ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR 
 AND EXERCISE BOOK 
 
 WITH INFLECTIONS, SYNTAX, SELECTIONS 
 FOR READING, AND GLOSSARY 
 
 BY 
 
 C. ALPHONSO SMITH, PH.D., LL.D. 
 
 LATE PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN THE 
 UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY 
 
 ALLYN AND BACON 
 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
 ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO
 
 COPYRIGHT, 181X5, BT 
 C. ALPHONSO SMITH. 
 
 J. 8. Gushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith 
 Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE scope of this book is indicated in 5. It is intended 
 for beginners, and in writing it, these words of Sir Thomas 
 Elyot have not been forgotten : " Grammer, beinge but an 
 introduction to the understandinge of autors, if it be made 
 to longe or exquisite to the lerner, it in a inaner rnortifieth 
 his corage : And by that time he cometh to the most swete 
 and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of fervent 
 desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of gram- 
 mer, lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great 
 heape of small stickes." The Governour, Cap. X. 
 
 Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, 
 which is planned more as a foundation for the study of 
 Modem English grammar, of historical English grammar, 
 and of the principles of English etymology, than as a gen- 
 eral introduction to Germanic philology. 
 
 The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish 
 all the drill necessary to enable the student to retain the 
 forms and constructions given in the various chapters. 
 
 The Selections for Heading relate to the history and 
 literature of King Alfred's day, and are sufficient to give 
 the student a first-hand, though brief, acquaintance with the 
 native style and idiom of Early West Saxon prose in its 
 golden age. Most of the words and constructions contained 
 in them will be already familiar to the student through 
 their intentional employment in the Exercises. 
 
 For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse 
 
 2047429
 
 iv Preface. 
 
 has been had chiefly to Sievers' Abriss der angelsachsischen 
 Grammatik (1895). Constant reference has been made 
 also to the same author's earlier and larger Angelsdchsische 
 Grammatik, translated by Cook. A more sparing use has 
 been made of Cosijn's Altwestsachsische Grammatik. 
 
 For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wtilfmg's 
 Syntax in den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I. (Bonn, 
 1894) has proved indispensable. Advance sheets of the 
 second part of this great work lead one to believe that 
 when completed the three parts will constitute the most 
 important contribution to the study of English syntax that 
 has yet been made. Old English sentences have also been 
 cited from Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader, Bright's Anglo- 
 Saxon Reader, and Cook's First Book in Old English. 
 
 The short chapter on the Order of Words has been 
 condensed from my Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose 
 (Publications of the Modern Language Association of 
 America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2). 
 
 Though assuming sole responsibility for everything con- 
 tained in this book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the 
 kind and efficient assistance that has been so generously 
 given me in its preparation. To none do I owe more than 
 to Dr. J. E. Wulfmg, of the University of Bonn; Prof. 
 James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia ; Prof. W. 
 S. Currell, of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J. 
 Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr College; and Prof. L. M. 
 Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have each ren- 
 dered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting 
 typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valu- 
 able criticisms and suggestions which they have made as 
 this work was passing through the press. 
 
 C. ALPHONSO SMITH. 
 
 LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, 
 BATON ROUGE, September, 1896.
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 IN preparing this enlarged edition, a few minor errors in 
 the first edition have been corrected and a few sentences 
 added. The chief difference between the two editions, 
 however, consists in the introduction of more reading mat- 
 ter and the consequent exposition of Old English meter. 
 Both changes have been made at the persistent request of 
 teachers and students of Old English. 
 
 Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved 
 in the new material and the old, the emphasis in both being 
 placed on syntax and upon the affinities that Old English 
 shares with Modern English. 
 
 Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this 
 augmented edition. I have again to thank Dr. J. E. Wtil- 
 fing, Prof. James A. Harrison, Prof. W. S. Currell, and Prof. 
 J. Douglas Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms also of Prof. 
 J. M. Hart, of Cornell ; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of 
 Williams College ; and Prof. Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the 
 University of Vermont, I am indebted for aid as generously 
 given as it is genuinely appreciated. 
 
 C. ALPHONSO SMITH. 
 
 August, 1898.
 
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 AMONG those who have kindly aided in making this 
 edition free from error, I wish to thank especially my 
 friend Dr. John M. McBryde, Jr., of Hollins Institute, 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 C. ALPHONSO SMITH. 
 . UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA., 
 
 Chapel Hill, February, 1903.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Chapters Pages 
 
 I. History ( 1-5) 1 
 
 II. Sounds ( 6-11) 4 
 
 III. Inflections ( 12-19) 10 
 
 IV. Order of Words ( 20-21) 18 
 
 V. Practical Suggestions ( 22-24) 21 
 
 PART II. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
 
 VI. The a-Declension : Masculine a-Stems ( 25-30) . . 27 
 
 VH. Neuter a-Stems ( 31-36) 30 
 
 VIII. The 6-Declension ( 37-42) 33 
 
 IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension ( 43-55) . . 35 
 
 X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs ( 56-62) 39 
 
 XI. The Weak or n-Declension ( 63-66) 44 
 
 XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions ( 67-71) 47 
 
 XIII. Pronouns ( 72-77) 50 
 
 XIV. Adjectives, Strog and Weak ( 78-87) 53 
 
 XV. Numerals ( 88-92) 57 
 
 XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions ( 93-95) . 60 
 
 XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs ( 96-100) . 64 
 
 XVIII. Strong Verbs : Class I, Syntax of Moods ( 101-108) 68 
 
 XIX. Classes II and III ( 109-113) 74 
 
 vii
 
 viii Table of Contents. 
 
 Chapters Pages 
 
 XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; Contract Verbs ( 114- 
 
 121) 78 
 
 XXL Weak Verbs ( 122-133) 82 
 
 XXII. Remaining Verbs ; Verb Phrases with habban, beon, 
 
 and weorSan ( 134-143) 90 
 
 PART III. SELECTIONS FOR READING. 
 
 PROSE. 
 
 Introductory 98 
 
 I. The Battle of Ashdown 99 
 
 II. A Prayer of King Alfred 101 
 
 III. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan 102 
 
 Ohthere's First Voyage 103 
 
 Ohthere's Second Voyage 106 
 
 Wulfstan's Voyage 107 
 
 IV. The Story of Csedmon Ill 
 
 V. Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care 116 
 
 POETRY. 
 
 Introductory 122 
 
 VI. Extracts from Beowulf 136 
 
 VII. The Wanderer 148 
 
 GLOSSARIES. 
 
 I. Old English Modern English 155 
 
 II. Modern English Old English 190
 
 OLD ENGLISH 
 GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES
 
 OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND 
 EXERCISE BOOK. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 HISTORY. 
 
 1. The history of the English language falls naturally 
 into three periods ; but these periods blend into one another 
 so gradually that too much significance must not be attached 
 to the exact dates which scholars, chiefly for convenience of 
 treatment, have assigned as their limits. Our language, it 
 is true, has undergone many and great changes ; but its 
 continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has 
 never been lost. 
 
 2. The first of these periods is that of OLD ENGLISH, 
 or ANGLO-SAXON, 1 commonly known as the period of full 
 
 1 This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term Angli Saxones, 
 which Latin writers used as a designation for the English Saxons as 
 distinguished from the continental or Old Saxons. But Alfred and 
 Mlinc both use the term Englisc, not Anglo-Saxon. The Angles 
 spread over Northumbria and Mercia, far outnumbering the other 
 tribes. Thus Englisc (= Angel + isc} became the general name for 
 the language spoken. 
 
 B 1
 
 2 Introduction, 
 
 inflections. E.g. stan-as, stones; car-u, care; will-a, will', 
 bind-an, to bind; help-a8(= ath), they help. 
 
 It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Brit- 
 ain to about one hundred years after the Norman Conquest, 
 from A.D. 449 to 1150; but there are no literary remains 
 of the earlier centuries of this period. There were four 1 
 distinct dialects spoken at this time. These were the North- 
 umbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, 
 spoken in the midland region between the Humber and the 
 Thames; the West Saxon, spoken south and west of the 
 Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the neighborhood of 
 Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most 
 nearly akin to the Mercian ; but the best known of them 
 is the West Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that 
 King Alfred (849-901) wrote and spoke. His writings 
 belong to the period of Early West Saxon as distinguished 
 from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best 
 represented in the writings of Abbot ^Elf ric (955 ?-1025 ?). 
 
 3. The second period is that of MIDDLE ENGLISH, or the 
 period of leveled inflections, the dominant vowel of the in- 
 flections being e. E.g. ston-es, car-e. will-e, bind-en (or 
 bind-e), help-eth, each being, as in the earlier period, a 
 dissyllable. 
 
 The Middle English period extends from A.D. 1150 to 
 1500. Its greatest representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) 
 in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384) in prose. There were 
 three prominent dialects during this period : the Northern, 
 corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland 
 
 1 As small as England is, there are six distinct dialects spoken in 
 her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire dialect is. perhaps, the 
 most peculiar. It preserves many Northumbrian survivals. See Tenny- 
 son's Northern Farmer.
 
 History. 3 
 
 (divided into East Midland and West Midland), corre- 
 sponding to the Mercian; and the Southern, correspond- 
 ing to the West Saxon and Kentish. London, situated 
 in East Midland territory, had become the dominant 
 speech center; and it was this East Midland dialect that 
 both Chaucer and Wiclif employed. 
 
 NOTE. It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our 
 language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not 
 plastic. The popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus to 
 perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that dialect was 
 ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech of London 
 was, in Chaucer's time, a mixture of Southern and Midland forms, 
 but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon dialect) had 
 already begun to fall away ; and this they continued to do, so that 
 "Chaucer's language," as Dr. Murray says, "is more Southern than 
 standard English eventually became." See also Morsbach, Ueber den 
 Urspntng der neuenglischen Schriftsprache (1888). 
 
 4. The last period is that of MODERN ENGLISH, or the 
 period of lost inflections. E.g. stones, care, will, bind, help, 
 each being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from 
 A.D. 1500 to the present time. It has witnessed compara- 
 tively few grammatical changes, but the vocabulary of our 
 language has been vastly increased by additions from the 
 classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their values. 
 
 5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary 
 knowledge of Early West Saxon, that is, the language of 
 King Alfred. With this knowledge, it will not be difficult 
 for the student to read Late West Saxon, or any other 
 dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge will 
 also serve as the best introduction to the structure both 
 of Middle English and of Modern English, besides laying 
 a secure foundation for the scientific study of any other 
 Germanic tongue.
 
 Introduction. 
 
 NOTE. The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a branch 
 of the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the Indo- 
 European) group. They are subdivided as follows: 
 
 North Germanic : Scandinavian, or Norse. 
 
 Germanic - 
 
 East Germanic : 
 
 West Germanic . 
 
 Gothic. 
 High German 
 
 . Low German 
 
 ( Old High German, 
 
 (tO A.D. 1100,) 
 
 I Middle High German, 
 
 (A.D. 1100-1500,) 
 
 New High German. 
 
 [ (A.D. 1500-.) 
 ( Dutch, 
 I Old Saxon, 
 1 Frisian, 
 [ English. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SOUNDS. 
 
 / 
 
 Vowels and Diphthongs. 
 
 6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this 
 book be designated by the macron (~). Vowel length 
 should in every case be associated by the student with 
 each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distin- 
 guishes words meaning wholly different things: for, 
 he went, for, for; god, good, God, Crod ; man, crime, 
 man, man. 
 
 Long vowels and diphthongs: 
 
 a as in father : stan, a stone. 
 
 ae as in man (prolonged) : slaepan, to sleep. 
 
 5 as in they : hr, here. 
 
 I as in machine : mm. mine. 
 
 6 as in note (pure, not diphthongal) : boc, book.
 
 Sounds. 5 
 
 u as in rle : tun, town. 
 
 y as in German grim, or English green (with lips rounded). 1 brjrd, 
 bride. 
 
 The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress 
 upon the first vowel. The second vowel is obscu"red, 
 and represents approximately the sound of er in sooner, 
 faster ( = soon-uh, fast-uJi). The long diphthongs 
 (ae is not a diphthong proper) are So, Ie, and 5a. The 
 sound of eo is approximately reproduced in mayor 
 ( = md-uh) ; that of Ie in the dissyllabic pronunciation 
 of fear ( = fe-uh'). But Sa = ce-uh. This diphthong i 
 hardly to be distinguished from ea in pear, bear, etc., 
 as pronounced in the southern section of the United 
 States (= bce-uh, pce-uk). 
 
 7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long 
 vowels and diphthongs shortened ; but the student must 
 at once rid himself of the idea that Modern English 
 red, for example, is the shortened form of reed, or that 
 mat is the shortened form of mate. Pronounce these 
 long sounds with increasing rapidity, and reed will 
 approach rid, while mate will approach met. The Old 
 English short vowel sounds are : 
 
 a as in artistic : habban, to have. 
 
 ae as in mankind : daeg, day. 
 
 e, ^ as in let.: stelan, to steal, sfttan, to set. 
 
 i as in stt : hit, it. 
 
 o . as in broad (but shorter): God, God. 
 
 9 as in not: Iqmb. lamb. 
 
 u as in full : sunu, son. 
 
 y as in miller (with lips rounded) 1 : gylden, golden. 
 
 1 Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the lip-opening 
 is rounded ; that is, when the lips are thrust out and puckered as if
 
 6 Introduction. 
 
 NOTE. The symbol f is known as umlaut-e (58). It stands 
 for Germanic a, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic e. 
 The symbol 9 is employed only before m and n. It, too, represents 
 Germanic a. But Alfred writes manig or monig, many ; lamb or 
 lomb, lamb ; hand or bond, hand, etc. The cedilla is an etymologi- 
 cal sign added by modern grammarians. 
 
