rfi Jn' iian ^1 1^ o NVSOl^ v^j^lOSANCElfj-^ -^IIIBRARYQC;^ -^IIIBRARYO^, (J %a3AINn3WV^ ^ -^IIIBRARY^?/- A\\MINIVER% ^lOSANCElfx^ ITVDJO^ '^OJIIVJJO'^ ity from 1812 to 1830. Guizot's efforts as a leader of the doctrinaires by no means occupied all his time and thought. His studies and lectures as a professor of history during this period were of the utmost value. He lectured on the history of representative govern- ment, and published a voluminous series of memoirs bearing on the histories of France and of England. But his great work, obviously suggested by his study of Gibbon, was to trace the general principles and laws under which modern society had been developed out of the ruins of the Roman Empire. Some of his earlier lectures, delivered before his professorship was suppressed by the reactionary government, are embodied in his Essays on the History of France ; his maturer thoughts were given to the world in the brilliant discourses of 1828, 1829 and 1830, published under the title of the History of Civilisation in Europe and the Histo7y of Civilization in France. No doubt he was influenced by the reaction against the clean sweep of the past made by the Revolution, which led Chateaubriand and after him the Romanticists to the study of the Middle Ages, and he was anxious to bring out in the history of France that continuity which is so conspicuous in the history of England. But what gives the greatest value to his work is the systema- tizing tendency which prefers the high-roads of history to its by-paths, and which seeks everywhere the solution of historical problems rather in the operation of general laws than in isolated events and the influence of individual actors. He was, in fact, one of the founders of modern philosophical history 1. Another work of this period, still more closely connected with his political aims, was his History of the English Revolution^ published in 1826, while his professorship was in abeyance. His Calvinistic training had especially fitted him to sympathize with the English Puritans, and his enthusiasm for the juste ^ A full examination of these works will be found in J. S. Mill's Dissertations and Discussions, Vol. 11. INTRODUCTION. XI milieu made him anxious to put before his countrymen the object-lesson of a revolution differing so widely from their own both in its methods and its results. The Doctrinaires in office. During the next eighteen years Guizot's career is closely identified with the history of France. In July 1830 appeared the ordinances of St Cloud, restricting the liberty of the press and narrowing the electorate. The protest of the liberal deputies against them was drawn up by Guizot. But events moved quickly. Within two or three days came the July Revolution, to be immediately followed by the abdication of Charles X., and the establishment of Louis Philippe, first as Lieutenant-General, and then as King. Guizot was included in his first short-lived administration as Minister of the Interior ; in the second, that of Casimir Pdrier, which gave the keynote to the whole reign, by inaugurating a policy of resistance to popular demands at home, and of peace at any price abroad, he was not included. In power the doctrinaires were less successful than in opposition. From the first the new regime was out of touch with the nation ; the main object of the government was to prove to Europe that it had no revolutionary tendencies ; a large part of the nation had very different aspirations. " II faut etre national et fort, avant tout et tout de " suite." So ran xh^ programme de lajeunesse. France was to recover her position as a great military power, and the demo- cratic gains of the Great Revolution, so long in abeyance, were to be secured. Some lines of Bdranger, written in January 1831, describe feelings to which Louis Philippe's ministers, for the most part, remained indifferent. Je croyais qu'on allait faire Du grand et du neuf; Meme etendre un peu la sphere De Quatre-vingt-neuf : Mais point ! on rebadigeonne Un trune noirci. xii INTRODUCriON. La plan^te doctrinaire Qui sur Gand brillait^, Veut scrvir de luminaire Aux gens dc juillct. Fi d'un froid soleil d'automne De brume obscurci ! Guizofs Career as a Mittister. In 1832 Casimir Pdrier died; personal rivalries were for a time laid aside, and the strongest and best ministry of Louis Philippe's reign {de graude coalition) was formed under the presidency of Marshal Soult. Besides Guizot and the Due de Broglie, the Whig pcer^es deux parlis se combattaient avec • 14 DEBASING INFLUENCE OF CIVIL WAR. [ll. acharnement, mais sans abdiquer, au sein de la lutte, tons Ics sentiments des temps d'ordre et de paix. Point d'e- meutes sangiiinaires, point de massacres judiciaires. C'^tait la guerre civile ardente, obstinee, pleine de violences et de 5 niaux, mais sans exces cyniques ou barbares, et contenue, par les moeurs ge'nerales de la population, dans certaines limites de droit et d'humanite. Je me hate de rendre aux partis cette justice, car les vertus des partis sont fragiles et courtes quand elles ont h. lo subir le souftle et h. lutter contre les orages des revolutions. Uc jour en jour, a mesure que la guerre civile se prolongeait, le respect des droits, les sentiments justes et g(^nereux s'atTaiblirent. Les consequences naturelles de I'e'tat de revolution se developperent, alterant de plus en plus, dans IS I'un et I'autre parti, les ide'es et les habitudes legales et morales. Le roi manquait d'argent : les Cavaliers se livrerent k un pillage effre'nc^. Les taxes que levait le parlement ne suffisaient point aux besoins de la guerre : il etablit, dans tous les comte's, un systeme de confiscation 20 plus ou moins de'guise'e, qui, sous le nom de d'elinquants, lui livra les revenus, souvent meme les terres de ses ennemis, source quotidienne de richesse pour ses partisans. Dans ce dcsordre general et continu, au milieu des abus de la force et des exces du malheur, les mauvaises passions ^taient 25 incessamment provoque'es ; des chances s'offraient il tous les mauvais d^sirs. La haine et la vengeance s'emparaient des ames dnergiques. Les ames faibles tombaient dans la peur et la bassesse. Le parlement, qui pretendait agir au nom des lois et servir le roi en le combattant, etait condamne', 30 dans ses actes les plus violents, k un langage faux et hypocrite. Parmi les royalistes, beaucoup, se de'fiant des arriere-pensees du roi, appele's k des sacrifices qui depassaient leurs forces, et chaque jour plus inquiets pour le succes de II.] GENERAL DESIRE FOR PEACE. 1 5 leur cause, sentaient le ddvouement s'eteindre dans leur coeur, et se soumettaient par decouragement, ou se dedom- mageaient h force de licence. Le mensonge, la violence, I'avidite, la pusillanimite, I'e'goisme sous toutes ses formes, croissaient rapidement parmi les hommes engages dans la 5 lutte ; et la population, qui n'y prenait part ou n'y assistait que de loin, subissant elle-meme la detestable influence du spectacle revolutionnaire, perdait peu h peu, ou ne conser- vait qu' obscures et chancelantes, ses notions de droit et de devoir, de justice et de vertu. 10 EUe ^tait frappe'e en meme temps et souffrait cruelle- ment dans ses interets materiels. La guerre, partout pr^- sente et partout ddsordonnee, ravageait les villes et les campagnes, de'truisait la subsistance, ou I'esperance, ou rindustrie du peuple. Les mesures financiferes du parlement, 15 exploite'es par les inimiti^s ou les intrigues locales, jetaient dans la propridt^ territoriale le trouble et la depreciation. Plus de security pour les affaires du present ni pour les travaux de I'avenir. La vie civile ^tait atteinte et boule- verse'e, meme au sein des families les plus dtrangeres k 20 la lutte politique. Et comme les alarmes vont toujours plus vite et plus loin que les soufTrances, le pays, tomb^ dans une d^tresse douloureuse, etait en proie h une anxidtd plus ge'ndrale et plus douloureuse encore que sa ddtresse. 25 L'explosion de ses plaintes et de ses voeux ne se fit pas longtemps attendre. La guerre e'tait encore dans toute sa ferveur que d^jk le cri /a paix I la paix I retentissait aux portes du parlement. Des petitions frdquentes la de- mandaient. Des rassemblements nombreux les apportaient, 30 si nombreux et si animds qu'il fallut employer la force pour les dissiper. Au sein de la chambre des communes, et malgr^ la retraite presfjue gdndrale du premier parti royaliste. l6 SORT OF ARMED NEUTRALITY. [ll. un nouvcau parti royaliste se formait au nom de la paix, empress^ h saisir toutes les occasions d'en proclamer la necessite, et d'ouvrir avec le roi des negociations. Tentdes plusieurs fois, elles dchouerent par les menses de ceux qui, 5 dans I'un et I'autre camp, ne voulaient pas de la paix, ne voulant pas faire les concessions qu'elle exigeait ; par I'imperitie ou la faiblesse de ceux qui, voulant la paix, n'osaient pas en vouloir les conditions. La guerre civile continua; niais le parti qui I'avait engagee s'^tait de'membre; lo la lutte avait recommence, dans le parlement, pour et contre la revolution. Au dehors, dans les campagnes surtout, le peuple ne se contenta pas de demander la paix au parlement ; il tenta de I'imposer lui-meme, localement du moins, aux deux partis. 15 Des associations se formerent, des corps armds se mirent en mouvement, declarant qu'ils ne voulaient plus souffrir que leurs terres fussent ravag(fes, ni par les parlementaires, ni par les royalistes, et les combattant e'galement quand ils les rencontraient. Sorte de neutrality armde au sein de la 20 guerre civile : tentative bien vaine, mais qui rdvela combien les deux partis acharnds k se combattre blessaient ddjk les sentiments et les inte'rets du pays. Tant que la guerre fut forte et d'une issue douteuse, ces souffrances et ces impressions du peuple, en le jetant dans 25 une reaction pacifique, ne le ramenaient cependant vers le roi que faiblement et avec he'sitation. On I'accusait d'ente- tement et de faussete. On se plaignait amferement de ses mene'es secrbtes avec la reine et les catholiques, passionne- ment hais et redoute's. On s'en prenait k lui des maux 30 et de la durte de la guerre civile, au moins autant qu'au parlement. Quand la guerre fut a son terme, quand le roi fut prisonnier entre les mains du parlement, la reaction pacifique II.] LAST EFFORT OF PRESBYTERIANS. 1 7 devint plus decidement et plus gene'ralement royaliste. Le roi ne pouvait plus rien et portait dignement son malheur. Le parlement pouvait tout et ne faisait point cesser les maux du pays. Sur le parlement pesait maintenant la respon- sabilite. A lui s'adressaient les mecontentements, les 5 esperances de'gues, les soupgons, les coleres, les male'dic- tions du present, les terreurs de I'avenir. Pousses par ce sentiment national, dclaires par le peril imminent, les re'formateurs politiques, les premiers chefs de la revolution dans le parlement, et a leur suite une partie 10 des novateurs religieux, les presbyte'riens, ennemis de I'Eglise e'piscopale, mais non de la monarchie, tenterent un effort supreme pour faire enfin la paix avec le roi, et terminer du meme coup la guerre et la revolution. lis etaient sinceres, passionnes meme dans leur desir, 15 mais pleins encore des pre'juges et des pretentions re'vo- lutionnaires qui, plusieurs fois deja, avaient rendu la paix impossible. Par les conditions qu'ils imposaient au roi, ils lui demandaient de sanctionner leur destruction de la monarchie et do I'Eglise, c'est-k-dire d'achever de ses 20 propres mains, en y rentrant, la ruine de I'edifice qui faisait sa surete et qui avail sa foi. Ils avaient proclamd en principe et mis en pratique la souverainete directe de la chambre des communes ; et, contraints k leur tour de resister au flot populaire, ils 25 s'dtonnaient de ne plus retrouver la force et I'appui, de rencontrer meme la me'fiance et I'hostilite de cette haute aristocratie et de cette Eglise qu'ils avaient decriees et I ddmolies ! Quand ils auraient reussi a conclure la paix avec le roi, 30 la paix aurait etc vaine. II etait trop tard pour arreter la re'volution, et trop tot pour la ramener k son but vrai et national. Dieu commenrait seulement b. cxercer ses justices, E. G. 2 l8 REPUJU.ICANS PREVAIL. [ll. et h donncr scs lemons. Dbs que les premiers chefs dii mouvemcnt essaybrent de relever les mines qu'ils avaient faites, le parti vraiment rdvolutionnaire se leva, et traitant avec un niL^pris brutal leur sagesse nouvelle, les chassa du 5 parlement, condamna le roi k mort, et proclama la repu- blique. CHAPTER III. THE REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT. Deux si^cles se sont e'coules depuis que la republique d'Angleterre a fait tomber la tete du roi Charles I"" pour tomber presqiie aussitot elle-meme sur le sol arrose de ce sang. La republique frangaise a naguere redonn^ au monde le meme spectacle. Et Ton entend dire encore que ces 5 grands crimes ont ete des actes de grande politique, com- mande's par la ne'cessite de fonder ces re'publiques qui leur ont a peine survecu quelques jours ! C'est la pre'tention de la folie et de la perversite humaine de se couvrir du voile de la grandeur. Ni la verite de 10 rhistoire, ni I'int^ret des peuples ne peuvent souffrir ce mensonge. L'esprit de foi et de liberte religieuse avait dege'ne'r^, dans quelques sectes, en un fanatisme arrogant, querelleur, intraitable a toute autorite, et qui ne trouvait sa satisfaction 15 que dans les ddchainements de I'ind^pendance et de I'orgueil d'esprit. Par la guerre civile, ces sectaires dtaient devenus des soldats, k la fois raisonneurs et de'voues, enthousiastes et disciplines. Sortis, pour la plupart, des classes et des professions populaires, ils jouissaient avidement du plaisir 20 de commander, de dominer, de se croire et de se dire les instruments choisis et puissants des volontcs et des justices 2 — 2 20 CllAKACTEk Ol-' CROMWELL. [ill. de Dieu. A la faveur tantot de I'enthousiasme religicux, tantot de la discii)line militaire, tantot de Tespiit d(^mo- cratique, Cromwell avait gagn^ la confiance de ces hommcs et s'etait fait leur chef. Aprfes avoir d^pens(5 sa jeunesse 5 dans las hearts d'un temperament fougueux, dans les ^lans d'une pidte' ardente et remuante, et au service des interets ou des dtfsirs de la population qui Tentourait, des que la haute politique et la guerre s'ouvrirent devant lui, il s'y pr^cipita avcc passion comme dans les seules voies ou il pQt se 10 ddployer et se satisfaire tout entier : le plus fougueux des sectaires, le plus actif des rdvolutionnaires, le plus habile des soldats; e'galement pret et ardent a parler, k prier, h conspirer, h combattre ; expansif avec un abandon plein de puissance, et menteur, au besoin, avec une hardiesse IS intarissable, qui frappait ses ennemis menies de surprise et d'embarras ; passionn^ et grossier, hasardeux et sense', mystique et pratique; sans limites dans les perspectives de I'imagination, sans scrupule dans les necessitds de Taction ; voulant, k tout prix, le succ^s ; plus prompt que 20 personne k en discerner et h en saisir les moyens, et donnant h. tous, amis ou ennemis, la conviction que nul ne r^ussirait si bien et n'irait si loin que lui. A un tcl parti, conduit par un tel homme, la republique convenait. Elle donnait satisfaction k leurs passions, 25 ouverture k toutes leurs esp^rances, s^curitd aux intdrets que leur avait ct66s la guerre civile. Elle livrait le pays k I'arm^e par le g^nie de son chef, et I'empire k Cromwell par la complicite disciplinde de ses soldats. Par respect pour leur since'rite, pour leur g^nie, pour 30 leurs malheurs, je ne veux pas exprimer toute ma pensee sur quelques hommes d'un noni c^lebre, r^publicains aussi, par systeme politique et selon les modeles de I'antiquit^ plulot que par fanatisme religieux, Sidney, Vane, Ludlow, III.] EXECUTION OF CHARLES I. 21 Harrington, Hutchinson, Milton ; esprits eleves, coeurs fiers, noblernent ambitieux pour leur patrie et pour I'humanite; mais si peu judicieux et si follement orgueilleux que ni la pouvoir, ni las revars ne laur apprirent rien ; cre'dules comma des enfants, entetes comma des vieillards, sans 5 cesse aveugle's par leurs esperancas sur leurs pe'rils et sur leurs fautas, at qui, au moment ou, par leur propra et anarchiqua tyrannia, ils pr^paraiant I'avenement d'una tyrannia plus sansee et plus forte, croyaient fonder le plus libra at le plus glorieux des gouvarnements. 10 Hors da ces sactes organisees en regiments at de ces coteries erig^es en parlement, personne en Angleterre ne voulait de la re'publique. EUe offensait las traditions, las moeurs, las lois, les viailles affections, les anciens respects, les inte'rets rdguliers, le bon ordra, la bon sens et le sens 15 moral du pays. Irrite's at inquiats de cette aversion manifeste du public pour leurs dasseins, las sectaires et Cromwell panserent qua, pour fonder un regime k ce point repouss^ il fallait, das la premiere heure, par un coup terrible et sans recours, 20 prouver sa force et affirmer son droit. Ils se promirant de sacrer la re'publique sur I'echafaud de Charles P^ Mais la vue des revolutionnairas, mama des plus habiles, est courta. Enivr^s par la passion ou domines par le besoin du moment, ils ne pre'voient pas que ce qui fait 25 aujourd'hui leur triomphe fera demain laur arret. Le supplice de Charles I" livra aux republicains et k Cromwell TAnglaterra frappae da stupeur. Mais la r^publique et Cromwell, blessds k mort da ce mama coup, ne furent plus, de ce jour, que des regimes violents et ephemeras, marque's 3° de ce sceau d'iniquita supreme qui voue h. una ruine certaine les pouvoirs les plus forts et las plus ^clatants. Les juges de Charles I" mircni lout an ceuvre pour 22 REACTION IN PUBLIC OPINION. [ill. enlever h. leur acte ce fatal caractcrc, et pour le presenter comme une justice de Dieu, qu'ils avaient mission d'accom- plir. Charles avait tentt^ le pouvoir absolu et soutenu la guerre civile. Beaucoup de droits avaient ^te violas et 5 beaucoup de sang re'pandu d'aprfes ses ordres ou de son aveu. On rejeta sur lui toute la responsabilit^ de la tyrannie et de la guerre ; on lui demanda compte de toutes les liberte's opprime'es et de tout le sang vers^ : crime sans nom, que sa mort seule pouvait expier. Mais on ne donne lo pas h, ce point le change k la conscience d'un peuple, meme quand elle est saisie de trouble et d'effroi. D'autres que le roi avaient opprimd et ensanglant^ le pays. Si le roi avait viole les droits de ses sujets, les droits de la royautd, anciens aussi, ecrits aussi dans les lois, necessaires aussi au 15 maintien des liberte's publiques, avaient e'te dgalementviole's, attaquds, envahis. II avait fait la guerre, mais pour se de'fendre. Qui done ignorait qu'au moment ou il s'e'tait d^cid^ k la guerre, on la preparait contre lui, pour le contraindre, apres tant de concessions, k livrer ce qui lui 20 restait encore de droits et de pouvoir, les derniers ddbris du gouvernement le'gal du pays? Et maintenant que le roi ^tait vaincu, on le jugeait, on le condamnait sans loi, contre toutes les lois, pour des actes qu'aucune loi n'avait jamais prdvus ni qualifies de crimes, que jamais la conscience ni 25 du roi ni du peuple n'avait song^ a considdrer comme tombant sous la juridiction des hommes, et punissables par leurs mains. Quelle indignation, quelle r<^volte de toutes les ames auraient cclate si le plus obscur des citoyens etit ^te traitd de la sorte, et mis k mort pour des crimes ddfinis 30 apres coup, par des juges pr^tendus, hier ses ennemis, aujourd'hui ses rivaux, demain ses hdritiers ! Et ce qu'on n'eiit os6 tenter contre le moindre des Anglais, on le faisait contre le roi d'Angleterre, contre Ic chef supreme de I'Eglise III.] DIFFICULTIES OF THE REPUBLIC. 23 comme de I'Etat, contre le representant et le symbole de I'autorite, de I'ordre, de la loi, de la justice, de tout ce qui, dans la socie'te des hommes, touche a la limite et re'veille I'idee des attributs de Dieu ! II n'y a point de fanaiisnie si aveugle ni de politique si 5 perverse qui, au moment meme de leur triomphe, n'aient vu apparaitre, tout pres d'eux et dans leurs propres rangs, quelque e'clatante lumiere, quelque protestation solennelle et inattendue de la conscience humaine. Deux re'publicains, dont I'un etail inscrit parmi les juges du roi, les noms les 10 plus glorieux du parti, Vane et Sidney, soit scrupule, soit prudence, ne voulurent point sie'ger au proces, et quitt^rent Londres pour n'en etre pas meme les temoins. Et lorsque, maitresse souveraine, la chambre des communes nomma le conseil d'Etat republicain, sur quarante-et-un membres 15 appeles h. le former, vingt-deux refus^rent absolument de preter le serment qui contenait une approbation du jugement du roi ; et les republicains regicides, Cromwell k leur tete, durent se rdsigner a accepter pour coUegues ceux qui ne voulaient, a aucun prix, passer pour leurs complices. 20 Le nouveau re'gime ne rencontra d'abord que la resistance passive ; mais il la rencontra partout. Six des grands juges sur douze refusferent absolument de continuer leurs fonctions, et les six autres n'y consentirent qu'k la condition qu'ils continueraient de rendre la justice 25 selon les anciennes lois du pays. Le parlement republicain accepta leur condition. II avait ordonn^ que la rdpublique fut proclame'e dans la cit6 de Londres : le lord raaire s'y refusa. II fut remplace et mis en prison. Malgre' la pre'sence d'un lord maire 30 nouveau, trois mois s'ecoul^rent avant (][u'on tentat cette proclamation ; et lorsqu'enfin elle eut lieu, plusieurs des aldermen n'y assistercnt point. On fit appuycr la ccrcmonic 24 DIFFICULTIES OF THE REPUBLIC. [ill. par (les troupes, ce qui ne suffit pas k rdprimer entiferement les insultes populaires. On r^organisa le conseil commun dc la cit^; plusicurs des membres d^signt^s n'y voulurent pas entrer. II fallut autoriser le conseil h. si(^ger en petit 5 nombre. On fut sur le point de se croire obligd h. abolir les franchises de la citd. Quand on voulut frapper la nionnaie re'publicaine, le directeur de la monnaie d(fclara qu'il ne s'y preterait point et se fit destituer. lo Un serment de fidelite h la rdpublique, aussi simple et inoffensif qu'on put le rediger, fut demandd aux fonction- naires civils et aux eccle'siastiques investis de quelque bene'fice. Des milliers abandonn^rent leurs places ou leurs cures, plutot que de le preter. Plus d'un an apr^s 15 1'e'tablissement de la re'publique, I'assemble'e du clerge presbyterien, rdunie k Londres, declara forniellement que le serment ne devait pas etre pretd On I'imposa dans les universite's d'Oxford et de Cambridge ; les membres les plus eminents de ces corporations, professeurs et administrateurs, 20 se d^mirent de leurs emplois. L'ordre fut donnd, dans toute I'Angleterre, de de'truire, sur les e'difices et monuments publics, les insignes de la royaute. Presque nulle part il ne regut son exf^cution. On le renouvela plusieurs fois, sans plus de succes ; et la re'pu- 25 blique, dejh fondee depuis plus de deux ans, se vit encore contrainte de re'pe'ter partout la meme injonction, en en met- tant h. la charge des paroisses la responsabilite et les frais. Enfin, ce fut seulement environ deux ans apres la condamnation du roi que le parlement republicain osa voter 30 forniellement que les auteurs, les juges et les exdcuteurs de cet acte avaient fait leur devoir, approuver toute la procedure, et en ordonner I'insertion dans les re'gistres du parlement. III.] NUMEROUS RISINGS. 