N Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/dictionaryofreliOOmathrich A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NKW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO ■ DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS EDITED BY Shailer Mathews, D.D., LL.D. ! I Professor of Historical and Comparative Theology, and Dean of the Divinity School, University of Chicago AND Gerald Birney Smith, D.D. Professor of Christian Theology, University of Chicago NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1923 31. 3/ Copyright, 1921 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1921. PWNTEP W THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA CONTRIBUTORS TO THE DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS fADENET, Walter Frederick, D.D. Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Church History; Principal of Lancaster Inde- pendent College, Manchester, England. Alexander, Hartley Burr, Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy, University of Neb- raska, Lincoln, Neb.; Associate Editor Mid- West Quarterly, and Midland. Allen, Thomas George, Ph.D. Instructor in Egyptology, University of Chi- cago; Secretary of Haskell Oriental Museum. Ames, Edward Scribner, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Philosophy, University of Chicago. Baker, Archibald Gillies. Assistant Professor of Missions, University of Chicago. Barnes, Lemuel Call, D.D. Secretary of the Department of EvangeUsm, American Baptist Home Mission Society. Barton, George Aaron, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Biblical Literature and Semitic Languages, BrynMawr College, BrynMawr, Pa. Barton, James Levi, D.D., LL.D. Foreign Secretary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Baskervill, Charles Read, Ph.D. Professor of English Literature, University of Chicago; Managing Editor Modern Philology. Beckwith, Clarence Augustine, D.D. Professor of Christian Theology, Chicago Theological Seminary; Associate Editor The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Benson, Louis Fitzgerald, D.D. Editor of various hymnals, and Author of standard books on the history of hymnology. Boas, Franz, Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Professor of Anthropology, Columbia Uni- versity, New York, Editor Journal of American Folk-Lore. Burgess, Ernest Watson, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Chicago. Burt, Frank H., LL.D. President Y.M.CA. College, Chicago, 111. Burton, Margaret General Secretary Y.W.C.A., New York City. Case, Shirley Jackson, Ph.D., D.D. Professor of Early Church History and NewTest- ', ament Interpretation, University of Chicago. Christie, Francis Albert, D.D. I Professor of Church History, Meadville Theo- I logical Seminary, Meadville, Pa. ClarKj Charles A. Missionary in Korea. Clark, Walter Eugene, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Sanskrit and Indo- European Comparative Philology, University of Chicago. Cook, Stanley Arthur, A.M., Litt.D. Ex-FeUow and Lecturer in the Comparative Study of Rehgions and in Hebrew and Syriac, Gk)nville and Gaius College, Cambridge, England. Cope, Henry Frederick, D.D. General Secretary of the Religious Education Association. Editor Religious Education. Coulter, John Merle, Ph.D. Professor and Head of the Department of Botany, University of Chicago; Editor The Botanical Gazette. Crawford, John Forsyth, Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. Cross, George, Ph.D., D.D. Professor of Systematic Theology, Rochester Theological Seminary, Rochester, N.Y. Deutsch, Gotthard, Ph.D., D.D. Professor of Jewish History and Literature, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, O. Dickerson, James Spencer, Litt.D. Formerly Editor The Standard, Chicago, 111. Dickinson, Edward, Litt.D. Professor of the History and Criticism of Music, Oberlin College, Oberhn, O. DowD, Quincy L. Author, Funeral Management and Costs. Easton, Burton Scott, Ph.D., D.D. Professor of New Testament History and Interpretation, General Theological Seminary, New York. Ellwood, Charles Abram, Ph.D. Professor of Sociology, University of Missouri. Erb, Frank Otis, Ph.D. Editor of Young People's Publications, Ameri- can Baptist Pubhcation Society. Everett, Walter Goodnow, Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy and Natural Theology, Brown University, Providence, R.I. Fallows, Samuel, LL.D., D.D. Bishop of the Reformed Episcopal Church, Chicago, 111. Faris, Ellsworth, Ph.D. Professor of Sociology, University of Chicago. Fisher, Lewis Beals, D.D., LL.D. Dean of the Ryder (Universalist) Divinity School, Chicago. Gardiner, Robert H. Secretary World's Conference on Faith and Order. Gilbert, George Holley, Ph.D., D.D. Theologian and Author; Formerly Professor of New Testament Literature and Interpretation, Chicago Theological Seminary. t Deceased. 463 131 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS GiLMORE, George William Associate Editor The New Schaff-Herzog Ency- clopedia of Religious Knowledge; Associate Editor The Homiletic Review. Goodspeed, Edgar Johnson, Ph.D. Professor of Biblical and Patristic Greek, University of Chicago; Assistant Director of Haskell Oriental Museum. Gordon, Alexander Reid, Litt.D., D.D. Professor of Old Testament Literature and Exegesis, Presbyterian College, Montreal, Canada. Gould, Chester Nathan, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of German and Scandi- navian Literature, University of Chicago. Gray, Lottis Herbert, Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy, University of Nebraska; Editor Mythology of All Races; Assistant Editor Hastings Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics; Departmental Editor New International Ency- clopedia. Gkiffis, William Elliot, D.D., L.H.D. Lecturer; Author; and formerly Educator in Japan. Hall, Francis Joseph, D.D. Professor of Dogmatic Theology, and President, General Theological Seminary, New York. Harada, Tasuktt, LL.D., D.D. Former President, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan. Harvey, Albert Edward, Ph.D. Formerly Instructor in History, University of Chicago. Haydon, Albert Eustace, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of the History of ReUgions, University of Chicago. HoBEN, Allan, Ph.D. Professor of Sociology, Carleton College, Northfield, Minn. HoLTOM, Daniel Clarence, Ph.D. Professor of Church History, Baptist Theo- logical Seminary, Tokyo, Japan. HuRREY, Charles General Secretary, Committee on Friendly Relations among Foreign Students. Jackson, Abraham Valentine Williams, L.H.D. Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Jones, Rufus Matthew, Litt.D. Professor of Philosophy, Haverford College, Haverford, Pa. Kantor, Jacob Robert, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind. King, Irving, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Education, University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. fKiNGMAN, Henry Formerly Missionary in China; Late Pastor, Congregational Church, Claremont, Calif. Kuring, Adolph, A.m. Pastor, Lutheran Church, Chicago. Laing, Gordon Jennings, Ph.D. Professor of Latin, University of Chicago. LUCKENBILL, DaNIEL DaVID, Ph.D. Associate Professor of the Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. t Deceased. Lyman, Eugene William, D.D. Professor of Philosophy of ReUgion, Union Theological Seminary, New York, N.Y. Mathews, Shailer, D.D., LL.D. Dean of the Divinity School of the University of Chicago; Professor of Historical and Comparative Theology. McGlothlin, William Joseph, Ph.D., D.D., LL.D. President, Furnam University, Greenville, S.C; formerly Professor of Church History, Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louis- ville, Ky. McLaughlin, Andrew Cunningham, LL.D. Professor of History and Head of the Depart- ment of History, University of Chicago. McNeill, John Thomas, Ph.D. Instructor in European History, Queen's Col- lege, Kingston, Canada. Mead, George Herbert Professor of Philosophy, University of Chicago. Mead, Lucia True Ames National Secretary of Woman's Peace Party. Merrill, Elmer Truesdell, LL.D. Professor of Latin, University of Chicago; Editor Classical Philology. Michel, F. J. Field Secretary of Laymen's Missionary Movement. Mode, Peter George, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Church History, Uni- versity of Chicago. Moore, Clifford Herschel, Ph.D., Litt.D. Professor of Latin, Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Mass. MuzzEY, David Saville, Ph.D. Associate Professor of History, Columbia University, Director of History, Ethical Culture School, NewYork, N.Y. Myers, Harry S. Secretary, Missionary Education Movement of the United States and Canada. Newman, Albert Henry, LL.D., D.D. Formerly Professor of Church History, Baylor University, Waco, Tex. Odlin, W. S. Assistant Director of Publicity, American Red Cross, Washington, D.C. Palmieri, a. Cambridge, Mass. Paton, Lewis Bayles, Ph.D., D.D. Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Criticism, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. Paul, Charles Thomas, A.M. President, College of Missions, Indianapolis, O. Pound, Roscoe, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of General Jurisprudence, and Dean of the Faculty of Law, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Pratt, James Bisset, Ph.D. Professor of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy, Williams College, WiUiamstown, Mass. Price, Ira Maurice, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of the Old Testament Language and Literature, University of Chicago. fRAUSCHENBUSCH, WaLTER, D.D. Late Professor of Church History, Rochester Theological Seminary, Rochester, N.Y. CONTRIBUTORS TO THE DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS Reagan, Joseph Nicholas, S.T.D., Ph.D. Professor of Greek, St. Bonaventure's College, Allegany, N.Y. Reinhart, Harold F. Rabbi, Baton Rouge, La. Richards, George Warren, D.D. Professor of Church History, Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church in the United States, Lancaster, Pa.; Associate Editor Reformed Church Review. Rockwell, William Walker, Ph.D. Professor of Church History, Union Theo- logical Seminary, New York, N.Y. RowE, Henry Kalloch, Ph.D. Professor of Social Science and History, Newton Theological Institution, Newton Center, Mass. Salter, William Mackintire, D.B. Lecturer, The Society for Ethical Culture. BcHAFP, David Schley, D.D. Professor of Ecclesiastical History and History of Doctrine, Western Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, Pa. Scott, Ernest Findlay, D.D. Professor of New Testament, Union Theo- logical Seminary, New York, N.Y. Sears, Charles Hatch, D.D. Executive Secretary of New York City Baptist Mission Society. Shapley, John, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Art, Brown University, Providence, R.I. Sharpe, Charles Manford, Ph.D. Dean, College of BibUcal and Religious Studies, Metropohtan Young Men's Christian Associa- tion, Detroit, Mich. Sheldon, Henry Clay, D.D. Professor of Systematic Theology, Boston University. Smith, Gerald Birney, D.D. Professor of Christian Theology, University of Chicago; Editor Journal of Religion. Smith, Henry Preserved, D.D. Professor of Old Testament Literature, and Chief Librarian, Union Theological Seminary, New York, N.Y. t Deceased. Smith, John Merlin Powis, Ph.D. Professor of the Old Testament Language and Literature, University of Chicago; Editor the American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. Scares, Theodore Gerald, Ph.D., D.D. Professor of Homiletics and Religious Edu- cation, and Head of the Department of Prac- tical Theology, University of Chicago. Sprengling, Martin, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of the Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago. fTARBELL, Frank Bigelow, Ph.D. Late Professor of Classical Archeology, Uni- versity of Chicago. Thompson, James Westfall, Ph.D. Professor of Medieval History, University of Chicago. Tufts, James Hayden, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor and Head of the Department of Philosophy, University of Chicago; Editor International Journal of Ethics. Vedder, Henry Clay, D.D. Professor of Church History, Crozer Theo- logical Seminary, Chester, Pa. VoTAW, Clyde Weber, Ph.D. Professor of New Testament Literature, Uni- versity of Chicago. Walker, Henry Hammersley, Ph.D. Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Chicago Theological Seminary. tWABFiELD, Benjamin Breckenridge, DD., LL.D., LiTT.D., S.T.D. Professor of Didactic and Polemic Theology, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton, N.J. Watson, Arthur Clinton, Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy and Education, Marietta College, Marietta, O. Webster, Hutton, Ph.D. Professor of Social Anthropology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. WooDBURNE, Angus Stewart, Ph.D. Professor of Psychology, Madras Christian College, Madras, India. YouTZ, Herbert Alden, Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy of Religion and Christian Ethics, Graduate School of Theology, OberUn College, Oberlin, O. PREFACE The purpose of this Dictionary is to define all terms (not strictly biblical) of importance in the field of rehgion and ethics, and at the same time to discuss with some fullness terms of primary value. The general plan thus involves the generous use of cross references as a means of bringing the treatment within the limits of a single volume. The general plan of editing involves : 1. The definition of ail terms and a more extended discussion of the more important topics. 2. Particular attention to the clear explanation of the important terms used in primitive and ethnic rehgions. 3. Especial regard to the psychology and history of religion. 4. Historical rather than apologetic or partisan treatment of all topics. 5. Biographical articles limited to persons especially significant in rehgion and morals. No Uving persons are included. 6. No attempt to standardize the transUteration of foreign words, each contributor being left free to employ the system which he prefers. Where different spelUngs of a word are in common use, the variants appear in the titles at the proper places. 7. The omission of technical terms loosely connected with religion and morals which would not naturally be sought in such a dictionary. 8. For ease of consultation, compound words arranged in sequence after the first compound term. 9. Bibhographies in an appendix to the volume can thus easily be kept up to date. The editors wish to express their gratitude to Drs. A. S. Woodburne, A. Eustace Haydon, and J. N. Reagan for valuable assistance in preparation of copy and reading proof, and to Dr. Frank E. Lewis for supervising the preparation of the bibliographies. While every article and definition has been independently produced their thanks are due to Funk & Wagnalls for their kind consent to the use of some especially admirable expressions and arrangements contained in copyright material in the Standard Dictionary and New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. vu A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS AB, NINTH OF.— A Jewish holiday on the fifth month of the Jewish year, corresponding approximately to August. It is the traditional anniversary of the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 b.c, and of the fall of the holy city before Titus in 70 a.d. Long observed as one of fasting and mourning, the day is still so kept by orthodox Jews. Reform Jews regard the day as of solemn historic significance, but do not distinguish it with special observance. Harold F. Reinhart ABBEY, ABBOT and ABBESS.— An abbey was originally a monastic institution, comprising a cathedral or church, cloisters for the monks and other appurtenances. The abbey was the out- growth of the development of monasticism (q.v.) into coenobitic form, which began in the 4th. century with Pachomius, an Egyptian. The organization of monastic orders, beginning with Benedict of Nursia (q.v.) contributed to the development. The monk in charge was called the abbot, which philologically means "father." He ruled paternally, his authority "being limited only by canonical rules." Abbots were originally laymen, but from the 7th. century began to be ordained, and in the Middle Ages performed episcopal duties. The correspond- ing head of a female institution or nunnery is called an abbess. Certain churches and cathedrals, formerly connected with monastic institutions, still retain the name, as, e.g., Westminster Abbey. ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142).— French Scho- lastic philosopher and theologian, known in Uterature through his romantic connection with Heloise. In the controversy between Nominalism and Realism he worked out a mediating position which promoted a more vital kind of logic. In theology he opposed a mere submission to ecclesi- astical authority, and attempted a rationaUstic explanation of church doctrines. In his Sic et Non he collected Patristic quotations on both siides of debatable positions in matters of doctrine. While this aroused distrust at the time, his method was subsequently adopted and elaborated in Catholic dogmatics. The chief opponent of his rationalistic tendency was Bernard of Clairvaux, who secured his condemnation. His last years were spent in silent submission to the chiu-ch. ABHISEKA.— In the later Vedic reUgion of India a ceremony used for emperors, kings and high state functionaries to give power; the name applied by the Buddhists to the last of their ten stages of perfection: used among the Hindus of ceremonial bathing in sacred waters. ABJURATION. — A renunciation of heresy reqmred by the Roman Cathohc church of those. already baptized, who are suspected of error in re- hgious belief. It has taken various forms : in the 4th. century a written statement, in the period of the Inquisition a solemn public pronouncement, and more recently a private profession before priestly witnesses. Converts make a formal renunciation of all doctrine opposed to the teaching of the Roman church. ABLUTION. — See Bathing; Purification. ABRAHAM.TESTAMENT OF.— An apocryphal book of Jewish origin describing the last days of Abraham. ABSOLUTE.— That which is free from all limitations. In religious Ufe as in philosophical thinking, there is the natural desire to escape from the imper- fections of finite experience. The ultimate reahty is pictured as eternally perfect, above the vicissi- tudes of time and space and change. Complete security of the human spirit can be found only in alliance with this perfect Absolute. In the rehgion of the Vedanta (see India, Religions and Phi- losophies OP, Sec. 1) the ultimate aim is to lose one's finite personahty in the Infinite. Platonism provides a philosophical way in which men may participate in absolute ideas. Mysticism is an emotional identification of the inner self with the Absolute. IdeaUstic philosophy in modern times has attempted through the doctrine of dynamic monism to relate the Absolute concretely to finite existence. See God; Monism; Idealism; Prag- matism. Gerald Birney Smith ABSOLUTION.— According to the Larger Cate- chism prescribed by Pope Pius X., "Absolution is the sentence which the Priest pronounces in the name of Jesus Christ to remit the penitent's sins." Roman theologians appeal to Matt. 16: 19; 18: 18; John 20:21-23. Absolution presupposes contrition (q.v.), confession (q.v.), and the promise of satis- faction; and valid absolution can be imparted only by a duly ordained priest who has jurisdiction over the penitent. The present form of absolution is declarative or indicative, "I absolve thee." In the Holy Orthodox and in other oriental com- munions the form of absolution is precatory, in the form of a prayer for pardon. Precatory forms were in common use in the Latin church till the middle of the 13th. century. For certain serious offences a Roman Catholic priest cannot grant absolution without special authorization from the bishop or even from the pope. The restrictions in these "reserved cases" are relaxed, however, in the hour of death. Wm. WaLKEB RoCKWEUi Abyss A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS . ABYSS.^The boltoroless space (originally filled with water) which was believed to be under the r earths , ;, ; '.!ja Bairyloniap thought tne abyss was possibly the' primeval chaos from which our universe and all Ufe sprang. From this original substance God created the imiverse, according to Genesis. The cosmology of the Bible represents the earth as resting on and surrounded by waters extending imder the earth, thus constituting the abyss. Through usage which it is not possible fully to trace, the abyss ceased to be thought of as filled with water and became identified with the abode of the departed spirits, that is, Sheol or Hades. The latter place is said by Job 38 : 16 to be at the bottom of the sea. It is from the conception of Hades that the word came also to denote the imderground place of punishment, or Hell. From the time of Enoch it was apparently regarded as filled with fire rather than water. With the appearance of the apocalyptic litera- ture the word is used in a more general sense to repre- sent the underworld in which was the abyss of fire in which the demons lived and where Satan, according to the Apocalypse of John, is to be confined for a thousand years. The term included also Hades wherein the spirits of the dead Uved, and in which Christ himself is said by the later church Fathers to have spent the days between his death and his resurrection. In the later cosmologies developed by gnosticism the abyss was personified as the first principle of the infinite deity from which all aeons were evolved and so the universe created In modern thought these earlier conceptions have entirely disappeared, and the word is used simply as a synonym for a deep chasm. Shailer Mathews ABYSSINIA, RELIGION OF.— The reUgion of the peoples of Abyssinia is a curious blend of primi- tivity with the reUgious ideas of Judaism, early Arabia, Mohammedanism and Christianity. The basis of all modern forms is the nature-reUgion which consists (1) of the tribal provision for the life- needs of the people when the chief performs reUgious ceremonies for crops and food; (2) of the control of spirits through the agency of shamans who know the magical forms. The influence of early Arabia is seen in the presence of the mother-goddess, AUat, and of the male Ashtar. Christianity entered in the middle of the 5th. century probably from Syria and after long struggle is now finally estabUshed as the official religion of the Abyssinian empire. It is of the monophysite form generally; though so many elements are mingled in it as to give it almost the character of a new religion. Islam is making rapid progress, has gained control of all the tribes surrounding the Christians, and is penetrating their territory. The source and. influence of Judaism is still obscure, though there are undoubted evidences of distinctively Jewish ideas and practices. A. Eustace Haydon ACACIUS OF CAESAREA.— Bishop of Caesarea in the 4th. century and one of the most prominent of the moderate opponents of the Nicene Creed in the Arian controversy. ACCEPTANCE.