 Consonants. 
 
 8. There is little difference between the values of 
 Old English consonants and those of Modern English. 
 The following distinctions, however, require notice : 
 
 The digraph th is represented in Old English texts by 
 8 and b, no consistent distinction being made between 
 them. In the works of Alfred, 3 (capital, D) is the 
 more common : 3as, those; Saet, that; bindeS, he binds. 
 
 The consonant c had the hard sound of &, the latter 
 symbol being rare in West Saxon : cyning, king; cwgn, 
 queen; cuS, known. When followed by a palatal vowel 
 sound, e, i, oe, ea, eo, long or short, a vanishing y 
 sound was doubtless interposed (cf. dialectic k y ind for 
 kind). In Modern English the combination has passed 
 into ch: cealc, chalk; cldan, to chide; laece. leech; cild, 
 child; cgowan, to chew. This change (c > ch) is known 
 as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Mod- 
 ern English gun, has also a palatal value before the 
 palatal vowels (cf. dialectic g^irl for girl). 
 
 The combination eg, which frequently stands for 
 gg, had probably the sound of dge in Modern English 
 edge: cg, edge; slogan, to say ; brycg, bridge. 
 
 preparing to pronounce w. Thus o and u are round vowels : add -ing 
 to each, and phonetically you have added -icing. E.g. go w ing, su w ing.
 
 Sounds. 7 
 
 Initial h is sounded as in Modern English : habban, 
 to have; halga, saint. When closing a syllable it has 
 the sound of German ch: sloh, he slew; heah, high; 
 3urh, through. 
 
 9. An important distinction is that between voiced 
 (or sonant) and voiceless (or surd) consonants. 1 In 
 Old English they are as follows : 
 
 VOICED. VOICELESS. 
 
 g h, c 
 
 d t 
 
 3, p (as in /iough) 3, J> (as in thin) 
 
 b P 
 
 f(=v) f 
 
 S(=Z) 8 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that 8 (b), f, and. a have 
 double values in Old English. If voiced, they are 
 equivalent to th (in iAough), v, and z. Otherwise, they 
 are pronounced as th (in Ain), / (in /in), and s (in 
 sin). The syllabic environment will usually compel 
 the student to give these letters their proper values. 
 When occurring between vowels, they are always 
 voiced : oSer, other; ofer, over; rlsan, to rise. 
 
 NOTE. The general rule in Old English, as in Modern English, is, 
 that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced con- 
 sonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of Assimilation. 
 Thus when tZe is added to form the preterit of a verb whose stem 
 
 1 A little practice will enable the student to see the appropriateness 
 of calling these consonants voiced and voiceless. Try to pronounce 
 a voiced consonant, d in den, for example, but without the assistance 
 of en, and there will be heard a gurgle, or vocal murmur. But in 
 f, of ten, there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the 
 organs.
 
 8 Introduction. 
 
 ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced, or assimilated, to t. 
 septan, to set, s^tte (but tr^ddan, to tread, has tr^dde) ; sleepan, to 
 sleep, elaepte ; drejican, to drench, dr$ncte ; cyssan, to kiss, cyste. 
 See 126, Note 1. 
 
 Syllables. 
 
 10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or 
 in combination with consonants, uttered with a single 
 impulse of stress; but certain consonants may form 
 syllables : oven (= ov-n), battle (= bcet-l) ; (cf. also the 
 vulgar pronunciation of elm). 
 
 A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or 
 closed, (3) long or short. 
 
 (1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its 
 vowel sound is often different from that of the cor- 
 responding strong, or stressed, syllable. Of. weak and 
 strong my in " I want my large hat " and " I want 
 my hat." 
 
 (2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong : 
 de-man, to deem; 3u, thou ; sea-can, to shake; dee-ges, by 
 day. A closed syllable ends in one or more conso- 
 nants : Sing, thing; god, good; glaed, glad. 
 
 (3) A syllable is long (a) if it contains a long vowel 
 or a long diphthong: dri-fan, to drive; lu-can, to lock; 
 slae-pan, to sleep; ceo-san, to choose ; (6) if its vowel or 
 diphthong is followed by more than one consonant : J 
 creeft, strength; heard, hard; lib-ban, to live; feal-lan, 
 
 1 Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single consonant is 
 long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed syllables are long; 
 but in the natural flow of language, the single final consonant of a 
 syllable so often blends with a following initial vowel, the syllable 
 thus becoming open and short, that such syllables are not recognized 
 as prevailingly long. Cf. Modern English at all ( = a-tall} .
 
 Sounds. 9 
 
 to fall. Otherwise, the syllable is short: 8e, which; 
 be-ran, to bear ; Saet, that ; gie-fan, to give. 
 
 NOTE 1. A single consonant belongs to the following syllable: 
 ha-lig, holy (not hal-ig) ; wrl-tan, to write ; fee-der, father. 
 
 NOTE 2. The student will notice that the syllable may be long and 
 the vowel short; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable short. 
 
 NOTE 8. Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables, 
 have regularly become long in Modern English : we-fan, to weave ; 
 e-tan, to eat; ma-cian. to make; na-cod, naked; a-can, to ache; 
 o-fer, over. And Old English long vowels, preceding two or more 
 consonants, have generally been shortened : breost, breast ; heelS, 
 health; slaepte, slept; leedde, led. 
 
 
 
 Accentuation. 
 
 11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the 
 radical syllable, never on the inflectional ending : 
 briiigan, to bring ; stanas, stones; b^rende, bearing; fdelnes, 
 idleness; freondscipe, friendship. 
 
 But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and 
 adverbs the first member of the compound (unless it 
 be ge- or be-) receives the stronger stress : h^ofon-rlce, 
 heaven-kingdom; <$nd-giet, intelligence; soS-feest, truthful; 
 g6d-cund, divine; 6all-unga, entirely; bliSe-Uce, blithely. 
 But be-hat. promise; ge-bed, prayer; ge-fealic, joyous; 
 be-s6ne, immediately. 
 
 Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the 
 radical syllable : for-giefan, to forgive; of-llnnan, to cease; 
 a-cnawan, to knoiv ; wiS-stcjndan, to withstand; on-sacan, 
 to resist. 
 
 NOTE. The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix, 
 while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern 
 English words: preference, prefer; contract (noun), contract (verb); 
 abstinence, abstain; perfume (noun), perfume (verb).
 
 10 Introduction. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 INFLECTIONS. 
 Cases. 
 
 12. There are five cases in Old English : the nomi- 
 native, the genitive, the dative, the accusative, and 
 the instrumental. 1 Each of them, except the nomi- 
 native, may be governed by prepositions. When used 
 without prepositions, they have, in general, the fol- 
 lowing functions: 
 
 (a) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the 
 case of the subject of a finite verb. 
 
 (6) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern 
 English) is the case of the possessor or source. It 
 may be called the of case. 
 
 (c) The dative is the case of the indirect object. 
 It may be called the to or for case. 
 
 (d) The accusative (the objective case of Modern 
 English) is the case of the direct object. 
 
 (e) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the 
 dative in form, is the case of the means or the method. 
 It may be called the with or by case. 
 
 The following paradigm of muS, the mouth, illus- 
 trates the several cases (the article being, for the 
 present, gratuitously added in the Modern English 
 equivalents) : 
 
 i Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But it seems 
 best to consider the vocative as only a function of the nominative 
 form.
 
 Inflections. 11 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 N. muS = the mouth. muS-as = the mouths. 
 
 G. mu3-es l = of the mouth muS-a = of the mouths. 
 
 (= the mouth's). ( the mouths'). 
 
 D. muS-e=o or for the mouth. muS-um = to or for the mouths. 
 
 A. muS = the mouth. mu3-as = the mouths. 
 
 I. muSe = with or by means of mu3-um = with or by means of 
 
 the mouth. the mouths. 
 
 Gender. 
 
 13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that 
 of Modern English, depends partly on meaning and 
 partly on form, or ending. Thus muS, mouth, is mas- 
 culine ; tunge, tongue, feminine ; cage, eye, neuter. 
 
 No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given ; 
 but the gender of every noun should be learned with 
 its meaning. Gender will be indicated in the vocabu- 
 laries by the different gender forms of the definite 
 article, se for the masculine, sgo for the feminine, and 
 Seet for the neuter : se muS, seo tunge, Seet cage = the 
 mouth, the tongue, the eye. 
 
 All nouns ending in -dom, -had, -scipe, or -ere are 
 masculine (cf. Modern English wisdom, childhood, 
 friencU&tjp, worker). Masculine, also, are nouns end- 
 ing in -a. 
 
 Those ending in -nes or -ung are feminine (cf. Mod- 
 
 1 Of course our "apostrophe and s" (='s) comes from the Old 
 English genitive ending -es. The e is preserved in Wednesday ( = 01d 
 English Wodnes deeg). But at a very early period it was thought 
 that John's book, for example, was a shortened form of John his book. 
 Thus Addison (Spectator, No. 135) declares 's a survival of his. How, 
 then, would he explain the s of his? And how would he dispose of 
 Mary's book ?
 
 12 Introduction. 
 
 era English goodness, and gerundial forms in -ing: see- 
 ing is belie ving}. 
 
 Thus se wisdom, wisdom; se cildhad, childhood; se 
 freondscipe, friendship ; se fiscere, fisher (man) ; se hunta, 
 hunter; seo gelicnes, likeness ; seo leornung, learning. 
 
 Declensions. 
 
 14. There are two great systems of declension in 
 Old English, the Vowel Declension and the Consonant 
 Declension. A noun is said to belong to the Vowel 
 Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, 
 this vowel being then known as the stem-characteristic; 
 but if the stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun 
 belongs to the Consonant Declension. There might 
 have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of the 
 Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vow- 
 els, arid as many subdivisions of the Consonant De- 
 clension as there were consonants. All Old English 
 nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, 
 ended their stems originally in a, 6, i, or u. Hence 
 there are but four subdivisions of the Vowel Decjen- 
 sion : a-stems, 6-stems, i-stems, and u-stems. 
 
 The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong 
 Declension, and its nouns Strong Nouns. 
 
 NOTE. The terms Strong and "Weak were first used by Jacob 
 Grimm (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, and thence trans- 
 ferred to nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one 
 that could form its preterit out of its own resources ; that is, without 
 calling in the aid of an additional syllable : Modern English run, ran ; 
 find, found; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation had to borrow, as it 
 were, an inflectional syllable: gain, gained; help, helped.
 
 Inflections. 13 
 
 15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant 
 Declension ended, with but few exceptions, in the let- 
 ter n (cf. Latin homin-em, ration-em, Greek 7rot/*ei>-a) . 
 They are called, therefore, n-stems, the Declension 
 itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak 
 Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns. 
 
 16. If every Old English noun had preserved the 
 original Germanic stem-characteristic (or final letter 
 of the stem), there would be no difficulty in deciding 
 at once whether any given noun is an a-stem, 6-stem, 
 i-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, 
 for the most part, either been dropped, or fused with 
 the case-endings, long before the period of historic 
 Old English. It is only, therefore, by a rigid com- 
 parison of the Germanic languages with one another, 
 and with the other Aryan languages, that scholars 
 are able to reconstruct a single Germanic language, 
 in which the original stem-characteristics may be seen 
 far better than in any one historic branch of the Ger- 
 manic group (5, Note). 
 
 This hypothetical language, which bears the same 
 ancestral relation to the historic Germanic dialects 
 that Latin bears to the Romance tongues, is known 
 simply as Germanic (Gmc.), or as Primitive G-ermanic. 
 Ability to reconstruct- Germanic forms is not ex- 
 pected of the students of this book, but the follow- 
 ing table should be examined as illustrating the 
 basis of distinction among the several Old English 
 declensions (O.E. = Old English, Mn.E. = Modern 
 English) :
 
 14 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Strong or Vowel De- 
 clensions 
 
 II. Consonant Declensions 
 
 (1) a-stems 
 
 (2) 6-stems 
 
 (3) i-stems 
 
 (1) n-stems (Weak 
 Declension) 
 
 C Gmc. 
 j O.E. 
 
 Gmc. staina-z, 
 O.E. stan, 
 Mn.E. stone. 
 Gmc. hallo, 
 O.E. heall, 
 Mn.E. hall. 
 Gmc. boni-z, 
 O.E. ben, 
 Mn.E. boon. 
 ( Gmc. sunu-z, 
 (4) u-stems j O.E. sunu, 
 I Mn.E. son. 
 
 tungon-iz, 
 tung-an, 
 I Mn.E. tongue-s. 
 Gmc. fot-iz, 
 O.E. fet, 
 Mn.E. /ee. 
 Gmc. frijond-iz 
 O.E. friend, 
 Mn.E. friend-s. 
 
 (Gmc. brotir-is, 
 O.E. broSor, 
 Mn.E. brother-s. 
 
 NOTE. "It will be seen that if Old English cage, eye, is said to be 
 an n-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period the kernel 
 of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old English language 
 proper is concerned, all that is implied is that the word is inflected 
 in a certain manner." (Jespersen, Progress in Language, 109). 
 
 This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant 
 The division, therefore, into a-stems, 6-stems, etc., is made in th-s 
 interests of grammar as well as of philology. 
 
 Conjugations. 
 
 17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation 
 in Old English : the Strong or Old Conjugation, and 
 the Weak or New Conjugation. 
 
 (2) Remnants of 
 other Con- 
 sonant De- 
 clensions 
 
 (6)
 
 Inflections. 
 