2$ Jamais peuple vaincu par une faction revolutionnaire, et subissant sa d^faite sans se soulever, ne refusa plus clairement k ses vainqueurs son adhesion et son concours. A la resistance passive du pays se joignirent bientot, centre le gouvernement de la republique, les attaques de 5 ses ennemis. Les premieres vinrent des rdpublicains eux-m^mes. Au XVII' siecle comme au xix°, ce nom couvrait des iddes, des desseins, des partis profondement divers. Derri^re les re'formateurs de I'ordre politique marchaient les reformateurs 10 de I'ordre social, puis les destructeurs de tout ordre et de toute socidte. Aux passions et aux pretentions du fanatisme religieux et de I'esprit democratique, de plus en plus aveugles et effrdndes k mesure qu'on descendait plus bas dans les rangs du parti, la republique de Sidney et de 15 Milton ne suffisait point. Les Niveleurs e'claterent. Les Communistes apparurent. La republique durait h. peine depuis six mois, et dejk, autour de Londres et du parlement, quatre insurrections de soldats sectaires, provoque'es et soutenues par une explosion sans cesse renaissante de 20 pamphlets, de predications et de promenades populaires, avaient re'vele son anarchie int^rieure et mis son gouverne- ment en pe'ril. Le parti royaliste tarda plus longtemps k se soulever. Ses longues de'faites, Texdcution du roi, la compression 25 violente qui pesait sur lui, le frappaient de stupeur. Les dissensions de ses vainqueurs et le mauvais vouloir evident du peuple pour le regime nouveau le rendirent bientot h. la vie et k I'espe'rance. En deux anndes, sept conspirations et insurrections, ourdies soit par des royalistes purs, soit par 30 des royalistes presbytdriens, ennemis egalement ardents de la republique, prouvbrent h. ses chefs qu'ils n'avaient pas tu^ du me me coup le roi et I'cmpire de la royaute'. 26 GENERAL DISORDER. [ill. Bientot, entre les conspirateurs royalistes et les conspi- rateurs republicains, eiitrc les Cavaliers et les Niveleurs, de secretes intelligences s'e'tablirent. lis conspir^rent de concert. Une haine commune surmonle toutes les autres inimities. 5 Et pendant que I'Angleterre se debattait dans cette anarchie passionn^e, I'Ecosse et I'lrlande, toutes deux royalistes, quoique par des motifs et avec des sentiments trfes divers, repoussaient hautement la republique, pro- clamaient Charles Stuart roi, appelaient et recevaient, sur lo leur sol et h. leur tete, I'une Charles lui-meme, I'autre ses reprdsentants, et faisaient la guerre pour le retablir. Dans cette dislocation des trois royaumes, au milieu de ces complots k la fois contraires et unis, aussitot renaissants que dejoue's, et qui tour k tour relevaient ou abattaient, sur 15 tous les points du territoire, les esperances et les craintes, les ambitions et les menees de tous les partis, les liens sociaux se relacherent, les ressorts du pouvoir se detendirent rapidement. Dans les administrations de comtd ou de paroisse, dans les finances g^nerales ou locales, dans les 20 emplois publics, dans les fortunes privdes, pour tous les interets de la vie civile, plus de regie ni de s^curite'. Sur les routes, autour des villes, les brigands et les voleurs se multipliaient, marchant par bandes, melant les passions politiques a leurs crimes, demandant a ceux qu'ils arretaient 25 s'ils avaient, ou non, prete serment de fideUt^ h. la y6- publique, et les maltraitant ou les relachant selon leur re'ponse. II fallut, pour les reprimer, placer sur divers points des corps de troupes, tenir plusieurs regiments de cavalerie sans cesse en mouvement ; et la repression, bien 30 qu'energiquement applicjuce, ne reussissait que tres im- parfaitement, car la de'sorganisation de la soci^td enfantait plus de de'sordres que le gouvernement rdpublicain n'en savait t'touffer. Ill] VIGOROUS MEASURES OF PARLIAMENT. 2/ Assaillis par tant et de si pressants dangers, les chefs du parlement republicain ne faiblirent point : ils avaient I'energie et I'obstination, les uns de la foi, les autres de r^goisme ; leurs plus nobles esperances et leurs plus vulgaires inte'rets, leur honneur et leur vie etaient engage's 5 dans leur entreprise. lis s'y devouerent avec courage, mais en prodiguant aveuglement, pour la faire triompher, ces moyens de nature vicieuse qui ne sauvent quelques jours une cause que pour la perdre un peu plus tard. Des leurs premiers pas, ils porterent presque k ses 10 dernieres limites la tyrannie politique ; car ils de'crdtbrent que quiconque, dans le cours de la guerre civile, avait adhe'r^ au roi, ou s'etait montre contraire au parlement, ne pourrait ni etre 6\n membre du parlement, ni occuper aucune charge de quelque importance dans I'Etat. Et peu 15 apres, la meme incapacite fut etendue a toute fonction municipale, et jusqu'au simple droit de voter dans les Elections ; pla^ant ainsi d'un seul coup tous les adversaires de la republique dans la condition d'ilotes exclus de tout droit et de toute vie politique dans leur pays. 20 Le serment de fide'lit^ n'avait 6t6 exige d'abord que des fonction naires civils ou ecclesiastiques, et leur refus n'avait d'autre consequence que la perte de leurs fonctions. Le grand nombre des refus irrita et inquie'ta les vainqueurs. Pour assouvir leur colere, et dans le vain espoir de se 25 de'livrer de leur inquietude, ils imposerent le serment a tout Anglais au-dessus de dix-huit ans ; et quiconque le refusa ne fut plus meme admis k paraitre devant une cour de justice pour y soutenir ses int(;rets ; en sorte que la dissidence politique entraina I'incapacitd civile. 30 Le S(^*questre et la confiscation des bicns dtaient pratiquds centre les vaincus de la fa^on la plus intolerable et la plus chofiuantc; sans principe fixe ni general, par des mesurcs 28 CENSORSIIII' OF THE PRESS. [ill. partielles, mobiles, tour h. tour aggravdes ou attdnudes selon les besoins du moment, I'aviditt^ d'un ennemi puissant, telle ou telle circonstance impre'vue, et sur des listes nominatives tantot trbs etendues, tantot fort limitees et dresse'es presque 5 arbilrairement ; de telle sorte que nul de ceux qui se sentaient menaces ne pouvait savoir d'avance, ni avec certitude, quelle dtait sa situation et quel serait son sort. Depuis que la guerre civile avait cessd, une seule arme restait aux vaincus, royalistes ou niveleurs, la publicite, la ID presse. lis en usaient hardiment, comme avait fait, dans tout le cours de sa lutte avec le roi, le parti maintenant vainqueur. lis pouvaient s'en croire le droit, car le dernier censeur de la monarchic, M. Mabbott, avait donn(^ sa de'mission, ne voulant plus servir d'instrument a un tel 15 abus, et le premier secretaire du conseil d'Etat republicain, Milton, avait eloquemment reclame la liberty de la presse comme droit essentiel d'un peuple libre. Le gouvernement republicain ne nomma point de censeur nouveau ; mais il rendit, sur I'usage de la presse, une loi dont la plus inquifete 20 vigilance pouvait se contenter. Quatre villes seulement en Angleterre, Londres, York, Oxford et Cambridge, eurent le privilege d'imprimer. Aucun journal ou dcrit pdriodique ne put paraitre sans I'autorisation du gouvernement ; les imprimeurs furent assujettis il un cautionnement. Et non 25 seulement quiconque avait pris part h. une publication se'ditieuse fut incrimind et puni ; mais tout acheteur d'un ecrit seditieux encourait une amende s'il ne venait pas, dans le d6\ai de vingt-quatre heures, remettre I'ouvrage au magistrat le plus voisin, et lui en signaler le danger. 30 Une liberte du moins, la liberte religieuse, semblait pouvoir, sous la republi(iue, esperer un meilleur sort. Les sectaires re'publicains I'avaient, des I'origine, inscrite sur leur drapeau. Non seulement lis avaient eu besoin de la re- III.] RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION. 29 clamer pour eux-memes, mais leurs principes la com- mandaient imperieusement, car ils repoussaient tout gouver- nement general et obligatoire de I'Eglise, et reconnaissaient a chaque congregation isolee le droit de se gouverner elle-meme. Mais par un de nos plus tristes e'garements, 5 c'est precisement la ou elle est le plus inique et choquante, en matiere de conscience et de foi, que I'inconse'quence humaine se de'ploie tout entiere. Le meme parti, les memes hommes qui, depuis un demi-siecle, se devouaient avec une admirable Constance pour la cause de la liberty religieuse, et 10 qui faisaient de cette liberie la base de la societe chretienne, ceux-lk meme, devenus souverains, exclurent absolument de toute liberte trois grandes classes de personnes, les catho- liques, les e'piscopaux et les libres penseurs. Contre les catholiques, la persecution n'eut point de limites : proscrip- 15 tion absolue de leur foi et de leur culte ; pour leurs laiques, des incapacit^s et des confiscations privilegie'es , pour leurs pretres, la prison, le bannissement en masse, la mort meme. L'lfeglise protestante ^piscopale, renverse'e et dispersde par le parlement presbyterien, vit, sous le parlement re'publicain, 20 son sort encore aggrave ; les sectaires avaient a satisfaire, sur elle, leurs vengeances et leurs mefiances ; on alia jusqu'a interdire, dans I'interieur meme des families, la presence de ses ministres et I'usage de sa liturgie et de ses pri^res. Quant aux libres penseurs, moins rares h. cette dpoque qu'on 25 ne le croit communement, s'il s'en rencontrait un qui, par imprudence ou par aversion de toute hypocrisie, manifestat hautement sa pens^e, il e'tait poursuivi, emjirisonnd, exclu du parlement, d^pouilld des plus obscurs emplois. Les presbyt<;riens, comme ennemis des e'piscopaux, jouissaient 30 d'une certaine tole'rance, mais limitce, toujours precaire, ct souvent troublde par les soupgons ou les violences des sectaires h, (|ui leur organisation eccldsiastique et leurs 30 rERVKRSION OV JUSTICE. [ill. sentiniciUs monarchiqucs dcplaisaicnt egalemcnt. En vain, dans le parlcmcnt republicain, quelques hommes d'un esprit gencreux essayaient de tempcrer ces rigueurs; ils eprou- vaient et acceptaient bientot eux-memes leur impuissance. 5 La liberty religieuse n'existait re'ellement, sous la republique, que pour les sectes victorieuses et re'publicaines k qui leur union dans une meme cause politique, toiijours en pdril, faisait oublier ou tole'rer leurs dissentiments en matiere de foi. lo Pour ddfcndre et maintenir une tyrannic politique si etendue et si dure, la tyrannie judiciaire dtait indispensable. Le parlement republicain I'exerga sans scrupule. Le proces du roi, cette monstrueuse derogation h. tous les principes et h. toutes les formes de la justice, devint le module des 15 proce'dures politiques. Contre les seditions des soldats niveleurs, la loi martiale sufifisait ; mais lorsqu'une insurrec- tion ou une conspiration royaliste venait k e'clater, une haute cour de justice, dont le parlement nommait lui-meme les membres, ^tait aussitot institue'e; vraie commission 20 spe'ciale, placde en dehors, pour elle-meme, des regies, et pour les accuses, des garanties de la loi. Craignait-on que la connaissance de ses debats n'excitat la colere ou la pitid du pays ? on en interdisait absolument la publication. On se servait de ces cours, non seulement contre les hommes 25 importants qu'on livrait h leur juridiction, mais aussi contre la multitude obscure qu'on n'edt pu traduire devant elles. Avant que la re'publique fut proclame'e, des mariniers de la Tamise avaient demand^ qu'on fit la paix avec le roi. Apres I'ex^cution du roi, le parlement envoya leur pe'tition, 30 avec leurs noms, h. la nouvelle haute cour qu'il venait d'instituer pour juger cinq des principaux chefs royaHstes ; frappant ainsi les petits de terreur en meme temps qu'il faisait tomber la tete des grands. Quelquefois les hautes III.] TREATMENT OF SUSPECTS. 3 1 cours ne pouvaient etre employees ; elles auraient entraine trop d'e'motion publique, ou trop d'apparat, ou trop de lenteur. Le parlement republicain jugeait alors lui-meme, infligeant, par un simple vote, d'enormes amendes, le pilori, le bannissement, tantot pour abattre un ennemi obstine, 5 tantot pour servir les passions ou pour couvrir les fautes de quelqu'un de ses propres chefs. N'y avait-il aucun moyen de poursuivre et de condamner des hommes qu'on redoutait, quelques-uns de ces premiers reformateurs politiques que les re'publicains n'avaient pu vaincre qu'en les chassant du 10 parlement ? on les de'tenait arbitrairement, on les dispersait dans des prisons dloign^es. On bannissait en masse de Londres les cavaliers, les catholiques, les ofificiers de fortune, tous les suspects. Et si quelque ecrivain royaliste, au lieu de conspirer en secret, denongait bruyamment au pays, par 15 la voie de la presse, les me'faits, re'els ou suppose's, des meneurs republicains, il etait arrets et mis k la Tour, ou il restait et mourait, attendant son jugement. Tant d'oppression au sein de tant d'anarchie semblait d'autant plus odieuse et intolerable qu'elle provenait 20 d'hommes qui naguere avaient tant exige' du roi, et tant promis eux-memes en fait de liberte ! et d'hommes parmi lesquels un grand nombre e'taient naguere inconnus, obscurs, sortis de conditions dans lesquelles le peuple n'etait pas accoutume k reconnaitre et a respecter le pouvoir supreme, 25 n'ayant, k I'empire qu'ils exer9aient si violemment, point d'autre titre que leur me'rite personnel, titre conteste tant qu'il ne s'est pas eleve au-dessus de toute comparaison, et la force materielle dont ils disposaient, titre qui offense et ali^ne ceux-lk meme qui s'y soumettent, tant que leur vain- 30 queur ne les a pas complfetement abattus et avilis. Malgrc le double enivrcment du pouvoir et du danger, plusicurs, parmi les chefs republicains, avaient I'instinct dc 32 FORKKJN RELATIONS OF THE REPUBLIC. [llL cette situation et dii sentiment public k leur dgard. Puissants, ils sc scntaicnt isoles, et souvent de'daign^s. II n'y a point de pouvoir cjui rassure contre I'isolement, ni qui rende insensible au dedain. lis souhaitaient ardemment 5 de se faire, h. la domination, d'autres titres que la guerre civile et le regicide, et de s'dlever, par quelque acte grand et national, au niveau de leur fortune. Ils mdditaient et prd- paraient au dedans, sur les lois civiles, I'administration de la justice, les impots, beaucoup de reformes ; mais les plus ID importantes, d'un merite fort contestable en soi, ^taient dnergiquement repousse'es par la plupart des hommes considerables du parti lui-meme; et, loin de relevcr la republique, elles n'auraient fait que la plonger plus avant dans les rangs des sectaires et des niveleurs. fividemment, 15 aucune mesure de re'gime int^rieur ne pouvait donner aux chefs rt^publicains ce qui leur manquait. Leurs pensees se porterent au dehors. Ils avaient peu d'effort a faire et point de risque k courir pour maintenir, dans leurs relations avec les puissances etrangeres, la dignit($ et les intdrets de leur 20 patrie. Le temps des guerres de croyances religieuses finissait ; celui des guerres d'id^es politiques ne venait pas encore. Aucun des grands gouvernements europdens, bien que de'testant la nouvelle republique, ne songeait h I'atta- quer ; tous au contraire recherchaient son amitid, pour 25 I'enlever a leurs rivaux, ou pour s'en servir contre eux. La simple neutralite assurait a I'Angleterre la paix, une entiere inde'pendance pour ses affaires inte'rieures et un grand poids dans les affaires du continent. Les chefs du parlement republicain voulurent davantage. Ils dtaient en presence 30 de trois puissants ;^tats, la France, I'Espagne et la Hollande : les deux premiers, catholiques et monarchiques, adversaires naturels, plus ou moins contenus ou d^guises, de la nouvelle republique; le dernier, protestant et re'publicain, III.] PROPOSED UNION WITH HOLLAND. 33 attire vers TAngleterre par toutes les sympathies de la foi et de la liherte. Une idee s'eleva et bouillonna rapidement dans ces esprits hardis et agite's. Pourquoi I'Angleterre et la HoUande ne s'uniraient-elles pas en une seule et grande republique qui ferait bientot dominer en Europe leur 5 politique et leur foi commune ? II y avait la de quoi charmer les plus pieux, de quoi occuper les plus ambitieux. Quelle reconnaissance ne porterait pas le peuple anglais aux hommes qui auraient donne cet accroissement a sa grandeur, cette satisfaction a sa conscience et a son orgueil? A ce 10 prix, la monarchic e'tait oubliee, la re'publique e'tait fondee, le parlement republicain devenait un se'nat de rois. L'ceuvre fut tente'e. Les chefs republicains s'y em- ploy erent passionne'ment : les uns, par des influences indirectes, et en propageant en tous sens leur ide'e ; les 15 autres, dans des ambassades solennelles, et en essayant de poser les bases de I'union future des deux nations. Mais les reves des revolutions sont encore plus vains dans les rap- ports exterieurs que dans le gouvernement int^rieur de I'liltat. II plaisait aux rcjpublicains anglais de ne pas songer que, 20 dans cette fusion, la re'publique de Hollande serait absorbee par la republique d'Angleterre, et qu'elle pourrait bien n'y pas consentir. Elle n'en accepta pas seulement I'insinua- tion. Les republicains hollandais, e'prouves par un siecle de laborieux succbs, etaient trop fiers pour sacrifier leur 25 patrie, et trop sages pour lier ses destine'es h cette utopie d'une republique naissante et chancelante. La cause des royalistes anglais avait d'ailleurs en Hollande la faveur, non seulement de la maison d'Orange, mais d'une grande partic du peuple dont le meurtre de Charles I" et les folies des 30 sectaires r^voltaient rdquit<^ et le bon sens. Le juste orgueil de la Hollande dissipa en un instant la chim^re que I'orgueil ambitieux du parlement anglais avait enfantde. Mais dc K. G. 3 34 WAR WITH HOLLAND. [ill. semblablcs tentativcs ne sont pas faites et n'avortent pas impundment. II resta de celle-ci, entre les deux peuples, dejil naturellement rivaux, des m^fiances et des jalousies profondes ; entre leurs chefs, des amours-propres froisses et 5 des rancunes ardentes. La guerre sortit bientot de ces sources: en sorte que les grandes conceptions diplomatiques du parlcment protestant et re'publicain de I'Angleterre aboutirent h une rupture et h. une lutte passionn^'e avec le seul Etat republicain et protestant entre ses voisins lo du continent. CHAPTER IV. THE REPUBLIC. Ainsi, au dehors comme au dedans, les republicains anglais recevaient des dvenements, ou donnaient eux-memes, a leurs ideas et a leurs esperances, de tristes et eclatants de'mentis. lis avaient promis la libertd; ils pratiquaient la tjTannie. Ils avaient promis I'union et le triomphe du 5 protestantisme en Europe ; ils portaient la guerre dans son sein. En vain ce gouvernement durait, gagnait des batailles, e'crasait ses ennemis : il ne s'affermissait point. Au milieu de leurs succes et de la soumission gent^rale, la republique 10 et ses chefs se d^criaient et s'abaissaient de jour en jour. Un homme, le principal auteur du supplice de Charles I" et de r^tablissement de la re'publique, Cromwell, avait pressenti ce rdsultat, et se disposait h en profiter. Le roi mort et la republique proclame'e, une me'tamorphose pro- 15 digieuse, mais naturelle, s'accomplit dans Cromwell. Pouss^ jusque-la, par ses passions de sectaire et d'ambitieux, contre les ennemis de sa foi et les obstacles k sa fortune, il s'etait appliqu^ tout entier k les ddtruire. D^s que I'oeuvre de destruction fut consomm^e, une autre necessity lui apparut. 20 La r(-volution etait faite ; il fallait refaire un gouvernement. La Providence, qui donne rarement k un meme homme une 3—2 36 WEAKNESS OF THE GOVERNMENT. [iV. double puissance, avait marqu^ Cromwell pour I'un et I'autre role, Le rdvolutionnaire disparut, le dictateur se prepara. En nicme temps que cette ne'cessitc dominante dc la situation nouvelle frai)pait son esprit grand et sain, Cromwell 5 enlrevit que le gouvernenient qu'on tentait d'etablir n'y rdussirait point : ni les institutions, ni les hommes. Dans les institutions, point d'unitd, ni de stability, ni d'avenir ; la guerre intestine et I'incertitude permanente au sein du pouvoir. Dans les hommes, des vues etroites ou chimd- lo ritjues, des passions petites ou aveugles ; la lutte revolution- nairc perpetuee entre le pouvoir et le pays. Ii)riges en souverains, le parlement r^publicain et ses chefs furent bientot mesurds et condamn^s par le bon sens de Cromwell. Un gouvernenient fort et regulier ne pouvait sortir de Ik. IS Une pense'e preoccupa dhs lors Cromwell : ne point s'associer h. la politique ni a la destin^e de ces institutions et de ces hommes ; se tenir en dehors de leurs fautes et de leurs revers ; se se'parer du parlement en le servant. C'etait peu de se separer ; il fallait grandir pendant que 20 d'autres s'usaient. Cromwell pre'voyait la mine du parle- ment et de ses chefs ; decide a ne pas tomber avec eux, il voulait s't^lever k cotd d'eux. Les grands hommes d'action ne construisent point d'avance, et de toutes pieces, leur plan de conduite. Leur 25 g^nie est dans leur instinct et dans leur ambition. Chaque jour, dans chaque circonstance, ils voient les faits tels qu'ils sont re'ellement. lis entrevoient le chemin que ces faits leur indiquent et les chances que ce chemin leur ouvre. Ils y entrent vivement, et y marchent, toujours h la meme lumiere 30 et aussi loin que I'espace s'ouvre devant eux. Cromwell marchait a la dictature sans bien savoir ou il arriverait, ni k quel prix ; mais il marchait toujours. Cette situation qu'il cherchait, Isolde et en dehors du IV.] CAMPAIGN IN IRELAND. 37 pouvoir regnant, le parlement vint lui-meme la lui offrir. Cromwell a Londres incommodait at inquietait les meneurs. lis lui demanderent d'aller prendre le comman dement de I'armee qui devait soumettre I'lrlande, partout insurgee pour Charles Stuart, ou plutot contra le parlement. Cromwell se 5 fit priar. II fallut lui accorder beaucoup : d'abord pour ses amis, son patronage etait vaste at zele; puis pour lui-meme; il voulait de grands et surs moyens da succbs, das troupes blan pourvues, des honneurs eclatants, un pouvoir incon- teste'. On lui donna tout, on e'tait presse qu'il partit. Son lo depart fut solennel et magnifique. Plusieurs sermons furent preches, pour predira et demander a Dieu son succes. Cromwell parla at pria lui-meme en public, cherchant et trouvant dans la Bibla des allusions pleines d'encourage- ment a la guerra qu'il allait soutenir. II sortit de Londres 15 entoure d'une garda nombrause, forma'a d'officiers brillamment equipes. A Bristol, ou il s'arreta avant da s'ambarquer, le peuple des campagnes environnantes accourut pour le voir. II ne negligea rien, et rien ne lui manqua pour exciter I'attente et remplir les esprits au moment ou il s'eloignait 20 des regards. C'laiL\ here in its technical sense of a 'fortress,' place forte. 1. 16. althrr, nearly always used of a change for the worse. But see p. 7, 1. 23. Notice the derived meaning of the past participle, ' thirsty,' especially in a metaphorical sense alth-J de sang. The steps to that meaning are said to be (i) to change, (2) to 'affect,' 'excite' as in a line of Boileau, "Quel sujet inconnu vous trouble et vous altere?" (3) to excite to thirst. Dcsalth-er is applied solely to thirst. an fond, contrasted with defigure. Perhaps ' form ' and 'substance' might be used to represent the antithesis. 1.17. tCen a le droit. Here en = (raller. For n^ see E.B. tgi. 1. 