"PHMIRPi UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES THE GIFT OF MAY TREAT MORRISON IN MEMORY OF ALEXANDER F MORRISON Everybody's Guide to Music With Illustrated Chapters on Singing and Cultivation of the Voice ; Full and Explicit Helps to the Piano and Organ; Complete Dictionary of Musical Terms JOSIAII BOOTH NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS Copyright, 1893, by Harper & Brothers, AH right* rturvtd. PUBLISHERS' NOTE This "Guide to Music" will, it is believed, serve to intro- duce "everybody" to the tlieoi'y if not tlie practice of the Musical Art. The Publishers issue the book at a price which will, it is hoped, lead to the cultivation of musical talent, which only needs a trustworthy and accessible guide to call it forth and to develop it ; while to those who may have neither ear nor voice the book will present the theory of Music in an in- telligible form. Tlie American edition has had the careful supervision of Mr. John Hyatt Brewer, of Brooklyn, N. Y. 437416 CONTENTS OnAP. PAGE I. natcre's forms in musical instruments 1 II. MUSICAL SOUNDS IN THE NATURAL WORLD 9 III. THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION 16 IV. MEASURE IN MUSIC 29 V. LIGHT AND SHADE IN MUSIC 36 TI. ORNAMENTATION IN MUSIC 46 VII. ON SINGING 60 VIII. THE ORGAN 62 IX. THE GROWTH OF MUSIC T2 COMPOSERS OF MUSIC 113 X. MUSICAL TERMS IIY THE LONDON ALBERT HALL ORGAN 163 THE CHICAGO AUDITORIUM ORGAN 166 THE CINCINNATI MUSIC HALL ORGAN 170 INDEX 173 GUIDE TO MUSIC. chapter i nature's forms in musical instruments The foundation of every Art is laid in Nature. From the cave has grown the cathedral, in arcliitectural art. From the reflected scene or image upon the water's surface has grown the oil-painting, water-color drawing, or photograph, in picto- rial art. From the chance resemblance to some living form in one of Nature's tempest-hewn rocks has grown the statue, in sculptural art. And from the humming of the. bee, the singing of the birds, or the whistling of the wind over broken hollow reeds, has grown the chorale, the sonata, and the symphony, in the musical art. The painter and the sculptor still are students in the school of Nature. Daily she supplies them with fresh scenes of beauty, new forms of loveliness, which earnestly they strive to copy. It is not theirs to invent, since Nature's forms are perfect, and cannot be excelled in marble or on canvas. In decorative art, however, and still more conspicuously in architectural art, we see the putting forth of man's originality of tliouglit and plan. The cathedral, with its stately pillars, domes, and arches, its windows, rich in color, form, and tracery, gives to the eye a pleasure such as we can find in no examples which the natural world affords. But in the art of music the inventive genius of the human mind is still more manifest. On every hand, in the composi- tions of the many masters of the art, and in the many musical instruments of man's design and construction, we see monu- ments to his fertility of brain. Indeed, no work in composition 1 2 ". ; ' . *. .' : { .vStliDfa TO MUSIC. i? npyf regarded. (J9 being pf any vahie whatever, unless it have npow:it;lutj stamp .t)f |^efli,us of originality. In this art man "mdSt'evfet'Ue'ConstrUCli^igVomcthing new, though ever he must build upon the firm foundation laid in Nature's laws. Nature has given to man sound, and, aided by examples of its use which she herself affords, tlie musician has devised the charms of melody, and built up the firm, wise laws of harmony. Nature has also thrown out hints in forms of living things and creatures, and from these have been evolved the many instru- ments through which the music of the art is now interpreted. Thus, broken reeds upon the river bank, or hollow stalks of withered plants, were Nature's first suggestion of the flute and organ. The earliest attempt to form u musical instrument from these simple reeds no doubt produced the Pandean pipes (Fig. 1), an instrument which still exists, though fallen into somewhat low society. In the flute (Fig. 2) we have an instrument producing many sounds from one tube, the simple device of piercing it with holes to be stopped or unstopped b}' the fingers enabling the Fig. 1. ^^^^^so Fig. 2. player to make it a short pipe giving a high sound, or a long pipe giving a low sound, at his will. This is one of the early touches of man's inventive genius. In the organ we have many pipes of varying length, grouped in families of differing tone, and all brought under the control of the player through the now very familiar keyboard for the fingers, another most useful invention. The horns of cattle, blown into through a hole pierced in the thin end, gave, no doubt, the earliest suggestion of the NATURE 8 FORMS IN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 3 trumpet, and in this instrument, the cornet (Fig. 3), and the trombone (Fig. 4), we have improved copies in brass of the horn of ancient days. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. An increased knowledge of the formation of the human organ of sound led to the mechanical imitation of its different parts, which imitation has been followed with the most inter- esting results in many musical instruments. Of first impor- tance in the vocal organ are the lungs. These supply the breath by which the sound is formed. From them it pa.'^ses through the windpipe to the larynx, wherein lie the vocal chords, being rendered regular and steady in its supply by the walls of the chest. So, in the bellows of the organ (Fig. 5) generally two in number, we have the lungs of the instru- ment. From these wind passes into a large expanding chest, which steadies and regulates the supply to the pipes above. GUIDE TO MTSIC. Other instruments imitate that more delicate part of the voice machine, the vocal chords (Fig. 6) themselves. These Fig. 6. A, Feeders. B, Reservoir. C, Weighls. are two sensitive strips of fleshy membrane stretching across the larynx, the edges of which flutter or vibrate rapidly as breath passes between them. The boy imitates their action, unknowingly perhaps, when he blows upon a leaf or blade of Fig. 6. Fig. 7. grass, held liL-^htly between his thumbs (Fig. 7) the rapid flut- tering of which gives forth a loud slirill sound; and al.so when he makes a whistle by a slit cut in the side of any reed or hol- low stalk of corn. nature's forms in musical instruments. 5 In the clarinet (Fig. 8) we have a keyed tube sometliing lilte the flute, but embodi'ing and perfecting within the mouthpiece tlie foregoing idea. In this is fixed a small thin piece of wood called a reed, which vibrates rapidly as wind is blown through Fig. 8. the narrow passage formed between it and the head of the in- strument. The oboe (Fig. 9) is an instrument smaller than the clarinet, though similar in shape, excepting in the formation of the Fig. 9. mouthpiece, in which we have a double reed, introduced prob- ably in imitation of the tiro vocal chords of the human voice. The bassoon (Fig. 10) is larger than the clarinet, and some- Fig, la what different in shape. Like the oboe, it has a double reed, and may be regarded as the bass of that class of instruments 6 GUIDE TO MUSIC. In the so-called " reeds " of the organ (Fig. 11) tljc same idea again appears. To imitate the tone of the trumpet, the oboe, the clarinet, or horn, the wind is made to pass over a piece of thin brass, which vibrates just as in the instruments described. I Fig. 11. Fig. 12. The tone of the American organ and the harmonium is pro- duced entirely by such metal reeds (Fig. 12), unaided by pipes. These are placed in rows, from large to small, to produce the notes of varying pitch. We come now to consider another most important manner of imitation in musical instruments of the vocal organ. The quality and power of tone of tbe human voice docs not depend alone upon the vibration of the vocal chords. In sym- pathy with these there must be vibration in the chest jind head, which act as resonators, increasing the intensity and improving the quality of the sounds produced. We may dis- tinctly feel vibration in the chest if we place our fingers upon it when singing a low note. Here we have Nature's suggestion of that which in the piano and other instruments we call the NATUHE 8 FORMS IN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 7 "sound-board." This piece of thin, well-dried wood found beneath the wires in the grand, or behind them in the upright, piano, throbs in sympathy with every toiie of the instrument, and, throwing the air into motion over a much larger surface than the wires alone would do, adds greatly both to the power and quality of the tone. One of the earliest forms of stringed instruments was proba- bly a shell with a few strands of some kind strung across it. In the accompanying drawing (Fig. 13) we see a development of this idea. A tortoise shell is the resonator; a pair of horns give length to the three strings, which are strung from the shell to the cross piece at the tips of the horns. Following this ancient instrument through its varied forms of develop- ment in one direction we come to the lyre, with a framework Fig. 13. Fig. U. of carved wood, as here shown (Fig. 14), the design of which is clearly suggested by the natural forms of horn and shell in the earlier instrument. From these grew the harp, the dulci- mer, and latterly the piano. 8 GUn>E TO MUSIC, Following it in another direction we come to stringed in- struments of the fiddle kind, which, having passed through a great variety of forms, have settled down to one which, for the last two hundred years, has been regarded as perfect. Fig. 15. a, Position of larynx where sound is generated. Fig. IC. a. Position of bridge, and place where tone is produced. In this it is interesting to notice a close imitation of the lines of the Imman liead, neck, and chest, which will appear from the following diagrams : In Fig. 15 we liave an outline of those parts which constitute the vocal organ; in Fig. 16 we have the outline of the violin. Comparing the two, we see wherein the instrument is moulded, whether by accident or design cannot be said, upon Nature's model. One important point of imitation seen in the above is the narrowing of the instrument at that part which corresponds to the human throat, and making this, as it is in the voice, the place where tone is generated. Looked at from this standpoint of close resemblance to the human form, it would seem more natural to speak of this part as the neck of the instrument. MUSICAL SOUNDS IN THE NATURAL WORLD. 9 rather than to give that name to the narrow piece grasped by the left hand of the performer, which obviously has been pro- vided to give sufFicieiit length of string to produce tones of the requisite pitch, the head-piece being designed to hold the pegs by which the strings are tuned. Still more inappropriate does it seem to speak of any part of this voice-like instrument as the " belly," since, in the vocal organ, of which it is so striking a copy, tone cannot be produced in any part below the chest. Whatever may be urged, however, against or in favor of this view, we know that in the violin we have an instrument pos- sessing many of the wonderful qualities of the human voice, which in form and plan, and, consequently it may be, in effect, it so remarkably resembles. Here we will leave Nature's suggestions in musical instru- ments, and proceed, in the next chapter, to see what aid she will render us in seeking to understand music itself. CHAPTER U MUSICAL SOUNDS IN THE NATURAL WORLD As Nature was man's earliest instructor in music, it is well for every lover and student of the art to take lessons at the be- ginning in this same preparatory school. Every child, when commencing to learn to play upon any musical instrument, should at the same time be taught something concerning the nature of the musical sounds which he produces. Even more important is it for a child to learn at the very beginning to dis- tinguish between agreement and disagreement m such musi- cal sounds. Were this always done in early life, we should not find so many people grow up absolutely devoid of musical ear. Tlie sweetest sounds which we find in the natural world are those of the human voice, and of the songsters of the feathered tribe. But it requires much study to understand the organism of the throat of man and bird, and from these we cannot easily draw illustrations. We must at first content ourselves with humbler creatures as object lessons, and although the sounds 10 ODIDE TO MUSIC. we shall deal with may not be so musical, the mamier in which they are produced will be more readily understood. Let us learn, first of all, what we can from the bee and the butterfly. The flight of the former is accompained by a hum- ming sound of a somewliat musical character; the flight of the latter gives forth no sound at all. The reason for this is so simple as scarcely to need explana- tion, yet here we learn much concerning the production of mu- sical sounds. The bee has, comparatively speaking, a large, heavy body and small wings. The butterfly has a small, light body and laige wings. To lift and sustain the heavy body in the air the bee must move its wings to and fro with great rapidity; to sustain its light body the butterfly needs only to move its wings very slowly. Tlie rapid motion of the bee's wings pro- duces the humming sound we have spoken of; the slow move- ment of the butterfly's wings produces no sound at all. This rapid movement of wing we find in many insects besides the bee, and though it is not characterislic of birds generally, one example of it is found in the humming-bird, which, like the bee, has a body heavy in proportion to the size of the wings that liave to support it, hence the rapid motion of its wings in flight, and the accompanying hum. Here we learn that a musical sound is produced by anything which beats upon the air with a rapid and regular movement. If the beats be not regular, the sound varies in what is called its "pitch." That is, should the beats be quickened, the sound rises, becomes a higher sound, not necessarily a louder sound. Should the beats be slackened in their pace, the sound falls, be- comes a lower sound. It is quite easy, even with closed eyes, to tell when the bee is rising in the air and when falling, by the changes in the pitch of the humming sound it produces. When it rises its wings beat the air more quickly, and the sound becomes higher ; when it falls its wings move more slowly, and the sound be- comes perceptibly lower. Ordinarily the beat of the bee's wing is as rapid as 400 in a second when falling in the air, or when wearied by long flight, the rate of movement is reduced to about 300 in a second. How the sound is conveyed from the place where the beats MUSICAL SOUNDS IN THE NATURAL WORLD. 11 take place to the ear, through which organ they affect us so pleasantly or unpleasantly, as the case may be, the following homely illustrations will serve to show. If a stone be cast into a pond, the surface of which is still, a number of ripples will be seen to rise in circular form around the spot where the stone fell. Let the sudden thrusting aside of the water by the stone rep- resent the sudden thrusting aside of the air by a stroke of the bee's wing. Though invisible, a movement takes place in the air somewhat similar to that we see upon the surface of the water. Each particle of air receives a push, or shock, and hands it on in turn to the next, and tlie next, until, if we are not too distant (for the waves grow feebler in transmission), a beat falls upon our ear, and we become sensible of sound. In the air this movement takes place all around the spot where it is first formed, and not only upon one plane, as seen upon the surface of the water. Thus, from the bee's wings, air waves are issuing in all directions, and we hear the sound above, below, or on either hand. We shall have observed that the instant the bee settles and folds its wings the humming sound ceases, while upon the water's surface ripples continue to follow each other for some time after the stone has fallen. The air does not multiply waves in this way; one beat of the bee's wing produces one beat only upon our ear, and fifty, fifty; not one wave will be added, nor one lost. An echo will reveal this fact very clearly. A sound is di- rected towards some distant hill, from which we hear it thrown back to us again, reduced, of course, in power of tone. The beats communicated to the air by the instrument or voice which gave forth the sound are transmitted, in the manner described, to the hill-side, from which they rebound, and. returning, fall again upon our ear, in number and in pace exactly as they went, otherwise we should not hear again the same sound. The phonograph may be regarded as an instrument for pro- ducing such echoes of sound by mechanical means. The air waves sent forth by the voice or musical instrument fall upon the drum of the phonograph, stirring it into movements like those which stir our car, giving us the sensation of sound. These movements are imprinted by a small needle upon a re- 12 GUIDE TO MUSIC. volving cylinder of wax, and thus the sound is received. To give it forth again, the revolving cylinder must be placed in contact with the drum as before, when all the movements caused by the sound in the first instance can be repeated, the vibrations of the drum sending fortli air waves which fall upon our ears as an echo or reflection of the sound. The rate of vibrations in musical sound may, for all practical purposes, be said to vary from twenty beats in a second, pro- ducing a very low sound, to four thousand beats in a second, producing a very high sound. Neither this rapid vibration nor the slow one produce sounds which are very agreeable from a musical point of view, the pleasantest effects are obtained from those which come between these extremes, tliough all are used in music. The means employed to produce vibration differ in different musical instruments. As in Nature the majority of sounds are formed by wind, so also the larger number of musical instru- ments are blown by wind. In the voice, whether of man, beast, or bird, we find sound in all cases to be caused by breath from the lungs, which, being directed upon the vocal chords, pro- duces the rapid fluttering to and fro already spoken of. In the clarinet wind is directed upon the reed, which, in similar man- ner, is caused to vibrate. In organ pipes wind is directed in such a way at the mouthpiece as to cause a fluttering of the air column within the pipe. And, in the case of performers upon the cornet and similar brass instruments, the breath is so di- rected as to cause a rapid fluttering of the player's lips, which produces a fluttering of air within the instrument at a corre- sponding rate of movement. And thus in all, vibration is set up, varying in rapidity as the sound varies in pitch, and differ- ing in tone quality as the instruments differ in formation. Should the action of air in this varied manner, and the great rapidity of vibration spoken of, be to any one difficult to un- derstand, a simple experiment or illustration will help to make clear some of these movements. Let a piece of silk ribbon of ordinary fineness of rib be held tightly between the finger and thumb of one hand, while with the other it ia drawn rapidly away. By these common means we have produced a sound of very high pitch. This sound is caused by the rapid movement of the finger and thumb over MUSICAL SOUNDS IN THE NATURAL WORLD. 