 15 
 
 The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called 
 Irregular Verbs of Modern English) number about 
 three hundred, of which not one hundred remain in 
 Modern English ( 101, Note). They form their pret- 
 erit and frequently their past participle by changing 
 the radical vowel of the present stem. This vowel 
 change or modification is called ablaut (pronounced 
 dhp-lowt) : Modern English sing, sang, sung ; rise, rose, 
 risen. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is 
 often different from that of the preterit singular, there 
 are four principal parts or tense stems in an Old 
 English strong verb, instead of the three of Modern 
 English. The four principal parts in the conju- 
 gation of a strong verb are (1) the present indica- 
 tive, (2) the preterit indicative singular, (3) the 
 preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past participle. 
 
 Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in 
 the following table : 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRET. SING. 
 
 PRET. PLUK. 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 I. 
 
 
 
 
 Bitan, to bite : 
 
 
 
 
 Ic bit-e, / bite or 
 shall bite. 1 
 
 Ic bat, J 
 
 bit. 
 
 W bit-on, 
 
 we bit. 
 
 Ic haebbe ge 2 -bit- 
 en, / have bitten. 
 
 II. 
 
 
 
 
 Beodan, to bid: 
 
 
 
 
 Ic beod-e, I bid or 
 
 shall bid. 
 
 Ic bead, I 
 
 bade. 
 
 We bud-on, 
 
 toe bade. 
 
 Ic haebbe ge-bod- 
 en, / have bidden. 
 
 1 Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the future. The 
 present was used both as present proper and as future. Cf. Modern 
 English "I go home tomorrow," or "I am going home tomorrow" 
 for "I shall go home tomorrow." 
 
 2 The prefix ge- (Middle English y-), cognate with Latin co (con) 
 and implying completeness of action, was not always used. It never
 
 16 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PEET. SING. 
 
 PRET. PLUB. 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 III. 
 
 
 
 
 Bindan, to bind : 
 
 
 
 
 Ic bind-e, / bind or 
 shall bind. 
 
 Ic bpnd, / 
 6o?md. 
 
 We bund-on, 
 
 we bound. 
 
 Ic heebbe ge-bund- 
 en, I have bound. 
 
 IV. 
 
 
 
 
 Beran, to bear : 
 
 
 
 
 Ic ber-e, / bear or 
 shall bear. 
 
 Ic beer, / 
 
 bore. 
 
 We beer-ou, 
 
 we bore. 
 
 Ic heebbe ge-bor- 
 en, I ham I orne. 
 
 V. 
 
 
 
 
 Metan, to measure: 
 
 
 
 
 Icmet-e, [measure 
 or shall measure. 
 
 Ic meet, / 
 
 measured. 
 
 We meet-on, 
 
 we measured. 
 
 Ic heebbe ge-met- 
 en, / have meas- 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 
 ured. 
 
 Faran, to go : 
 
 
 
 
 Ic far-e, / go or 
 
 shall go. 
 
 Ic for, / 
 
 went. 
 
 We for-on, 
 
 we went. 
 
 Ic eom 1 ge-far-en, 
 
 I have (am} gone. 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 
 
 Feallan, to fall : 
 
 
 
 
 Ic feall e, I fall or 
 shall fall. 
 
 Ic feoll, 7 
 
 fell. 
 
 We feoll-on, 
 we fell. 
 
 Ic eom 1 ge-f eall-en, 
 / have (am) fallen. 
 
 18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called 
 Regular Verbs of Modern English) form their preterit 
 
 occurs in the past participles of compound verbs : ob-feallan, to fall 
 off, past participle ob-feallen (not ob-gefeallen). Milton errs in 
 prefixing it to a present participle : 
 
 " What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour'd bones, 
 The labour of an age in piled stones? 
 Or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid 
 Under a star-ypointing pyramid." 
 
 Epitaph on William Shakespeare. 
 
 And Shakespeare misuses it in " Y-ravished," a preterit (Pericles III, 
 Prologue 1. 35). 
 
 It survives in the archaic y-clept (Old English ge-clypod, called). 
 It appears as a in aware (Old English ge-weer), as e in enough (Old 
 English ge-noh), and as i in handiwork (Old English hand-ge-weorc). 
 1 With intransitive verbs denoting change of condition, the Old 
 English auxiliary is usually some form of to be rather than to have. 
 See 139.
 
 Inflections. 
 
 17 
 
 and past participle by adding to the present stem a suffix 1 
 with d or t : Modern English love, loved ; sleep, slept. 
 
 The stem of the preterit plural is never different 
 from the stem of the preterit singular ; hence these 
 verbs have only three distinctive tense-stems, or prin- 
 cipal parts: viz., (1) the present indicative, (2) the 
 preterit indicative, and (3) the past participle. 
 
 Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in 
 the following table : 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Frf mman, to perform : 
 Ic frf mm-e, / perform 
 or shall perform. 
 
 II. 
 
 Bodian, to proclaim : 
 Ic bodi-e, / proclaim 
 or shall proclaim. 
 
 III. 
 
 Habban, to have : 
 Ic haebbe, / have or 
 shall have. 
 
 Ic fr^m-ede, I per- 
 formed. 
 
 Ic bod-ode, I pro- 
 claimed. 
 
 Ic haef-de, / had. 
 
 Ic haebbe ge-fr^m-ed, 
 / have performed. 
 
 Ic haebbe ge-bod-od, 
 
 / have proclaimed. . 
 
 Ic haebbe ge-haef-d, / 
 
 have had. 
 
 19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary 
 Verbs of Modern English) that do not belong entirely to 
 either of the two conjugations mentioned. The most 
 important of them are, Ic maeg I may, Ic mihte I might ; 
 Ic 0911 T can, Ic cuSe I could ; Ic mot I must, Ic moste I 
 
 1 The theory that loved, for example, is a fused form of love-did 
 has been generally given up. The dental ending was doubtless an 
 Indo-Germanic suffix, which became completely specialized only in 
 the Teutonic languages.
 
 18 Introduction. 
 
 must; Ic sceal I shall, Ic sceolde I should , Ic eom I am, 
 Ic was I ivas; Ic wille / will, Ic wolde / would; Ic do 
 I do, Ic dyde I did ; Ic a /#<?, Ic eode I went. 
 
 All but the last four of these are known as Preterit- 
 Present Verbs. The present tense of each of them 
 is in origin a preterit, in function a present. Of. 
 Modern English ought (= owed). 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ORDER OF WORDS. 
 
 20. The order of words in Old English is more 
 like that of Modern German than of Modern English. 
 Yet it is only the Transposed order that the student 
 will feel to be at all un-English ; and the Transposed 
 order, even before the period of the Norman Conquest, 
 was fast yielding place to the Normal order. 
 
 The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) 
 Inverted, and (3) Transposed. 
 
 (1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old 
 English, the Normal order is found chiefly in inde- 
 pendent clauses. The predicate is followed by its 
 modifiers : Se hwael bi3 micle laessa Jjonne 63re hwalas. 
 That whale is much smaller than other whales; Qad hg 
 geseah twa scipu, And he saw two ships. 
 
 (2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order 
 occurs also in independent clauses, and is employed 
 (a) when some modifier of the predicate precedes the 
 predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The
 
 Order of Words. 19 
 
 words most frequently causing Inversion in Old Eng- 
 lish prose are pa. then, bonne then, and b*r there : Da for 
 he, Then went he; Donne aernaS hy ealle toweard baem 
 feo, Then gallop they all toward the property ; ac beer 
 biS medo genoh, but there is mead enough. 
 
 Inversion is employed (6) in interrogative sentences: 
 Lufast Su me? Lovest thou mef and (<?) in imperative 
 sentences: Cume Sin rice, Thy kingdom come. 
 
 (3) Transposed order = subject . . . predicate. That 
 is, the predicate comes last in the sentence, being pre- 
 ceded by its modifiers. This is the order observed in 
 dependent clauses: 1 Donne cymeS se man se beet swift - 
 oste hors hafaS, Then comes the man that has the swiftest 
 horse (literally, that the siviftest horse has); Ne mette he 
 ser nan gebun land, sibban he fr9m his agnum ham for, Nor 
 did he before find any cultivated land, after he went from 
 his own home (literally, after he from his own home went). 
 
 21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words 
 require a brief notice. 
 
 (1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually pre- 
 cede the predicate : He hine oferwann. He overcame him 
 (literally, He him overcame)', Dryhten him andwyrde, 
 The Lord ansivered him. But substantival datives and 
 accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. 
 
 1 But in the Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, in which the style 
 is apparently more that of oral than of written discourse, the Normal 
 is more frequent than the Transposed order in dependent clauses. In 
 his other writings Alfred manifests a partiality for the Transposed 
 order in dependent clauses, except in the case of substantival clauses 
 introduced by baet. Such clauses show a marked tendency to revert 
 to their Normal oratio recta order. The norm thus set by the indirect 
 affirmative clause seems to have proved an important factor in the
 
 20 Introduction. 
 
 The following sentence illustrates both orders : Hy 
 genamon Joseph, Qnd hine gesealdon cipen^nnum, 9nd hy 
 hine gesealdon in Egypta Iqnd, They took Joseph, and sold 
 him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt (literally, 
 They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they 
 him sold into Egyptians' 1 land). 
 
 NOTE. The same order prevails in the case of pronominal nomi- 
 natives used as predicate nouns : Ic hit eom, It is I (literally, / it am); 
 Du hit eart, It is thou (literally, Thou it art). 
 
 (2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship 
 it expresses, usually precedes the noun which it quali- 
 fies: Breoton is garsecges igland, Britain is an island of 
 the ocean (literally, ocean's island); Swilce hit is eac 
 berende on w^cga orum, Likeivise it is also rich in ores 
 of metals (literally, metals' ores') ; Cyninga cyning, King 
 of kings (literally, Kings' king) ; Ge witon Godes rices 
 geryne, Ye know the mystery of the kingdom of G-od 
 (literally, Ye know G-od' 8 kingdom's mystery}. 
 
 A preposition governing the word modified by the 
 genitive, precedes the genitive : J On ealdra manna 
 ssegenum, In old men's sayings ; JEt Qsera streeta fndum, 
 At the ends of the streets (literally, At the streets' 
 ends) ; For ealra Slnra halgena lufan, For all thy saints' 
 love. See, also, 94, (5). 
 
 ultimate disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The 
 influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that 
 were already busily at work. 
 
 1 The positions of the genitive are various. It frequently follows 
 its noun: pa beam para ASeniensa. The children of the Athenians. 
 It may separate an adjective and a noun : An lytel sees earm, A little 
 arm of (the) sea. The genitive may here be construed as an adjec- 
 tive, or part of a compound = A little sea-arm; Mid m9negum 
 Godes gifum. With many God-gifts ;= many divine gifts.
 
 Practical Suggestions. 21 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 22. In the study of Old English, the student must 
 remember that he is dealing not with a foreign or 
 isolated language but with the earlier forms of his own 
 mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and 
 stimulating in proportion as close and constant com- 
 parison is made of the old with the new. The guiding 
 principles in such a comparison are reducible chiefly to 
 two. These are (1) the regular operation of phonetic 
 laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, 
 and (2) the alterations in form and syntax that are 
 produced by Analogy. 
 
 (1) "The former of these is of physiological or 
 natural origin, and is perfectly and inflexibly regular 
 throughout the same period of the same language; 
 and even though different languages show different 
 phonetic habits and predilections, there is a strong 
 general resemblance between the changes induced in 
 one language and in another; many of the particular 
 laws are true for many languages. 
 
 (2) " The other principle is psychical, or mental, or 
 artificial, introducing various more or less capricious 
 changes that are supposed to be emendations; and its 
 operation is, to some extent, uncertain and fitful." l 
 
 1 Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, Second Series, 342. 
 But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly contests "the theory 
 of sound laws and analogy sufficing between them to explain every- 
 thing in linguistic development."
 
 22 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 (1) Vowel-Shif tings. 
 
 23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring 
 the inflections and vocabulary of Old English to note 
 carefully the following shiftings that have taken place 
 in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system 
 into that of Modern English. 
 
 (1) As stated in 3, the Old English inflectional 
 vowels, which were all short and unaccented, weakened 
 in early Middle English to e. This e in Modern Eng- 
 lish is frequently dropped : 
 
 OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 MIDDLE ENGLISH. 
 
 MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 stan-as 
 
 ston-es 
 
 stones 
 
 sun-u 
 
 sun-e 
 
 son 
 
 sun-a 
 
 sun-e 
 
 sons 
 
 ox-an 
 
 ox-en 
 
 oxen 
 
 swift-ra 
 
 swift-er 
 
 swifter 
 
 swift-ost 
 
 swift-est 
 
 swiftest 
 
 I6c-ode 
 
 lok-ede 
 
 looked 
 
 (2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their 
 phonetic values with such uniform regularity that it is 
 possible in almost every case to infer the Modern Eng- 
 lish sound ; but our spelling is so chaotic that while the 
 student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always 
 infer the modern symbol representing the sound. 
 
 OLD ENGLISH. MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 o (as in no"* 1 
 
 na = no ; stan = stone ; ban = 
 bone; rad=roa(Z; c = oak; 
 hal = whole ; ham = home.; 
 sawan = to sow; gast = 
 ghost. 
 
 1 But Old English a preceded by w sometimes gives Modern English 
 o as in two : twa = two ; hwa = who ; hwam = whom.
 
 Practical Suggestions. 
 
 23 
 
 OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 e (as in he) 
 
 i (y) (as in mine) 
 
 o (as in do) 
 
 ou (ow) (as in thou) 
 
 ae, ea. eo 
 
 ea (as in sea) 
 
 I he he ; we we ; 8e = thee ; 
 
 werig = iceary ; gelefan = /<. 
 