18. injiistetnent juge. It will be remembered that Strafford's trial before the House of Lords on the impeachment of the Commons was never completed. He was pronounced guilty of high treason by an Act of Attainder, which was a parliamentary, not a judicial decision. The merits of the case are discussed in Hallam's Constitutional History, Ch. 9. L 20. les ivlques. The bill for depriving them of their votes in the House of Lords was supported even by Falkland. 1. 21. ne se reliveront point. The strict sequence of tenses would re(Juire ne devaient point se relever. But the future is both more picturesque and stronger and is used here just as the historical present is often substituted for a past tense. In English, the difficulty is avoided by saying 'never to rise again.' mal mesurh, ' ill-aimed,' 'ill-judged,' in the sense in which a racquet or tennis player would use the word ' judge.' 1. 24. Des incidents graves, for example, the petition of the City of London for the entire abolition of episcopacy. des voix coiirageuses, for example, Hyde's protest against the Bishops' Votes Bill, and Lord Digby's against the attainder of Strafford. signalaient. The obsolete meaning of signaler, still retained in the noun signalement, is to draw up an official description of a recniit. It is also used of describing a person to the police. Hence its meaning here is ' to call attention to. ' 1. 26. traits de lu/niire, we should change the metaphor and say CHAPTER I. Ill •glimpses or intuitions of.' For the tense n^ont manque see note on p. I, 1. I. 1. 27. la necessiie..., ' the necessity of winning the day and the splendour of the victory.' 1. 28. refoulaient, hterally to 'press back.' ItSi,use will be seen from expressions like — cet obstacle refotila le torrent, la masse des fiiyards fut refoulee par la cavalerie. In English we might use a different metaphor and say 'threw completely into the background.' 1. 29. pressentiment . Note the difference of spelling from English. 1. 32. auteurs, rendered by a clause in English. The French language uses apposition more freely than we do ; not to mention that nouns like auteur are much used as adjectives, E.B. 37. Page 6. 1. 1. Comment conservcr. Notice the rhetorical question asked in the Infinitive mood, a common construction in Latin, "Mene incepto desistere victam ! " See £.B. 194. 1. 3. seratt — rather than/«/. jE.B. ■249. 1. 6. perplexes— one of the many French adjectives formed from Latin participles, while the corresponding verbs are not retained, or appear in some other form. Others are — cotifus (side by side with confondti), ras, expris, devot, pervers, fixe, intact. So in English 'fraught,' 'rapt.' 1. 7. en leur cedant, ' while ' or ' although ' yielding. This con- cessive use is often preceded by tout. E.B. 213. Si le roi reprenait. E.B. 276. In English we should prefer to say 'should resume,' 'were to resume,' especially as the sentence contains the thoughts of the political reformers, and would be put in oblique oration in Latin or German. 1. 14. lui imposer, E.B. 144. 1. 16. desarmer, a neuter verb, not se disarmer, which is rarely used, and then only of taking off one's armour. 1. 18. Utt seul moyat. A literal translation will be hardly emphatic enough. Begin 'there was, in their eyes, but one possible guarantee...' 1. 19. retlnt, subjunctive, as nearly equivalent to a wish or command. E.B. 247, or perhaps more like the Latin " Est hoc commune vitium ut invidia gloriae comes sit." 1. 20. mis dans..., ' permanently incapacitated...' L 23. auquel est parvenue. Notice the inversions in this and other 112 NOTES. clauses of this sentence. E.B. 1 2, As to the sentiment, see Sir F. Pollock's Scicuce of Politics, p. 80 note, "The distribution of real political power between the Crown and the two Houses of Parliament was still undefined at the date of Blackstone's description. We now say that political power, as distinct from regal sovereignty, is, in the last resort, with the majority of the House of Commons." 1. 26. il y a deux siklcs, not the same as depuis deux sihles. 1.30. hd faire esph'er. For the dative see jS-^ff. 115. 1. 31. pen, 'not enough.' Distinguish carefully from tin pen. 1. 32. pour li'avoir, " that he may have no further reason to be anxious about them." For avoir h see E.B. 203, Obs. 2. 1. 33. tCen peutjouir, without pas, E.B. 296. The usual order is nc pcut enjouir. Page 7. 1. 1. skurite- — retains the meaning of its Latin original, 'absence of care ' ; the older derivative s^irct^ has got the wider meaning of safety. A passage of Bossuet, quoted by Littre, shows the sense of security : "Avec cette certitude que mettait Luther de la remission des pechcs, il ne laissait pas de dire qu'il y avait un certain etat dangereux i I'ame qu'il appelle la seairiti." We have the same use in Shakespeare's Macbeth — " security Was ever mortals' chiefest enemy." 1. 4. en presence, i.e. of each other, a military term applied to hostile forces ready to join battle. sans partage — 'undivided,' 'unqualified.' An English adjective must often be rendered in French by a noun with a preposition. 1. 6. Elk leur impose i tous. Notice the apposition to the pronoun. E.B. 51. 1. 7. managements. The primitive idea of minager is to husband one's resources and use them discreetly, like a wise housekeeper. Hence, in speaking of persons or parties in rivalry with each other, it implies they abstain from pressing advantages too far, from insisting on all possible rights, &c. Do not confuse menage with manige, which is connected with horses. transactions, from transiger, 'compromises'; the French compro- tnettre is more frequently used in the sense of ' to endanger,' 'to commit,* see p. 3, 1. 29. CHAPTER I. 113 1. 11. en definitive, * finally, ' a legal term applying to the decision that finally settles a case. 1. 12. oblige, 'bound over'; render by a clause. 1. 15. gouvernement commun means that they shared the power, not that some one else governed both. 1. 16. ne s^y resignaient point, 'would not acquiesce in them.' pretendait, 'claimed,' a sense it constantly has in the following pages. Of course directement... must be supplied after rester. 1. 19. h leurs ierrenrs goes with il fallait repeated. 1. 21. ce n^et ait plus. The difficulty of translating ne...plus is often got over by using the phrase 'henceforth,' 'now not.' E.B. 288, Obs. 3. Say 'it was now impossible for the House...' 1. 24. attirer. We either say ' get ' or use a different metaphor, 'concentrate.' L 26. en fnrent, one of the many phrases in which en cannot be rendered in English. It really means ' starting from the starting-point ' {}nde). See E.B. 125, Obs. 3. 1. 28. prhjoyants, plural as being in all respects an adjective ; con- trast with developpant a few lines later, E.B. 212 and following sections. Page 8. 1. 1. prhidi. Disting[uish presider with accusative and prisider h. The former is limited to presiding over a meeting, &c. , and is not used metaphorically. 1. 8. A peine comtnencis ; make this the principal clause in English, 'these attempts had scarcely begun when...' This is one of many instances in which French, like Latin, is more careful than English to make the true principal clause grammatically so. 1. 9. de regime. Note the absence of article : dii regime would have meant 'on the part of the (existing) constitutional government': de regime means 'towards' or 'to carry on constitutional government.' 1. 11. peu sincire, 'insincere': pen or mat are constantly the exact equivalents of in- or ««-, E.B. Ace. 176. French does not coin negative adjectives as freely as we do, but can often render them by simple ones, t.g. fourbe, disingenuous, dpre, uncompromising &c. L 13. exclusi/s, not in our sense of excluding other persons from their society, as below, p. 11, 1. 9, but of excluding other considerations from their minds; perhaps 'rigid' is the best word, dSjotUs et trahis. An example is the encouragement given by the E. G. 8 114 ' NOTES. Court to the Army Plot at the moment when the King was professing to form a Liberal ministry witli Bedford as its head. In the same way, just before the crisis, while professing to be guided by Hyde, Colepepper and Kalkland, he was in reality listening to the rash counsels of Lord Digby. 1. 17. li'aurait pas passL Note (i) the use of the past conditional, the strictly accurate tense, E.B. 177 : (2) the auxiliary avoir, denoting the act of transferring the power, not Stre, which would state the fact of its being in new hands. 1. 18. h presenter, in English 'to be presented,' a good example of the substantival character of the infinitive. If we say 'for presentation' we avoid thinking of active or passive in connection with it, E.B. 207. The Grand Remonstrance (Nov. 22, 1641), the solemn appeal of the leaders of the Long Parliament to the nation to uphold and continue its work, was felt on both sides to be a turning-point in the struggle. Cromwell is said to have exclaimed as he left the House "Had it been rejected, I would have sold to-morrow all I possess and left England for ever." Guizot's remark, "comme s'ils n'etaicnt pas deja redresses," shows a vei-y imperfect conception of the nature of the crisis. 1. 20. de majority, 'on which side the majority was,' another good instance of the meaning of a noun with de and no article. Think what de la tnajorite would here mean. 1. 23. Onze voix ; the majority was eleven. 1. 25. sortait ; notice the imperfect, more dramatic than soriit. oil, for auqitel or dans lequel, entrer being a neuter verb. devait, ' was destined.' In English it is more usual entirely to omit it, and to say 'which he never again entered.' This use of the auxiliary verb of mood gives the French a great advantage over us in point of dramatic power. E.B. 182. 1. 28. serait mis; in speaking of a definite order the conditional is often used, rather than the subjunctive of oblique petition, E.B. 249. The expression in direct oration would be sa-a fnis. Of course aussitH and que must not be taken together. 1. 29. commenfail. Why a different tense to cessa? E.B. 171, 172. CHAPTER IL Page 9. 1. 1. tristesses, 'regrets.' Guizot is fond of plurals of abstract nouns, cf influences, p. 7, 1. 8, colires, p. 5, 1. 12, justices, p. 17, 1. 33. They are somewhat poetical. CHAPTER 11. 115 1. 2. iclath-cnt, 'were heard'; we have no such picturesque word. 1. 12. All sein de, often used where a contrast is intended, for example: "Rencontrant la disette au sein de I'abondance." Boileau. 1. 16. en redotitait, 'feared from him.' Remember that our English word 'redoubtable' from redouter means 'formidable,' and has nothing to do with renown. 1. 19. dn droit, 'for right.' Nouns can be connected in French by de or a, but rarely, as in English, by other prepositions, E.B. 124, Obs. 4 ; 168 a. meconnus, 'ignored,' agreeing with droit and loi, and therefore masculine plural. 1. 20. au fond des dmes, 'deeply rooted in men's minds.' It7(r voilait, E.B. 145. 1. 21. preparait — we say 'had in store.' Page 10. 1. 3. rudes — probably 'overbearing' would be the best English translation. The word is used more freely than in English ; it is, for example, applied as an epithet to travail, Spreuve, tentation, hiver. Of its application to persons there is an illustration in Beranger's lines, "J'epousais, bien jeune encore, La liberte, dame un peu rude." Read side by side with this passage Macaulay's celebrated contrast of the Puritans and Cavaliers in the Essay on Milton. 1. 6. &pres et tenaces, 'uncompromising and pertinacious.' Cor- neille in Horace uses &pre as an epithet of vertu in a famous passage, "Je vous connais encore, et c'est ce qui me tue; Cette apre vertu ne m'etait pas connue." Our conversational use of 'angular' throws light on it. nourris des passions. E.B. 122, Obs. 2. 1. 9. le sang versi; what is the exact English equivalent? The phrase is a good illustration of the well-known Latin idiom with the past participle, ademptus Hector, 'the loss of Hector,' post conditam urbem, 'since the foundation of the city.' 1. 13. seuls. Expand a little in translating. E.B. 288 a (3). Leur lutte coiivrait ; it is better to turn it a little, 'underlying the struggle between them was a social question.' L 15. Non que, always followed by the subjunctive, E.B. 242, as in Latin. Il6 NOTES. profoiidimetit sSparSes. Bring in the phrase 'a sharp line of demar- cation.' 1. 16. ettlre dies, ' to each oilier.' 1. 18. az'ir, '.-ilong with,' not of the instrument. 1. 20. sii^'t-aiffiL What tense in English? £.B. 169a. It is in- structive to compare this sentence witli llic next, in which a pluperfect occurs. In this sentence siegcaieut means 'had been sitting and were still sitting.' If survenaient had been used in the other place it would similarly mean 'had been occurring and were still occurring.' But the author means more ; he wants to say that the effects of the changes had been felt and were still being felt. Hence the pluperfect. Perhaps the sense may be still better brought out by substituting an adjective or adjectival phrase, such as 'in operation,' for sttrvenus. Then itaient and sicgcaicnt stand on exactly the same ground. L 22. survenus. What is the force of sur in this word, and of 'super' in the corresponding English compound? 1. 24. attalogues, 'corresponding.' The meaning will be better understood by remembering that ' analogy ' and ' proportion ' are synonymous terms in Euclid. The change in the form of government had not been in proportion to the change in the relative position of classes. se fussent opSris, passive in English. E.B. 185 a. 1. 26. imprimS; a mathematical term, used especially of the ve- locity communicated to a mass by the action of a force. Translate 'had given an extraordinary impetus.' 1. 29. trois fois plus riche, ' three times as rich, ' not four times, as one is at first tempted to think. The fact evidently made a profound impression. Ranke says of Temple's J^lan of Govenunent (1679): "A doctrinaire by nature, he intended at the same time to carry out the idea of Harrington according to which authority is dependent on the amount of landed property. The property of those summoned to the Privy Council was to be placed in the balance as a counterpoise to the property of the members of the House of Commons." L 30. La haute aristocratie. The nobility or aristocracy. Guizot uses the epithet because aristocratie alone would to a Frenchman include the untitled county families so numerous in England. A few lines below, noblesse evidently includes both titled and untitled gentry. Remember to pronounce aristocracie. 1. 32. entourer, i.e. they still formed the court. CHAPTER II. 117 Page 11. 1. 3. avaient grandi, not etaient, because attention is to be fixed rather on the process of growth than on the result, E.B. 184. A literal translation is out of the question. Say 'their increase in dignity was by no means commensurate with their growth in strength.' 1. 4. De let. Such sentences without a principal verb are far more common in French than in English. They are very numerous in this book. 1. 9. haineuse, 'full of hate,' not 'hateful,' used of actions inspired by hatred. Perhaps 'jealous' is the best translation. In Ponsard's Charlotte Corday, Robespierre is called d»te siche et hameuse. L 13. se rangeaient, 'rallied.' Perhaps it would be well to altei the sentence and bring in 'the bulk of instead of ^« masse. 1. 15. certains, 'unmistakeable.' E.B. 36. 1. 16. ati sein de; perhaps 'underlying' is the nearest English ; see above, p. 9, 1. 12. 1. 17. effervescence ; we should prefer a geological metaphor and say 'upheaval.' se fray ant, used almost exclusively with words like chemin, and as often metaphorically as literally. There is some doubt as to the etymology. It may be derived from the Latin participle fracttis, in which case the idea is the same as in route from rupta and as in the German Bahn brechen. Or it is, more probably, identical \i\\!a frayer, to rub, chafe, ixoxa. fricare. 1. 25. chancelantes, properly 'tottering,' but perhaps 'undermined' is our nearest metaphor. It is probably from eschanceler ' to get out of the cancelli or guiding barriers.' du rSgime fiodal. The discussions on the Great Contract (16 10) are a conspicuous instance. Contrast with this gradual process the me- morable 4th of August, 1789. "With louder and louder vivats — for indeed it is after dinner too — they abolish Tithes, Seignorial dues, Gabelle, excessive Preservation of Game; nay, Privilege, Immunity, Feudalism root and branch ; and so finally disperse about three o'clock in the morning, striking the stars with their sublime heads." Carlyle, French Revolution, Part I., vi. 2. 1. 27. rigime; we always use 'system' with 'feudal.' L 28. prhidaient. Compare p. 8, 1. i. The metaphor is an obvious one; we should say 'governed' or 'regulated.' For a locus classicus on the Feudal System, see Froudc's England, Vol. i. Cii. i; Il8 NOTES. for a full discussion of the system as established in England, see Stubbs's Constitutional History, Vol. I. Ch. 9. The amusing pre- tensions of the Baron of Bradwardine in IVaverley illustrate, of course in an exaggerated form, the persistence of feudal ideas. 1. 31. Elk, i.e. une par tie de la population, See. 1. 33. Pune. Usage seems to vary between une and fune in this construction. The latter is more definite, and is especially used in apposition, e.g. " Shaftesbury, I'un des heros du parti philosophique." Voltaire. Page 12, 1.1. Spoques de transfortnation, 'transition periods.' For use of o?/ see E.B. 263. honorks qttoique vieillies, a good instance of the participle of a passive verb combined with that of a neuter verb conjugated with etre. E.B. 185. 1. 2. decident. Decider takes an accusative of the person, and then means 'to induce'; it sometimes takes an accusative of the thing, meaning 'to settle,' but only a neuter pronoun or a word like un point, tine querelle. When however the notion of 'deciding about' is present, it takes, as here, a genitive, decider du destin, de la fortune, &c. 'To decide' in the sense of making up one's mind is se dScider h qtielque chose. 1. 3. remplace. What is the difference between remplacer and replacer? L 6. suivis de, not par, E.B. 130. 1. 7. serviteurs, 'retainers.' 1. 12. commerfatttes, 'trading,' 'merchant guilds,' referring to the various guilds or companies connected with different trades. Commercial could hardly be substituted. 1. 13. percevaient. The corresponding nouns are perceptetir, per- ception, both applied to taxes. 1. 14. des milices, 'trainbands.' la police means the maintenance of order. We use 'police' in the same way, but apply it more frequently to the body of men employed. Exercer la police is the regular phrase for maintaining public order and enforcing regulations. 1. 16. letvs chartes. As late as 1681 the confiscation of the Charters of London and other cities was one of the abuses of pre- rogative practised by the Crown. 1. 17. en petits souverains, E.B. 160 (2). CHAPTER II. 119 1. 18. Vindustrie, 'manufactures.' Note that indiistriel is used of a manufacturer generally, not of the maker of a particular article; you do not say un industriel de chocolat, but un fabricant de chocolat. A fabricant de chocolat is, as a member of a class, im industriel, just as Bruti libertus is a libertinus. relations. We hardly use the word as absolutely as it is used in French, though we talk of commercial relations, political relations, &c. Perhaps 'connection' or 'influence' would do. credit, not financial, but simply 'reputation.' Thus in Les Plaideurs the advocate of Citron says "D'un cote, le credit du defunt m'epouvante." 1. 20. usaient. What is the difference between user with genitive and with accusative? E.B. 122 note. 1. 23. V empire, 'authority,' keeping closer to the Latin original. Cf. "Un roi qui avait sur ses peuples un empire absolu," Fenelon. centrale et unique. You can gather from this paragraph what centralization is not. Do not render unique by the corresponding English word. 1. 26. proprietaires de comte, not du cointc ; de comti is equivalent to an adjective, E.B. 20. Des proprietaires depends on les mains. 1. 28. les forces administratives, 'the machinery of government.' 1, 32. Ih oii, 'in cases where.' Page 13. 1.6. momenianSes, 'temporary' or 'improvised.' This sentence must be turned to make good English. 1. 7. fournir, ' to be responsible for ' is the nearest English. Think ol fournisseur 'a contractor,' 'purveyor,' often used where we talk of 'tradesmen,' those who supply a house. 1. 8. leurpart d' act ion means freely 'their share in carrying out the general plan.' 1. 10. une association de ce genre. "This winter (1642) there arise certain Counties' Associations for mutual defence, against Royalism and plunderous Rupertism ; a measure cherished by the Parliament, con- demned as treasonable by the King. Of which associations, countable to the number of five or six, we name only one, that of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, Herts., with Lord Grey of Wark for commander, where, and under whom Oliver was now serving." Carlyle, Cronnuell, Part II., letter 3. 120 NOTES. 1. 12. jeta, 'struck.' We should very likely change the metaphor and say 'laid the foundation.' L 14. dispos^e, 'prepared for action'; suggesting the military sense of dispositions. 1. 16. ricn dUmpraticable, E.B. 129. 1. 16. comrnaiidt'e, 'at the bidding of,' not 'superintended by,' as is obvious from the context; so commander un diner, &c. L 18. des detix parts, E.B. 132. 1. 19. sans hhitation. Use an adjective; it qualifies inergie. 1. 23. oh, E.B. 263. 1. 27. les Cavaliers. Falkland is a famous example of the better type, "a man learned and accomplished, the centre of a circle which embraced the most liberal thinkers of his day." Green. 1. 29. sans exigence. We have no equivalent word to exigence; in fact we borrow the French adjective exigeant to describe a person who makes excessive claims on one's friendship, &c. ; 'disinterested loyalty' is a fair translation of devoiiement sans exigence. 1. 31. rendaient. Keep the tense. For an expansion of this view of the Puritans, read Green's English People, Chapter vill. inappreciable, 'inestimable,' too great to be appreciated, not, as in English, too small to be appreciated. 1. 32. la sainteti; we should say 'purity.' Page 14, 1. 1. acharnement, derived from chair (caro), from which dScharni is formed, originally applied to setting falcons on la chair snr le leurre. abdiquer, applied a little more freely than in English, where it is limited to an office or a right. 1. 3. massacres Judiciaires, as in the reigns of Charles II. and James II., in the cases of the Rye House Plot and the Bloody Assizes after Monmouth's rebellion. 1. 6. cyniques, derived from the name of a Greek philosophic sect. There is a slight difference between the English and French use of this word. With us the idea of sneering is predominant ; in French that of a wanton disregard of the usages of society and the opinions of others. Speaking of Antisthenes and his pupil Diogenes, the founder of the sect, G. II. Lewes {Biographical History of Philosophy, p. 152) says " To the polished elegance of Athenian manners the Cynics opposed the most brutal coarseness they could assume. To the friendly flatteries of CHAPTER II. 121 conversation they opposed the bitterest pungencies of malevolent frankness." The latter point is chiefly brought out in the English use of the word, the former in its French use. Translate 'impudent,' ' wanton,' ' brutal.' 1.9. courtes, 'short-lived.' 1. 10. le souffle, ' the baneful influence. ' The idea is probably tifiat either of breath carrying infection or of a sirocco blasting. 