Association. (a) Report of Committee of Seven. One of the most important committees covering the field of history was the committee of seven appointed by the American Historical Association in 1896 and rendering its report in 1898. The recommendations included therein are familiar to all secondary school teachers and administrators. It is only neces- sary to note in passing the chief conclusions of the committee: a full four years' course of history and civil government is recommended in the following arrangement: first year, ancient history; second year, mediaeval and modern European history; third year, English history; fourth year, American history and civil government. This report has been widely accepted and followed in planning the programs of secondary schools. It has resulted in a great increase in the tune given to history and in a marked improve- ment of methods of teaching. Its effect upon the teaching of civics has been rather indirect and incidental, but it has un- doubtedly encouraged the tendency to combine civil govern- ment with American history and has consequently tended to delay somewhat the movement favorable to the introduction of the study of civics as a separate and independent course. In so far as the committee report emphasized the close relation between history and civics and provided the basis for civics in the study of the development of English and American hi- RECENT PROGRESS 13 stitutions, the effect has been salutary. On the other hand, the report of the committee has been frequently interpreted in such a way as to be detrimental to the development of anything like an effective course in civics. Where these recommendations were carried out so as to bring about the introduction of a year's course in American history, with only an incidental considera- tion to the problems of government based usually upon the supplementary reading of some text on civil government, the effect of the report has not been favorable to the development of a proper type of civic instruction. In any comment on the report of this and other committees of the American Historical Association, it must always be remembered that these commit- tees were primarily interested in the study of history and they could not be expected to give special consideration and emphasis to instruction in government. It remains for those interested and engaged in the teaching of government to render similar aid and direction to teachers. (6) The Committee of Eight. In the report of the committee of eight relative to elementary school instruction the subject of civics also received considera- tion. The following extracts from the report suggest the point of view of the committee: We believe that elementary civics should permeate the entire school life of the child. In the early grades the most effective features of this instruction will be directly connected with the teaching of regular subjects in the course of study. Through story, poem, and song, there is the quickening of those emotions which influence civic life. The works and biographies of great men furnish many opportunities for incidental instruction in civics. The elements of geography serve to emphasize the interdependence of men the very earliest lesson in civic instruction. A study of pictures and architecture arouses the desire for civic beauty and orderliness. It is recommended that civics and history should, so far as possi- ble, be taught as allied subjects with the emphasis at one time upon history and at another time upon present civics. Along with the 14 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT incidental instruction in civics, there should be given suitable lessons in the present-day political activities connected with the life of the child. He should gradually come to realize that each political unit, town, city, state, nation, is a group of people organized in such a manner as to do for the members of that group those kinds of work which all need to have done. The special aim in the teaching of civics therefore should be to help the child realize himself as a member of each political group that does work for him. . . . The committee is of the unanimous opinion that the best results can be secured in the teaching of government in the seventh and eighth grades when pupils are assigned definite readings in a good text on civics. Many of these assignments should accompany the regular lessons in history. Others would be taken more advantageously as separate lessons, for which provision should be made in the program. Stated approximately, the time to be given civics should be at least twenty minutes a week for a half year in grades five and six; forty minutes in grade seven, and sixty minutes in grade eight. The above suggestions are commendable and it is noteworthy that in a complete program for elementary schools it is only necessary that the brief recommendations of this committee be expanded and made more specific with full instructions, devices and available material, and that provision be made for the be- ginning of civic instruction in the grades preceding the fifth. (c) The Committee of Five. On account of certain criticisms of the report of the committee of seven and the growing need of some slight revisions, a second committee was appointed in 1907 and rendered its report in 1911. Considerable attention was given to the relation between United States history and civil government. After discussing briefly the relation of history and govern- ment the committee concluded that in light of all the facts we can gather we are justified, probably, in saying that there is an undoubted desire on the part of many teachers to have the opportunity to give a separate course in government, RECENT PROGRESS 15 especially for the purpose of dwelling on certain phases of actual politics and government that cannot be readily and adequately dis- cussed in connection with American history ... we desire to say clearly that we do not think that the two subjects, despite their in- terpendence, should be so taught as to crowd out government or give insufficient time for its proper study. More and more as the days go by it becomes plain that the schools have the clear duty of giving full instruction on the essentials of American government and prac- tical politics. We have no desire to underestimate this need and this duty. The committee thinks, however, that much that is commonly called government can best be taught in connection with his- tory. On the other hand, it is admitted that such subjects as the state constitutional system, local government, party or- ganization and party machinery cannot be adequately treated in connection with history and that these will require separate and independent consideration. For a separate course the sug- gestion is offered that the distribution of time between government and history in the fourth year should, we believe, be in some such ratio as this two- fifths of the time may be given to separate work in government and three-fifths to the course in history. This arrangement will not appear to all teachers as ideal; some teachers will desire more time for history, others more time for government. But on the whole the distribution appears to be the best that can be proposed, and we should be the last to assert that no teacher should modify any adjustment or ar- rangement to suit his own needs and inclinations, if they are based on an intelligent regard for the subject and his pupils. Many teachers will prefer to give the civil government separately after the history work is concluded. But while this plan may have its advantages in some respects, the continuous study of government throughout the year side by side with history has also advantages that merit consider- ation. Where the study of government extends through the whole year, there are many opportunities for concrete illustrations and even learning by observation, which are not allowed in a shorter time: elections are held; municipal problems arise and are discussed in the newspapers; important appointments to office are announced; the 16 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT usual presidential message appears. These advantages will induce many teachers to prefer the system of carrying government through the year side by side with history. By the time this report was presented the movement in favor of greater time and attention to the study of civics was well under way and naturally the recognition of the trend of the times is shown in the recommendation that the year's work in American history and civil government be subdivided on the basis of 3-5 to history and 2-5 to civil government. Although the recom- mendation has been made rather recently, there are many in- dications that the suggestion has been followed by superinten- dents and principals. The report scarcely goes far enough to suit teachers especially interested in the field of civics, nor for that matter, many others who have an incidental interest in the subject, but a long step forward was taken in recognizing the growing demands for the study of modern political organiza- tions and their functions. History Teachers' Associations. Among those who have aided in improving the teaching of civics are to be found some of the active members of the teachers' associations, including the associations of New England, the Middle States and Maryland, the Mississippi Valley, and the Pacific States, all of which have at various times given con- siderable attention to the discussion of methods of instruction in government. The most effective work has been done by the New England History Teachers' Association and by the Middle States Association. The first of these has not only considered the matter of civics in many of its meetings, but also through a special committee it has prepared an outline for teachers which has been published as a volume entitled, "An Outline of the Study of American Civil Government," with special reference to training for citizenship. The outline presents a comprehen- sive survey of topics and material for study and adds a list of RECENT PROGRESS 17 select references for the study of governmental organizations and for certain principles of government. It is one of the most useful guides now available for teachers. As an evidence of the modern trend of discussion may be cited in particular the session devoted to this subject by the Association of the Middle States and Maryland at Albany in November, 1913, in which "The Teaching of Civics in the Ele- mentary Schools " was discussed by J. Lynn Barnard; "Civics in the High School and Training for Citizenship" by James Sulli- van; "Training for Citizenship from the Standpoint of Colleges and Universities " by Charles A. Beard. At the close of the conference the following resolutions were unanimously adopted: How SHALL SCHOOLS TRAIN FOR CITIZENSHIP? Elementary and Secondary Schools. 1. The order of teaching should be from the functions to the ma- chinery of government, with special emphasis on function rather than machinery. 2. The work should be based on the pupils' experience and imme- diate surroundings. 3. There should be a continual connection of civics with current events, and the student should be made to form the habit of keeping up with the news. 4. The keynote of the course should be the obligation of the citi- zen to serve the community. 5. Means should be found for the actual participation of the stu- dents in civic activities. This means more than the usual visits to courts and public buildings. They should do something to help, either as individuals or through civic associations. 6. Civic training should be secured through the organization and discipline of the school. If the organization is such as to develop in the pupils personal responsibility, initiative, a social conscience, and high ideals of conduct, the best civic lesson has been learned. 7. Civics should be given a place of its own separate from history. 8. This association should take steps to secure separate examina- tions for United States history and civics and examination questions for civics which call for something besides a knowledge of the machin- ery of government. i8 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 3. National Municipal League. Another organization which has been interested and active in the movement to improve the teaching of government and civics in the schools is the National Municipal League. In fact, this organization was one of the first to enter the field and some effective results have been accomplished particularly along the line of the teaching of municipal government. Various com- mittees have been appointed and reports presented dealing with all phases of civic instruction. The results of these committees along with the papers and discussions relating thereto are in- cluded in the reports of the Conferences on Good City Govern- ment published by the League and in the recent issues of the " National Municipal Review." The first report of the com- mittee on instruction in municipal government in American col- leges was presented in 1901 and includes the results of a ques- tionnaire sent to several hundred institutions covering the work offered along the lines of government and law. A list of works bearing on the general subject of city government was also of- fered, and the tendency to improve courses in municipal govern- ment in the colleges was very strongly commended. James T. Young discussed university instruction in municipal government and two outlines of courses on municipal government were presented, one prepared by L. S. Rowe of the University of Pennsylvania, the other by R. C. Brooks of Cornell University. These outlines indicate the effort made at this time to sys- tematize and render effective the instruction in municipal gov- ernment. The continuance of interest is shown in a further discussion of the teaching of municipal government in American educa- tional institutions at the annual meeting for 1902, and in the presentation of suggestions for courses on municipal government. Again in 1903 the subject was discussed by John A. Fairlie, who offered the following conclusions relative to courses in civil government: first, simple lessons in the duties of public agents, RECENT PROGRESS 19 in the elementary schools; second, the systematic study of one city, in high schools and academies; third, a comparative study of American municipal government, as a part of a general study of government in colleges and universities; fourth, a comprehensive study of municipal government for advanced students in the universities, leading to fifth, the technical courses in the various professional departments in the universities. His valuable paper was followed by a discussion of the teaching of municipal government in the high schools of our large cities. Wilson L. Gill of Philadelphia presented an account of the School City which is now well known as one of the special de- vices to increase interest in practical civic affairs. This address contains a code of laws for the School City, and includes the comment that "public schools and colleges, boasted bulwarks of our liberties, have unwittingly but ceaselessly nursed the spirit of monarchy." In 1904 a second report on university and collegiate research in municipal government was presented. In the course of the report it was observed that "there has been no searching analysis of the civic usefulness of the college bred man," and that the leading subjects of the public schools " do not contrib- ute toward the development of civic instincts, nor to the strengthening of civic effort." At the same session a tentative program for the teaching of municipal government and civics in the elementary schools was offered. A further discussion of the School City and the results of another committee, were submitted under the title, "Instruction in Modern Government" at the annual session in 1905. The report contained an outline of a course in municipal government for high schools. In 1905 Frederick L. Luqueer offered a syllabus for civics in the grades and Jesse B. Davis reported on a high school program, with the observation that "the committee does not favor the teaching of civics or municipal government in the earlier years of the high school course, but would recommend the plan of the committee 20 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT of seven on the teaching of history, in which civics is a part of the unit in American history." After several years the status of instruction in municipal government in the universities and colleges was again discussed by a committee of which William Bennett Munro was chairman in a report which contains a strong presentation of the impor- tance and task of the teacher of political science, and the aim and purpose of instruction in municipal government. A further report bringing the tables and data up to 1914 was prepared on behalf of the committee by Professor Munro and published in the " National Municipal Review." The efforts of the League along the line of improving the teaching of government in the schools has culminated in the appointment of a committee on Civic Education. This committee rendered a preliminary re- port at Toronto in 1913 and continued its work under the leader- ship of Arthur W. Dunn, who has recently become associ- ated with the Bureau of Education as special agent in Civic Education. The plan under which the work is being conducted is thus described by Mr. Dunn in a circular issued under the direction of the Bureau of Education: With the cooperation of the National Municipal League and other organizations long interested in the problem of education for citizen- ship, the United States Bureau of Education is undertaking a compre- hensive study of the whole problem of civic education. . . . In this field of activity the government bureau of education hopes to do officially and systematically what has heretofore been attempted by a number of organizations working independently. Many civic associations throughout the United States have been agitating in behalf of education for citizenship; valuable results have been ob- tained; and many communities have made important experiments in improving citizenship through the schools and through other agencies. The Bureau will seek to coordinate these hitherto separate efforts; to bring cooperation where independent action has prevailed; to make known everywhere the results of civic education so far accom- plished; and to formulate a constructive plan for definite work in this important field. RECENT PROGRESS 21 In announcing the Bureau's new work Commissioner Claxton points out that in the larger sense all education is really educa- tion for citizenship; that not only is citizenship training co- extensive with effective education in general, but that "the final justification of public taxation for public education lies in the training of young people for citizenship." The work already accomplished through the agency of the United States Bureau of Education in the publication of bulletins and in rendering assistance to schools in reorganizing courses is one of the most encouraging evidences of increasing interest in government instruction. 1 4. American Political Science Association, (a) Committee of Five. No systematic effort was made by teachers of government toward the improvement of instruction until the formation of the American Political Science Association in Baltimore in 1902 and 1903. At the meetings of this Association each year papers were offered which have proved of special interest and value to teachers. At the meeting of the Association in 1903 a sec- tion was devoted to instruction in government and a paper was presented by William A. Schaper of the University of Minne- sota on the subject, "What do our students know about Ameri- can government before taking college courses in political science? " The interest created by this discussion resulted in the formation of a committee of three which was appointed at the meeting of the Association in Providence in the following year. The mem- bers originally appointed were: William A. Schaper, University of Minnesota; Isidor Loeb, University of Missouri, and Paul 5. Reinsch, University of Wisconsin. The following year at Madison the committee was increased to five by the addition of James A. James of Northwestern University and James Sullivan of Brooklyn, N. Y. A very thorough investigation of 1 See Civic Education Series and Bulletins No. 41-1913; 17-1915; 23-1915. 22 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT the entire field of secondary school instruction was made by the committee, and its report marks one of the greatest steps for- ward in the way of bringing to the attention of teachers the necessity of more time and better instruction in this subject. To quote from the report: Is it not a curious fact that though our schools are largely institu- ted, supported and operated by the government, yet the study of American government in the schools and colleges is the last subject to receive adequate attention? The results of the neglect of this important branch of study in our educational institutions can easily be seen in the general unfitness of men who have entered a political career, so that now the name of statesman is often used as a term of reproach, and the public service is weak, except in a few conspicuous instances. Are the schools perhaps to blame for the lack of interest in politics shown by our educated men until the recent exposures arrested the attention of the entire nation? We think the best place to begin the work of regeneration and re- form is in the American secondary schools and colleges. Here we find the judges, legislators, diplomats, politicians and office-seekers of the future in the making. Here are the future citizens too, in their most impressionable years, in the years when the teacher has their attention. The inquiry of the committee centered about five main features: 1. Number of students enrolled and the time given to the subject. 2. The nature of the course and the plan of instruction. 3. The teacher. 4. The text-book. 5. The school library. The report dealt with the important phases of civic instruction in secondary schools. The recommendations offered are as follows: l 1 This entire report is especially valuable to teachers of government. Only a condensed statement with a few extracts can be given here. The report is in the volume containing the Proceedings of the American Political Science Association for 1908. RECENT PROGRESS 23 A. Elementary Schools. The committee recommends that the discussion of the simple and readily observable functions and organs of local government be introduced into all the grades beginning not later than the fifth. The early instruction should take the form of observations by the class under direction of the teacher, talks or readings by the teacher, in- tended to add to the pupils' common stock of information, accounts of happenings and experiences, etc. In the eighth grade more formal instruction in local, state and national government should be given using an elementary text and some reference books. This work might well occupy the time of a subject for one-half of the eighth year. The emphasis in the grammar grade work on government should be on local and State governments and should deal with actual projects, activities and methods of doing things rather than consist of a mere collection of lists of officers and their salaries or an analysis of the constitution. The eighth grade classes can profitably be taken by the teacher to observe a session of a local court, city council, con- vention or polling place. Simple rules of parliamentary procedure can be explained and practiced. For this work the essential thing is a teacher who understands and appreciates the subject and knows the community. The teacher needs a small collection of well chosen books, some current maga- zines and newspapers and the latest local official reports and bulletins. B. High Schools. In any system of schools where the subject has been properly treated in the grades, it is a simple task to plan the work for the high school. American government should follow upon the work in his- tory and should be a required study to occupy at least five recitations per week for one-half of the fourth year, or three recitations per week for that entire year. This is the minimum time which should be given to the subject. Some high schools are now devoting a full year to it with profit. In case the subject has not been taught in the grades, and especially in towns where many boys drop out of the high school before reach- ing the fourth year, it is highly desirable to offer an elementary course in government in the first or second years, so as to place it within reach of the greatest possible number. In the larger city high schools this elementary course can be offered as an additional elective with- out serious inconvenience. 24 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT There may be wide differences of opinion as to what constitutes an education, but surely these three things are essential: A reasonable facility 'in the use of our country's language, including an acquaintance with its best literature; a reasonable comprehension of the practical workings of our country's government; and a fair understanding of its past history. There are two methods of presenting the subject: one begins with the local government near at hand and proceeds to the study of the state and then to the national government. The other begins with the national government and proceeds to the state and local. In a high school course either plan may be adopted. If the school is situ- ated in one of the older commonwealths, the first plan seems more logical and natural, while if situated in one of the newer states, ad- mitted long after the formation of the union, and governed mean- while as a territory under acts of congress, the second plan may for an equally good reason be adopted. In any case, the emphasis should be placed on the government of the locality, especially of the city, the town and the state with which the citizens come in contact most frequently. It is the local and state governments which largely determine the conditions under which we live. The attention of the future citizens should be directed, therefore, primarily to a study of their organization and their problems, rather than to the national government as the text-books have done in the past. C. Specially Trained Teachers. The greatest need to-day is more teachers especially trained in political science. The practice of attaching the subject of govern- ment to the duties of any high school teacher on the force, whose time is not fully taken up with a multitude of other things, is univer- sally condemned. D. College Entrance. The entrance conditions of every university should allow credit for at least one-half to one unit of American Government. Where entrance examinations are given the questions should be so framed as to test, not merely memory work, but also the understanding of the actual workings of governmental organs and information on cur- rent public questions. RECENT PROGRESS 25 E. The Teacher's Training. Another matter of vital importance is the proper training of teach- ers of government. The subject should receive its due proportion of time in the training schools for teachers and in teachers' institutes. A number of states now make a knowledge of the subject an essential requirement in qualifying for any teaching position in all the public schools. Such a provision in the law regulating the qualification of teachers is reasonable and is a very direct way of stimulating instruc- tion in the subject. 1 F. The Library for Government. Every high school whether large or small, should have as a part of its equipment a collection of books, reports, documents, current literature and legal forms for the study of government. Some of this material is primarily for the use of the teacher. No teacher can hope to keep up in this subject who does not follow the current discussions, public acts, messages and reports concerning the actual doings of government departments, officials, committees and political parties. G. Observations of Actual Government. Much interest can be aroused and the hazy impressions about gov- ernment can be made clear and definite by occasionally witnessing the procedure of government bodies and by encouraging the students to follow the actual workings of government by reading the news- papers and magazines. (b) Committee of Seven. About five years after the appearance of this report it seemed advisable to the officers of the American Political Science Asso- ciation to constitute a new committee to investigate and report upon changes in the secondary school field as well as to make further inquiries along lines not comprehended within the scope of the committee of five. As a consequence it was voted at the annual business meeting of the Association held in Buffalo, December, 1911, "that a committee of seven members be appointed to consider the methods of teaching and studying government now pursued in American schools, colleges and 1 The committee also made some useful suggestions as to text-books, see Proceedings, 1908, p. 255. 26 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT universities, and to suggest means of enlarging and improving such instruction." The nature and scope of the work undertaken by this committee is indicated in the ensuing report. (c) Committee on Practical Training for Public Service. . To further extend the influence of the educational efforts of the Association there was constituted at the Boston meeting in 1913 a committee of five with a view (i) to examine and make a list of places where laboratory work for graduate students in political science can be done; (2) to recommend to the various college and university faculties that due graduate credit be given to such places; (3) to use its best endeavors to obtain scholarships for this laboratory work and to secure an endow- ment for the building up of a trained body of public servants; and (4) to make, if possible, a system of card records and ef- ficiency standards for graduates doing practical work in political science. 1 A joint committee on conference was appointed by the American Economic Association. A preliminary report was presented to the American Political Science Association in 1914. Subsequently a plan was submitted for training schools for pub- lic service with proposed standard regulations for the degree of doctor of philosophy. 2 As an outgrowth of the work undertaken through this committee two national conferences were held and a society was formed for the promotion of training for the public service. One of the significant things in the present movement to im- prove the teaching of government in the schools and colleges is the apparent unanimity of opinion among the various committees interested. While each is approaching the subject from a some- what different angle and while the results and conclusions offered 1 Charles McCarthy, Madison, Chairman, Albert Bushnell Hart, Har- vard University, Benjamin F. Shambaugh, University of Iowa, William F. Willoughby, Princeton University, Raymond G. Gettell, Amherst College. 2 For information relative to the work of this committee write to the Chair- man, Dr. Charles McCarthy, Madison, Wis. RECENT PROGRESS 27 will no doubt vary somewhat, all indications point in the direc- tion that the several Associations are working toward a single end, that is, to make the study of government an essential feature of our educational system, to tie the instruction to the interest and conditions of local communities, to stress functions and to approach the study of governmental forms and of gen- eral principles through the avenue of functions. It is fortunate that several organizations of national importance are offering recommendations at the same time, and are preparing sugges- tions as well as concrete aid to teachers. The subject of govern- ment has too long been made a subordinate and minor matter in the school curriculum. It is now well on its way to secure the prominent place in the schools which the content of the subject and its significance to the community so well deserve. III. The Purpose of Instruction in Government. i. Aims of Civic Instruction. The prime purposes of a study of civic relations are so obvious as to require little in the way of discussion. They may be summarized thus: 1. To awaken a knowledge of the fact that the citizen is in a social environment whose laws bind him for his own good. 2. To acquaint the citizen with the forms of organization and methods of administration of government in its several de- partments. These objects it is believed can be better attained if the school begins to aid the young citizen not only to think in terms of society but also to translate civic thought into action. Instead of abstract theories and facts which have no meaning children can readily be taught to read government reports and to learn what are the significant facts to look for. In the words of Henry Bruere, "Why should not a high school pupil learn that the efficiency of the health department may be gauged by some such facts as: the death rate, infant mortality rate, measles, 28 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT scarlet fever and diphtheria rates (morbidity and death), the bacteria count of milk, maximum, minimum and average, the number of school children treated for defects, the number of nuisances abated all as compared with previous records." Such is the viewpoint emphasized in community civics in which the chief object is to help the child to know his own community. The specific aims of community civics are designated in the Bureau of Education Bulletin on the Teaching of Community Civics as: 1. To see the importance and significance of the elements of com- munity welfare in their relations to himself and to the communities of which he is a member; 2. To know the social agencies, governmental and voluntary, that exist to secure these elements of community welfare; 3. To recognize his civic obligations, present and future, and to respond to them by appropriate action. These three aims are given in the above order because it is essential to the success of this course that at the outset the interest of the pupil be attached to the element of common welfare, and that he be taught to think of each agency as a means to an end and not as an end in itself. Each part of the study should culminate in a recognition of personal responsibility as a good citizen, and, as far as possible, in appropriate action. Many courses in civics fail because they fix attention upon the machinery of government rather than upon the elements of community welfare for which government exists; that is, they familiarize the pupil with the manipulation of the social machinery without showing him the importance of the social ends for which this machinery should be used. Consequently, the pupil upon leaving school, uses his knowl- edge for ends which are most evident to him, namely, his own selfish interests. 