 (. believe ; gSs = geese. 
 min = mine ; Sin = thine ; wir 
 = wire ; mys = mice ; rim = 
 rime (wrongly spelt rhyme); 
 If a = lice ; bi = by ; scinan = 
 to shine ; stig-rap = sty-rope 
 (shortened to stirrup, stlgan 
 meaning to mount). 
 
 {Ao I do; to = too, to; gos = 
 goose; to9 tooth; mona = 
 moon; dom=doom; mod = 
 mood; wogian = to woo; 
 slob = / slew. 
 
 ;' 9u=thou ; ful =foul; bus = 
 house ; nu = now ; hu = how; 
 tun = tote n ; ure = our ; ut= 
 out; tilud=loud; 3usend= 
 thousand. 
 
 se -. see = sea ; mael = meal ; 
 
 daelan = to deal ; claene = 
 
 clean ; graedig greedy. 
 ea : eare = ear ; east = east ; 
 
 dream = dream ; gear year; 
 
 beatan = to beat. 
 go : Sreo = three ; drgorig = 
 
 dreary; sgo=Ae; hreod= 
 
 reed ; deop = deep. 
 
 (2) Analogy. 
 
 24. But more important than vowel shifting is the 
 great law of Analogy, for Analogy shapes not only 
 words but constructions. It belongs, therefore, to
 
 24 Introduction. 
 
 Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form 
 and function. By this law, minorities tend to pass 
 over to the side of the majorities. " The greater 
 mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence upon 
 the smaller." 1 The effect of Analogy is to simplify 
 and to regularize. " The main factor in getting rid 
 of irregularities is group-influence, or Analogy the 
 influence exercised by the members of an association- 
 group on one another. . . . Irregularity consists in 
 partial isolation from an association-group through 
 some formal difference." 2 
 
 Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions 
 and conjugations have been swept away, leaving in 
 Modern English not a trace of their former existence. 
 There are in Old English, for example, five plural end- 
 ings for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well 
 have predicted 3 that -as (Middle English -es) would 
 soon take the lead, and become the norm to which 
 the other endings would eventually conform, for there 
 were more an-plurals than as-plurals ; but the as- 
 plurals were doubtless more often employed in every- 
 day speech. Oxen (Old English oxan) is the sole pure 
 survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. 
 
 1 Whitney, Life and Growth of Language, Chap. IV. 
 
 2 Sweet, A New English Grammar, Part I., 535. 
 
 8 As Skeat says ( 22, (2)), Analogy is "fitful." It enables us to 
 explain many linguistic phenomena, but not to anticipate them. The 
 multiplication of books tends to check its influence by perpetuating 
 the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer employed nine en-plurals, 
 and his influence served for a time to check the further encroachment 
 of the es-plurals. As soon as there is an acknowledged standard in 
 any language, the operation of Analogy is fettered.
 
 Practical Suggestions. 25 
 
 No group of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as 
 the genitive singular ending ; but by the close of the 
 Middle English period all feminines formed their 
 genitive singular in -es (or -s, Modern English ') 
 after the analogy of the Old English masculine and 
 neuter nouns with es-genitives. The weak preterits 
 in -ode have all been leveled under the ed-forms, and 
 of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English 
 more than two hundred have become weak. 
 
 These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted 
 vowels) : Modern English -s in sons, for example, could 
 not possibly be derived from Old English -a in suna, or 
 Middle English -e in sune ( 23, (1)). They are cases 
 of replacement by Analogy. 
 
 A few minor examples will quicken the student's 
 appreciation of the nature of the influence exercised 
 by Analogy : 
 
 (a) The intrusive I in could (Chaucer always wrote 
 coud or coude) is due to association with would and 
 should, in each of which I belongs by etymological 
 right. 
 
 (6) He need not (for He needs not} is due to the 
 assimilative influence of the auxiliaries may, can, etc., 
 which have never added -s for their third person 
 singular ( 137). 
 
 (<?) I am friends with him, in which friends is a 
 crystalized form for on good terms, may be traced to 
 the influence of such expressions as He and I are 
 friends, They are friends, etc. 
 
 (cT) Such errors as are seen in runned, seed, gooses, 
 ladder, hisself, says I (usually coupled with says he}
 
 26 Introduction. 
 
 are all analogical formations. Though not sanctioned 
 by good usage, it is hardly right to call these forms 
 the products of "false analogy." The grammar in- 
 volved is false, because unsupported by literary usages 
 and traditions ; but the analogy on which these forms 
 are built is no more false than the law of gravitation 
 is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally.
 
 PAKT II. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
 
 THE STRONG OR VOWEL DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. 
 
 THE a-DECLENSION. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 (a) Masculine cr-S terns. 
 
 [O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle 
 English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are self- 
 explaining.] 
 
 25. The a-Declension, corresponding to the Second 
 or o-Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only 
 (a) masculine and (6) neuter nouns. To this declen- 
 sion belong most of the O.E. masculine and neuter 
 nouns of the Strong Declension. At a very early period, 
 many of the nouns belonging properly to the i- and 
 u-Declensions began to pass over to the a-Declension. 
 This declension may therefore be considered the normal 
 declension for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging 
 to the Strong Declension. 
 
 26. Paradigms of ae mu3, mouth; se fiscere, fisher- 
 man ; ae hwael, whale ; ae mearh. horse ; se finger, finger : 
 
 27
 
 28 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 Sing. N.A. 
 G. 
 D.I. 
 
 mu$ 
 mfrS-es 
 mir5-e 
 
 fiscer-e 
 fiscer-es 
 fiscer-e 
 
 hwsel 
 hwsel-es 
 hwael-e 
 
 mearh 
 mear-es 
 mear-e 
 
 finger 
 fingr-es 
 fingr-e 
 
 Plur. N.A. 
 G. 
 D.I. 
 
 muiS-as 
 mirS-a 
 mu$-um 
 
 fiscer-as 
 fiscer-a 
 fiscer-um 
 
 hwal-as 
 hwal-a 
 hwal-um 
 
 mear-as 
 mear-a 
 mear-um 
 
 fingr-as 
 fingr-a 
 fingr-um 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 For meanin 
 
 gs of the 
 
 cases, see 
 
 12. The 
 
 dative and 
 
 instrumental are alike in all nouns. 
 
 27. The student will observe (1) that nouns whose 
 nominative ends in -e (fiscere) drop this letter before 
 adding the case endings ; (2) that ee before a consonant 
 (hweel) changes to a in the plural ; l (3) that h, preceded 
 by r (mearh) or 1 (seolh, seal), is dropped before an inflec- 
 tional vowel, the stem diphthong being then lengthened 
 by way of compensation ; (4) that dissyllables (finger ) 
 having the first syllable long, usually syncopate the vowel 
 of the second syllable before adding the case endings. 2 
 
 28. Paradigm of the Definite Article 3 se, seo, Saet = the: 
 
 1 Adjectives usually retain se in closed syllables, changing it to a 
 in open syllables: hwaet (active), glaed (glad), waer (wary) have 
 G. hwates. glades, wares ; D. hwatum. gladum. warum ; but 
 A. hwaetne, glaedne. weerne. Nouns, however, change to a only 
 in open syllables followed by a guttural vowel, a or u. The se in 
 the open syllables of the singular is doubtless due to the analogy 
 of the N.A. singular, both being closed syllables. 
 
 2 Of. Mn.E. drizzling, remembering, abysmal (abysm = abiz u m), 
 sickening, in which the principle of syncopation is precisely the same. 
 
 8 This may mean four things: (1) The, (2) That (demonstrative), 
 (3) He, she, it, (4) Who, which, that (relative pronoun). Mn.E. de- 
 monstrative that is, of course, the survival of O.E. neuter Seet in its 
 demonstrative sense. Professor Victor Henry (Comparative Grammar 
 of English and German, 160, 3) sees a survival of dative plural demon- 
 strative Saem in such an expression as in them days. It seems 
 more probable, however, that them so used has followed tb le?d of
 
 Masculine a.-Stems. 
 
 29 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Sing. N. se (se) 
 
 G. Sses 
 
 D. Sjem (Sam) 
 
 A. Sone 
 
 /. Sy, Son 
 
 Plur. N.A. 
 G. 
 D. 
 
 Feminine. 
 seo 
 
 "Ssere 
 Sa 
 
 Genders. 
 
 a 
 
 "Sara 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 Saet 
 
 Saes 
 
 Sasm (Sam) 
 
 SjBt 
 
 Sy, Son 
 
 (Sam) 
 
 29. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 1 
 
 se bocere, scribe [boc]. 
 
 s cyning, fcutgr. 
 
 se daeg, day. 
 
 se $nde. end. 
 
 se fngel, angel [angelus]. 
 
 se freedom, freedom. 
 
 se fugol (G. sometimes fugles), 
 
 />u-d [fowl]. 
 
 se gar, spear [gore, gar- fish]. 
 se heofon, heaven. 
 
 se hierde, herdsman [shep-herd]. 
 
 pnd (and), ;/. 
 
 se secg. man, warrior. 
 
 se seolh, seal. 
 
 se stan, ^one. 
 
 se wealh, foreigner, Welshman 
 
 [wal-nut]. 
 se w^eall, wall. 
 se wisdom, wisdom. 
 se wrilf, 
 
 30. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. Dara wulf a mu<5as. 2. Dees fisceres fingras. 3. Dara 
 Weala cyninge. 4. Dsem ^nglum ^nd &em hierdum. 5. Dara 
 
 this and these, that and those, in their double function of pronoun and 
 adjective. There was doubtless some such evolution as, / saw them. 
 Them what ? Them boys. 
 
 An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the 
 article is seen in the -ter of Atterbury (= set Saere byrig, at the town); 
 and Seem survives in the -ten of Attenborough, the word borough having 
 become an uninflected neuter. Skeat, Principles, First Series, 185. 
 
 1 The brackets contain etymological hints that may help the student 
 to discern relationships otherwise overlooked. The genitive is given 
 only when not perfectly regular.
 
 30 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 daga e_nde. 6. Deem bocerum $nd ftgem se,cgum Sees cyninges. 
 7. Deem seole ond Sseni f uglum. 8. Da stanas ond Sa garas. 
 9. Hwala ond meara. 10. Dara e^ngla wisdom. 11. Dees 
 cyninges boceres freodom. 12. Dara hierda f uglum. 13. Dy 
 stane. 14. Deem wealle. 
 
 II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welsh- 
 men's freedom. 3. Of the king's birds. 4. By the wis- 
 dom of men and angels. 5. With the spear and the stone. 
 6. The herdsman's seal and the warriors' spears. 7. To 
 the king of heaven. 8. By means of the scribe's wisdom. 
 9. The whale's mouth and the foreigner's spear. 10. For 
 the bird belonging to (= of) the king's scribe. 11. Of that 
 finger. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 (&) Neuter a-Stems. 
 
 31. The neuter nouns of the a-Declension differ from 
 the masculines only in the N.A. plural. 
 
 32. Paradigms of 8aet hof, court, dwelling ; Saet beam, 
 child ; Seet ban, bone ; Sect rice, kingdom ; Seet spere, 
 spear ; Saet werod, band of men ; Seet tungol, star: 
 
 Sing. N.A. hof beam ban ric-e sper-e werod tungol 
 
 (?. hof-es bearn-es ban-es ric-es sper-es werod-es tungl-es 
 D.I. hof-e bearn-e ban-e ric-e sper-e werod-e tungl-e 
 Plur.N.A. hof-u beam ban rlc-u sper-u werod tungl-u 
 G. hof-a bearn-a ban-a rlc-a sper-a werod-a tungl-a 
 D.I. hof-um bearn-um ban-urn rlc-um sper-um werod-um tungl-um 
 
 33. The paradigms show (1) that monosyllables with 
 short stems (hof) take -u in the N.A. plural ; (2) that
 
 Neuter a-Stems. 31 
 
 monosyllables with long stems (beam, ban) do not distin- 
 guish the N. A. plural from the N.A. singular; 1 (8) that 
 dissyllables in -e, whether the stem be long or short (rice, 
 spere), have -u in the N.A. plural ; (4) that dissyllables 
 ending in a consonant and having the first syllable short 2 
 ( werod) do not usually distinguish the N.A. plural from 
 the N.A. singular; (5) that dissyllables ending in a con- 
 sonant and having the first syllable long (tungol) more 
 frequently take -u in the N.A. plural. 
 
 NOTE. Syncopation occurs as in the masculine a-stems. See 
 27, (4). 
 
 34. Present and Preterit Indicative of habban, to have : 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Sing. I. Ic haebbe, I have, or shall have.* 
 
 2. Su haefst (hafast), thou hast, or wilt have. 
 
 3. he, heo, hit haefS (hafaS), he, she, it has, or will have. 
 Plur. 1. we habbaS, i>~e have, or shall have. 
 
 2. ge habbaS. ye have, or will have. 
 
 3. hie habbaS, they have, or unll have. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic haefde. I had. 
 
 2: 3u haefdest, thou hadst. 
 
 3. he, heo, hit haefde, he, she, it had. 
 
 Plur. 1. we haefdon, we had. 
 
 2. ge haefdon, ye had. 
 
 3. hie haefdon, they had. 
 
 1 Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in the plural. 
 These are either survivals of O.E. long stems, swine, sheep, deer, folk, 
 or analogical forms, jish, trout, mackerel, salmon, etc. 
 
 * Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are, of course, ex- 
 cluded. They follow the declension of their last member: gebed, 
 prayer, gebedu, prayers ; gefeoht, battle, gefeoht, battles. 
 
 8 See 17, Note 1. Note that (as in hwael, 27, (2)) ae changes 
 to a when the following syllable contains a : haebbe, but hafast.
 