— The attitude of satisfaction with which God regards those who have met the requirements necessary for obtaining divine favor. Among some primitive and even among some more highly developed religions the deity is beheved to be naturally hostile, and hence offerings and sacrifices are considered necessary to acceptance. In the Hebrew prophetic books and in the New Testament, acceptance is dependent on moral right- eousness or faith in Jesus. Many types of theology have made it dependent on belief in right doctrine. ACCEPTILATION.-^-Originally a form of Roman legal practice in which a creditor acknowl- edged payment of a debt though no payment had been made. The term is loosely used in Christian theology to characterize theories of atonement in which the efficacy of Christ's work depends upon its acceptance by God rather than upon its own intrinsic worth, e.g., the theory of Duns Scotus (q.v.). ACCIDENT. — (1) An event occurring unex- pectedly and contrary to rational order. An accident upsets plans, and hence demands special rehgious or moral explanation. (2) Philosophically, a property not absolutely essential to the existence of an object. The term is important in some scholastic explanations of the doctrine of transubstantiation. ACCIDENTALISM.— A world view which allows the possibility of tincaused and unpredict- able events and acts. ACCLAMATION.— (1) The uncanvassed and spontaneous election of a pope by the college of cardinals. (2) A congregational response in anti- phonal singing. ACCOMMODATION.— The modification or adjustment of a statement so as to meet specific needs or conditions such as the immaturity of the person to be taught. In bibUcal interpretation certain apparently crude conceptions found in Scripture have been explained on the ground that God accommodated his revelation to the capacity of men to receive it. Misquotations of the Old Testament in the New have been similarly explained. The references of Jesus to demons are considered by some theologians to be instances of accommodation. In the 18th. century rationahstic theologians carried the principle to absurd lengths, attempting to find in the Bible their own theology, and thus explaining all features which are unacceptable to modern thinking as instances of accommodation. Historical interpretation today repudiates this attitude, and attempts to set forth the exact teach- ings of the Bible as honest and straightforward convictions, rather than as accommodations of a predetermined theological system. In the Roman Catholic church a so-called "accommodation controversy" occurred in the 16th. and 17th. centuries, when the popes dis- approved of the concessions made by Jesuit mis- sionaries to current ideas in India and China. Gerald Birney Smith ACEPHALI. — A religious sect which acknowl- edged no bishop or authoritative head; as e.g., the mediaeval Flagellants. ACOEMETAE. — ^An eastern order of ascetics of the 5th. century, so designated from their custom of continuous prayer and praise night and day. ACOLYTE.— A member of the highest of the minor orders in the Roman CathoUc church, whose duties are attendance on a priest performing some rite especially the celebration of the mass. ACOSMISM.— That type of pantheism which asserts that the universe has no real existence apart from the Absolute. ACQUIRED AND CONGENITAL CHARAC- TERISTICS.— In the study of heredity, two A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS Adamites general kinds of characters are recognized, namely, those determined by the constitution of the "germ plasm" and those acquired by the body during its development. Germ plasm is the essential substance of eggs and sperms, and determines the fundamental structure of the offspring. Acquired characters appear in response to the varying condi- tions that obtain during development. Formerly it was supposed that acquired characters might be inherited and increased from generation to genera- tion. Weismann was the first to analyze the situa- tion, and to show that germ plasm and body plasm are entirely distinct. Germ plasm gives rise to body plasm, which in turn builds the body; but germ plasm itself is continuous from generation to generation, passing on what it has received from previous generations. An acquired character is a response of the body plasm, and disappears with the body. It has no more influence upon germ plasm than has a stream upon the spring from which it has issued. From this point of view, the body is simply a container of the germ plasm, and no more affects its constitution than does a water bag affect the constitution of the contained water. It is beginning to be realized, however, that some acquired characters may affect the organism so profoundly as to influence the constitu- tion of the germ plasm. The body is a physiological unity, so that while such an acquired character as a mutilation, for example, cannot affect the germ plasm, any character which profoundly affects the physiology of the body may include the germ plasm in its effects. The conclusion is that while in general acquired characters are not inherited, because they involve only body structures, some acquired characters may involve every region of the organism, including the germ plasm. The problem concerns ethics in so far as it is desirable to ascertain what stress should be laid on the education of the individual in view of the factors in his inheritance. John M. Coulter ACTA MARTYRUM.— A collection of the biog- raphies of early Christian martyrs. The latest is from the 4th. century. Their value varies according to the degree of legendary material included. ACTA SANCTORUM.— A collection of lives of the saints and information concerning festivals, etc., associated with them, made subsequently to the 4th. century. The literary remains to be included are so numerous and the questions involved so difficult that although the Bollandists began publication in 1643 the collection is'not yet complete. The lives are arranged according to the months in which a saint's feast is celebrated. ACTION SERMON.— A sermon immediately preceding the Lord's Supper in Scotch Presbyterian churches, so named because the Supper was desig- nated "the Action." ACT OF GOD. — An occurrence considered in- evitably necessary because due to the operation of cosmic forces from which the human agency is entirely absent; used as an excuse both from liability for moral wrong and (legally) from civil damages in courts of law. ACTS OF UNIFORMITY.— Enactments to secure uniformity of worship in the churches of England. According to the first (1549) the Book of Com- mon Prayer was to be used by all priests on penalty of losing a year's revenue from the benefice, and six months' imprisonment for a first offense, a year's imprisonment for a second offense, and life imprisonment for a third. Laymen disturbing worship or encouraging priests to violate uniformity were liable to fines and imprisonment. A second Act (1552) legalized the ecclesiastical censure and excommunication of laymen, who failed to attend prayer on Sundays and holy days, and imposed upon those attending unauthorized forms of worship penal- ties much as in the Act of 1549. Elizabeth's Act of Uniformity (1559) revived the Edwardian statute, but to the penalty of ecclesiastical censure added a fine levied by the church wardens for parish revenue. With the restoration of Charles II (1662) the use of a revised prayer book in every place of public worship was made compulsory. Incum- bents were required to make declaration of their acceptance of the prayer book. University teachers, school masters and private tutors were required to accept the Liturgy and the doctrine of non- resistance. A bishop's license was required of all schoolmasters and private tutors. For refusing to conform, hundreds of clergymen lost their benefi- ces in the "Great Eviction," and the Estabhshed Church forced^ from her fellowship much of the strongest religious leadership of the age. The statute, fortified by such legislation as the Con- venticle and Corporation Acts (q.v.), remained in force until the Toleration Act (q.v.) made substan- tial moderations. Peter G. Mode ADAD. — An ancient storm-god of the Amorites, known as Hadad in Palestine and Syria, who appears later as an important figure in the pantheon of Babylonia as god of storms and rain. He is also known as Rammon. ADALBERT OF HAMBURG BREMEN.— Archbishop from 1043 or 1045 to 1072; strove to unify the church of Northern Europe with himself as patriarch, a plan frustrated by Rome. ADALBERT, SAINT, OF PRAGUE.— Bishop of Prague, b. 950; forced to flee his see by papal opposition ; undertook a mission to the Prussians, by whom he was murdered, 997; known as the "Apostle of Bohemia" and "Apostle of the Prussians." ADAM. — Man, or Adam a proper name. The word is used in Genesis, both as a generic term and as a proper name. The account of crea- tion according to the priestly document deals with the making of man from clay by God who breathed into him the breath of God. The account then proceeds to treat the first created member of the human race as possessing the name Adam; how he was given a mate made from one of his ribs, how the two lived in a garden in innocence until sin came through temptation by the serpent (q.v.) on the ground that the pair might by dis- obeying God get new moral knowledge. This disobedience led to the exclusion of the pair from the garden and their being made subject to death. There are many Babylonian and other parallels to the Hebrew story of Adam, but none sets forth the problem of temptation and sin with such beauty or psychological precision. This Adam of Genesis became a figure in Chris- tian theology. As the actual progenitor of a race begotten after the Fall he has been treated as the source of original sin and his experience and position have been determining factors in the orthodox treatment of sin and salvation. Shailer Mathews ADAMITES. — An obscure sect originating in North Africa in the 2nd. century, the members of which laid claim to the innocence of Adam and ordered their lives after their conception of Eden. Neo-Adamites arose in the Brethren and Sisters of Adapa A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS the Free Spirit of the 13th. century and the Beghards of the 14th. century. ADAPA. — A figure of Babylonian mythology, favorite of Ea, who was offered the bread and water of life by the gods but through a misunder- standing refused it and forfeited immortality. ADELOPHAGI.— A 4th. century sect, who held that Christians should eat in secret, supposedly in imitation of the prophets. ADIAPHORA. — A word of Greek origin denot- ing actions or rites which are neither positively commanded nor positively forbidden, hence liberty of opinion and action must be recognized. Wher- ever the attempt is made to organize religion or ethics in terms of a complete legal system such morally indifferent items are a source of perplexity and give rise to controversy. See Adiaphokistic Controversies. ADIAPHORISTIC CONTROVERSIES.