1. 14. alterant, 'deteriorating,' p. 5, 1. 16. 1. 20. delinqtiants. The term 'delinquents' first appears in the early sittings of the Long Parliament, and includes all who had taken any part in the illegal proceedings since 1629. Some were at once proceeded against ; but we hear of Committees sitting to impose fines on 'delinquents' as late as 1646 and the following years. 1. 22. source, without article, E.B. 19. quotidienne, pronounced ^ kot...,^ not like the compounds oi quad..., in which the pronunciation is as in English. The Latin adverb is now written cottidie not qtioddie. 1. 26. des dmes inergiques. We should omit ' dnies ' and say simply ' of the strong.' It will be remembered that the Latin anirnus is often suppressed in translating into English. 1. 28. pretendait, p. 7, 1. 16. 1. 29. condamnS h, 'forced to adopt.' For some time the Parlia- mentary generals, especially Essex, were afraid of a decisive victory, and hoped to reduce Charles by a show offeree. 1. 31. beaucoup takes a plural verb sentaient, E.B. 7. Notice that parmi les royalistes beaiuoup is an exact equivalent of ' many of the royalists.' We say beaucoup de royalistes, ' many royalists,' but beaucoup des royalistes is not French. se defiant. Why uninflected ? E.B. 212 di. 1. 32. arrib-e-pensees, ' ulterior designs.' qui depassaient, in English simply ' beyond,' a good example of the roundabout way in which English prepositions placed between two nouns must often be rendered. See Meissner's Introduction to French Composition, Chapter vi., for a full discussion. 1. 33. inquiets pour, 'anxious about,' 'doubtful of.' Page 1 5. 1. 1. s'iteindre. E.B. 191. 1. 3. licence, 'lawlessness.' 122 NOTES. 1. 4. t'ffo'isnie, 'selfishness,' not to be confused with Sgotisme. 1. 6. assislait. This passage brings out clearly the meaning of assistcr, 'to be a spectator,' 'to be present,' without taking an active part. In older French it has the meaning of 'assist'; in modern French it retains that meaning only in assister un mourant used of a priest's ministration to a dying person. Notice les assistants, 'the persons present,' but assistant in the singular only in a technical meaning, as an officiating priest, &c. Translate ' which took no part in it or only watched it from a distance.' 1.8. perdait pen h pm.... In YjX\<^\^, ses notions... should imme- diately follow these words. Continue: 'or retained them only in a hazy and uncertain form ' ; the literal translation of the metaphor chancilanles (halting, staggering) would be a little out of place. 1. H. frappc'e, the slang use of the word ' hit ' exactly corresponds, though it cannot be used in translation. crucllement. Avoid the corresponding English word, which we generally use only with active or passive not with neuter verbs — ' at the same time they were affected in their material interests and seriously injured. ' 1. 12. partont presente. Compare the well-known description in Macaulay's Essay on Hampden (i. 484). " The war of the two parties was like the war of Arimanes and Oromasdes, neither of whom, according to the Eastern theologians, has any exclusive domain, wlio are equally omnipresent, who equally pervade all space, who carry on their eternal strife within every particle of matter." 1. 16. exploitees. The ordinary meaning of exploiter (from the frequentative of cxplicare, 'to develope') is to work anything for profit, ttne mine, un prct, &c., passing easily to a metaphorical sense. Both are combined in the following passage of Rousseau, " C'est una mine d'or que cette id^e, entre des mains qui sauront I'exploiter." Here it has what is perhaps its commonest meaning 'to take unfair advantage of,' a meaning we have borrowed. jetaient..., 'unsettled and depreciated.' Trouble is a legal term for disturbance in possession. 1.18. /■/?«, 'no more.' E.B.i^(). For j'/« vie prends h lui des maux should mean ' I throw the blame of the troubles upon him,' ' I hold him responsible for them.' Finally usage has sanctioned the construction here with en as well as des maux, en being, so to speak, superfluous. Page 17. 1. 2. ne pouvait plus rien, 'had no longer any power.' E.B. 288, Obs. 3. 1. 6. s'adressaient, 'were directed.' 1. 6. d^fues. In modern French dicevoir is used only in the past participle ; translate ' disappointed. ' 1. 9. les premiers chefs. Denzil Holies (the associate of Hampden and Pym), Sir Philip Stapleton, Sir William Waller (who commanded in the West early in the Civil War) and others. 1. 11. ennemis de, 'who were hostile to.' Ennemi is constantly used as an adjective. 1. 12. un effort suprhne. This was early in 1647, when the King was at Newcastle. The terms offered to him were very similar to those offered at Uxbridge in 1645. L 13. du mime coup, best rendered in English, ' with one stroke.' 1. 18. imposaicnl not imposhrent. It means 'were imposing by the CHAPTER III. 125 terms of that treaty,' and approaches very near to a well-known use of the Latin imperfect, E.B. 172, end. The terms included the abolition of episcopacy and the transfer of the command of the army to Parlia- ment, which would have constituted, in his eyes, la mine de r edifice. ..^ 1. 21. 1. 30. Quand ils auraient, 'Even if they had,' E.B. 284. rhissi a, E.B. 203 (4). 1. 32. vrai, after noxm, the adjectives being coupled, E.B. 35 (5). 1.33. commenfait, ' was beginning. ' Notice that jc:«/t'W£;/^ is used here and not iu...que, E.B. 288 a (5), because it is to the verb and not to some other word that ' only' applies. Page 18. 1. 1. Des que, 'from the moment when.' 1. 4. mepris ; distinguish mepris, 'contempt,' connected with mepri' ser, 'to estimate amiss,' from meprise, 'mistake,' derived from mtpretidre. brutal, not quite so strong as the corresponding English ; it often means little more than 'downright,' 'uncompromising.' les chassa refers to Pride's Purge, 1649. ^^^ ^^^^ chasser is often used of dismissing a servant, clerk, &c. CHAPTER III. Page 19. L 2. a fait, p. i, 1. i. 1. 3. tomber. It is difficult to reproduce in English the repetition of tomber. Perhaps we might say 'struck down Charles I. to be itself ...struck down.' Notice /it, 'even when abortive, are not made with impunity. ' We have no verb to render avortcr. 1. 2. // resta de celle-ci...des mcfiances, i.e. de cette tentative. Notice that resta is singular, not plural, as it would be in German, E.B. lo a. Translate 'This attempt left behind it a legacy of deep distrust.' 1. 6. en sorte que. It is much more usual to put de sorte que when an indicative follows. Also the use of en sorte que so soon after sortit is inelegant. 1. 8. une lutte passionnie (1652 — 1654), famous for the exploits of Van Tromp and De Ruyter on the Dutch, Blake on the English side. CHAPTER IV. Page 35. 1. 4. dhncntis, governed both by recevaient and by donnaient. The passage must be somewhat freely translated, ' found their ideas con- spicuously falsified or their hopes sadly blighted by events or by their own action.' 1. 6. dans son sein, i.e. dans le scin de V Europe. L 11. se decriaient, ' were becoming discredited.' CHAPTER IV. 139 1. 14. se disposait, 'was preparing,' 'making his arrangements.' The word retains more of its primitive idea of distribution, arrangement &c. than in EngHsh. 1. 17. ses passions tfe sectaire. See E.B. 20; dc sedaire is equiva- lent to an adjective. Perhaps we might render ' by fanaticism and by ambition.' 1. 19. tout entier refers to se. 1.20. apparut, ' revealed itself.' 1. 22. un fnhne hommc, 'one and the same man,' not le meiue, as it is a general statement. Page 36. L 2. se prc-para. It is difficult to find an exact English equivalent ; say ' the revolutionary leader disappeared to give place to the dictator.' 1. 4. son esprit grand et sain, ' his large mind and sound judge- ment'; the opposite of 'petty' and 'morbid.' L 5. etitrevit. The meaning is best given by the following quota- tion, "L'on ne peut pas tout voir; il faut souvent se coqtenter d'entrevoir." Perhaps ' had a shrewd idea ' would do. 1. 7. avenir, ' power of development ' is perhaps the nearest in this connection ; in speaking of a man we should say ' career.' 1. 8. au sein du pouvoir means within the body of men in power, and in spite of their having it, p. 9, 1. 1 2. Use a metaphorical expression, perhaps 'at the fountain-head of power.' 1. 13. niesures et condamncs, 'weighed in the balance and found wanting' is our idiomatic phrase. 1. 15. Une pcnsce, equivalent to une seule pensee. ne point s^associer, an instance of the infinitive in apposition, E.B. 1 88 (3). Notice point, ' not at all.' 1. 18. en le servant, 'by serving it.' 1. 19. Cetait pen, 'it was not enough,' or more strictly 'not much.' 1. 20. s'usaient. What does user mean with accusative ? E.B. 122 note. 1. 24. de tontes piices, in every detail, E.B. 137. There is a some- what similar phrase tout d^ une piece. 1. 29. toujours h la mhne lumiire, 'still guided by the same light,' i.e. instinctively seeing facts as they are. I'oili licic and just below tuujours means 'still.' 1. 33. Cctte situation. ..la lui ojj'rir. One of the many devices by I40 NOTES. which tlio French language avoids the passive. We should say 'was spontaneously offered to him.' It is necessary to keep cetU situation first. Page 37. L 2. incommodait, almost, if not quite, equivalent to ' would have embarrassed,' E.B. 179. The protasis is implied in b, Londns, 'if in London.' 1. 4. soumdtre is a shade less strong than our 'conquer.' Thus Montesquieu says that the character of the Huns led them "i soumettre les peuples, et non pas k les conquerir." insurgt'e; the participle has the sense of the pronominal verb, qtn s'itait iusta-gt'e. 1. 5. sefit prier, i.e. did not consent at once. 1. 8. de grands et silrs. Notice the two adjectives before their noun. E.B. 35 (5). 1. 9. poui-vues, ' found,' ' equipped.' 1. 10. quUl parttt, subjunctive, as etait />r«j/ expresses a wish, E.B. -244, 247. 1. 20. Patiente, from old strong participle of attendre, like route, fonte from similar participles of rompre, fondre. les esprits, ' men's minds,' contrasted with regards, which we render 'eyes.' 1. 22. en ltd soumettant, 'by conquering Ireland for it,' literally, ' making Ireland subject to it.' Notice that soumettre is used with an accusative only in 1. 4. 1. 24. ennemies is of course an adjective. In English repeat it with both nouns. 1. 25. h oiitrance, the noun is only used in modem French in this expression and now and then in h toute outrance. We have the word in Shakespeare "champion me to the utterance." The corresponding participle outre we have borrowed. 1. 26. n' hesitant pas plus, not the same as n'Msitant plus. 1. 28. couvrant tout par la necessite. Quarter was refused to the garrisons of Drogheda and Wexford, an act which has given rise to much discussion. As to the former Cromwell writes, "truly I believe this bitterness will save much effusion of blood through the goodness of God." y, i.e. a la necessity. CHAPTER IV. 141 1.31. que s^occttpaient, for inversion see ^.j5. 12. L 33. phietrer sa condiiite... Use two verbs in English, 'to fathom his motives and forecast his future.' It is an example of a well-known figure of speech called Zeugma, often occurring in Latin and Greek. As a general rule, the use of a single verb with accusatives of different meanings is easier in ancient languages than in modern, and easier in French than in English. Page 38. 1. 1. Farmce d'Irlande, i.e. the English army serving in Ireland, E.B. 17 (3)- 1. 3. s'en itait etmie, E.B. 123. 1. 6. a quel titre, ' by what right.' 1. 11. crurent pouvoir profiler. Notice the accumulation of infini- tives, a favourite French construction. 1. 12. quartiers (Thiver is used of the interval between campaigns as well as of the place where it is spent. 1. 17. a lui-ineme, E.B. 5 1 . 1. 20. allaie>it..., 'were about once more to be confronted.' See p. 7. 1- 4- 1. 22. essaya. Note the change of tense, as we pass from a descrip- tion of the state of things to definite incidents. Fairfax refusa. Lady Fairfax, who had much influence with him, was an ardent presbyterian. 1. 23. dhole, ' in despair.' Remember that this word is generally the opposite ol consoler (from solart), and we should not mix up with it the idea of loneliness associated with the English word 'desolate.' Possibly the senses of sollus ' complete ' and its doublet solus ' alone ' are mixed in the Latin desolare. 1. 27. quHl rC avail fait, as after a comparative, E.B. 291. Autant envers... requires complete remodelling in English. 'His moderation, his patience, his conciliatory demeanour towards... were as conspicuous as his violence...' The Manifestoes issued during the march northward, "Declaration to all that are Saints and Partakers of the Faith of God's Elect in Scotland," and "Proclamation to the People of Scotland" are good examples of this. 1. 31. jusque dans, 'even within,' literally 'as far as into.' 1. 32. royalistes, an adjective, 'more of fanatics than of royalists. ' 142 NOTKS. PAGli 39. 1. 1. i/fs strfairis, i.e. the strict Covenanters. 1. 4. »u'?iagiai(, note on p. 7, 1. 7 ; exploitait, note on p. 15, 1. \(i. 1. 8. en controverse ; see especially Carlyle's Cromwell, part vi., letters 147 — 149. 1. 11. Siiiuirc, 'conciliate.' 1. 14. bicntot atteint, ' on the point of being caught ' or ' overtaken ' ; cf. iitteints below, 1. 22. 1. 18. dkiiU has the sense of a participle of se decider, see p. 37, 1. 4, and p. 12, 1. 2. 1. 23. errait. Notice the tense. 1. 25. Iransportdt, E.B. 253. 1. 30. nn tnoiiicnt, ' for a moment.' Page 40. 1. 2. reconnaissance, ' gratitude.' The word gratitude is not modern French. It exists in older French in the sense of ' favour.' 1. 5. pressces et fiires, 'eager to... and proud of doing so.' 1.6. causae rees ; perhaps 'enshrined' is the best word. One of the most striking instances of this is the deification of the Roman emperors. For a full discussion of that curious phenomenon see Capes's Early Empire. In the next sentence, beginning de id, Guizot is undoubtedly thinkhig of Napoleon. 1. 7. images, perhaps ' symbols.' The French word is not quite so limited in its use as the English 'image.' 1. 13. Sectaires. Notice the omission of the article in enumera- tions. E.B. 24. 1. 15. concouraient ^..., 'conspired to glorify Cromwell, as though thereby to share his glory.' 1. 17. venus. What French participles can be used like the past participle of a Latin deponent? E.B. 185. 1. 18. se charrnaient eux-memes, 'were gratifying themselves.' 1. 19. Vous L'tiez..., Psalm cxlix. 8. 1. 20. Aveugles..., ' blind indeed were they not to suspect.' sd doutaient. What is the difference between douter and se doutcr? 1. 29. dont; for order see E.B. 84, 85. cxalter means 'to intensify,' though it might perhaps be rendered by a less pedantic word. In ancient chemistry they talked of Vexalta- CHAPTER IV. 143 Hon d'lin scl, du son/re, &.C., i.e. its purification and the consequent intensifying of its properties by sublimation, &c. 1. 31. sa propre et inthiu, 'his own inmost.' 1. 33. ce n'etaient point la, E.B. 67, 71. Page 41. 1. 1. Jisees, 'worn out.' 1. 2. pen conseqitcnte ; see note on p. S, I. 11; exigcante refers to the demands made by Cromwell's creed on his conduct as explained in the next line. Say 'it was a creed neither consistent nor imperious (or stringent). ' 1.7. II en coilte peu d'ailleurs. Begin with 'nor.' E.B. ^oi. For en see E.B. 142 (4). 1. 8. fait de son instrument, E.B. 117. With faire a genitive representing the direct object is far more usual than the English con- struction of two accusatives, the second of v/hich is in apposition to the first. 1.11. Aussi, 'thus,' not 'also.' Translate freely 'his ambition constantly grew with his position and raised him above.' See p. 38, 1. 27. 1. 13. perfaient gives the idea of coming to the light doubtfully and with effort, as in : "Ce siecle avait deux ans, Rome rempla5ait Sparte; Deja Napoleon per5ait sous Bonaparte." Victor Hugo. Translate freely 'In spite of the humility of his language, there were moments when his acts betrayed the sovereign.' We can talk of 'flashes of genius' but not of 'flashes of monarchy.' £,dair gives the idea of something sudden and intermittent. 1. 15. hd vint. In this sense venir takes the simple dative, not h as when it is a verb of motion. E.B. 45 a. armer chevaliers, 'to knight,' 'to dub knight.' 1.17. avcc htimeur. //ww^wr here means ' ill-temper, ' We should say 'not without annoyance.' 1. 20. contifiance, 'bearing.' The verb se contcnir was formerly used to mean 'bear oneself,' 'behave.' 1. 22. Hugh Peters, the "army chaplain " of Fairfax and Cromwell. Before 1641 he spent some years in New England as minister of a 144 NOTES. church at Salem. lie was dislinguishcd by his kind offices to the vmi(|uished party, including Juxon and others of the Royalist clergy. 1. 28. en face dc, 'confronting.' 1. 33. rtsih petits, 'still petty.' Notice the plural participle with plupurt, a coUectif partitif, E.B. 7. Page 42. 1. 2. accapitranti properly a commercial term from the Italian, the modern 'cornering,' i.e. buying up or getting under one's control the whole stock of a commodity in order to command the market and be able to fix one's own price. It is connected with the root cap-, take, and arrkcs, earnest-money, or rather its Italian form. 1. 3. faisani soT'ir ; we should perhaps say 'prostituting,' a rather stronger word. 1.4. subalteriics, 'subordinate,' 'petty.' The application of the French word is wider than that of the corresponding English word which is almost limited to officers. See p. 47, 1. 20. 1. 6. avcnir, p. 36, 1. 7. 1. 11. engage, 'begun,' p. 16, 1. 9. 1. 12. amnistie. It is worth while to notice the etymology, afivijaTla, ' letting bygones be bygones.' qui proclavi&t, render by a participle. For the subjunctive see E.B. 253. So qui 7-c[gldt,\. 14. 1. 13. etait finie, indicative because it was a fact, not merely a conception, E.B. 239. loi electorale ; we use the less accurate term ' Reform Bill.' 1. 15. etaient, E.B. 169 a. 1. 17. sail/ a means 'with the reservation.' We might render it here ' but intended to re-appear.' The question of dissolution was discussed weekly in Grand Committee for nearly a year. "The Wednesday Grand Committee," says Carlyle, "had become a thing like the meeting of the Roman augurs, difficult to go through with complete gravity. 1. 18. covime des Iciirres, not quite 'to catch votes,' but rather to deceive the public. The word Iciirre (and our ' lure ') belong to falconry : " O for a falconer's voice To lure my tassel-gentle back to me." Rotn. and Jtd. 11. 1. CHAPTER IV. 145 L 23. se livrer^, ' to indulge'; the idea is that of allowing a feeling to be one's master. L 24. (/ans tous les partis, p. 47, 1. 2. 1. 27. faire ressortir, ' to bring out in relief.' Notice that ressortir in this meaning is conjugated like sortir. E.B. Ace. 113. 1. 29. perpUxe; see note, p. 6, 1. 6. 1. 32, a relever et i/onder..., ' to restore the credit of the govern- ment and to establish it firmly.' 1. 33. Vepreiive de la republique, ' the experiment of a republic' See the conversation soon after Worcester, recorded by Whitelocke, in which Fleetwood, Desborough, Harrison, St John and others took part with Cromwell. See also Carlyle, Part vii., after Letter 184. Page 43, 1. 1. toujour s, 'still.' 1.11. ii en... d" autre. Notice insertion of f«. 1. 15. jusqu'a. We say 'to the verge of.' 1. 16. fourbe, 'disingenuous.' Cf. p. 8, 1. 11. 1.17. toujours. Turn negatively in English, 'he never failed to derive.' 1. 18. compromettre, not * endanger ' as above, p. 3, 1. 29, but 'involve.' 1. 19. sa lutte is Cromwell's struggle, not that of the army. 1. 21. Les passions du fanatiqiie. Contrast with ses passions de sectaire, p, 35, 1, 17. 1. 25. /at, subjunctive ; quelle iniquite expresses a feeling, E.B. 244. 1. 26. recueillissent seiils, 'should be the only ones to,' E.B. 41 a. 1. 28. Des petitions. The Petition, par excellence, was presented Aug. 13, 1652, demanding reform of the Law, the establishment of a Gospel Ministry in England and a new Parliament, Page 44. 1. 1. le liceiuiement, 'that a considerable... should be disbanded.' The reduction of the army began soon after Worcester, and was again and again pressed by Vane. 1. 3. situation si tendue, 'extreme tension.* 1. 4. durait; for tense see E.B. 169 a. De part ei d" autre, 'on both sides,' E.B. 13a. E, G. 10 146 NOTES. 1. 6. soiiiiiiiit. This with vi/c and /';■(/ are tlic only adjectives used quite freely as adverbs, though many, as bon, court &c., are so used with certain verbs. E.B. Ace. 171. Soudainfincnt occurs below 1. 25. 1. 9. prkiscmmt, avoid 'precisely' and turn the sentence a little, •the very object of its Bill was.' Loi is often used in the sense of projet de loi, as kx in Latin. For the adverb see E.B. Ace. 170. 1. 10. devait, 'ought to have,' E.B. 182, Obs. 4. 1. 11. restaicnt. For the tense see E.B. i'j2, end. It is part of the text of the Bill. For de droit see E.B. 137. 1. 13. it's vides de, 'the vacancies in.' 1. 14. pour que, E.B. 260. 1. 15. la coinbinaison, 'the scheme,' the word being used in the same way as in speaking of military 'combinations.' 1.16. chargi de. We say simply 'ior,'' E.B. 168 a. 1. 19. Ce n'etait point h\, E.B. 11. 1. 20. tin bail nouveati. We add ' of life.' 1. 25. brtttaliti. The corresponding English word is too strong; brutal often means little more than 'unceremonious,' when a man S})eaks his mind without regard to the feelings of others ; profonde means here 'extreme,' 'unmitigated.' Translate 'in the most uncere- monious manner.' 1. 26. decri, 'disrepute'; the noun is a little antiquated, though the verb se decricr is not. oil, 'into which.' 1. 28. signifia is often used of a formal notification. 1. 30. iiitnts, from the obsolete iiitrure; cf. p. 6, 1. 6. 1. 31. niit fin; for omission of article see E.B. 22. Carlyle winds up his account of this famous incident in words which betray his dislike of Parliamentary government : "such was the destructive wrath of my Lord General Cromwell against the Nominal Rump Parliament of England. Wrath which innumerable mortals since have accounted extremely diabolic, which some now begin to account partly divine." It is at least possible that if a modus vivcndi could have been found between Cromwell and Vane, the real leader of the Parliament, England might have been saved the thirty most discreditable years of her history. See an interesting discussion in F. W. Cornish's Life of Cromwell, p. 295. 1. 32. non que. E.B. 242. CHAPTER V. 147 Page 45. 1. 2. qtiHls approuvassent, E.B. 2S0. 1. 5. sans bruit. Cromwell afterwards said "we did not hear a dog bark at their going." 1. 6. neufans, or rather eleven, 1642 — 1653. 1. 9. purent reconnaitre. In English we omit piircnt and say simply ' recognized,' ^.^. 183. 1. 11. s'en doutaient, 'suspected.' Notice the presence oi en, and see p. 24, 1. 1 1. The word y stands for a I'ccuvre. CHAPTER V. Page 46. 1. 1. s'etait etablie, E.B. 185 a. 1. 3. ttn vain tnoi, 'an idle word,' ' an empty name.' 1. 6. servent, 'are useful,' often followed by a m this sense. 1. 10. accis; see p. 77, 1. 7. 1. 12. Cromwell droenu, 'no sooner had Cromwell. ..than.' 1. 14. kaineuses ; see p. 11, 1. 9. preventions, 'prejudices'; /rtyV^^f' refers ratlier to definite opinions, prevention to a prejudiced state of mindj intraiiables, 'unreasonable,' literally ' unmanageable ' from tractare, 1. 15. portent, 'carry with them.' 1. 18. tinssent, E.B. 275, Obs. i. 1. 21. incapacity ; see p. 29, 1. 