 32 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 NOTE. The negative ne, not, which always precedes its verb, 
 contracts with all the forms of habban. The negative loses its e, 
 habban its h. Ne + habban = nabban ; Ic ne haebbe = Ic 
 naebbe ; Ic ne haefde = Ic naefde. etc. The negative forms may 
 be got, therefore, by simply substituting in each case n for h. 
 
 35. VOCABULARY. 
 
 Saet dael, dale. 
 
 Saet deor, animal [deer 1 ]. 
 
 Saet dor, door. 
 
 Saet fast, vessel [vat]. 
 
 Saet fyr, fire. 
 
 Saet gear, year. 
 
 Saet geoc, yoke. 
 
 Saet geset, habitation [set* 
 
 tlement], 
 Saet heafod, head. 
 
 Saet bus, house. 
 
 Saet lie, body [lich-gate]. 
 
 Saet lim, limb. 
 
 on 
 
 (with dat.) in. 
 Saet spor, track. 
 Saet weepen, weapon. 
 Saet wlf , wife, woman. 
 Saet wite, punishment. 
 Saet word, word. 
 
 36. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. He hafaft Sees cyninges beam. 2. Da Wealas hab- 
 batS oa speru. 3. Da wlf habbaS Sara s^cga waepnu. 4. Du 
 hsef st tSone f ugol Qnd tJset hus t5aes hierdes. 5. HaefS 2 heo 
 a f atu 3 ? 6. Hgef de he Sees wlf es lie on Ssem hof e ? 7. He 
 nsefde Sses wifes lie ; lie haefde Sees deores heafod. 8. HaefS 
 se cyning gesetu on Ssem daele ? 9. Se bocere hsefS tSa seolas 
 on tSsem huse. 10. Ge habbaS freodom. 
 
 II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the 
 vessels in the house. 3. He had fire in the vessel. 4. Did 
 the woman have (= Had the woman) the children ? 5. The 
 animal has the body of the woman's child. 6. I shall have 
 
 1 The old meaning survives in Shakespeare's " Rats and mice and 
 such small deer," King Lear, III, 4, 144. 
 
 a See 20, (2), (6). See 27, (2).
 
 The o-Declension. 
 
 33 
 
 the heads of the wolves. 7. He and she have the king's 
 rtouses. 8. Have not (= NabbaS) the children the warrior's 
 weapons ? 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE 6-DECLENS1ON. 
 
 37. The 6-Declension, corresponding to the First 
 or a-Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only 
 feminine nouns. Many feminine i-stems and u-stems 
 soon passed over to this Declension. The 6-Declension 
 may, therefore, be considered the normal declension for 
 all strong feminine nouns. 
 
 38. Paradigms of seo giefu, gift; sgo wund, wound; 
 seo rod, cross; seo leornung, learning; seo sawol, soul: 
 
 Sing. iV~. gief-u 
 
 G. gief-e 
 
 D.I. gief-e 
 
 A. gief-e 
 
 Plur. N.A. gief-a 
 G. gief-a 
 D. I. gief-um 
 
 39. Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems 
 (giefu) take u in the nominative singular ; (2) that 
 monosyllables with long stems (wund, rod) present the 
 unchanged stem in the nominative singular ; (3) that 
 dissyllables are declined as monosyllables, except that 
 abstract nouns in -ung prefer a to e in the singular. 
 
 NOTE. Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. 
 See 27, (4). 
 
 wund 
 
 r5d 
 
 leornung 
 
 sawol 
 
 wund-e 
 
 rod-e 
 
 leornung-a (e) 
 
 sawl-e 
 
 vrund-e 
 
 rod-e 
 
 leornung-a (e) 
 
 sawl-e 
 
 wund-e 
 
 rod-e 
 
 leornung-a (e) 
 
 sawl-e 
 
 wund-a 
 
 rod-a 
 
 leornung-a 
 
 sawl-a 
 
 wund-a 
 
 rod-a 
 
 leornung-a 
 
 sawl-a 
 
 wund-nm 
 
 rod-um 
 
 leornung-um 
 
 sawl-um
 
 34 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 40. Present and Preterit Indicative of beon (wesan), 
 
 to be : 
 
 PRESENT (first form). PRESENT (second form). PRETERIT. 
 
 Sing, 1. Ic eom 1. Ic beom 1. Ic waes 
 
 2. ~5u eart 2. M bist 2. flu wsere 
 
 3. he is 3. he biS 3. he wges 
 Plur. 1. we ] 1. we "I 1. we 1 
 
 2. ge [ sind (on), sint 2. ge I beo$ 2. ge \ wSron 
 
 3. hleJ 3. MeJ 3. hie J 
 
 NOTE 1. The forms beom, bist, etc. are used chiefly as future 
 tenses in O.E. They survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry. 
 Farmer Dobson, for example, in Tennyson's Promise of May, uses be 
 for all persons of the present indicative, both singular and plural ; and 
 there be is frequent in Shakespeare for there are. The Northern 
 dialect employed aron as well as sindon and sind for the present 
 plural ; hence Mn.E. are. 
 
 NOTE 2. Fusion with ne gives neom, neart, nis for the present ; 
 naes, naere, neeron for the preterit. 
 
 NOTE 3. The verb to be is followed by the nominative case, as in 
 Mn.E. ; but when the predicate noun is plural, and the subject a 
 neuter pronoun in the singular, the verb agrees in number with the 
 predicate noun. The neuter singular Saet is frequently employed in 
 this construction : Deet weeron eall Finnas, They were all Fins ; 
 Daet sind fnglas, They are angels; Daet waeroii ?ngla gastas. 
 They were angels' spirits. 
 
 Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say It is 7, It is thou, but 1 
 it am, Thou it art: Ic hit eom, 3u hit eart. See 21, (1), Note 1. 
 
 41. VOCABULARY. 
 
 seo brycg, bridge. 
 
 seo costnung, temptation. 
 
 so cwalu, death [quail, quell]. 
 
 so for, journey [f aran] . 
 
 seo frofor, consolation, comfort. 
 
 seo geoguS, youth. 
 seo glof, glove. 
 seo halignes 1 holiness. 
 seo heall. hall. 
 her, here. 
 
 1 All words ending in -nes double the -B before adding the case 
 endings.
 
 The i-Declension. 
 
 35 
 
 hwa, icho? 
 
 hweer, ichere? 
 
 seo lufu, love. 
 
 seo mearc, boundary 
 
 marches 1 ]. 
 seo nied. meed, reward. 
 
 [mark, 
 
 seo mildheortnes, mild-hearted- 
 ness, mercy. 
 
 seo stow, place [stow away] . 
 Seer, there. 
 seo Searf, need. 
 seo wylf, she wolf. 
 
 42. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. Hwser is <5sere brycge e^nde ? 2. Her sind Sara rica 
 mearca. 3. Hwa haefS J>a glof a ? 4. Daer brS Saim cyninge 
 frofre tSearf. 5. Seo wund is on <5sere wylfe heafde. 6. We 
 habbaS costnunga. 7. Hie neeron on ^Ssere healle. 8. Ic 
 hit neom. 9. Dset wgeron Wealas. 10. Daet sind tJses wif es 
 beam. 
 
 II. 1. We shall have the women's gloves. 2. Where is 
 the place? 3. He will be in the hall. 4. Those (Daet) 
 were not the boundaries of the kingdom. 5. It was not I. 
 6. Ye are not the king's scribes. 7. The shepherd's words 
 are full (full + gen.) of wisdom and comfort. 8. Where are 
 the bodies of the children? 9. The gifts are not here. 
 10. Who- has the seals and the birds ? 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE i-DECLENSION AND THE u-DECLENSION. 
 The /-Declension. (See 58.) 
 
 43. The i-Declension, corresponding to the group of 
 i-stems in the classical Third Declension, contains chiefly 
 (a) masculine and (5) feminine nouns. The N.A. plural 
 of these nouns ended originally in -e (from older i). 
 
 1 As in warden of the marches*
 
 36 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 (a) Masculine /-Stems. 
 
 44. These stems have almost completely gone over 
 to the a-Declension, so that -as is more common than -e 
 as the N.A. plural ending, whether the stem is long or 
 short. The short stems all have -e in the N.A. singular. 
 
 45. Paradigms of se wyrm, worm ; se wine, friend. 
 
 Sing. N.A. wyrm win-e 
 
 Gr. wyrm-es win-es 
 
 D.I. wyrm-e win-e 
 
 Plur. N.A. wyrtn-as win-as (e) 
 
 Gr. wyrm-a win-a 
 
 D.I. wyrm-um win-um 
 
 Names of Peoples. 
 
 46. The only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the 
 N.A. plural are certain names of tribes or peoples used 
 only in the plural. 
 
 47. Paradigms of Sa ngle, Angles; Sa NorSymbre, 
 Northumbrians; 3a leode, people : 
 
 Plur. N.A. ngle NorSymbre I6ode 
 
 Gr. ngla NorSymbra Ifioda 
 
 D.I. ^nglum NorSymbrum leodum 
 
 (6) Feminine /-Stems. 
 
 48. The short stems (frfm-u) conform entirely to the 
 declension of short 6-stems ; long stems (cwen, wyrt) 
 differ from long 5-stems in having no ending for the 
 A. singular. They show, also, a preference for -e rather 
 than -a in the N.A. plural.
 
 The u- Declension. 37 
 
 49. Paradigms of sgo fr^m-u, benefit; sgo cwgn, woman, 
 queen [quean] ; sgo wyrt, root [wort] : 
 
 Sing. N. fre,m-u cwen wyrt 
 
 G. fre,m-e cw6n-e wyrt-e 
 
 D.I. fre.m-e cwen-e wyrt-e 
 
 A. fre,m-e cwen wyrt 
 
 Plur. N.A. fr^m-a cwen-e (a) wyrt-e (a) 
 
 (r. fre,m-a cwen-a wyrt-a 
 
 D.I. fre,m-um cwen-um wyrt-um 
 
 The (/-Declension. 
 
 50. The u-Declension, corresponding to the group of 
 u-stems in the classical Third Declension, contains no 
 neuters, and but few (a) masculines and (6) feminines. 
 The short-stemmed nouns of both genders (sun-u, dur-u) 
 retain the final u of the N.A. singular, while the long 
 stems (feld, hgnd) drop it. The influence of the mas- 
 culine a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed 
 masculines of the u-Declension (feld, feld-es, etc.). 
 
 NOTE. Note the general aversion of all O.E. long stems to final 
 -u: c/. N.A. plural hof-u, but beam, ban; X. singular gief-u, but 
 wund, rod ; N. singular frem-u. but cwen, wyrt ; N.A. singular 
 sun-u. dur-u, but feld, hgnd. 
 
 (a) Masculine {/-Stems. 
 
 51. Paradigms of sg sun-u, son; ae feld, field: 
 
 Sing. N.A. sun-u 
 
 feld 
 
 G. sun-a 
 
 feld-a (es) 
 
 D. I. sun-a 
 
 f eld-a (e) 
 
 Plur. N.A. sun-a 
 
 feld-a (as) 
 
 G. sun-a 
 
 feld-a 
 
 D.I. sun-urn 
 
 feld-utti
 
 38 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 , hand 
 
 (&) Feminine (/-Stems. 
 
 52. Paradigms of seo dur-u, door ; seo 
 
 Sing. N.A. dur-u bond 
 
 G. dur-a hond-a 
 
 D.I. dur-a hond-a 
 
 Plur. N.A. dur-a hgnd-a 
 
 G. dur-a hqnd-a 
 
 D.I. dur-um hgnd-um 
 
 53. Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, he, 
 h6o, hit = he, she, it : 
 
 Feminine. Neuter. 
 
 heo bit 
 
 hiere his 
 
 hiere him 
 
 hie hit 
 
 Masculine. 
 Sing. N. he 
 G. his 
 him 
 hine, hiene 
 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 54. 
 
 All Genders. 
 
 Plur. N.A. hie 
 
 G. hiera 
 
 D. him 
 
 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 (i-SxEMS.) Sa Seaxe. Saxons. 
 
 Be cierr, turn, time [char, chare, 
 
 chore]. 
 
 seo deed, deed. 
 se deel, part [a great deal]. 
 3a Dene, Danes. 
 se freondscipe, friendship. 
 seo hyd, sA;zw, /'c?e. 
 8a l^ndleode. natives. 
 3a Mierce, Mercians. 
 3a Rom ware. Romans. 
 
 se stede, place [in-stead of]. 
 
 (U-STEMS.) 
 
 seo flor, ^oor. 
 
 seo iiosu, nose. 
 
 se sumor (C/'. sumeres, D. su- 
 
 mera), summer. 
 se winter ( #. wintres, Z). win- 
 
 tra), winter. 
 s vrudu, wood, forest. 
 NOTE. The numerous masculine nouns ending in -had, cild- 
 had (childhood), wifhad (womanhood), belong to the u-stems his- 
 torically ; but they have all passed over to the a-Declension.
 
 Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. 39 
 
 55. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. Da Seaxe habbaS Sees deores hyd on ftsem wuda 
 2. Hwa haefS Sa giefa? 3. Da Mierce hie 1 habbaS. 
 4. Hweer is Sses Weales fugol? 5. Da D^ne hiene hab- 
 baS. 6. Hwser sindon hiera winas? 7. Hie sindon on 
 Sees cyninges wuda. 8. Da Komware ond <5a Seaxe haef- 
 don 8a garas ond 8a geocu. 9. Heo is on Seem huse on 
 wintra, gnd on Seem feldum on sumera. 10. Hwser is 
 tSaes hofes duru ? 11. Heo 2 (= seo dura) nis her. 
 