13 the threads, or ribs of the silk; for although these to-and-fro movements are so slight, the sound proves that they take place. By drawing a yard of such material smartly from end to end, we shall probably have caused movements of the finger and thumb at even the high rate of four thousand in a second. Having accomplished this with our own hand, all difficulty in the way of comprehending this rapid movement should vanish. This homely experiment well illustrates the manner in which vibration takes place upon the lips of the player upon brass instruments. The finger and thumb tightly pressed together represent the lips of the player, which are similarly pressed tightly together. The silk with its thousands of threads represents the air with its thousands of separate particles. The hand which drew the silk along, and thus sets up the motion of the finger and thumb, will represent the lungs of the player, which press the air between his lips, causing them to flutter as it passes. As the finger and thumb were moved apart by each passing thread, and then, by the pressure exercised upon them, were caused to fly together again in the hollows between the threads, so the lips of tlie cornet or trumpet player are forced apart by each passing air particle, and then, by the pressure exercised upon them, are caused to come together again when the air particle has passed. How this will illustrate also the action of air upon reeds, and upon the vocal chords themselves, need not be pointed out, since it is so similar that, understanding one, we shall also un- derstand the other. We may use our rough-and-ready experiment, however, while we have it in hand, to demonstrate what has been said in regard to pitch and power of tone. If we move the hand slowly over the threads of silk, we get a low tone As we gradually quicken the movement, so we gradually raise the pilch of the sound. Thus we prove that slow vibrations pro- duce low sounds, and rapid vibrations produce high sounds. If we hold the ribbon loosely with the finger and thumb, we get but a very faint sound. As we increase the pressure upon it, so we increase the power of the tone produced, although we 14 GUIDE TO MUSIC. do not alter the pace at which the material is being drawn along. The movements of the finger and thumb in the first case were slight; in the latter case the pressure caused them to come together more closely in the hollows between the threads, and their swing to and fro was greater, resulting in a louder tone. So with the voice if we breathe lightly upon the vocal chords, the vibration, or swing to and fro, is slight and the tone soft; if the pressure from the lungs be increased, while at the same time we hold the note to the same pitch, the vocal chords vibrate with a greater swing, and give forth a louder tone. Similarly upon the piano, a light touch causes the wire to vibrate with a slight movement, and a soft sound is ob- tained; a heavy touch increases the swing of the wire, and a corresponding increase of power is heard as the result. The same amplitude of wave in instruments of a different nature may not, and, in fact, does not, always produce sounds of equal power. Tone has a quality which we speak of as color, by which quality the sounds of different instruments and different voices are distinguished one from another. The tone color of musical instruments differs according to the means used in the generation of the sounds. Some sounds are more penetrating than others of similar wave-length, and are audible at a greater distance, just as some colors are distinguisliable at a greater distance than others. The reason for this has not as yet been explained, and until more is known concerning tone- color, certain anomalies are likely to remain a puzzle to our theorists in sound. Let us turn to notice next how vibration is produced in in- struments such as the violin, viola, or violoncello. Atoms of rosin strewn upon the hairs of the bow here take the place of air particles, and these being drawn across the string stir it into vibration. Every atom urges the siring in the direction it is itself being made to pass, and the string by its own tension flies into the hollow between the atoms as each one passes. Thus vibration is set up, varying in rapidity as the string varies in tension or in length. In similar fashion the vibration of an ordinary tumbler or wineglass can be produced by passing the finger, after dipping it into watei', around its edge. The water particles cause the glass to bend in the direction the finger is passing, and after THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION. 15 each has pulled it a certain distance^ its elasticity causes it to fly back in the opposite direction, which motion being repeated Avith great rapidity gives forth the tone which we hear. If the glass be partly filled with water, we may notice upon its sur- face, while sound is issuing, a number of very small ripples. These are thrown off by the vibration of the glass, and will be to us an indication of the rapidity of its movement. We may notice, too, how they follow our finger round the glass, being at all times thrown out from just beneath the spot over which the finger is passing, showing this to be the place where vibra- tion is kindled. In many instruments vibration is set up by a blow, as in bells, cymbals, triangle, and the pianoforte, which instrument, by far the most important and popular of this class, will be more fully spoken of in the succeeding chapter. In another class we still find preserved the ancient form of setting the strings in motion by plucking them with the fingers. Of these instruments the best known are the harp, the guitar, the banjo, and the zither the harp in this class ranking with the piano in the class just mentioned, as the superior and more important instrument. We have spoken of musical sounds, and have endeavored to show how they are produced; we must next consider the sys- tem of notation, by which we shall learn the names and also the position upon musical instruments of the various sounds used in the composition of music. CHAPTER III THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION The singular name " pianoforte," or, to put it in English, the soft-loud, seems to demand a word of explanation. The immediate predecessor of this instrument was the harpsi- chord, the wires of which were plucked with the pointed quill of a feather. The key being pres.sed down with the finger, the quill would bend against the wire, and then fly off. leaving the wire to swing to and fro, and thus give forth its tone. This 16 GUIDE TO MUSIC. action was, of course, an imitation of the plucking of the strings of the harp by the fingers of the performer. Now, whether tlie key was struck heavily or lightly, the power of tone of the harpsichord remained tl)c same, for this was dependent upon the strength of pull by the quill upon the wire. With a heavy blow it flew past the wire quickly, with a light touch it simply passed more slowly, but in each case it imparted the same swing to the wire and produced the same tone. To enable the performer to obtain loud effects a second row of quills was added, which could be brought into play by drawing a stop Strong contrasts of tone, and gradual increase from soft to loud, could not, however, be produced, and therefore the harpsichord could never have been regarded as a satisfactory instrument. The invention of a hammer, by the blow of which the tone of the string was produced, brought about the downfall of the harpsichord. At once it was pointed out as the most notable gain that with a soft touch the tone was piano and with a heavy touch the tone was forte, and thus the instrument came to be spoken of as one upon which the performer could play piano and forte. From this it soon became customary to speak of it as the "pianoforte," and as no better name suggested itself it has been known by this ever since, though we rarely use its full name now, but speak of it commonly as the " piano." The familiar keyboard of white and black notes is here given i n I : : i i : 1 : : : : : : i : : : i j^^'^--^ Vy''>***H i ' Li.^iEgg*= .-.ag^ = = =p A C (Great C.) (Tenor C.) (Middle C.) Fig. 17. THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION. 17 (Fig. 17), and reference to this will be made in tlie following remarks upon musical notation. Beneath the keyboard are two sets of five lines, and upon, or between, these and the short added lines above and below are placed oval shaped signs which are called notes. The five lines are called the stave. The notes written upon and between them are named from A to G, in alphabetical order. The signs ffi and ^ are called clefs, and these determine the pitch of the sounds written in the stave, and their consequent position upon the keyboard of the piano. Thus the sign ffi is called the treble or G clef, and when this is placed upon the stave, notes written upon the second line, that around which the clef sign curls, are called G. This is a note of middle compass, and is found in the middle, or fourth octave of the piano. From tliis the position and names of other notes upon the stave may be determined. Upon the first line will be E, the middle E of the piano ; in the first space will be F, the note above this, and in similar order notes will follow throughout the stave, and the lines added above and beneath it. On the added lines. Above the added lines. -m- . --^t. Notes on the lines. In the spaces. m ^ V ^-^ W n -m t rt^ C A , >f i M, D G B " :^: -H^I I I I I I I 1* 1 I I Ml- ^ OQ U ce tJ K G B D F F A C E A C E G B -*^=: G B D F A C H ^^ - Below the added lines. The sign ^ is called the bass or the F clef, and when this is placed upon the stave, notes written upon the fourth line, that around which the sign curls, are called F. This is a note of lower compass, and is found in the third octfvve of the piano. As in the treble clef, so here, all other 2 -*!=: G B D F A C '-*:=i 18 OniOE TO MUSIC. notes have their names and positions determined by this one. They will be foimd as follows: On the added lines. Above and below the added lines. E C A F _ ^i?: F D B G Notes on the lines. In the spaces. gi m i^ GBDFAACEG CE :^ B D F These are the two clefs commonly used for the piano. The right hand usually plays the notes written in the treble clef, the left hand those written in the bass clef, the two being bracketed together, thus: ^ Should the clef be changed at any point in a composition, the names and positions of all the notes change at once with it. Thus, in the following passage, with tlie cLange of clef, the notes for the right hand at once become lower than those for the left hand. f^=2m ^3EE^ m F^^^ The actual position of the notes will appear more clearly written thus: ^ THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION. 19 The hand and the eye must be taught to give instant obedi- ence to the clef signs, therefore this lesson should be well learned. In tlic following passage, at the change of clef, the left hand notes become at once higher than those for the right hand. ^^^: Wi a^^E^Egi Another form of writing the passage. P^^-^tra '^. Although the two staves are separated from each other by a wide space, the actual distance between them as regards the pitch and position of tlie notes is not great. Thus, the two notes here written ai-e C and D, next to each other in the middle octave of the piano. There is in fact but one line between the staves, and adding this, and placing the other lines in order above and below it, we obtain what is called the great stave with eleven lines, which stave was at one time in general use. Upon the middle line was placed the sign =jw= or -^-, which is called the C clef, and all notes upon this line would be played or sung as the middle C of the piano. The confusion which arose in four-part music with such a system of writing led to the striking out of the middle line, widening the space between the five upper and five lower lines, and using added lines between the staves as well as above and below them. ^= The added line here given above the bass and below the treble is a fragment of the same lino (the discarded middle line of the great stave), and the notes written upon it are one and the same, tlic middle C of the piano. 20 GUIDE TO MUSIC. To avoid confusion in reading the eye must become accus- tomed to all these seeming differences in the position of notes between tlie staves, and to this end the point has been thus prominently mentioned. Where the C clef is used the notes upon and between the lines have their names and positions determined by this C. When the sign is placed upon the third line i^nz: notes upon that line are C, and from this they will be named as fol- lows: On the lines. f /. S In the spaces. E G IE B D This is called the alto clef, and it is used for the viola (tenor violin), and in certain cases for trombones in orchestral music. In vocal music it was formerly intended for male voices sing- ing what was called the alto (altus, high) part, the compass of which voices lay over these notes. As this part is now so fre- quently sung by women, the compass of whose voices is higher than men's, it is usual in the present time to write the part in the treble ^, or G clef. The same or a similar sign upon the fourth line ^ " will give us the notes in the following altered position: i On the lines. II In the spaces. G B D Tills is called the tenor clef, and it is used for the writing of the higher notes for violoncello and bassoon among orchestral instruments, and for the part sung by the tenors in vocal music, though this clef is also much less used for voices than it for- merly was, tenor music being generally written in the m G clef, and sung an octave lower. THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION. 21 Intervals, the Octave. The distance from one note to an- other, above or below, is called an Interval. The interval from one note to the next of the same name, above or below, is called an octave, and a study of this brines with it some useful information concerning agreement in sounds. If we touch any such two notes together, C and C, we find them to be so strongly in sympathy that they sound almost as one. The reason of this is that tlie vibration of the upper note is exactly twice as rapid as that of the lower; if the lower note has fifty vibrations in a second, the upper one has a hundred; or if the lower one has one hundred vibrations, the upper will have two hundred. Altliough these are different rates of vibration, there is agreement in them which almost any ear can perceive, just as the eye can perceive the agree- ment in two such sets of lines as tliese | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | although each are separated by differ- i i i i i i i i ent distances. In the upper set we I ' ' I I ' I ' have two lines for every one in the lower set; so, in the upper note of an octave, we have two vibrations for every one of the lower note, and this produces the agreement we have al- ready noticed. Semitone. Starting with C on the piano, and playing suc- cessive white keys up to the next C, the order of sounds seems quite natural to us; while, if we start with any other