2. Civics for the Education of the Electorate. One of the chief reasons why the teaching of government has appeared useless and futile is that the subject was treated as designed mainly to educate voters. Accordingly its direct application could only be to those who would in the future be RECENT PROGRESS 29 qualified to exercise the suffrage and the practical applications were so remote as to be nearly negligible. Moreover, the voter is called upon to fulfill this high function only on special occa- sions and in such a manner as to render it questionable whether any course in civic training could be of much value. As long as civics was thought of as chiefly devised to educate voters its value and utility, however important the exercise of the fran- chise might be, would be considered as exceedingly remote. The information in the course would be of such a character as to be forgotten long before any practical application would be possible. Whereas if civic training were conceived as a training to fit citizens of all classes, ages and conditions to lead lives of usefulness and service in the community of everyday affairs the course would become at once vital, interesting and practical. It is a change in emphasis, a development of a new point of view, more than any other thing that has contributed to the growth of interest in civic studies. Although training to participate in the everyday social and political activities of the community is un- questionably the foremost aim of social studies it nevertheless remains true that some special attention should be given to those matters which have to do with the rights and obligations of the future voter. Naturally creating an interest and desire to participate in community affairs will give the most effective preliminary preparation for the future elector. It is strange indeed that educators have been so slow to recog- nize their duties and responsibilities to the community in a nation where democratic rules and practices prevail. Nowhere has the citizen been accorded such heavy burdens and far reach- ing responsibilities as in the United States. The task of the citizen who is commonly lauded as the sovereign in this country is performed, among many other duties and responsibilities, in the election of officials, local, state and national. In addition to the election of a host of officials, the citizen as voter is called upon to nominate these officers. Finally, he is called upon to make con- 30 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT stitutions and by frequent revisions and amendments to change the fundamental law under which he lives. Moreover, through the initiative and referendum he may have the responsibility to vote upon the laws which shall govern him. In the same elec- tion, he may be expected to vote on dozens of propositions to be enacted into law and for candidates for scores of offices. We have lauded the spectacle of the common people rising to the height of free government through the ballot, we have heaped additional burdens upon citizens, but what have we done and what are we doing to educate the people to use intelligently the mighty weapon of democracy? It is not an exaggeration to say that little attention has been given to practical instruction in the devices which make demo- cratic government possible. To be sure much has been written and much more said about education for citizenship. It has been the stock in trade for political orators and commence- ment speakers. But politicians, bosses, machine manipulators and ward heelers, have long since discovered the utter sham and foolish- ness of this twaddle about citizenship which ends in rhetoric. They have busied themselves with ballot legislation, cultivating constituencies, delivering votes, filling offices and controlling the men who fill them. They have studied the art of citizenship while teachers have been wont to elevate and inspire by theoretical dissertations on good citizenship. While students have memor- ized, lauded and worshipped our federal Constitution and doted upon the wonders of our unique plan of government political leaders have quietly garnered a harvest by mastering the art of manipulating the machinery of government. Although the entire public school system has as one of its aims the training of citizens it can scarcely be claimed that anything more than a beginning has been made to educate and train definitely for actual service in the community the citizens who pass under the influence of our public school system. We RECENT PROGRESS 31 have yet to learn the lesson which received convincing demon- stration in Greece, that democracy is possible only with an electorate trained in the most complete sense in civic affairs. 3. Civics and Social Service. The recent development of civics from obscurity to a leading place in education indicates that educators are coming to ap- preciate their responsibilities in this respect. According to G. Stanley Hall, "The one word now written across the very zenith of the educational skies, high above all others, is the word serv- ice." This is coming to be as it should be, he maintains, the supreme goal of all pedagogical endeavor, the standard by which all other values are to be measured. In this dispensation, the very best thing the schools are beginning to do is to inculcate some knowledge of and sympathy with the simple duties of civic virtue. The new process places great emphasis and high responsibility upon the teachers of the social sciences, history, economics and civics, the latter not being the least of the three in furnishing its part of the training for the new calling. The beginning of civic education is the betterment of the group spirit. To continue from the admirable characterization of the high purpose of civic instruction by Professor Hall: Our schools were established to give an intelligent basis to govern- ment of, by, and for the people, and in civics we are restoring the school to this prime original function, the need of which has greatly increased by reason of the growing complexity of governmental machinery. Owing to the progressive educational neglect of these fields in recent decades and to the great influx of foreigners who needed to be inducted into the very elements of democracy, the chasm made by this increasing political ignorance, on the one hand, and the increased intricacy of methods and the vast multiplication of prob- lems and agencies, on the other, we have passed through a period of miscarriage that will soon be regarded as tragic and pathetic. The old basis of intelligent, independent, patriotic, rural yeomanry of the post-constitutional days has gone forever or become an element of dwindling significance, and in its place the average voter is urban, 32 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT unenlightened, thinks, feels, and acts in squads and at the dictation of interested leaders, who often acquire despotic power, animated by the hope of gain, while they and legislators are often coerced by the public-be-damned private interests, trusts, etc. The new socializa- tion seeks to put an end to all this by teaching young children sound and loyal sentiments and inducting older ones into the technique of public administration. The civic movement would make every school and university a solidarity of mutual helpfulness, would arouse and capture the very greatest power for good that exists in the world which is the enthusiasm of youth. 1 The period of civic awakening thus, thinks Professor Hall, pre- sents a pedagogical situation of unexcelled opportunities. It marks a new order in which civics becomes the religion of service of the public schools. If it is the chief end of education to fit one to respond intelligently to that high calling which is the common call to every man to take his place, to do his work in the commu- nity of his fellows, the new civics must be given a much greater place in the school curriculum than is now commonly accorded. 4. Danger in Civics Teaching. Viscount Bryce long ago called attention to a danger which is likely to occur in the teaching of government. The difficulty seems to be that information is presented to enable recipients to think they know something about the great problems of politics, and yet this information may be insufficient to show how little they really know. This danger is so obvious that some writers go so far as to oppose all civic instruction because of superficial knowledge and snap judgments which are based thereon. In the words of Professor Hall again, "the cause of civic righteousness is so vast and all conditioning, especially in a democracy, that it often makes feeble and untrained minds fanatic and discredits the very cause they would advance." Teachers of civics recognize this difficulty and realize that it is 1 "Educational Problems," vol 2, Chapter on Civic Education, pp. 667- 682. RECENT PROGRESS 33 necessary at the same time that instruction in government be presented to impress the spirit of humility and the necessity of deferring to the judgment of experts on many questions relating to civic affairs. Relative to this matter, David Snedden, Com- missioner of Education of Massachusetts, in discussing the na- ture of a liberal education observes: "The essence of general civic education is to produce good employers of civic workers, that is, persons who will know how to choose efficient and honest employees. From this standpoint, shall we continue to be able to call a man liberally educated for the conditions of modern life who manifests incapacity and professes indifference in exer- cising his social responsibility in the joint purchase of expert political service?" A similar opinion is that expressed by Ex- President Eliot who says: "To produce such experts and to instil respect for expert judgment is one of the most urgent duties of the American university. For insufficient apprecia- tion of the value of expert labor is one of the worst afflictions of American life." The problem which confronts instructors in civics is one which inheres in every phase of our national life. How far can questions of government be considered and determined by the electorate and through public opinion, and how far can they best be determined by experts trained for the governmental service and practical affairs of administration? It is necessary to realize in this regard a distinction which is also beginning to receive consideration among practical men of affairs as well as among students and teachers of politics, one which is much more generally understood in the European countries than in the United States, namely, that political matters may properly and logically be separated into two distinct classes. One class com- prises questions of a general nature, questions of policy and of the point of view and attitude of the community toward govern- ment and its activities, and of questions which are essentially political in nature and on which public opinion and the electorate 34 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT may determine with a great degree of certainty and accuracy. On the other hand, there is a large part of governmental affairs which is technical in nature and on which no one but an expert is qualified to form an opinion of any value whatever. The great majority of governmental issues and problems particularly in the complex society of to-day come within the second class, but the expert in his field must be tempered and directed by the predominant voice of public opinion as determined in the settlement of public questions. The teacher of civics then has with respect to the education of future voters a twofold aim: first, to aid in the appreciation and consideration of the under- lying principles and of the great political issues which the citi- zen is called upon to decide; second, to offer sufficient knowl- edge and appreciation of the administration of government so as to render possible the understanding of the work of the expert and to aid in the selecting process which belongs to the citizen. Moreover, the chief function of civic instruction, it must always be remembered, is not simply to give a kind of preliminary train- ing for casting the ballot for this is but a small part of the duty which citizenship entails. To appreciate the social and gov- ernmental institutions of his community, to fulfill his part in making those institutions agencies of progress and helpfulness in the great struggle for good government and liberty, such is the high function of civic instruction. IV. Methods, Material and Devices. While the content of government teaching has undergone a marked transformation within recent years, the methods and material of the course have been subject to no less reformation. The old text-book style of instruction with the memorization of constitutions, names of officers, etc., was relatively simple and it is not surprising that the subject of civics was assigned to some member of the high school faculty to fill an otherwise incomplete schedule. Fortunately, this type of instruction as RECENT PROGRESS 35 well as this kind of teacher are rapidly disappearing, and the new civics requires a knowledge of a wider range of material and involves difficulties of method which will soon render it entirely impracticable for any but the specially trained teacher to undertake the presentation of the subject. * i. Ways of Rendering Instruction Practical. The method which is being adopted in the progressive courses of civic instruction includes a diversity of material and a variety of ways of handling the same. No course in secondary civics can now be presented effectively without a good text as a basis for the course, a considerable number of prescribed supplemen- tary readings, a library of important works of reference com- bined with a reference bureau or special department of civic affairs. Modern magazines and newspapers are extensively used and the instruction is carried out into practical lines in- volving field work, investigations and observations. Accord- ing to the opinion of Ex-President Eliot, the fundamental principle of education is "that children are best developed through productive activities, -that is, through positive, visible achievement in doing, making or producing something." Ef- fective training for citizenship therefore requires that pupils shall be held responsible for making investigations upon matters of local application as they arise in the work. To render the instruction in the subject concrete and to demonstrate the practical nature of government itself, the following duties of citizenship must be stressed at every avail- able opportunity: 1. Compliance with school regulations; care of books and school property; obedience to laws and rules laid down for the good of the community and of the school. 2. Responsibility to the poor and helpless; prevention of cruelty to children and animals; necessity for independence and self-support. 36 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT 3. Care for and protection of playgrounds and park property such as trees, flowers, and benches. The school and home garden can be made a valuable adjunct to inculcate some prac- tical civic lessons. 4. Keeping cellars, yards, alleys, roads and streets clean, free from rubbish, filth and dirt. Many cities have already learned the practical utility as well as the educative value of interesting the young citizens in civic welfare. Wherever feasible the class should be taken to a session of court, a meeting of city council or commission, the county court house, and perchance the state and the national capitols. Classes can with profit be organized as a town meeting, court or legisla- tive assembly. Trials can be held and elections participated in by the school in such a way as to demonstrate the practical pro- cedure of government. The principles as well as the practice of civics can be demonstrated in no better way than by the encouragement and development of student self-government. The School City, 1 the George Junior Republic, student organiza- tions to control athletics and debate, indicate clearly that under careful supervision junior citizens may be trusted with a large measure of responsibility. In fact it is difiicult to understand how children can be trained to take their part in the demo- cratic control and management of government unless they are treated as responsible beings by school instructors. Teachers have too long assumed that it was necessary to organize the school on the principles and procedure of a despotism. The remarkable success of self-government in many cases where it has been given a fair trial demonstrates its value not only as a plan of school discipline but also as a training in practical civics. An effective method of securing results and encouraging in- 1 For information as to the organization and operation of the School City in various schools consult The Boys and Girls' Republic and A New Citizenship, by Wilson L. Gill, or write to the American Patriotic League, Independence Hall, Phila. RECENT PROGRESS 37 terest in this line has been found in certain communities in the formation of civic clubs such as: The Two Rivers plan, The Georgia Club, The Winston-Salem Junior Civic League and the Newark scheme for an organized study of local government and community interest. The Winston-Salem idea devised primarily as a method of training for citizenship involves the following purposes: 1. Cooperation between public schools and local board of trade. 2. Establishment of a department of government and econom- ics, in the high school. 3. Formation of a boys' department or juvenile club of the board of trade. The success of this club is such as to commend the plan to teachers of civics in towns and cities particularly where there are local chambers of commerce, although it is quite apparent that great modifications are necessary to apply any device of this sort so as to meet the peculiarities of local environment. In connection with the civics department of the high schools of Newark, N. J., a plan was developed by which pamphlets were issued on the industries of Newark and the government of the city in all its departments, while such matters as city health, sanitation and milk supply were taken up in separate bulletins prepared by the civics teachers. These bulletins were used as texts on local government and the students were en- couraged to help in gathering the information for other bulle- tins. 1 Another method of rendering the study of local govern- ment effective is that of the Rockford High School, Rockford, 111., where the instructors in civil government have prepared a thorough syllabus on the "Government of Rockford and 1 A feature of the Newark plan is the cooperation of the public library in making available to the pupils and other citizens of the city well selected printed material relating to every phase of Newark's development and com- munity life. Cf. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1914, p. 410. 38 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT Winnebago County." The early history and the commercial and educational advantages of Rockf ord are presented, followed by an outline of local government in all its phases with some select references added for the special study of each topic. While it is not necessary to provide so extensive an outline as this the civics department in each school may find it helpful to prepare a method of procedure in the study of local government. Because of the wide variations in local communities no general plan can be recommended for use by all teachers. All general outlines must be greatly modified to meet the needs of any special community. It is always to be remembered that the community is in the nature of a laboratory and the work must be kept close to local conditions and needs. Special mention may be made also of The Two Rivers plan put into operation during the past six years in Two Rivers, Wis- consin, where the aim of the work has been to develop a spirit of cooperation and civic pride through the medium of the city school system by awakening interest in the homes of the pupils in the schools. Civic activities are centred around the work of the public school system in the following manner: The meetings of the Parent-Teachers' Association, the various civic clubs, industrial schools, etc., are all held in the Central High School building which is at the geographical centre of the city. The civic movements have been started by discussions in the various literary groups and classes of the schools. These discussions are carried into the homes by the children. The local newspapers are used to the full extent, both in editorial and news departments. When the subjects in question have been fully discussed in the homes, one or more general meetings are held in the high school auditorium which has a seating capacity of 800. Here an address is given by experts, usually officials of the city, and definite action is taken either by resolution of the citizens present or promise of action by the city officials. Womens' Clubs, Parent-Teachers' Association, Civic Leagues, Commercial Club and City government are all encouraged to work through the civic department of the public schools. The success of RECENT PROGRESS 39 the plan bids fair to encourage its acceptance and application by many communities similarly situated. 1 Another movement which offers interesting possibilities along the line of civic training is to be found in the Home County Club. This has been developed somewhat in Georgia and more definitely in North Carolina under the leadership of E. C. Bran- son. The main purpose of these clubs is to form a clearing house and ready reference library about local and state affairs. Spe- cial emphasis has been given in both of these states to economic and social questions, but political matters receive incidental consideration, and the Home County Club offers excellent possibilities for the study of public health, sanitation, public charity and correction. County officers and the functions which they perform can thus be studied in a much more effective manner than has been possible heretofore. Such clubs may readily become centres of information and improvement in the organization of the county, for better schools, better roads, better health, better justice, better protection to the social and industrial interests of the community. 2. The Community Survey. No step forward within recent times offers so great pos- sibilities for the purpose of civic instruction in local affairs as is involved in the social or community survey. The idea is comparatively new and the methods involved have only recently been clearly formulated. The original purposes are thus pre- sented by one of the leading advocates of this device: "i. To bring a group of experts together to cooperate with local leaders in gauging the social needs of one city. "2. To study these needs in relation to each other, to the whole area of the city, and to the civic responsibilities of de- mocracy. 1 Furnished by W. J. Hamilton, Two Rivers, Wis. 40 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT "3. To consider at the same time both civic and industrial conditions, and to consider them for the most part in their bearings upon the wage-earning population. "4. To reduce conditions to terms of household experience and human life. "5. To devise graphic methods for making these findings challenging, clear and unmistakable." 1 It was intended that the survey record and present essentially the industrial and economic conditions of the community. To this original purpose has now been added the comprehensive study and presentation of political organization and methods. In this regard the survey idea has developed so as to form a useful device for civic instruction. The activities of the Georgia Club give some idea of the work which may be done in this field. The Russell Sage Foundation of New York City and the extension department of the state university are always ready to furnish information and to cooperate in aiding local com- munities to make surveys. A beginning may be made by any high school instructor who thoroughly familiarizes himself with the literature now available on social and community surveys. 3. Reference Library on Civic Affairs. Few of the modern methods and devices can be used to ad- vantage or with any degree of effectiveness without the accumu- lation of a Reference Library on Civic Affairs. These libraries have been formed and their usefulness tested with the result that a veritable government laboratory can be prepared and made a most important adjunct to the government department. Ma- terial, of great interest and practical value is issued in the form of pamphlets or reports, and no teacher can afford to neglect this material especially in the teaching of current political prob- lems. Sample ballots, copies of laws and ordinances, reports * See Pamphlet on Social Surveys issued by the Russell Sage Foundation. RECENT PROGRESS 41 of officers and departments, maps and charts showing compara- tive statistics, are readily available and will add greatly to the interest in government studies. Graphic methods which have been used to such advantage in social and governmental exhibits can be followed in the preparation of many charts of local in- terest, and will display matters of importance not only to the civics class but also to the community at large. A separate room should be set aside in which maps, charts and other graphic devices can be prepared and displayed, and a part if not all of the tune given to the study of government may well be spent in this room. The methods employed in the various legis- lative and municipal reference libraries offer many suggestions which can be profitably applied in preparing a library on civic affairs. Civics teachers wherever practicable would find it an advantage to visit one of the reference libraries either in con- nection with the city public library or a state bureau of research and reference. All such methods and devices must necessarily be used with caution. An overzealous interference in local affairs at once defeats its own end. The chief object always to be kept fore- most is the education of the young into the principles and prac- tice of better citizenship. While the aid of these young citizens may be enlisted in clean-up programs and civic reform such efforts should be incidental to regular methods which are devised to inform and interest growing citizens in the conditions and problems of local community life. They will undoubtedly re- ceive more benefit in an enlarged vision of community needs and of plans to better social conditions than the community will profit by the efforts of youthful reformers, although not a little can be accomplished by interesting children in improvement campaigns. Moreover, field work, observations and investigations while extremely useful, in fact indispensable, in a civics course can never take the place of regular class room and library reference 42 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT work based upon a good text. All that field work can do is to add life and interest to the formal class room and book study. Prac- tical devices, local surveys, observations of local government ought never to be engaged in with any other purpose than to supplement definite and systematic class room work. A course that is merely inspirational without the necessary background of information and data to support it must be largely ineffectual, and there is danger that field work or sociological investigations poorly directed may lead to a superficial view of government tending to create visionary and impractical citizens who without necessary knowledge or the proper perspective set about to reform society. No practical methods can take the place of a careful and painstaking study of governmental principles and practice. The main body of a civics course will always have to be this sort of study based on regular text-books with definite class assignments. It is extremely important that civic instruc- tion be put into close vital touch with government in actual operation, but this vital touch can never compensate for a lack of an indispensable knowledge of governmental forms and the fundamental principles of political affairs. 4. State and National Government. While emphasis has been given throughout the consideration of instruction in the public schools to the study of local govern- ment and community functions it is necessary to call attention to the fact that it is not intended to depreciate the study of state and national government. In elementary courses state and national affairs may be presented more effectively in con- nection with the study of government functions. For junior high school pupils some definite and specific assignments in the course will necessarily deal with the organization and functions of these departments. In senior high school much more atten- tion can be given to governmental organization than would be possible or advisable in the earlier grades. Here the study of RECENT PROGRESS 43 such subjects as the separation of powers, the organization of government into departments, the houses of Congress, the organ- ization of the executive department, the methods of adminis- tration as well as the similar divisions of the state government including many of the boards and commissions will necessarily form a considerable portion of the course. Throughout this report it has been assumed that the study of community func- tions, the problem method and the introduction of practical devices will result in the elimination of some of the useless de- tails of the former civics course and will involve a changed viewpoint in the presentation of government topics rather than a totally different selection of topics. By directing attention to local affairs it is by no means intended that less attention be given to state and nation. There is danger, however, in the urgent demand for community civics and for the study of local government that time may be frittered away in considering purely local affairs and matters of petty detail to the exclusion of the fundamental issues of state affairs and national politics. The development of local civics will be largely a failure unless the work is tied up closely through- out with the study of the functions performed by the state gov- ernment, as well as those of the national government and the important place of each of these divisions in our complex federal system. It is not to be forgotten that the new civics means rather the introduction of a new point of view and a new method into the instruction in civics. It means a vitalization of this instruc- tion by indicating its direct connection with citizenship and the life of individuals as lived in a community. It cannot therefore involve a mere study of local affairs and local con- ditions but of necessity results in more attention to and more intelligent consideration of the affairs of the state and the nation. Not only is it necessary that a large part of the course in 44 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT civics still be confined to a study of state and federal govern- ment, but there is good reason to believe that the comparative method may be introduced with profit, particularly in senior high school. Such comparisons as are made in Bryce's "American Commonwealth" may be introduced by teachers in such a way as to render civic instruction far more useful and suggestive. While the comparative method can be used only to a slight ex- tent, and only by teachers trained to handle such material effec- tively, it can undoubtedly be made the basis of some very inter- esting discussions, particularly if the pupils have the opportunity of studying modern European history either previously or par- allel to the government course. The committee wishes, there- fore, to emphasize the fact that in the discussions and suggestions heretofore offered it is not a change in the content of the subject and the elimination of material formerly presented so much as it is a different viewpoint and a more effective method in the presentation of the material that is particularly commended to teachers. 5. Thoroughness. Finally, the committee wishes to be clearly understood as not favoring the consideration of such a large list of topics and such a range of affairs as to develop a wholly superficial attitude in the study of the subject. It will be far better to select several topics and to discuss these somewhat fully rather than to attempt a survey of a large list of agencies or functions. A mastery of a few things rather than a superficial view gathered from a wide and discursive study is always to be preferred. A few topics well chosen and carefully considered may be treated in such a manner as to develop the most important principles and methods which are involved in the ordinary governmental processes, and although there is a complexity in the subject which cannot be ignored or eliminated, it may be well to remember that thor- oughness is one of the greatest, if not the greatest need of the RECENT PROGRESS 45 public school system at the present time. No plan of civic instruction can be worthy of retention in the school curriculum which does not require steady, persistent work and involve thoroughness in the instruction itself, in the methods of study and in the subject-matter selected. PART II REPORT ON THE TEACHING OF CIVICS IN SECOND- ARY SCHOOLS ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS I. Report of Committee of Seven in Cooperation with the Bureau of Education THE purpose for which the Committee on Instruction was appointed comprised an investigation and a report upon the teaching of government in schools and colleges. In view of the present situation relative to the teaching of government it seemed to the committee that college instruction should receive first attention. Consequently more than a year was given to an investigation of courses offered and methods of instruction in higher institutions. The improvement of civic instruction in elementary and secondary schools was also given careful attention. The valuable report of the Committee of Five presented in 1908 covered the secondary schools thoroughly and the task for the committee in this field was to discover the progress made since 1908 and to offer such additional sug- gestions as might seem advisable in the light of changed condi- tions. 1 By an agreement with A. W. Dunn, specialist in civic educa- tion, it was decided that the committee would cooperate with the Bureau of Education in an effort to procure data on the present status of instruction in secondary schools. An inquiry prepared by the committee and revised by Mr. Dunn was printed and distributed by the Bureau of Education to a select 1 The recommendations offered by the committee of five naturally form the starting point for any suggestions towards improvement in secondary school instruction. The noteworthy recommendations of this committee are included in the summary presented, pp. 23-25. 