— Dur- ing the Protestant Reformation an attempt was made by the emperor, Charles V., to reunite the Catholic and the Lutheran bodies. (See Augs- burg Interim; Leipzig Interim.) Necessarily this involved countenancing certain rites of Catholi- cism which Luther had repudiated (Latin Mass, candles, fasts, etc.) Those who, under the leader- ship of Melanchthon favored granting liberty of practice were called Adiaphorists. The contro- versy continued until the Formula of Concord (1577) decided in favor of the stricter view. A second controversy called by this name occurred in the 17th. century over the question of "doubtful amusements," the Pietists contending for the more puritanical position against the con- ventional Lutherans. Gerald Birney Smith ADIBUDDHA. — A name used to refer to the essential, eternal Buddha from whose acts of meditation come, by emanation, the five great Buddhas and through them the lower orders of divine and earthly existence. He seems to have at times the character of a personal God, at others to be the pantheistic world-ground. ADITI. — A word used as a divine name in Vedic reUgion meaning "the Boundless," important as indicating the early drift from polytheism to an abstract unity in Indian theology. ADITYAS. — A group of shining gods of the Vedic religion often identified with the planets. ADJURATION. — An urgent entreaty or com- mand, re-enforced by coupling with it an oath. For its use in Scripture see Matt. 26:63 and Mark 5:7. In Roman Catholic usage, devils may be exorcized by adjuring them in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ. _ In the Roman ritual there are other forms of adjuration, used especially in the sacrament of baptism. ADMONITION.— Gentle reproof; a method of discipline, public or private, aiming at either the reinstatement or the eventual excommunication of the culpable. ADOLESCENCE.— That period of human development extending from the beginning of puberty to complete adult maturity. Among all primitive peoples, among the nations of antiquity and in practically all religious sects this period has received special attention as an important transition stage between childhood and adult life. Various initiation ceremonies, special educational regimens and religious efforts have been associated with it. Recent studies of the physical and mental changes of this period have confirmed the commonly accepted view of its being more or less a well marked epoch in human development. Physical changes. — These are more definitely determined than the mental, social and religious. They consist in greatly accelerated bodily growth in both height and weight. The reproductive organs increase in size and come to functional maturity; the skin becomes coarser, the second molars appear, lung capacity increases greatly, especially in boys, the heart enlarges rapidly, the voice changes. Mental changes. — The physical changes are definitely associated with a rapid and striking enlargement of the mental life. Children of normal pubertal development are on the whole better developed mentally and more successful in their school work than are the immature of the same age or than those whose physical development has been unduly deferred. The sexual ripening brings an entirely new outlook upon fife. The earn- ing instinct looms large in the boy and the home- making instinct in the girl. "The type of play changes, new companions are sought, new hkings, tendencies, enthusiasms and emotions make over the whole life." The central tendency of these changes appears to be near the fifteenth or sixteenth year. Ambition for the future, periods of elation and depression, great dreaminess in some and great exuberance of physical and mental activity in others, tempestuous passions, and in the later teens a marked development of social, ethical, and reUgious impulses appear to be quite common. Friendship comes to occupy a large place in the youth's life, his susceptibility to good or to bad social influences is especially marked. In the later adolescent years philosophic speculation and rehgious doubts appear in some. This may lead either to a cynical indifference to all higher values or to a life permeated by a lofty idealism and an en- thusiasm to serve humanity in some far-reaching way. The exuberance of the adolescent often leads him into clashes with the conventional restrictions of home and school, resulting, in the case of the more intense natures, in more or less "storm and stress." Inductive studies of youth lead, however, to the view that proper guidance and a not too repressive social environment should result in a steady growth rather than in one marked by sudden and tempestuous transitions. Unfavorable and repressive environments produce various abnormali- ties such as are s§en characteristically in adolescent criminality and insanity. In the former the impulse to action breaks all bounds and in the latter the youth becomes self -centered, subjective, loses all power of practical expression and develops some form of dementia precox. Practical phases. — The securing of normal sex development is the most vital problem. Instruc- tion in the hygiene of the sex life is coming to be regarded as essential. Modern hfe tends in many ways to overstimulate the youth, and common com- mercialized amusements flourish through their exploitation of the normal sex interests with dis- astrous results. On the side of general hygiene, plenty of physical exercise, proper food and rest, avoidance of over- exertion, opportunity for normal social reactions, and emphasis upon service and work rather than a life of pleasure or of morbid introspection are indispensable general rules. All authorities recom- mend that children of the same degrees of physical development, irrespective of chronological age, be grouped together for secular and religious instruction. 5 A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS Advocate Moral and religious phases. — While the youth often seems iadifferent to such matters, there is evidence in the latter half of the adolescent period of a deep-seated interest in the larger problems of hfe and of right living. Special attention should therefore be given to moral and religious education in order that suitable ideals may be established. Religious conversions are more frequent in middle and later adolescence than at any other time. Many studies indicate that ideals and ambitions acquired in these years tend to become the perma- nent possessions of the adult. Irving Kino ADONIS. — The youth beloved by Aphrodite in the Greek form of the mystery-symbolism of fertility and resurrection. See Mother Goddesses. ADOPTIANISM.— (1) A theory current among certain Christians of the second and third centuries that Jesus Christ was in nature a man who became the Son of God only by adoption. (2) A heresy which appeared in the 8th. century in Spanish and Frankish churches, and was officially suppressed in 799, though traces of it continued until 860. This form of adoptianism distinguished between the divine Christ and the human Christ, the former being the real, and the latter the adopted, Son of God. ADOPTION,— (1) The legal procedure by which an adult person assumes to a minor the rela- tion of parent to child. (2) Analogously, the act whereby God receives the behever into the relation- ship of child, a figure originating in the PauUne literature. ADORATION.— (1) An attitude, act or emo- tion of deep admiration and awe leading to special reverence, applicable to God and to persons or objects with special rehgious significance such as the Virgin Mary, saints, martyrs, the crucifix or the host. (2) The worshipful recognition of a newly elected pope by the cardinals. ADRIAN. — The name of six popes. Adrian I., Pope 772-795; a contemporary of Charlemagne with whom he had several struggles regarding the extent of his temporal power. Adrian II., Pope 867-872. Adrian III., Pope 884-885. Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspeare), Pope 1154- 1159; the only English pope, his pontificate being marked by a stormy conflict with Frederick Bar- Adrian V., Pope July 12 to August 18, 1276, but died before his ordination. Adrian VI., Pope 1522-1523, during the time of Luther, who endeavored to reunite Christendom by acknowledging the evils of papal rule and promising reforms, while at the same time insisting on the elimination of Luther. ADULTERY. — Legally, sexual intercourse be- tween persons one of whom is married to a third person. Figuratively, moral unfaithfulness to God, as applied by the prophets to the nation Israel. In the world religions, two motives underlie the aversion to adultery: (1) the desire to protect the wife as the husband's property; (2) the need of guarding the status of the family or caste. Morally, adultery involves a lack of sexual self-control, and is condemned along with other forms of unrestrained sexual indulgence. ADVAITA. — A doctrine of the Vedanta phi- losophy of India which maintains that there is no dualism of spirit and matter, self and the world. thought and being; that the one indefinable reality miderlying all existence is Brahman. ADVENT. — A term used to describe: 1. The Incarnation as the coming of the Son of God into the world through the Virgin birth. 2. The Second Advent, the return of Jesus Christ from heaven to carry on his Messianic work. See Parousia. 3. A feast celebrated the first season of the church year as a preparation for Christmas. It began originally in different months according to the practices of the different churches. In the western church the Advent season begins on the Sunday nearest to St. Andrew's Day, November 30, and contains four Sundays devoted respectively to the Second Coming, the Bible, the Ministry, and the Incarnation (in the Anglican Church). Shailer Mathews ADVENTISTS.— The general name for a num- ber of religious bodies who believe in the imminent bodily return of Jesus Christ to the earth. The Adventists were founded by Wm. Miller (q.v.) in 1816, and were generally called "Millerites." The Adventists are grouped in a number of organizations usually congregational in goveriunent. Of these the Life and Advent Union and the Church of God (Adventist) each numbers less than a thousand members, and may be disregarded except as indica- tive of the tendency of the group to divide and organize independent bodies on the basis of some eschatological detail. 1. The most important of the bodies is the Seventh Day Adventist. Unlike other Adventists they observe the Seventh Day in place of Sunday. They are. premillenarian, hold to the sleep of the dead, practice tithing, feet washing in connection with the Lord's Supper, and immersion. Their most important teacher was Mrs. Ellen G. White, to whom they attribute inspiration and powers of prophecy. Their organization is unlike other Adventist bodies in that it is presbyterian rather than congregational. They are particularly careful of health, especially as affected by food, and have established a number of sanitaria. Their ministry is composed of evangelists. They have 7 colleges and seminaries, publish a number of papers, and main- tain foreign missions. 1 hey have 87,583 members. 2. Advent Christians separated from the Evan- gelical Adventists in 1855 because of a difference in belief as to immortality of the soul. The former, holding that immortality is a result of regeneration, and that all unregenerate are to be annihilated, organized themselves as the Advent Christian Church. They have 1 college, 1 school of theology, and publish several papers. They have 30,597 members. The Evangelical Adventists are now a small body holding to what are essentially the common positions of premillenarian Christiani<^y. 3. The Churches of God in Christ are a small group of Adventists who believe in the restitution of all things by God, including the establishment of a Jewish state in Jerusalem. They have 3,457 members. ADVOCATE. — One who defends a cause or a person before a judicial tribunal. In Christian doctrine, the penitent and believing sinner finds in Jesus Christ an advocate before the judgment seat of God (I John 2:1). The inter- cessory work of Christ has been thus interpreted. The Holy Spirit is also called an Advocate (e.g., John 14:16), although the word paraclete in the 4th. gospel is often translated "comforter." In the Roman Catholic church, the ceremony of beatification or of canonization requires a '"devil's Advowson A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHIC,"^ 6 advocate" {advocalus diaboli) whose duty it is to secure serious consideration of all possible objections against the proposed action. His arguments are answered by "God's advocate" (advocalus Dei). Gerald Birney Smith ADVOWSON.