 II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the 
 bodies of the Danes. 2. Art thou the king's son? 3. Has 
 she her 3 gifts in her 3 hands? 4. Here are the fields of the 
 natives. 5. Who had the bird? 6. I had it. 2 7. The 
 child had the worm in his 3 fingers. 8. The Mercians were 
 here during (the) summer (on + dat.). 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE ENDINGS OP STRONG VERBS. 
 
 56. The unchanged stem of the present indicative 
 may always be found by dropping -an of the infinitive : 
 feall-an, to fall ; ceos-an, to choose; bid-an, to abide. 
 
 57. The personal endings are : 
 
 Sing. 1. -e 
 
 2. -est 
 
 3. -e8 
 
 1 See 21, (1). 
 
 2 Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which they stand. 
 Hit, however, sometimes stands for inanimate things of both mascu- 
 line and feminine genders. See Wiilfing (I.e.) I, 238. 
 
 8 See 76 (last sentence).
 
 40 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 /-Umlaut. 
 
 58. The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally 
 not -est and -e3, but -is and -iS ; and the i of these older 
 endings has left its traces upon almost every page of 
 Early West Saxon literature. This i, though unac- 
 cented and soon displaced, exerted a powerful back 
 influence upon the vowel of the preceding accented 
 syllable. This influence, a form of regressive assimi- 
 lation, is known as i-umlaut (pronounced o6m-lowf). 
 The vowel i or j ( = ?/), being itself a palatal, suc- 
 ceeded in palatalizing every guttural vowel that pre- 
 ceded it, and in imposing still more of the i-quality 
 upon diphthongs that were already palatal. 1 The 
 changes produced were these : 
 
 a became f (ee): m^nn *mann-iz), men. 
 
 a " se eenig *an-ig), any. 
 
 u " y wyllen (<*vnill-in), woollen. 
 
 u " y my s (<*mus-iz), mice. 
 
 o " d$hter (<*dohtr-i), to or for the daughter. 
 
 6 " e fet *fot-iz), feet. 
 
 ea " ie wiexS(<*weax-iS), he grows (weaxan=o </row). 
 
 Sa " ie hiewS (<*haw-i3), he hews (heawan=o hew~). 
 
 eo " ie wiercan (<*-\veorc-jan), to work. 
 
 So " Ie liehtan (<*leoht-jan), to light. 
 
 The Unchanged Present Indicative. 
 
 59. In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as 
 well as in the dialect of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 
 3d singular endings were usually joined to the present 
 
 1 The palatal vowels and diphthongs were long or short ae, e, i, 
 (ie), y, ea, eo; the guttural vowels were long or short a, o, u.
 
 Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. 41 
 
 stem without modification either of the stem itself or 
 of the personal endings. The complete absence of 
 umlauted forms in the present indicative of Mn.E. is 
 thus accounted for. 
 
 In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the 
 following are comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d 
 singular : 
 
 1. Ic feall-e (I fall) ce"os-e (I choose) bld-e (I abide) 
 
 2. flu feall-est ceos-est bld-est 
 
 3. he feall-eS ceos-efl bld-e 
 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 2. ge 
 
 3. hie J 
 
 feall-aS ceos-aft bid-afl 
 
 The Present Indicative with /-Umlaut and Contraction. 
 
 60. The 2d and 3d persons singular are distin- 
 guished from the other forms of the present indicative 
 in Early West Saxon by (1) i-urulaut of the vowel of 
 the stem, (2) syncope of the vowel of the ending, giv- 
 ing -st and -8 for -est and -eS, and (3) contraction of 
 -at and -8 with the final consonant or consonants of the 
 stem. 
 
 Contraction. 
 
 61. The changes produced by i-umlaut have been 
 already discussed. By these changes, therefore, the 
 stems of the 2d and 3d singular indicative of such 
 verbs as (1) st9ndan ( standan), to stand, (2) cumaii, 
 to come, (3) growan, to grow, (4) brucan, to enjoy, 
 (5) blawan, to blozv, (6) feallan, to fall, (7) heawan, to 
 new, (8) weorpan, to throw, and (9) ceosan, to choose,
 
 42 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 become respectively (1) stend-, 1 (2) cym-, (3) grew-, 
 (4) bryc-, (5) bleew-, (6) fiell-, (7) blew-, (8) wierp-, 
 and (9) cies-. 
 
 If the unchanged stem contains the vowel e, this is 
 changed in the 2d and 3d singular to i (ie) : cweSan to 
 say, stem cwiS- ; beran to bear, stem bier-. But this 
 mutation 2 had taken place long before the period of 
 O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in gen- 
 eral. It is best, however, to class the change of e to 
 i or ie with the changes due to umlaut, since it occurs 
 consistently in the 2d and 3d singular stems of Early 
 West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of the umlaut 
 forms proper. 
 
 If, now, the syncopated endings -st and -3 are added 
 directly to the umlauted stem, there will frequently 
 result such a massing of consonants as almost to defy 
 pronunciation : cwi8-st, thou sayest ; stend-st, thou 
 standest, etc. Some sort of contraction, therefore, is 
 demanded for the sake of euphony. The ear and eye 
 will, by a little practice, become a sure guide in these 
 contractions. The following rules, however, must be 
 observed. They apply only to the 2d and 3d singular 
 of the present indicative : 
 
 1 The more common form for stems with a is ae rather than : 
 faraii, to go, 2d and 3d singular stem tser- ; sacan, to contend, stem 
 seec-. Indeed, a changes to e. via ae (Cosijn, Altwestsachsische 
 Grammatik, I, 32). 
 
 2 Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is still another 
 name for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony has the advan- 
 tage of easy adjectival formation (metaphonic). It was proposed by 
 Professor Victor Henry (Comparative Grammar of English and Ger- 
 man, Paris, 1894), but has not been naturalized.
 
 Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. 43 
 
 (1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of 
 the consonants is dropped : 
 
 1. feall-e (I fall) 1. winn-e (I fight) 1. swimm-e (/ svrim) 
 
 2. fiel-st 2. win-st 2. swim-st 
 
 3. fiel- 3. win- 3. swim- 
 
 (2) If the stem ends in -8, this is dropped : 
 
 1. cweft-e (/ say) 1. weor5-e (I become) 
 
 2. cwi-st 2. wier-st 
 .3. cwi-$ 3. wier- 
 
 (3) If the stem ends in -d, this is changed to -t. 
 The -8 of the ending is then also changed to -t, and 
 usually absorbed. Thus the stem of the 2d singular 
 serves as stem and ending for the 3d singular: 
 
 1. stxjnd-e ( = stand-e) (Z stand) 1. bind-e (I bind) 
 
 2. st^nt-st 2. bint-st 
 
 3. ste,nt 3. bint 
 
 1. b!d-e (I abide) 1. rid-e (I ride) 
 
 2. blt-st 2. rlt-st 
 
 3. bit(-t) 3. rit(-t) 
 
 (4) If the stem ends already in -t, the endings are 
 added as in (3), -8 being again changed to -t and 
 absorbed : 
 
 1. breot-e (I break) 1. feoht-e (I fight) 1. blt-e (I bite) 
 
 2. briet-st 2. fieht-st 2. bit-st 
 
 3. briet (-t) 3. fieht 3. bit (-t) 
 
 (5) If the stem ends in -s, this is dropped before 
 -st (to avoid -sst), but is retained before -8, the latter 
 being changed to -t. Thus the 2d and 3d singulars 
 are identical : 1 
 
 1 This happens also when the infinitive stem ends in st : 
 
 1. berst-e (I burst) 
 
 2. bier-st 
 
 3. bierst.
 
 44 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 1. ceos-e (7 choose) 1. ns-e (I rise) 
 
 2. cle-st 2. r!-st 
 
 3. cies-t 3. ris-t 
 
 62. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. Se cyning fielft. 2. Da wif ceosaft <5a giefa. 3. Du 
 ste_ntst on <5gem huse. 4. He wierpo" Sset weepen. 5. Se s^cg 
 hiewS $a lie. 6. Dset seed grewS Qnd wiexft (Mark iv. 27). 
 7. Ic st^nde her, $nd 5u st^ntst Seer. 8. " Ic hit eom," cwitJ 
 he. 9. Hie beraS (5aes wulfes ban. 10. He hie bint, ond ic 
 hine binde. 11. Ne ritst 
 
 II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child's 
 gifts? 3. "He was not here," says she. 4. Wilt thou 
 remain in the hall ? 5. The wolves are biting (= bite) the 
 fishermen. 6. He enjoys 1 the love of his children. 7. Do 
 you enjoy (= Enjoy est thou) the consolation and friendship 
 of the scribe ? 8. Will he come ? 9. I shall throw the 
 spear, and thou wilt bear the weapons. 10. The king's 
 son will become king. 11. The army (werod) is breaking 
 the doors and walls of the house. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE CONSONANT DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. 
 The Weak or /7-Declension. 
 
 63. The n-Decleiision contains almost all of the O.E. 
 
 nouns belonging to the Consonant Declensions. The 
 stem characteristic n has been preserved in the oblique 
 
 1 Brucan, to enjoy, usually takes the genitive case, not the accusa- 
 tive. It means " to have joy of any thing."
 
 The Consonant Declensions of Nouns. 
 
 cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing 
 n-steras from the preceding vowel stems. 
 
 The n-Declension includes (a) masculines, () femi- 
 nines, and (c) neuters. The masculines far outnumber 
 the feminines, and the neuters contain only Sage, eye 
 and are, ear. The masculines end in -a, the feminines 
 and neuters in -e. 
 
 64. Paradigms of (a) se hunta, hunter ; (6) sgo tunge, 
 tongue ; (c) Sect eage, eye : 
 
 Sing. N. hunt-a 
 G.D.I, hunt-an 
 hunt-an 
 hunt-an 
 hunt-ena 
 
 A. 
 
 Plur. N.A. 
 
 G. 
 
 D.I. 
 
 hunt-um 
 
 tung-e 
 
 eag-e 
 
 tung-an 
 
 eag-an 
 
 tung-an 
 
 eag-e 
 
 tung-an 
 
 eag-an 
 
 tung-ena 
 
 eag-ena 
 
 tung-um 
 
 6ag-oim 
 
 65. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 se adesa. hatchet, adze, 
 ae aemetta, leisure [empt-inessj. 
 se bpna (bana), murderer [bane]. 
 seo cirice, church [Scotch kirk], 
 se cnapa (later, ciiafa). boy 
 
 [knave]. 
 
 se cuma, stranger [comer]. 
 Saet eare, ear. 
 seo eorSe, earth. 
 se gefera, companion [co-farer]. 
 se guma. man [bride- groom 1 ]. 
 seo heorte, heart. 
 
 se niona. moon. 
 
 seo needre, adder [a nadder > an 
 
 adder 2 ]. 
 se oxa, ox. 
 se sceowyrhta, shoe-maker [shoe- 
 
 wright] . 
 
 seo sunne, sun. 
 se teona, injury [teen]. 
 biddan (with dat. of person and 
 
 gen. of thing 3 ), to request, ask 
 
 for. 
 cwelan, to die [quail]. 
 
 1 The r is intrusive in -groom, as it is in cart-r-idge, part-r-idge, 
 vag-r-ant, and hoa-r-se. 
 
 2 The n has been appropriated by the article. Cf. an apron (< a 
 napron), an auger a nauger~), an orange (< a norange), an 
 umpire (< a numpire). 
 
 3 In Mn.E. we say " I request a favor of you" ; but in O.E. it was
 
 46 Etymology and Syntax, 
 
 gescieppan, to create [shape, 
 land-scape, friend-ship]. 
 
 giefan (with dat. of indirect ob- 
 ject)', to give. 
 
 healdan, to hold. 
 
 helpan (with dat.) , to help. 
 
 sceSSan 1 (with dat.), to injure 
 
 [scathe]. 
 wi3st9ndan (-standan) (with 
 
 dat.), to withstand. 
 writan, to write. 
 
 66. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. Se sceowyrhta bryco" his eemettan. 2. Da guman 
 bidda<5 Seem cnapan Saes adesan. 3. Hwa is se cuma? 
 4. Hielpst 3u Seem b^nan ? 5. Ic him ne helpe. 6. Da 
 beam sc^frSaS Saes bqnan eagum ond earum. 7. Se cuma 
 cvvielS on Seere cirican. 8. Se hunta wiSst^nt Ssern wulfum. 
 9. Da oxan bera6 Sses cnapan geferan. 10. Se mona ond (5a 
 tunglu sind on Ssem heofonum. 11. Da huntan healdaS 
 Sgere nsedran tungan. 12. He hiere giefS 5a giefa. 13. Da 
 werod sc^65a5 6ses cyninges feldum. 
 
 II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who 
 gives him the gifts? 3. Thou art helping him, and I am 
 injuring him. 4. The boy's companion is dying. 5. His 
 nephew does not enjoy his leisure. 6. The adder's tongue 
 injures the king's companion. 7. The sun is the day's eye. 
 8. She asks the strangers for the spears. 9. The men's 
 bodies are not here. 10. Is he not (Nis h) the child's 
 murderer? 11. Who creates the bodies and, the souls 
 of men? 12. Thou withstandest her. 13. He is not 
 writing. 
 
 "I request you (dative) of a favor " (genitive). Cf. Cymbeline, III, 
 6, 92: "We'll mannerly demand thee of thy story." See Franz's 
 Shakespeare-Grammatik, 361 (1900). 
 
 1 So? 33an is conjugated through the present indicative like fr^m- 
 man. See 129.
 
 Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions. 47 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions. 
 
 67. The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines 
 and feminines. Their stem ended in a consonant other 
 than n. The most important of them may be divided 
 as follows: (1) The foot Declension, (2) r-Stems, and 
 (3) nd-Stems. These declensions are all characterized 
 by the prevalence, wherever possible, of i-umlaut in 
 certain cases, the case ending being then dropped. 
 