note than C, still playing only white keys, the order appears unnatural and incorrect. By this we perceive tliat the difference of pitch between the white keys is not the same in all cases. From C to D is a wider interval tlian from E to F, and this wider in- terval is called a tone, the smaller one being called a semitone. It is necessary in musical notation to have signs by which the interval of a semitone can be indicated anywhere upon tiie stave. The Sharp. To raise a note one semitone the sign J, called a sharp, is placed before it, thus, ^ pg The Flat. To lower a note one semitone the sign \), called aflat, is placed before if, thus, --=$S=^ Provision is made upon every instrument of any importance 22 GUroB TO MUSIC. for the playing of such notes. Between those white keys of the piano which are a tone apart we find a black kej', which gives us a sound midway between these, thus enabling us to divide the tone into two semitones. P'^^^ To play the following note, G shar the black key above (i. e., to the right of) the middle G To play G flat, we strike W: we strike the black key below (i.e., to the left of) the middle G. The Natural. To restore either note to the natural G (white key) again, the sign i;, called a natural, is used. This is placed, like the sharps and flats, before the note, thus: ^E ^E ^; ^E Black note above G. G White note. Black note G below G. White note. To avoid errors in reading, learn to distinguisli at once when the sharp, flat, or natural is on the line, and when in the space. If on the line the signs will be cut through thus: | fi ^ ; if in the space the lines will pass above and below this part of the signs, thus: y g >' The sharp here being in the space applies to A in the space, although many would mistake it as applying to G, owing to its nearness to this note. The flat here applies to B on the line, although it is placed nearer to A. The natural here [ (fl) w J-h applies to F in the space, al- though it is closer to G. It is often impossible to place sharps or flats close to the THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION. 23 notes they are intended to affect; their position upon the stave must guide us in determining to which notes they belong. Sharps and flats are not always played upon the black keys of the piano. The distance between the white keys E and P, and B and C, being but a semitone, each of these notes be- comes in turn the sharp or flat of the other. If a sharp be placed before E, [^-^ J ] the note played will be the next white key above viz., F, although it will now be called E sharp. So for B sharp [-(^8^ j we shall play the next white key above viz. , C, which will now be called B sharp. For C flat htfti '" 3 we shall play the next white key below, as also we shall for F flat the reason for this being the same in each case, that from E to F, and from C to B is a semitone. The Double Sharp. To preserve a certain uniformity in writing it is necessary to have a sign by which a note already sharp can be further sharpened by another semitone. The sign used is called a double shaip, written x , and the method of its employment the following examples will show : :=^- :^t*= m =t J*; =1: zsat-- One semitone above F. One semitone above F sharp. One semitone above C. One semitone above C sharp. The Double Flat. Similarly, a note already flat can be further flattened by another semitone, the sign for which, \k, is called a double flat. =^ i ^^ S i One semitone below B. One semitone below 13 flat. One semitone below E. One semitone below E flat. 24 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Should a double sharp ( x) be prefixed to a note not already marked sharp, we may take it that such note is sharp by in- ference. In the following example, for instance, the F is not i iS :at ::xpi m One semitone above F sharp. already sharpened by a sign, the key signature being that of C ; but the passage quoted is in the kejr of E, four sharps, there- fore F is sharp already, and the sign x raises the note one semitone further. So with the double flat, to whatever note it is prefixed, we know that such note is fiat alreadyj and the sign \^ lowers it one semitone further. i =&s ^ ^m: One semitone below B flat. In the key of the above example, B is already flat, although not marked so, and with the sign IjIj it becomes one semitone lower still. When a note has been made sharp or flat, or has been altered by any of the foregoing signs in the course of a composition, the sign remains in force throughout the bar (^i.c, the space between two perpendicular lines across the stave), unless con- tradicted by another sign. To restore a double sharp or a double flat to the original note of the key, or to the white note, the plan adopted is as follows: 1=^3:: C double sharp, becomes C sharp. i ^WJ- E^ B double flat, becomes B flat. r=t- 'S^- A double sharp, becomes A natural. 31^ G double flat, becomes G natural. THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION. 25 The following examples will show the usefulness of the signs double sharp and double flat. Here is a short phrase in the key of C. i aiz F A Raised Lowered one semitone. one semitone The same phrase is liere given in the key of Ct (an explana- tion of the seven sharp signature of which, together with all other keys, will follow these examples). i^^^ tt^r: F sharp A sliarp Raised Lowered one semitone. one semitone. The double sharp occurs where the sharp did in the previous example. As we had F raised by a semitone before, so here we have F sliarp similarly raised a semitone. The same phrase is again given, this time in the key of C flat, showing how A being flat already, is further flattened by the sign of tlie double flat. G F G A G te ;^5=SE ^ as i^^ Fflat Raised one semitone. Aflat Lowered one semitone. These examples are sufficient to show how uniformity of writing is preserved in different keys by the u.se of such signs. Without them we should indeed be badly off in writing such passages as : ^fe^Efe^a: 26 GUIDE TO MUSIC. which, without double sharps and double flats, could only be written in some such confusing manner as the following : ^^ yto jg^^i Key Signatures. Key signatures are employed to denote the changes necessary to produce a scale similar to that of C, though taking some other note as the starting-point. If we take G, the fifth note from C, and play consecutive notes up- ward, we find that our scale requires F sharp instead of P, as the seventh note, to render it perfect in form. In all compositions in this key, F sharp is therefore given at the commencement of the stave thus: and all F's are played sharp throughout the entire composition, unless otherwise marked. Starting with D, the fifth note in the scale of G, we find two sharps necessary to produce the perfect scale. f S Again starling with the fifth note of the scale of D, we find three sharps are required. m THE PIANOFORTE AND MUSICAL NOTATION. 27 and so on, until we have completed the table of sharp keys iriven below. Sharp Keys, with their Key-notes. l^^?isS=^^SSi^ Progressing doAYnward from C, five notes each time, we find first one flat, then two flats required, and so on, imtil we have completed the table of flat keys, as below. Flat Keys, with their Key-notes. m ^ ^-b^ , ^7 7f fe ^^ fe^=^f i ^ ^ zh^ :^ "ST- B flat E flat A flat D flat Gflat Cflat m^ 5^^^^^^P^ffi: '^=^t ^^^s^-:^^ MS ^ Major Scale. The scale we liave thus fur considered is called tlic Major scale. The starling note is that from which the scale is named. Thus the scale we first formed was from C to C, and tliis is therefore the scale of C Major, called also the natural key, as no sharps or flats are needed in writing it, and none but the white keys of the piano are used in playing it. The other scales in sharp or flat keys take tlieir names in similar fashion from their respective key-notes, which tiie fore- going tables will show. Each major scale has a relative minor scale, the key-note of which is the third note (playing downward) of the major scale. Thus A is the third note downward in the scale of C, and A is the relative minor of C. 28 GUTOE TO MUSIC. No new signature is employed for minor keys; tbey take the signature of the major key to which they are related. Minor Scales. Of minor scales there are two forms in each key, the points of difference between which are marked by sharps or naturals where they occur, and not in the key sig- nature. The Harmonic Minor Scale is here given in the key of A. ^rFF^^^^^^fe^^^^ In this, the seventh note, G, is raised by the sharp, and the scale is the same ascending and descending. The Melodic Minor Scale of the same key will be seen to con- H^^^^^l^^ tain two sharpened notes, the sixth and the seventh, F and G, in ascending, both of which notes are, however, lowered again by tlie sign of the natural in descending. Accidentals. All sharps, flats, and naturals which occur during the progression of a composition are termed Accidentals. Such sharps and flats as denote tts key at the beginning of eacli stave are not so called. An accidental remains in force throughout the bar in which it appears, unless by the intro- duction of some other sign tliis note is restored to its former position, or is subjected to some other change. Thus the C in the following example is sharp at the end of the bar, because of the sharp which occurs at the beginning. I I e J^ j-^-j- Mistakes in reading would be much less frequent if the stu- dent would incline towards expecting the recurrence of the MEASURE IN MUSIC. 29 accidentals in the bar, rather than towards expecting the note in its original position again. For probably more often than not the accidental does affect other notes than the one against which it is placed, and where it is not so we have always the contradicting sign to remind us. Thus, in the example given, if the C at the end of the bar were not sharp, the sign of the natural would be there to tell us so. CHAPTER IV MEASURE IN MUSIC By means of different -shaped notes a certain time value is given to all the sounds employed in music. These notes are, as it were, the coinage of the musical realm. This coinage of musical notes consists of but one family, the members of which all have direct relationship the one to the other. No matter what the country may be, the time valua- tion in musical notes Is the same ; in print the notation is also the same ; and the knowledge of the musical language as we know it here brings with it the free enjoyment of the music of every nationality in wlilch the art is known. Breve. The longest note in use at the present time is called a Breve, an oval-shaped note, with lines, or a line, on eitlier side, IHI H ; but as this is rarely found in any but church music. It does not stand tirst in importance for consideration A reference to it, however, makes clear the origin of the name given to llie note which comes next in order, the Semibrcte, or Whnlc-notc Whole-note (or Semtbreve). This is the longest note used in music (with the exception of some music written for the Ciiurch). This note is in shape like the breve, but without the lines at the side, ?, and is, as its name implies (,sc;/u'-breve), half the length of a breve, where the latter is used, but for all prac- tical purposes the reader can treat the whole-note (c;) as tlie largest factor in the values of notes. Taking the notes now as they follow in order from long to 80 GUIDE TO MUSIC. short, each one will be found to be of exactly half the value of the one preceding it. This is the direct relationship already spoken of. Half-note (or Minim). By adding a stem to the whole-note, we get a lialf-note, ^, half the value of the whole-note. . Quarter-note (or Crotchet). By making the body of the note W"ck, we get a quarter-note, J, half the value of the half-note. Eighth-note (or Quaver). Adding a sort of hook to the stem of this note it becomes an eighth-note, J*, half the value of the quarter-note. Sixteenth-note (or Semiquaver). With two such hooks or dashes, the note becomes a sixteenth-note, ^, half the value of an eighth-note. Thirty-second-note (or Demisemiquaver). With three, a thirty-second-note, J^, lialf the value of a sixteenth-note. Sixty- fourth-note (or Semi-demisemiquater). With four hooks, a Sixty-fourth-note, ^, half the value of a thirty second- note. To say that a clear understanding of the relative value of these notes is of the utmost importance to tliose who would render music intelligently, is equal to saying that a knowledge of the relative value of our pieces of money is Important to those who wish to buy and sell. It is more thnn important it is absolutely necessary. Yet how many fairly good per- formers upon the piano are there who are guided more by the position in which the notes are printed than by their actual time value ? playing those notes together which are printed over one another, and varying the pace of notes of the same kind, as they happen to be printed wide apart or close to- gether ! In the following table five notes only are given, and a clear knowledge of these will lead safely to an understanding of all others. To carry the comparison of notes with coins one, step further, a relative money table is also given, in which we illus- trate the fractional value of the notes by the dollar and its sub- divisions. MEASURE IN MUSIC. 31 Wbole-note o Semibreve ' $1 00. Half -note J Minim 50 cents Quarter-note J Crotchet . - 25 " Eighth-note ^ Quaver 12i " Sixteenth-note ^ Semiquaver . . 6i " The relation of the notes one to the other is exactly the same in time value as that of the coins iu money value; and the stu- dent of music should, of course, understand the one table quite as clearly as the other. Dotted Notes. A dot placed after a note, J. adds half of the value of the note to itself ; a dotted half -note is therefore as long as a liaJf-note and quarter-note put togetlier. Two dots will add to a note three-fourths of the note's value ; a double dotted half-note is therefore as long as a half-note, a quarter- note, and an eighth-note pat together. The following table will give other examples: c? . equal t <.ir.nntn= B ->ihth.Af n= * cighthnotcs and 4 quarter-notes. 2 lialf-notcs. 8 eiglillinotes. 4 cigtitti-notcs and 1 half-note. ffi ^^^^i^i^i^i^ 1 wholo-notc. 4 quiirter- 1 tialf-notc and 2 quarter-notes and notes. 2 quarter-notes. 1 half-note. It will be noticed that the value of the four quarter-notes is made up in a variety of ways as indicated beneath each part in the several bars. Tlie means of producing this variety are inexhaustible, for with the notes of different lengths, dotted notes, and rests at our disposal, a common time bar could be written in millions of different ways! 3 . 34 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Figure Signatures. This common time sig- /^^ nature is sometimes expressed in figures, thus, \^S and in this, and all signatures in figures, the top figure denotes tlie number in tlie bar, and the bottom figure the time value as measured from / 1 ^: 4 a whole-note. Thus, the figures | may be read ^ thus: four (top figure) notes in a bar, of the value of (bottom figure) a fourth of a whole-note i. e., four quarter-notes in a bar. The signature ^ will therefore mean two quarter-notes in a bar ; ^, tlu'ce quarter-notes in a bar ; ^, six quartei'-notes in a bar ; 9, niiie qtiarter-notes in a bar. Where 2 is the bottom figure, half-notes are the notes indi- cated, there being two half-notes in a whole-note ; the sig- nature g will therefore mean two half -notes in a bar: and g, three lialf-notes in a bar. Where 8 is the bottom figure, eighth-notes are the notes indi- cated, there being eight eighth-notes in a whole-note ; g will therefore mean six eighth-notes in a bar ; 9, nine eighth-notes, and ^, twelve eighth-notes. These are the most ordinary time signatures in use, and be- fore mentioning others, the following classified table should be studied: Time Signatures. COMMON. Simple Duple. Compound Duple. 5, two quarter-notes in a bar. g, two dotted quarter-notes in a bar. g, two half -notes in a bar. |, two dotted half -notes in a bar. MEASURE IN MUSIC. 36 Simple Quadruple. Compound Quadruple. B, or i, four quarter-notes in ^#, four dotted quarter-notes in a bar. a bar. TRIPLE. Simple Triple. Compound Triple. 5, three quarter-notes in a bar. g, three dotted quarter-notes in a bar. g, three eighth-notes in a bar. 2, three dotted half -notes in a bar. Duple and quadruple times may both be called "common," though a name by which to distinguish one from the other is desirable. In church music, half-notes are generally used in place of quarter-notes, and to indicate this a line is drawn through the common time signature, ^, or it is denoted by the figures g, four half-notes in a bar, or , two half-notes in a bar. By either of these signs we understand the music to be "a cappella," in the church style, and the half-notes, though regarded as quarter- notes, are rendered in a manner befitting the character of the music. These, with their compound forms, will add to our table as follows: A CAPPELLA (aLLA-BREVE). Simple Duple. Compound Duple. ^, g, two half-notes in a bar. , two dotted half-notes. Simple Quadruple. Compound Quadruple. ^, 2, four half-notes in a bar. ^J', four dotted half-notes. Simple Triple. Compound Triple. , three half-notes in a bar. , three dotted half-notes. 