— The legal right of naming an incumbent to a church or a vacant ecclesiastical benefice in England. See Benefice. AEGEAN RELIGION.— The reUgion of the coast lands and islands of the Mediterranean in the prehistoric age, often referred to as the period of Mycenaean or Minoan culture. Cretan excava- tions indicate that the central figures of the rehgion were an unmarried goddess, symbol of fertihty and life, and her son who dies and comes to life again. The divine names were probably Rhea and Zeus. See Mother Goddesses. AEGIS or EGIS.— In Greek mythology, the shield given by Zeus to Apollo and Athena; hence, any protecting power or influence. AEON. — (1) A term used to describe a group of successive emanations from Absolute Being by which the spiritual or divine is mediated to the material world. (See Gnosticism.) (2) The Greek word for an indefinite period of time constituting 0, cosmic cycle or epoch. See Age. AESIR (ASA). — The name of a group of gods of the Teutonic pantheon under the leadership of Odin, the All-Father. ' AESTHETICISM or ESTHETICISM.— Devo- tion to beauty in its sensuous forms, implying the subordination of moral values to beauty. AESTHETICS.— Aesthetics is commonly de- fined as the science of the beautiful. In this case, however, beautiful must be taken in the broad sense as including the sublime, comic, tragic, pathetic, ugly, etc. Originally used by Baumgarten in his Aesthetica (1750-58) to signify the science of sensuous knowledge, supplementary and_ parallel to logic, the science of clear thinking or the intellect. As the excellence of clear thinking is truth, so the perfection of sensuous knowledge was held to be beauty. Modern aesthetics deals on the one hand with problems of aesthetic appreciation, on the other with those of artistic production. Under aesthetic appreciation falls (1) the study of the psychology of aesthetic feeling and imagination, and (2) an analysis of the characteristics or essential qualities of the aesthetic as contrasted with the spheres of logic, ethics, economics, etc. Under "Study of Art Production" fall (1) study of origin and develop- ment of art, (2) the end of essential nature of art, and (3) the relation of art to other activities and to the progress of civiUzation. Plato's discussions of art were chiefly from a moral and educational point of view, and beauty played an important role in his metaphysical system. Aristotle's Poetics laid the found.ation of philosophical analysis of tragedy. Kant's Critique of the Aesthetic Judgment was the beginning of a treatment of art problems largely metaphysical in interest and method which was continued by Schelling, Hegel, Vischer and others. The more modern treatment makes use of psychological, and to a considerable degree of experimental, studies. Instead of setting up some one single characteristic as the essential, such as (a) unity and variety, or (6) perfection for contemplation, or (c) shareable- ness, the tendency is rather to recognize the com- plexity of aesthetic feehng and to find its important characteristics all involved in varying degree in a state of heightened emotion and thrill which is con- templative rather than practical, and which regards its object as quasi-personal. This latter aspect is what is called Einfuhlung or empathy. When we say "the tower is strong," "the mountain rises from the plain," "the tree is graceful," etc., we illustrate this attitude. The most significant recent studies in the field of art are those which show hkewise its social origins and significance. Much art seems to serve enhancement of emotion by re-echoing the individual's own feeling. James H. Tufts AETHER or ETHER.— (1) A term appearing ia ancient Greek hterature descriptive of cosmological theory, being a fifth element in addition to earth, air, fire and water, and the substance of which stars are composed. In Stoicism (q.v.) aether was described as creative fire and identified with God. (2) In modern science ether is a hypothetical physical medium pervading all space and serving to transmit energy, as, e.g., light waves. AETIOLOGY or ETIOLOGY.— The science of efficient or physical causes, in contrast with explana- tions in terms of purpose, or final causes; the explanation of the phenomenal universe by refer- ence to a First Cause. AFFIRMATION.— The solemn declaration made before a magistrate or other official by persons having conscientious objections to taking a judicial oath, such as Quakers. It is accepted as a legal equivalent of an oath. AFRICA, MISSIONS TO.— Apart from its outer edges and a limited penetration of its southern portion Africa remained essentially both a "dark" and "closed" Continent till 1875. The heroic but fruitless efforts of Raymond Lull to win the Moslems of Tunis to Christianity ended only with his death in 1315. The 15th. and 16th. centuries witnessed the ineffective attempts of the great Orders, working in conjunction with the Portuguese, to win the Congo region for Rome. Ecclesiastical connivance with the slave traffic served as a serious handicap to these efforts. The Dutch, who reached South Africa in the 17th. century made only a feint at missions among the natives. The late 18th. century found the Moravians in South- West Africa. The actual opening of the African Conti- nent to the impact of Christianity and western civiUzation was first accompHshed by Livingstone (q.v.), whose epoch-making explorations, supple- mented by those of Stanley, penetrated the heart of Africa, blazing the trail for commerce and ulti- mately the suppression of the slave traffic. They also served as a powerful inspiration to the mis- sionary impulse which was so significant a factor in Livingstone himself. They led also to the mobilization of forces and the creation of new missionary agencies for the Christian conquest of Africa. The past half century has witnessed the penetration and occupation of vast areas by well organized and steadily increasing missionary organizations. For the sake of convenience, modern missions in Africa may be grouped in the following geographical areas. I. Egypt and North Africa. — In Egypt the most significant missionary work is that directed toward the revitahzation of the ancient Coptic Church. The United Presbyterians have a chain of stations extending from Alexandria and Cairo to the Nile Cataracts. Education and Colportage are especially emphasized. The most difficult problem in Egypt, the Soudan, and the French, ItaUan and Spanish territories of North Africa is A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS Africa, Religions of that involved in the vast Moslem population. No significant progress has as yet been made either by Catholics or Protestants. The latter have found medical missions their most effective instrument in evangelization (Cairo, Khartum, Morocco), II. West Africa. — Including the entire coast and hinterland from the Senegal River to German South-West Africa. This territory is occupied by France, Britain, Belgium, and Portugal. In French and Portugese possessions Roman Catholic Missions predominate. In British and former German possessions (Togoland, the Cameroons) Protestant work is in the ascendancy. Among early 19th. century missions in this region may be named those of the Wesleyan, Church Missionary, and Basel Societies. The missions of the Basel Society and the American Board (Angola) empha- size education. Christian missions in this region have faced peculiar difficulties: a deadly chmate, compelling the employment of native leadership often ill-prepared for this responsibility; the Mos- lem menace, today constituting the Equator as the zone of conflict between Christianity and the Mohammedan tide sweeping southward from the Soudan; the liquor traffic; the intricate complex of tribes (117 represented in Sierra Leone alone) with the linguistic problems herein involved. Of these the Moslem problem is by far the most serious. As nowhere else in the world, Christianity and Mohammedanism here meet in a life and death struggle for the conquest of a Continent. To meet this oncoming tide there are some 400 mis- sionaries representing 15 Protestant societies in the Congo region. A more recent problem has grown out of the Great War, followed as it was by Germany's loss of her African Colonies, the enforced retirement of most of her missionaries, and the consequent redistribution of their work among missionary societies. Catholic and Protestant, of Britain and France. Among the institutions engaged in raising up an adequate native leadership should be mentioned Fourah Bay College (Sierra Leone). In Angola and elsewhere both Romanists and Protestants are employing industrial missions as a means of propagandism. III. South Africa. — The work of the German missions in South- West Africa has been seriously curtailed in the territorial readjustments following the War. In South Africa proper modern missions began a century ago when the Anglicans took up the work which has given them a position of leader- ship. This has been ably supplemented by the London Missionary Society and the American Board (Congregational), Wesleyan, Scottish, Ger- man and Scandinavian Societies, over thirty organizations in all now laboring in this field. The names of Livingstone and Moffat are indelibly stamped on the missionary map of South Africa. The United Free Church of Scotland has made a notable contribution to the problem of industrial education at Lovedale (1824) and Blythswood (1877). Lovedale, the largest Christian industrial center in South Africa, draws its students from and contributes its graduates to, every part of South Africa. The latter serve as ministers, catechists, teachers, tradesmen, farmers, etc. The American Board labors among the Zulus in Natal (1834). Its extensive educational work, as illustrated in Amanzimtote Seminary and In- dustrial School is aided by substantial government grants. IV. East and Central Africa. — The explora- tions of Livingstone (Nyasaland) and Stanley (Uganda) led to the opening of this territory to missionary effort. The Universities' Mission, 1861 (Anglican), was organized in direct response to Livmgstone's appeal. This was followed by the United Free, and the Church of Scotland Missions (1875-76), the Church (1875), and London (1877) Missionary Societies. The Livingstonia Institution (1875), Nyasaland, is one of the chief centers for industrial training. Of all the missions in Africa none is more romantic in inception, or phenomenal in growth than that in Uganda. Beginning in 1875 in response to Stanley's appeal, it has enrolled some of the greatest names in the missionary history of the Dark Continent (Hannington, d. 1885; Mackay, d. 1890). Its missionary force of ca. 100 foreign, and ca. 3,000 native workers conducts a press, hospital, dispensary, and schools enrolhng over 90,000. UnUke India or China, with their ancient civilizations, philosophies and religious, Africa presents the problem of a vast congeries of tribes on the lowest plane of culture, and bound by the most degrading superstition. The future success of missions in Africa appears to lie in education, especially industrial education, and the raising up of a trained Christian leadership. It is generally recognized that the key to the future of Christianity in Africa lies in the conversion of certain particu- larly virile tribes (Hausas of Nigeria; Zulus of Natal, etc.), and the winning of the Continent through them. Missionary statistics (approximate) are as follows : Societies at work, 119; total foreign staff, ca. 5,365; residence stations ca. 1,485; native staff ca. 29,700; organized churches ca. 6,770; communicants ca. 729,000; baptized non- communicants (including children) 503,000; others under Christian instruction 543,000; en- rolled in Sunday Schools 338,000; enrolled in schools of all grades 725,000; medical missions 121. Henry H. Walker AFRICA, RELIGIONS OF.