46 ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 47 list of teachers of civics. Only a portion of the valuable data made available in this inquiry can be presented herewith. The letter of transmission and the questionnaire were as follows: DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, BUREAU OF EDUCA- TION, WASHINGTON To the Principal and the Instructor in Government: In cooperation with a number of civic and educational organiza- tions, the Bureau of Education is seeking information in regard to education for citizenship in the schools of the country. It is the aim of the Bureau not merely to cooperate with the various organizations that are seeking to render service in a common field, but especially to coordinate their efforts so that, instead of numerous inquiries con- ducted independently of each other, there may be one inquiry covering all the essential information required, the results of the inquiry to be made available to all. It is hoped that this will be a distinct service, not only to the several agencies seeking information, but also to school authorities and teachers, by reducing the number of inquiries, official and unofficial, undertaken in this field. One important line of inquiry in this field is that relating to direct instruction in government in secondary schools. In this study the Bureau is cooperating especially with the Committee on Instruction in government appointed by the American Political Science Associa- tion. This committee has already made a somewhat exhaustive study of instruction in political science in colleges and universities, the re- sults of which are now in. The committee consists of Charles G. Haines, chairman, University of Texas; J. Lynn Barnard, School of Pedagogy, Philadelphia; Edgar Dawson, Hunter College, New York City; W. L. Fleming, Louisiana State University; Mabel Hill, Dean Post-Graduate Department, Dana Hall School, Wellesley; F. E. Horack, State University of Iowa; J. A. James, Northwestern Uni- versity. The following schedule was prepared by this committee, and has been repeatedly revised in the light of conferences with representatives of the Bureau and others, and put in a form to render response as complete and as easy as possible. It is expected that the results of the inquiry will be published by the Bureau and made available, not only to all seeking the information, but to all who cooperate in furnish- ing it. 48 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT You are earnestly requested, therefore, to provide the information called for in the following schedule, filling in each item as fully and as carefully as possible. . . Sincerely yours, P. P. CLAXTON, Commissioner. * 1. City or town Name of school Total school enrollment 2. Instruction in government is given in this school as follows: Hours per Number of Number Elec- Re- Sep. Comb. week. weeks. enrolled tive quired course First year Second year Third year Fourth year 3. Text-books used: Supplementary books used: 4. The principal defects of secondary school text-books in govern- ment are (in my opinion): 5. The time allotted to instruction in government should be increased Howmuch? decreased Additional time for instruction in government could be provided by the following method: 6. We now devote approximately per cent of the course in government to national gov- ernment. per cent of the course in gov- ernment to s ate govern- ment. per cent of the course in gov- ernment to local govern- ment. per cent of the course in gov- ernment to municipal gov- ernment. 1 It is the purpose of the Bureau of Education to issue a bulletin containing the data and summarizing the results of this inquiry. For information write to A. W. Dunn, Specialist in Civic Education. ADVANCED CIVICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 49 This relative time allotment would be advantageously changed as follows: National per cent State per cent Local per cent Municipal per cent Organization and operation of 7. We place the main emphasis upon, government. Community functions and du- ties and obligations of citi- zens. 8. We use the following devices to supplement instruction: (a) Civic scrap book. (b) Regular drill in current events. (c) Debate on public questions. (d) Reading of nonpartisan periodicals (give names) : (e) Talks to class by public officials on applied politics. (f ) Other devices (mention) : T , (is )made a subject of field investigation by 9. Local government (isnot)pupils . K it i S)S tatehow:. . . . 10. Our pupils (do ) study (appropriation bills) of the (local) (do not) (health reports ) (state) (other reports ) (national) departments in order to compare with results achieved I in former years. 1 in other localities or states. 11. Our pupils (do ) make surveys of (streets and alleys) with ref- (do not) (public buildings ) erence to (sanitation) (safety) (appearance) 12. (a) We (do ) have a system of pupil participation in school (do not) management, as follows (briefly describe) : for school discipline. (b) This system (is ) effective as a means for t( f chin S S vern - (isnot) L m o CO II (q) < 55 |.a^^ S< |C&S|<^^O|M<|^U<; SHU^HJ 142 > 8 8 S 000 O V) ^ V) . O 3 5 i-gg 5 -3 2 j'o.a l.,*^!! *Jld ^ 53 se j? j-s.ti.ti?,^ 1 -* 143 OJ a 3ojf-2J?6.2 S.^J . >>>>g ^ OS ^ S -| S . CJU UUUOO Tf W O> oo OOO O O OOOW00 I, w 'i ^ ^ cO> E 'B'ff 151 MTtgip^ O 8 asinoD fBuopippy ssjnoD paoptppv jjnsaoo XBDIHI3CJ suopuaodjo;} iBdpianj^ OI> 218 o o o o 153 5 ssinoo jimopippv xeairaag sraajqojj ojj -jrej PUB 3U3UIUI3A09 luinoiOQ VB'J jo sonata (q) 1.1 , N IS4 s a 8 s g. OOO /5O to OO asinoo jBuotjippy oij UBJ PUB sauoaqj, iropnoj MBq jo s^aata 5U3UIUJ3AOQ (q) 1. 4a 156 VO O * * O * 01 SSi^^SS 110 t HI 14: O M * t>- 00^ O^ co to t>- OO >O O 111 331 aJ 3 B . a. | p| |-3* Sa^egg M S tS ( ^3 < .^>: .^g^ s os .a 3 . 3.3 3 o 159 osjnoo juaopippv UBJ pUB MBI jo sonata -sjg 10 aDaaprudsunf s'j e 160 asinoo jBuoptppy saopuiodjo;} ojd . C rt . +3 to.! S3g"O * s >- ^ ^ HH P-9 rt S 3 d b 1 " rt ^3 *5 fl*J ^i 166 vo o i 5 5 * 2. r M ^ r * o O ^ f" > v <3 _U C3*t3 C ^ rt 4* c^ >jJ "^ C ^ll|l^|l^l2^|^ll|l|I|!lJl|^|ll|lllli^ A 1C ,MMMMM 167 O Q* * O <0 O Q* * gsinco praopippy jreairaag OIJ UBJ pat? -313 M^T; jo sjuaai () f 31^=! = M PS rt ^ rt rt rt a> 168 0000 V) I6 9 ft & jBuopippv ssjnoo jBuopjppv suwjqoij OJ (q) Ti- O \O VO b . ^ OT Ot3^H BJ tn c a 8 . *J=" > O 172 3- o to - vO 00030000 CO M i M. O OOO* ^t MCOtOCt M M M rO 5 draoo 55 AO*) 'OOq TV Jl 3 to R 35 9 2 5 2 ^^85^ 255 S - ; - - I JU 6|a^| g| ^-s^'i^o>.'^ 3Wa fc b iil i^yMi i^Sri ifr la^ g Jg 3 s S g-s^ w g >*s > g > si 5: g >;> |5|S|iJ|5^|I|S|g|g|R g g 1 a a 173 asinoD jBuopippv asjnoD puoptppv sraajqoij ojj - 8 S. -aj3 ao 9Dasptudsijnj[ to >o 0) oo o o o 00 * O to (q) 174 si qn D -anof 1 asinoo pjuoprppv a&moD {Baopippv ITOIUJOg suopi3.iod.io3 ojj UBJ PUB spoqrppv 3APBJSI33T; sauoaqx I^>pn J MBq JO S)U31Q -9J3 jo aouaptudsunf O Tf \o to (o) IJ (q) (B) rf (rt 2-GJ3^ o^ o o g,? ll||33|i|lS asinoo jBuoptppv UOIJBXBJ, M.VJ jo sonata (q) \O co w-i if if S " !> > > > >>> > > 178 ' f .. J * vg < CO VO o o -JOT-fa^lf III HI .tJslcJl? |w|3ij8|i|&>j3ijaa}^*^: rs , s .-^- r _ r 179 TOL ssjnOD jBuopippy 25 ssinoD feuopippy oij -JBJ PUB sauoaqx lexitp j M^I jo s;u3ra -aj3 jo aouaprudsunf sopipj pjjowv (q) O NO ? '& .-3 -32 -3 -3 . .fc - | =3 -3 - 8-i jy ^5o 6 u-s o. us flg ^causu^ s^ ^^.s^^-S^S^ ft | S| p l :jj> a I 5c llilllllllSlllasl^SIlslllp p pt ^ P ;S: ^ ^ R' P 9 > 180 S R J^M u it it if : oj ^ "^S" 9 J^5 rt J> rt- ^rtrtJsrt^Crt^crns-sort^cs^^ e~o_Sj G o rtW acacs-tjoa |S13l55l3ll3aisI3!5l^l6dll | gJ'co 1< &^s 181 It pus S MB^ jo s;uaiu -313 J0 sonapiudsunf ^c 30U3IDS ' T' f O\ 1 O f 1 1 York Coll., York Neb. Univ. of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio 182 1 I I " I 11 11 Pi II* ... ^ llJ^lfifli I -r) *> C---; a aJ'"p-g ^ <1 ai i& :BI 11 ;.s-g s-ss-a glltJi 11 5 s 1 : 26 2 a"s > ^^=1 11^5 3 ^ ll 1? Sc^SKUliHlS.lK iTo-5 8.3 rt -n c o^ ^^ s BTJ a*S S4--CJ w fe -M.g >G P3= fe .y-y's^^ "o-s tt y o g Q n< cd ^ c"*;:: > fl|g :Z;C/2OM->HHW ^ o >># <-> Sfil-l T-l "rt 183 184 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT III. Observations and Conclusions. i. Inadequate Provisions for Government Instruction. One hundred and eleven colleges and universities offer no courses in any of the subjects included in the tabulation. It may be assumed also that the majority of institutions which failed to respond to the inquiries of the committee, 99 in number, are to be considered as within this class. In these institutions, except for the frequent assurances from presidents and heads of other departments that government and politics are ade- quately treated under economics, sociology or history there is no special consideration whatever given to the subject of po- litical science; 224 institutions offer courses totalling less than 200 hours (i. e., two courses of three hours throughout the year), and consequently may be classed as not recognizing political science as deserving of a place in the curriculum as a distinct department. As a rule the subject in such colleges is combined with history, economics or sociology or some other department and only a few elementary courses may find place in an already over-crowded schedule for one instructor. The first and second classes comprise the institutions which give sufficient attention to the subject to warrant a separate department, but out of a total of 177 schools in this class only 40 separate the department of political science from history, economics, sociology, ethics or philosophy. In view of these facts it may well be asked whether the colleges are equipped to train for citizenship, to prepare teachers of government or to prepare for the professions which require an intimate knowledge of governmental affairs. The demands of an awakened social conscience and the heavy re- sponsibilities cast upon the electorate through the spread of direct democracy would seem to require greater consideration for the group of subjects comprised under government or po- litical science than is now given in any but a small percentage of colleges and universities. A large number of institutions which either offer no courses INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 185 or announce less than 200 hours is made up of women's colleges, colleges of mines, agricultural colleges, schools of technology, and small denominational colleges, hi some instances with less than one hundred students in the undergraduate department of arts and sciences. Women's colleges, it may be claimed, are not likely to have any special demand for instruction in government and political affairs, and consequently there are good reasons for excluding this group of subjects from the ordinary woman's college. However, not a few of the large colleges for women have found sufficient interest and enthusiasm in public affairs to offer some very thorough courses in political institutions. In some notable instances the colleges for women have given a recognition to these courses which many of the colleges for men might well emulate. There scarcely seems to be any justification to-day for the entire omission of courses in government from any college for women which has an undergraduate department of collegiate grade. There are many indications that courses in political science have rightfully made their way into the colleges for women, and the time is apparently not far distant when those in charge of colleges of this type will give matters relating to government much greater consideration. Colleges of mines, agricultural colleges, and schools of tech- nology form a group under which the courses offered must be scientific and practical. These schools are primarily designed to prepare for one of the professions or vocations, and there seems to be neither time nor occasion to give attention to such an impractical matter as government. If one may judge from the utter neglect of the study of political affairs hi many such schools it appears that there is at present no recognition of the fact that the incipient miner, farmer or engineer may be called upon to take an interest in the affairs of his country. Nor does there seem to be any thought that it might be worth while to learn of the responsibilities and duties of social beings as well as of ways and means to earn a livelihood. That the miner, the i86 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT farmer and the engineer should receive training along the line of their duties and responsibilities as social beings and citizens seems scarcely less imperative than that they should be trained as efficient producers. There is ample evidence that the efficient producer without a social conscience has worked much havoc and injury. If society is to be protected and its best interests conserved, the scientific, industrial, and so-called practical schools must find both time and oppor- tunity to give instruction in economics, sociology and political science. Both economics and sociology have slowly made their way into many of the technical and vocational schools. A few technical schools and agricultural colleges have intro- duced the important elementary courses in government, and there is no indication that the standard of work in technology has suffered particularly because the curriculum has been en- riched by courses in political and social affairs. A statement from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology indicates the type of instruction offered in one of the largest technical schools. For admission and for graduation, a considerable amount of non- professional training is provided for, on the theory that the institution is equipping its graduates for citizenship as well as for engineering, chemistry, and architecture. So far as government is concerned, the countries taken up are the United States, and typical leading European forms, especially Eng- land, France, and Germany, with slight attention to Switzerland. The emphasis is laid upon government; the history side is mainly directed to tracing the origin and development of existing institutions. So much is required of all. Furthermore, as already mentioned, there are third-year electives, in which "students are allowed to exercise entire freedom of choice," though as a matter of fact more than one- half of the class elect one or more of the subjects in the field of govern- ment. These courses, at present, are international law, municipal government, and current public problems. 1 1 Furnished by Professor C. F. A. Currier, Massachusetts Institute ol Technology. INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 187 It remains to be seen whether society as organized in its legis- latures, courts and administrative agencies will become a matter of sufficient significance to be given some consideration in all of the technical schools and may be deemed worthy of more atten- tion by that group of institutions which depend almost entirely upon the state for existence. The small denominational schools frequently do not have large enough faculties or enough students in the collegiate de- partment to offer courses in political science. For schools of this sort the students are fortunate to get a mere introduction to the study of public affairs in the departments of history and economics or perchance in the department of philosophy. Many colleges would find it neither advisable nor practicable to es- tablish a separate department in political science. But none can afford to neglect the duty of providing adequate instruction in the elementary principles and practice of government. An instructor in one of the small denominational schools makes the apology that since he is obliged to teach "nearly all of the his- tory, the economics, and much of the Bible work" he can offer only one brief course in political science. For this situation there seems to be no remedy other than the fostering of a public senti- ment which will require that these institutions cease pretending to offer four years of college work or that they raise then* stand- ard by such increase of endowment as will provide for a larger faculty and better facilities for advanced instruction. 2. The Function of College Instruction. Departments of Political Science are called upon to perform services of three distinct types: (i) to tram for citizenship; (2) to prepare for professions, such as the law, journalism, teaching and the public service; (3) to train experts and to prepare spe- cialists for government positions. For the universities a fourth group might be added including courses primarily intended to train for research work. Universities alone can properly plan i88 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT to prepare government experts, who in many instances must receive specialized instruction such as the departments of polit- ical science can offer only in part. Courses designed to prepare for research must also be left largely, if not entirely, with the universities. The function of college instruction in politics is to train for citizenship as well as to train for the professions. In performing this function colleges too frequently confine attention almost exclusively to the theories of the origin of the state and the nature of law and sovereignty, in fact, to a consideration of abstract notions and principles which find scant place in the actual operation of governmental affairs. Much of what is comprehended in these abstract discussions is based upon theories of law and jurisprudence which modern publicists are prone to condemn. However, it is very gratifying to find a marked increase in the attention to Staatslehre, to state-theory in contrast with state-practice. The history of political ideas, as well as wrangling over such terms as sovereignty, liberty and law, ought to be encouraged rather than discouraged. But there are indications that political science, in some quarters at least, has been too strictly confined to theories about civil society and too little concerned with political affairs as they are. Students of politics like those of other fields have been inclined to philosophize and work out abstract principles rather /than to search laboriously the records and activities of society in its myriad and complex operations. It is not proposed that less attention be given to political theory for this subject eminently deserves the emphasis given it, as a rule, in college courses, but it is rather proposed that the work in political science be ex- panded so as to complement the theory and the abstract discus- sions with fuller consideration of the actual working of polit- ical institutions. Political science is scarcely old enough, particularly as pursued in the United States, to attain to the standard of a well developed INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 189 science. The catalogues of our larger universities prior to 1890 seldom recognized political science as a department but an- nounced a few courses in government under the division of his- tory or of political economy. It is slightly more than thirty years ago that the first schools of political science were opened. In view of the short time the study of government has re- ceived any attention or recognition from college authorities the present status of the subject and the rapid expansion of courses in the higher institutions is nothing short of re- markable. The returns from the colleges indicate several significant facts, the most striking, perhaps, being an earnest desire on the part of teachers to inaugurate courses in political science where such courses are not given and to enlarge the work where such instruction is now provided. In letters accompanying some of the reports this fact was particularly emphasized and in several instances presidents of institutions took occasion to make it clear that efforts were being made to offer courses in political science or to enlarge or improve those already offered. During the years that the committee has been at work a considerable number of institutions have increased the quota of hours devoted to the subject whereas comparatively a very few have reduced the hours formerly scheduled. There is no doubt that there is a widespread and growing sentiment among teachers, college authorities, and, in fact, the public generally, that, of all things, the student should have, on leaving college, a knowledge of his country's political institutions, their history and their actual operation. But much remains to be accomplished to give instruction in government a rightful place in many institutions which now ignore the subject entirely. The character of some instruction that passes under the title needs to be considerably improved to be worthy of more consideration by men of affairs. And some readjustments of emphasis and proportions must be made in igo THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT political science to keep pace with the rapid strides in other branches within the general group of social sciences. 3. Attendance in Courses. Institutions reporting 150 1 Subject American Government Comparative Government General Political Science International Law Jurisprudence Constitutional Law Commercial Law Political Theories Municipal Government Party Government State Government Total Institutions Enrollment Average 1 20 6,107 5i- 67 2,750 4i 45 992 22 55 1,422 26- 22 753 34 2Q 1,091 38- 9 620 69 II 156 14 38 1,163 3i- 15 473 3i 3 170 37 15,697 Judging by the number of institutions reporting courses in American government and the high average of the classes it appears that this subject is growing in favor as the basic ele- mentary course in the department. Comparative government shares with American government in favor as an elementary course although less than one-third as many students in a few more than half the number of institutions are registered in this course. The small colleges frequently give an elementary course in political theory, which accounts chiefly for the total of 992 students enrolled in 45 institutions in the subject designated as general political science. Courses in political theory are not as popular with instructors or with students as formerly. When political science was first introduced into the college curriculum the work was almost always begun with a course in political 1 The majority of schools which submitted reports on attendance were large universities or old and well endowed colleges. INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 191 theory. Now the tendency is to offer instead practical courses in American government, comparative government or municipal government. But in most of these courses some attention is given to political theory. Advanced courses in political theory are given as a rule in the universities to small groups of graduate and undergraduate students. Jurisprudence, constitutional law and commercial law are offered chiefly in the universities and usually to large classes. A subject gaining in popularity and interest is that of munici- pal government, now offered in many colleges and reaching more than a thousand students in 38 institutions. The growing em- phasis upon the study of functions and government in operation will no doubt aid in giving greater prominence to this course. International law ranks third as to number of institutions offer- ing the subject, but the total of 1,422 students enrolled in 55 schools indicates that with but few exceptions the subject is given to comparatively small classes. The course is offered frequently in alternate years and is as a rule elective with the result that "a relatively small percentage of the students actually elect international law as a subject of study." l According to the report of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 144 institutions in which international law was taught in 1911-12 only 3,646 students were enrolled or only 3 / 9 per cent of the students which were enrolled in those institutions. 2 The total enrollment in eleven subjects, 15,697 in the under- graduate courses of 150 colleges and universities, indicates that political science is appealing to large groups of students. This enrollment is particularly gratifying because of the fact that courses in the department are almost invariably elective, and as a rule they are given only to advanced students. The sub- 1 Report on the teaching of international law in the educational institu- tions of the United States prepared by the Carnegie Endowment for Inter- national Peace, April 18, 1913, p. 6. 2 Ibid., p. 29. This report should be consulted for an exhaustive report on the teaching of international law. 192 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT jects are usually offered in the sophomore, junior and senior years and frequently are open only to juniors and seniors. But there are many evidences to lead to the conclusion that these subjects have not been given the consideration due them. When institutions with more than one thousand students enroll less than twenty in government courses and these are public institu- tions supported largely by state funds, it leads to the inquiry whether something in the nature of a civic awakening in our ed- ucational institutions is not in order. Furthermore, the schools reporting constitute a majority of those having strong and well planned courses in political science, and the results would be far less satisfactory if statistics were secured from all of the colleges. Is it not time that educators at least ask the question whether it is desirable that the great majority of college graduates leave their institutions without so much as completing a single course of study devoted to their own political institutions or those of foreign countries? 4. Text-books. Courses in political science have been made possible in small institutions and have been improved in large institutions by the recent appearance of good text-books. The lines on which more adequate and thorough guides should be prepared are state and local government and modern European governments. A majority of works now in use covering European institutions give most attention to political and constitutional history, with the result that the analysis of present day political customs and practices necessarily suffers. Moreover, texts almost invariably slight the administrative phase of government and the judicial department. In these as well as in other lines there will remain gaps which for many instructors cannot be filled until better texts and practical guides are prepared. For courses in elements of law or jurisprudence there is no good text adapted for use in college classes. There are those who question the advisability INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 193 of attempting to teach this subject to college students, and it certainly is open to question whether much that passes as juris- prudence is not either beyond the comprehension of the under- graduate or made up of material which more properly belongs to philosophy or ethics. The course in elements of law or juris- prudence is one of the problems of the college department of political science. Far too little emphasis is given in courses for undergraduates to the fact that government is a legal mechanism, and very often no attempt is made to connect up the study of political affairs with legal foundations. It is quite clear that some work should be given by way of an introductory study to law. What should be the content of this course, how and to whom it should be taught, are questions which are far from any satisfactory answer. Very few courses are given in the small colleges which are not based primarily on texts, and the consensus of opinion among instructors is that this is the best method of conducting classes. As a rule the course in political science consists of a close study of one or two texts with some library work and class discussion upon the basis of reports made by students. In a few institutions the texts are of high school grade, but for the most part they are standard college works. One result of the reliance on text-books is inadequate attention to local government, since the authors deal very briefly with this field and the average instructor has very little time or inclination to develop a course without a text. 5. Methods of Instruction. Methods of instruction in the universities vary considerably according to the size of the institution and the number in the class. In the preliminary courses, as a general rule, the system of informal lectures is combined with reports and quizzes. The case book plan is extensively employed in the courses in public and business law. In all the advanced courses the students are obliged to carry on independent work under the supervision of 194 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT the instructor. The seminar has been found most successful in developing a keen interest among seniors and graduate students in many of the problems of politics. In the elementary courses with large classes the following methods are typical of replies to the committee's inquiry: Brown University: Lectures, readings assigned and papers. Columbia University: Lectures, papers and readings. Grinnell College: Lecture and text-book method combined with reports. New York University: Informal lectures, recitations, discussions and papers. Princeton University: Lectures, extensive readings and reports; conferences with small groups of students. University of California: Lectures, papers and readings. University of Nebraska: Lectures, recitations, papers and sectional conferences. Williams College: Lectures, oral and written recitations, class- room discussions, readings on special topics. Where classes are small and the work offered is more elemen- tary it is customary to rely largely on text-books and recitations with a limited amount of special readings and occasional class reports. Frequently the number of class hours allotted to such subjects as American government, comparative government, and introductory political science are so few that it is quite im- possible to do justice to a good text-book, let alone to attempt extensive readings. One of the imperative needs for the improve- ment of instruction in these subjects is to increase the time allot- ment so that more thorough and intensive work can be done. A large number of institutions are offering courses in current problems and political issues. As a part of these courses lectures are frequently given by men prominent in public life. Cornell University has recently established such a course with the prime purpose of training for citizenship. The lectures are given by men of affairs and are designed to create a vital interest in the duties and responsibilities of citizens. The course proved to be INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 195 such a success that it is to be continued and placed on a perma- nent basis. 6. Types of Courses. Four types of courses are comprised within the range of de- partments of political science. The first of these to be developed and now offered in most institutions giving instruction in political science is one of a descriptive character dealing with the organi- zation and operation of American and European governments. In some of these courses ancient and modern governments are considered first and the preliminary work is made the basis for a study of the American system of government. The history of modern forms of government and their present organization, chiefly from the constitutional point of view, is the chief object of such courses. Second, there is a type of course which first presents the theory of the state (Allgemeine Staatslehre) and deals with the conception of the state, its basis, the form of its constitution, and sovereignty. In these courses the considera- tion of theories and political principles is followed by a compara- tive study of the departments of government, executive, legisla- tive, judicial, and by an analysis of the ends and aims of the state. The philosophy and underlying principles of the state are presented as well as some notion of the forms of organiza- tion. A third kind of course is one which is primarily confined to a study of functions rather than organization. Such courses, although involving comparative features, are more often frankly confined to a study of one system of government, and matters of form and organization of public authority are subordinated to that of functional activities. A fourth type of course comprises the work offered in consti- tutional law, administrative law, international law, commercial law, Roman law, elements of law and jurisprudence. These courses mark the dividing line where the technical phases of law merge into the realm of public policy, ethics and custom, 196 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT and thus constitute a common vicinage in which the departments of law and political science are equally interested and involved. In connection with these courses the question arises whether they should not be offered primarily as law courses to which advanced undergraduates might be admitted instead of being offered under departments of political science and admitting law students. Each arrangement has some distinct advantages in its favor, but there is no indication of any uniformity in prac- tice, with the result that the relation between departments of political science and departments of law is one of the difficult problems of university instruction in government and law. It seems that in some of these subjects it will be necessary and ad- visable to offer courses both in the law school and in the depart- ment of political science and that others should be offered in only one department with an arrangement for admission of qualified students from the other. The matter deserves careful considera- tion and involves a plan of adjustment which should receive early attention by the Political Science Association and the Association of American Law Schools. 7. Suggestions for the Improvement of Instruction. In one of the questionnaires distributed by the committee instructors were asked to give suggestions as to ways and methods by which instruction in government might be improved. Among the suggestions commonly urged were the following: 1. That the department of political science be separated from other departments of instruction and not treated as a mere appendage to history or economics. 2. That the Political Science Review be made more definitely a medium of information to keep teachers abreast of important changes in the realm of politics. 3. That a full year be given to the study of American govern- ment. 4. That departments establish research bureaus and aim to INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 197 keep in touch with government in actual operation in townships, cities, counties, state and nation, and that students be trained to study definite problems. 5. That more frequent use be made of newspapers and peri- odicals for illustrations of the dynamics of government. 6. That texts be prepared which give more emphasis to func- tions and statistics and deal more fully with state and local gov- ernment. Good outlines should also be prepared with sugges- tions for gathering and using concrete material, and for doing observational and practical work. 7. That laboratory work and the assignment of practical problems for student reports should be more largely used by all instructors in political science. 8. That better provision be made for the training of teachers in this subject. 9. That much could be gamed by standardizing many of the courses and grading them as elementary, advanced and gradu- ate in character. The Association should prepare a program of study and text writers should conform to this program instead of allowing the scope and arrangement of courses to be largely determined by the most popular text writers. 10. That civics in secondary schools should be placed on a better basis and broadened so as to include economics and so- ciology. At a conference arranged by Professor Horack and held at Iowa City in July, 1914, the following conclusions were adopted: i. The conference agreed that there ought to be a funda- mental introductory course a course relating to human origins and evolution was favored. 2. It was likewise the opinion of the conference that a course in history as history is ordinarily taught would not serve as an adequate introduction to political science. 3. The conference agreed that departments of political science should teach American constitutional law and that the term ig8 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT constitutional as applied to courses in American history had better be dropped altogether. 4. The conference was agreed that courses in political science should be open to Freshmen. 