86 GUIDE TO MUSIC. It will serve as an aid in committing tliese tables to memory if it is pointed out tliat all times where 2 is the top figure in the signature are simple duple; all times where 4 is the top figure, including the sign $, are simple quadruple; and all times where 3 is the top figure are simple tnple. All times where 6 is the top figure in the signature are compound duple; all times where 13 is the top figure are compound quadruple; and all times where 9 is the top figure are compound triple. CHAPtER V LIGHT AND SUADE IN MUSIC The terms "light" and "shade" are now so commonly ap- plied to music that they seem to belong quite as distinctly to this art as to that of painting, from which they have been bor- rowed. The musician, however, does not appear to have obtained, with the terms, any very clear musical definition of them in their separate senses. Used together in the expression "light and shade," the musician is clearly understood to mean the different degrees in the power of sound the loudness and softness of tone. Taken separately, the meaning does not so clearly appear, and, in answer to the question, "what is light in music, and what is shade?" would come more than one reply. The answer, "ligM is softness of sound, and shade loudness," must be rejected, since it is based upon a misconception of the sense in Avhich the painter uses the terms, and the interpreta- tion of them in this sense would serve to destroy one of the pleasantest analogies between the arts. By "light" the painter means intensity of brightness, the illuminated part of the picture, that which stands out and catches the eye. In music the term should be used in the same sense, having as its meaning intensity of tone, brightness of effect, the prominent parts of a composition. "Shade" is to the artist that part of the picture in which objects are but dimly revealed, the soft and obscure back- ground. So to the musician the term should imply the unob- LIGHT AND SHADE IN MUSIC. 87 trusive parts of a composition, distant effects, tones which are soft and subdued. As light and shade serve more fully tlian mere outline to suggest form in drawing, so the correspoiuliiig effects in loud- ness and softness of sound serve to suggest form in music. A circle in outline conveys but little impression of sliape ; shaded, it becomes at once more interesting in form. Fig. 18. Thus by increase and decrease in tone power music is re- lieved of monotony; and even single notes, which swell out and die away again, become " round " and interesting. Tlic most important work carried out through the observance of light and shade is that of making clear the measure of music into bars. This is done by accents which are caused to fall, with differing degrees of power, upon the beats, or divis- ions, of tlie bur. In quadruple time, for instance, the first beat in each bar is the loudest, and thus the beginning of the bar is marked. The third beat is next in power to the first, and thus the commence- ment of the half bar is marked. The second beat is soft, and the fourth and last beat softest of all. The first and third are called the accented beats, and the sec- ond and fourth unaccented heats. Duple time may be regarded as quadruple time in miniature, since the two beats subdivide into four, the accents upon which, though less marked, are the same in effect as in the time described. 437416 38 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Triple time has but one heavy beat, the first ; this is ac- cented, and the two succeeding beats have less weight. In compound time the acceiits fall in the corresponding parts of the bar to those of simple time ; the beats, however, will here subdivide into three notes instead of two. No Marks for Time Accents. These natural accents are not indicated by marks of any kind, and the power with which they are played will vary as the composition varies in loudness and softness. They must not be made more prominent than is necessary to reveal the time of the music. Signs to denote different degrees of Tone PoTver. To indicate different degrees of lone power, changes from loud to soft, increase and decrease, etc., the following letters, standing for Italian words, are used : pp. . . pianissimo, . very soft. p. . . piano, . . . soft. mp. . . mezzo-piano. . not so soft as piano. mf. . . mezzo-forte. . not so loud as forte. / . forte, . . . loud. ff. . . fortissimo, . very loud. Increase of tone is also indicated by cresc. (crescendo), grad- ually increasing in tone power. Decrease is indicated by dim. (diminuendo), decreasing in tone power. By lines opening thus, =:n, increase is also denoted, and by closing,zi=-, decrease. Light and shade may therefore be represented in the follow- ing ways : Fig. 19. LIGHT AND SHADE IN MUSIC. 39 Special Accents. Accents in unusual parts of the bar, or notes at any point requiring special stress, are marked as in tlie following examples: Example I. A Prologue, " Golden heQead," Arthur Sullivcm. A ^~^ J . 1'^- |t>J- ^^^^ ^ Example II. ^ dM ^S Example III. /- P ^ m In Example I., each note in tlie bar is to be heavily marked; in Example II., the note commencing the second half of the bar is to be more lieavily marked than that on the first beat; and in Example III., the sf. {xforzando, forcing the tone), in- dicates that the note commencing this bar is to be louder than that commencing the previous bar, or any other bar not so miuked. These are all departures from the natural accent, and therefore require marking in this special way. Legato (or Slurs). Slurs are interpreted solely through the medium of light and shade, and by a careful observance of these many beautiful effects are produced. The rendering of these on the piano differs of necessity from that upon wind and stringed instruments, and demands here a word of ex- planation. The passage from one note to another when marked with a . I slur is to be smooth. As previously remarked, - ^ r ri ~| a singer or wind-instrument player would "^ 3 render these notes with one sustained tone, a violinist with one smooth movement of the bow, thus making the two notes, though differing in pitch, into one sound. 40 GUIDE TO MUSIC. But as upon the piano ibe tone begins to die away directly the note is struck, this sustained effect is impossible. The feeling of smoothness is, however, produced by playing the second note softer than the first. Should the first note be a short one, the tone not having time to die away very much, tlie second note need not be played much softer than the first. Should the first note be a long one, the second note must be very soft indeed. The aim in thus rendering slurs upon the piano is to hide the blow of the hammer upon the second note, and this is satisfactorily accomplished when the second note is made to sound only as loudly as tlie previous note is sounding when it is left. Writtn- Played- Where three or more notes are marked with a slur the same method of treatment may be adopted, but the longer the slurred passage, the loss must be the decrease of tone upon the succeeding notes. This is termed a legato passage. Written Played Where an opposite effect to this is indicated by the expres- sion marks, as by increase as well as decrease in a slurred pas- sage, the elTect of smoothness must be preserved by a gliding LIGHT AND SHADE IN MUSIC. 41 touch (keeping the notes close together), and making the changes of tone as gradual as possible. Staccato, Notes marked with dots, either above or be- ^^^ neatb, are to be rendered lightly, j^- J | pH n with a detached effect, almost the =i ~ " F= = opposite of a slur. This is termed ^ Mezzo-Staccato. Beethoven, Op. 14, No. I a staccato passage. Notes marked with a slur and dots, as be- low, are to be rendered with equal accent, but witliout the extreme detached effect of the staccato. This is termed mezzo or semi - staccato, half- detached. 8va. Dots or waved lines (--_^~^) above any passage indicate that the notes as far as the dots or waved lines extend are to be played an octave liigher than written. -^-#- Phrasing. Over all these varied touches comcS the work of phrasing the finishing toucli in light and shade, by which the soul and meaning of a composition are revealed. A phrase is in music just wliat a sentence is in the language we speak. As by a number of words in succession sentences are formed, so by a number of notes in succession musical phrases are formed some long, some short and fragmentary. In music which is set to words, the phrases will be found, as a general rule, to begin and end with the sentences. In instrumental, and all music having no words, a phrase is such a succession of notes as would seem to be speaking a sentence. Here we have a phrase, and the sentence to which it is sung: ^i^ ^ Tis the last rose of sum - nier. The following are simple instrumental phrases, culled from 42 GUIDE TO MUSIC. various sources, each of which, though unset to words, seems to clearly express a musical thought: Mendelssohn, " Rivulet." i^ m ^^|^ ,J[^ E^^^^E^ Schubert, Op. 147. -*=sn Beethoven, Op. 79. jfej-r Tr c-hi ^^ Schumann, Op. 21. g:^=N^=J^EJE3 It will be observed in these examples that the notes in each of the phrases rise, and then fall again, and that a crescendo has been marked where they rise, and a decrescendo where they fall. This would be the natural way of phrasing such passages, whether the marks of expression were given or not. And though we cannot lay down a rule and say that rise and fall in the notes of a phrase must be accompanied by increase and decrease in the tone power, we can safely say that such an in- terpretation of a passage which rises and falls is more likely to be correct than any other. Where departures from this method of phrasing are desired, they will be indicated by ex- pression marks in the composition. In the following example (an air of Beethoven) the phrasing of the passages is very fully suggested by expression marks, and an examination of the phrases, which have been marked off by lines above them, will give us further teaching upon this interesting subject : LIGHT AND SHADE IN MUSIC. 43 Beethoven, Op. 26. / *P^ The idea of increase to the high note in the phrase finds con- stant expression here. In phrase 1, the crescendo at bar III. leads up to the Db, bar IV., which is the highest note in the phrase. So in phrases 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, and 10, increase is made to the prominent note, after which we liave in most cases a de- crescendo or piano, indicating a softening down of the phrase at the finish. This is the "shading" referred to at tlie commencement of this cliapter, by the observance of which phrases are made in- teresting in form. 44 GUIDE TO MUSIC. The short phrases 5 and 6 are both alike in form, and rise to a liigU note at the finish. There is no crescendo mark here, however, and the slur is our only guide to the correct interpre- tation of the passage. (Note ou slurs, page 39). In phrases 7 and 8 will be found an interesting departure from the ordinary form previously described, for we have crescendo marks throughout tlie two phrases. The melody is here pressing towards some object, which it does not attain in phrase 7, nor in phrase 8, and the continued stiiving after something is expressed in the continued increase of tone right up to the point where rest is found in the return to the pre- vious subject. From a study of the foregoing examples the student may gather a sufficient amount of information to enable him to an- alyze other compositions for himself. An increase of interest in the music thus studied, as Avell as a clearer view of its mean- ing, will follow as the reward of his pains. The first aim should be to discover where each phrase begins and ends. Then study what may be called their puncUiation ; for in music, as in literary composition, the sense may be very much interfered with by a non-observance of the sU/ps. These are not marked for us in music, but the habit of mentally ob- serving them should be formed, that the relation of the phrases one to the other may be made clear. The manner of making clear ihc form of phrases has already been pointed out. Countless varieties of form exist, but round- ness may be looked for in all as a chief chai'acteristic. In the highest class of musical composition interesting forms are found in each of the parts of which it is composed. By a careful observance of light and shade the beauties of such music are made apparent, and even the uninitiated cannot fail to notice its charms. But beneath all beauty of form in music, to be felt by all who have been endowed with true musical instinct, is the liv- ing spirit of the composer himself, though the botlily presence may be lost to us forever. To feel this spirit for ourselves, and to manifest it through our playing or singing, to others, demands more than the ob- servance of light and shade, or obedience to mere rules of any kind. These we must have, for although they do not reveal ORNAMENTATION IN MUSIC. 46 the spirit of music, they are the medium through which it makes itself felt. They are the body in which, for the time, it dwells each plirase a feature, the expression of which tells of the life witliin. Therefore, study light and shade, as the artist studies the lighting of his picture, that the musical story, like that depicted upon the canvas, may lose none of its meaning. CHAPTER VI ORNAMENTATION IN MUSIC The means of embellishing music are of two kinds 1, Those which affect its tinu; and 2. Those which affect its no- tation. In each of tliese kinds there are generally accepted forms of which a definite description can be given. Pause. First among these we may mention the pause, a sign written over or under a note or rest ^ which indicates that such note or rest is pro- longed beyond its strict time value. No fixed length is allotted to the pause the performer must dwell upon the note or rest just as long as may seem in keeping with the fancy of the piece. It must, however, be a distinct break in the time a sort of resting-place in the composition. Tenuto. Should the composer wish the note to ho merely well sustained, but not prolonged beyond its ten. ten. value, the mark ten. (an abbreviation of I f^ ^ tenuto, "held,") would be given, instead of r^ ' the pause ; or the note would have a straight line above or beneath it, which means that i ^ -P^ such notes are to be fully sustained. rp' ~ Triplets. A pleasant change of rhythm is obtained in music by the introduction of three notes to the time of iico. Over such three notes a figure three is placed: 46 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Such groups of three notes are called triplets. They may be introduced in some compositions upon occasional beats only, or in others throughout a prolonged passage. In Mendelssohn's Lied olnu Worte, No. 20, they occur either in the treble or the bass part of almost every bar, and in such compositions, when the player can render the triplets of one part, and the even notes of the other, each with their proper time value, a very charming effect is produced. Arpeggio. A pleasing and ornamental method of playing chords is that which is termed arpeggio, meaning "in a harp- like" manner. This is indicated by a waved line before the chords, and the notes of such chords are played, not together, but rapidly one after the other, from the lowest to the highest. This manner of playing chords is common upon the harp, the fingers of the player plucking the strings rapidly one after the other from the bottom note to the top, and it is this style of playing which the per- former must imitate when chords are marked as described. These are usually called spread cJiords. Syncopation. By displacing the natural accent in a com- position, binding the last note of a bar to the first note of the next, thus prolonging a note beyond its expected length, and causing the part to fall for a time a beat behind, another pleasing change of rhythm is effected. This is called synco- pation, and an example, in very simple form, is appended : Mozart, Sonata No. Syncopation in its more elaborate forms may more fitly be studied when the whole subject of composition is taken up. ORNAMENTATION IN AtUSIC. 