— The native reli- gions of Africa are found chiefly among the Negroes of the West Coast and the Bantus of Central and South Africa. North and North-east Africa including the Sudan have largely come under the influence of Mohammedanism and Christianity has a hold in the two extremes of the continent. While Mohammedanism has approached at some points to within a few hundred miles of the equator and while Christian missions are represented in all the pohtical divisions of the land, the vast bulk of the Negroes and Bantus are but little influenced as yet by either of the two militant rehgions. Al- though the Negroes, the Bantus, the Hottentots, and the Bushmen comprise a vast number of sepa- rate tribes differing in language, cultural level, and political development, yet it is possible to make out the outstanding characteristic features of the religions of the primitive races of Africa as all of these may be justly termed. The religious practices are best understood after a consideration of the main features of their social and political life, and cannot really be com- prehended apart from it. The political units are for the most part small, the separate tribes are isolated, there is a total lack of literacy, with the result that the political genius of the able leaders, which cannot be denied, has insuperable obstacles to overcome. Slavery is all but universal, and polygamy prevails as a natural consequence. But no ruler is absolute, a sort of feudaUsm prevaihng even where superficially the despotic chief seems to have absolute power. Diplomatic skill is highly esteemed and the art of oratory is cultivated and greatly prized. While wandering hunting tribes are not wholly wanting and some pastoral tribes are found, yet for the most part they are settled and agricultural. All are warlike and the slave raid and the slave trade seem to be both indigenous. They have a very high degree of control over their children but their control over the forces of natm'e Africa, Religions of A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS 8 is very slight. Their main dependence is on magic, and superstition takes the place of science. The rehgion of such a people impresses the civihzed observer on first contact mainly by its negations. There is of course no sacred literature, there are no temples or sacred meeting places, no prayer of a formal sort, no worship as civilized people define worship, no priest strictly speaking, for the "witch-doctor" is very different from a minister of religion, and finally there are no "idols." Nevertheless, there is a religion. Or rather the different peoples have each a group of practices and observances which are to be identified with the reUgious life. If we define rehgion as that type of behavior in which the ideals and ultimate ends of the group are defined and made real, then it is in the ceremonials that are so frequent a phase of African hfe that we should look for the typical manifestations of religion. _ These ceremonials are manifold. They concern birth, marriage, death, puberty and initiation, seedtime, harvest, rain- making and rain prevention, fishing, hunting, war and peace, crime and punishment, and in fact all the crises of their life. The ceremonials are characteristically social and for the most part public in nature and appear in many forms. Chief among these is the cere- monial dance. This may be one of three forms: a preparatory ceremonial, in which case it has magical influence such as a hunting dance which actually makes the game more easily caught; or a subsequent celebration in which the natural emotions following a successful enterprise are given vent; or a third stage in which the dances become mere celebrations and entertainment. The religious ceremony becomes the festival. Illus- trations of this tendency may be found in the observ- ance in America of Hallowe'en — no longer a serious reUgious festival but in some respects like a carnival. It is not easy to make a clear distinction between magic and religion and the question is one on which the experts in the field are at present not in agree- ment. But if we try to think of the preparatory ceremony as a practical effort to secure certain results, and then of the subsequent ceremony (such as the dance of victory) as a spontaneous expression, it is possible to isolate a state of feeling and a type of behavior in which the ideal interests of the tribe will receive definition and emotional emphasis in the exalted moments of such a social celebration. Other types of ceremonial besides the dances are to be found in the initiation of adolescent boys into the tribe and corresponding formaUties connected with the advent of puberty in girls. It is too much perhaps to identify this with the conversion experience of some Protestant churches or the confirmation ceremony, but the seriousness with which all parties to the transaction regard the whole procedure and the high emotional tone which characterizes the community makes it necessary to include this also as religious. Of the same general nature are the ceremonies surrounding the inauguration of a chief with its precautions and solemnity. Funeral customs vary greatly. The amount of attention depends on the prominence of the deceased, slaves and strangers being often left unburied, while chiefs and their relatives receive the greatest care. Doubtless one motive is that of ostentation and pride; for a costly funeral testifies not only to the affection for the deceased but also to the power and wealth of the survivors. Mackay records how he made an enormous coffin for the mother of Mutesa into whose grave there went trade cloth to the value of $75,000. But there is also the feehng of fear and the desire for caution and security which secures the friendliness of the spirit of the departed. This also can be called rehgious. The question of the ordeal is not so easy. It is universally practiced but usually as an integral part of a formal judicial procedure. Africans are very fond of court trials and among them judicial procedure has developed farther than among any other primitive people. Almost everywhere there is an orderly procedure before constituted tribunals. Within this procedure the ordeal is often a merely technical device, analogous to the "third degree of the modern police. Totemism, which characterizes Australian and North American Indian life, is difficult to Irace in the African culture. There are, indeed, some facts which seem to indicate that they have passed through some form of totemic organization, but, as now existing, the institution of totemism plays no important part either in the reUgious or social Ufe. Quite otherwise is it with tabu. Tabu in the sense of being forbidden, unclean, harmful, is encountered on every hand. There is also the conception of tabu as belonging to a specific owner, such as the chief, and the wizard. Each tribe has certain food animals that are tabu, and within the tribe there will be tabus for the men, others for the women, while special families will have family tabus of diet, and individuals have Ufe-long injunc- tions concerning food, the eating of which wiU be very harmful or perhaps fatal. There are also temporary tabus of food, tabud clothing, tabud places, articles, and seasons, as well as persons, rulers, and relations. The social attitudes toward the tabus vary greatly but in some instances the tabu is treated with the greatest reverence and awe. It is not easy to make out any moral quality and there is no connection between the tabu and the sacred or morally holy such as can be made out in the Greek and Hebrew reUgions. The mission- aries usually find the word for tabu unsuitable for any reUgious ideas they wish to impart to their converts. Another universal phenomenon is the fetish or charm. It appears both as an amulet to keep off evil and as a taUsman to bring desirable results. Here again the variation is great. Some fetishes are new, private, and untried with little to make them prized, others are very old, very powerful, and greatly esteemed or feared or both. In some parts of the continent the fetish is in the form of a human being but this is not essential and is the- exception. It was this fact that led early writers to speak of the fetishes as gods or idols and to speak of fetishism as if it were a system or a reUgion. It is better to regard the fetish as one of the many devices for controlUng the environment and varying all the way from trivially magical to profoundly emotional and socially important devices. Thus far nothing has been said of the beliefs of the Africans. There is the very greatest confusion in the writings of the earlier investigators and the reason is now plain. T|ie primitive man has no religious doctrines which are in any sense definite and systematic. There are no theologies because there are no sects, no parties, no debates or argu- ments about such conceptions. Their cosmologies are still in the stage of folk-lore and folk-lore is stiU art which each narrator feels free to embelUsh. There is a universal belief in ghosts, and a sort of primitive mysticism is imiversal. But when one attempts to get specific names for God and the devil, or definite doctrines about the fate of the good men and the bad in the next world, it is soon realized that the search is vain. One result of this situation is that the mission- aries of the developed religions, whether Mohana- medan or Christian, never encounter any systematic 9 A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS Agnosticism opposition. Primitive religions represent crude and unsuccessful attempts to meet the ills of life. Their adherents are quick to accept a better way. Ellsworth Faris AGAPE. — The name of a social reUgious meal widely and variously celebrated in the early church. Its association with the Lord's Supper was probably due to the fact that the First Supper had been connected with a feast. This meal seems to have originated at Jerusalem (Acts 2:42, 46), as an expression of Christian brotherliness. It was easily transferred to the Gentile churches because similar meals were common in the Greek and Roman world. If it is the Agape which is mentioned in I Cor. 11:20-34, we should conclude that each person brought food as he was able; but of the custom on this point in subsequent times we have no certain knowledge. It appsars from some early writers (e.g., Tertullian and the Apostohc Constitutions) that, at the Agape, tha needy were remembered in practical ways. Among Gentile converts the Agape took on a more or less pronounced pagan character. This fact and the church's supreme regard for the Eucharist led, perhaps as early as Justin Martyr, first, to the separation of the Agape from the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, and then to its gradual suppression. The Synod of Laodicea (ca. 363) forbade holding the Agape in churches, and the Council of Carthage (419) declared that, as far as possible, the people were to be kept from these feasts. But here and there the custom still persisted for centuries. See also Eucharist. George Holley Gilbert AGAPETI and AGAPETAE.