 68. (1) The nouns belonging to the foot Declension 
 exhibit umlaut most consistently in the X.A. plural. 
 Sing. N.A. se fot (foot) s6 mo.n (man) se t5$ (tooth) s6o cu (cow) 
 Plur.N.A. fet men t6$ cy 
 
 NOTE. The dative singular usually has the same form as the 
 N.A. plural. Here belong also so b5c (book), seo burg (borough), 
 seo gos (goose), seo lus (loiise), and seo mus (mouse), all with 
 umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only six of the foot Declension 
 plurals : feet, men, teeth, geese, lice, and mice. The c in the last two 
 is an artificial spelling, intended to preserve the sound of voiceless s. 
 Mn.E. kine (= cy-en) is a double plural formed after the analogy of 
 weak stems ; Burns in The Two, Dogs uses kye. 
 
 No umlaut is possible in seo niht (night) and se monaS (month), 
 plural niht and monad* (preserved in Mn.E. twelvemonth and fort- 
 night). 
 
 (2) The r-Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, 
 and exhibit umlaut of the dative singular. 
 Sing. N.A. s6 feeder se broSor seo modor seo dohtor seo swuster 
 
 (father) (In-other} (mother) (daughter) (xixter) 
 
 D. feeder brefter meder de.hter swyster 
 
 NOTE. The N.A. plural is usually the same as the N.A. singular. 
 
 These umlaut datives are all due to the presence of a former i. Cf . Lat. 
 
 dative singular patri,frdtri,mdtri,sorori(<.*sosori), and Greek Ovyarpt.
 
 48 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 (3) The nd-Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. 
 plural and in the dative singular: 
 
 Sing. N.A. se freond {friend) se feond (enemy) 
 
 D. Mend fiend 
 
 Plur. N.A. friend fiend 
 
 NOTE. Mn.E. friend and fiend are interesting analogical spell- 
 ings. When s had been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals friend 
 and fiend, thus giving the double plurals friends and fiends, a second 
 singular was formed by dropping the B. Thus friend and fiend displaced 
 the old singulars frend and fend, both of which occur in the M.E. 
 Ormulum, written about the year 1200. 
 
 Summary of O.E. Declensions. 
 
 69. A brief, working summary of the O.E. system 
 of declensions may now be made on the basis of gender. 
 
 All O.E. nouns are (1) masculine, (2) feminine, or 
 (3) neuter. 
 
 (1) The masculines follow the declension of muS 
 ( 26), except those ending in -a, which are declined 
 like hunta ( 64) : 
 
 Sing. N.A. nuTS N. hunta 
 
 G. muSes G.D.A. huntan 
 
 D.I. nm$e /. huntan 
 
 Plur. N.A. niuftas huntan 
 
 G. mufta huntena 
 
 D. I. mu'Sum huntum 
 
 (2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension 
 of hof ( 32) ; the long-stemmed, that of beam ( 32) : 
 
 Sing. N.A. hof beam 
 
 G. hofes bearnes 
 
 D.I. hofe bearne 
 
 Plur. N.A. hofu beam 
 
 G. hofa bearna 
 
 D.L hofum bearnum
 
 Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions. 49 
 
 (3) The feminines follow the declensions of giefu 
 and wund ( 38) (the only difference being in the N. 
 singular), except those ending in -e, which follow the 
 declension of tunge ( 64) : 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 giefu 
 
 wund 
 
 tunge 
 
 G. 
 
 giefe 
 
 wunde 
 
 tungan 
 
 D.I. 
 
 giefe 
 
 wunde 
 
 tungan 
 
 A. 
 
 giefe 
 
 wunde 
 
 tungan 
 
 Plur. N.A. 
 
 giefa 
 
 wunda 
 
 tungan 
 
 G. 
 
 giefa 
 
 wunda 
 
 tungena 
 
 D.I. 
 
 giefum 
 
 wundum 
 
 tungum 
 
 70. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 ac, but. 
 
 biitan (with dat.), except, but, 
 without. 
 
 ae Crist, Christ. 
 
 ae eorl, earl, alderman, warrior. 
 
 Seet ^inglalQnd, England [An- 
 gles' land], 
 
 faran, to go [fare]. 
 
 findan. to find. 
 
 se God, God. 
 
 hatan, to call, name. 
 
 se hlaford. lord [hlaf-weard] . 
 
 mid (with dat.), with. 
 
 on (with ace.), on, against, into. 
 
 to (with dat.), to. 
 
 uton (with infin.), let us. 
 
 NOTE. O.E. mgn (man) is frequently used in an indefinite sense 
 for one, people, they. It thus takes the place of a passive construction 
 proper : And man nam ba gebrotu be bar belifon, twf If cypan 
 fulle, And there were taken up of fragments that remained there twelve 
 baskets full; but more literally, And one (or they) took the fragments, 
 etc. ; Ond Hasstenes wlf ond his suna twegen mpn brohte to 
 3aem cyninge, And Hcesten's wife and his two sons were brought to 
 the king. 
 
 71. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. MQU hine hset J^lfred. 2. Uton faran on o"aet scip. 
 3. God is cyninga cyning ^nd hlaforda hlaford. 4. Se eorl 
 ne gief(5 giefa his fiend. 5. Ic nses mid his friend. 6. Seo 
 modor fsert5 mid hiere de_hter on Sa burg. 7. Fintst ?5u Saes
 
 50 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 boceres bee? 8. He bint ealle (all) <5a deor butan Seem 
 wulfum. 9. Du eart Crist, Godes sunu. 10. " Uton bindan 
 Saes b^nan fet," cwiS he. 
 
 II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Caed- 
 mon. 3. He throws his spear against the door. 4. Thou 
 art not the earl's brother. 5. He will go with his father to 
 England, but I shall remain (abide) here. 6. Gifts are not 
 given to murderers. 7. Who will find the tracks of the 
 animals? 8. They ask their lord for his weapons ( 65, 
 Note 3). 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 (1) Personal Pronouns. 
 
 72. Paradigms of ic, /; Su, thou. For hs, hgo, hit, 
 see 5 53. 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 ic 
 
 u 
 
 G. 
 
 min 
 
 Sin 
 
 D. 
 
 me 
 
 e 
 
 A. 
 
 me (mec) 
 
 6 (Sec) 
 
 Dual N. 
 
 wit (ice two) 
 
 git (ye two) 
 
 G. 
 
 uncer (of us two) 
 
 incer (of you two) 
 
 D. 
 
 unc (to or for us two) 
 
 inc (to or for you two) 
 
 A. 
 
 unc (us two) 
 
 inc (you two) 
 
 Plur. N. 
 
 we 
 
 gs 
 
 G. 
 
 user (ure) 
 
 eower 
 
 D. 
 
 us 
 
 eow 
 
 A. 
 
 us (usic) 
 
 eow (eowic) 
 
 NOTE 1. The dual number was soon absorbed by the plural. No 
 relic of it now remains. But when two and only two are referred to, 
 the dual is consistently used in O.E. An example occurs in the case
 
 Pronouns. 51 
 
 of the two blind men (Mattheic ix. 27^31) : Gemiltsa Tine, Davldes 
 sunu ! Pity MS, (thou) Son of David! Sie inc setter incrum gelea- 
 fan. Be it unto you according to your faith. 
 
 NOTE 2. Mn.E. ye (<ge), the nominative proper, is fast being 
 displaced by you ow), the old objective. The distinction is pre- 
 served in the King James's version of the Bible : Ye in me, and I in 
 you (John xiv. 20) ; but not in Shakespeare and later writers. 
 
 (2) Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 73. Paradigm of 8s. Seos, Sis, this. For the Definite 
 Article as a demonstrative, meaning that, see 28, Note 3. 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 
 
 Sing. N. Ses Sees Sis 
 
 G. ftisses Sisse flisses 
 
 D. Sissuin Sisse Sissum 
 
 A. Sisne iSas Sis 
 
 /. ys Sys 
 
 All Genders. 
 
 Plur. N.A. Sas 
 
 G. -Sissa 
 
 D. tSissum 
 
 (3) The Interrogative Pronoun. 
 
 74. Paradigm of hwa, hweet, who, what? 
 
 Masculine. Neuter. 
 
 Sing. N. hwa hwaet 
 
 G. hwses hwses 
 
 D. hwsem hwaem 
 
 A. hwone hwaet 
 
 /. hwy 
 
 NOTE 1. The derivative interrogatives. hwaeSer *h'wa-3er), 
 which of two? and hwilc (<*hw5-lic), which? are declined as strong 
 adjectives ( 79-82). 
 
 NOTE 2. The instrumental case of hwa survives in Mn.E. why = 
 on what account ; the instrumental of the definite article is seen in the
 
 52 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 adverbial the : The sooner, the better = by how much sooner, by so 
 much better. 
 
 NOTE 3. How were the Mn.E. relative pronouns, icho and which, 
 evolved from the O. E. interrogatives ? The change began in early 
 West Saxon with hwaet used in indirect questions (Wiilfing, I.e. 
 310, /3) : Nu ic wat eall hwaet Su woldest, Now I know all that 
 thou desiredst. The direct question was, Hwaet woldest 3u ? But 
 the presence of eall shows that in Alfred's mind hwaet was, in the 
 indirect form, more relative than interrogative. 
 
 (4) Relative Pronouns. 
 
 75. O.E. had no relative pronoun proper. It used 
 instead (1) the Indeclinable Particle Se, who, whom, 
 which, that, (2) the Definite Article ( 28), (3) the Defi- 
 nite Article with the Indeclinable Particle, (4) the In- 
 declinable Particle with a Personal Pronoun. 
 
 The Definite Article agrees in gender and number 
 with the antecedent. The case depends upon the con- 
 struction. The bird which I have may, therefore, be : 
 
 (1) Se fugol 3e ic haebbe; 
 
 (2) Se fugol 8one ic haebbe . 
 
 (3) Se fugol 3one Se ( = the which) ic haebbe ; 
 
 (4) Se fugol 3e hine ic haebbe. 
 
 NOTE. O.E. Se agrees closely in construction with Mn.E. relative 
 that: (1) Both are indeclinable. (2) Both refer to animate or inani- 
 mate objects. (3) Both may be used with phrasal value : 3y ylcan 
 daege Se hi hine to Saem ade beran wyllaS, On the same day that 
 (= on which) they intend to bear him to the funeral pile. (4) Neither 
 can be preceded by a preposition. 
 
 (5) Possessive Pronouns. 
 
 76. The Possessive Pronouns are mm, mine; Sin, 
 thine; ure, our; eower. your; [sin, his, her, its}; uncer, 
 belonging to us two; incer, belonging to you two. They
 
 Adjectives, Strong and Weak. 53 
 
 are declined as strong adjectives. The genitives of the 
 Third Personal Pronoun, his, his, hiere, her, hiera, their, 
 are indeclinable. 
 
 (6) Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 77. These are lc, each, evert/; an, a, an, one; eenig 
 (<an-ig), any; nasnig (<ne-8enig), none; 63er, other; 
 sum, one, a certain one; swilc, such. They are declined 
 as strong adjectives. 
 
 XOTE. O.E. had three established methods of converting an inter- 
 rogative pronoun into an indefinite : (1) By prefixing ge, (2) by pre- 
 fixing aeg, (3) by interposing the interrogative between swa . . . 
 swa: (1) gehwa, each; gehweeSer, either; gehwilc, each; (2) 
 eeghwa. each ; eeghwaeSer, each ; seghwilc, each ; (3) swa hwa 
 swa, whosoever; swa hwaeSer swa, whichsoever of two ; swa hwilc 
 swa, ichosoever. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 ADJECTIVES, STRONG AND WEAK. 
 
 78. The declension of adjectives conforms in general 
 to the declension of nouns, though a few pronominal 
 inflections have influenced certain cases. Adjectives 
 belong either to (1) the Strong Declension or to (2) 
 the Weak Declension. The Weak Declension is em- 
 ployed when the adjective is preceded by se or 3s, 
 the, that, or this; otherwise, the Strong Declension is 
 employed : Sa godan cyningas, the good kings ; Ses goda 
 cyning, this good king ; but gode cyningas, good kings. 
 
 XOTE. The Weak Declension is also frequently used when the 
 adjective is employed in direct address, or preceded by a possessive
 
 54 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 pronoun : Dryhten, aelmihtiga God . . . ic bidde Se for Sinre 
 miclan mildheortnesse, Lord, almighty God, I pray thee, for thy 
 great mercy. 
 
 (1) Strong Declension of Adjectives, 
 (a) Monosyllables. 
 
 79. The strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic 
 with long stems: god, good; eald, old; l9ng, long ; 
 swift, swift. They are declined as follows: 
 
 80. Paradigm of god, good: 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 
 
 Sing. N. g6d god g5d 
 
 G. godes g5dre godes 
 
 D. godum g5dre godum 
 
 A. godne gode god 
 
 /. g5de gode 
 
 Plur. N.A. gode g5da god 
 
 G. godra godra godra 
 
 D.I. godum godum godum 
 
 81. If the stem is short, -u is retained as in giefu 
 ( 39, (1)) and hofu ( 33, (1)). Thus glaed ( 27, 
 Note 1), glad, and til, useful, are inflected : 
 
 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 
 
 I glaed gladu glaed 
 
 ' 1 til tilu til 
 
 Plur. N.A 
 
 I tile tila tilu 
 
 (6) Polysyllables. 
 