47 Turn. First among note ornamentations must be placed the turn, since it is, perhaps, the most frequently used, and, at the same time, the most graceful in effect, of all embellish- ments. The notes of a turn are not usually written; signs are em- ployed which save this trouble, while they indicate quite clearly the notes desired. A curved line ~ is the sign for a turn, and the course of this line shows the course of the notes of which the turn is com- posed. For instance, a turn thus, ' T f ^ ^^ rendered in the following manner : ?eB= The small notes here given show the turn, which in its movement follows the shape of the sign. The notes of the turn, unless otherwise marked, must always be the notes of the scale in which the piece is written. Chromatic alterations of the notes of a turn are indicated in the following manner : An accidental above the sign J?, ^, means that the upper note is to be made flat, sharp, or natural; an accidental below the sign "^ ^ ^ means that the lower note is to be similarly altered. The following are examples of turns thus chromatically altered, the small notes showing how they should be played: ^T"^^^ ^ The time of the four notes of the turn is taken from the written note tliat precedes them. The pace at which they are played will vary according to the spirit of the piece and the taste of the performer. In slow pieces they will naturally be taken in a smooth and measured style; in quick pieces iu a brisk and spirited manner. It will be observed that the turn, so far considered, has been 48 GUroE TO MUSIC. between two notes, and that it figures as an ornamental passage from one note to the other. Turn over a Note. The sign will frequently be found written over a note thus: Mozart, Sonata No. 9. the rendering of which passage would be as follows: the difference being that in this case the note written is omitted at the beginning of the turn. Wherever this form of the turn is desired, the sign is, or should be, written over the note, as in the example given. Shake. A shake, written tr (the first two letters of trillo), consists of the first two notes of the turn i.e., the note written and the note above, rapidly repeated throughout the entire length of the note over which the sign is i)laced. Its con- tinuance is generally indicated by a waved line, thus: The two little notes, written after the half-note, and played at the end of the shake, make its notes tliose of a complete turn ; and this, in fact, a shake very frequently is, with the repetition of the first two notes as described. The small notes that end the shake are not always written, but they may consistently be played, excepting when the next note written is the same as the note on which the shake oc- curred, or when it is the next note below it. It is also necessary to omit them when the passage in which ORNAMENTATION IN MUSIC. 49 the shake occurs is a rapid one, and the shake-note one of short duration. An accidental over the siprn f< ^' j'* means that the note used ir tr tr in the shake with the written note is sharp, flat, or natural, as the case may be. Mordente. The embellishment known as the Mordente, written, also consists of the first two notes of the turn, but of these only. The passage here given would, according to general rule, be played in the following manner, ^^?^^ i:= !(?=*= the accent falling upon the first note of the group. Other in- terpretations in regard to the time of playing such notes may sometimes be given with equal correctness. The two little notes may, for instance, be played before Ibe written note as if written : There being no distinctive sign to indicate that the time of the written note is not to be intcrferetl with by the embellish- ment, the composer must, to make his intention clear, write the notes out in full when he desires the mordente to precede the written note. But composers have certainly not always done this, and performers are frequently left to the exercise of their owMi judgment, or their knowledge of the traditional rendering of the piece in interpreting these fanciful touches in the works of many of the groat masters. Inverted Turn. The turn and the mordents may both be inverted, thougli they are but seldom used in this" form. i An inverted turn, written would be played 50 GUIDE TO MUSIC. i the uoles being the same as ihe ordi- -0 f P r nary turn, but differing in tlieir order, tile note below the written note being played first. Inverted Mordente. The inverted mordente is written and played, r ^ ^i ir~T I the note below the written note, as in the inverted turn, taking the place of the one above. Many other forms of ornamentation have been devised by modern composers the genius of Chopin, for example, having given us, in his pianoforte works, a most wonderful variety. These, however, are all indicated by small notes, and the method of interpreting them will need no explanation here. All ornamental touches, peculiar to a particular instrument or to the voice, such as the po7'tamento i.e., sliding from note to note; the tremolo i.e., rapid reiterations of a note; ihe pedal effects of the pianoforte, etc., though they might properly have a place here, must be left over for consideration when other subjects, upon which they bear more closely, are before us. CHAPTER VII ON SINGING A CONTROL of the voice in singing is generally the earliest indication of the possession of a musical nature. Infants under two years of age may often be heard singing simple melodies quite correctly in time and tune, showing a true ear, and a control of the vocal organ which is really wonderful. It is as natural to many children to sing as to laugh, and with careful training and good example almost all would grow up well able to make satisfactory use of their voices. In the early voice training of children the practice of deal- ing with them collectively rather than individually is a mis- take. Class singing, while an excellent thing in itself, is not all that is needed in the proper cultivation of the delicate vocal organ. ON SINGING. 61 If iu our schools five minutes' individual training took the place every now and again of the half-hour's class practice, the pupils would benefit immensely. Every child should be taught to sing alone, that the faults of style and production which flourish unobserved in the class may be corrected before they become fixed habit. It is no uncommon thing, as every professor of singing knows, for young people, upon taking their first lessons in "solo" singing, to have to undo the practice of years before they can make any start at all on a right course. There is a fear of hearing one's own voice which ought never to exist. In some it is an absolute bar to all progress in vocalization, robbing the voice of purity and power, and making the prac- tice of singing within hearing of others a pain rather than a pleasure. Let every child who has the singing voice be encouraged to use it often enough to become accustomed to its sound, and ac- customed also to the sensation of letting other people hear it. The nature of the faults to be looked for and weeded out is pretty much the same in youthful voices as in those which are mature. We need not, therefore, treat specially of the child voice, but pass on to consider it in its " settled " state. The "settling" of the voice follows upon the period known as the time of the " breaking" of the voice, during which time singing should cease. The term "breaking" is more commonly applied to boys' voices than to girls', since it has reference to a break in the sound of the voice, and tiiis is more apparent In the one than the other. A similar change of voice occurs in both sexes, however, and is due to a somewhat sudden enlargement of the larynx, taking place at the age of from fourteen to sixteen, sometimes even later, and sometimes earlier. In boys the change usually causes a considerable deepening of the tone, and an octave or more of high notes goes from the voice entirely. In girls, owing to the fact that the change Is more a kngthcning of the larynx than a broadening of it, the voice does not alter nuich in pitch, though during the process of change a loss of control and power is noticeable in the high notes ; this, how- ever, gradually returns with judicious practice. As soon as the voice becomes fairly manageable again after breaking, its 62 GUIDE TO MUSIC. natural compass should be ascertained by careful scale exercise, taking all notes both high and low that are within easy rcacli. In this, as in all other matters of voice training, it is impos- sible for one to do so well alone as with the aid of a teacher. The hints here given may, however, render service to those wishing to make the best use of the voice they possess. First in importance in the practice of singing is the mannge- ment of the lungs, and attention should, at the very beginning, be given to this exercise, which is the foundation of vocaliza- tion. Management of the Lungs. The quantity of breath usually held in the lungs, wliiJe sufficient for ordinary speech, is not sufficient for the supply of tiie vocal organ in singing. We must, therefore, endeavor to increase the storage of air within the chest, and become, at the same time, so accustomed to the greater expansion of the lungs that we can still breathe quite steadily. Position. Position will iiave a great deal to do with our accomplishing this; therefore the familiar advice must here be given : Stand upriglit when singing, the head and shoulders being thrown well back, and the chest and lower part of the body expanded and well forward. The object of throwing the head and shoulders well back is to lift the weight of these parts off the lungs, which will at once expand of their own accord to nearly double their ordinary size, giving an equivalent increase in the quantity of breatli within them. The pushing of the loAver parts of the body outward must be understood as implying (in cnlarginfi or exjinnding of these parts by a physical movement, wliich, with a little practice, can be per- formed as easily and as rapidly as that of opening the hand. The increased space within the body which this movement produces is at once of benefit to the lungs above, which swell Fig. 20. ON SINGING. 53 out and fill whatever room we may thus make for them, pro- viding breath sufficient for tlie singer's every need. A Full Breath. The process of drawing in breath through the mouth and nostrils by what is called a deep inspiration will be seen to be not only slow and tedious, but absolutely wrong for the purpose of vocalization. The incoming breath in this case has to lift off or drive away all the surrounding and obstructing parts of the body before the lungs can fill, re- quiring an expenditure of time and strength which the singer cannot give. In the process previously described, the one movement which the singer need be careful to perform is the throwing of the head and shoulders back, and the expanding or pushing out- ward of the lower part of the body. A full breath is by this method obtained instantly. The proof that the action is correctly performed will be found in the sound of in-rusMng air which will be heard as the lungs expand to fill the space made for them. Retaining the Breath. Having obtained the full breath by this rapid and easy process, it will he necessary to bestow some pains upon the practice of holding it. Let the body be held in the attitude described for a few seconds only at first, gradually increasing the time with dally practice, until the muscles have become so accustomed to their work that the strain imposed upon them is no longer noticeable. The storage of air witliin tlie lungs will tlius become considerably increased, and it will be found possible to sing a short exercise such as this many limes over with one breath: This work of laying a foundation upon which the voice is af- terwards to be built up cannot be hurried, and a good many weeks may profitably be spent upon it before attention is turned to tlie voice itself. Assuming this to have been done, we can pass on to the very interesting study of voice production, under which head must 64 GUIDE TO MUSIC. be considered all matters having relation to the quality of tone produced. Voice Production. However much Nature may have done for us at the start, it is well that every one who wishes to be- come a finished singer should be willing still to listen and learn. Humility may be the principal characteristic of singers in general the world over; we do not say it is not. At any rate, those who know how much there is to learn before per- fection is attained in the art of vocalism will recognize the absolute necessity of this quality in the beginner. We may naturally have a clear voice and an easy production, but it does not follow that we know how to sing. Until some power bestows upon us the gift to liear ourselves as others hear ns we cannot be the judges of our own voices, nor of our own style in singing. Roundness of Tone. The chief feature of vocal tone, like that of all wind instruments which imitate the human voice, should be roundness. The eye must tell the ear what is meant by this. Tlie channel through which sound passes in the flute, oboe, clarionet, bassoon, horn, trumpet, trombone, and all sim- ilar instruments, is perfectly round. The eye perceives this, and the ear, in its own way, perceives it, too, by the quality of the sound produced. In tlie king of instruments, the organ, which combines in itself the qualities of all the instruments just men- tioned, the metal pipes are all perfectly round, and where these are properly voiced the tone is pure and sweet. The wood pipes, it is true, are square, but their tone is easily distinguished from that of the round metal pipes, from which the grandest and noblest tones are invariably obtained. Roundness in the channel through which it passes, and from which it is given out, undoubtedly imparts to sound a richness and smoothness of quality. Destroy the roundness of the organ pipe by bend- ing or twisting, and just as the eye sees a disfigurement on the surface of the pipe, so the ear hears a disturbance in the quality of the tone. Roundness in the pipe of the vocal organ is as necessary to tlie production of good tone as we find it to be in other instru- ments, and the following hints may serve to show what is to be attained in this direction. Let it be understood that the singer is at present using only ON SINGING. 55 the vowel a, sounded as in Amen when sung, or as in father when spoken. The position of the head recommended in the hints upon breatliiag is also favorable to the production of roundness of tone in singing. Sliould the head be drawn down so as to press upon the throat, or allowed to drop forward upon the chest, the openness or roundness of the sound passage will be interfered with. Therefore, let the head be held icell up, taking care, at the same time, to do this in a manner which is free from any approacii to stiffness. Opening the Mouth. To say that openness of mouth is necessary to the production of good tone is but to repeat what has been said so often that there is a danger of the remark being unheeded. Those who sing believe that they always do open the mouth, and think the advice in their case altogether superfluous. A test would prove whether this is so or not, and every one should be willing to apply it. A mirror will tell us, in the first place, if we open our mouth or not in singing. But we must learn to open it when the mir- ror is not before us, or we shall not have gained much by this test. Let a measure of the distance between the front teeth be taken while singing, aicay from the mirror, and we may find ourselves somewhat deceived as to the openness of our mouth. When the lips are parted at all, we cannot, without measuring, or seeing llieir retlection in the glass, determine the exact distance they arc apart. Thus it is that so many think they are giving their tone ample room when the passage be- tween the teetli through which the voice is being squeezed would not admit, perhaps, the end of an ordinary lead-pencil. Let the mouth be opened in an easy, natural way. Stiffness of movement will be fatal to clear enunciation, for while roundness is to be the chief characteristic, remember that the mouth is a mould wliich should be constantly changing in shape with every change of vowel tone to be sung. The lower jaw should be allowed to drop precisely as it would in sleep if unsupported; or, as some prefer to put it, just as it does in the act of yawning. At the same time the muscles which govern its movement must be under perfect control, or again eiuinciation would be interfered with, though in a different way. 66 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Position of the Tongue. It is quite possible for llie mouth to be well open in the manner described, and yet for the passage from the throat, through the mouth, to be unsatis- factory. The tongue is here the common cause of hinderance to the sound. This must be kept well d<, which only measure, perhaps, an inch in length, such a deep tone as in the organ would be obtained from an open pipe eight feet long! The rate of the vibrations which generate the sound written would, at a medium pitch, be sixty- six in one second of time. English concert pitch is higher than 68 GUIDE TO MUSIC. this, the Philharmonic f being 454 vibrations in a second. In all the following quotations we shall take the International pitch, 435-A as our standard. Upon the grand pianoforte the string which produces the low C just quoted is usually over four feet in length. By a loosening of the vocal chords the singer can make them, short as they are, vibrate as slowly as this long, heavy string of the piano. With the ascending scale the rapidity of vibration increases, doubling exactly with every octave. When the voice gives forth this note, ^ ^ r ^ . the vocal chords are vibrating ex- actly 132 times in a second. In a scale upon the organ which started with a pipe eight feet long, this note would be produced by oiie four feet long. Upon the piano the string which sounds this note is not reduced to half the length of the lower C ; a lighter wire is used, and a quicker vibration is thereby obtained. We shall discover, however, that the natural result of shorten- ing a string by half is to cause it to sound a note exactly an octave above the note produced by the whole string. When we have ascended another octave, and have reached the note written the vibrations of which are 264 in a second, we still have not reached the limit in higher sounds of an ordinary bass voice, while the tenor voice, wiiich has not the deep notes of the bass, will reach upward as high as the note ^' , the vibrations being 435 in a second. Compass of Female Voices. The ordinary compass of con- tralto voices is from the note ffl5=r-=3, with 176 vibrations in a second, to : , with 616 vibrations in a second; ON SINGING. 