5. It was also agreed that a course in American Government, if made the basic course, should be illuminated by illustrations drawn from contemporary politics and comparative govern- ment. IV. Recommendations for the Improvement of College In- struction. In view of the difficulties involved in making recommendations which may be applied to the great variety of conditions to be met in the many colleges of the United States, the committee found considerable difficulty in carrying out the second object of its appointment that of suggesting means for enlarging and improving instruction. It is of course quite evident that no standard plan of courses and no uniform method of instruc- tion can be devised for the many types of colleges and univer- sities. That something like a standard type of course has been worked out for certain groups of universities and colleges is, however, plainly evident. The committee certainly disclaims any intention to prescribe a standard plan of courses in political science. A few recommendations, however, are offered, which are intended primarily to afford guidance to the smaller colleges and to those institutions in which government is merely begin- ning to receive adequate attention. It is well to emphasize at this point that the committee has aimed in all of its conclusions to gather and formulate the con- sensus of opinion among those who are vitally interested in the improvement of political science instruction. Every effort has been made through questionnaires, correspondence and other available avenues of information to gather opinions and to present the mature judgment of those qualified to speak from INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 199 experience. No pains have been spared to eliminate personal views and predilections and to present in such conclusions as are offered the clearly formulated opinion of representative groups of instructors. Definition of Political Science. For the purpose of its report the committee considered the following courses as comprising, in the main, the scope of politi- cal science: A. Descriptive and historical. 1. American government. a. National. b. State and local. c. Municipal. 2. Comparative government. 3. Party government. 4. Colonial government. 5. Diplomacy. B. Theoretic. 1. General political science. 2. Political theories and history of political literature. C. Legal. 1. Constitutional law. 2. International law. 3. Elements of law and jurisprudence. 4. Commercial law. D. Advanced courses. 1. Constitutional relations. 2. Legislation and legislative procedure. 3. Public administration and administrative methods. 4. Foreign relations. 5. Theory. 6. Law. 1 1 In the preparation of this table the committee is specially indebted to Professors Schaper of the University of Minnesota and Freund of the Uni- versity of Chicago for suggestions. 200 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT At the outset of its investigations the committee was informed on good authority that there is no such thing as political science, and as the work of examining college catalogues progressed the truth of this observation became painfully apparent. Many colleges and a few universities seem disposed to use the term in designating the group of courses offered in economics and so- ciology, with little or no attention given to the courses outlined above. In other instances political science is used in a very comprehensive sense, covering courses offered in history, eco- nomics, politics, public law and sociology. With the exception of a tendency toward uniformity in the courses announced by a few colleges and the larger universities there is a marked lack of agreement as to the meaning of the term political science. An illustration of this is shown where an institution with courses in political science, as denned by the committee, offers these courses under the heading public law and administration and uses the term political science to designate work given in eco- nomics and sociology. A standard and acceptable definition of political science seems difficult to formulate. But however diffi- cult it may be to define the term it is fundamental at the out- set that there be an agreement as to what courses are compre- hended within the field. A more definite agreement as to what constitutes political science, and a more aggressive insistence on the necessity of distinguishing these courses from other groups, seem to be the prerequisite to secure recognition for the subject as worthy of a place in the colleges as a distinct department. i. That courses in political science be separated from courses in history, economics and sociology. In approximately 300 institutions, the following results were obtained regarding the relation of political science to other subjects: Separate department of political science 38 Combined with history 89 Combined with economics .. . 22 INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 201 Combined with sociology 4 Combined with history and economics 48 Combined with economics and sociology 45 Combined with economics, history and sociology 21 Combined with philosophy 3 Combined with economics, history and philosophy 3 Combined with economics, history and English 4 Combined with economics and English i Combined with Latin i History, political science, and director of athletics 2 Combinations such as the following were made in some of the smaller institutions, the department including one or more courses in political science: history, civics, physical and moral science; English Bible, philosophy, pedagogy, sociology and evi- dences of Christianity; economics, sociology, international law and Bible; exegesis, history and civics; political science, eco- nomics, philosophy and psychology; education, philosophy, re- ligion and social science. It is apparent from this table that very few instructors in po- litical science give their entire tune and attention to the subject. Consequently the great majority of teachers are obliged to de- vote the major portion of their energies to another subject and to grant only an incidental interest and emphasis to courses in government. Some exceedingly valuable courses are offered under this plan and there are some advantages in the point of view that comes from the necessity of keeping in close touch with more than one field. But recognizing that when a man offers courses in history and economics he is not thereby dis- qualified for the giving of political science instruction, and mak- ing due allowance for the advantage that comes from the survey of other fields, it is undoubtedly true that political science in- struction will not be placed on a plane to be compared with that of other departments until colleges give that consideration to the field which will demand the full time and energy of one man, at least. The small colleges can only set up this standard as a 202 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT goal toward which to lay plans. But an increasing number of colleges are not only providing for courses which require the time of one instructor, but, as in the case of history, economics and other departments, they are providing additional instructors to take care of the increase in student enrollment and to offer courses for which there is an evident need. Furthermore, the arrangement to combine political science with other departments requires that an instructor who has received special training almost entirely in another field must prepare courses along a line in which he has had no particular preparation. As a consequence much of so-called political science is either political history or the economic foundations of govern- ment. Both of these subjects are important and it is right that much attention be given to them, but political science instruc- tion almost invariably suffers when offered by one whose primary interest and preparation are essentially in another field. The committee does not wish to be misunderstood on this point. They regard it as eminently desirable and necessary that there be full and frank cooperation among the departments of history, economics, sociology and political science. What is desired in the recommendation is more especially that the courses in political science be organized as a distinct group constituting a department, and that an effort be made to provide that they be offered by an instructor whose interest and training specially qualify him for work in this field. It is a pleasure to report that a marked tendency in this direction is noticeable among the larger colleges and universities, and it is to be hoped that the time is not far distant when polit- ical science will have a recognized place and a reputable stand- ing alongside of older subjects in the college curriculum. There is a justifiable revolt against the seemingly endless growth of departments and the sometimes unwarranted tendency to add highly technical and advanced courses in a department. But if there are any good reasons for not according an independ- INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 203 ent status to courses in government and law these reasons have not been forthcoming. That those whose business it is to teach political science almost invariably favor the expansion of their departments is only to be expected. The encouraging thing is that men of affairs in business and government, as well as those in other avenues of life, join with the specialists in political science in urging upon administrative authorities the necessity of more and better courses of instruction in government. Fortunately the time has passed when the devotees of this branch of learning must needs beg for scant courtesies at the hands of those who guard the avenues of intellectual advance. The liberalizing culture of the study of political literature and public affairs, as well as the service rendered by departments of government, have not only restored the science of politics to its former place but have also called forth new avenues of growth, new fields of endeavor. A prestige which will not long be un- noticed in any school of learning which values its function as an educative force in a democracy bids fair to place the study of government on a firm footing as an indispensable feature of every college curriculum. 2. That a full year's course in American government be given as the basic course for undergraduates and that whenever practicable some illustrative material and suggestive comparisons with foreign governments be presented. A summary of attendance in courses in 150 institutions shows that American government is far in the lead as a basis for ad- vanced work in the department. Comparative government, introductory courses in political science and international law are the other subjects which are used to introduce students to subsequent work. But the three of these as offered in intro- ductory courses are not selected in as many institutions as American government and are given to a considerably smaller number of students. It may be taken therefore as rather clearly determined that some form of instruction in American govern- 204 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT ment shall be the basic course. This course is usually elective and is open to students of sophomore grade. A matter which is receiving some attention is whether this or another course in government ought to be open to freshmen. While a few schools have admitted freshmen to the course and while there are some strong reasons in favor of this practice the prevailing sentiment for the present, at least, favors the require- ment of a year's work in college as a prerequisite. The present standard of instruction could of course be changed so as to adapt the material and methods to meet the needs of freshmen. But in view of the fact that most of the large high schools are now giving a half year or a year to this subject on somewhat the same plan as would be necessary in a first year college course, it seems better from the standpoint of the student as well as of the department to defer the introductory course until the second collegiate year. In states where but few stu- dents have an opportunity to pursue the study of civics in high schools or where the instruction is of the formal or perfunc- tory kind there is more cogency to the argument in favor of a freshman course. When instruction in government begins in the sophomore year the question arises whether any course shall be made a prerequisite for the election of the subject or whether a certain number of credits alone shall be sufficient. The general rule does not favor any prerequisite. Some institutions, however, require the selection of a course in history, whereas others strongly advise the taking of a preliminary course in this subject. A few colleges are offering to freshmen with a fair degree of success an intro- ductory course in the social sciences a kind of gateway course to economics, sociology and political science. No satisfactory text or handbook for this type of course has yet been prepared. In fact it is doubtful whether such a text is within the limits of practicability on account of the diversity of fields and the difficulty of condensing the underlying principles of any one of INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 205 the above subjects. For the present such a course depends too much upon the individual predilections of the instructor and is likely to comprehend an effervescence of principles which fails to meet the approval of any of the three departments concerned. The most noteworthy objection to the present arrangement and one that has influential advocates is that only a small per- centage of the student body can elect this course under the conditions which prevail in the selection of subjects, and that the majority of those who do choose the course never have an opportunity to continue the study of government. Consequently it follows that of the small percentage of those who strive to gain some knowledge of political affairs only a minor portion ever go far enough to get any knowledge of foreign governments. Hence the present system is designed to foster an inordinate provincialism which has been one of the banes of our national life. If the citizen-to-be has an opportunity to take but one year's work in government it is thought by many that this one course should provide instruction in comparative government to supply a broader basis of information than would the study of American government alone. As the study of government is introduced in the grades and a thorough and effective course is offered in the high school the committee is inclined to the opin- ion that it will become increasingly practicable to introduce the comparative method in introductory courses. The information available to the committee sheds very little light on the sequence of courses in different institutions. In fact, it is doubtful whether anything like a regular sequence of courses is followed in directing the election of subjects in the department. As a rule all of the courses are elective and fre- quently are open only to juniors and seniors. In a few instances one course is prescribed and usually one of the courses is made a prerequisite to the election of subsequent work. American gov- ernment, general political science, and comparative government are the courses which are usually prescribed or are required as 206 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT prerequisite for the election of advanced work. It is believed in some quarters that the basic course should be in the field of gen- eral political science; i. e., a study of Staatslehre, in others the comparative study of European systems, and in others that the introduction to political science should come through careful analysis of the American system. The committee, however, recommends that American govern- ment be taken as the basis for the introductory course because it is convinced that there is an imperative need for a more thorough study of American institutions, because the opportunity for this study is not now offered in any but a few of the best second- ary schools, and because it is exceedingly important that the attention of an undergraduate be directed early in his course to a vital personal interest in his own government, national, state, and local. Instruction in political science is rarely given until the second or third year of the college work, and thus unless American government is selected for the first course only a small percentage of students receive encouragement and direction in the study of political affairs with which they will constantly be expected to deal in their ordinary relations as citizens. But the committee believes that this study of Ameri- can government can be distinctly vitalized by the introduction of such comparisons with European practices and forms as will strengthen the force of criticisms of our present weaknesses, and will supply the student with a broader basis of philosophical conclusions as to constitutional development and administrative practices. The committee is of the opinion that, despite the very marked increase of courses in American government within the past few years, one of the immediate needs is the further extension and enlargement of these courses. In only a few institutions is enough time given to the subject to permit anything more than the most cursory survey of the various features of the govern- ment, and almost invariably state and local government suffer INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 207 in the cutting process which is necessary. About seventy insti- tutions only give courses in which state and local government are the basis of special study. In order that state and local government shall be given more consideration, and in order that judicial procedure and administrative methods shall receive more than passing notice, it is absolutely necessary that the time allotted to American government be increased. Nothing short of a full year of at least three hours a week gives the neces- sary time and opportunity to do anything like full justice to the national, state and local units. There is a great diversity of opinion and practice with respect to the elementary courses now offered. In order to show the variety of conditions which prevails a brief statement as to the content and method pursued in the beginning course in some representative colleges and universities is given. AMHERST COLLEGE The elementary course in political science in Amherst College is a course in American government running throughout the year, 36 weeks, three hours each week. As text-books we use Beard's " Amer- ican Government and Politics," and Young's " The New American Government and Its Work," together with extensive collateral read- ing, sources, cases, etc. We give this course as the first course in the department because we consider it the most valuable for those men who take no further courses in political science, and because a thorough knowledge of our own governmental system serves as a good basis for a comparative study of governments in other states or for an intensive study of a more specialized field in government. The chief difficulty that confronts us is the need for a knowledge of the elements of political theory in order to discuss some phases of the American federal system, constitutional law, and court decisions. From this point of view a general course in political science is useful. We try to remedy this by giving in the freshman year a general course introductory to history, political science, economics, and ethics. In this course the nature of the social sciences, their re- lations, their fundamental concepts and problems are pointed out. 1 1 Furnished by R. G, Gettell. 208 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT DARTMOUTH COLLEGE The elementary course in political science at Dartmouth College is organized primarily for training in intelligent and effective citizenship. The course covers a period of one year and is open to seniors and juniors, and to sophomores who have completed in college one year's work of history. The work of the course includes a study of the historical origins of political institutions; a brief study of English political institutions; and a detailed study of American government, in its constitutional, administrative and political aspects. To the historical study of political institutions the first six weeks of the year is devoted, this time being divided about equally between the abstract study of political principles and the concrete study of English government. In this part of the course, Leacock's " Elements of Political Science " is used and Lowell's " Government of England." The remainder of the time of the first semester is assigned to the study of the American federal government. The text-book used is Beard's " American Government and Politics " with outside readings, in Beard's " Readings in American Government and Politics " and in Young's " The New American Government and Its Work." As in- dicated by the text-books, attention is given to actual administrative problems as well as to constitutional questions. The second semester of the year's work embraces a study of state government with detailed accounts of legislative and administrative methods in different states; a survey of the history of political parties and an examination into the problems created by such organizations; a discussion of citizenship and a study of methods for making public opinion effective in a republican government. Such a course, it is believed, gives the student something of an appreciation of social institutions as a background for constructive thinking upon present political issues. Of no slight importance in the success of the course is the fact that the method of treatment tends to the development of a steadily increasing interest on the part of the student, throughout the year. 1 GRINNELL COLLEGE The basic course in political science at Grinnell College bears the name "Comparative Free Government." This is a three-hour course throughout the year. It is designed not only to give information con- 1 Furnished by F. A. Updyke. INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 209 cerning certain governments, but also to acquaint the student with the institutions and processes by which democracy in government is being attained in leading states. The first semester is devoted to a rather detailed study of the gov- ernment of the United States, national and state. The point of view is emphatically that of the present, the actual working of the government, but the attempt is made to have the student see clearly what the formal constitutional arrangement calls for; what the founders of the government had hi mind; in what ways the govern- ment in operation differs from what was intended; and what present tendencies suggest for the future. Emphasis is placed upon funda- mental principles and adjustments, and a broad foundation laid for comparison with other governments. The second semester is given to a study of the governments of England, France, Germany, Switzerland, and selected states in South America, in the order named. In this part of the course the compara- tive method is very prominent, the government of England being con- sidered in greatest detail. The course begins with the United States, because the study of American institutions and practices affords to the American student a natural approach to the study of politics. Moreover, the United States is the leading example of the presidential type of free govern- ment and was a pioneer among the nations, in setting up a govern- ment consciously based on popular control. England is studied next, because of the close connection between English and American institu- tions and the many important contrasts to be found, and because England is the originator and chief example of cabinet government. France comes third, because of her illuminating experiences as a republic, with cabinet government, under the Roman legal system, and because of her highly centralized democracy and the consequent contrasts to be made with both England and the United States. Germany is considered next, because she affords an example of a great state changing from autocratic to popular government, and because her federal system may be compared so profitably with that of Switzer- land and that of the United States. Switzerland is studied, because she is the most conspicuous example of triumphant, assured democ- racy, and has developed a system that is distinctly her own, one that is neither presidential nor cabinet in character. Argentina and Chile are studied, because of the light they throw upon South American problems and upon the utilization of political institutions and forms designed for raolically different peoples and conditions. 210 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT From the work of this course, the student attains several important results. He acquires information not only of the institutions of his own country, but of a number of leading free states; he develops an interest in international relations and problems; his sympathies and political outlook are broadened; his national prejudices are weakened; he gains some understanding of politics as a science; and he develops the inclination and, in part, the ability to measure the political stand- ards and conduct of his own government by those of other statf c l UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BEGINNING COURSE IN COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT The beginning course in political science in the University of California is a course in comparative government. The course is given for three hours a week, two hours being devoted to lectures and one hour to quiz sections, under the direction of teaching fellows in the department. At the present time there are 450 students en- rolled in the course and there are 15 quiz sections. These sections are now too large and their number must be increased another year. A definite reading assignment is given each week, and upon this assignment a twenty-minute paper is set in each quiz section. The tune of the course is divided as follows: FIRST SEMESTER. Government of England. 7 weeks. Req. reading selections from Lowell, Government of England (in 1915- 1916 a total of 462 pages was assigned). Government of France. 4 weeks. Req. reading Constitution of 1875. Ogg, Governments of Europe (Chapters on France). Selections from Lowell, Government and Parties in Con- tinental Europe and from other books to a total of 150 pages. Government of Italy. 2 weeks. Req. reading Italian constitu- tion. Ogg, Governments of Europe (pages on Italy) and 100 pages to be selected from a list of books including Lowell, Government and Parties of Con- tinental Europe, etc. 1 Furnished by J. W. Gannaway. INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 211 Government of Switzer- 2 weeks. Req. reading Constitution of land. Switzerland. Ogg, Governments of Eu- rope. SECOND SEMESTER. Government of Germany. 5 weeks. Req. reading Kriiger, Govern- ment and Politics of the German Empire. Constitution of German Empire. Ogg, Governments of Europe (portion relat- ing to Prussia). Government of Austria. 2 weeks. Req. reading Constitutional Law of Austria and Hungary. Ogg, Gov- ernments of Europe. Government of the United 8 weeks. Req. reading Selections from States. Bryce, American Commonwealth. Reed, T. H., Government for the People. Owing to peculiar conditions in this university, we permit students to begin this course in either semester. The great majority, however, begin in the Fall, which is by far the best plan. In explanation of the above outline, it should be said that we have put American government at the end of the Spring semester because the students almost without exception come to college after just completing a course in American government in their high school senior year. We have felt it necessary to give them a fresh point of view. Our treatment of American government is not systematic, but is simply a critical treatment of some of our institutions in the light of what the class has been able to learn from the experience with other countries. We give in the upper division a course in Ameri- can institutions for those who desire a more intensive knowledge of American government, especially those who desire to teach the sub- ject in high school. 1 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Our elementary course is limited to American government. It was found on experience that students coming up from secondary schools have very crude notions about our own government and that there would be danger of superficiality if we attempted too much in the first year. Moreover, we have a course in comparative government which students may take after they have completed the elementary course. 2 1 Furnished by Thomas B. Reed. 2 Furnished by Charles A. Beard. 212 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT HARVARD UNIVERSITY Our chief elementary course, Government i, is an elective, open to freshmen and sophomores. About five hundred students are enrolled. There are two lectures per week throughout the academic year, or about sixty-six lectures in all. Once each week the class meets in sections, of about twenty students per section, for a short paper and discussion both based on the assigned reading of the week. There are twenty-four of these sections, handled by six assistants, each assistant having four sections. That is, in brief, the machinery of the course. Now as for the plan. The course presents a general survey of present-day government, dealing chiefly (in fact, almost entirely) with the governments of England, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States. The first half-year is devoted to European government, the second half entirely to American government. I have adopted this arrangement for the following reasons. First, a study of the European government seems necessary to give a proper background for intelli- gent work on the government of the United States. Second, if the students are to have good disciplinary training, it is desirable that they should begin with a study of institutions which they know rela- tively little about, rather than with those which are already somewhat known to them. Experience has taught me that the freshman or sophomore whose first book on government is one relating to his own country is likely to develop superficial habits of reading and to take a great deal for granted. On an average about sixty to seventy pages of reading are assigned each week, in Lowell's " Government of England," and Lowell's " Governments and Parties " during the first half-year; in " The Fed- eralist" and Bryce's " American Commonwealth " during the second half-year. Students are required to have passed this course before they can be admitted to any of the other courses offered by the University in the Department of Government. 1 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS (i) The elementary courses are, (a) American National Government, offered the first semester. (b) American State and Local Government, offered the second semester. 1 Furnished by W. B. Munro. INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 213 The content of these courses is indicated by the two principal works used in them, namely: Bryce, "The American Commonwealth," a large part of Volume i and selected portions of Volume 2 ; and Beard, "American Government and Politics." These two works are supple- mented by collateral readings and by lectures given by members of -the department. Students may enroll in either course without taking the other. Except as it is given in lecture and weekly quiz work, the matter of definition, terminology, and the introduction of com- parative material is not emphasized. (2) The reasons why these courses have been made our elementary courses are as follows: (a) This is a state university, and a large proportion of our students, being enrolled in other colleges than that of liberal arts and sciences, have time to take but one or two courses in political science. We feel, therefore, that such courses as they are able to take ought to bear more or less directly upon American government. (b) American government constitutes a part of the required work in the College of Commerce, and should, therefore, be an open course without many prerequisites. (c) No freshmen are allowed to enter these courses. We get only sophomores and upper-class men in them. For this reason we have a somewhat more mature group of students than we would get if we made these elementary courses open to first-year men. For this reason, too, we have felt justified in giving a rather comprehensive survey of American government without requiring a course in the elements of political science. (d) There is a feeling in the department that a course in actual gov- ernment is preferable for a beginning course to one which deals more or less with political theory and government in the abstract. 1 UNIVERSITY OF IOWA American government, a freshman elective of four hours per week throughout the academic year, has been the elementary course in political science at the State University of Iowa since 1903 when the course was first outlined and presented by Professor F. E. Horack. Three divisions of this course are now (1915-1916) being given in which 112 students are registered. At present Beard's " American Government and Politics " is used as a text, supplemented by library readings. The lecture method is very little employed in this course ; 1 Furnished by R. N. Story. 214 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT instead, oral quizzes, in which discussion and debate are encouraged, and written tests every other week constitute the method of in- struction. An important phase of the work in American government consists of the preparation of weekly papers on subjects germane to the ma- terial under consideration. This has been found to be an effective method of extending the reading of students and of acquainting them more intimately with the problems of American government. The following topics illustrate the nature of the subject-matter of these papers: 1. Should the President's veto power be extended? 2. Is a single six-year presidential term advisable? 3. Should debate in the Senate be limited? 4. Compare the power of Speaker Cannon with that of Speaker Clark. 5. Should political affiliations be considered in making appoint- ments to the Supreme Court of the United States? On Monday or Tuesday of each week the student must submit, at a designated hour, an outline of the paper assigned together with a list of at least five different references which he has consulted and pro- poses to use in writing his paper. On the following Thursday the papers are handed in (delinquent papers are reduced in credit). These are corrected and returned to the student when he appears the following week with the outline of his next paper. Papers are cor- rected not only as to the accuracy of the facts stated, but also as to the method of presentation, English, and orthography, special emphasis being laid upon the scientific use of foot-note references. 