16. Page 47. 1. 2. menage. See p. 7, 1. 7. Here it means 'secured,' of course by management. 1. 3. intelligences is especially used of persons in a besieged town, &c., in communication with the besiegers &c. Perhaps it might be rendered 'partisans' or 'spies,' both of which mean a little more. creatures, m the low sense in which we use the word to mean 'tools.' 1. 4. les forces hautes, 'the strength associated with the upper classes. ' 1. 6. suphieur is often used aljsolutcly, more freely so than the corresponding English word, though even we talk of 'a superior 10 — 2 148 NOTES. person.' It is nearly equivalent to 'commanding,' 'lofly.' Thus in Thiers's description of the bailie of Marengo: "A celle vuc, il juge avec son coup d'ceil supcrieur ce qu'il convient de faire pour rclablir les affaires." 1. 8. que letir position, &c. In English we prefer 'whose position ...makes them.' E.B. 88 (i). 1.12. consacn'es par le temps, 'time-honoured.' 1. 13. lies sciences humaines 'for the humanities,' ///^ra^ humaniores. 1. 15. Ics univcrsith. Cromwell was made Chancellor of Oxford in 1650. During the Protectorate a college, the precursor of the existing University, was founded at Durham. 1.17. Jo«z't'««;-j, 'associations. ' For /i? jaw/r see i?.^. 1 88, Obs. 2. 1. 20. stibalterncs, p. 42, 1. 4. 1. 21. soiitcnir . . .inaintcnir ; see p. 60, 1. 21. 1. 26. gramV peine, E.B. Ace. 9 (4), note. 1. 27. All dehors... porta, 'into foreign affairs. ..Cromwell carried.' 1. 33. la Flollande, &c. These treaties were all signed in 1654. The Portuguese had supported Prince Rupert in 1651 ; the Dutch war had begun in 1652, after the passing of the Navigation Act, which was a direct attack on their carrying trade and commercial supremacy. Denmark had taken the side of the States-General (Holland) and had pledged herself to refuse English vessels a passage through the Sound. "In the summer of 1654," says Ranke, "Cromwell had broken through the circle which then seemed to enclose England." Page 48. 1. 1. reves de fusion, see p. 33. 1. 3. de religion and de parti do duty for adjectives. 1. 4. differends, equivalent to our ' difference ' in the sense of a quarrel; difference answers to its other senses, except Stock Exchange 'differences,' which are differends. The word is the same as the adjective different, and was printed so in the early editions of the Dictionary of the Academy. susceptible, ' ready to take offence. ' 1. 6. se livrant a, 'indulging in,' as above, p. 42, 1. 23. 1. 12. d'Aittriche. Philip IV. King of Spain was the great-grand- son of Charles V., of the House of Austria. 1. 13. fEspagne. It is probable that Cromwell did not appreciate the change going on in the relative positions of Spain and France, I CHAPTER V. 149 "Of the change in the world around him," says Mr J. R. Green, "he seems to have discovered nothing. He brought to the Europe of Mazarin simply the hopes and ideas with which all England v/as thrilling in his youth at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War. Spain was still to him the head of the Papal interest whether at home or abroad... What Sweden had been under Gustavus, England, Crom- well dreamt, might be now — the head of a great Protestant league in the struggle against Catholic aggression." See Speech v. in Carlyle, for Cromwell's own point of view. " The Spaniard is not only our enemy accidentally, but he is providentially so." " All the honest interests, yea, all interests of the Protestants in Germany, Denmark, Helvetia and the Cantons were the same as ours." 1. 14. Toutes deux. Notice in this and in the next sentence the ways of rendering ' both,' ' neither.' 1. 15. de hontetix efforts. In 1654 Spain offered the Protector a subsidy of a million reals and assistance in taking Calais. France also offered a subsidy, and eventually the joint conquest of Dunkirk. 1. 17. en, 'from them.' 1. 23. line large base. Free trade with the Spanish Indies, the ideal of Elizabethan statesmen, was Cromwell's constant demand. 1. 24. tanl d'h-propos ; the adverb a propos when used as a noun is written with a hyphen. In speaking of a joke it means 'point'; here the nearest word would be 'judgment'; mesure means 'moderation.' 1. 26. la Jatna'ique. The real object of the expedition under Penn and Venables was the conquest of Hispaniola (Hayti), which was not effected; that of Jamaica, in reality a more valuable island, wxs a pis-aller, 1. 27. valiit : valoir in the sense of 'to gain' is really a transitive verb; when it is used in the sense 'to be worth,' the accusative going with it is not governed by it. E.B. 223, Obs. i. 1. 28. s'eni;agedl...avant, 'commit himself... deeply.' This use of avanl comes out in the following, "Ces rois antiques, dont I'origine se cache si avant dans I'obscurite des premiers temps." Bossuet. "Vos bontes, Madame, ont grave trop avant ses crimes dans mon ame." Racine. 1. 32. celte polilique. We say 'his policy.' de n'avoir, ' to steer clear l)Oth of system and of passion.' Our word 'opportunist ' and the French opportunisiiie represent the idea. 1. 33. autrui is used indcfinileiy like sot, E.B. ro?. I50 NOTES. Page 49. L 3. Lcs fssais de giienx civile, 'the attempts of the Fronde to stir up civil war.' Notice that there is no article with guerre. la Fronde. The organised opposition of many of the nobility and the Parliament, i.e. the hereditary holders of legal office, to the govern- ment of Mazarin from 1648 to 1654, which practically amounted to civil war. Among the leaders of the Fronde were the Prince of Conti, the Duchesse de Longueville, Cardinal de Retz and subsequently Conde, who did not scruple to call in foreign aid. The word froitdeur is now constantly used to denote what we should call surly indepen- dence, or constant grumbling against the powers that be. 1. 8. gui avail fait sa graiidcttr, ' to which he owed his greatness.' Coitdi', (Louis II. de Bourbon, Prince de Conde) the greatest French noble of the time, whose territorial possessions and ability made him a formidable rival of the government. At 22 he won the famous battle of Rocroy against the Spaniards. When the troubles of the Fronde began he at first sided with the Court and defeated their opponents, but soon joined the opposition. He failed, however, and for some time lived in exile. He was restored to his position about 1659, ^^'■^'^ which he fought Senef and other battles. The latter part of his life was spent at Chantilly in the society of the great men of letters of the day. 1. 9. en. The verb solliciter takes it or de with infinitive. What infinitive must be supplied here ? 1. 11. instances, 'urgent requests,' never used as our word ' instance'; it is often a legal term something like our word ' plea ' especially in phrases like tribunal de premiere instance, &c. We have the same use in older English, "they were instant with loud voices, requiring that he might be crucified" Luke xxiii. 23. 1. 12. donnait... envoy ait. The use of the imperfect in these words and the following paragraphs, practically to state a number of historical facts, which one would expect to find in the past definite, is peculiar. The reason is that they are looked upon, not so much as historical incidents, but as examples of Cromwell's habitual policy. Accueillait, saisissait, are naturally in the imperfect and might possibly be rendered ' would welcome,' 'would seize,' &c. The other verbs are attracted into the same tense. X. 14. soitder les dispositions de ; we should say simply ' to sound.' CHAPTER V. 151 1. 15. Mazarin, Cardinal (1602 — 1661), the heir of Richelieu's policy, who paved the way for the conquests of Louis XIV. L 16. du c5te. Notice the genitive. E.B. i^i. 1. 18. velh'ite, 'prompting' is a good English word; the French really means the half-formed wish suggested by ambition, &c. 1. 19. laisse naitre. One would have expected laissees, E.B. 228, but laisser is sometimes treated like/a/rc", and remains invariable with a neuter verb. 1. 22. QtCttne occasion. E.B. 277. 1. 25. le due de Savoie, Charles Emmanuel II., a grandson of Charles Emmanuel I., from whom the present King of Italy is directly descended. The older branch of the family became extinct in 183 1. de pauvres faysans expidsh, the Vaudois, or Waldenses. Read Milton's famous Sonnet (xviii), " Avenge, O Lord, thy slaughtered saints." The restoration of the Waldenses was eventually secured by the intervention of Mazarin, Cromwell having made it a condition of his alliance with France. 1. 26. multipliait, 'sent manifesto after manifesto, embassy after embassy, repeated his subsidies and his threats.' 1. 27. les seconrs d'argent. He sent ^2000 from his private purse. 1. 28. enirainait dans ses demarches, 'carried... with him in the steps he took.' 1. 30. par le seul mouvement, 'by the mere impulse,' not of course ' the only impulse.' 1. 31. impriiiiait, p. 10, 1. 26. Page 50. 1. 4. passionnies, such as that of the Vaudois. L 5. Blake (1598— 1657) began his military career in the Civil War when he was over 40. He was appointed to the command of the fleet in 1647, and gained his fame in the Dutch war. His last exploit was the destruction of the Spanish Plate fleet at Santa Cruz. 1. 8. Livourne, Leghorn. It was in order to exact a fine from the Grand Duke of Tuscany for having allowed Prince Rupert to sell his prizes there. Alger, Tunis, to demand reparation for the losses of the English from Turkish pirates. From the beginning of the i6lh century to 1820 and 1830 respectively, Tunis and Algiers were pirate states, 'llieir 152 NOTES. system of piracy dates from the famous family of Barbarossa, who obtained the sanction of the Porte to their authority. viJanl, used in this sense of 'settling' with words like affaire, question, diffhcnd, qiicrdk, &c. 1. 13. iCatteignaient point h. Had le vainqueur been the subject we might have had n^atteipiaicnt point without <}. The real diliFerence, however, is that attcindre h implies more effort. 1. 16. an dehors. Notice that the adverb is put out of place ; it would not fit in nicely after the verb. coinpromettre., p. 3, 1. 29. 1. 22. di'cidant, p. 12, 1. 2. 1.24. aiitant que l\nt..., the subjunctive here is explained by remembering that aidant is almost a superlative, 'to the highest degree.' E.B. 252, Obs. 4. aueun autre. Notice that the sentence implies a negative, 'no other has attained it so well.' E.B. 291, Obs. 3. 1. 29. viTaces, ' tenacious of life, ' cf. "Que je me sens mortel pres de ce tronc vivace Donl la nature a fait un de ses monuments." Lebrun. As a botanical term it is equivalent to our 'perennial.' Notice that vivaeitJhas the same sense as our 'vivacity,' and does not correspond in meaning to vivace. L 30. annee, like soiree, journk, &c., is used when duration of time is meant. 1. 32. quinze conspirations. The best known are those of Wildman, Gerard and Vowel, Penruddock, Sexby, Venner, Sindercomb, Hewitt and Slingsby. 1. 33. coalisees. See Carlyle, Part ix., beginning. Major Wild- man was the common centre of many Royalist and Anabaptist plots. Page 51. 1. 4. les cours d'exceplion, illegal tribunals, such .is the High Courts of Justice before which Gerard and Slingsby were tried. 1. 6. les executions klatantes, 'solemn public executions,' which is of course not literal. 1. 6. la vente des insurgh. Clarendon tells us that after the suppres- sion of Penruddock's insurrection (1655) some of the prisoners were sold and sent as slaves to the Barbadoes. CHAPTER V. 153 1. 8. sepeiit inventer, E.B. 49. frapper tfiiiipuissance..., 'paralyse or intimidate.' 1. 10. prises (Tarines, 'armed insurrections.' 1. 13. vainqueur must be rendered by a clause. L 14. definitif, a legal term, used especially of a decision against which there is no appeal; translate 'unquestioned.' 1. 16. avenir, p. 36, 1. 7. 1. 23. convint. One would expect i VAnghterre, 'which suited England'; but as en Angleterre must be supplied render 'which was suitable.' For mood see E.B. 253. L 24. Maitre, used very like a Latin participle, to be rendered freely in English. Strictly speaking it should be in apposition to the subject of the sentence, not, as it is, to the virtual subject. 1. 29. quatre en cinq ans. Strictly speaking, there were only three ; the fourth was really a reconstruction of the third. tantdt choisissant. This refers to Barebones' Parliament which was rather a Convention or Constituent Assembly than a Parliament strictly so-called. The reconstructed Parliament of 1658 also falls to a certain extent under this description. 1. 31. tantot la faisant elire. The Parliament of 1654, elected under the Instrument of Government and that of 1657. The "Re- form Bill" of the Long Parliament was practically adopted at these elections. For syntax, see E.B. 115, Obs. 2. Page 52. 1. 1. solennite, pronounced so-la-ni-te. 1. 2. itsant..., E.B. 122, Obs, 2. 1. 4. oil, E.B. 263. 1. 5. renonfdt, E.B. 239 (2). 1. 8. arrivaient 'found their way,' less strong than entraicnt. fractions, 'sections' or 'groups,' the technical word for the sub- divisions of a political ])arty. Such subdivisions are more common on the Continent than with us. I. 9. siigcaient is limited in its use to formal sittings of parliament, a court, &c. French has no single verb for 'to sit' in the ordinary sense, nor for ' to stand.' sciiles, E.B. 41 a, 288 a (3) ; do not render 'sat alone.' 1. 17. ingoitvernablcs, a form not very common in French, see 1 54 NOTES. note, p. 20, 1. 1 8. The antilliesis incapablcs de gouverncr supplies a good reason for its use here, 1. 18. griefs, 'grievances.' 1. 23. s\'n aider, *to help himself with it,' 'to avail himself of it,' shews how s\-n scrvir gets its meaning. 1. 25. dJpoiirvit de, constantly used as the equivalent of the English 'without.' See Meissner's French Composition. 1. 32. (jiii comprit, E.B. 253. The Parliament referred to is that of 1656, the Parliament of the Humble Petition and Advice. Page 53. 1. 1. La proposition..., ' the proposal to do so was made.' 1. 5. amalgame, properly a combination of mercury with some other metal, standing midway between a chemical combination and a mere mixture. It therefore applies very well to a combination or mixture (for we use both words) of qualities. 1. 10. // prctendait..., 'he wanted to become king without en- dangering the Protectorate.' 1. 11. Ilfallait, i.e. 'according to his ideas.' In German it would be in the subjunctive. 1. 13. dont, E.B. 1 30. 1. 14. se fussent decides et compromis, 'should have irrevocably resolved' is a free translation suggested by the common practice of rendering two Latin verbs (e.g. fusi fugatiquc) by a verb and an adverb. 1. 17. Engage, see note to p. 1 6, 1. 9. 1.21. Icttr faire comprendre. E.B. 115. 1. 22. h eux-memes. E.B. 51, Obs. i. L 24. seraient. E.B. 177. 1. 26. d'ohSissance...; there are, perhaps, too many de. 1. 27. entratna, by working on their feelings, sMuisit, by promises or bribes. 1. 28. longtemps rebelles, 'who were long recalcitrant.' It applies to the officers generally, and does not mean ' such officers as were long recalcitrant.' 1. 30. votie, as in English 'carried by votes.' 1. 32. atipres de lui; liii is reflexive 'in his own immediate circle.' Guizot might have written dans son entourage. I J CHAPTER V. 155 Page 54. L 1. par sincere..., translate par rather freely, 'whether dictated by...' 1. 2. d, ce point, 'so completely.' 1.3. vengeance de..., 'the desire of humbled rivals to avenge themselves.' 1. 4. humeur, 'ill-temper,' 'caprice.' "On se separe par humeur, on se reunit par politique. " Bossuet. Seep. 41,1. 17. quelques, ' a few.' 1. 6. passer outre is a legal term. Thus 'defense de passer outre a la vente du bien' is equivalent to our 'injunction.' Translate 'to take a decisive step.' 1. 7. I'lin de ses chapelains, Dr Owen, Vice-Chancellor of Oxford. 1. 10. la bonne vieille cause, as in Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel, "The good old cause revived a plot requires." 1. 12. qu'on etlt. E.B. 244. 1. 15. le vice, 'defect,' ' weak point.* This, in accordance with the Latin, is the original meaning of the word. "II est etrange que Corneille ait senti le vice de son sujet, et qu'il n'ait pas senti le vice de sa diction." Voltaire. Compare Tennyson's "a vice of blood." 1. 16. transporter, 'transfer'; we should probably say 'set it up again,' 'reestablish it.* 1. 25. il soumit totis Ics royalistes. The income-tax of 10 per cent, (decimation) was levied by the Major-Generals on all Royalists and dis- affected persons (1655). The appointment of the Major-Generals, i.e. the division of the whole country into 12 districts, each under a military governor supported by an armed force is among the most severely criticized of Cromwell's acts. It was of brief duration, and is defended on the ground of the wide-spread conspiracy connected with Penruddock's plot. 1. 29. des avocats illustres, des magistrals intigres. The reference is to the case of George Cony who refused to pay certain duties on merchandize and sued the collector who enforced it. His counsel were sent to the Tower, while Rolls, the Chief Justice, po.stponed the case and meanwhile retired from the Bench. For des accuses the object of d'/endirent see E.B. 374. 1. 31. se refusirent a differs slightly from rcjuur de, ' to refuse to ''<>' ; it implies rather 'not to lend oneself' 156 NOTES. Page 55. 1. 1. teinj^s. In this connection jours is more common. 1. 9. // s\'lait arrC-tt}. The Major-Generals and the decimation were abolished by the Parliament called immediately after their ap- pointment. Tlie bill for continuing the decimation was opposed by Cromwell's relatives, apparently with his sanction, 1. 11. enticre, 'unchanged,' a meaning very close to the Latin original integer, 'intact.' A question is said 7-ester entih-e, when no real solution has been given ; Ics choses ne sont plus cntiires means that circumstances have changed. En son enticr answers to our phrase 'in its integrity.' 1.12. poitr avoir khoui. E.B. 201. 1. 14. nil parlement nouveau, E.B. 36. What would un nouveau parlcment mean? See note on p. 56, 1. 16. 1. 19. altcree, p. 5, 1. 16. 1. 20. ntie fille chSrie. Elizabeth, Lady Claypole, died 6 Aug. 1658. Mr Rich, the husband of Frances Cromwell, and grandson of the Earl of Warwick, had died only a few months before. depcrit, used of gradual deterioration or wasting away. 1. 21. Tant iVeprctives..., 'the many ordeals he had successfully passed through.' 1. 26. eonfiante is used in the sense of 'confidential ' as well as in that of 'confident.' 1. 29. pent, often used with a neuter accusative. Page 56. 1. 4. CCS bonnes fortunes, a view coloured by M. Guizot's own^ experience of French politics. 1. 7. factice, like our word 'factitious,' denotes something artificial, unreal, made up for the occasion. One finds tics picrres factices, ' false jewellery,' des hesoins factices, 'artificial wants,' &c. 1. 10. scbic, ' stage,' carrying on the metaphor of denoAtnent which means the conclusion of a play or story when the intricacies of the plot are, so to speak, unravelled; cette here is best rendered simply 'the.' 1. 13. a peine... que, E.B. 266 (2). Wc prefer 'no sooner... than.' 1. 15. le conseil general. A body of officers (April, 1659) 'le^^^d by Lambert, Fleetwood and Desborough whose avowed object was to secure the pay of the army and to defend the "good old cause" from its \ CHAPTER V, 157 enemies in high places. Richard's sanction to their meeting was, according to Whitelocke, the beginning of his fall. They expelled Richard's Parliament and recalled the Rump, [/ji nouveau conseil is the body which some months later expelled the Rump. 1. 16. UK parlevient ttouveau, convened by Richard Cromwell on Jan. 27, 1659. Its first step was to examine the Humble Petition and Advice. Notice the position of nouveau in these two lines; it was simply another cojiseil, but an entirely fresh Parliament. 1. 18. la queue, the Rump. The word is used in French for the remains of a party, e.g. la queue de Robespierre. 1. 22. de son propre aveu, E.B. 137, which applies also to deforce. 1. 24. rentraient de force, in Feb. 1660 by the order of General Monk. 1. 25. pretendirent a, 'claimed to,' 'aspired to'; pretetidirent rem- placer without preposition would mean 'intended to replace' or 'professed to replace.' 1. 27. plus de, E.B. 139. 1. 28. s'evoquant on s'expulsant, reciprocal use olse', cvoquer is the regular word for calling or conjuring up spirits; in se coalisant the pronoun is reflexive. 1. 30. consistance, from consistere, ' settle down,' ' become solid.' Our word consistency (usually French consequence) is generally used in a different sense; but we do sometimes talk of the consistency of dough or tar, meaning their approach to solidity. Perhaps ' solidity ' or • stability ' would be the best rendering, or we might render the whole more freely 'settling down into a strong government.' 1. 33. explosion, used in French of the sudden appearance, as for example, of an epidemic, as well as in the English sense. celui-lh, because separated from the relative, E.B. 75. This sentence must be rendered very freely. Page 57. 1. 3. scricux. We often use 'serious' in the same way, in reference not to a man's character, but to his chances of success or the reality of his claims. A peine un ou deux.... Sir George Booth's rising in Cheshire, suppressed by Lambert. 1. 6. furent-ils Icntcs, E.B. 1 1 a. I. 12. Uur etail vcnu, E.B. 45 a. 158 NOTES. 1. 13. lotif;s rci'frs, we should say 'repeated failures,' which is not literal. 1. 15. c'l'taii rittlt'rtt, E./>. 70. One would rather expect a plural verb ; but tiie two nouns may be considered as forming one idea. 1. 20. Vagonie, mostly used of the last struggles of a dying man. Translate ' to the desperate condition.' 1. 23. (JssisU'...t}, 'watched,' p. 15, 1. 6. 1. 25. retour, 'recurrence.' 1. 26. Mais...non plus, 'nor on the other hand was he capable.' E.B. 301. 1. 27. de tels, we should say ' such grave. ' 1. 28. souveraine, perhaps ' final,' ' decisive.' French agrees with English in such applications of the word as un souverain mepris, utti remide souverain, p. 2, 1. 20. criblii 'riddled,' We use another metaphor 'over head and ears in debt.' 1. 29. chcrchant dc tons cotes ravenir, 'not knowing which way to turn.' CHAPTER VL Page 58. 1. 1. II fall ait arriver an dcnoiimettt, freely 'the drama was played out,' see p. 56, 1. 7. 1. 5. eniravc, from trabs ' a beam.' Thus it means hindered by a beam put in the way, like our 'baulk' (German Balken 'a beam '). 1. 6. cnire-detriiits. There are several similar compounds, s'entre- tui:r, s^cntrVgorger, &c. 1.7. ce quHls avaient pu... E.B. 12^. 1. 8. a nu, 'manifest,' E.B. 151. L 10. alternatives. Beware of the same English word. 1. 11. r habitude et le courage de regler, 'the habit of controlling its own destinies, and the courage to attempt it.' L 13. toujour s, 'still.' incapable, &c. Cf. " one can do anything with bayonets — except sit on them." 1.16. //dfc^', 'who stood.' 1. 18. Monk. George Monk gained his military experience on the Protestant side in the 30 years' war. In the English civil war, he was at first on Charles I.'s side and was taken prisoner at Nantwich. He CHAPTER VI. 159 changed sides, distinguished himself at Dunbar, and was left in command in Scotland when Cromwell returned to England. In the Dutch war he served with great distinction in the fleet. At the time mentioned he was commander of the forces in Scotland. After the Restoration he became Duke of Albemarle. le terme ttaessaire. Terme and fn are almost synonymous, but terme brings out more the idea of limiting. "Cette mort...qu'il a regardee comma la fin de son travail et le terme de son pelerinage." Flechier. Translate 'to what this anarchy would inevitably lead.' 1. 