59 the still lighter organ of sopranos having a range usually from iJC. ^. 264 vibrations, to f^ ^. in sounding which note the vocal chords vibrate at the rate of 1056 beats in a second. Compass of Exceptional Voices. Lower sounds than those quoted are often produced by the human voice. An exceptionally low note for a bass would be '^ m notes as while high sopranos sometimes reach such extreme -, the last note having over 2000 vibrations in a second! The method, now generally adopted, of showing the partic- ular octave in which a sound occurs, is as follows : tC tO'tavei (Small Octave.) (Once-accented Sve.) (Twice-acc. 8ve.) etc. The pitch of organ pipes is, however, still named after the old system, as follows : Ml m z^ (Sve. lower. > ccc, ((.r) 16 ft. C, (or) Three C's. CO, 8 ft. C, Double C. C, 4 ft. C, Tenor C. c, ^ cc, ^ PCC, 2 ft. c, 1 ft. c, inches c Middle c. Treble C. c in ait. 60 GUIDE TO MUSIC. The octave below CCC being CCCC, and lliat above c in alt, c in altissimo cccc. Some llieorists use 1C3C and c'c', etc. From these remaiUs it will be seen that intonation is not a thing to be lightly guessed at. Perfection in this matter must be sought for in an earnest and painstaking manner. By practice the control of the vocal chords can be wonderfully increased, enabling the singer to add many a charm to the singing of a simple ballad. Portamento. It is possible, with good effect in singing, to slide from one note to another that is, to continue singing while the pitch of the lower sound is raised to that of the higher, or vice versa, the voice covering all sound lying between the two notes. This style of singing, called portamento, is an ornament when in its proper place, but is the most abominable of all disfigure- ments when employed injudiciously. It should be used only in music of the smoothest style, and the following two suggestions remembered whenever it is em- ployed : 1. Let iceight be taken off the voice during its passage from one sound to the other, that the intermediate sounds be not so prominent as tJiose at the start and finish. 2. Pass quickly from one sound to the other, that the ear may not have time to dwell npon any sound of which tlie slide is formed. Or, in other words, do not begin to slide away from the first note vntil it is time to sing the second. Attack. At the very commencement of a sound, see that it is true in pitch. It is possible to tune the vocal choids by a mental process, having them quite ready to give forth the de- sired sound before we send up breath to start it. A common fault in singing is that of tuning the voice after the note is sounded. The start is made upon some low note, and the voice is immediately screwed up to the pitch required, which proc- ess is repeated more or less upon all the sounds sung. This is a case of the slide being very much out of place, and w^herever a trace of such a fault is found, the greatest pains should be taken to remove it. To attack notes with true intonation that is, to make the pitch correct from the beginning of the sound should be the aim of every singer. If, upon examination, we find ourselves ON SINGING. 61 addicted to the habit of tuning tlie wice up to the required sound after commencing to sing the note, exercises of the fol- lowing nature should be practised: 35^^ I ^ ^^^^ :%-=^ E^=^-=^^=^z ih, ah, ah, ah. These notes must be very sliort, and should be sung as oftly as possible, while, at the same time, they are lightly touched upon the piano. As soon as these notes can be sung with perfect ease, the pitch of each being found to agree with the note upon the piano, the exercise may be sung in a higher key. Such practice as this should be continued until we have be- come accustomed to tuning the vocal chords true to the note before we sing it. There must be no straining or pinching of the tiiroat. Tlie action necessary to the accomplishment of this sliould be an easy and natural accompaniment to our thought of the sound we wish to sing. Tiie fault of sliding up to sounds in the manner described arises sometimes from a difficulty in sounding consonants up to a given pitch. Tlie previous exercises should therefore be sung to all such sounds as la la, ta ta, fa fa, ca ca, ami the various other conso- nant alternations that will suggest themselves. Flexibility ofVoice. The practice of singing scales is, of course, of great benefit to the voice. By tliis exercise flexibil- ity is obtained, while, sung with increase and decrease of tone, such practice will also bring with it a development of power in the vocal organ. It lias already been said that we do not hear our own voice as others hear it; we probably sliould not know it if we did. It vibrates within our own liead, while the sound of other voices falls upon our ears from witliout. Unaided by a teacher, therefore, we may not get as far along tlie road to finished vo- calism as it is possible to go. The careful following up of the various hints contained in this chapter will, however, bring the reward of considerable advancement to "those who have ears lo hear." 62 GUIDE TO MUSIC. CHAPTER VIII THE OKGAN The opportunity of playing upon the organ comes to many who cannot easily obtain instruction upon the instrument. The remarlis of the following chapter are intended to convey to these the information usually derived in early organ lessons. We will assume that the pupil has already become acquainted with the key-board, since it is the same as that of the piano (excepting that its compass is smaller), and also that a general knowledge of music has been acquired. In all other matters we will treat the pupil as a beginner, and endeavor to give such hints as would lead him satisfactorily through the diffi- culties which first of all present themselves. Although the blowing of the instrument does not devolve upon the pla3'er, it is important that he should have a full knowledge of this department to start with. More harm can be done to the organ by bad blowing than by bad playing, therefore Bsee that this duty is always properly performed, according totlie following directions: The bellows' handle should be firmly grasped "~ near the outer end, and then moved down and Lf^PTY up with a sloio, sweeping stroke, which must be absolutely free from vA\ jerking. An indicator usually shows the amount of wind contained in the reservoir, and this should be kept as nearly as possible in the position shown in the I illustration. With a soft organ a very slow stroke will suffice to keep in the wind ; a loud organ will I require a quickerand stronger stroke; in all rULL cases the indicator must be made to ride stead- ily in one place. Wind must on no account '^' be blown when the indicator is at full, as this causes a straining of the wind-chest, and gives annoyance to the player by the noise of superfluous wind rush- ing from the escape-valve. THE ORGAN. 63 Having given these instructions to the blower, we will take our seat at the key -board, and endeavor to become acquainted with the stops of the organ. S'WELL. Oboe. Cornopean. Mixture. Flautina. Principal. Stopped Diapason. dulciana. Open Diapason. Bourdon. Tremolo. COUPLERS. Great to Pedal. Swell to Pedal. Swell to Great. GREAT. Trumpet. Mixture. Fifteenth. Twelfth. Principal. Harmonic Flute. Gamba. Clarabella. Open Diapason. DOUBX.E Diapason. PEDAL. Double Open Diapason. Bourdon. ^ //////// II IWWVWW ^ CRE.AT ^ ^ Fig. 22. The instrument before us is one of mcxlerate size, and the in- formation necessary to an \inderstanding of its various ap- pliances will not be more than is generally required by the amateur organist. We have here a two-manunl instrument, the upper manual, or row of keys, being called the Swell Organ, and the lower, the Oreat Organ. On cither side of the manuals are the stops, which in this organ are twenty-five in number. The upper nine stops on the left-hand side act upon the Swell Organ; the 64 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Tipper ten stops upon the right-hand side act upon tlie Groat Organ. The Great Organ. First let us draw the stop "Open Diapason " from those on the right, and play a simple chord u on the lower manual. The notes should be pressed firmly down to the bottom at once, and we then hear the full clear tone of the pipes sounding out the chord we have struck. Open Diapason, 8 ft. The pipes that are speaking are those which appear for the most part in the front of the organ usually the decorated or gilded pipes. Of these there are fifty-six in all, which we shall find is exactly one for each note on the manual. We touch the lowest note of the key-board, C, and wind is at once allowed to pass to the longest of tliese pipes. Touching the next key above, C#, the next pipe (one a tritie shorter) is heard to speak ; so passing upward in the scale we should hear each pipe in turn, until we reached the short pipes which are placed away out of sight behind their gilded relations. "We notice that beneath the name of the slop is printed 8ft.; this has reference to the length of the longest pipe df this set, which we should find to be eight feet from the opening near the foot to the opening at the top of the pipe. By tliis mark upon the stops we can determine their pitch. If we draw other slops marked 8/^., and play the same note for each, say we shall find the pitch in every case the same, though different qualities of tone exist, wliich may be explained later on. Any stop marked 8 ft. can be used separately, though some arc more suitable for separate use than others; the tone of each will be found to correspond in pitch to tliat of the piano. Principal, 4 ft. Putting in ihe eight-feet stops that may be out, we will draw the one marked Pn}icipal,4: ft. We now find tliat the notes we phi)' sound an octare higher than they did wlien an eight-feet stop was in use. The Principal is a complete set of pipes, one for each note of the key-board, like the Open Diapason, but starting at the bottom with a pipe four feet long, which sounds a note exactly an octave higher than an eight-feet pipe. This stop is used to give brightness and ful- THE ORGAN. 66 ness to the tone of the eight-feet stops, with which it should be combined. Harmonic Flute, 4 ft. We have here another four -foot stop, which will therefore be of the same pitch as the one we liave just considered. The tone of this stop, however, is much richer and sweeter than that of the Principal; and, therefore, while it may also be combined with eight-feet stops, it is more effective as a solo stop. Twelfth, 2f ft. This stop is called the Twelfth, because it sounds a twelfth above the note struck. Thus with the m twelfth alone, if we strike p^ \ (the lowest note of the key-board) we obtain the sound ^^ twelve notes above. This stop can only be used in combination with others, and, as it would be objectionable if prominent, it must never be drawn unless a large number of other stops are speaking. Its use is to give brilliance to a full organ, and the idea of the stop has been derived from the natural harmonics of a string, the first of whicii is the octave, and. the second the ticelfth. The Fifteenth, 2 ft. This stop speaks two octaves (a fif- teenlh) above the eight - feet stops, and thus from the lowest note of tlie key -board, the fifteenth alone would give us the -< s>- sound P^J^Er^. t'WO octaves above. In building up a full organ, this stop should be drawn before the Twelfth, although, owing to its higher pitch, it is placed above it. The Fifteenth is used in combination with the full eight and four feet tone, to which it adds nuich brightness. Mixture. Many varieties of this stop are to be found, but tlu'ir use is in all cases the same viz., to give brilliance to the full organ. As a general rule the Miditre should therefore be drawn only when all tlie other stops of the organ then being played upon (tiio Great or*tiircll) are out. A Mixture marked "two ranks " gives two sounds for each note, which two sounds are high harmonics of the note struck. Thus, putting down 6 66 GCIDK TO MUSIC. the lowest note of the key -board, the Mixture alone being out, -frs- we hear, most probably, the notes /f . ::. If our Mixture be one of three ranks, we hear three sounds for every note struck, which for the low C may be the following: ^ Gamba, 8 ft. The tone of this stop is very different from that of the' stops w^e have so far considered. It came into the organ originally as the Viol-di-Oamba,an(l was intended as an imitation of the tone of that stringed instrument. The Oamba is a louder stop than the Viol-di- Gamba, and its tone is as nearly like that of stringed instruments as any stop at present invented. It is most useful as a solo stop, but in combination with other stops some very pleasing effects may be produced. The pipes of all the stops thus far spoken of are of metal, differing slightly in shape in the different stops, but being for the most part of the type of those visible in front of the in- strument. Clarabella, 8 ft. The Clarabella is a sweet, flute-like stop, the pipes of which are of wood. The tone of this stop is very serviceable in solo effects, in soft voluntaries, or in playing over a hymn tune the melody upon the Clarabella, and the accompaniment upon a softer stop upon the swell. In some organs the Doppel Flote (or Double Flute) may take the place of the Clarabella, which in quantity of tone it somewhat resem- bles. Double Diapason, 16 ft. This stop is usually of wood, and, being of sixteen-feet tone, it sounds an octave lower than the Open Diapason. The pipe which sounds the lowest note is only eight feet in length ; the sixteen-feet tone is produced by inserting a plug in what is usually the open end of the pipe, which has the effect of deepening its tone by an octave. In large organs the Double Diapason is frequently an open metal pipe, tlie lowest note being^roduced by a sixteen-feet pipe; but a great deal of space is required for the stop, and it is very costly. Trximpet 8 ft. It will be noticed that this eight-feet stop THE ORGAN. 67 is placed away from the others, as also are two such stops for the other manual. They are so separated because they belong to a different class, being what are called Reed stops. In these the pipes are of altogether different shape from those we have considered, and the tone is produced upon an entirely different plan. Within the metal " hoot," A' is a tongue of brass, over which wind passes in its passage to the tube, B. The vibration of this tongue governs the pitch of the note, and also gives to it that character which we recognize as reed tone. The projecting wire, C, is for tuning the reed; striking it upward lengthens the tongue and flattens the tone, striking it downward shortens the tongue and sharpens the tone. (See also Fig. 11, page 6.) Tlie tone of the I'minpet stop is cliaracteristic of tlie brass instrument it is named after, and both in solo passages of a stirring, martial nature, and in marches for the full organ, it is most effective. Number of Pipes in Great Organ. There being fifty- six pipes for each stop, of which our Great Organ has ten, it will be seen that, counting three ranks for the "Mixture," we have twelve times lifty - six pipes in our Great Organ, 673 in all, the player having perfect command of e,u;h one. The Swell Organ. We now i)ass over to the stops on the left -hand side, whicli, we shall find, speak on the upper muiuial. Fi- 23. The Swell Organ is so called because all its pipes are en- closed in a large wooden case, in the front of which are shut- ters of Venetian pattern, wliieh can be opened and closed by the foot of the performer, causing the tone to " xirell" out and die away again. The swell pedal will be found cither in front or to the extreme right, and, pressing this down with the right 68 GUIDE TO MUSIC. foot, the shutters will open ; allowing it gently to rise again, they will close. Tiiere are three kinds of Swell Pedals in gcn- erai use: The Balanced Sirell l\dal, which is j)laced in front, is used by pressing the heel of the foot to open, and pressing the toe to close the swell-box. The Ratchet Swell Pedal, which is placed on the extreme right, has a ratchet which stops the Swell Pedal from closing when it is pressed down ; by pushing aside the outer guard, the pedal is released and closes. The old style Swell Pedal has merely a catch to hold it down or open ; and, after using the organ, the swell-box should always he left thus open, that the pipes Avitliin may stand at the same temperature as those without. Open Diapason Swell, 8 ft. Among the Swell Organ stops ar(^ several of similar names to those of the Oreat Orr/an. These differ from each other oidy in jiower of tone. The Open Biapason of the Swell Organ is not so large in scale or so powerfully voiced as that of the Great Organ, though in qufility of tone' it is similar. Dulciana, 8 ft. The Didciana is a soft-toned open metal stop of most agreeable quality. It is of immense service as an accompaniment to the soft stops of the Great, and is also ver}^ effeclive in quiet passages by itself. A soft stop called Salicional might, in some organs, be found in place of tlie Did- ciana: Tin's is a Ganiha of small scale. Stopped Diapason, 8 ft. (or Lieblich Oedact). Oedact being the German name for Stopped Diapason and liehlich meaning Hweet, this stop is, we perceive, a Sweet Stopped Diapason. It is usually of wood, and, as already described, by means of plug- ging or stopping the open end of the pipe, an eight-feet tone is protltieed from a pipe half the length. It stands in relation to tlie other stops of the Swell as the Clarabella does to the other stops of the Great Organ. Principal, 4 ft. Similar to the Principal of the Great Or- gaii, but of smaller seale nnd less jiowerful tone. Flautina, 2 ft. :V soft two-feel stop, whicli serves the same purpose in the Swell as the Fifteenth in the Great Organ. The ton(! of the Flautina is more sweet and llute-like than that of the Fifteenth, resembling as it does the Piccolo, by which name it is often called. Mixture. As in tlic Great Organ, a stop which gives high THE ORGAN. 