1 UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN At present the elementary course in American government given at the University of Michigan proceeds continuously during both semesters, three hours per week, two hours being given to lectures. The additional hour, nominally for quiz purposes, is made use of for informal discussion as well as for recitation. As there are over two hundred electing this course at the present time the group is divided into eight quiz sections. I am not sure that this is an ideal arrange- ment, but it is rendered necessary by the size of classes here in ele- mentary courses, and the relatively small number of men to handle the sections. The first half of the first semester is given to a consider- 1 Furnished by B. F. Shambaugh. INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 215 ation of the elements of government, using Leacock's " Elements of Political Science "as a text, with collateral readings in Jenk's " History of Politics," Sir Henry Maine's "Ancient Law," and other works that give a certain historical as well as comparative basis for the study of government. The lectures attempt to supplement Leacock. The second half of the first semester is given to a consideration of Federal government, using Beard's "American Government and Politics" and his readings as text and collateral reading. In order to make the work continuous, the treatment of federal government is carried through into the second semester, following which state governments are taken up and the second half of the second semester is given over to party organization. In this course it might seem that too much stress is laid upon the federal government, but this objection is met, I think, by the fact that no other course considers American federal government as a whole, and additional courses are open to those who have had courses i and 2, in state government and administration (2 hours per week, first semester), in local government (3 hours per week, first semester) and in municipal government (3 hours per week, both semesters). If it were not difficult to coordinate a four hour course with the general scheme of the undergraduate curriculum, I should enlarge the course to four hours per week, both semesters, retaining the two formal lectures, and using the additional hour for further informal discussion in small groups. Could these groups be limited to twelve or fifteen, I think we might have a satisfactory organization. In order to obtain as much informal discussion in the smaller groups as possible, a ten-minute written exercise is set for each of the groups each week. This usually directs attention to some phase of the as- signed readings. I try to make the lectures suggestive rather than encyclopedic, depending upon the readings to furnish a basis of com- mon facts. 1 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI American Government. This course is a prerequisite for all other work in the department of political science, except a brief two-hour, one-semester course in con- temporary international politics. It is given as a five-hour, one- semester course, and is based on Beard's " American Government and Politics " as a text. The instructor lectures to the class four times a week, and on the fifth day the class is broken up into sections of 1 Furnished by J. S. Reeves. 2i6 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT about twenty students each and a quiz is conducted upon the reading and lectures. Approximately half of the time of the course is devoted to federal government, and half to state and local government. The three points of view: structure, function, and growth or evolution are kept constantly in view. Little attention is paid to political theory, it being the belief of the department that such studies, which are still in a highly controversial state, should be reserved to the period when the student has acquired from the concrete study of his own and foreign governments the data upon which alone a satisfactory theory of the state can be constructed. One of the most valuable parts of the work of this course is the essay on some special topic which each student is required to write. The assistants in the course give considerable time and thought to the guidance of students in the preparation of these essays. It is insisted upon that every essay shall be accompanied by a topical outline, a bibliography, and appropriate foot-note references to ma- terial used. The topics assigned are of a kind requiring the use of documentary or other source material, and frequently involve origi- nal investigation by means of visits to or correspondence with public officials. Two conferences are held by the assistants with each in- dividual student during the preparation of his essay. 1 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN The elementary course in political science at the University of Wisconsin is "American Government and Politics." The course runs four hours a week for one semester of eighteen weeks. There are two lectures each week and two quiz sections, the class being divided into small groups of from fifteen to eighteen members each for the oral quiz work. Every three weeks a rigid written quiz is given in place of one of the oral quizzes of that week. The first two weeks are devoted to the origin and development of government. The next seven weeks are given to the history and adoption of the federal constitution and to the study of 'the subject of state government. Two weeks are then devoted to the features of party government. The theory of the course is to introduce the stu- dent to the various phases of government and politics as illustrated by American experience. No attempt is made to outline the structure of European governments. In addition to this work every member of the class is required to 1 Furnished by W. J. Shepard. INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 217 select for critical study from a list of books one on some phase of American government. The plan is found to give satisfactory results. The small sections for oral quizzes allow individual instruction. The written quizzes give an efficient check on work assigned in the text and assigned readings, and the assignment of a special volume gives an intensive study in a particular field. 1 3. That more emphasis be given to administrative methods and the enforcement of the law. One of the points of controversy in the making of schedules of courses in political science is to determine the relative amount of emphasis to be given to constitutional and political history, to the legal framework and organization of government and to the study of government as a functioning organ. Answers to an inquiry submitted to instructors, although usually based upon rough estimates, indicated that almost twice as much time is given to the structure of government as to constitutional history, and that as a rule the study of functions or "physiology of politics" receives more attention than legal framework and constitutional history combined. There is evidently a marked tendency in both colleges and universities to shift the emphasis from constitutional history (this subject being left frequently to the department of history or dropped entirely) and governmental organization to the anal- ysis and consideration of government in operation. The following comments are typical: Beloit: Greatest stress on functions, much effort made to show real vital activities of the present and how they rather than constitutional framework disclose real government. Columbia University: Within the past few years there has been a very marked emphasis placed upon the actual workings of government as compared with constitutional theory or con- stitutional history. 1 Furnished by Chester Lloyd Jones. 2i8 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT Grinnell College: We place the emphasis decidedly on gov- ernmental functions and activities. The historical side of our work receives the least consideration. Government as it is and as it promises to be is what we seek to understand. , Ohio State University: The tendency in successive rear- rangements of courses is to lay more stress upon governmental functions and activities. University of Michigan: While I cannot give divisions of time, I stress functions and activities rather than framework, though the latter is absolutely necessary to an understanding of the former, i. e., a knowledge of anatomy should precede that of physiology or pathology. University of Wisconsin: In all advanced courses a knowl- edge of constitutional and institutional history and develop- ment is assumed, and the functions, activities and forces are discussed. In the more elementary courses the emphasis is on constitutional history and strongly on legal framework of govern- ment. So far as it is possible to judge the content of courses by the brief announcements in college catalogues it appears that pri- mary consideration is given to constitutions, to administrative organization, and to the organization of political parties. In the courses in American government, the national government receives most attention, state government next, and then come in order local and municipal. The proportionate distribution of time which results leaves but little opportunity to deal with local government and gives but scant attention to the judiciary. In view of the fact that no small part of law is made by the courts, and that the average citizen is affected most by the rules as laid down, interpreted and applied by the judiciary, it seems strange that the legislative department should have been given compara- tively so much more attention by students of government than judicial administration and administrative practices. These topics are frequently treated inadequately in elementary texts INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 219 and often they are entirely neglected. The emphasis on the study of functions rather than machinery, the introduction of courses in administrative methods and the beginning of a more scientific study of judicial administration are all tending to shift the emphasis in government instruction. 4. That instructors in political science encourage students to pre- pare reports and surveys on actual political conditions. One of the general charges brought against teachers is the failure to relate the instruction given to the conditions and en- vironment of the students. According to this charge it is the purpose of education to give an interpretation of everything in the realm of nature and thought except the commonplace affairs to be found in the very midst of the school, the home and the community in which the children live. To a certain extent this charge is true as applied to instruction in government. The governments of Europe, the national government, and per- chance a slight glance at state government have virtually crowded out the study of local police courts, the townhall and county affairs and the myriad problems of local and municipal government. While the botanist, geologist, biologist and chem- ist have begun to make use of the marvelous environment with which each community is endowed the teachers of government have been exceedingly slow to appreciate the priceless heritage of social and political institutions surrounding each individual. The emphasis on community civics in the schools has begun to introduce a change in perspective and has tended to make the elementary study of government concrete and vital. Legisla- tive and municipal reference libraries and bureaus of research have paved the way for an exceedingly fruitful field for the col- leges and universities. A few instructors have appreciated the possibilities of putting students to useful endeavor and at the same time giving them exceedingly valuable training. The opportunity of turning to advantage some of the hitherto 220 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT wasted efforts has possibilities which can be only vaguely conceived. One need only examine the character and scope of the work accomplished by a few of the bureaus undertaking such investi- gations and reports to be convinced of the great value to the community and the excellent training gained thereby. Such bu- reaus may be converted into veritable government laboratories where are rendered available not only the recent literature on special subjects but also maps, charts and a collection of material prepared in graphic form. By the aid of small classes of mature students governmental surveys may be undertaken and much material presented in a form which can be used by citizens and public officials. Of course this kind of thing can readily be overdone and the work of the class-room can be easily cheapened by too frequent sociological excursions and holidays. Practical work needs to be specially guarded, sparingly used, and credit should be given only under rigorous conditions which meet the standard require- ments of scientific accuracy, completeness and thoroughness. Under such conditions work of this character may be made a valuable supplement and inspiration and may be so directed as to turn to the profit of the community. 5. That Reference Libraries and Research Bureaus be estab- lished for the purpose of rendering aid to government officials and interested citizens. The development of the use of charts in surveys and the presen- tation of government facts in graphic form for various purposes, along with the rise of reference libraries and bureaus of research, have had a marked influence upon the study as well as the operation of government. It is just as necessary for teachers of government to have a special room with adequate equipment as it is for teachers of geology or chemistry. In fact the nature of much material along governmental lines is such that it can INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 221 be collected, classified and effectively used only when concen- trated in a room under the immediate direction and supervision of the department. Maps, charts and graphic material should be used much more freely in all political instruction, and this will never be possible until separate quarters are set apart for this purpose. The use of government reports and graphic ma- terial, the preparation of such material by students, the proper preservation and disposal of documents and charts require a separate room with full equipment for modern reference library work and with special appliances for the constant use of graphic methods. The excellent work being done by the state universities through bureaus of research and reference on municipal affairs gives an indication as to what may be accomplished in the way of improving instruction as well as rendering extremely useful service to the public. Similar bureaus might well be organized dealing with state and federal affairs with the twofold purpose of serving as laboratories for the study of government and for rendering service to the public. 6. That provision be made for professional training for certain branches of the public service. More than thirty years ago Honorable Andrew D. White called the attention of educators to the fact that, in striking contrast with European countries, there was no such thing as training for the public service in the United States. Although the past thirty years have witnessed a remarkable development of university instruction along the lines of government, econom- ics, and sociology, the attention of the country was only recently directed again to the utter neglect of training for public office both in and out of educational institutions. Various committees of national organizations have investigated and rendered re- ports. National societies and local organizations have been formed to train for the public service. So much has been written 222 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT along this line that one is astonished to find how few positions there are for which special training is not now given in univer- sities and how rare the cases are that men specially trained for such service receive permanent appointments with adequate salary and opportunity for advancement. The committee on training for public service of Columbia University explains the present situation in some conclusions which may well be repeated here. First. The most important positions which are attractive to college men and women are filled by political appointment and are, therefore, on the "exempt" list. In New York City, the exempt class includes, besides heads of departments, deputy commissioners, secretaries of departments, all high salaried assistants to the corporation counsel, numerous accountants, auditors, and examiners, confidential inspec- tors, consulting and chief engineers, superintendents, assistant superintendents, and similar officers of high grade. Appointments to such positions are usually made by either elective or appointive officers, and the selections are determined largely by personal and political considerations. The persons chosen are usually lawyers, journalists, business men, or party workers. It is not often that a young college graduate is given a post of trust in the public service. Experience, maturity, and what is known in politics as "availability" are the controlling factors. The terms of such positions are limited and the tenure is uncertain. Although there are several conspicuous exceptions, a public career by the way of political appointment is very unusual.. To encourage students to prepare themselves solely for positions in this branch of public service would therefore be a breach of academic trust. Law- yers, journalists, and business men have their means of livelihood and independence until the desirable political appointments come, and at the end of their terms they may return to their previous occupations. But the student carefully trained in political and administrative science and disciplined by practical experience is not so fortunate if the desired career in official service does not open when he has completed his preparation. Clearly, it would be inadvisable for the University to announce that it is prepared to train men and women for the higher non-technical branches of public service, when as a matter of fact the system of INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES 223 appointments and tenures now prevailing in the United States does not offer adequate opportunity for careers in such branches. The fact that the Training School for Public Service in New York, sup- ported by the prestige of the Bureau of Municipal Research, has sent, in its three years of work, only eight or ten of its students into official service of any kind and only three or four men into regular adminis- trative positions of high character is an indication of the difficulties which lie in the way of finding satisfactory openings in official public service for those specially trained. With regard to positions in the official service open to college men and women on a competitive basis and reasonably attractive in opportunities and rewards the committee finds two classes. The first group is that of technical and professional positions, of which there are a large number in state and federal civil service. For these technical positions the courses now given in the large universities like Columbia are found to be well adapted to the preparation of students for examinations. A second group is designated as non-technical administrative positions, very few of which are regarded as desirable openings for a career in the public service. To offset these rather discouraging observations it is asserted that improvement in civil administration in the United States has originated in large measure in societies organized and main- tained by private citizens such as Bureaus of Research, Civic Leagues, etc., and that by far the most important openings for college men and women arise in connection with such organiza- tions as directors, secretaries, and expert workers. It is, the committee notes, "this unofficial public service that offers the largest attractions to college men and women and opens the best gateway to direct official service." Suggestions for a program of studies leading to the public service are then offered compris- ing: 1. Two or three years of regular college training including ele- mentary government, economics, etc. 2. One year of special training embracing such subjects as munic- 224 THE TEACHING OF GOVERNMENT ipal government, administrative law, government accounting, public finance, statistics and graphic methods, etc. 3. One year of contact or field work and observation involving: a. Budget making. b. The investigation of several branches of public administra- tion. C. The preparation of reports and recommendations on the basis of ascertained results. d. The practice of presenting oral statements of results in short form. Of a similar character is the "proposed standard regulations for the Ph. D. degree" prepared by the committee on Practical Training for Public Service of the American Political Science Association, according to which candidates for the doctor's de- gree in the social sciences may fulfill the resident requirements of three years' graduate study as follows:' 1. Two years' resident graduate study in some recognized institution of learning. 2. Practical work for at least eleven months in a governmental department, bureau or commission, a legislative reference library, a bureau of municipal research or similar organization. The above proposals are presented merely as instances of a beginning made to consider and to aim consciously to pro- vide training for the public service. Obviously progress will be slow in making provision for professional training in many branches of government service and even more slow will be the possibility of securing places for those competently trained. But the committee includes this recommendation chiefly with the end in view of encouraging the formation of such committees as that of Columbia University in order that attention may be called to the facilities now offered for such training, and that when deemed appropriate suggestions may be made as to modi- fications in existing courses or the addition of new courses, and further that the attention of students as well as the public may be called to the facilities now available for such training. APPENDIX REPORTS OF STATE COMMITTEES ON THE TEACH- ING OF CIVICS IN ELEMENTARY AND SECOND- ARY SCHOOLS In order to secure additional data and to offer a fairly accurate account of the status of instruction in government arrangements were made for the appointment of state committees on the teach- ing of civics. State departments of public instruction and the departments of social and political sciences in universities aided in the selection of the committees. The members chosen were as a rule teachers of civics, superintendents and principals, and others who are particularly interested in civic instruction. These committees not only rendered invaluable assistance in the gathering of data but also gave advice in the preparation of suggestions as to methods and courses of study. In a number of cases information was furnished but no formal report was prepared. For the investigations a questionnaire similar in form to that used in the Bureau of Education inquiry 1 was suggested in order to secure uniform returns. The results se- cured by many of the committees and the reports based on a careful survey of the state constitute an important record as to the condition of government instruction in the public schools. The committee on instruction regrets that not all of the thor- ough and interesting reports from these committees can be pre- sented in full. Owing to the limits of space, it has been neces- sary to condense the longer and more extensive reports. An effort has been made to include the most valuable portions of 1 See pp. -7450. 225 226 APPENDIX each report, and with but few exceptions the exact language of the original report is followed. I. MEMBERS OF STATE COMMITTEES AND STATE REPRESENTATIVES SELECTED TO AID THE COMMITTEE ON INSTRUCTION Arizona: Harold Steele, Principal, Tucson High School. Arkansas: David Y. Thomas, Chairman, University of Arkansas, Fayette- ville. B. W. Torreyson, Little Rock. R. E. Womack, State Normal, Conway. L. E. Bassett, Pine Bluff. R. C. Hall, City Superintendent, Little Rock. J. W. Kuykendoll, Fort Smith. C. H. Brough, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville. Alabama: D. G. Chase, Chairman, Central High School, Birmingham. John B. Clark, Guin. E. M. Shackelford, Troy. C. V. Thompson, Wetumpka. Foster Ausley, Central High School, Birmingham. California: William J. Cooper, Chairman, Berkeley High School. J. R. Sutton, Oakland High School. Roscoe L. Ashley, Pasadena High School. Anna Stewart, Los Angeles High School. E. G. Nash, Marysville High School. Colorado: Ira Nestor, North Side High School, Denver. Delaware: E. V. Vaughan, Chairman, Delaware College, Newark. ; J. E. Chipman, Principal, Delmar. W. H. Jump, Principal, Harrington. R. F. Friedel, Principal, Newark. W. K. Yerger, Principal, 2325 Penna. Ave., Wilmington. APPENDIX 227 Georgia: J. F. Thomason, Chairman, Superintendent, Bainbridge. Julia Flisch, Augusta. Florence Berne, Macon. Bethe Rucker, Brunswick. Lola Kestley, Americus. Illinois: L. A. Fulwider, Chairman, Principal, Freeport. Mary Childs, Evanston High School, Evanston. U. S. Parker, Quincy High School, Quincy. Silas Echols, Township High School, Mt. Vernon. W. R. Spurrier, Principal, Township High School, Princeton. Indiana: O. H. Williams, Chairman, Indiana University, Bloomington. D. W. Horton, Mishawaka High School, Mishawaka. Charles Roll, Department of American History, State Normal School, Terre Haute. Mrs. Hope Graham, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis. Iowa: Aaron Palmer, Chairman, Superintendent, Marshalltown. J. E. Marshall, Principal, Council Bluffs. C. C. Ball, Boone. George A. Brown, Principal, Burlington High School, Burlington. Alice E. Moss, W. Des Moines High School, Des Moines. Kentucky: A. M. Stickles, Chairman, State Normal School, Bowling Green. Charles Keith, Kentucky State Normal, Richmond. George W. Calvin, Superintendent, Springfield. J. H. Bentley, Superintendent, Paducah. L. E. Foster, Hopkinsville. Louisiana: A. J. Caldwell, Chairman, Principal, Hammond High School. E. F. Dummeier, Principal, Leesville High School. S. M. Brame, Principal, Alexandria High School. Grace Sharp, Shreveport High School. J. H. Dupuy, Louisiana Industrial Institute, Ruston. 228 APPENDIX Maine: Fred D. Wish, Jr., Chairman, Portland High School. A. W. Reynolds, Biddeford High School. E. S. Lewis, Auburn High School. Elmer T. Boyd, Bangor High School. Charles L. Smith, Principal, Bath High School. Maryland: Charles H. Kolb, Chairman, Principal, Westminster High School. Joseph Blair, Principal, Sparrows Point High School. Mary C. Ott, Frederick. Margaret A. Pfeiffer, Assistant in High School, Ellicott City. David E. Weglein, Principal Western High School, Baltimore. Massachusetts: Edwin A. Cottrell, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. Michigan; Carl Pray, Ypsilanti Normal School, Ypsilanti. Minnesota: N. R. Ringdahl, Chairman, Superintendent, Rush City. P. M. Magnuson, State Normal, St. Cloud. W. H. Shepard, North High School, Minneapolis. Albert J. Lobb, West High School, Minneapolis. F. W. Moore, State Normal, Winona. Missouri: Eugene Fair, Chairman, State Normal School, Kirksville. H. R. Tucker, McKinley High School, Webster Groves. William A. Lewis, Central High School, Kansas City. Lowry Doran, Springfield High School. P. P. Galloway, High School Inspector, State Capitol, Jefferson City. Alberta M. Ross, Springfield High School. Montana: A. J. Roberts, Chairman, Principal, Helena High School. Lewis M. Simes, Missoula. Margaret Boyle, Butte. Otis W. Freeman, Lewistown. Harold Westergaard, Billings. APPENDIX 229 New Hampshire: Guy E. Speare, Chairman, Littleton High School. C. F. Cook, Principal, Concord. J. F. Smith, Principal, Keene. E. W. Butterfield, Superintendent, Dover. E. P. Freese, Principal, North Stratford. New Jersey: C. Ernest Dechant, Chairman, Supervising Principal, Haddon- field. Sara N. Dynes, State Normal School, Trenton. Edward A. Parker, New Brunswick High School. Harry F. Stauffer, Principal, Washington Street Grammar School, Newark. Walter H. Mohr, Milville High School. New York: William W. Rogers, Chairman, Curtis High School, Staten Island, N. Y. C. M. L. Dann, Richmond Hill High School, N. Y. C. S. J. Jumnefsky, Julia Richman High School, N. Y. C. George D. Luetscher, Jamaica High School, N. Y. C. Harrison C. Thomas, DeWitt Clinton High School, N. Y. C. E. D. Lewis, High School of Commerce, N. Y. C. North Carolina: W. C. Jackson, Chairman, State Normal School, Greenboro. C. L. Coon, Superintendent, Wilson. L. Lea White, Principal, Winston-Salem. T. Wingate Andrews, Superintendent, Reidsville. North Dakota: Albert Vollweiler, Chairman, University. J. S. Bjornson, LaMoure. Norman Smith, Cando. R. B. Murphy, Michigan. Oscar Erickson, Hatton. Ohio: L. O. Lantis, Chairman, North High School, Columbus. Grace Morris, Defiance. E. M. Benedict, Cincinnati. W. H. Townsend, Ashtabula. H. J. Dickerson, Newark. 230 APPENDIX Oklahoma: Dr. Charles Evans, President, Central Normal School, Edmond. Oregon: Herbert B. Augur, Jefferson High School, Portland. Pennsylvania: W. D. Renninger, Chairman, Central High School, Philadelphia. D. Montfort Melchoir, Girard College, Philadelphia. C. D. Koch, State High School Inspector, Harrisburg. T. D. Brown, Peabody High School, Pittsburgh. Samuel E. Weber, Superintendent, Scranton. South Carolina: Frank E. Broyles, Chairman, Columbia. Elizabeth Baskerville, Orangeburg High School. Alice Stribling, Spartanburg High School. Samuel W. Anderson, Anderson High School. T. M. Seawell, Superintendent, Blackville. South Dakota: H. C. Johnson, Chairman, Superintendent, Aberdeen. Luman Sampson, Aberdeen High School. W. I. Early, Principal, Sioux FaUs High School. J. C. Lindsey, Principal, Mitchell. Joseph T. Glenn, Superintendent, Milbank. Tennessee: J. L. Highsaw, Central High School, Memphis. Texas: Rush M. Caldwell, Chairman, Dallas High School. C. C. Pearson, Houston High School. E. T. Genheimer, Principal, Waco High School. Thomas Fletcher, Visitor of Schools, University of Texas, Austin. Utah: L. J. Muir, Chairman, Bountiful. Enoch Jorgensen, Sandy. L. J. Nuttall, Spanish Fork. H. Claude Lewis, Filmore. P. M. Nielsen, Mt. Pleasant. Vermont: George G. Groat, University of Vermont, Burlington. APPENDIX 231 Virginia: J. M. Lear, Chairman, State Normal School, Farmville. T. J. Stubbs, Jr., John Marshall High School, Richmond. John W. Wayland, Harrisonburg. Edgar Sydenstricker, Lynchburg. Washington: E. C. Roberts, Chairman, Principal, Everett High School. C. A. Sprague, Assistant Superintendent, Olympia. H. C. Crumpacker, Sedro-Wolley. A. Lyle Kaye, North Central High School, Spokane. S. E. Fleming, Franklin High School, Seattle. West Virginia: C. L. Broadwater, Chairman, Mannington High School. J. H. Thornton, Wheeling High School. Minnie Lee Goff, Charleston High School. Dora Lee Newman, Fairmont High School. R. 0. Hall, Morgantown High School. Wisconsin: A. C. Shong, Chairman, Principal West Division High School, Milwaukee. Ira C. Painter, Principal, Wausau. J. W. T. Aines, Superintendent, Monroe. W. J. Hamilton, Principal, Two Rivers. J. J. Enright, Principal, Plymouth. Wyoming: Beulah M. Garrard, Chairman, Department of Secondary Education, University of Wyoming, Laramie. V. H. Rowland, Superintendent, Lusk. W. M. Baker, Superintendent, Worland. R. M. Shreves, Superintendent, Rawlins. Mary Persinger, Sheridan. II. REPORTS ON THE TEACHING OF Civics ALABAMA i. Grade Schools: The state course of study prescribes civics in the seventh or highest grade of the public schools. 232 APPENDIX Superintendent of Education estimates that there were 18,169 pupils in the seventh grade enrolled in civics total enrolment in the grades 467,876. There is practically no instruction below the seventh grade. 2. High Schools: (a) City: Among replies received, three schools Tuscaloosa, Gadsden and Birmingham report special work outside of the text. In all these the student government organizations are giving to the pupils excellent training for citizenship. The civics classes in all three are making surveys of their respective cities as to government, sanita- tion, parks, playgrounds, etc. In Birmingham jury trial, nomination and election of state officers have been enacted by the civics classes; a study of current events with class reports and general discussion has been made, and the different forms of county, state and city blanks and legal documents have been brought into the class, studied and explained. Last year the boys' literary clubs staged the state legislature and enacted several laws. At Tuscaloosa the boys of the civics classes have joined the civic league of the city. They are exempt from fees, but may attend all meetings, speak on any subject before that body, but have no vote. They aid the league by gathering desired statistics, serving as guides and escorts to noted guests of the league. (b) County: Time devoted to subject is usually four and one-half months of five periods per week. A majority of schools owing to the lack of library facilities and poorly trained teachers do not under- take to use parallel readings or to do practical work. One of the district agricultural schools reports that there is self- government in the school, fashioned after the state govern- ment and that the students are taught government at first hand. 3. Normal Schools: In the first year one-third of a year is devoted to Alabama history and elementary civil government. In four-year schools an advanced course in the senior class is devoted to American history and government. The actual APPENDIX 233 time given to government varies considerably. Text-book method largely used, supplemented by occasional lectures and a little laboratory work. Submitted by D. G. Chase, Chairman. ARKANSAS I. Preparation: Normal Training. Two courses in civics are offered in the Normal School at Conway. (a) An elementary course, such as is usually offered in the high schools. Boynton's text is used and this is supplemented by a con- siderable use of magazines, newspapers, ballots, etc. Required of all students enrolled in the "Rural Teachers Course." (b) Advanced course for seniors hi the regular normal course. Garner's text is used, supplemented by references to Bryce, Burgess, Ashley, Garner (Political Science), Beard, Wilson, etc. Considerable use is made of government reports, both state and national ballots, initiative petitions, printed bills, etc. Officials are invited to address the class and, when possible, they are taken to visit the legislature, the quorum court, circuit court, and the state institutions. II. Actual teaching: A. Grammar Grades: In the grammar grades many teachers pay no attention to civics until the seventh or eighth grade. They say that it is impossible, without unduly crowding the course of study. Others begin in the second grade and follow up with practical lessons in simplest form bearing upon community life, relations of citizens to each other, their privileges and obligations, "just as we do language and nature study," says one teacher. B. The High School: 1. In the high school, civics is taught all the way from the gth to the 1 2th grade. Most schools allow 18 weeks, a few 12. 2. The texts used range from such ancient books as Peterman and Blocher to James and Sanford, Garner, Forman, and one announces the adoption of Beard. For supplementary purposes such works as Willoughby, "Rights and Duties of the Citizen," Kirby's "Digest of Arkansas Statutes," and official reports are suggested for readings. 3. Little criticism of texts was offered. But one teacher replied; "A modern up-to-date text-book informing the students in the ele< 234 APPENDIX mentary schools what the rights and duties of a citizen are and how they may secure and perform the same ought to be published and be required by law, to be used in every school in Arkansas." A proper appreciation of the importance of local government is yet to be created. 4. In most schools, apparently, most emphasis is laid on what the government is, and how it operates, rather than on what it does and the place of a citizen in it, as in case of the grammar grades. 