20. // n'avait ricii..., ' there was nothing great in his character,' literally of course *he had....' Page 59. 1. 2. iniquites deregUes may be rendered by inverting adjective and noun 'iniquitous excesses.' 1. 4. attache. The corresponding English word is limited to attachment to persons; the French word is more widely used, e.g. aux richesses. Hence use some other word in translating. sans faste... may be rendered by English adverbs 'unosten- tatiously...' ses devoirs de soldat, E.B. 20. 1.6. discrete not quite the English 'discreet'; rather 'reserved.' Its meaning may be gathered from the following, "j'etais hardi chez mon pere, libre chez M. L., discret chez mon oncle." Roasseau. I. 13. fractions, p. 52, 1. 8. 1. 14. impatiences. Les impatiences in the plural is often the equivalent of our phrase "the fidgets." Thus 'restlessness' would be a better rendering here than 'impatience.' 1. 16. seul possible, a second adjective qualifying fait, as naturcl docs. Translate 'a natural step, indeed the only possible one.' 1. 17. ni, after the implied negative in sans. 1. 21. qui ne protestdt, for the omission o{ pas see E.B. 300. quit avait : the indicative here is an excellent illustration of E.B. 239. >» spite of the negative form of the sentence. Think what the real statement is when cleared of negatives. 1. 23. releve apris etre totnbi, 'revived,' 'restored.' 1. 24. dans de mcilleures conditions de, ' under conditions more favourable to.' 1. 26. remontait, imperfect because it is not a new fact, but an amplification of the last paragraph. l6o NOTES. 1.27. tie son propre parti, 'p.irty' not 'part.' Distinguish /a /()■/-/, U pa lit, la partic. Lines 28 — 30 are a little heavy. 1. 28. par U seul Han, 'simply by the spontaneous act.* 1. 30. n'espJrait plus, £.£. 288, Obs. 3. Page 60. 1. 3. affcclcr is often used of things as "le sel marin affecte la forme cubiquc," 'tends to assume.' The meaning comes from the philosophic use of affection to mean the way anything is ' affected ' by external causes, and hence to denote its natural tendencies. 1. 6. mcmcs, E.B. 80 (2). 1. 7. scule. Remember that it is not seulemcnt. What would be the difference ? 1. 9. gentilshommes; pronounce gen-ti-zommes. 1.17. avaient pii aholir. Neither the pluperfect {E.B. 174) nor potivoir (E.B. 182, Obs. 3) is absolutely necessary in English. 1. 20. Ill pour soutenir depends on the preceding words, not, of course, on paninrent. Translate 'either as bulwarks of power....' 1. 21. maintenir, from main. Litlre thus distinguishes the two words 'On maintient ce qui est debout, on soutient ce dont la base n'est pas solide.' One speaks of ' une barre de fer qui maintient la charpente,' i.e. keeps it together. So metaphorically soutenir is aj^plicd to the reinforcement of a body of troops not strong enough to hold its position, maintenir to the same troops holding their own. We think of government as requiring support from without, of liberty as main- tained from within. In 11. 27, 28 the meaning of soutenir is fully illustrated. 1. 24. fonciire is connected with fonds, not with fond, though both are forms of the same word. The first meaning oi fonds is the soil of an estate, and thus fancier means 'having to do with landed property.' The word fonds is itself extended to other kinds of property, especially les fonds puldics, 'the funds,' hut fonder is not so extended. Thus /^ Credit fonder is the name of a bank associated with real (i.e. landed) property, and is distinguished from the CrMit mobilier. aux campagnes, ' to the country districts,' as distinguished from the towns. 1. 29. fiottante, 'unsettled.' 1. 33. nee, 'called into existence,' elevie, 'reared.' Put du fouvoir with the first clause in English. CHAPTER VI. l6l Page 61. 1. 1. a ete. Notice the transition to the past indefinite. The writer is no longer speaking either of the events contemporaneous with the Restoration or of new events chronologically following it, but of general facts to which he assigns no definite date. L 4. cet avantage que; make two sentences, 'gained one advantage from it ; it put an end to....' For eti see E.B. 140. 1. 7. premiire, after the noun 'original,' E.B. 35,4 a, note. 1. 8. les Inches de son origine. This view is rather baldly expressed by Macaulay in the Essay on Hallam : " A King, whose character may be best described by saying that he was despotism itself personified, unprincipled ministers, a rapacious aristocracy, a servile Parliament, such were the instruments by which England was delivered from the yoke of Rome." On the other hand, the earlier volumes of Mr Froude's History of England endeavour to show that Henry VHI. was but the leader of a natural and popular movement. 1. 10. eclat, ' conspicuous success.' 1. 18. se relevait ; note the tense 'was now rising again,' and render entourSe de by ' amid.' 1. 24. non que les sectes ; turn into a coordinate sentence instead of a subordinate. For tion qtie see E.B. 242. 1. 28. sage, 'sober,' 'decorous.' L 29. ne tarda pas ; notice the dift'erence between this use oi t order and il me tarde de. L 30. pinetra, 'reached'; for regions perhaps 'strata' would be the nearest English equivalent. 1. 32. qu'atteignait de pris ; use a passive participle in English, ' immediately exposed to the infection.' Page 62. L 3. engagis ; see note p. 16, 1. 9. Here it contrasts those dissenters who were deeply committed to their own principles with those who had rejoined the Establishment. L 6. exalter, used almost exclusively of raising feelings &c. to too high a pitch. Thus un exalti means a fanatic. See also note p. 40, 1. 29. 1. 9. riciproqtiement ; avoid this word by translating 'each party kept alive or revived in the other respect for.. .' 1. 10. preoccupation de, ' solicitude for. ' E. G, II 1 62 NOTES. 1. 13. les bases morales. The adjective moral (opposed to mathiet) docs not mean 'virtuous' but is the opposite of 'physical.' Think what it would not include, e.g. the control of a large standing army &c. 1. 16. rapprochent means a little more than 'bring near'; 'bring into sympathy with ' is better. The noun rapprochement is constantly used of the first steps to friendship or attachment, as the case may be. Notice that, as in so many words, the force ol re is quite lost. I. 19. rSaction; think of the exact meaning. The metaphor is taken from Mechanics; the cart pulls the horse as much as the horse pulls the cart. setds ; E.B. 288 A (3); 'there were but two formidable enemies... that could neutralize.' 1. 20. circottstatues. Note that the French word does not, like the English, fall away from its original meaning to denote simply an incident. 1. 26. purent mourir. We should simply say 'died.' E.B. 182, Obs. 2. Henry Cromwell died in England in 1673, Richard in 1712, having returned from abroad in 1680. 1. 31. surtout en Ecosse refers to the Covenanters of Charles II. and James II. 's reign. Read Old Mortality. 1. 33. les partis d' opposition legale. We should say 'the constitu- tional opposition.' Page 63. 1. 2. avaient I'esprit, E.B. 15 (3). Translate 'the minds of the most intelligent were filled ' 1. 3. iml)u, see p. 6, I. 16. 1. 6. transactions, p. 7, 1. 7. 1. 6. la chance, i.e. de revolutions notivelles. glissaient sur la pente. We should carry the metaphor a little further and say ' were approaching the abyss ' ; la pente de means ' the slope leading to,' just as le chemin de Paris is 'the road to Paris.' 1. 7. q7ie repousse, best rendered by an adjective ' repugnant to.' For inversion see E.B. 12. 1.8. amorti, 'enfeebled.' The verb means 'to deaden' not 'to destroy.' For example, the old law-term amortir un heritage means to diminish its revenues. 1. 11. intemperance ; perhaps ' feverishness ' is the best rendering. The word refers to any kind of excess, intemperance de langue, de plume, &c. CHAPTER VI. 163 1. 13. cette malaJie ; here and just below (1. iS) we should use the definite article rather than the demonstrative. 1. 14. fomentait, ' kept alive.' non que Port doive, E.B. •242. accueillir, 'to give a friendly reception to' and therefore to 'credit,' 'accept.' 1. 15. poursuii, 'arraigns.' The word is often applied to judicial proceedings. a ce titre, ' under this head,' i.e. of reaction. 1.19. demeurent ; indicative or subjunctive? E.B. 2^"]. ilfaut, i.e. in their opinion. L 20. qttalijient de reaction, E.B. 138. 1. 22. Parmi les mesures, ' of the measures,' a substitute for the partitive genitive, see p. 14, 1. 31. 1. 30. TouU, 'any,' E.B. 109. 1. 31. perd son droit, 'loses its justification,' becomes 'unjustifiable.' A person is saXd perdre ses droits in the plural, ' to lose his rights.' Page 64. 1. 1. ce ne fut point. Notice ce repeating a noun in a previous sentence, E.B. 67. 1. 2. vindicative. Notice the difference of spelling from English. 1. 5. avait promis by the declaration of Breda, which left however a loophole of evasion, through the proviso that he would be guided in such matters by the advice of Parliament. 1. 8. la douceur de ses f/iamrs, 'the mildness of his character.' Montesquieu thus distinguishes maurs and vianiires : " II y a cette difference entre les moeurs et les manieres, que les premieres regardent plus la conduite interieure, les autres I'exterieure." 1. 10. velUith, p. 49, 1. 18. 1. 14. la reaction laique. For example, the restoration of property to its original owners was by no means as complete as the cavaliers would have wished. 1. 16. tin tnomcnt contenue, especially by the Savoy conference, 1662. se perpitua en s' aggravant. The Act of Uniformity (1661), the Conventicle Act (1664) and the Five Mile Act (1665) form an ascending scale of intolerance and tyranny. 1. 21. n'avaient...rieti de vital, E.B. 129, requires a free translation, ' did not, in reality, involve vital questions or serious menaces.' 11 — 2 164 NOTES. 1. 22. A consid^er, E.B. 206. 1.23. possidait...iLunina. Note the dififeience of tense. Translate 'no longei prevailed in England. ..did not become supreme there.' 1. 29. oil, ' to which.' tant6t...tant6t may often be rendered ' alternately.' 1. 30. supreines, perhaps 'great'; it is properly 'greatest of all.' For circotistances sec p. 75, 1. 23. 1. 31. repliS dans, a military expression, nearly the same as se retranche) derriirc. 1.33. invariableincnt ; avoid 'invariably' which means 'on all occasions,' and render 'without wavering.' Page 65. 1. 2. Cest h partir de... ; we should begin 'From the reign....' 1. 4. prhide, p. 8, 1. i. 1. 6. seiils essentiels... should make a fresh sentence after traverser. Or the sentence might be turned : "The revolution through which the English nation had just passed left behind it three great results. They were still indefinite and incomplete, but they were irrevocable, and...." 1. 12. Fihner, Sir Robert, the most conspicuous advocate of "the right divine of kings to govern wrong." All government, according to him, is based on a divinely instituted authority of the father over his family, inherited from Adam in due succession. His most important work Patria7-cha was published in 1680, long after his death, at the time of the Exclusion Bill controversy. Locke discussed his arguments at consideral)le length in the Treatise on Government. Hobbes, Thomas (1588 — 1679), a famous writer on philosophy and political science. In philosophy he anticipated Locke, that is, he taught that our ideas come from outside, not from the mind itself. His political philosophy is worked out in several books of which the Leviathan is the most famous. According to him, men left to them- selves are in a state of war, every man's hand being against his neighbour. The only remedy for this is a strong absolute government either by a king, which he prefers, or by an assembly. But in any case the supreme power must be implicitly obeyed, and the will of the sovereign is the sole criterion of right and wrong. iriger en dogme..., ' raise absolute power to the rank of a dogma or maintain it as a principle.' 1. 16. homines de science, ' political philosophers,' de parti, ' party politicians.' CHAPTER VI. 165 1. 16. vidce, p. 50, 1. 8. Trancher is perhaps commoner with question ; querelle with vider. 1. 25. rudenient ; see p. 10, 1. 3. Translate 'their defeat had been too crushing ; their overthrow too complete.' 1. 30. hirita, E.B. 122 note. 1. 31. devait etre, E.B. 183 ; literally ' was destined to be.' 1. 33. appris h, E.B. 205. Page 66. 1. 1. la mesure, 'range,' 'limits.' 1. 2. publics, 'of the state.' 1. 3. laborieuse ; avoid ' laborious ' ; the idea is of something achieved with difficulty, ' hardly won,' 'elaborate.' Compare " Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem." Virg. Aen. i. 33. fait, 'constitutes.' 1. 4. a travers, often approaches, as here, the idea 'in spite of,' E.B. 116. tdtonnemeiits from t&tonner the frequentative of later, to feel one's way, as a blind man or a man in the dark, 'tentative efforts.' The word apprentissage applies very well to the position of Parliament on its way to become master. 1. 6. souvent contraires, ' which often implied the opposite.' 1. 11. U fait religieux. 'Fact' would hardly do; we must borrow something from cotisonunS, and say 'the religious victory likewise achieved.' 1. 12. domination, 'ascendancy.' 1. 14. ardemment, 'heartily.' Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux (often called I'aigle de Meaux), the great French Catholic preacher of the 17th century. He is most famous for his Oraisons Funibres and for his fearless and temperate defence of the rights and liberties of the Gallican church against the encroachments of the Pope. The book here referred to is V Histoire des Variations des iglises protestantes. 1. 16. siiperbe, not of course 'superb.' The French word keeps very close to the Latin meaning and denotes 'pride' especially as shown in outward action : "J'entrevois votre mepris, et juge i vos discours Combien j'achcterai vos superbes secours." Racine, I ph. IV. 6. It cannot, however, be used freely as a synonym for orgueilleux. 1 66 NOTES. 1. 18. s'hhappaientf 'diverged,' witli some idea of resistance to control. The word is used of trees which run to branches and leaves rather than fruit. 1. 19. profissaient V lLvans:^le ; we should say ' Gospel religion. ' 1. 21. tnlconnue, 'unrecognised,' 'forgotten.' 1. 22. entre elUs, 'in their relations to each other.' lair itait h toiites, E.B. 51. centre; we say 'as against.' 1. 23. irrhiocablement acquise — exactly answers to the Greek Krr\\x.a. cs de/, 'an inalienable possession.' 1.24. Cttait hi, E.B. 71. Translate freely 'this was what the bulk {gencrale) of the English people had really at heart {intime) ; this W.1S all it asked...' 1. 26. decidc'e, 'resolved,' having the meaning oi se decider. 1. 28. preserverait, conditional because dkidee h stipporUr longtemps contains a future idea. E.B. 177. 1. 31. 7ie surent, 'could not.' 1. 33. affecter, 'claim,' 'desire,' p. 60, 1. 3. Page 67. 1. 2. les nicnagements et les transactions; see notes on p. 7, 1. 7. 1. 6. II avail stcbi; arrange differently in English, 'not only had he witnessed the vagaries and the disappointments to which the institutions of his country had led, but he had had painful experience of the blows inflicted upon them (or of the blows they could inflict).' Perhaps the phrase snbi les coups. ..des institutions is scarcely consistent with the usual lucidity of French style. 1. 7. mkomptes, ' miscalculations,' and therefore from another point of view 'disappointments,' the results of such miscalculations. 1. 9. se portaient, 'were directed.' 1. 10. sapentea tomber, 'the facility with which he fell,' cf. p. ()i, 1. 6 ; penchant would probably be preferred now. 1. 13. quand il lui vendait, by the Treaty of Dover, 1670; la poll- titjiie refers especially to the foreign policy of England, which Charles placed under the direction of Louis. 1. 15. sceptique; pronounce septiqiie. 1. 16. d'esprit; E.B. 135. 1. 26. consi'quent, 'consistent.' 1. 27. cntreprenant, 'rash,' see p. 4, 1. 32. CHAPTER VII, 167 1. 30. rentrant...tnais resohte, a good instance of the non-agreement of the present participle. E.B. 212 a.. Page 68. 1. 8. de letirs intrigues compared with 1. 9 par leurs efforts, E.B. 130 a. In the latter case the force is quite an external one, in the former it is more than a mere instrument. 1. 10. des motivetnents, for example the rising of the Covenanters in 1679 and the insunections of Monmouth and Argyle in 1685. 1. 11. en apparetue is opposed to redlement, apparejiiment to cer- tainemeiit. 1. 14. cette pente, literally ' this slope,' more freely ' the chance of sach a catastrophe.' See p. 63, 1. 6. 1. 17. A mestire que. How would this sentence be arranged if a mesure que were omitted and plus put first? E.B. 43. 1. 25. commander, ' enjoin.' CHAPTER VII. Page 69. . 1. 4. Clarendon (Edward Hyde), 1609— 1674. It should be remembered that he began life on the popular side, and even took part in the earlier stages of the impeachment of Strafford. He belonged to what may be called the party of Constitutional Royalists. This, and the following sentence might, with advantage, be differently broken up in English. ' Their leader was Clarendon, a man of strong convictions, upright and acute.. ..He detested...' 1. 8. a ce point que, (often a tel point que) a favourite form of con- secutive sentence. E.B. 255, Obs. 1. 1. 9. indistinctemcnt, not 'indistinctly,' but 'without distinction.' 1. 10. antipathique, 'repugnant,' the opposite of sympathique. No- tice that both words have a syllable less than the English 'sympathetic cV.c' plus hautain que fier ; plutot is perhaps more frequently used when the adjectives are compared. The passage shows pretty well the meaning of the two adjectives. The next two clauses are amplifications of hnulain. 1.13. fasle, 'ostentation'; roideur (pronounced raideur), perhaps 1 68 NOTES. 'pedantry.* Roide is one of ihiee or four words in which the spelling oi is retained with pronunciation ai. This spelling was formerly used in loitnois, parlois, parleroicnt, Fraufois &c. The change to ai was proposed in the 17th century but not adopted. Voltaire subsequently took it up, but it did not become general till 1790, when the Moniteur formally adopted it. The Academy did not recognise it till 1835. The Norman pronunciation of oi was «', whence the English ' prey ' from proie, 'Langley' from Langlois &c. Aupris du tot, E.B. 167. 1. 14. qui liii portait, 'whose esteem for him was...' 1. 18. des appuis centre la cour. One such support was his alliance with the Royal Family by the marriage of his daughter Anne Hyde to the Duke of York, afterwards James II. 1. 19. puiser...daus, E.B. 159, Obs. 5. II pritendait maintenir . . .la couronne, 'he desired at once to make the crown continue to respect... and to keep the House of Commons in the modest position it formerly occupied.' For mainienir see p. 60, 1. 21. 1. 23. asireindre, 'bind over,' from adstringere, as peindre from pingere. Page 70. 1. 1. rcsponsabilite necessaire. Clarendon's ideal was the monarchy of Elizabeth; Charles II. 's that of Louis XIV. For a clear explanation of the conditions which made the Tudor principles of government possible in the 16th century and impossible in the 17th, see Macaulay's England, Ch. I. 1. 2. chimerique. Why is the adjective put first? See E.B. 34, Obs. 2. au sortir — one of the few infinitives that have become completely nouns, E.B. 188, Obs. 2. 1. 3. qui ne flit, E.B. 253. These words are better omitted in translation, though required by the logical character of French, No such government was established, and therefore it is premature to call it arbitrary or limited. Remember to insert such words in rendering similar passages of English into French or Latin, just as " (youth) is the natural time for choosing a profession " is best translated "...lempus a na- tura ad deligendum, quam quisque viam vitae sit ingressurus, datum est." 1. 6. arrogance monarchique, 'the arrogance with which he asserted the rights of the crown'... 'the intolerance with which he supported the CHAPTER VII. 169 episcopal church.' If we used the adjectives 'monarchical,' 'episcopal,' it would mean that Clarendon acted like a king and like a bishop. The expressions arr. 7non. and int. epis. are not quite elegant French. 1. 8. s^en prenaii a lui, p. 16, 1. 29. 1. 9. les malheurs publics, the appearance of the Dutch fleet in the Medway, the mutiny of the sailors, the Great Fire of London, and the insurrection of the Covenanters in Scotland. 1. 10. il n'eiait plus, 'he was now only.' E.B. 188, Obs. 3. 1. 11. compromettant, wants a little expansion in English 'who made him unpopular. ' 1. 14. C^est miconnaitre, p. 2, 1. 10. 1. 15. decident, p. 12, 1. 2. 1. 18. passe. Note this use of passer in the sense of 'forgive,' literally 'to pass over to or for a person.' 1. 20. Richelieu, Cardinal (1585 — 1642), the great minister of Louis XIII., the founder of the French Academy, and the real originator of the absolute monarchy which attained its height under Louis XIV. He opposed in every possible way the power of Spain and Austria, even to the extent of helping the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. Dean Kitchin thus sums up the results of his career — "Abroad, though a Cardinal of the Church, he arrested the Catholic reaction, freed Northern from Southern Europe, and made toleration possible ; at home, out of the broken fragments of her liberties and her national prosperity, he paved the way for the glory of France." For Mazarin, see p. 49, 1. 15. The two statesmen are contrasted in Voltaire's Iletiriade. Richelieu, grand, sublime, implacable ennemi ; Mazarin, souple, adroit, et dangereux ami ; L'un fuyant avec art, et cedant a I'orage, L'autre aux flots irrites opposant son courage ; Des princes de mon sang ennemis declares, Tous deux hais du peuple et tous deux admires, Enfin par leurs efforts ou par leur Industrie Utiles k leurs rois, cruels k la patrie. IValpole (1676 — 1745) the statesman to whom was due, more than to anyone else, the completion of the settlement and the preservation of peace at a time when peace was most required by England. "The prudence, steadiness, and vigilance of that man," says Burke, "pre- served the crown to the Royal family and with it their laws and liberty lo this country." Cassell's Dictionary oj English History. I/O NOTES. 1. 26. se Irompa snr son epoque. See Macaulay's England, Chapter II. 1. 28. il n^y anait qitW rHahlir, ' the only thing to be done was to reestablish,' ' one had only to reestablish.' Notice H as after avoir, E.B. 203, Obs. 1. 1. 29. en prhipitant, rather 'while' than 'by,' E.B. 213. (;!)• In this sense it is often preceded by toiU. Notice the contrast between precipitant and lanck. Page 71. 1. 2. le concoiirs necessaire. A literal translation " the necessary concurrence" would be meaningless. Perhaps 'the obligation of the crown to consult Parliament ' might do. Remember that concours often means 'competition' as well as ' concurrence.' 1.3. repoussa; 'rejected' would hardly do. The idea is that of wishing to have nothing to do with a thing, ' refused to recognize.' 1. 5. reconnaitre, ' discover.' 1. 6. tourner. The neuter verb indicates a less marked change than the pronominal se tourner. 1. 