69 harmonics of the foundation tones, and imparts brilliance to the full organ. Often called Dolce Cornet. Bourdon, 16 ft. Practically the same as the Double Diapa- son, but of softer tone. It imparts great body to the tone in full, heavy pussages. Oboe, 8 ft. One of the most pleasing reed stops, and ser- vicealjle alike for solo purposes and, in combination with other stops, for accompaniment. It is intended as an imitation of the Ohoe or Ilautbois (French) of the orchestra, though the tone of this instrument cannot be so faithfully represented in the organ as can that of some orchestral instruments. Cornopean, 8 ft. A reed stop of bolder character than the Oboe, intended, like the Trumpet, to imitate the tone of the brass instrument from which it is named. Number of Pipes in the Swell. Having nine stops in the Swell, and counting tlie Mixture as two ranks, we have here ten times fifty-six pipes, or a total of 560, which, added to the 673 in the Great, gives us a grand total, for the two organs, of 1232. Pedal, Double Open Diapason, 18 ft. Beneath the Oreat Organ slops on the right are two slops which speak only upon the pedals. There are usually thirty notes upon the pedal organ, and drawing the pedal Doufde Open Diapason, we bring into play thirty pipes of deep, heavy tone, the deepest of which, tlie si.xteen-feet itipe, we liear when we put down the lowest pedal with tlie font. The pipes are of wood, and they form that effective rolling bass which is one of the chief characteristics of the organ. Bourdon, 16 ft. Like the Bourdon of the manuals, this is a stopped pipe, producing sixteen-feet tone from a pipe half the length, and forming an agreeable bass for the soft stops of the organ. Total Number of Pipes. Adding these two rows of thirty ])ip(S to the total number contained in the Oreat and ISicell, we find that our organ contains altogether 1292 pipes. The Couplers. The stops whicli remain yet to be spoken of are not speaking stops, but are mechanical appliances for couiiling one org;in willi another. Swell to Great. With Swell to Great out, every note we 70 GUIDE TO MUSIC. play upon the Oreat Organ draws down the corresponding note upon the Swell Organ. It is thus possible, with all the stops of both organs drawn, to give forth the full tone of the Oreat and Sicell combined. We may also effect any other combination we please, such as Clarabella (gt.) and Diilciana (sw.), or Open Diapason (gt.) and Oboe (sw.), by means of this useful coupler. Great to Pedal, With this Stop out, all notes played upon the Pedal Organ draw down the corresponding notes upon the Oreat Organ. Swell to Pedal. Similarly this stop combines the notes of the Pedal Organ with those of the Strell, and thus we are en- abled to make the bass agree with whatever combination we may be using for the hands. Tremolo. A mechanical device placed on a feed-trunk, near the bellows, which gives a vibratory movement to the air which similarly affects the sound produced. This stop is effective only on the softer stops of the Organ. Combination Pedals. Above the Pedals, and within con- venient reach of tlie feet, are certain iron pedals for throwing out the stops in different combinations. The order in which these are placed, and the combinations they produce, vary so much that a definite description of these is not possible. A good arrangement and a useful set of combinations for the organ we are considering would be as here shown: SWEL.t. CRBAT fri/lt PRINCIfnt. MAKnONIt FLUTg. LIEBUZM CCDACr CKHBK FULL. ouLCiANA ueaucMceoACT cumba cunAttiL* OPCN oiAPAiON oulc/ana rLARAacuA ohh oinmoM Fig. 24. Choir Organ. Should the organ upon which we have the opportunity of practising possess three manuals, the additional THE ORGAN. 11 organ will be called the Clwir; this will be the lowest of the three rows of keys. The stops contained in this organ may in several cases be found similar in name to those we have be- come acquainted with, and will tlierefore need no description. We may here find a beautiful and very useful reed stop, the Clarionet, which in many organs is a very perfect imitation of the important instrument of that name. With a three-manual instrilment we may be so fortunate as to have the Vox Humana slop, though this will most frequently be found in the Swell. The Tremolo is always drawn with the Vox Humana. This stop, if good, is a beautiful addition to an organ, imitating the human voice, as it does in some cases, with great exactitude. It is not, however, an unmixed blessing in an organ, for several reasons. It Is more liable to get out of order than any other stop; it is subject to more abuses at the hands of incompetent or injudicious performers, and it is more dependent upon the acoustic properties of the building for effect. 32-ft. Stops. Larger organs will contain stops upon the Pedals of thirty-two feet tone. In the Auditorium (Chicago) organ are tliree such stops; one of metal, one of wood, ^ ^fs> ^ ges - to - rum, Fa - mu-li tu - o - rum, Sol - - ve pol-lu-ti La - bi - i re - a - - turn Sane - te Jo - ban - nes. It will be noticed that the first notes of the first six phrases of the melody are the notes C, D, E, F, G, A, and the syllables to which they are sung are ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, and these, as we have observed, were given as names to the notes. Tiie tw^elfth century saw the introduction of characters by which the lengtii of sounds could be represented ; it saw also tiie dawning of ideas upon the sul)ject of rhyliun, or the meas- uring of music into bars of equal length, though all its measures were of a most grave and sober nature, semibreves being the shortest notes emploj'ed. Hitherto in attempts at harmony all the parts had moved slavishly up and down with the melody, but now touches of independent movement began to show themselves. Perotin, a French composer, had, in the early part of the twelfth century, imparted a touch to composition which was followed by re- markable results. These may not all have been attributable to him ; a train of thought seems to have been fired in musical minds everywhere at about this time, and the boundless possi- bilities of music as an art seemed at once to be revealed. The touch referred to was but a feeble attempt at "imita- tion," a copying in one voice or instrument of the theme pre- viously sung or played by another, the two parts beinu: made to produce harmony while moving independently. But this meant much: It pointed to the ingenious Canon, viXnch. soon 16 GUIDE TO MUSIC. followed; Ibis in turu led to the noble Fiigtie, a form of com- position on wbicli lias been expended the deepest tliought of the greatest musicians who have ever lived; it indicated an unlimited variety of new musical effects, and composers were soon vying with each other in the appropriation of these in their compositions. The following example shows how remarkable was the ad- vance made in part writing at about this time, for the compo- sition is supposed to date from the year 1226, and it reveals an independence in the movement of its several parts, a purity in its harmonies, and an ingenuity of form never before equalled. It has been attributed to more tlian one composer, but it is un- doubtedly by an Englishman, and it marks the commencement of the Madrigal in English vocal music. The Canon form is here employed ; the upper parts, four in number, having one subject which is taken up by each in turn; and the lower parts, two in number, having a different subject, which serves as a ground bass: SUMER IS ICUMEN IN. HvL - mer is i P ^^E^ ^B=^- Sinp l^^ Sing Sing en Sing cu THE GROWTH OF MUSIC. 11 Su - mer is i - cu - men in, Lhu - de Su - mer m nu, Sing nu,.... Sinn cue - cu, Sing The development of this form of composition soon occupied the utteiitiou of English composers, especially such as were in- terested ulso in the cultivation of tlie vocal art. An awakening interest on the part of the singers themselves naturally followea, for instead of having monotonous, drone-like strains to sing, they found pleasant forms allotted to them. Secular poetry, particularly such as was of a pastoral character, found utter- ance in the new school of music, and musical souls everywhere revelled in the greater llights wliicli in these freer strains they were enabh'd to take. In the sixteenth century the world was enriched with many compositions of great l)eauty, by which further cliarms of form in vocal music were revealed. Detinite sliajie was given at this period to the 3fv ( ^ "^*^ ^^ chord sounding before the beat XnticipISone at.). \ S'occur.''''' '* '' '"''"''"^ ^^^'""'"^ Antipiione (Ger.). Tlie musical response of one choir to another, or of the people to the priest ; singing alter- nately. Antistrophe. The second stanza in ancient poetry or church music, the first being called the strophe ; each strophe was recited or sung while tiirning a different way. Antithesis. A term used in figures, signifying tlie answer, or contrasting subject. A PiACEUE {It.). At pleasure ; the fancy of the performer may be indulged in regard to time or expression. A poco {It.). A little, by degrees. A POCO piu i.ENTo {It.). A little more slowly. A POCO PIU ANiMATO {It.). A little more animatedly. A POCO PUT Mosso {It.). A little more movement, or more rapidity of movement. Apollo. Among ancient Greeks, the god of music, and in- ventor of the lyre. Appassionato {It.). With strong, passionate feeling. Appoggi.vtuua {It.). A grace note jtfe A QUATRE MAINS {Fr.). For four hands ; a duet. Arco {It.). Tlie bow ; coll' arco, with tlie bow. Ardente {It. and Fr.). Fiery, vehement. Aria (//.). An air, or a song. Arp.v {It.). The harp. ArpeggIato'' I" (^^)- ^^"'^^ P^*^^^ ^ * harp-like manner. 124 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Arpeggiamento ( (^'')- Pl^yi^g ^be notes of a chord one T^^S^^T^ i after another from the bottom upwards, ARPEGGIO ^ ^g ^^ ^j^g j^^j.p Art iOer.). Species, kind, mode. Art de l'archet (F/-.). The art of bowing. Aktista ilt.). I An aj'tist: singers, performers, or composers Artiste (Fr.). ) of tlie highest class. As dGer.). The key of Ah. As DUR {Ger.). The key of Ah major. As MOLL (Oer.). The key of AI2 minor. AssAi (It.). Very, more, extremely; Alkgro assai, very quick, AssAi Piu ilt.). Much more. AssoLUTO (/<.). Absolute, free, not slurred or bound. A TEMPO (.It.). In time. Resuming the time, after a pause or a ritardando. A TEMPO GiusTO (J/.). In exact, strict, equal time. A TRE, or A 3 (It.). For three voices, or instruments ; a Trio, or Terzetto. A TRE CORDE (It.). For three strings; in piano music, the sign for the pedal on the right. Attacca ) (/if.). Go on at once to the following move- Attacca subito \ ment. Augment. To add to. Augmented internals, perfect or major intervals made larger by chromatic alteration. Authentic Cadence. The perfect cadence ; a common chord on the dominant, followed by one on the tonic. f-^ B. The seventh note of the scale of C, , called in France and Italy 8i, and in Germany H, the letter B in this latter country indicating our Bb. JfUSICAL TERMS. 125 Bacchia. a Kamscbatka dance in ^ time. Baccuuslied (Ger.). A song performed at Bacchanalian feasts. Bacciocolo {It.). A Tuscan musical instrument. Bachelok of music. An English musical degree, preceding that of Doctor of Music. Badinage (Fr.). Mirth, gayety ; avec badinage, in a merry, frolicsome style. Bagatelle (iFr.). A short easy composition ; a trifle. Bagpipes. A musical wind instrument used in Scotland, Ire- land, Wales, and other countries, but chiefly identified with Scotland. It consists of a leathern bag, which receives and stores the air blown into it through a tube, and of pipes into which the air is pressed by the arm of the per- former, the tune being fingered upon certain of the pipes at the same time. Baisseu (Fi:). To flatten the pitch. Bajon {Sp.}. The bassoon. Ballad. A song of simple character, the music of each verse being alike. Ballet XFi'.). A graceful dance of a spectacular nature for the stage. Ballo (It.). A dance, or a dance tune. Banjo. An instrument used chiefly in accompanying negro songs. B^R Bak. The music or period of time represented between : the lines across the slave. Bap.carola (It.). A boat song or air, usually in g time. Bard. Among the ancients a poet-singer, or poet-miisician." (p,^ r The high bass voice, the compass of which Barytone (PJny.) I _____^ ^- Baritone {Aiiier.) is from p ^ =j to " @' , or a note higher. Bass ) Bv'so (It ) \ '^'^^ '^^^ "^'^'^ voice, the compass of which may be from ^:^= tof^'^^=^. 126 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Bassa(/i!.). Low, deep; 8oa Jassa, an octave lower. Basse-contre (Fr.). The largest Instrument of the violin family ; the double-bass. Basset-iiork. An instrument somewhat like the clarinet, but of deeper tone, having a bell-shaped end. B.\ssooN. A wind instrument of wood, with a double reed like the oboe. It. Fagotto. (_See page 5.) Battuta (It.). Time or measure. B DUR (Ger.). The key of Bb major. Bell gamba. Tlie name of an organ stop ; the pipes having a bell-shaped top. Ben (/if.). Well, good. Ben marc.\to (It.). Well marked. BiciiORD {Lat.). Having two strings to each note. Binary measure. Common time of two in a bar. Bis(Za<.). Twice; to be played twice over. Bizzarro {It.). Wliimsical. fantastical, odd. BoGEN (Oer.). The bow^ of violin, or other stringed instru- ments. Bolero (Sp.). A Spanish dance, in 3 time. BoMBARDE (Fr.). A loud 16-ft. reed stop in the organ. Bourdon (/>.). A soft 16-ft. stop in the organ; the pipes being of wood, and stopped. Brace. The line which connects the staves Br.wura {It.). Passages of great brightness, spirit, and vigor. Breve {It.). The note t^, from which comes scraibreve a (or whole-note), a note half tiie length of the breve. Bridge. That upon whicli llie strings of musical instruments are supported. Brillante {It.). Bright, brilliant. Brio {It.). Life, animation. MUSICAL TEUMS. 12*7 Buffo (/<.). Comic, humorous. A singer of songs of a light, humorous order. C. Tiie key-note of the natural scale, that written without sharps or flats. \]t (Fr.). Do (It.). g The sign used to denote common time ; four quarter-notes in a bar. Cadence. The closing chords of a strain. Cadenza (It.). An ornamental passage of runs, or trills, in- troduced at a pause near the end of a movement in a song or instrumental solo. Caisse (F/'.). A drum. Cal.\ndo (If.). Dying away ; becoming softer and slower. Calm.xto (It.). Calmness, tranquillity. Caloke {It.). Animation, warmth, fire. Canox. a composition in which one part follows another over the same notes, separated perhaps by an octave, but exactly imitating its movement. Cantabile (It.). As if sung. In a smooth, song-like manner. C.\NTAND0 (It.). Smooth, gliding, voice-like. Cantata (It.). The name nsually given to a secular work for solo voices and a chorus. " The May Queen " and " The Ancient Mariner" are well-known works of this kind. Canto fermo (It.). Plain chant. A simple theme of a few notes forming the subject of an exercise in counterpoint. Cantus fihmus (Int.). Tlie tenor or chief melody originally sung by tlie tenor voices. Canzona (It.). A graceful air or song, of varied strains. Capell-meister (trV/-.). The iicad of all the musicians in a catliedral or church. Capo (It.). Tiie beginning, tlie head. Dd Capo, from the be- ginning. Capriccio (It.). A bright, fanciful composition. Carol. A cheerful song or short chorus usually associated witli Christmas-time. Cast.vnets. Two small pieces of boxwood or ebony used in 128 GUIDE TO MUSIC. the dance music of Spain and other countries. They are held in one hand, or a pair in each, and are snapped to- gether in a rhythmic accompaniment to the movement. Catch. A composition for several voices, the words of which are so arranged as to produce amusing effects through double meanings, as: "Ah! our Sophia!" (Ah, house o' fire !) "Go fetch the Indians !" (Go fetch the engines !), etc. Cavatina {It. ). A graceful air, of extended and dramatic form. G Clef. Written HJ^ ] tenor, C on the fourth line, or fM^ alto, C on the third line. {See page 20.) Clere {It.). Quick, with great rapidity. Celeste {It.). Heavenly. A harmonium or American Organ stop, supposed to be of celestial sweetness. The name is also given to the soft pedal (or una ccn'da) of the piano, when its action causes a piece of felt to come between the hammer and the wires, thus softening the tone. Celestina {,It.). An organ stop of sweet, quiet tone, also a reed instrument like the harmonium, but of much smaller compass and dimensions. Chaconne {Ft.). A slow, graceful dance tune in ^ lime. Chamber - music. Music suitable for the drawing -room or music-room, as well as for small concerts, as string trios, quartets, etc. Chant. The strain to which the psalms are sung in churches, etc. ; to chant, to sing in chant form, reciting some words to the given sound, and singing others in'strict time. Chef-d'(EUVRE. {Fr.). The chief work ; a masterpiece. Cyveijb, {Fr.). The choir; the chorus. Choir. The singers in a church or orchestra : also that part of a cathedral where the singers sit. Choir organ, usually the lowest key-board in the instrument, the stops of which are sweet and soft. Choral. Full, all the voices of the choir ; choral music, music for a choir or chorus of voices ; also a psalm or hymn tune. Chord. An agreeable combination of sounds of different pitch. Chorister. A choir sinu'-er. MUSICAL TEEMS. 