5. (a) No civic scrap book was reported. (b) Several report weekly drill in current events. (c) Some debates. (d) The Literary Digest, Independent, and daily papers are used for supplementary work. (e) Very few talks by public officials. (f) Many take opportunity to visit council meetings, courts, legislature, etc., and report on same. Submitted by D. Y. Thomas, Chairman. CALIFORNIA Summary of the report. Of thirty-eight high schools to whom a questionnaire was sent, twenty-one replied answering most of the questions. These answers will be summarized: I. Year in which Course is Offered: 9th grade 2; in Berkeley local civics free elective; in Sacra- mento local civics required of all pupils in commercial course, in Santa Anna, elective, loth grade none. nth grade 4 schools including 2 schools where it is begun in nth and finished in i2th, and including Pasadena where a pupil may take a single year in the nth or the i2th or begin in the nth a consecutive two years' course. 1 2th grade 17 schools, not including Pasadena, referred to above. In Berkeley and Sacramento, this work is required of all graduating pupils, regardless of whether they have the gth grade course. In general, the upper grade civics is part of a course in United States history and civics covering together a year (in most schools) or a year and a half (in a few, especially in Southern California). APPENDIX 235 H. Text-book Used: It was the opinion of the committee that the closest approximation to the content of the course could be obtained by asking for 1. The text-book used. 2. Portions omitted. 3. Supplementary work. With this in mind, the committee ascertained from State Commis- sioner Wood the texts used in all California high schools. This in- formation had been collected by Mr. Wood in the Fall of 1914 and the reports sent instructors showed no changes in the Spring of 1915 except that some of the schools had adopted American history and government by Willis M. West, published by Allyn & Bacon. These schools were using "Civil Government in California" by John R. Sut- ton, published by American Book Company for information on state and local government. Other than these two books, the committee found the following civics books used in California. The number of schools using each is also indicated. Ashley, R. L. American Government, Macmillan Co., 1908 93 Beard, C. A., & M. R. American Citizenship, Macmillan Co., 1914 9 Boynton, F. D. School Civics, Ginn & Co 6 Fiske, John. Civil Government in the U. S., Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1890 2 Forman, S. E. Advanced Civics, Century Co., N. Y., 1905-12- 15 25 Garner, James W. Government in the U. S., American Book Co., 1911 42 Guitteau, Wm. B. Government & Politics in the U. S., Houghton- Mifflin Co., 1911 8 Hart, A. B. Actual Government, Longmans, Green & Company 2 Hinsdale, B. A. The American Government, American Book Com- pany, 1905, 1891 4 James, J. A., & Sanford, A. B. Government in State and Nation, Charles Scribners Sons, 1901, n 2 Moses, B. Government of the U. S., Appleton and Company i Of the schools of three hundred pupils and over enrolled, all but three out of thirty use either Ashley's or Forman's or Garner's book, and each of these three uses a different text as indicated above. Since this information was collected, West's "History and Government" has supplanted one or the other of these books in a few of the larger schools, exact figures not obtainable at this time. 236 APPENDIX III. Methods of Accomplishing Supplementary Work: Practically all of the schools gave information on tbis point. (a) Seventy-five per cent used informal lectures, twenty-five per cent, formal. (b) Five per cent have typewritten or printed supplements pre- pared usually by the department head. (c) Ninety per cent make use of reports by pupils on outside reading. (d) Sixty per cent have pupils take notes on special reports made by pupils. (e) Approximately sixty per cent use a periodical in some way. In most cases, the periodicals are in the libraries and refer- ences are made to them, although some schools give courses in current history. (f) One teacher reports success in organizing the class as a legis- lature, political convention or the like. Several report success with visits to the city council. Mr. Sutton of Oak- land says, "I especially favor the plan of having pupils make personal investigations of various offices and institutions and report to the classes." Several teachers have written reports handed in, some of them being long formal themes on topics assigned by the teacher or selected by the pupil under the teacher's direction. Summary of advice on instruction in government 1. Eleven schools (fifty per cent of those answering) approve the N. E. A. plan l without change. Of the others, there was no agreement on what the change should be, although two disapproved the survey of vocations and one other would treat the survey and the community civics in a half year. 2. In reply to the inquiry whether two years to European history and two years to citizenship subjects was a desirable division of time sixteen out of nineteen replying answered "yes," two, "no " and one would give two years to the citizenship subjects, but cut the Euro- pean history to one year. 3. Asking what should be the make-up of the two years in citizen- ship brought forth many different arrangements, but most of the answers can be tabulated as follows: 1 Reference to recommendations of Committee on Social Studies. APPENDIX 237 United States History One year 13 United States History One-half year 2 Civics One-half year 1 1 Civics One year 3 Economics One year o Economics One-half year 1 1 Combination of Economics & Civics. .One year i One would include what he calls Elementary Sociology in the two- year course. 4. Regarding the amount to be prescribed. One year 6 Two years 10 Three years 2 Four years i One and one-half to four years, depending on the course i Under "one year " above are two classes who would extend the course in United States history and civics to one and one-half years and pre- scribe this amount. 5. It is impossible to classify the answers on the amount of time to be given to current events other than to state that about a third of those replying would give it approximately twenty per cent of the time, some of them setting apart one day in the week for it. 6. Eleven out of nineteen answering, would treat the local govern- ment first, seven would begin with the national government and one varies the practice depending upon current events. 7. Only eleven answers could be obtained to this question, which have been approximately tabulated as follows: Approximate time allotted to study of division of government: No. of days National State Local 20 36 3 25 14 2 30 3i 3 35 3 i 4O I 2 8. Eight believe a short general treatise should precede the study of governmental machinery, nine disapprove. 238 APPENDIX 9. Nine favor studying machinery first and functions afterwards with a review of the formal side. Six would take them up together and three assert that it is unimportant. 1 Submitted by Wm. J. Cooper, Chairman. COLORADO A. Elementary Schools: There is a state course of study which needs rewriting and unifying. The subjects suggested for civics in the grades are fairly satisfactory. In the county schools the aim is to have civics in the eighth grade. The number of pupils finishing the eighth grade of the rural schools is very small, and that means most of them get little knowledge of civics. The present state superintendent is endeavoring to stand- ardize the rural schools, about half of the rating being on a civic basis. The Colorado State Teachers Association is lending its influence in the same direction. B. Secondary Schools: The study of civics is practically unknown in the short-course schools. In non-accredited four-year schools it occurs in only about a third of the total number reporting, or in about twenty schools. In accredited schools it occurs in between sixty and sixty-five out of the seventy-two public high schools. The length of the course is usually a half year. In 1913-1914. fifteen out of sixteen non-accredited schools reporting it and forty- eight of fifty-two accredited schools reporting it, assigned a half year to the subject. The others assigned a year. In a half dozen cases the division may vary somewhat from a half year to history and the following half year to civics, but there is no question as to what is the normal condition in this respect. I might state, however, that in possibly a dozen of these schools the stress is divided fairly equally between history and civics, but the two studies run throughout the year in correlation. The attempt is to introduce all of civics at the logical point in history. Among the non-accredited schools about one-fourth require for graduation a half year of civics; among accredited schools the propor- 1 An appendix to the report gives a description of a course in Civic Prob- lems given in the department of social science in the Pasadena high school and the report contains also a very careful analysis of the content of the texts most commonly used in the state Ashley, Garner and Forman. The California committee also rendered valuable assistance in the preparation of suggestions for courses of study. APPENDIX 239 tion runs slightly higher. One accredited school requires a year. The others constituting some three-fourths, leave the subject an elective. The Emerson School, Denver, has in the eighth grade a senate whose function it is to encourage good citizenship by dis- couraging carelessness in school life. Small fines are assessed for ink- spots or badly kept desks, and so on. All the high schools reporting do something of a practical nature such as studying local conditions. There is a growing feeling that more ought to be done in civics and that it be vitalized. Denver is in the midst of a school survey and indications are that one result will be an increased emphasis on civics. A serious handicap everywhere is the lack of material with which to work. As a rule school libraries are woefully behind time. Books suited to a past generation burden too many shelves. In particular there is a serious need of a handbook giving detailed information about all of the state's affairs. It is fair to say that there is need of better facilities for the prepara- tion of teachers of civics. One of the most progressive and expe- rienced county superintendents writes: "The teacher's preparation should include courses in method, sociology, psychology, civics, economics; universities make no pretense at such instruction and too many of our normal schools are neglecting the all important task of first teaching the subject matter of these branches. An ex- amination of the catalogues of Colorado higher schools does not seem to show a single course directed specifically to this end." Submitted by Ira F. Nestor, State Representative. GEORGIA Tabulation of replies to inquiries made to ascertain the status of the teaching of civics in the secondary schools of Georgia (November, Number of questionnaires sent out, 75. Replies, 28. One of which reported no civics taught. Schools requiring the teaching of civics: Required of all pupils, u; Seniors only, 5; 2d year boys, i; elective, 5; certain grades, 2; not specifically taught, 2. Texts used: Boynton's School Civics, 3; Peterman, 3; no text, 3; James & Sanford, 2; Forman's Adv. Civ., 2; Beard's, i; Stickle's, i; Ashley, 2. Plan of course as to text and outlines: No reports, 6; text followed, 8; indefinite, 5; as part of Amer. Hist., 4. 240 APPENDIX Study of government of village, city, etc.: No report, 5; followed text, i; attention to topics, 6; Georgia government, i. Library work: No report, 9; interviews with officials, 4; visits to courts, i; limited, 3; library work for this session, i. Using some form of current events: Yes, 22; No, i. Cooperation of pupils in school government: Yes, 5; some, 7; none, 7. Aims for teaching of civics: good citizenship; awaken sense of responsibility; arouse desire to improve conditions; knowledge of government; self-government; make plain pupil's relations to the community (broad usage). Adaptation of teaching to aims: yes, 8; not good, 5. It does not seem worth while to try to make a very careful analysis of these returns, since they plainly indicate that civics has not ob- tained a very important place in the high schools of Georgia. How- ever, there are some encouraging signs, as: use of current events, attempts toward self-government, an awakening to the practical rela- tions of the study, etc. The time for a good syllabus seems to have arrived; such would doubtless help in making civics more prominent in the school course. Submitted by J. F. Thomason, Chairman. ILLINOIS A. Elementary Schools: Most schools teach civics in some form, some with great thorough- ness. In a few cases pamphlets on community civics have been com- piled by local teachers. These are used in class work, sometimes independently, but more often in connection with other subjects. The gratifying fact is that all feel the necessity of civics teaching. At present, however, there is no uniformity of method or material. In many cases it amounts to "incidental instruction in civics through- out the grades in connection with other subjects." The time is ripe for organization of material and the establishment of standards of method. There is an evident breaking away from the formal teaching of government as teachers and superintendents grasp and appreciate the rich content of the "new civics." The greatest need, probably, is for comprehensive outlines or syllabi for the use of the grades of city schools. In the absence of any system, genuinely efficient work is being done only here and there where there happens to be a well-trained and enthusiastic teacher. APPENDIX 241 B. Secondary Schools: This report of the Illinois committee is based on the replies to a questionnaire received from fifty-nine of the foremost high schools of the state. Five schools attempt to teach civics in the first and second years of high school. The reason is that many students do not remain longer in high school. They must be reached there if at all. These schools also teach advanced civics in the fourth year. Forty-seven high schools teach separate courses in civics, while eleven report a combination of history and civics. Several schools, particularly Chicago high schools, teach both separate and com- bined courses. Thirty-eight make civics an elective, while twenty- one report it required. In a few schools civics is required only in certain courses. All but one offer the subject five hours a week. Only two report a term of forty weeks. Fourteen offer twenty weeks; twenty-two, eighteen weeks; while in two or three, ten or twelve weeks are given. One semester is the prevailing term. Six offer com- bined United States history and civics. The following texts are reported used: by seventeen schools, Garner; fourteen schools, James and Sanford; sixteen, Forman; five, Guitteau; three, Beard; three, Ashley. In reference books Childs leads with thirteen, and there follow James and Sanford, Ashley, Guitteau, Garner, Forman, Kaye, Bryce, Beard, Fiske, Fairlie, Hinsdale, etc. Concerning the defects of present texts in government the following replies were made: wanting in practical and concrete illustrations; too much material on national government; too little on local govern- ment; too much emphasis on form of government; too much emphasis on history of government; lack of detailed explanation, too little emphasis on duties and obligations of citizens; formal, lacks inspira- tion, not lucid; not enough emphasis on functions; too dry; too academic; need more outlines and maps; lack of laboratory methods and practical lessons; not enough material on administration; not teachable for freshmen; too much theory; too technical. Summarizing, these replies evidently mean that the texts are too largely given to the organization and machinery of government, and far too little to the functions of local government. Teachers have not time to organize supplementary material and quite generally have not had sufficient training to write out comprehensive outlines or develop a syllabus. The time is opportune for such a syllabus. . . . The spirit of teachers, superintendents, and the public is ripe for its use. Any increase hi 242 APPENDIX reference books will not serve to increase the efficiency of civics teach- ing in the absence of syllabi that organize the subject and make it teachable. Twenty-four schools reply that the time allotment should be ex- tended, and twenty-four that it should not. While a few ask for a full year, the great majority asks for one full semester of eighteen or twenty weeks. Schools answering that time should not be extended are now offering as much as that. To find time for the increase is difficult. Two would omit ancient history. A few suggest cutting ancient history to one semester. One would correlate it to the English theme work. Another would drop part of the Latin course. The time allotment usually given follows: one-half to national, one-fourth to state, and one-fourth to local. The reason most frequently given is that such a division is followed in the text used. Seventeen schools report proceeding from local to state and na- tional civics, and eighteen from national to state and local. The chief reason assigned is that it is so given in the text used. Little improvement may be expected till properly organized material is pro- vided to be placed in the hands of the student. Eight replied that the chief emphasis is placed on the operation and organization of govern- ment, twenty that the chief emphasis is placed on the duties and obligations of citizens and community functions, and eight that emphasis is equally placed. Even in the case of the twenty, because of the want of organized material, it may be doubted if the chief emphasis is really so placed. Concerning the devices used in teaching civics, sixteen use a scrap book, twenty-eight have weekly drills in current events, twenty hold debates on political issues, thirteen report reading of non-partisan periodicals by the classes, seventeen provide talks to the classes by public officials, and several have civic and industrial clubs. Thirteen use the Literary Digest, eight the Independent, four the Review of Reviews, etc. Thirty-eight schools report personal field investiga- tions by students. Such investigations are sporadic and include chiefly visits to institutions, county farms, factories, court houses, city council chambers, conventions, etc. Forty-one schools report no system of student self-government. Not one reports a thoroughgoing system, though fourteen report some attempt at self-government in one or more phases of school life. Of those answering, none has an elaborated system. It consists mainly of student councils, advisory committees, literary and athletic control, council to control corridors, etc., class boards of control. All APPENDIX 243 seven report it an advantage in discipline. Some have "safety first" commissions, and school improvement bureaus. The aim of instruction in government in secondary schools is stated thus: to train good citizens; knowledge of government ma- chinery; to make real Americans not hyphens; to understand social problems; active participation in community life; to teach problems of good citizens; personal responsibility of good citizenship; inspiration; interest in civic affairs; self-control. Seventeen consider their courses in government adequate. The reasons assigned are: because it is practical; relatively, yes; study present-day civics chiefly; pupils get essentials; adequate as a formal course can be. Of the thirty-five reporting their courses not adequate, twenty-seven state that it is because of lack of time. Other reasons stated are: too much text-book work; formal civics will not produce good citizens; inexperienced teacher; emphasize local government; not enough practical work; students too immature; because elective; one semester too short to offset the influences of a saloon town; lack of preparation; lack of reference material library; lack of facilities. A majority report ample collegiate preparation. Forty-two teach- ers are university graduates; ten graduates of colleges, and five are graduates of normal schools. Thirty-five majored in history, econom- ics, political science, or social science. Three minored in the same. Two had graduate courses. Ten had taken courses in education in college or university. To the question asking for suggestions relative to ways and meth- ods by which instruction in civics and training for citizenship may be improved, twenty-two made no reply. By others the following sug- gestions were offered: use more illustrative material; require every high school graduate to have it; closer contact with community life; more field work; a real man teacher; better texts; a live specialist; make it more practical; make it more local; concerted action by col- leges and secondary schools to give emphasis; utilize school activities; more time; deal with living problems; arouse personal interest of students; should be in freshman year to catch students who do not finish high school; use of magazines; laboratory course; make the work for laymen, and not for the few who will become lawyers. What is needed most in Illinois is a suitable syllabus to guide teachers in the study of community civics. Submitted by L. A. Fulwider, Chairman. 244 , APPENDIX IOWA Summary of data collected: The majority of the schools are offering the work in the last year of the high school. Some are giving the work in the third year, and a few in the first year. The number of weeks given is mostly eighteen, or one semester. Some schools give two years, but they are divided between the ninth year and the twelfth year. Some schools give but nine weeks. The percentage of high school students taking government is from fourteen to seventeen per cent. The text-books in use are Dunn, Forman, Guitteau, James & San- ford, Macy & Geiser, and a few others. Of these Guitteau leads and James & Sanford is second. From this report of the work which is being done in our state, it is very evident that a great deal should be advised along the line of in- struction in government for the high school curriculum. Under the guise of correlating civil government with history and other subjects the high schools are practically doing nothing in the teaching of government. It seems to me that the schools should be advised first to change their plan of teaching to a community civics plan and to carry the work through two full years of the high school, or four half years of the high school. One superintendent who is now teaching civics nine weeks, says that it will be impossible to get any more time in his school for civics. Submitted by A. Palmer, Chairman. KENTUCKY 1. No syllabus is followed either in common or high schools in teaching civics. The teachers in the main have no guide except the suggestions of the text-books they use. The committee is unanimous in believing a good syllabus would help greatly hi getting better re- sults. 2. In Kentucky the law requires that civics be taught in both the common and high schools, and a text-book is adopted by the state for the rural districts and smaller towns. The larger cities are allowed to make their own selections. The common school adopted text is Forman's Essentials in Civil Government; the adopted high school text is Stickles's Elements of Government. Some of the other text- books in use in the state are Dunn's Community and Citizen, Allen's Civics and Health, in the grades, and Garner's Government in the APPENDIX 245 United States, and Guitteau's and Hinsdale's texts in the high school. It is a lamentable fact, however, that many cities of the state do not offer any civics course in their high schools. 3. When a text-book in civics is used in the common schools, it is always in the upper grades, in the seventh and eighth. The grades below these get practically no training in this subject at all. When they do, it is a few facts poorly correlated with other subjects. 4. To get proper instruction in civics for children below the seventh grade, and to reach those that so frequently stop school before reach- ing that grade is a hard problem, but one that needs attention badly. The committee agreed that better trained teachers, an awakening to the importance of civics as a subject necessary for good citizenship, a good syllabus rich in suggestiveness, civics fitted to the daily life of the mass of children, and civics connected with reading, language, geography, and history will help solve the problem. 5. The committee is unanimous in asserting that the teachers in rural, town, and city schools are not properly prepared to do effective work in civics teaching. In fact, very few in Kentucky are prepared to do effective work at present. To help this situation it is recom- mended that more attention be paid to civics in our colleges, normal schools and high schools, that the "civic viewpoint" be considered whenever possible in history and geography particularly, and in any other work that may lend itself directly to training for intelligent citi- zenship. Laxity in the granting of teachers' certificates is undoubtedly another reason why teachers are so poorly prepared. Since there is little interest in the teaching of the subject well, it is considered al- most as a non-essential, and almost everybody applying for a teacher's license is given it should he or she make fairly good grades in other subjects. 6. In a few towns and cities teachers use magazines and daily papers to interest pupils in current events and civic problems. Many teachers in towns and cities do nothing of this sort, and it is rarely done in rural schools. 7. The civics taught in rural or city schools should be essentially the same. However, since a large part of rural children remain as citizens in rural communities, while they need to know the general civic problems in the relation in which city, state, and nation are in- terested, need to have greater stress placed on strictly rural problems. 8. Only a very few schoolhouses comparatively in the state are used as social centres. This movement is growing with the training of live teachers who lead and direct communities to the school where 246 APPENDIX real civic problems are discussed. An aroused interest in economic problems, and greater activities in politics as well as in better schools, better roads, and the school as a social centre will in turn improve teaching in civics. 9. Other suggestions made to push forward better civics work in our public schools were: Too much time is given to studying the ma- chinery of government of the past, not enough to political and social questions of study; the work is not made to mean more civic purity, more obligations and duties to the student of to-day; cut from the sub- ject as much of the technical as possible, and train students to under- stand the government they live in. Submitted by A. M. Stickles, Chairman. MAINE A. The Course: We find that civics is taught in about all of the schools. There are, however, a few of the very smallest schools where the sub- ject is not included owing to the crowded condition of the curriculum. In a special letter, which this committee will soon send to the schools of the state, we shall point out the importance of this work and rec- ommend that a place be made for it. In practically all of the schools, civics is taught for one-half year. This is in line with the practice of the larger schools and is probably all that can be expected owing to the crowded condition of the curriculum and the small number of teachers. The tendency is to require it of all except the pupils taking the college preparatory course. However, there are yet some schools which make it wholly elective, a condition which we believe should be remedied. The exception in the case of college preparatory pupils is evidently due to the necessity of using all available time for prep- aration along the special lines required by the colleges and is fol- lowed by the larger schools. The general rule is to offer it in the last two years, especially the senior year. In two of the schools, freshman courses are attempted and in one of these it is in conjunction with another course during the senior year. It is the belief of this committee that if only one course can be given, that should be in the last year. However, we believe that civics on the "community plan" could be started in the grammar grades and might be offered to high school fresh- men and sophomores. However, we do not feel that we could rec- APPENDIX 247 ommend that it be required of the lower classmen because we can- not see where a place could be made for it. We feel that community civics for the younger students is a vital problem. However, we feel that in our state, the first problem to be attacked is that of perfecting the more technical course for the upper classes and that the commu- nity course may well wait until we get the higher course more nearly perfected. We regret that the time given to local and state government is very small except in the larger schools. However, we feel that the reason for this is the lack of material on those subjects as applied directly to the local situation and a general lack of knowledge as to how to attack these phases. We feel that better times are ahead. This year the State Department of Education has published an out- line for the study of state and local government prepared by Professor Orren C. Hormell of Bowdoin College. This has been distributed throughout the state and this committee will urge its use. In the teaching of current events the work attempted is gratifying. Most of our schools, even the smallest, are trying to do something with it. The success of the course depends on the amount of time available and unfortunately our teachers are not able to give the time which is necessary for the best results. However, they are alive to the value of this work and a good start has been made. B. The Equipment: The text-books are in some cases old and unsatisfactory. How- ever, judging from the majority of cases, we believe that the teachers are selecting the best books available as fast as they are able to intro- duce new books. In our small schools there is very little additional equipment; in some cases, none. Our larger schools are well equipped. I: The main recommendations of this committee will be for better equipment. In conclusion, we wish to state that Maine began this year on an active campaign for better civics in the schools. In our state teachers' convention, the entire meeting of the principals and superintendents was given over to this problem and the matter occupied most of the time in the meeting of the teachers of history and civics. The State Department of Education is taking an active part as is shown by the outline which it has published. This committee will endeavor to send out soon a special letter to the schools of the state containing recommendations to meet our peculiar problems. Submitted by Fred D. Wish, Chairman. 248 APPENDIX MARYLAND A. Elementary Schools: The elementary schools, as well as the high schools, in all the counties of Maryland follow the course of study laid down by the State Board of Education. This course of study contains an outline for the teaching of government, beginning with the first grade. The two subjects, history and government, are grouped together under the general head of conduct, and it is assumed that the two will be taught in a closely connected way throughout the seven years of the ele- mentary course. 