— Monks and nuns of the early Middle Ages who while professing celibacy dwelt together in holy love. The practise was suppressed by the Lateran Council, 1139. AGAPETUS.— The name of two popes. Agapelus I., 535-536; chiefly noted for his rigorous defence of orthodoxy; canonized by the church, his festival occurring September 20. Agapelus II., 946-955. AGATHA, ST.— Virgin and martyr listed in the Western church calendar, who lived in Sicily in the 3rd. century. Patron saint of Catania, Sicily. AGATHO.— Pope, 678-681, active in the Monothelite controversy. AGE. — One of the elemental divisions into which time was divided by the Jews. According to Jewish speculation, subsequently carried over into Christianity, there were two Ages or Aeons, the Present and the Coming. Between the two were the Days of the Messiah. The Present Age was regarded as under the control of its prince, Satan, and abounded in evils inflicted on the servants of God, who were identified with the Jews. In the Coming Age the sovereign authority of God would be established; evil doers, particularly the oppressors of the Jewish people, would be punished and the people of God be given the blessings attendant upon righteousness and loyalty to Yahweh. According to the eschatological conception (see Eschatology) of the time, the Coming Age would be introduced miraculously. The dead (at least the righteous) would be raised from Sheol and with those who were alive at its coming share in the judgments and blessings accorded at the great assize with which the Coming Age was to be estab- lished. After the Judgment Day the final or Age-status of suffering for the evil and happiness for the good would begin. The word is sometimes used in the plural, as the Ages of Ages, for the purpose of expressing endless duration of time. Shailer Mathews AGE, CANONICAL.— The age which has been fixed by the canons or decisions of the church for the ordination of an official or for the execution of any specific act. The Synod of Neocaesarea (of 314 or 325) first fixed the canonical age for ordina- tion of a priest at 30, corresponding to Jesus' entry upon his pubhc ministry. The final decisions of the Roman Catholic church were those of the Council of Trent (1563) which fixed the canonical age for ordination of a priest at 24, a deacon at 23, a subdeacon at 22, and a bishop at 30. The canoni- cal age of discretion for children is 7 when they come under the discipline of the church. The canonical age for marriage is 14 in boys and 12 in girls, with certain exceptions. The age for the observance of fasts is 21-60. AGE OF CONSENT.— The age at which marriage may be contracted by common law. If a girl is below that age, a man may be prosecuted for rape, even though she consents to intercourse. The age varies in different countries. In Europe it ranges from 12 to 18 for females. The American states formerly fixed the age at 12 years for girls, but moral education has stimulated pubUc opinion to demand greater legal protection, and the age of consent has been raised in a majority of cases to 16 or 18 years (in Wyoming, 21). Henry K. Rowe AGNES, SAINT.— A Christian girl who suffered martyrdom in the persecutions of Diocletian, in 304; venerated as a saint by the Latin church on Janu- ary 21 and 28, and by the Greek church on January 14, 21, and July 5. Patron saint of young maidens. AGNI. — The fire-god of Vedi'c reUgion. He is one of the three most important gods of the priestly reUgion because of his essential relation to the magical ritual of sacrifice. AGNOETAE.— (1) A 4th. century sect which limited the omniscience of God to present time. (2) A 6th. century sect which denied the omnis- cience of Jesus. AGNOSTICISM.— A philosophical attitude asserting the impossibiUty of knowledge beyond the limits of verifiable experience, and usually expressing disapproval of any attempts to make afl&rmations as to reaUty beyond these limits. In science or philosophy agnosticism means the refusal to discuss metaphysical substances or causes, thus limiting investigation to the realm of verifiable experience. Usually agnosticism here involves the restriction of inquiry to the observable sequences of events, either in the physical world or in the processes of consciousness, without entering into speculation concerning the hidden causes lying back of these processes.;' Rehgiousty, agnosticism declares that the supersensible objects of faith, such as God, incorporeal spirits, or fife after death, cannot be known td^exist. Huxley brought the word into currency to desig- nate an attitude of ignorance as morally preferable to either reUgious dogmatism or aggressive material- ism in questions as to the nature of transcendent reality. Herbert Spencer's definition of the ultimate reality as the Unknowable Energy from which all things proceed, involves a degree of agnosticism; but Spencer contended that men may assume a Agnus Dei A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS 10 positive religious attitude toward this Unknowable in the form of cosmic mysticism. The Ritschlian theology, following Kant, is to a certain extent agnostic, holding that the objects of rehgious belief are not scientifically demonstrable, faith alone giving practical assurance of their reality. Because of the veto placed on metaphysical discussion, agnosticism tends to give the right of way to unquestionable physical facts, and easily passes over into avowed skepticism so far as religion is concerned. Romanes, in his Thoughts on Religion, contended that an impartial agnosti- cism would show that religious beliefs are preferable to any non-religious alternatives. Recent psycho- logical and epistemological investigations indicate that our relation to environment is so complex that no sharp dividing Une can be drawn between knowledge in the strict sense and vaguer sensory apprehensions of reality. A certain degree of agnosticism therefore is not incompatible with a positive interpretation of religious experience. Gerald Birney Smith AGNUS DEI.— (1) Lat., "the Lamb of God," a name applied to Jesus. (2) The figure of a lamb symboUzing Jesus, usually bearing a banner and a cross. (3) In the Roman Catholic church a wax cake or medallion bearing the impression of the emblem and blessed by the pope. (4) In the Greek church a cloth marked with this figure, used to cover the elements of the Eucharist. (5) A section of the mass, and of the Gloria beginning with these words. AGRAPHA. — Sayings attributed to Jesus Christ which are not to be found in our canonical literature, but were carried along by oral tradition until finally embodied in some writing. If misquotations or variations of canonical utterances of Jesus are not counted, these sayings are not numerous and, with the exception of possibly a dozen cases, of no particular importance. Possibly the most interesting are: 1. "On the sapie day, having seen one working on the Sabbath, he said to him, 'O man, if indeed thou knovvest what thou doest, thou art blessed; but if thou knowest not, thou are accursed and a trangressor of the law.'" 2. "Jesus said to his disciples, 'Ask great things, and the small shall be added unto you; and ask heavenly things and the earthly shall be added unto you.' " 3. "Rightly, therefore, the Scripture in its desire to make us such dialecticians, exhorts us: 'Be ye skilful money-changers,' rejecting some things, but retaining what is good." Shailer Mathews AGRICOLA, JOHANN.— German theologian, 1494-1566; noted chiefly as the originator of the antinomian controversy among the German Re- formers which brought him into conflict with Melanchthon and later with Luther. See Anti- nomianism. AGRICULTURE, RITES OF.— In the narrow sense agricultural rites deal with the technique of Ereparing the soil, sowing, protecting the crop and arvest. The principle underlying the ceremonies is that of the use of a magical power controlled by the group to overcome influences hostile to the crops. Typical examples only may be given here. The ground is prepared by dabces around the borders, by sprinkling with human blood, by burning a human victim whose ashes are sprinkled on the field (America), by the sacrifice of cows to Earth and to Ceres, by firebrands sent across the fields tied to the tails of foxes (Roman). The first furrow is often turned by the chief or king to open the season auspiciously (Siam, China). At the time of sowing, the seed is stimulated by phallic processions, by the use of obscene language (India, Greece), by cursing (Greece), by incantation formulae which command the gods of food (Japan), by mixing it with material of great potency such as the seed of the last sheaf of the previous harvest, or human blood, or remnants of pigs devoured by snakes as in the Greek Thesmophoria (q.v.). The growing crops are protected by recitation of magical rituals (Japan), processions around the boundary and sacrifices (Roman), by carrying the image of the deity around the fields (Germany, France, Peru). There are many magical arts for securing rain and for making the stalks grow long. The great time of the year is the harvest. All over the world the first-fruits call for special ceremonies. The first grain is cut with great caution, often with lamenta- tion or by someone who possesses special powers, a Eriest or magician. The crop is made safe to eat y offering the first fruits to the god, to the king, chief or priests, or by a sacred meal shared in com- mon. The last sheaf of the year embodies the corn- spirit. It is called by such names as "cornmother," "the maiden," "the old woman," and becomes the center of dancing and feasting. There is evidence that at this time human victims were killed, their blood mingled with the first cakes baked from the new corn and eaten in a sacred meal (S. America). At this point the harvest festival merges in the great cult of vegetation at the autumnal equinox when the waning life of the year is stimulated by special rites from which arise the great fertihty goddesses (see Mother-Goddesses) and the Mysteries (q.v.). The most elaborate development of the agri- cultural rites is seen in the state rehgion of China where the whole splendor of the state ritual is con- centrated in spring, at seed-time, in times of drought, and especially in the autumn upon the one object of securing prosperity by control of the powers of heaven, air, and earth. A. Eustace Haydon AHIMSA. — A principle common to many of the ascetic sects of India which forbids injury to any form of sentient life; sometimes, as with the Jains, carried to the extreme of tolerating vermin. AHIQAR, THE STORY OF.— A story of the sage Ahiqar, found in some versions of the Thousand and One Nights, derived from Syrian Christian litera- ture, and probably a part of the lost literature of the Aramaeans of the pre-Christian era. Several Aramaean deities are mentioned in it. AHMADIYA. — The name of a modern reform movement among the Moslems of India begun in 1891 by Ghulam Ahmad who claimed to be the expected Madhi of Islam, the returning Spirit of Christ, the Messiah of the Jews and an avatar of Krishna. The movement is chiefly a rehgious protest against Moslem formalism. There are 70,000 members at the present time. AHRIMAN. — The personified principle of evil in the Zoroastrian religion; the source of sin, disease, disorder, and death. He is a creative power coeval with the good God, Ormazd, but is doomed to defeat and annihilation at the end of the world. AHURA MAZDA.