129 Chorus. A full company of singers. Also a composition for a company of singers. Cis {Oer.). The note C#. Cis DUR {Oer.). Tlie key of Cj major. Cis moll {Oer.). The key of Ct minor. Cither. An instrument having wires, on which a melody is played, while an accompaniment is played upon strings of catgut. Clarabella. An organ stop, the pipes being of wood and of eight-feet scale. Clarinet. A wood wind instrument of full and rich tone, having a single reed which is acted upon by the breath of the player. {See page 5.) Clarion. A reed stop in the organ of four-feet scala Clarionet. (5ee " Clarinet.") Clavecin (Fr.). The harpsichord. Clavichord. An ancient instrument played in the manner of the pianoforte and harpsichord, which instruments it preceded. Clavier. The key-board, or finger-board, of such instruments as tlie piano and organ. Clef (iFr.). A key. A sign which determines the pitch of the notes. ^, Q, or treble clef ; ^, F, or bass clef ; ^ M, C tenor, also alto clef. C MOLL {Oer.). The key of C minor. Coda {It.). A piece added to a composition to bring it to a close. CoL ARCO {If.). With the bow. CoLLA voce {It.). With the voice. Coll' ottava {It.). With octaves ; played in octaves. Common chord. The simplest chord in harmony, consisting of a bass note, wilh its third and fifth added in the other parts. The octave of the root (bass note) is usually added. Such chords are usually called triads. 130 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Con {It.). With. Con anima (/;;.) With soul, life, boldness. Con brio {It.'). With life, fire, spirit, brilliancj^. Con calma {It.). With calmness and tranquillity. Con calore {It.). With warmth, with fire. Con celerita {It.'). With celerity, with rapidity. Concerted music. Music for several voices or instruments in combination. Concertina. An instrument the tones of which are produced from metal tongues, the wind being pressed upon these or drawn in over them by the hands of the player, while the fingers manipulate the keys at either end. Concerto. A work for a solo instrument, violin, piano, organ, etc., with orchestral accompaniment. Con comodo {It.). With ease. In an unrestrained, easy man- ner. Concord. Agreement in sound. Con dolore {It.). With grief, mournfully. Con eleganza {It.). With elegance. Con energia {It.). With energy. Con espressione {It.). With expression. Con forza {It.). With force. Con fuoco {It.). With fire. Con grazia {It.). With grace. Con molto passione {It.). With much passion. Con moto {It.). With motion. Andantecvniuoto.vfiih q\i\ck- er movement than andante alone would imply. Con Sva^^"^ [ ^^'^^' ^^*^ octaves ; played in octaves. Consecutive. Intervals or chords of similar nature following one another. Progression in consecutive fifths i is forbidden by the laws of harmony. Con sordini {It. pi.). With mutes. The sordino, or mute, placed upon the bridge of the violin, reduces its power of tone. Con spirito {It.). With spirit-. MUSICAL TERMS. 131 Contra basso (It.). The double bass, the deepest toned in- strument of the string family. Contralto. The deep, full-toned female voice. Contrapuntist. One skilled in Counterpoint. Con tutta forza (It.). With all the power of tone. Con variazione (It.). With variations. CoR Anglais (Fr.). The English horn. Similar to the oboe, but of deeper, fuller tone. Cornet a pistons (Fr.). A brass instrument of trumpet-like tone, but having valves or pistons for the fingers, by which the various notes of the scale are produced. (See page 3.) CoRNO Di bassetto (It.). The basset-horn. An instrument resembling the clarinet, but having a brass bell -shaped mouth, which gives to its tone a fine, rich character. An eight-feet reed organ stop is often found bearing this name. Counterpoint. Point against point. The art of combining themes or subjects, each having good melodic form, and producing perfect harmony when heard together. Counter- subject. The second subject in a fugue. Crescendo (It.). Increasing in power of tone. Crotchet. (See page 30, chap, iv.) Cymbals. Two circular metal plates, which when struck to- gether produce a bright clang of useful effect in band D. The second note of the scale of C, called Be in France and Italy. Da Capo (It.). From the mark da Capo or D.C. the player returns to the commencement of the piece, and repeats the first movement. If repeats occur in this first movement they are omitted when playing it the second time. Da capo, e poi la coda (It.). Repeat the first movement, and then go to the Coda. Dal segno (It.). From the sign: repeat from the sign #. Dampers. A number of pieces of felt in the piano, one for each note, which rise from the wire as the key is put down, and fall again when it is allowed to rise, stopping the vibration. 132 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Damper pedal {Fi:, Tre coede). The pedal to the right, which, when pressed down, raises all the dampers together. D DUR {Ger.). The key of D major. Decani {Lat., pi.). In cathedrals and churches the choir is usually divided into two parts, called severally decani and cantoris. The music marked decani is usually taken by the singers who sit on the right hand side entering the choir from the nave. Decisione (7iJ.). With firmness, decision. Decrescendo {It.). Decreasing in power of tone. Delicatissimo {It). Very delicately. Delicato {It.). Delicately, softly. Demi {Fr.). Half. Demisemiquaver. {See page 30, chap, iv.) Des {Ger.). The note D fiat. Des DUR {Ger.). The key of D flat major. Des moll {Ger.). The key of D flat minor. Destra (/if.). Right. Des^?' ?Ha7i(?, the right hand. Detaciie {Ft.). Detached, staccato. Devozione {It.). Devotion, with religious feeling. Diapason {Gr.). An octave; the scale of a voice or instru- ment. Also the name, of the chief stop upon the manuals of the organ. Diatonic {Gr.). According to the natural scale; proceeding by tones and semitones as they occur in the scale. Diminished. Intervals which are made less than minor or perfect are said to be diminisJied. Diminuendo {It.). Gradually diminishing the power of tone. Di MOLTO {It.). Very much : allegro di molto, very quick, more than allegro. Dm {Ger.). The note D sharp. Discord. A combination of sounds not in agreement. Dis DUR (G'e?'.). The key of D sharp major. Dis MOLL {Ger.). The key of D sharp minor. Dissonance. A discord. Divertimento {It.). A light, pleasing form of composition. Divisi {It.). Divided, separated. A term used to indicate a division in instruments or voices, one-half of the performers taking the upper, and the other half the lower notes. D moll (Ger.). Tlie key of D minor. MUSICAL TERMS. 133 Do {It.). The note C. Doctor op music. Mus. Doc, the highest of musical degrees. Dolce {It.). Sweetly, softly. DoLCEMENTE {It.). Gently, softly, sweetly. DoLcissiMO {It.). Extremely sweet and soft. DoLOiiE {It.). Grief, sorrow. Dominant. The fifth note of the scale ; thus the dominant of C is G, and the dominant of F is C. I^OPPIO {It). ) p ^^, j^jj DopPEL {Ger.) ) ' Double bar. The double line drawn through the staff, to divide one strain or movement from another. Double bass. Tiie largest of stringed instruments played with a bow. Double bassoon. The largest of wood wind instruments, sounding notes an octave below those of the bassoon. Double diapason. An organ stop, the pitch of which is an octave below the diapason's. Double tonguing. A method of obtaining a quick repeti- tion of notes upon the flute. Douloureux C^'*-)- Sorrowful, tender, plaintive. Dritta {It.). Right ; memo dritta, the right hand. Droite {Fi:). Right; as main droite, right hand. Drum. An instrument used in most bands, the beat of which accentuates the time or rhythm of the music. Due pedali {It.). Two pedals ; both pedals to be used. Duet. A composition for two performers. Dulciana. An organ stop of soft, sweet tone, the pipes being of metal, and of tlie same pitch as the diapason viz., 8 feet. Duo {It.). Two; in two parts; for two performers. DuoLo {It.). S:ulness, sorrow, grief. Duple time. Having two beats in a bar. 1 or S are duple time. DuR {Ger.). Major : C dur, the key of C major. E. The third note in the scale of C. called Mi in France and Italy. E (//.). And. 134 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Echo (Fr.). A repetition (pianissimo) of a musical passage. In large organs provision is sometimes made for such effects on a separate key-board. This is called the " echo " organ, and the pipes are so closed in as to give the tone the effect of coming from a distance. EcossAis {Fr.). Scotch -, an air in the Scotch style. ED (It.). And. E DUR (Oer.). The key of E major. Eighth. The interval of an octave. EiNMAL (Ger.). Once. EiNSTiMMEN (Oer.). Agreeing in pitch ; all in tune. Elegante (It.). Elegant, graceful. Elegia (It.). An elegy. A mournful, dirge-like composition, Elevato (/<.). Lofty, sublime. Embouchure ^Fr.). The mouth-piece of wind instruments, such as the flute, clarinet, etc. E MOLL (Gei'.). The key of E minor. Encore {Fj'.). Again. The cry of "encore" at concerts sig- nifies a desire to hear the singer or performer again. Energetico (It.). Energetic ; with force and emphasis. Enpler {Fr.). To increase the tone. Enharmonic (Gr.). Denoting a change of name which does not alter the pitch, as Ensemble {Fr.). Together, the whole ; a term used in speak- ing of the performance of a concerted piece as a whole. Enunciato {It.). Enunciated, proclaimed. Episodio (It.). Episode, digression. E poi (It.). And then : e^w? la coda, and then the coda. Equal temperament. A term applied to the present system of tuning pianos and organs, whereby all keys are rendered equally agreeable. Ernstlich {Ger.). Earnest, fervent, ardent. Es DUR {Ger.). The key of E flat major. Es moll (Ger.). The key of E flat minor. EsPRESsivo {It.). Expressive ; wiiii expression and feeling. EsPRESSioNE {It.). Expression, feeling. MUSICAL TERMS. 135 EsTiNTO {It.). Dying away, becoming faint, expiring. EsTRAVAGANZA {It.). Extravagant, wild. Etude ( Fr.'). A study. Etwas {Ger.). Some, somewhat, a little : etwas langsamer, a little slower. Euphonium. An important member of the family of brass in- struments in military bands. Its part is bass or baritone. Executant {Ft.). A musical performer. Execution. Sliill in the manipulation of an instrument, or in the management of tlie voice. Expression. Tlie observance of light and shade, and all other matters of finish which impart soul and life to music. Extemporize. To compose and perform right on, without previous thought. Extreme. The npper and lower parts of a composition are called the extreme parts. It was customary at one time also to call keys having many sharps or flats in the signa- ture extreme keys. F. The fourth note in the scale of C, called Fa in France and Italy. Facilement iF'.). Easily, with smoothness and ease. Fagottino {It.). A small bassoon. Fagotto {It.). Bassoon. The name is also given to a reed stop upon the organ. {See page 6.) False relation. A term used to describe a fault in com- position viz., the following of a note in one chord with its octave, above or below, cliromatically altered, thus ^Ei^^^. CS following Ctt constitutes the fault. Falsetto {It.). The high, thin notes that can be produced above the natural compass of the male voice. {Fancy, caprice. A fanciful composition in which thoughts follow each other with- out regard to rules which govern tiie form of other compositions. 136 GUIDE TO MUSIC. F CLEF. The name by which the bass clef is known, the sign curling around the line F, -^ . F DUR (Ger.). The key of F major. Ferma (/i!.). Firm, strong. Feroce Qlt.). Fierce, bold ; with ferocity. Fertig {Oer.). Nimble, quick. Festoso (/;;.). Cheerful, festive, gay. Fiddle. The violin ; also, to fiddle, to play the violin. FiERAMENTE (/if.). Fiercely, vehemently. Fife. An instrument of the flute species, but smaller, and of higher pitch. Figured bass. A bass having figures beneath it which indi- cate the harmonies to be constructed upon it. Fine ilt.). The end. A composition concludes where the word fine is placed. Fis DUR (Ger.'). The key of F sharp major. Flageolet. A wind instrument fingered like the flute or fife, but blown into through a small tube shaped mouthpiece. A flute head-piece can also be used by which the instru- ment is converted into a sort of fife or piccolo. Flauto (It.). Flute. Florid. Ornamental, embellished. Flute. A wind instrument of sweet, bird-like tone, having a compass extending upwards about three octaves from mid- dle C. It holds an important place in orchestral music, being usually the highest of the wind instruments. {See page 3.) Foco (A). Fire, animation. Forte {It.}. Loud, strong. Fortissimo (It.). Very loud ; with great power. FoRZA (IC). Force, vehemence, power. FouzANDO ilt.). Forced ; a word implying stress on any par- ticular notes. Also marked >, v , or sf. Fretta (It.). Haste, speed, becoming quicker. Frets. The small metal bridges raised upon the finger-board of the guitar, etc.. upon wliicli the strings are pressed to ])roduce notes of different pitch. Freudig {Ger.). Joyfulncss. Fruiiltngslted {Ger.). Sj)ringsnng. MUSICAL TERMS. 137 FuGA (7(5. ). A flight, a fugue. FuGATO {It.). In the fugal style. FuGiiETTA {It.). A short, or simple fugue. Fugue. A movement beginning with a subject in single notes which is given out by one part and answered by other parts in turn, the subject and counter-subject Being ingen- iously woven into a harmonious whole. The most scho- lastic of all forms of musical composition. Full. All the voices ; all the stops of the organ, etc. Full-score. The copy containing all the parts for orchestra and chorus. FUNEBRE iFr.) I p,,p,.i FuNEREO (7<.) Ji^""eieal. Fuoco (//?.). Fire, passion, energy. FuRioso {It.), Furious, passionate. G. Tlie fifth note -in the key of C ; called Sol in France and Italy. Gaiment {Fv.) iriovlv gajamente (/<.) f^^y'y- Galop. A dance measure in rapid time. Gamba {It.). The name now given to an organ stop of metal pipes and eight- feet pitch; derived from the viol-digamba, an obsolete stringed instrument which preceded the violon- cello. Gamut. Tlie musical scale. Gauciie {Fr.). Left; ^I. G., main gauche, the left hand. Gavotte. A graceful dance measure in common time, and ot moderate pace. G DUR {Ger.). Tlie key of G major. .. Gedact. Stopped. A term applied to organ stops, the pipes of which are stopped with a plug at the end usually open. The effect of stopping the pipes is to deepen the tone an octave ; thus the sound of a four-foot pipe stopped is the snnie in pitch as that of an eight-foot pipe open. Geiiend {Ger.). Moving easily ; a term denoting a rate of movement similar to andante. 138 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Geige iGer.). The violin. Gelaupig (Ger.'). Fluent, rapid. Gemaciilicii (Oer.). Slowly, softly. Gems-iiorn QGe)'.). Goat, or chamois horn. A name now given to an organ stop of conical metal pipes and of four- feet tone. Gemuth {Oer.). Soul, feeling ; mit Oemuth, with much feeling. Gentile (/. Voix Celeste 8 7. Flauto Traverse 4 8. Concert Fluto 4 '.). Piccolo Harmonique 2 10. Cymbalo 11. Corno di Bassetto 10 164 GUIDE TO MUSIC. Feet. 12. Clarionet 8 13. Bassoon 8 14. French Horn 8 15. Ophiclcido 8 16. Trombone 8 17. Oboo 8 18. Bombardon 16 19. Tuba Mirabilis 8 20. Tuba Clarion i SwBLL Organ pggt 1. Double Diapason 16 2. Bourdon 16 3. Salicional 8 4. Open Diapason 8 5. Viol-di-Gamba 8 6. Flute ^ ChomincSo 8 7. Claribel Flute 8 8. Quint 5J 9. Flute Ilarmoniquo 4 10. Viola 4 11. Principal . 4 12. Quint Octaviente 2i 13. Super Octave 2 14. Piccolo Harmoniquo 2 15. Sesquialtera 5 Ranks 16. Mixture > 5 Ranks 17. Contra Posaune 16 18. Contra Oboo 16 19. Baryton 16 20. Vox Humana 8 21. Oboe 8 22. Cornopean 8 23. Tuba Major 8 24. Tuba 4 25. Clarion 4 CnoiR Organ pggj 1. Violone 16 2. Viol-di-Gamba 8 3. Dulciana 8 4. Lieblich Gedact 8 6. Open Diapason 8 6. Vox Angelica 8 7. Principal Harmonique 4 8. Gemshorn 4 9. Lieblich Flute 4 10. Celestiana 4 11. Flageolet 2 12. Piccolo Harmonique 2 13. Super Octave 2 THE LONDON ALBERT HALL ORGAN. 165 Feet. 14. Mixture 3 Ranks 15. Corno
  • 7tblish- ers, postage prepaid, to any part 0/ the United States, Canada, or Mexico, on receipt of the price. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the litNary from which it was bonvwed. ^tc-ntts^^^ tiOM % 4 ^998 A A 000 047183 9 msmmammmmmmmm ammammmmm mmsmmmsmmmm