1 A questionnaire relative to the use of the state course of study brought the following results: Replies were received from twelve of the twenty-three county superintendents of the state, and also from the superintendent of the Baltimore City Schools. Two of the twelve county superintendents heard from, failed to reply as to the use of the state course, and one expressly asked to be excused from giving an opinion on any of the points included in the questionnaire. Three were decidedly of the opinion that the course was not practicable for the country schools, and two of these gave a negative answer also, in regard to the town schools. The third thought it practicable for the upper grades of the town schools. Two admitted that the plan was followed only to a limited extent in both their country and their town schools. Of the remaining four, one con- siders the course impracticable for the lower grades in both country and town schools; another answers that "it depends on the teacher in both rural and town schools," and says that little is done in the lower grades in his schools; another replies, "I think it can be made prac- ticable in the country schools by correlating it with other subjects and I see no reason why it cannot be made entirely practicable for the town schools"; the last says, "The outline seems a little too full for the country schools, but seems well adapted to the town schools." In reply to the inquiry as to the extent to which the plan outlined in the course of study is actually carried out in (a) the country schools, and (b) the town schools, not one of the superintendents was able to say that the course was being closely followed in either class of schools in his county. The most of the replies indicate that very little is being done except in the higher grades. The principal reasons given for the failure of the country schools to carry out the course as laid down are: 1 For a copy of this outline write to the State Board of Education. APPENDIX 249 (i) lack of time; (2) poorly-trained teachers; (3) too many women teachers. The superintendents are practically unanimous in saying that the main emphasis should be placed upon the duties and obligations of citizens and community functions rather than upon the organization and operation of government. B. Secondary Schools: There are twenty-nine high schools of the first group (four-year course) and thirty-six of the second group (three-year course). Replies to the questionnaire have been received from eleven high schools of the first group, and from ten of the second group. These schools represent fourteen counties of the twenty-three in our state. Replies were also received from one of the Baltimore city high schools, 1 and from the state normal school in Baltimore. The course of study laid down for high schools of the first group by the State Board of Education prescribes a course in civics and United States history for all pupils of the fourth-year class. Four to five periods a week throughout the year are required, the principal having the option of combining the history and civics, or of taking them up separately, devoting one-half of the year to each. The majority of schools reporting combine civics with history. In the second group schools there is less uniformity of procedure, but apparently a fair amount of time is being given to the subject. Again the text-books used are Phillips' Nation and State, Dole's Civics, Guitteau's Government and Politics in the United States, Boynton's Civics, Fiske's Civil Government, and Steiner's Institutions and Constitution of Maryland. Among those used for supplementary purposes are Ashley's Ajnerican Government, James and Sanford's Government in State and Nation, Bryce's American Commonwealth, and some of the texts already named. It is generally agreed that the time devoted to civics in our high schools should be greatly increased. Some think that the present allotment should be doubled; others, that it should be increased to an even greater extent. Several of our most progressive principals sug- gest cutting down the amount of time devoted to foreign languages and mathematics in order to find time and place for the increase. It is the opinion of your committee that the greatest defect in our course is the fact that the instruction in civics is relegated to the last 1 Baltimore has a school system independent of State Board of Educa- tion. 250 APPENDIX year of the course. As probably not more than twenty per cent of the pupils who enter our high schools remain until the fourth year, it will readily be seen that some change should be made that will open up the instruction in civics to the great mass of our pupils. This, we believe, can be done by cutting down the required work in foreign languages and mathematics and giving at least two periods per week in civics to all first year pupils. In most of our schools the greater part of the time allotted to civics is given to national government, and the procedure is from national to state and local. A great many of the teachers seem to realize that they are wrong on both these points, some placing the blame upon the text-books, others, upon the supervisors. In many of our schools the main emphasis in teaching civics is still placed upon the organization and operation of government rather than upon the duties and obligations of citizens and community functions. Yet most of our teachers seem to feel that the latter is the proper aim and are striving to adapt their instruction to that end as rapidly as possible. With regard to the use of special devices to supplement their formal instruction, our civics teachers seem to be encouragingly progressive. Many use the civics scrap book and a regular drill in current events. A number have debates on political issues, which are used as a means of correlating civics and oral English. Almost all have non-partisan periodicals for the use of their pupils. The Outlook, The Independent, Current Events, and the Literary Digest are the ones most commonly used. In one or two schools public officials frequently make addresses to civics classes concerning applied politics. In several of our schools the civics classes visit court houses and city council chambers. In but few of our schools is local government made a subject of personal field investigation by the pupils, nor is much done in the way of studying annual appropriation bills, health reports, etc. Little is done in making surveys. Your committee is of the opinion that at the present time work of this kind cannot be done to advantage by our high school pupils. Systems of student self-government seem to have been but little tried in our state. One of our principals, who has had experience in other states, expresses the opinion that the School City is usually a failure. Only one principal expresses a favorable opinion on this sub- ject, and it is interesting to observe that this teacher is a very young man and of limited experience. In regard to what should be the aim of instruction in civics in sec- APPENDIX 251 ondary schools, our teachers are generally agreed that the main object should be training in the duties of citizenship, rather than a knowledge of the dry facts and technical details of our system of government. They also agree that civics should occupy a more prominent place in the curriculum. Very few consider our present course adequate for giving our pupils the proper training in citizenship. Practically all think that our greatest need in order to improve our work is an increased allotment of time. Generally speaking, our instructors in civics may be said to be reasonably well qualified. Most of them are college graduates who have specialized in history and government, and a number have taken advanced work, as a rule, at summer sessions at the great universities. In only five towns out of the twenty-one from which we have heard is any kind of cooperation reported as existing between the school and civic or commercial organizations. In two towns there are women's civic leagues which have cooperated with the school authorities in improving conditions. Instruction in the Baltimore high schools is similar to that of our first group high schools. In the Baltimore state normal school more time is given to the subject than in our first group high schools, and the work seems to be done in a much more effective way. Forman's Advanced Civics is the text used, and Hart is employed for supple- mentary purposes. The method of procedure is from local to state and national, and the main emphasis is placed upon the duties and obligations of citizens and community functions. Submitted by C. H. Kolb, Chairman. MASSACHUSETTS Questionnaire sent to Answers received Public high schools 258 141 Private high schools 7 2 Private schools (boys) 39 22 Private schools (girls) 36 14 Private schools (coeducational) 6 4 346 183 Schools reporting no courses given: Elementary private schools 8 Public high schools , 5 Advanced private schools 6 252 APPENDIX Answers to Questions: 1. What courses in civics are given in the elementary grades? No answer 44 Yes 33 None in school 57 With United States history 14 With general courses 5 No grades in school 6 The 7th, 8th and gth grades are specified. The gth or last year of elementary work usually has the preference. 2. What courses in civics are given in the first two years of the high or preparatory school? None 75 Yes 9 Community civics 62 With American history 10 Usually for one-half year or twenty weeks. The courses range from five hours a week for the year to three hours a week for the half year. 3. In the second two years of the same? None 1 8 Yes 32 Advanced civics 26 With United States history 76 College preparation 4 General courses 7 i. e., economics, current events, informal talks, etc. Usually found in fourth year and as a half course. 4. Do you distinguish between the framework of government and the community or social civics which treats of the functions of gov- ernment? Yes 103 No 13 No answer 14 Both treated 22 Framework only 3 Community civics only 2 Usually find first two years devoted to community civics and last two devoted to the framework. 5. What books are in use? State title and author. None 13 APPENDIX 253 Dunn Community and the Citizen 64 Guitteau Government and Politics in U. S. 34 Fiske Civil Government 33 Ashley American Government 23 Boynton School Civics 12 James and Sanford Government in State and Nation 10 Martin Elements of Civil Government 10 Garner Government of the United States 8 Nida City, State, and Nation 6 Beard American Citizenship 6 Guitteau Preparing for Citizenship 5 Forman Advanced Civics 4 American Republic 3 Elementary Civics 2 A few others are mentioned once or twice. Periodicals: Survey, Literary Digest, Outlook, Independent, Review of Re- views. 6. What form of syllabus is used? No answer 41 None 43 Bulletin No. 23 U. S. Department Education 35 Teachers' own 22 New England History Teachers' Association 8 Found in text-book 6 Others mentioned at least once: Hill, Butler, Hart, consular reports. 7. What methods of instruction are employed? No answer 34 Text and recitations 56 Local investigation, trips, reports 75 Collateral reading 13 Discussion on practical subjects 32 Notebooks compiled from reports and newspapers, etc. 1 1 Debates and forum n Topical assignments 10 Lectures by public men n Informal talks to school 7 Magazine assignments and discussion 6 Laboratory method 6 254 APPENDIX Current events discussed 5 Self-governing organizations 3 Cooperation with English department i Cooperation with town departments i 8. Are the teachers required to have any preparation for this work? No answer 18 None required 50 Preparation required (not specified) 51 General preparation 23 College preparation 5 Wide preparation 4 Assumed 3 9. What suggestions or recommendations would you make for broad- ening the usefulness of this subject? None, 73 Closer to community life. Marked emphasis on personal citizenship and its obligations. Personal service and observation. Compulsory attendance at town meetings, courts, etc. Sense of responsibility encouraged. More emphasis for those who do not attend college. Clearing house in state for distribution of information. Added enthusiasm of teacher. Begin in elementary school and continue to grave. More conferences for teachers of the subject. Required in every high school. Increase to full college entrance unit. More trained teachers. More college courses for training of teachers. Extended use of public night schools in citizenship. Live teachers less text-book. More text-book. Extended use of Bulletin No. 23. Text-book based on Bulletin No. 23. Increased sources of information. Extended use of survey of conditions. More laboratory work. More home discussion. Self-government in every school. Explanatory speeches by officials of the town or city. More time, broader scope, larger emphasis, compulsory, etc. APPENDIX 255 Correlate with other subjects. Less technical language. Text-books to fit local conditions. Protection of teachers from political pressure. More emphasis on economics or sociology. Remove it from lower grades in small schools in country dis- tricts. Colleges demand framework schools teach social aspect. Submitted by E. W. Cottrell, State Representative. MICHIGAN Twenty-eight schools reporting. Number enrolled in these schools 12,782. In what year of school is government taught? Twenty-five teach civics in the fourth year of high school. One in the second year. One in the third year. One in the third or fourth year. Number of hours per week: One reports eight hours per week. Twenty-four report five hours per week. Two report four hours. One three hours. Number of weeks in the course: Two report six weeks. Two ten weeks. Four twelve weeks. One fourteen weeks. One sixteen weeks. One nineteen weeks. Seven ' twenty weeks. One " thirty-two weeks. Five " thirty-eight weeks. Three ' forty weeks. One " forty-eight weeks. It is difficult to draw conclusions from the above report on the number of weeks in the courses as there was some confusion in regard to what was meant by a separate or combined course. I think that some of the longer courses include the whole course where two terms were given to history and then one term devoted to civics 256 APPENDIX alone. Some called such an arrangement a combined history and civics course. Is government required or elective? Twelve report required with an enrollment of 907 in classes now. Eleven report elective with an enrollment of 362 in classes now. Total enrollment of those in classes now 1,269, nve schools do not report on this point. Is the course in civics separate or combined with history? Nine report that the course is separate. Twenty-one report that the course is combined with history., What text-book do you use, if any? One reports' Forman, Advanced Civics. Two report Forman, The American Republic. Two report Garner, Government in the United States. Nine report Guitteau, Government and Politics in the United States. One reports Hinsdale, American Government. One reports Haskins, American Government. Seven report James and Sanford, Government in State and Na- tion. Seven report that they do not use a text-book. One school gives a course entirely different from the rest. Detroit Central High School devotes its whole twenty weeks of government to the study of city problems. No national or state civics are taught, and but two weeks to the organization of the city government and all the rest to city problems. What are the supplementary books used? Among those in use are: Ashley, American Government. Bryce, American Commonwealth. Forman, Advanced American Government. Garner, Government in the United States. Guitteau, Government and Politics in the United States. Haskins, American Government. What are the principal defects in the present text-books? Six report that they are not practical enough. Too much theory of government. Five report that they are dead and formal. Four report that there is too little local government. Three report that there is not enough about present-day problems, social and economic. Two report that they are not accurate. APPENDIX 257 Two report that there is much detail about the government, but not enough about the workings of the government as a whole. Two report that they are very satisfactory. There are many excellent texts. One reports that they are not scholarly. They make a cheap bid for popularity. One, not up to date. One, not "dynamic," whatever that may mean. One, indefinite, language hard for the students to understand. I notice some tendency for teachers to be influenced by the par- ticular book they are using. If they like it, all books seem good, if not, civics text-books are pretty bad. Does government get a fair allotment of time compared with other studies? Four said it does. One said it depended on the teacher. Twenty said it does not. Three did not report on this point. Time allotment for different phases of civics. In combining the answers to this question I find that national gov- ernment gets almost half the time, state and local government, the other half. What devices are used to supplement regular text-book work? Ten form a civic scrap book. Twenty-two have a weekly drill in current events, one has a monthly drill and one, a daily drill in current events. Twenty-three have debates on political issues. Nineteen have classes read non-partisan periodicals. Fifteen have talks to classes by public officials. Fourteen visit court houses and city officers with classes. Two have mock city councils. One has a mock court. Two have a mock senate. Two have mock elections. Two watch the enforcement of law in the city. One each of the following: Visits to state legislature. Visits to board of education. Student house of representatives. Separate class in magazine reading. Good citizenship league. 258 APPENDIX Names of periodicals used in classes: One uses Current Opinion. Seven, The Independent. Eight, The Literary Digest. One, The New York Evening Post. Three, The Outlook. One, The Survey. One, World's Work. Preparation for teaching government. Schools Attended: University of Michigan, fourteen. University of Wisconsin, one. Olivet College, four. Normal College, Ypsilanti, two. University of Alabama, one. Teachers' College, Columbia, two. ; University of Illinois, one. University of Chicago, one. Hillsdale College, Michigan, one. Vassar College, one. Degrees secured: Four, A. M. Thirteen, A. B. Two, Ph. B. One, M. S. One, B. S. One, LL. B. One, B. L. Twenty-three out of twenty-eight have degrees from colleges or universities and of these, six have degrees in advance of the bachelor's degree. Of these, seventeen have specialized in history and government; one each in history and English; German and history; law; science; English and history. Submitted by Carl E. Pray, State Representative. NEW HAMPSHIRE A. Elementary Schools: I. The state department is now at work upon a new elementary program which will be issued some time this year. . II. The elementary schools of the state pay special attention to APPENDIX 259 civics in the eighth grade. The study of the Constitution of New Hampshire is obligatory. Other topics covered are: 1. The Constitution and Government of the United States. This includes the work of the great departments. 2. Government of New Hampshire. Work in agriculture, forestry, education, etc. 3. Local Government. Administration of town or city in which the pupil lives. 4. Civics of the schoolroom, building, and playground. 5. Civics of the family. The personal virtues. B. Secondary Schools: i. The state course of study as prepared by the State Department of Public Instruction is used by the majority of the secondary schools. The course is known as the Constitutional History of the United States. All Seniors are required to take the course for the entire year, four periods per week of at least forty minutes each. Various additional lines of study are employed to give special interest and instruction to particular topics, as: Class organization into house of Congress or state legislatures or town meetings where the actual workings of these bodies are par- ticipated in by the entire class, bills are passed or deliberated upon. Debates on current events. The local city government is dramatized in each school and local conditions discussed. Courts are organized and trials conducted. Athletic organizations and other school societies are taught to conduct their elections upon the basis of a political campaign. Field work includes visits to city and town offices, consultation of records; attendance at municipal meetings. Library instruction is gained through constant study of topics for investigation by individuals with reports both oral and written. Emphasis is laid upon the ability of each pupil to stand and speak fluently upon all topics under discussion. C. Normal Schools: Neither of the schools offers a distinct course in civics. The state program is followed, and the prospective teachers are taught to use it in the practice schools. Submitted by Guy E. Speare, Chairman. 260 APPENDIX NEW YORK 1. Course of Study: In New York state the civics course is combined with American history in the fourth year of high school. Together they get 38 weeks, in some schools of four periods, in most of five. Of this time, in prac- tically every school less than 30% is given to civics alone, partly be- cause in the examination most weight has generally been given to history. One might add, too, most teachers flounder when they get beyond the rule of a compendious text-book, and limit the subject to the material that demands of them the least physical and mental exertion. Naturally that material is text-book material. 2. (a) Text-books: Without setting down a compilation more valuable for advertising purposes than for real enlightenment on the respective merit of the text-books, we may say that chief mention was made of Guitteau, Ashley, Forman, James and Sanford, Garner, Boynton, Hoxie and Sullivan, the last three dealing especially with New York state. (b) Supplementary Works: Congressional Record, City Record, Bryce, Beard American Gov- ernment and Politics, Beard Readings in American Government and Politics, Reinsch Readings, Kaye Readings, several numbers of the Brooklyn Eagle library including the City Charters, Tenement House Laws, etc., Federal documents such as the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, Almanacs (for statistical abstracts), state documents, publications of city departments, etc. The Munici- pal Year Book of New York City for 1912 is often mentioned. That of 1915, just out, is far better, and will probably be used extensively. Such magazines as The Outlook, Literary Digest, etc., were often spoken of, and more rarely newspapers. Proceedings of legislative bodies were also listed. 3. Defects of Text-books: As to the faults of text-books several teachers called attention to their emphasis on the organization rather than on the operations of government. Some stated that " they lack an interesting presentation of the subject " but neglected to say in what respect. One might deduce from other answers that this was due to the purely bookish character of the presentation, which failed to set problems, the great- est aid to interest. It is objected that text-books lay stress on ma- APPENDIX 261 chinery rather than functions; that they lack concrete Illustration as to the actual work done by various officials. In fact the feeling seems to be that the text-book makers are in the conspiracy to render government "invisible" certainly opaque. 4. Distribution of Time to National, State and Local Government: The answers here were few and disappointing. In the main the pre- ponderance of time was given to national government, although some regret was expressed that more could not be spent on local. The average proportion of time was 20 periods to federal government, 20 to state, and 10 to local, with the understanding that a good deal of federal civics had been taught along the way with American history. 5. Order of Procedure: The majority began with local government, although the order was sometimes varied to fit the text-books. The syllabus for New York state suggests going from local through state to federal. Yet one of our best text-books on state and local government proceeds from state to local, with gratifying results. On the whole the answer seems to be that the order should be natural, proceeding from the material and not the text-book. Chap- ters for a good text-book can make any order logical. For if instruc- tion is only from a text-book how is local government any nearer than national? Let us assume, however, that we do really objective teaching that we treat the text as a manual for occasional reference on the forms of government, so that the pupil can organize his real data the road he sees being built or the quarantine sign on the door or the notice of the sheriff's sale on the telegraph-pole, then the thing he sees first, probably facts of local government, will furnish his best point of approach to his new subject. 6. Devices to Supplement Civics Teaching, such as: (a) A civics scrap book. (b) Weekly drill in current events. (c) Debates on political issues. (d) Reading of a non-partisan periodical by class. (e) Talks to classes by public officials concerning applied poli- tics. (f) Mention any other devices used to supplement formal in- struction in classes. 262 APPENDIX (a) Several answered yes composed of clippings (filibustering, home rule in cities), of accounts of visits to public institutions, and of study of budget reports, etc. (b) Often engaged in but not in any formal way. (c) Generally done, although it would seem that this work should be standardized in cooperation with the English department, which emphasizes argumentation in the year civics is studied. In one school it was the custom for the civics teacher to supervise the compilation of material for debates, giving credit for it, whereas the English de- partment rated it on form and style. (d) Gratifyingly the rule. Many of these have been named in an- swer to (2). One might suggest that newspapers deserve a better trial than they have received. These are, if you rule out inspired articles and editorials, and accept press reports, real sources on civil govern- ment, and the political guide of the average voter. One teacher used them, explaining how his first attempt to distinguish obiter dicta from real news was most satisfactory in that the same article was pre- sented from three papers of widely different attitudes on every ques- tion. (e) Occasional. In New York City the pupils are addressed by public officials from the health and police departments to inspire them with a spirit of cooperation and helpfulness to those special de- partments. (f) Bulletin boards, visits to courts, addresses by students in as- sembly, use of ballots and other illustrative material in class. 7. Personal Field Investigation, Surveys and Study of Annual Reports. The answer in this case was on the whole negative with respect to field work. The city schools do, however, study the budget and many public documents. The work evidently fails because it is not syste- matic. Civic publications are not used enough when we consider their accessibility and value. The problem of city planning is touched on by some. Others require a comparison of receipts and expenditures for local state and federal government, and with a justification or the reverse of the relative amounts spent. 8. System of Student Self -government: In secondary schools there is little of self-government and no in- stance of its thorough application. Yet every school in New York City has some form of it. In one at least they use a system of class captains or monitors with good results. In every one there is some APPENDIX 263 form of general organization, with a supervising board largely repre- sentative, which is elected under regular forms. Formal self-govern- ment is treated with suspicion. 9. Special Preparation to Teach Civics: In the larger cities, especially New York, special training seems to be the rule. In smaller communities most of the teachers have civics because they "fell into it" as the tag end of a mixed program. Even in normal schools civics is often taught by a German or mathematics teacher, who is hired for his ability to teach these subjects, and takes civics because there is not enough in his chosen field to keep him busy. 10. General Conclusions of the Committee: It is not so much a syllabus that is needed as a method. The prob- lem differs in states, cities and even wards of a city, and the material at hand is in every case the proper material, if the knowledge to be gained is to be actual and character forming. It is our business to take this accessible material and bring it before the pupil, that by concrete instruction and experience he may, through greater interest, learn better and perhaps learn more. As for our opinion on the questionnaires, we stand united on all except order of procedure and the question of a separate course. Our opinions on these important questions are: On order of procedure there was a close division as to whether we had better start with state or federal government. It was decided that wherever it should be pos- sible to get 100 periods of American history and 100 periods of civics, with separate examinations, we should start with state civics but in case we do not get this arrangement, we should start with the national government. In most schools in the first term of the senior year, American history is taught down to 1865. At the beginning of the second term the history is concluded and civics at once started. It seems natural to take national government in that event first since the pupil has just been studying its history. But in case the civics course is to be distinct from history, the order should be state, local and national since the state is the source of all local authority and we must derive local functions from delegation on the part of the state. Since we are agreed that a brief -study of the outline of the organiza- tion of government and a consideration of some of its underlying principles should be given to the pupil to make his work on the details of functions coherent and intelligible, we decided that state must pre- cede local in any event. We voted for 100 periods of each with distinct examinations. We 264 APPENDIX felt that since a good deal of history since 1900 is incidental to civics, the history could be covered in 100 periods. We wish to recommend in the main the New England syllabus with modifications we will suggest later. Submitted by Wm. W. Rogers, Chairman. NORTH DAKOTA 1. Practically all schools follow the state high school manual and the requirement of the State Board of Education, 5 hrs., 18 wks., fourth year required of Seniors. 2. (a) Text Boyle, James E., Government in North Dakota, almost exclusively. 3. Criticisms of Text Out of touch with life as a boy sees it; local government overlooked. 4. Order of Procedure National to state and local, following text: Session of Congress or legislature influences the order. 5. Current Events are widely used and some periodical (Independent, Outlook, Review of Reviews, Current Events, daily news- paper, etc.) is usually read. Officials address classes here and there. Sometimes reports of local officials are used and their meetings attended. Reports given in class by students. Talks by teacher on local subjects and notes taken on them. Debates are not used very widely. 6. Practical devices and personal field investigation used only to a limited extent. 7. Is present instruction regarded satisfactory? Yes. Many, how- ever, answer "No" because of inadequate correlation with life. 8. Training of teachers. No special preparation generally. 9. Cooperation with public officials and civic agencies. Half answer none; half answer that bankers, lawyers, etc., address the class in civics at times. Submitted by A. T. Vollweiler, Chairman. OHIO A. Elementary Schools: A state law requires the teaching of civics in the elementary schools in connection with United States history. In most schools, the pupils do not have a text-book in civics, but the instruction is given in con- nection with the work in history. In too many elementary schools, especially in the rural schools, the APPENDIX 265 attention is given to a study of the Federal Constitution and the actual work done by the government, in the locality where the child lives is neglected. Very often the teachers of history have had little or no training in civics, and are not prepared to give it the attention it should have. In a graded school system teachers have more time and usually give more attention to it. The appearance of some elementary books dealing with the actual working of governments has called the attention of teachers to this phase of the work and they are giving instruction that will show much better results. Teachers are giving more time to the subject now, than formerly, so that there is an improvement in civics teaching, throughout the state. B. Secondary Schools (a) Weak Points: 1. In many secondary schools, the text-books in use are rather inadequate and often behind the march of governmental changes. It is necessary for text-books in civics to be revised every few years, and teachers and boards of education should see to it that up-to-date editions are in use. 2. Not enough time is given to it. American history and civics make a year's work, and often almost all the tune is used for the his- tory. It would be a better plan, if the course could be arranged so that a half year could be given to civics. 3. There is too often a lack of supplementary material. Pupils do not have access to books other than their text-books, and no govern- ment reports and documents are provided for the pupils' use. Much supplementary material may be had at little cost, and teachers should attend to getting it for their classes. 4. Too many teachers have not had the proper preparation for teaching civics well. In many small secondary schools, the teacher of civics must teach several other branches and cannot make the preparation necessary for the best teaching. It is sometimes shifted from one teacher to another. 5. The course for the secondary schools is usually so arranged that civics comes in either the third or fourth year. Since so many pupils who enter the secondary schools never complete the course, it neces- sarily follows that many of them never get the work in civics. A par- tial solution of this problem would be to emphasize this subject to a greater degree hi the elementary school. It might be taught earlier in the secondary school, but it seems best to have it come after the other work in history has been completed. 266 APPENDIX 6. In many schools the instruction is not closely enough connected with the actual working of the government. There are the local officers in every community, and pupils should be taught to under- stand the local government. Sometimes the instruction is carried on as if the government was a fixed thing and pupils do not understand that it is changing all the time. They should be shown how every citizen has a part in the management of affairs, and an earnest effort should be made to instill in the minds of pupils a high ideal of citizen- ship. (b) Strong Points: 1. In many small secondary schools civics receives very little atten- tion, but in those of the best grade it is required for graduation. This recognizes its importance as a prominent factor in the education of the future citizen. It is usually taught in the last year and is combined with United States history. From one-third to one-half the time devoted to history and civics is given to the latter. 2. Teachers generally make an effort to impress upon their pupils the responsibilities of citizenship. The attention of the pupil is called to many distinct acts, such as the work of the local, state, and na- tional officers in the community where the school is located, and he begins to realize that the life of the community in which he lives is very complex. In addition to this, teachers try to have pupils under- stand their relations to other members of society and their duties and responsibilities as citizens. 3. In our better secondary schools teachers are trying to relate the actual working of governmental machinery and the theoretical dis- cussion of the text-book. They are doing this by using the reports of various commissions and officers, the Congressional Record, magazine articles, and newspapers. Submitted by L. O. Lantis, Chairman. VIRGINIA A. Preparation of the Teachers of Civics: Three sources of information lay open to us, the report of the department of education, the catalogues of the colleges, and the re- plies to the questionnaire. All of the information in the possession of the department is embodied in its annual report for the year 1914- 1915. From this we learn that in the session 1914-1915 there were in the state 1,320 high school teachers. Of these, 630 48% had at- APPENDIX 267 tended a standard college two or more years. ("Standard" is used in contrast to the "Junior" college which is also recognized by the de- partment of education.) How many of the 630 "college trained teachers" had attended college two years, and how many three or four years, it was impossible to ascertain either from the report or from the department. All of the standard colleges except one offer one or more courses in political science. These courses are elective except in one college and are usually given in the junior or senior year. We may safely assume that of the 630 "college trained teachers" none who attended college two years only had taken any course in political science, and many of those who attended three or four years did not select it as one of their electives. And certainly some of those who did take political science are teaching other subjects and not civics. On the other hand, we have another source from which to draw our teachers. There were 118 graduates of normal schools teaching in the high schools in 1914-1915. Practically all of these had taken some work intended to fit them to teach civics. Though it is true of course, that not all of the 118 were teaching civics. As stated above, all of the standard colleges and universities of the state, except Virginia Polytechnic Institute offer one or more courses in political science. In one college only, is the course required. These courses as a rule are open to the objection as far as the preparation of the teachers of civics is concerned that they deal with the theory of government to the exclusion of the structure and the function of government. The four normal schools offer courses in civics and civics teaching which are required for those who are training to teach in the upper grammar grades or the high schools. The questionnaire replies are too indefinite to be used except to confirm the conclusion which the above facts seem to warrant, viz.: A large number, per- haps 50 per cent, of the teachers of civics in the high schools of the state have had no special preparation to fit them for their position. B. Text-Books and Syllabus: So far as we can learn there never has been any civics syllabus, outline, or other helpful material published in the state. The recent course of study for the high schools of Virginia contains the following statement for the guidance and help of the civics teachers. . . . "The study of civics is as far as possible to be correlated with the study of history, and civics should be taught, especially in its relation to citizenship. Local government, municipal government, state and federal government should be taken up in order. The proper study 268 APPENDIX of the county or city as a unit of government will add greatly to the preparation for intelligent citizenship, . . ." p. 28. "With American history comes civics. If civics is taught in the first or second year Forman's Essentials in Civil Government is the text to be used, if in the third or fourth year Forman's Advanced Civ- ics," p. 29. The state reading course contains no book on its list of direct value to the teacher of civics. C. Time Allotment, etc: The state course of study requires that civics be taught in the last year of the high school in connection with American history. One hundred and eighty forty-minute periods are required for the two during the session. No provision is made as to the division of the time between the two. The replies to the questionnaire were com- paratively so few and of such an unsatisfactory nature that but little weight can be placed upon them. From the replies received we learn the time allotted civics varies from 36 to 90 periods per session. The replies were about evenly divided as to the sufficiency of the time allotment and the adequacy of the courses to train for citizenship. The only suggestion as to how this training could be better given was that some work along this line should be undertaken in each grade beginning with the fourth grade and continuing throughout the high school. The order followed is usually that of the text, national, state, local. On the other hand, a large percentage follow the order, local, state, national. A very large percentage stress the duties of citizen- ship rather than the form or function of government, and with few exceptions some devices are employed to vitalize the subject such as debates, newspaper reports, discussions of current events, and local excursions. The replies to this question form the one bright spot upon a rather dull sky. Submitted by J. M. Lear, Chairman. WASHINGTON A. Normal Schools: There are three normal schools in this state, two of which report courses in civics. These courses are classified as of high school rank, and no courses are offered in the methods of teaching civics. The teachers who have charge of the work are well trained but not in this special line: the work is in the hands of women teachers who majored in English. Few devices, such as visiting court, civics scrap books, APPENDIX 269 debates, talks by professional men, etc., are used in any of the normal schools. Each school states definitely that the average teacher going out into the rural or graded work is not sufficiently prepared to teach the subject of government. The normal schools recommend the use of the combined American history and civics course for secondary schools and believe that a suitable book could and should be prepared for use in the grades. B. Civics in the Schools of Spokane, Seattle and Tacoma. 