— See Ormazd. AINUS, RELIGION OF.— The survivors of this dwindling race five in Siberia, Saghalin and the northern islands of Japan. Their religion is an interesting example of the manner in which primitive people build up social relationships with the environ- 11 A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS Albert of Brandenberg ing nature forces affecting their life. Their customs consist of methods of control of the favorable and dangerous things in nature — sun, fire, vegetation, storms, trees, sea, mountains, swamps, animals, diseases, and the unknown potencies of the outer world. The most central ceremonies are those which deal with food in the forms of vegetation and of the eating of the bear. They secure protection from evil forces such as diseases and the danger of the forsst and swamp by means of magic spells, charms, amulets and fetish-sticks. No clear ideas have developed of the soul, of after-life, of gods or of spirits. The dead go underground; the religious objects are the potencies in grain, in fire, in the bear; the nearest approach to spirit is the concept of the dangerous presence in the disease-giving swamp. There is nothing corresponding to the organization, temples or priesthood of developed religion. AIR GODS. — This name refers strictly to that class of supernatural beings belonging to atmos- pheric and meteorological phenomena as differ- entiated both from the gods of the sky and from spirits, demons and ghosts dwelUng in the air or clouds. The powers of the air which have shown themselves sufficiently important in the hfe of early man to attain divine rank are rain, winds, storm, thunder and lightning. To these should be added the gods of the four quarters symbohzed in ancient America by the cross. Ancient Egypt alone has a god of the air, Shu. The gift of rain is often a function of the sky gods but where agriculture is important a special rain god usually develops as in Vedic India (Parjana, Indra), and in China (Master of Rain). Wind gods are very prominent in the rehgions of America. They are usually associated with the cardinal points of the sky and function as fertiUty and creative powers. In India the good wind gods are Vata and Vayu while the destructive and troublesome winds are represented in Rudra and the Maruts. Greece and Rome picture anthropomorphic gods of the wind, e.g., Boreas, the north wind. An earlier name for the winds of Greece, however, is the "snatchers" or Harpies which comes to refer largely to the pestilential and maleficent winds. China has her Prince of the Wind. A combination of the rain, wind, thunder and lightning is seen in the various storm gods — Indra, the slayer of the drought-demon, Vritra (India), Adad, Rammon (Semitic), Woden, leader of the Wild Hunt of Souls and Thor (Teutonic), Suso-no-wo, who disputes the region of the sky with his sister the sun-goddess (Japan). The god is sometimes called simply the Thunderer as in China, or the lightning stands out as an individual thing as in the Dragon-Sword of Shinto. The early descriptions of Yahweh, as of the Babylonian Enhl, suggest a connection with storm, wind and clouds. It should be said, in regard to these gods of the air, that they rarely remain separated but either ascend to heaven and mingle their functions with those of the sky-gods or descend to earth and take on the characteristics of fertility powers or war gods. A. Eustace Haydon AjrVlKAS. — An ascetic community of India led at the close of the 6th. century b.c. by Gosala, a contemporary of the founders of the Buddhist and Jain communities. In cosmogony and psychology their behef was practically identical with that of the Jains (q.v). Their chief distinctive beUefs were (1) a thorough-going determinism; (2) the impossibility of free-will or responsibility since man's life is fixed by fate, by his own inherited nature, and by his environment; (3) the universal salvation of all souls after the lapse of vast ages of transmigration. AKBAR. — Emperor of all North India in the second half of the 16th. century a.d. His real greatness lay in his ability as an administrator and in his powers of concihation. He is best known for his easy tolerance of all religious faiths and for his attempt to estabhsh a religion for his empire by selection from several faiths, especially from Islam and Parsism. Representatives of all the great rehgions, free-thinkers and atheist? were welcomed to present their views at his coai't. He was of sufficiently calm vision to see that the good life for man and the security of the empire did not depend upon the outcome of the battle of creeds. He was not a religious enthusiast or a skeptic; it may fairly be said that his faith centered in a belief in one God whose agent he was for the administration of the empire. AKIBA BEN JOSEPH.— Jewish rabbi and practical philosopher, 50-132(-5). He was strongly opposed to the Christian schism, to gnosticism and to mysticism. In the period following the destruc- tion of Jerusalem, he helped to modify Jewish thought by his Uteralistic interpretation of Scrip- ture, and by his systematization^ of Pharisaic tradition. One of the greatest of Jewish teachers, he supported the Jewish Messiah Bar Kokhbar (q.v.) and suffered martyrdom before the revolt headed by the latter was crushed by the Romans. ALASKA, RELIGIONS OF AND MISSIONS TO.— 1. Religions, see Eskimos, North American Indians. 2. Missions. — Immediately after Russian occu- pation of Alaska, the Russian Orthodox church began its mission. In 1915 there were in the Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and North America 10,000 Indians, Aleutians, _ Creoles and Eskimos. Moravian work was begun in 1855 and sixty years later this church counted 1,400 baptized Indians. Among the most prosp)erous of the Protestant missions is that of the Presbyterian church, begun in 1877, which in 1915 had eight stations serving four thousand Christians. The Presbyterian Board in 1920 took over the Congregational work at Wales, which since 1890 had been under the super- vision of the American Missionary^ Association. The Protestant Episcopal church in 1915 had twenty churches with twelve clergymen and six lay readers. The Methodists had but four churches in 1919, the number of adherents being but 98. This service was almost entirely to the white popula- tion. The Roman Catholics have 16 churches with resident priests, 20 mission chapels and several schools. In addition to strictly religious work, most of the denominations carry on educational activities which include industrial training. Missionaries have found that there is better response from the natives than from the white population which is temporary and is interested chiefly in getting gold. Almost all of the natives (1920) are adher- ents of some sect, although this adherence is often nominal. Harry Thomas Stock ALB. — (1) A linen robe, reaching to the feet and having closely fitting sleeves, worn by Roman Catholic priests when celebrating mass. (2) A robe worn by the newly baptized in the early church. ALBERT V. OF BAVARIA.— Duke of Bavaria, 1528-1579, a vigorous and influential leader of the Counter-Reformation. ALBERT OF BRANDENBERG.— Elector of Mainz and cardinal of the Roman CathoUc church, 1490-1545; at first tolerant toward the Reformers, Albert of Prussia A DICTIONARY OF RELIGION AND ETHICS 12 but later a supporter of the Catholic reaction in Germany. ALBERT OF PRUSSIA.— First duke of Prussia, 1490-1568; a friend of Luther and Melanchthon and a supporter of the Reformation in Germany; foimder of the Prussian national church. ALBERTU« MAGNUS (ca. 1193-1280).— Schoolman and iieologian, a leader in the Domini- can order in Germany, especially in Cologne; a man of wide learning in science, philosophy and theology, and one of the teachers of Thomas Aquinas. His significance was in the substitution of Aristotelian for Platonic logic and metaphysics. His assertion of a higher sphere of authority for revelation beyond the limits of reason was the beginning of the long conflict between naturalism and supernaturalism, science and theology. ALBIGENSES.— Name derived from Albi (S. France) ; called also New Manichaeans, Cathari. Among Christians they were the expression of the oriental, Manichaean, Gnostic and Arian influ- ences which poured over Italy and France in the earUer Christian centuries and held their ground against Catholicism. They were Manichaean (q.v.) in theology; rejected the Old Testament as the work of an evil deity; substituted the consolamentum (an elaborate ceremony of laying on of hands and fasting) for baptism; forbade marriage, ownership of property, and eating of meat; taught transmigration of souls of the un- perfected, the saints going at once to a state of eternal happiness. They were scattered and almost exterminated by the Crusades and Inquisition. ALEXANDER.— The name of eight popes. Alexander I. — -Bishop of Rome in the first quarter of the 2nd. century. Alexander //.—Pope, 1061-1073. Alexander III. — Pope, 1159-1181, one of the greatest popes; was successful in his pohtical contests with Frederick Barbarossa of Germany and Henry II. of England. Alexander IV.— Pope, 1254-1261. Italy suf- fered much during his reign by the conflict between the GhibelUnes and the Guelphs, the pope siding with the latter. Alexander V. — Pope, 1409-1410. His claim was disputed by Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., the latter of whom is frequently regarded as the rightful pope. Alexander VI. — Pope, 1492-1503, a man of unusual talents, but charged with immoral char- acter, and the ambition to elevate his alleged children, particularly Caesar and Lucretia Borgia, to positions of wealth and influence. Alexander VII. — Pope, 1655-1667, a friend of the Jesuits and an ally of Spain on whom he was partly dependent. Alexander VIII. — Pope, 1689-1691, a supporter of learning and of civic improvements in Rome, and a vigorous opponent of the movement for the greater freedom of the church in France known as GaUicanism (q.v.). ALEXANDER OF HALES.— Englsh scholastic theologian of the 13th. century; called Doctor Irrefragabilis. He entered the Franciscan order in 1222, and his work, the Summa Theologiae, is the first important contribution from the Franciscans. It is written in the form of question and answer, and is typically scholastic in method and content. ALEXANDER SEVERUS.— Roman emperor, 222-235; of noble character; his religious policy was syncretistic and tolerant, the image of Jesus being placed in his domestic chapel besides those of Abraham, ApoUonius of Tyana and Orpheus. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL.— A theological school of great influence in the early Greek church. The Johannine literature and the Epistle to the Hebrews are influenced by Alexandrian thought. The Gnostic schools of Basilides and Valentinus originated in Alexandria. The great catechetical school of Alexandria numbered among its heads Pantaenus, Clement and Origen (q.v.), and served as the formulater and defender of orthodoxy. The theology of the Cappadocians is an Alexandrian product. Athanasius (q.v.), "the father of ortho- doxy," was bishop of Alexandria. Cyril (q.v.), who was the leader of the Alexandrian school in his day in opposition to the theologians of the Antiochan school (q.v.), was an influential figure in the con- troversies over the person of Christ. ALEXANDRINUS, CODEX.— See Codex Al