9. mortels, ' unpardt)nable,' in the technical sense ol piche viortel, ' a deadly sin,' as opposed to a venial one. Some turning is required in this sentence. 1. 13. les roues. The word properly means 'broken on the wheel,' a punishment reserved for the worst criminals. It was applied in jest by the Regent Orleans (1674 — 1722) to his dissipated companions, and has ever since been used of disreputable and unprincipled men. Buckingham (George Villiers, 1627 — 1688) son of the Minister of Charles I., the Zimri of Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel: "A man so various that he seemed to be Not one, but all mankind's epitome ; Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong, Was everything by starts and nothing long." Macaulay calls him "a sated man of pleasure who had turned to ambition as to a pastime." Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper 162 1 — 1683), the Achitophel of the same poem. He sat in the Long Parliament and in two of Crom- well's Parliaments, and was in office immediately after the Restoration and one of the chief members of the Cabal Ministry. On the fall of the Cabal he joined the opposition, returned to power for a short thiie when CHAPTER VII. 171 the country was excited by the Popish Plot, and then carried the Habeas Corpus Act. The character given of him by Dryden : "For close designs and crooked counsels fit Sagacious, bold and turbulent of wit ; Restless, unfixed in principles and place For power unpleased, impatient of disgrace," is that generally accepted, though probably too highly coloured. But it is difficult, in spite of some gieat services on his part to the cause of liberty, to look upon him as a high-minded and disinterested politician. 1. 14. spirituel; ' witty ' is the nearest English, but the range of esprit is considerably wider than that of ' writ.' 1. 22. de voiiloir, E.B. 198. 1. 23. thneraires et immoraux; notice two coupled adjectives pre- ceding the noun, E.B. 35 {5). 1. 25. pris de, to be carefully distinguished from prets h. 1. 27. point d'apptii is especially applied to the fulcrum of a lever. Thus Danton says " vous avez une nation entiere pour levier, la raison pour point d'appui, et vous n'avez pas encore bouleverse le monde." Perhaps we might say ' by making the machinery of government rest on the House of Commons.' 1. 30. ce qui ne se peut qiCautant que, ' which is only possible in so far as...' These lines contain an excellent description of Party Govern- ment. For ce qui, see E.B. 90. 1. 31. avec suite, ' consistently.' Page 72. 1. 1. longues, ' enduring,' ' lasting.' 1. 7. le ministire. It is not possible to treat the Cabal, as if it had been composed, like a modern ministry, of men of the same opinions holding office so long as those opinions commanded the confidence of the country. As Guizot points out, this was- not the case. 1. 8. de concert, E.B. 137. 1. 10. mecomptes ; translate freely 'disappointments,' p. 67, 1. 7. dans les rigions voisines du pouvoir. We should probably say ' in the highest quarters.' 1. 12. personnalite, nearly the same as igdisme. "Ah ! mon pauvre ami, la personnalite, ce sentiment si naturcl, devient atroce dans un homme public, sittit qu'elle est passionn^e." Marmontcl. The word is nut quite .so strong as our ' scllishiicss.' 1/2 NOTES. 1. 22. tantot ils unissaient... The Triple Alliance of England, Holland and Sweden (i668) against France and the infamous treaty of Dover (1670) are meant. The relations of England to the three powers, Spain (which then held Belgium), France and Holland were complicated. The nation was drawn towards Holland as a Protest- ant power, while disliking her as a commercial rival. Nor were the ministers by any means a united body ; the secret clauses of the Treaty of Dover were studiously concealed from three of them. In the same way in domestic policy, inconsistency was inevitable ; the Cavalier Parliament made a liberal policy towards dissenters, of which Shaftes- bury at least was genuinely in favour, a complete impossibility; the king was doing all he could to secure the toleration and the eventual triumph of Catholicism. 1. 25. lis accordaicnt, by the Declaration of Indulgence, 1673. 1. 29. la chambre des communes irritSe. It was the same Parliament which had passed the detestable acts with which Clarendon's name is associated. The measure referred to is the Test Act, directed mainly against the Catholics. 1. 33. tdtonnements, p. 66, 1. 4. Pagk 73. 1.3. j(j//(/2V/, ' character,' 'permanence.' It is often used of seasoned troops ; ' la solidite de vieilles troupes.' 1. 5. se laissait... prendre a, 'allowed itself to be caught by.' The construction is analogous to that of faire, and is literally — laissait ' allowed, ' ^ ces piiges ' these snares, ' prendre ' to take,' se ' itself.' 1. 6. (i croire, dependent on empressetnent, the construction after which is the same as after cmpresse, E.B. 203, Obs. 4. 1. 7. de qui, E.B. 91 (i). For de we might have had de la part de or chez. 1. 9. Leur vie licencieuse, singular in French, plural in English, E.B. 60, Obs. ^. 1. 10. affichee; affiche means a notice or 1)111 publicly posted, and thus the adjective refers to vices which a man studiously avows. Perhaps 'avowed' or 'unblushing' would do, or the one noun 'effrontery' would express the meaning o{ perversite affichee. 1. 13. fonds, 'stock,' not to be confused \i\\\\^fond. 1. 16. des traites, the Treaty of Dover, mentioned above p. 72, 1. 22. CHAPTER Vll. 173 1. 19. millions, of francs not pounds. The amount was ^^200, 000 a year. L 21. ignora, 'remained ignorant of not 'ignored.' L 22. pressentinunts ; notice the difference of spelling. L 23. souvent egarent. Note the position of the adverbs probably to bring out the contrast; 'which often, it is true, mislead, but some- times enlighten a nation in the most marvellous way.' Notice a slight difference of idiom in translation oi les peuples. 1. 26. ne se livra point ^ eux, ' refused to put itself in their power.' 1. 27. finit par, 'eventually.' E.B. 209. 1. 28. grandi is more frequently a neuter verb. 1. 32. Osborne (1631 — 1714), successively Earl of Danby, Marquis of Carmarthen and Duke of Leeds. Page 74. 1. 2. Entre . . .et associe, p. 12, 1. i. 1. 4. il provenait du pays, ' he was from the country. ' The word provenir strictly means 'was a product of and is therefore appropriate here. The opposition to the Cabal came from the ' Country Party.' Macaulay says of it " That party included all the public men who leaned towards Puritanism and Republicanism and many who, though attracted to the Church and hereditary monarchy, had been drawn into opposition by dread of Popery, by dread of France, and by distrust at the extravagance, dissoluteness and faithlessness of the Court." 1. 11. en (uhelant les suffrages. " The Cabal had bequeathed to him the art of bribing Parliaments... He improved greatly on the plan of the first inventors. They had merely purchased orators ; but every man who had a vote might sell himself to Danby." Macaulay. L 14. solidarite, 'mutual responsibility.' It is properly a legal term, and means the exact opposite of limited liability. Thus \{ A, B, C and D enter into an engagement solidaire for the payment of a debt, and B, C, D cannot pay, A must pay the whole, and so on. It is therefore constantly used in modem speech to denote a complete com- munity of interests. seules, E.B. 288a (3). 1. 16. ramenant; the idea of 'back' has been lost, as in the English ' reduce.' L 16. une mhne, best rendered 'one,' or 'one and the same.' E./l. 80. 174 NOTES. 1. 20. intelligence. See note on p. 47, 1. 3 for a special meaning of the word. 1. 21. diHermina, ' induced.' 1. 26. solideinent, ' on a firm basis.' de la pn'rogative..., briefly 'Church and King.' 1. 29. conconrii, ' contribuled.' 1. 32. faisaient prendre.... We have no exact phrase answering to prendre un diveloppement. Translate 'stimulated the Whig party to...' 1. 33. salutaire, not 'healthy' but 'beneficial to the country.' Page 75. 1. 1. ptnsL..dans,- E.B. 159, Obs. 5. The use of /wzV/with Hans as well as with origine approaches very near to the Latin zeugma, p. 37, 1. 33. It would be better to change the metaphors in English... ' owed their origin and the first conspicuous manifestations of their greatness to...' 1. 3. est ne, ' came into existence.' sous rinvocation, a Catholic metaphor which we do not use in English. A church is said to be consecrated sons Pinvocation de la Sainte Viergc. We prefer the classical form ' under the auspices.' 1. 8. niais oii; avoid the un-English expression ' but in which' after an adjective, E.B. 88 (2). 1.13. Soutenue . . .; translate 'the struggle was kept up for four years; it led eventually to the fall of Danby...' 1. 14. la dissolution. The i8 years' Parliament was really dissolved to save Danby from impeachment. The government had been com- pletely discredited by the revelation of their intrigues with France and by the wild assertions about the Popish Plot. 1. 18. Te7)iple, Sir William {1628— 1699), celebrated as the negoti- ator of the Triple Alliance, and as having borne a chief part in arranging the marriage of William and Mary. Russell, William Lord Russell (1639 — '676), third son of the Earl of Bedford, whose second title Lord Russell, came to him in 1678 after the death of his elder brother. He was beheaded in defiance of law and justice after the failure of the Rye House Plot. Essex, Arthur Capel (1635 — 1683), no connection of the Parliamen- tary General, whose name was Devereux. He was son of the Lord Capel, who held Colchester and was beheaded in 1648. He was CHAPTER VII. 175 arrested after the Rye House Plot and committed suicide in the Tower. Mollis, Denzil Lord Mollis (1597 — 1681), one of the members who held the Speaker in the chair in 1629. He was subsequently the leader of the Presbyterians in their contest with the Independents. From 1649 to 1659 he lived abroad. 1. 19. Cavendish, Earl and afterwards Duke of Devonshire (1640 — 1712), one of the seven who signed the invitation to William of Orange. Powle, member for Cirencester, afterwards chairman of the pre- liminarj- meeting of commoners summoned by William, and Speaker of the Convention. He was at one time in the pay of Barillon, the French Ambassador. des nioddres floltants, "the Trimmers," so eloquently described in Macaulay's England, Chapter II. 1. 20. Halifax, George Savile, Marquis of Halifax {1630 — 1695), the most attractive figure among the politicians of the time. He opposed the Exclusion Bill, and, it is said, even changed votes by his eloquence. His action on that occasion was not, of course, in the interest of James II., but with a view to the eventual succession of the Prince of Orange, whose confidential adviser he was. Do not confuse him with Montagu, Earl of Halifax, a member of the Whig Junto. 1. 23. La circonstance ; both singular and plural are used in French in this sense. Perhaps 'crisis' is the best rendering. Both languages have also the use of the singular in phrases like ' pomp and circum- stance.' Cf. p. 62, 1. 20. 1. 26. Saurait-elle, here not ' can it,' but 'would it know how.' L 29. avinentent, p. 21, 1. 8. 1. 32. dont, not avec lesquelles, E.B. 130 a. Page 76. L 1. peu pratiques, 'unpractical,' p. 8, 1. 11. 1. 6. une sorle de corps inter mediaire. The Council of Thirty constituted by Temple's Plan of Government. "The new board was half a Cabinet and half a Parliament, and like almost every other contrivance, whether mechanical or political, which is meant to serve two purposes altogether different, failed of accomplishing either." Macaulay. L 6. contenir, ' keep in check.' 176 NOTES. 1. 7. qui avorta en naissant, ' stillborn.' 1. 8. portaient V esprit.... In modern times, so far from the spirit of opposition being carried into the exercise of power, it is no mere figure of speech to talk of " Her Majesty's Opposition " as well as of " Her Majesty's Ministers." 1. 10. s\n dSfendre, ' to protect themselves from it' rather than 'to repudiate it,' p. 80, 1. 30. 1. 11. melis aux, ' among.' 1. 12. ne cessaient d^attaqiier sourdement, 'kept up a covert war against.' 1. 13. Hill, 'non-existent.' 1. 14. imptiissant pour, 'incapable of securing.' 1. 18. qtielque used for ' any, ' because quiconque has the same meaning as an if-clause. E.B. 109. 1. 21. ces rhjolutionnaires de profession. See the description of some of them in Macaulay's England, Chapter V. 1. 23. faii-e de leurs chefs, E.B. 117, Obs. i. cotnpromettaient, 'brought into disrepute.' 1. 26. monarchique, 'in favour of monarchy,' 'loyal to the throne.' L 27. vices, p. 54, 1. 15. 1. 29. la complaisance pour, ' deference to.' 1. 30. en avail unc, i.e. une passion. 1. 32. Avertie. It is well to remember that avertir is from ad- vertere, 'to turn attention to,' not from a-vertere. The d has disappeared as inavenir for advenir. 1. 33. s'emporta, 'was carried away,' 'lost its self-control.' Page 77. 1.4. s^unirent...cl, 'joined in.' 1. 7. accis. We also say 'in an access of rage.' In French one finds un accis de goutte, les accis reguliers dUine fiivre inlermillente. Here ' paroxysms ' would be the best word. 1. 8. tomber, 'subside.' 1. 9. portirent..., freely 'paid the penalty... and bore the weight.' 1. 12. des iniquitis, ' for the acts of injustice,' E.B. 123, Obs. 2. 1. 18. quelques-uns par corruption, for example, Buckingham. 1. 19. rouSs, p. 71, 1. 13. 1. 20. d'autres, pleins de patriotisme. Algernon Sidney himself received rooo guineas from Barillon. CHAPTER VII. 177 1. 21. chimerique ; pronounce the ch as in toucher, not as in tlie English chimerical. The word is derived from the Greek Chimaera (X//xoi/)o), the fire-breathing monster with lion's head, goat's body, and serpent's tail, slain by Bellerophon. L 26. servir, E.B. App. 11. 1. 27. Louis XIV lira bien plus de fruit. Louis had just es- tablished his three Chambres de Reunion to recover any domains to which he could lay claim as belonging to Alsace, Lorraine and Franche Comte. By this means he took from Germany a considerable amount of territory without even a pretence of war. It was of the utmost importance to him to prevent an European war at this time. 1. 29. qu'ils ne trouverent, E.B. 291. d'avantages ; why genitive? Page 78. 1. 3. fondees, tnais lointaines, ' well founded indeed, but dealing with remote contingencies.' 1. 4. sans que, E.B, 257 ; some turning wanted. actuels, ' present,' opposed to anciens, rather than ' actual ' meaning real. 1. 7. par voie de, a somewhat legal phrase. 1. 9. au prix de. It is worth while to remember the other sense of this phrase, 'in comparison with.' vue tres superficielle. This is hardly a just criticism. ' Never do to-day what you can put off till to-morrow ' is not a very safe maxim. For the real objection to the Exclusion Bill see note on 1. 19. 1. 13. on parte alteinte, ' a blow is struck.' The phrase is generally applied to things having a certain amount of sanctity, as honour, truth &c. It is, therefore, a stronger word than enfreindre, ' to infringe.' 1. 16. Ce quc.c'etait, E.B. 69. 1. 19. de subordonner . . .la base de la monarchic. M. Guirot is mistaken in assuming that the English monarchy is strictly hereditary in theory as well as in practice. In early days, the Witan chose the sovereign, though custom limited their choice to a particular family. Later on, not to mention the deposition of Edward II. and Richard II., the title of Henry VII. was distinctly parliamentary. The principle of a parliamentary title was reasserted in 1688 by the Act of Settlement. The real objection to the Exclusion Bill was that it set aside the eventual claim of William and Mary in favour of a questionable person like Monmouth. E. G. 12 178 NOTES. 1. 25. aux f'orcrs propres, 'to such strength as helongoil lo tlicir party in itself.' en prhence dc, p. 7, 1. 4. 1. 33. passer outre, 'to go on,' and often 'to proceed to extremities.' It is opposed by Moliere to en demetirer Iti, s'cn tenir id. Page 79. 1.1. demeura.... Wc should use another metaphor and say 'was far from being set at rest.' L 4. vote, ' carried.' 1. 8. prononfa la dissolution. This happened twice. The second Parliament of Charles II. which met in 1679 was dissolved Jan. i8th, 1681. A new parliament met at Oxford in March of the same year and was dissolved after a few days. Of course it was Parliament, not merely the House of Commons which was dissolved. 1. 9. forma son conseil de torys sculs ; not quite correct. Halifax remained in power ; Sunderland, Lawrence Hyde, afterwards Earl of Rochester, and Sidney Godolphin backed the Duke of York, who returned to the Council. Sunderland and Godolphin had both voted for the Exclusion Bill and both eventually held ofifice in Whig Ministries. 1. 10. Annies Itigubres. The form of the sentence should be quite changed in English. 1. 13. divers qualifies both nouns, ' in different degrees and with different objects.' 1. 15. fiit-ce, E.B. 283. Notice that this construction is far less freely used in the protasis of a conditional sentence in French than it is in German. 1. 17. soldats in/erieurs et desesperes, 'the subalterns and despera- does'; 'the forlorn hope' would be an idiomatic, though not an exact rendering. The persons implicated in the Rye House Plot, Rumbold, Wildman, Col. Ramsey &c. are meant. 1. 20. line publiciie incomplete, 'the suppression of evidence.' 1. 21. des prods conduits..., especially those of Russell and Sidney, in both of w hich the evidence .was notoriously inadequate, as indeed it had been at the trial of Lord Stafford. 1. 25. ses plus nobles chefs, Russell and Sidney. 1. 27. I' hostility destructive, ' the passion for destruction.' Lcs chartes des villes. The Court of King's Bench pronounced that CHAPTER VII. 179 the franchises of the City of London were forfeited to the Crown, and the government proceeded to attack many other corporations which had returned Whig members to Parliament. 1. 30. Les conspirateiirs. See the description in Macaulay's Eng- land, Chap. V. of the refugees in Holland, Lord Grey of Wark, Ferguson, Rumbold, &c. Page 80. 1. 8. frafpait d''a7iathetne, ' anathematized.' 1. 9. Forts de eel appui, 'relying on this support,' 'on the strength of this support,' i.e. the support of the church. The expression is common enough in poetry : "Et forte desormais de vos droits at des miens." Corneille. Rochester, Lawrence Hyde, Earl of Rochester (d. 1711), second son of the Chancellor Clarendon. He was dismissed by James IL for refusing to turn Catholic (see p. 84, 1. 16). He was from time to time in office during the succeeding reigns. 1. 13. un tiers parti. The adjective tiers is limited to a few phrases, le tiers etat, le ti^rs parti, ecrit a la tierce personne, fievre tierce, &c. antour d' Halifax. " Halifax in particular... had, from the very day on which the Tories had by his help gained the ascendant, begun to turn Whig." Macaulay. 1. 16. si Von iu rentrait, E.B. 296. 1. 21. tout ce qui... d'adresse, E.B. 129. 1. 23. vinssent lui irnposer means substantially the same as inipo- sassent, but avoids the unpleasant sound, E.B. 179 a, and is a little more picturesque. 1. 26. les inquietudes du viouraiit ; had ses inquietudes been used, we must have had de viourant, E.B. 20. Vemportirent, E.B. 77. 1. 26. se refusa h, p. 54, I. 31. instances, 'entreaties,' p. 49, 1. ir. 1. 30. il s' etait . . .defendu ; se de/endre de is often used in the sense of 'to deny,' 'to repudiate.' "Un hommc.me demanda si je n'^tais point auleur de certaines brochures, j« m'en defendis fort." P. L. Courier. 1. 31. hors de laquelle, recalling a Catholic formula, " hors de r^glise, point de salut." 1. 32. nosait pas ; pas is often omitted with oscr E.B. 290 (i). 12 — 2 180 NOTES. CHAPTER VIII. Page 81. 1. 2. mil' autre, stronger than d'aulre ' not one single thought but this.' eutratnemcnt, 'enthusiasm,' from entrainer, 'to carry away.' "Elle avait mele toute sa vie le calcul a I'entrainement." Mme de Stael. Notice the change of construction far f entratnement... pour satisf aire, which might raise an objection. 1. 3. dominant, applied to goiit, passion &c. means 'so strong as to prevail' as we use the word 'ruling.' It is to be distinguished from dominateur (esprit, regard &c.) which means 'commanding,' 'capable of controlling others.' I should be disposed to render dominante here by 'uncontrollable.' 1. 4. intraitable, perhaps 'dogged,' or 'unreasonable,' p. 46, 1. 14. 1. 16. Devenu roi, 'as soon as he became king.' delivrance, 'emancipation,' as in the phrase 'Catholic Emancipa- tion.' 1. 20. Triste enchatnement . . . , ' such is the disastrous concatenation ' ; and repeat 'human' with the two nouns. 1. 21. s^appellent, 'evoke each other'; the sentence might be ren- dered rather freely "error evokes error, injustice breeds injustice." Page 82. 1. 10. des taxes, i.e. the customs. His wiser advisers urged that they should be collected and kept apart till Parliament met, 'ear- marked,' as the modern phrase is. 1. 12. redoublait de rigueur, E.B. 135. 1. 13. susptndre. The "Suspending Power" is the technical term. 1. 14. porter... de graves atteintes ; see p. 78, 1. 13; perhaps "to deal blows " is the nearest English ; atteinte is used in its literal sense in speaking of " tilting at the ring," otherwise always metaphorically. For atteindre see p. 2, 1. 5. 1. 17. Tout en protestant, E.B. 213 (2). The genitive of respect, E.B. 135, is used -wiih protester, of what is claimed. In legal language it is also used of what is protested against, protester de violence. 1. 19. tenir compte de, 'be grateful for,' ' give credit for.' 1. 24. se porter, ' inflict on each other.' CHAPTER VIII. l8l 1. 27. dans leiirs rapports, * in their relations with each other.' 1. 30. coups d'£tat. A coup d'£tat is an unexpected political move and is especially applied to a violent subversion of the constitution on the part of the sovereign. It thus corresponds to a revolution on the part of the people. The name is especially associated with the proceedings of the i8th of Brumaire and with those which made Napoleon III. master of France in 1852. We have no equivalent word; the German is Staatsstreich. 1. 33. Phis les craintes.... Render freely "the eagerness of men's hopes is in proportion to the intensity of their fears." Page 83. 1. 1. Les iorys dominaient . . .TW\s, was partly in consequence of Charles's tampering with the charters, which left the borough con- stituencies Tory, and partly in consequence of the reaction after the failure of the Rye House Plot. 1. 3. prenait, notice the tense. 1. 9. sceptiques el corroinpus, not a mere epithet, * so sceptical and corrupt were they.' This is a little exaggerated; only a few of the leading men, Sunderland, Perth, Melfort, &c. went so far as to propose to be converted to Catholicism. 1. 10. dans une mesure iticonmie, ' to an indefinite extent.' 1. 12. encore, i.e. even so long after the civil wars. 1. 16. ses ^//es... Halifax acted all along with a view to the eventual succession of William and Mary. 1. 17. quelqiie temps, E.B. 114. terme, p. 58, 1. 18. 1. 18. risqiier, ' run the risk of.' 1. 19. les a ml>ttieux d(fsespcWs, peTh?fp?, ^ de?,pera.te schemers.' Notice how easily an adjective becomes a noun in French. E.B. 37. 1. 20. refugih=qui s'Haient refugiis, see p. 79, 1. 30. Proscrit is here the noun as ambitieitx above. 1. 24. Argyle. Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyle. His father, the Marquis of Argyle, had been the head of the Scottish Covenanters and was put to death after the Restoration. Only the earldom descended to his son. The son after 20 years of very moderate and cautious opposition to the government was sentenced to death on a frivolous charge during the Viceroyalty of James (then Duke of York). " I know nothing of Scotch law," said Halifax to King Charles, "but 1 82 NOTES. this I know, that we should not hang a dog on tlic grounds on which my lord Argyle has been sentenced." For the whole story of the insurrection, see Macaulay, Chap. V. 1. 25. cnfut emu; en ' by it,' emu from emouvoir. 1. 26. itisurgh, where we say ' insurgents.' So imigris, ' emigrants.' 1. 27. die n\'clata point, ' they did not show it openly.' Le parti whig ne sou tint point. "Not a single peer, baronet or knight, not a single member of the House of Commons... had joined the invaders." Macaulay. 1. 30. leur tete; notice the singular, E.B. 6o, Obs. ^. 1. 31. ni leur personne ni leurs vues. It is difficult to render ri- pondaient by an English word applicable to both subjects. We should probably say 'but they excited no personal enthusiasm, nor did their aims harmonize with the feeling of the nation.' Page 84. 1. 1. engagh dans, 'committed to,' p. i6, 1. 9. vainquettr . . . , 'having triumphed over his enemies and secured the obedience of his subjects.' For obei de, see E.B. 130. It is an e-xcellent instance of the use of de rather than par with the agent; here, the person obeyed has a share in securing obedience. For obeir used in the passive, see E.B. 146 a, Obs. 1. 3. II prenait plaisir. See the accounts in Macaulay, Chap. 11. of the pleasure taken by James in the torture of prisoners in Scotland, and in Chap. V. of his delight in the records of the Bloody Assizes. For the dative, see E.B. 146. 1. 4. Jeffreys. George, Lord Jeffreys {1640— 1689), probably the worst man that ever sat on the English Bench. His name is especially associated with the trial of Algernon Sidney and of Richard Baxter, whom he treated with blasphemous impudence, and with the Bloody Assizes, in which he outdid even his own record. For his conduct on the Bloody Assizes he was made Lord Chancellor. ministre, in its literal sense, not in the sense of a minister of state. 1. 5. cynique. .See note on p. 14, 1. 5. 1. 6. exereees, ' practised ' or perhaps might be omitted in English, E.B. 168 a. 1. 8. dans le public...; we say in English ' among high and low.' 1. 10. profonds, E.B. 32. 1. 12. datis ses droits vitaux, especially by the establishment of a new Court of Hitjh Commission, that is, a machinery for carrying out CHAPTER VIII. 183 the supremacy of the Crown in matters ecclesiastical. One of its first acts was to suspend Compton, Bishop of London, from his spiritual functions. 1. 13. dans les demiers reflis, ' in the inmost recesses.' 1. 15. de noinmer des catholiqiies, Massey, a Catholic, was ap- pointed Dean of Christchurch ; Obadiah Walker, Master of University, publicly went over to Rome ; the Fellows of Magdalen, Oxford, were ordered to elect another Catholic, Anthony Farmer, as their President. They pleaded his infamous character, and were then ordered to choose Parker, Bishop of Oxford, a Catholic at heart. They again refused and were expelled for non-compliance. No similar incident took place at Cambridge. 1. 20. di'iix coteries. Some of the most eminent Catholics, for example Lord Powis and Lord Bellasyse, were opposed to the extreme counsels urged by Castlemaine, Tyrconnel and others. 1. 21. emportee, 'violent,' often used of an unmanageable horse. It is opposed to prudente, as intrigante to honncle. Notice the difference between intrigant and intriguant., E.B. 216. se dispiitaient ; se means 'with each other.' Compare p. 3, 1. 18. L 22. et hii montraient. Reconstruct the sentence and turn montraieni a little differently with le peril, and le but ' the one sought to restrain him from... the other warned him....' 1. 24. ne manqua pour eclairer, 'was wanting to enlighten.' What would d' eclairer mean ? L 27. tchotia contre. The metaphor is from a ship running on to a rock or shoal ; a and sur are also used, h la c6te, sur un rocker. With contre it is generally used metaphorically, and means complete failure. 1. 28. le pire Petre. One of James's worst counsellors. It was he who suggested to the King the practice of 'closeting,' or private interviews to tamper with important statesmen, L 29. au clerge, E.B. 144. 1. 30. la declaration, i.e. the second Declaration of Indulgence, April 25, 168S. 1. 31. abolissait. Note this use of the imperfect in stating the terms of a treaty, edict &c., side by side with the fact of its being published (ordonna) put in the [last definite. E.B. 172. 1.33. Varcheveque de Cantorbery, .Sancroft. The six Bishops were Lloyd, Ken (author of the Morning and Evening Hymns), Trclawney, Lake, Turner and White. se refus}rent h, p. 54, 1. .',1. 1 84 NOTES. Pac;k 85. 1. 3. la com- du banc du roi, 'the Court of King's Bench.' Notice how much more free we are with our capitals than the French. libelle sc'ditieiix. Our modern idea of libel is almost exclusively limited to statements affecting private persons. Before the revolution it was held to be libellous to publish a writing reflecting on the Government, or upon the character, or even the capacity and fitness of anyone employed in it. It is only by slow degrees that the present freedom of criticism has been attained. In i868 it was held by Lord Chief Justice Cockburn that "criticism of the Executive is at the present time so important that individual character may be sacrificed." {Dictionary of English History.) 1. 5. de toute V Angleterre belongs both to attente and to soup^ons. In English we take it with the former. 1. 6. dominante, to be distinguished from doininatrice, which denotes habitual supremacy. The use of do/niner immediately afterwards is careless. Jit eclater, 'loudly manifested.' 1. 8. a raison de, equivalent to a cause de. En raison de is 'in proportion to,' as "Les corps s'attirent en raison directe de leurs masses, et en raison inverse du carre de leurs distances." 1.12. entrait...firent. Notice the difference of tense. 1.15. sezils, 'unaided,' 'by themselves. ' rallier {re-allier), which is a trisyllable (ra-li-er), should be dis- tinguished from railler, ' to ridicule,' which has only two syllables, pronounced ra-yer, and rayer 'to erase,' pronounced rai-ier. 1. 16. avaient echoiie, E.B. 184; the action of failing, rather than the result, is thought of. 1.20. seule, E.B.i%%?,{i). 1. 22. totU devoir sa 7-kiprocitS, almost impossible to render literally. Translate 'that every duty involves a corresponding right ' or very freely ' royalty has its duties as well as its rights.' The meaning of riciprociti is well illustrated by the English use of the word ' Reciprocity ' as opposed to Free Trade. For the amplification of these remarks see Macaulay's England, Vol. il. Chap. 9. 1. 26. avail droit a, but avait le droit dc. 1. 30. Russell. Edward Russell (1655 — 1727), afterwards Earl of Orford, a cousin of William Lord Russell, subsequently gained the battle of La Hogue. CHAPTER VIII. 185 Sidney, Henry, afterwards Earl of Romney, brother of Algernon Sidney. 1. 31. Cavendish, William (1640 — 17 12) Earl and afterwards Duke of Devonshire. Shrewsbury, Charles Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury (i66o — 1718), son of the Countess of Shrewsbury associated with " Cliefden's proud alcove, The bower of wanton Shrewsbury and love." He was a member of a Catholic family, but embraced Protestantism at an early age. He played an equally conspicuous part in securing the Hanoverian succession at the death of Queen Anne. Lumley, created Earl of Scarborough in 1690, died 1721. He rendered great service to James in the suppression of Monmouth's insurrection. 1. 32. du tiers parti. See p. 80, 1. r3. Halifax, p. 75, 1. 20. By not joining in the invitation to William, he was placed in a very advantageous position for guiding the Revolution, and it is at least probable that he foresaw this. His whole previous policy had been in favour of William's eventual succession. Page 86. 1. 3. Vamiral Herbert, afterwards Earl of Torrington, one of the victims of James's 'closetings.' Under William he was placed at the head of the admiralty, but proved a complete failure. The sailors, punning on his title, called him Lord Tarry-in-town. 1. 8. cl tout risque, 'at any risk.' E.B. 109. 1. 12. le precis intenti aux eveques. See p. 84, 1. 33. English dispenses with the participle. We should say ' the suit against the bishops.' See E.B. 168 a. L 13. il eut refu, to match annonfa, not avait refu. 1. 20. convenance, ' expediency.' 1. 22. de/enseiir ; begin a new sentence 'to the former he was the defender of Protestantism, to the others of the Balance of Power.' 1. 24. Jamais, E.B. 27 a. 1. 26. par avance means a little more than d'avance, which is simply beforehand ' ; par avance contains the idea ' in anticipation,' ' as a pre- liminary.' 1. 32. Innocent XI. Louis XIV. had alienated him by his olistinale adherence to the right of his ambassadors in Rome to l86 NOTES. keep up a sort of Alsatia for tlie criminals of that capital, and by his opposition to the Holy Sec in reference to the Archbishopric of Cologne. Moreover, he was inclined to llie Jansenists, while Louis was in the hands of the Jesuits. a qui, E.B. I44, Obs. 3. Page 87. 1. 12. pressentiment; notice the difference of spelling. 1. 14. Plus de six semaines, i.e. from Nov, 5 to Dec. 18. 1. 18. pas une goiitte de sang. There were a few skirmishes between William's English troops and the Irish outposts of James's army. 1. 28. ses ghiSraux, especially Churchill, afterwards Duke of Marl- borough, whose desertion involved that of the Princess Anne. 1. 30. alia rejoindre contains no idea of rejoining. As a matter of fact she joined Danby at Nottingham, attended by Bishop Compton in a buff coat and jack-boots. 1. 33. ratneuL . . . This is not quite correct. He was brought back to London by a troop of the Life Guards sent to Sheerness at his own request. 1. 34. quelqiies jours encore, 'a few more days.' Page 88. 1. 8. Convention. The same name, or rather that of Convention Parliament, was given to the assembly convened by Monk at the Restoration of 1660. 1. 14. Les plus iimides refers to what was known as Sherlock's plan, the adoption of which was made impossible by James himself. 1. 18. serait, the strictly accurate tense, E.B. 177. We prefer to avoid the verb and to say 'with the P. of O. for president.' 1. 20. Beaucoup de %vhigs. A Committee of the House of Commons drew up a report, which included the assertion of the principles violated by James and a number of new laws to be passed before the throne was filled. The latter part was set aside as occupying far too much time. 1. 24. sotiveraines, p. 2, 1. 20, p. 57, 1. 28. 1. 26. dans la tnonarchie, 'within the monarchy,' E.B. 159 a (2). 1. 28. vne rigeiue. This was Sancroft's plan, supported by Rochester and Nottingham and opposed by Halifax and Danby. CHAPTER IX. 187 1. 33. vacant. The question as to whether the throne could be vacant was argued in the conference between the Lords and the Commons. The precedent of 1399, when Richard II. was succeeded by Henry IV., played an important part in the discussion. For vacant, vaqtiant, see E.B. 216. Page 89. 1. 4. se dessinaient, ' began to take shape.' It is used of outlines of mountains, for example, beginning to stand out clearly on the horizon. 1. 11. absoliies, 'unconditional,' 'uncompromising.' 1. 12. actes, '(legal) instruments,' not Acts of Parliament; acie is used in phrases like acte de naissance, acte d'accusatiott, of an authorita- tive record or some other legal document. 1. 22. sans repliqiie, 'admitting of no reply.' Repliquc is more limited in its use than reponse ; as a legal term it means the rejoinder to a reply; in ordinary language it means a reply to an argument, remonstrance A'c, not to a question. In theatrical language it means the 'cue,' the final word of a speech of one actor, wliich tells the next when to begin. 1. 24. lui atissi, E.B. 43 (2). 1. 28. une dklaration, the Declaration of Right, drawn up by a committee of which Somers was chairman. 1.34. Vacte du parlenunt, 'the proceedings of Parliament,' see ab ve 1. 12. CHAPTER IX. Page 90. 1. 6. en soi, E.B. 107. Had la revolution d'' Avi^lctcrre preceded instead of the more indefinite tine rhiolution, we should have had en die. 1. 16. d' avoir die, E.B. 198. 1. 16. la, 'therein.' 1. 18. Defensive.... Compare with these paragraphs the end of Chapter X. of Macaulay's England. 1.19. Dans les grandes secoiisses.... Translate freely 'when a community is shaken by some great convulsion, men are sometimes possessed by a feverish ambition, knowing neither limits, nor control, nor reverence.' 1 88 NOTES. Page 91. 1. 1. en pouvoir de is not by itself a French expression, but is admitted here by a sort of attraction to en droit de. The ordinary phrase is cl niitne de, or en t'lat dc. porter la vniin siir often involves the idea of ' laying violent hands on.' 1. 2. reformer. Notice reformer, 'to form again,' reformer, 'to reform ' in the sense of improving. 1. 4. de chaos, E.B. 138. Pronounce ka-o ; the word cahot is pro- nounced exactly like it. 1. 6. clle, ' he,' referring to criature humaine. 1. 8. ne tomba point..., 'avoided such aberrations.' 1. 10. revendiqua, from the primitive sense oi vindlcare, 'to claim'; venger takes its meaning from the derived sense, 'to avenge.' 1. 11. positifs, p. 3, 1. 21. dans lesquels..., 'to which. ..were confined.' 1. 14. se tint pour satisfaite, in English 'was satisfied,' one of the many delicate ways of rendering the shades of meaning of the English passive, E.B. 185 a. 1. 15. rien de mains; see E.B. 129 and 289, the latter for the distinction between rien mains and rien de mains. 1. 19. dans des vues de gouvernement regiilier. We put the same idea epigrammatically when we talk of "ller Majesty's Opposition." 1. 22. s'y melaient, E.B. 147 ( i), 185 a. The verb se melcr often has a genitive as in melez-vous de vos affaires. 1. 23. C'l'taient, E.B. 70. 1. 25. its nctaient pas nes, a true pluperfect, 'they had not come into existence.' We are very apt to translate est ne 'is born,' which is rarely correct. Thus in "La liberte est nee, en Angleterre, des querelles des tyrans," est nie means 'sprang.' 1. 30. eut, indicative, not subjunctive, because the idea to be conveyed is that both had possessed the merit. E.B. 252, Obs. 1. 1. 31. se rapprochirent. Rapprochement is often used of reconcilia- tion, or rather of the first steps towards it ; it has also the meaning of bringing two things together for the purpose of comparison. 1. 32. transaction, p. 7, 1. 7. 1. 33. Whigs et torys. Notice that these words are treated as common, not proper nouns as shown by the small initial letter of torys. The article is omitted as in E.B. 24. CHAPTER IX. 189 Page 92. 1. 2. y prirent part, E.B. 147 (i). 1. 3. On a dit.... This opinion is strongly stated by Thierry in Dix Ans (T Etudes Hutoriques, pp. 108—128, and especially p. 126. " Cette revolution n'a point ete une revolution nationale," because it was directed and completed by those who had everything to gain in position or in pocket from power, not by those whose one concern was to prevent any outrage against " ce qui est eternellement saint, eternellement inviolable, la liberte." 1. 6. non par f impulsion..., 'not at the instance of the whole people and for its benefit.' Here and in the preceding line we must avoid a translation like ' at the instance and for the benefit of the whole nation.' 1.8. Remarquable exemple..., E.B. 19, Obs. i. Translate ' this is only one example and a remarkable one....' 1. 9. president h, p. 8, 1. 1. 1. 12. connaisse, E.B. 252. 1. 13. d'tin cdle, E.B. 132. 1. 14. simples, ' private.' la participation active..., ' the active and effective participation of the country in its government.' The word decisive means, of course, that the final decision rests with the country. 1. 16. c'estlh, E.B. 71. 1. 20. Dans Vordre moral. We should probably say 'on its non- political side.' Both words are used a little more freely in French than with us; 'moral order' would be too technical in English. Ordre is used of the whole set of circumstances, as in Tennyson's line {Passing of Arthur) 'The old order changeth, yielding place to new,' and moral, generally opposed to physique, covers all that has to do with men's habits, thoughts and feelings ; see p. 62, 1. 13. 1. 28. menSe a fin, ' carried through ' ; a bonne fin is more usual. Priparie might be rendered ' organized,' though it more strictly means 'led up to.' 1. 33. ont su, 'succeeded.' Page 93, 1.2. nianqui de chefs. E.B. i22andApp. il. 1. 4. hifrarchie (// aspirated and ch prtjiiounced as in chemin) 190 NOTES. properly means ' sacred government ' and is applied to the various j^rades of ecclesiastical dignitaries and especially to the several orders of angels, "Tlirones, Princedoms, Powers, Dominions," as Milton calls them. Thence it passes to its common use, as here, of any society in which there are gradations of ranks. 1. 7. hoinmes d'ordrc, freely ' the friends of law and order.' 1. 10. fonder, 'to establish ' rather than 'to found.' See p. 42, 1. 32. 1.14. Ce 7i\'iait pas trap de, E.B. 135, Obs. Freely 'Nothing short of all this union and this power could have ensured its success.' 1. 17. tfouhlcs ; avoid the corresponding English word and see p. 15, 1. 16; perhaps we might say 'into a most unsettled condi- tion.' 1. 18. Deux ou trois.... We should throw this and the next sentence dejh le... into one; 'within two or three years....' 1. 21. peu de goilt, 'distaste,' goes with pour les mceurs. 1. 22. qu'il cachait peu ; render by an adjective 'ill-concealed,' or 'unmistakeable,' as pen is often used (by a figure of speech called Litotes) for a strong negative. 1. 23. son intimite..., ' the way in which he reserved his confidence for a few old Dutch friends and lavished his favours on them.' 1. 24. amis hollandais, Bentinck, Zulestein and Auverquerque. 1. 29. r esprit de parti ' party-spirit ' ; do not take aristocratique whhporti. 1. 30. te Jeu, not, of course, ' the game of politics,' but like /onc- tionnement 'the working, ' yoK^r being often applied to the working together of the parts of a machine. Rousseau speaks of le jeu de la machine politique, 1. 31. d. peine formes. William began by taking his ministers from both sides. His fir>t homogeneous ministry, formed on modern principles from one party only, was the famous Whig Cabinet of 1693, the suggestion of which was due to Sunderland. See Macaulay, Chap. XX. Page 94. 1. 4. disposer de, 'have the control of.' 1. 9. plus quHl ne convaiait. We say ' more than suited,' omitting ' it ' ; this cannot be done in French. 1. 11. de plus en plus engagee dans, 'more and more deeply com- mitted to.' 1. 12. ce iiume prime, ' the very prince.' CHAPTER IX. 191 1. 22. il pourrait bint, 'it was quite possible that he might,' or conversationally 'he migkt.' se retirer en Hollande, at the beginning of 1 690. 1. 25. a quel point... necessaire, 'how necessary,' E.B. },^1. 1. 26. eiitouraieiit, ' beset.' 1. 29. ses exigences de guerre , 'his pleas of the necessities of war,' i.e. his pleas that certain supplies &c. were absolutely necessary for carrying on the war. 1. 30. ses susceptibilites de pouvoir, ' his touchiness about the pre- rogative.' 1. 31. avaient repris..., after Tyrconnel's wanton devastations in Ireland, and Dundee's barren victory at Killiecrankie. 1. 32. f^ en. ..pas mains, E.B. 142. Page 95. 1. 2. des correspondants, including Shrewsbury, Russell (afterwards Earl of Orford), Godolphin and Marlborough. menageaient, 'carefully kept up,' 'did not neglect.' Alt' na ger o^itn means 'to secure by judicious management' as well as 'to treat ten- derly,' p. 7, 1. 7. 1. 6. Vetablissement, 'the settlement.' 1. 9. la luite..., the war of the Spanish succession from 1702 to 1713, ended by the treaty of Utrecht. L 18. tenaient de pris, ' were closely connected with.' For de pris see E.B. 138. 1. 22. se croire des chances, E.B. 144, ' ...to believe that they had a chance.' L 25. Sous is the usual preposition with r}gne. 1. 30. la preoccupation dominante, ' the chief interest.' 1. 33. ne se sentait, 'did not feel that it had,' cf. 1. 22 above; it is a little different from ne sentait, 'did not feel.' Page 96. 1. 1. se deplaisaient, 'felt uncomfortable.' The verb is used even of animals which do not thrive in a particular locality. 1. 3. ancien petit Etat ; petit Etat is practically one word, so that the adjectives have not to be coupled by et. Hanover, of course, is meant. 1. 8. La domination mobile, * the shifting a.scendancy,' i.e. authority passing rapidly from one to the other, goes with des partis. 192 NOTES. 1. 9. factkcs, p. 56, 1. 7. 1. 12. sc reproditisaieiit means more than ' were repeated.' It involves the idea of conspiracy breeding conspiracy. 1. 16. Vhumeur critique, not 'a critical mood' but 'cavilling ill- temper,' something like what we call a dyspeptic view of things. See p. 41, 1. 17. 1. 18. se separer, 'to drift away.' For the moral tone of the time, see Green's English People, Chapter X, beginning. 1. 21. put penetrer, E.B. 182, Obs. 3 or say 'succeeded in making his way.' The date was 1745. 1. 23. on se demandait, 'people were asking each other,' 'were wondering.' Remember that se demander si is the equivalent of 'to wonder whether'; s'etonner &c. must be avoided when 'if follows. sHl n^entrerait pas. Remember that a conditional after si is only possible when it means 'whether,' E.B. •276. 1. 24. dans, E.B. 159 a (2). 1. 25. en en chassant..., 'when he drove his grandfather from that city.' 1. 27. mercL For gender see E.B. Ace. 45. The original gender is feminine from the Latin mercedem, and the original meaning is 'favour.' The mascuHne meaning 'thanks' came from the constant use oi grand vierci (it is a great favour) in thanking people. It will be remembered that grand, coming as it does from a Latin adjective of two terminations, has no feminine inflection in older French, E.B. Ace. 9, note. nn accis..., 'a fit of popular ill-temper.' 1. 28. coup de main, ' a sudden attack.' It may also mean ' a help- ing hand.' 1. 33. la forte organisation. M. Guizot draws rather a fancy picture of the resistance to the Young Pretender. The government had no widespread disaffection to deal with, but the support it received from the public was rather lukewarm. Page 97, 1. 6. que leur inspirait, E.B. 144, Obs. 3. 1. 7. ne plus... que, E.B. •zSS, Obs. 3. 1. 13. qu'ait couru, E.B. 252. 1.16. aussitdt avortces..., 'no sooner conceived than they were nipped in the bud.' CHAPTER X. 193 1. 16. // falliit h I'i'lablissemenL.., 'the settlement of 1688 re- quired.' 1. 18. epj-ettves, ' probation. ' CHAPTER X. Page 98. 1. 1. repiaii, 'had been reigning,' E.B. 169a. The date of the Declaration of Independence was 1776, and the war lasted from 1775 to 1782. 1.7. dVgal h egal, 'on equal terms'; ,$. Moli^re. Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Comedie-Ballet en Cinq Actes. (1670.) With a life of Moliere and Grammatical and Philological Notes. By Rev. A. C. Clapin. Revised Edition. i.r. M. Moliere. L'flcole des Femmes. Edited with Introduction and Notes. By Geouge Saintsburv, M.A. 2^. (sd. Moliere. Les Pr^cieuses Ridicules. With Introduction and Notesby E.G. W. Bkavmioltz, M.A. , Ph.D. 2^. Abridged Edition, is. Piron. La M^tromanie. 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