1. Elementary Schools: In Spokane six weeks are given to the study of civics, the work being based on Reinsch's Civil Government. In Seattle and Tacoma in- struction in civics begins in the 6th grade. It is presented incident- ally in ^connection with a study of the history of the state of Wash- ington.* From this time on local civics is emphasized, with the aim to create in the child a consciousness of his immediate social environ- ment. In the last half of the 8th grade a text is used, Dunn, The' Community and The Citizen. 2. High Schools: In the high schools of Spokane a separate elective semester course in civics is offered in the second, third and fourth years. Forman's American Republic is made the basis of the work, supplemented by the city charter, state constitution, and collateral reading. About one-third of the semester is devoted to a consideration of municipal and state government, and the development of the subject proceeds from national to state and local forms. The main emphasis in one high school is laid upon the organization and operation of government, in the other, upon the duties and obligations of citizens. The course in civics in Seattle and Tacoma is for one semester and is open to juniors and seniors. . The class meets five times per week. A one semester course is offered in United States history. This course is separate from the civics and is not a prerequisite for the course hi civics or vice versa. However, students that take the civics usually take the United States history also, because of the recommendation of the history faculty and the expressed preference of the University of Washington for United States history and civics as the year's his- tory required for entrance. In two out of six courses in Seattle civics is a required subject; in one out of four courses it is a required subject in Tacoma. In Seattle the text used is James and Sanford, Government in 270 APPENDIX State and Nation. In Tacoma it is Guitteau, Government and Pol- itics in the United States. Supplementary to the text the following are reported as being used: Bryce, American Commonwealth; Haskins, American Government; Hart, Actual Government; Beard, American Government; Chandler, History of the State of Washington; the State Constitution and the City Charter. The unanimous opinion of the teachers is that one semester provides ample time for the teaching of civics as a separate course. The com- plaint is just as unanimous that civics is not required in all courses and that too few follow up the civics with the study of economics. The order of development is generally to proceed from local to state and national affairs. All of the teachers report an extensive use of periodical literature and the special devices to increase interest in current events and the practical obligations of citizenship. The prep- aration of the teachers in these schools is adequate and the work as a rule satisfactory. C. Town and Smaller City High Schools of Washington: The material in this report has been gathered from the replies to a questionnaire sent out to the accredited high schools of the state, outside of Seattle, Spokane, and Tacoma. Fifty-five replies have been received from high schools whose enrollment runs from thirty-five to nine hundred and fifty. The course in civics is a one semester course required of practically all students in the junior, or senior year, and alternates with a semester of American history. The course as offered follows closely the course as outlined in the State Manual, and is usually given in the second semester of each school year. The only variation from this plan that the replies to the questionnaire reveal is the one-year combined American history and civics course. A wide range of text-books is in use Ashley leads with thirteen schools reporting its use, and Guitteau, Garner, Chandler and Forman follow in the order named. The new combined American history and civics by Professor West is receiving favorable comment and some use. As supplementary texts, a large number of books are in use, including Bryce, Ashley, Reinsch, Beard, Wilson, etc. Wide difference of opinion is found among the school men of the state as to whether a sufficient amount of time is now given to the study of civics. While twenty-two of those reporting desire a longer period of time in which to do justice to the subject, eleven others express the opinion that we now have enough time for the proper in- APPENDIX 271 culcation of the ideas and ideals we desire to impress providing the time is properly used and the work vigorously prosecuted. In the relative amounts of time given to each division of the subject the standard seems to be to devote one-third of the time to each ch'vi- sion. The most notable variation from this scheme is the giving of one-half of the time to the national government and one-fourth each to state and local government. Two schools report that one-half of the time is given to local government, and the other half divided between national and state. If error is made in this respect in Wash- ington, it is, we should say, in giving too much time to the national government and not enough to local government. Two-thirds of the schools report that they develop the government of the nation first, passing afterwards to the state and local govern- ments. Defects in Text-Books: The defect most often mentioned is that they do not cover state and community requirements, and from the nature of things that is impossible. A more just criticism is that they do not sufficiently em- phasize the duties of citizenship. Likewise the criticism is in most cases just that they do not discuss the newer forms of government, commission form, etc. We are not as one in what constitutes the ideal text, for one teacher finds the text at fault in being too general, while another criticizes another text for giving too much attention to de- tails. In the same way, one teacher complains that the texts do not link the past to the present, while another declares the texts at fault for paying too much attention to the history of the institutions. A number complain that the texts in use are too technical and abstract, and give too much attention to form. Charges that the texts are not pedagogical, that they ought to present the fundamentals of ele- mentary law, and that they do not correlate the work with history, economics and other subjects, call attention to the difficulties of the book makers in pleasing all the teachers of the subject. The observa- tion of one superintendent so aptly covers our own impression of the matter that we are pleased to quote it. "There may be some defects, but the improvements in modern text-books on civics is so apparent that we ought to be satisfied for a time." Plan of Instruction in Government: Eight teachers of civics frankly state that their plan is to develop the organization of government and show how it works, while twenty- 272 APPENDIX two others just as frankly declare that they plan for the training of their students in the duties and obligations of citizenship. Twelve teachers declare that their plan covers both sides of the question, and by developing the organization and operation of government, they seek to develop the sense of the responsibilities of citizenship. Aids in Teaching: In some twenty schools a civics scrap book is maintained, and in others a bulletin board in the class room gives opportunity to post clippings, pictures and other items of interest. Practically all the schools have frequent drill in current events, and since the State Department of Education organizes and carries through a very exten- sive series of inter-high-school debates, which are political or economic in nature, they also have frequent debates. Over half of the schools reporting have talks by people in authority. The use of magazines, of which the Digest leads, with the Independent, Outlook, Current Opinion and the Review of Reviews in order, is also reported. Several interesting special developments may be noted: trips or tours, classes organized as clubs or political bodies, research work and reports on special municipal topics, elections, etc. Through visits to courts, city halls, etc., and by interviews with officials, two-thirds of the schools are able to awake a large degree of interest in local affairs. Realization of Aims: Those who have made special preparation to teach this work have no hesitation in saying that it is the most important of the subjects in the high school curriculum, and others place it on a par with any of the other work. Few there are who do not feel that civics is essen- tial to the person of ordinary intelligence. Many of the teachers feel that the instruction in civics would be more far-reaching if it were better correlated with history, economics, English, and other high school subjects. In that way only can its academic flavor be lost and can it become a part of the life of the students. A considerable number of teachers believe that when the elementary work is well done we are realizing the aims of civics teaching in as large a measure as the immaturity of the pupils and the limited time at our disposal permit. On the other hand, a much larger number of teachers believe we are falling far short of our ideals. Several would like time to trace out some of the bearings of political action upon economic problems or sociology. Over and over, complaint is made that nothing can be done except to present the framework of govern- APPENDIX 273 ment because the time allotment is so short. Others feel that the near- at-home problems have had no consideration, and the pupils are too immature to get the full significance of the work. D. Final Summary and Recommendations: 1. Civics should be a required subject for graduation in every course in the high school. 2. To provide training in citizenship for the great number of our high school students who attend high school only for one or two years, a course should be offered in the freshman or sophomore year. The subject-matter of this course should be largely sociological. If a separate course of this kind is impossible in any high school, then there could be substituted regular work hi current history or current events, the material to be gathered from periodical literature and newspapers. Work of this kind could be done either in connection with the regular English or history courses in the freshman and sophomore years. Whether the course suggested were provided or the substitute, the object would be to awaken the students to a knowledge of and an in- terest in the social life and problems of their own time. We need to vitalize the work for the girls to the end that they may be as in- telligently trained for the suffrage as the boys. 3. The subject-matter of civics as now taught hi the third or fourth year of high school should include more of the practice and less of the theory of government. It should emphasize what a citizen can do and how he can do it. There should be a well denned plan for the study of present day problems. Local government and the problems of the students' immediate social environment should receive more attention. 4. Along with a change in subject-matter there should be a change in methods of instruction. A variety of devices should be resorted to in order to vitalize the subject and make it as far as possible experi- mental for each student. Such devices include scrap books, bulletin boards for the posting of clippings, talks to the class by local officers, visits to centres of community interest, debates, etc. The survey upon which this report and these recommendations are based shows that civics teachers are eager to avail themselves of such devices, but the crowded program of the rural and small town teacher leaves little tune or opportunity for originality in methods of instruction. The way to help such teachers is to suggest such devices as have been found practicable and give full details for their use. 5. The work in civics should be thoroughly standardized by the use of outlines, and, if necessary, by uniform examinations. 274 APPENDIX 6. The State Board of Education should provide at cost to the high schools of the state, a state manual. This manual should contain outlines and helps for the teaching of local and state civics. It should also contain portions of the State Constitution and a brief of State history. 7. There should be full and adequate training in civics and in the teaching of civics provided in the normal schools of the state for all graded and rural teachers. Every teacher should have the prepara- tion to fit him to give instruction in citizenship and such instruction should be given in one way or another by every teacher. The fact that the teaching of civics is assigned to a particular teacher as a separate course, does not relieve other teachers from the responsibility of teaching citizenship any more than the fact that emphasis is placed on spelling and grammar in a particular division of the school dis- charges other teachers from giving attention to these subjects. Since the development of the "citizen spirit" is the great justification for devoting time to civics in the high school, we must secure teachers who have not only the facts of the subject, but also an ardor and "citizenship spirit" which are contagious. 1 Submitted by A. C. Roberts, Chairman. WEST VIRGINIA The greater number of our high schools follow the direction of our state manual as to the time given to the teaching of government, that is, they give one semester of the senior year to the subject of govern- ment exclusively. Five recitation periods per week are devoted to it for a period of eighteen weeks and one-half credit is granted for the completion of the work. There are variations, however, from the mean average as to time. In some of the smaller high schools, govern- ment as a specific subject is not taught at all, and in many of the larger ones a whole year is now devoted to it. The number of high schools which do not teach government as a specific subject of their pro- grams is very few, and the number of schools that are adding another half year is steadily increasing. The course in government is elective in some high schools, but in the majority of them it is regarded so highly as to be a required subject. 1 The committee also submitted a suggested plan of course for the elemen- tary school, junior high school and fourth year high school. As the essential features of this plan are embodied in the recommendations of the Committee of Seven (pp. 78-111) it was thought unnecessary to include the plan here. APPENDIX 275 The requirement for American history and government in the stronger high schools is almost as universal as the requirement for English. It is the opinion of most of those who answered our questionnaire that the subject of government is one of the most important and most practical that can be taught in a democratic republic. In schools which give a whole year to government, the first course is generally one in community civics, a course which lays emphasis upon local conditions and local government. This course is a new one and is not yet required to any great extent, although it is regarded as a very valuable addition to the program of studies. It is usually given in the first year with Dunn's Community Civics as a text, supplemented by a study of local conditions. The course in advanced civics is usually given in the fourth year, and consists of a study of our whole governmental system, local, state and national. This is the course that is generally required. In addi- tion to this course, economics is given in a few high schools as an elective subject. Forman's The American Republic is the favored text in West Virginia, since it is adopted by the state school book board. There are several high schools which by reason of the dense population of the community where they are located, are not bound by the action of the board. These schools have various texts: Forman's, Ashley's, Guit- teau's, Garner's, James and Sanford's, and Andrews's Manual of the Constitution. The one last named is used in a preparatory school, not a high school. One school reported no special text which of course means no special study of the subject. As to reference books, supplementary works, etc., many answered "too numerous to mention." Among those mentioned are Bryce's American Commonwealth, Beard's books on the subject, Fiske's Critical Period, Ashley's American Federal State, Taussig's Tariff History, Garner's Introduction to Political Science, various other texts on government, the Congressional Record, public documents, constitutions, treaties and current magazines. It seems that our first class high schools are well provided with reference books. Many and varied comments were made concerning defects in the text-books. Several of these follow. "The emphasis is wrongly placed, too much national and too little local." " Too much organiza- tion and operation, too little of duties and obligations of citizens." "Illogical arrangement, along with absence of clarification and of emphasis of fundamentals." "Too much theory." "They are not written for secondary work." "Too wordy and too abstract." "Too 276 APPENDIX much form and not enough actual working." "Not up to date." "No supplement for the state government." The last comment refers to the lack of any description of any sort of the government of the particular state in which the subject is taught. A few of those who answered said they were very well satisfied with their texts and thought there were several good texts in existence. The predominance of opinion on the question of extension of time for the subject is favorable to the increase. Two-thirds of the answers received indicated this opinion. Most of them favored extension of time to one full year for government alone. A few wanted one and one-half years for American history and government combined. Various suggestions were made to provide for this extension. One advised to drop English history; another, to shorten the time for ancient, mediaeval and modern history; others, to reduce the time for Latin, mathematics and possibly English; and still others, to lengthen the high school course. The majority of those answering the questionnaire agree that the proper procedure in the order of teaching the various divisions of the subject is from local, through state, to national, but there are several who still think that the reverse is the proper way. About two-thirds of the schools place the emphasis upon the duties and obligations of citizens rather than upon the organization and operation of the government. About one-third favor the reverse em- phasis. Although the theory of the first is more favored, the practice of the second seems the easier. Many devices to supplement the teaching are used in our high schools. About one-third of the schools which reported use a civics scrap book, and nearly all have drills on current events. Three-fourths of them have debates on political issues; one-half have talks by public officials concerning applied politics. Practically all have parallel read- ing. Other devices which were reported, but are not very widely used, are: the student legislature, holding of elections under the regular system, trials, special home survey and report of such sur- veys. Local government is made a subject of personal field investigation by the pupils in one-half of the schools reporting. The investigation generally takes the form of visits to officials at work and interviews. Inspection of actual conditions prevails in many schools, especially in the matters of health, sanitation, water supply, etc. This phase of the study of government has grown into actual cooperation with city officials in some cities for the purpose of accomplishing some es- APPENDIX 277 pecially desired end, for instance, in the campaign for a new school bond issue in Huntington, West Virginia. The investigations are always followed by reports and papers, which of course compel or- ganization of material. The systems of student self-government in West Virginia high schools are practically negligible so far as number is concerned. There are only a very few and those are not reported as completely successful in any special way. This is comparatively a new thing here, and is now just being tried out for the first time in a few places. One school reported a school city plan of organization; another, an organization on state and national plan; one other, a student council; and still another, a student body association which took care of all matters of general interest to all the high school. No particular effect on dis- cipline is reported from any of these. Some thought a knowledge of parliamentary law was gained, a fact of no discriminating value, but none mentioned any appreciable effect upon civic relations. There were many answers to the question on the aim of instruction in government, but not all need be included in this report. A repre- sentative list of the answers, however, is necessary. The principal answers follow: "To train for intelligent citizenship." "To make ef- ficient citizens." "To acquaint with duties as citizens." "To teach practical problems of citizenship." "To familiarize pupils with our system, and to create a desire to be good citizens." "Right notions of conduct, clean politics, and willingness to support authority;" "To make plain to each that he is growing into citizenship and to instill into each the duties and privileges of a citizen." " To cultivate proper ideals of civic and social conduct and to inspire action toward the at- tainment or realization of the ideals." With reference to the relation of government to the other subjects of the secondary curriculum, the majority of answers indicated that it should be closely interwoven with history; that it should be cor- related with English, with economics and with science; and, that it should be required for one year. This is only the opinion of the ma- jority of those who answered the particular question. Most of the schools reporting did not answer the question. Upon the assumption that the aim of instruction in government is to train for citizenship, those reporting were asked whether they con- sidered their course adequate. About three-fourths of them answered in the negative and assigned various reasons, the chief of which was "not sufficient time." Other answers were: "not practical enough "; "does not furnish sufficient acquaintance "; "poor teaching "; "sub- 278 APPENDIX ject-matter, notice, and aim are wrong." A few said that their course satisfied its object, and others added to that statement, "in conjunc- tion with history." As to special preparation for the teaching of government, the teachers of the subject hi the schools reporting are about equally divided between "college graduates with special preparation," and "college graduates without special preparation." That special preparation has reference to subject-matter alone. There are ex- tremely few who are reported as having special pedagogical training as preparation. This lack is one of the great weaknesses in the matter of preparation to teach both subjects, history and government. Sev- eral of the teachers have received their preparation in West Virginia University, but the schools of political science in the University of Virginia, in Yale, and in Columbia have their representatives among the teachers of the subject in this state. The suggestions relative to ways and means of improvement in instruction in government are many. Among them are: "Text re- vision "; "Special preparation of teachers "; "Thorough drills on the text"; "Practical community work"; "Governmental organization in the high school "; "Better home training "; " Vitalization of teach- ing and showing the relation to life and public welfare "; "Careful in- troductory study in the grades"; "Lengthening of the term in the high school "; "General agreement on the work desired and the place to offer it "; "Connection with the N. E. A. committee on teaching of civics"; "Cooperation with our state university as to literature on the subject "; "A published list of available material and the places to get it "; and, "Cooperative work with community officers." Nearly half of the schools reporting announce no cooperation be- tween school, and civic or commercial organizations and local authori- ties. A few cooperate with officials in securing a certain end. Some have lectures from the officials, and in many places the pupils are assisted in their investigations, but only one school reports any as- sistance from a civic or commercial club. Many schools have in fact never asked for it. Our normal schools are doing nothing to prepare special teachers of civics. They spend most of their time and energy training grade teachers, and doing high school work. No special emphasis is given to the subject of government. What they give in that subject is about the same as is given in our high schools. No special syllabi were reported by the city superintendents of the state, who answered the request. The state manual is a guide, and APPENDIX 279 teaching is largely text teaching, supplemented by a little local in- vestigation, by actual visits to officers and trials, public meetings, etc. Submitted by C. L. Broadwater, Chairman. WISCONSIN 1. We favor an outline of civics work for each of the eight grades below the high school, and in accord with the brief paragraph outline in your digest of the "Recommendation of Committee of Five of the American Political Science Association, 1908 " as to both elementary and high schools. In this connection, we wish to encourage the plan of teaching grade civics as community civics. All the work in civics should lead to a realization of the service of the individual as a part of the state. Emphasize the duties of citizens rather than the control of citizens under the laws of the state. Never to forget that the " whole is the sum of the parts " and in a democracy every individual has a part in determining the character of the state. 2. Our views on what the course of study should be in the grades are fully exemplified in the course of study in Two Rivers, Wis., Indianapolis, Ind., New York City schools, and Superior, Wis. In all of these cities, the course provides something for each grade, and the point of view is the ideal one. 3. In the high school, as I have said, we find ourselves in accord with the recommendation of the Political Science Association of 1908. We especially wish to emphasize that our committee is unanimous in favoring emphasis placed on town, county and state, rather than upon the national government, as is so frequently done. We do not sympathize with the plan of combining American history and civics in one year's course, as is done in many places. We do not agree with the report of the committee to the Wisconsin History Teachers' Association, which I inclose, and I may add, neither did the his- tory and civics teachers at the Association agree with the re- port. 4. In connection with local civics in the high school, we recognize the handicap of lack of text-book material accessible to teachers and pupils. We heartily recommend the plan recently carried out by the teachers of the Rockford, 111., high school, and the Milwaukee high schools. Here the teachers have, in the absence of texts, written up their own outlines for their pupils. This can be done, in most cases, in 280 APPENDIX a pamphlet of thirty or forty pages, and can be printed and sold to the pupils for five or ten cents. The result is a thorough treatment of local history and government. We recommend that at least two- thirds of the civics course be devoted to local and state government. Submitted by A. C. Shong, Chairman. INDEX Advanced civics in secondary schools, 46-76 Alabama, report from, 231-233 American government as the beginning course, 203-217 Historical Association, 11-16 history and civil government, 3-5 Political Science Association, 21-27 Appendix, reports of state committees, 225-280 Attendance hi college courses, 190-192 Bibliographical suggestions for teachers, 119-121 for libraries and for reference, 121-133 Bibliographies (arranged in alphabetical order), 111-133 Bryce, James, danger in civics teaching, 32-33 Bureau of education, questionnaire on instruction in secondary schools, 46-50 of reference on civic affairs, 133-134 California, report from, 234-238 Civics for the education of the electorate, 28-31 for social service, 31-32 Colleges and universities, report on instruction in, 135-224 College instruction, observations and conclusions, 184-196 function of, 187-190 Colorado, report from, 238-239 Committee of eight, American Historical Association, 13-14 of five, American Historical Association, 14-16 .of five, American Political Science Association, 21-25 of seven, American Historical Association, 12-13 of seven, American Political Science Association, report in co- operation with Bureau of Education, 46-64 on practical training for public service, 26-27 on social studies, National Education Association, n Committees on municipal government, National Municipal League, 18-21 . 281 282 INDEX Community Civics what is, 83 specific aims of, 83 methods of teaching, 84-88; 95-99 survey, 39-40 Course of study for junior high school, 88-95 for senior high school, loo-in Courses offered in colleges and universities, table of, 141-183 Deductive method, 2-3 Efforts to improve the teaching of government, 7-27 Elementary course in representative colleges and universities, 2O7T2I7 grades, suggestions for civic topics in, 78-83 Emphasis in civic instruction, 55 Field investigation and preparation of surveys, 56-57 General conclusions on secondary instruction, 61-64 George Junior Republic, 36 Georgia Club, 37, 39 Georgia, report from, 239-240 Hall, G. Stanley, on teaching of civics, 31-32 History Teachers' Associations, 16-17 Home county club, 39 Illinois, report from, 240-243 Inadequate provisions for instruction in colleges, 184-187 Iowa, report from, 244 Junior high school, community civics for, 83 Kentucky, report from, 244-246 Madison conference on history, civil government and economics, 9 Maine, report from, 246-247 Maryland, report from, 248-251 Massachusetts, report from, 251-255 Methods of teaching, references on, 111-119 materials and devices, 34-35 of instruction for colleges, 193-194 Michigan, report from, 255-258 INDEX 283 National Education Association, 8-n Municipal League, 18-21 Newark plan, 37, 38 New Hampshire, report from, 258-259 New York, report from, 260-2^4 Normal schools, training of teachers in, 65-74 North Dakota, report from, 264 Ohio, report from, 264-266 Political science, definition of, 199-200 relation to history, economics and sociology, 200-202 Preparation of teachers, 58-59; 65-76 Pupil participation in school management, 57-58 Purpose of instruction in government, 27-28 Questionnaire, of Bureau of Education on secondary instruction, 46-50 on college instruction, 135-136 Recent progress in the teaching of government, 1-45 Recommendations for secondary instruction, 60-6 1 for college instruction, 198-224 Reference library on civic affairs, 40-42 School city, 19, 36 Smith, J. F., model lesson on country roads, 98-99 Snedden, David, essence of civic education, 33 Stages in the advancement of civic instruction, 1-6 State and national government, 41-44 State committees and state representatives, 226-231 on the teaching of civics in elementary and secondary schools, 225-280 Study of the constitution, 2 Suggestions as to courses of study and methods of approach, 77-111 for improvement, secondary instruction, 59-60 college instruction, 196-198 Supplementary books, 52 Text-books, for college instruction, 192-193 for elementary schools, 119 for secondary instruction, 51-53, 119 284 INDEX Thoroughness, 44-45 Time given to civics, 50, 53-55 Two Rivers plan, 37, 38 Types of courses in political science, 195-196 Use of devices to supplement instruction, 55-56 Virginia, report from, 266-268 Washington, report from, 268-274 Ways of rendering instruction practical, 35-39 West Virginia, report from, 274-279 Winston-Salem junior civic league, 37 Wisconsin, report from, 279-280 Printed in the United States of America. E following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. American Government and Politics BY CHARLES A. BEARD Associate Professor of Politics in Columbia University NEW YORK, 1910. NEW AND REVISED EDITION, 1914. REPRINTED, 1915. Crown 8vo, 772 pages, $2.10 This study of the history, forms, and practical workings of American government has established itself through wide and continued use as a very suc- cessful text for college courses. Equal space has been allotted to federal and state government, the latter heading including municipal and rural gov- ernment. Throughout the volume, emphasis is laid upon the evolution of political issues and the opera- tion of party machinery. In the revised edition Professor Beard has recorded the important changes of the last four years while eliminating many mat- ters of detail and purely local or temporary interest. 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