 82. Polysyllables follow the declension of short 
 monosyllables. The most common terminations are 
 -en, ~en; -feest, -fast; -full, -ful; -leas, -less ; -He, -ly ; 
 -ig, -y : hae3-en (ha3 = heath), heathen; stfde-faest (st^de
 
 Adjectives, Strong and Weak. 55 
 
 = place), steadfast ; sorg-full (sorg = 0rr0e0), sorrowful; 
 cyst-leas (cyst = worth), worthless; eorS-Hc (eorSe = 
 earth), earthly ; blod-ig (blod = blood), bloody. The 
 present and past participles, when inflected and not 
 as weak adjectives, may be classed with the polysyl- 
 labic adjectives, their inflection being the same. 
 
 Syncopation occurs as in a-stems ( 27, (4)). Thus 
 halig, holy, bliSe, blithe, berende, bearing, geboren, born, 
 are thus inflected: 
 
 Sing. N. 
 
 Plur. N.A. 
 
 (2) Weak Declension of Adjectives. 
 
 83. The Weak Declension of adjectives, whether mono- 
 syllabic or polysyllabic, does not differ from the Weak 
 Declension of nouns, except that -ena of the genitive 
 plural is usually replaced by -ra of the strong adjectives. 
 
 84. Sing. N. 
 
 G. 
 
 D.I. 
 
 A. 
 
 Plur. X.A. 
 
 G. 
 
 D.I. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 halig 
 
 halgu 
 
 halig 
 
 bliSe 
 
 blrSu 
 
 bliSe 
 
 berende 
 
 berendu 
 
 berende 
 
 geboren 
 
 geborenu 
 
 geboren 
 
 halge 
 
 halga 
 
 halgu 
 
 bliSe 
 
 blrSa 
 
 bllSu 
 
 berende 
 
 berenda 
 
 berendu 
 
 geborene 
 
 geborena 
 
 geborenu 
 
 asculine. 
 
 Feminine. Neuter. 
 
 goda 
 
 gode gode 
 
 godan 
 
 godan godan 
 
 godan 
 
 godan godan 
 
 g6dan 
 
 g6dan gode 
 
 
 All Genders. 
 
 
 godan 
 
 
 godra (godena) 
 
 
 godum
 
 56 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 85. RULE OF SYNTAX. 
 
 Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, 
 and case ; but participles, when used predicatively, may 
 remain uninflected ( 139, 140). 
 
 86. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 dead, dead. 
 
 call, all. 
 
 hal, 1 whole, hale. 
 
 heard, hard. 
 
 Saet hors, horse. 
 
 leof, dear [as lief]. 
 
 lytel, little. 
 
 micel. great, large. 
 
 mqnig, many. 
 
 nimaii, to take [nimble, numb]. 
 
 nlwe, new. 
 
 rice, rich, powerful. 
 
 so3, true [sooth-sayer]. 
 
 staelwierSe, 2 serviceable [stal- 
 wart] . 
 
 swiSe, very. 
 
 se tun, town, village. 
 
 s 8egn. servant, thane, warrior. 
 
 Seet Sing, thing. 
 
 se weg, way. 
 
 wis, wise. 
 
 wi3 (with ace.), against, in a 
 hostile sense [with-stand], 
 
 se ilca, the same [of that ilk]. 
 
 87. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. Das scipu ne sind swiSe swift, ac 'hie .sind swi<5e 
 stselwierSu. 2. Seo gode cwen giefft selcum Segne m^niga 
 giefa. 3. Des wlsa cyning haefo" monige micele tunas on 
 his rice. 4. Nsenig inqn is wis on eallum Singum. o. Dy 
 ilcan dsege ( 98, (2)) m^n f^nd (found) Sone Segn 6e mines 
 wines bee haefde. 6. Ealle 8a s^cgas M 5e swift hors 
 habbaft rida^ wit5 t5one bgnan. 7. Dine fiend sind mine 
 
 1 Halig, holy, contains, of course, the same root. "I find," says 
 Carlyle, " that you could not get any better definition of what 'holy ' 
 really is than 'healthy completely healthy.' " 
 
 2 This word has been much discussed. The older etymologists 
 explained it as meaning worth stealing. A more improbable conject- 
 ure is that it means worth a stall or place. It is used of ships in the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. As applied to men, Skeat thinks it meant 
 good or vsorthy at stealing but the etymology is still unsettled.
 
 Numerals. 57 
 
 friend. 8. Se micela stan <5one 3e ic on mmum hondum 
 lisebbe is swifte heard. 9. Hie sc^<55a8 6;m ealdum horsum. 
 10. Uton niman <5as tilan giefa $nd hie beran to urum leofum 
 bearnum. 
 
 II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the 
 little children very dear to the servants (dat. without to)? 
 3. Gifts are not given ( 70, Note 1) to rich men. 4. All 
 the horses that are in the king's fields are swift. o. These 
 stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes the dead 
 man's spear and fights against the large army. 7. This 
 new house has many doors. 8. My ways are not your 
 ways. 9. Whosoever chooses me, him I also (Sac) choose. 
 10. Every man has many friends that are not wise. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 88. Numerals are either (a) Cardinal, expressing 
 pure number, one, two, three ; or (6) Ordinal, express- 
 ing rank or succession, first, second, third. 
 
 (a) Cardinals. 
 
 89. The Cardinals fall into the three following syn- 
 tactic groups : 
 
 GROUP I. 
 
 1. an 
 
 2. twegen [twain] 
 
 3. Srle 
 
 These numerals are inflected adjectives. An, one, an, 
 a, being a long stemmed monosyllable, is declined like 
 god ( 80). The weak form, ana, means alone.
 
 58 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 Twegen and 3rie, which have no singular, are thus 
 declined : 
 
 Plur. N.A. 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 90. 
 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. Fein. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 twegen twa 
 
 twa (tu) 
 
 iSrle Sreo 
 
 "Sreo 
 
 twegra twegra 
 
 twegra 
 
 Sreora fireora 
 
 Sreora 
 
 { twaim twsem 
 ( (twam) (twam) 
 
 twajm 
 (twam) 
 
 'Srim 'Srim 
 
 Srirn 
 
 GROUP II. 
 
 4. feower 
 
 
 12. tw^lf 
 
 
 5. fif 
 
 
 13. 'Sreotlene 
 
 
 6. siex 
 
 
 14. feowertiene 
 
 
 7. seofon 
 
 
 15. flftiene 
 
 
 8. eahta 
 
 
 16. siextlene 
 
 
 9. nigon 
 
 
 17. seofontlene 
 
 
 10. tlen 
 
 
 18. eahtatlene 
 
 
 11. e^ndlefan 
 
 
 19. nigontiene 
 
 
 These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives: 
 on gewitscipe Sreora obpe feower bisceopa, on testimony 
 of three or four bishops; on siex dagum, in six days; an 
 needre 3e hasfde nigon heafdu. a serpent which had nine 
 heads; seSeling eahtatlene wintra, a prince of eighteen 
 winters. 
 
 91. GROUP III. 
 
 20. 
 
 twentig 
 
 80. 
 
 hundeahtatig 
 
 21. 
 
 an Qnd twentig 
 
 90. 
 
 hundnigontig 
 
 30. 
 
 Sritig 
 
 100. 
 
 hund 
 
 40. 
 
 feowertig 
 
 200. 
 
 twa hund 
 
 50. 
 
 flftig 
 
 1000. 
 
 Susend 
 
 60. 
 
 siextig 
 
 2000. 
 
 twa ftusend 
 
 70. 
 
 hundseofontig 
 
 
 
 All these numbers are employed as neuter singular 
 nouns, and are followed by the genitive plural : Naefde 
 he peah mt Sonne twentig hrySera. and twentig sceapa, and
 
 Numerals. 59 
 
 twentig swyna, He did not have, however, more than tiventy 
 (of) cattle, and twenty (o/") sheep, and twenty (of) stvine ; 
 Hie haefdon hundeahtatig scipa. They had eighty ships; 
 twa hund mlla brad, two hundred miles broad ; Seer wgeron 
 seofon hund giiSfanena genumen. there were seven hundred 
 standards captured; an Susend m9nna, a thousand men; 
 Hannibales folces waes twa Susend ofslageu, Of Hanni- 
 baVs men there were two thousand slain; Hie acuron 
 endlefan Suseud mgnna, They chose eleven thousand men. 
 
 NOTE 1. Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only inflec- 
 tional endings that are added are (1) -es, a genitive singular termina- 
 tion for the numerals in -tig, and (2) -e, a dative singular for hund. 
 (1) The first is confined to adjectives expressing extent of space or 
 time, as, eald, old; brad, broad; heah. high; and Igng. lony : Saet 
 is Sritiges niOa l$ng, that is thirty miles long ; He waes Srltiges 
 geara eald. Iff was thirty years old. (2) The second is employed 
 after mid: mid twaem hunde scipa, with tiro hundred ships ; mid 
 Srim hunde mqnna, with three hundred men ; f)ser wearS . . . Reg- 
 ulus gefangen mid V hunde mpima. There was Reyulus captured 
 with jive hundred men. 
 
 The statement made in nearly all the grammars that hunde occurs 
 as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation. 
 
 NOTE 2. Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the 
 genitive plural with the indefinite pronoun sum, which then means 
 one of a certain number. In this peculiar construction, the numeral 
 always precedes sum: feowera sum, one of four (= with three 
 others') ; He saede bset he syxa sum ofsloge syxtig. He said that 
 he, icithjive others, slew sixty (whales'); He waes feowertigra sum, 
 He was one of forty. 
 
 NOTE 3. These are the most common constructions with the Cardi- 
 nals. The forms in -tig have only recently been investigated. A study 
 of Wiilfing's citations shows that Alfred occasionally uses the forms in 
 -tig (1) as adjectives with plural inflections: mid XXXgum cyning- 
 um, with thirty kings ; and (2) as nouns with plural inflections: aefter 
 siextigum daga, after sixty days. But both constructions are rare.
 
 60 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 (b) Ordinals. 
 
 92. The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed 
 from the Cardinals. They are: 
 
 1. forma, airesta, fyrsta 
 
 2. oSer, sefterra 
 
 3. Sridda 
 
 4. feorSa 
 
 5. fifta 
 
 6. siexta 
 
 7. seofofta 
 
 8. eahtofta 
 
 11. endlefta 
 
 12. tw^lfta 
 
 13. Sreoteo'Sa 
 
 14. feowerteoSa 
 
 15. flfteofla 
 
 etc. 
 
 20. twentigoSa 
 
 21. an Qiid twentigofta 
 9. nigofta 30. SrltigoSa 
 
 10. teoa etc. 
 
 NOTE. There are no Ordinals corresponding to bund and Susend. 
 
 With the exception of oSer ( 77), all the Ordi- 
 nals are declined as Weak Adjectives; the article, 
 however, as in Mn.E., is frequently omitted: Brutus 
 waes se forma consul, Brutus was the first consul ; Hr 
 endaS seo eereste boc, 9nd onginneS seo 63er, Here the 
 first book ends, and the second begins; Sy flftan daege, 
 on the fifth day ; on Seem teoSan geare hiera gewinnes, 
 in the tenth year of their strife; Heo waes tw^lfte, She 
 was twelfth ; Se waes feorSa fr9m Agusto, He was fourth 
 from Augustus. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS. 
 Adverbs. 
 
 93. (1) Adverbs are formed by adding -e or -lice to 
 the corresponding adjectives: soS, true; soSe or soSlice, 
 "truly; earmlic, wretched; earmlice, wretchedly; wid,
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 61 
 
 wide; wide, widely; micel, great; micle (micele), greatly, 
 much. 
 
 (2) The terminations -e and -lice are replaced in some 
 adverbs by -(l)unga or -(l)inga : eallunga, entirely ; fseringa, 
 suddenly; grundlunga, from the ground, completely. 
 
 NOTE 1. In Mn.E. headlong, darkling, and groveling, originally 
 adverbs, we have survivals of these endings. 
 
 (3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially : 
 suSeweardes, southicards ; ealles. altogether, entirely; 
 deeges. by day ; nihtes, by night; Sees, from that time, 
 afterwards. Of. hys (=his) weges in Donne rideS selc 
 hys weges, Then rides each his way. 
 
 NOTE 2. The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E. 
 Always, crossways, sideways, needs (= necessarily^), sometimes, etc., are 
 not plurals, but old genitive singulars. The same construction is seen in 
 of course, of a truth, of an evening, of old, of late, and similar phrases. 
 
 (4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as 
 adverbs : hwllum, at times, sometimes [whilom] ; stundum 
 (stund period), from time to time; miclum, greatly. 
 Especially common is the suffix -meelum (mael = time, 
 measure [meal]), preserved adverbially in Mn.E. piece- 
 meal : dropmaslum, drop by drop ; styccemeelum (stycce 
 = piece), piecemeal, here and there. 
 
 (5) The suffix -an usually denotes motion from: 
 
 her, here. hider, hither. heonan, hence. 
 
 Saer. there. Sider, thither. Spnaii. thence. 
 
 hwaer, where t hwider, whither f hwpnan, whence ? 
 
 nor San. from the north, 
 
 eastan. from the east. 
 
 hindan, from behind. 
 
 feorran, from far. 
 
 utan, from without.
 
 62 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 (6) The adverb rihte (riht = right, straight) denotes 
 motion toward in norSrihte, northward, due north; east- 
 rihte. due east ; suSrihte. due south; westrihte, due west. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 94. The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is 
 never governed by a preposition. Of the other cases, 
 the dative and accusative occur most frequently with 
 prepositions. 
 
 (1) The prepositions that are most frequently found 
 with the dative are: 
 
 aefter, after. frpm (fram),/rom, by. 
 
 set, at. mid, with. 
 
 be (bi), by, near, about. of, of, from. 
 
 betweonan (betuh), between. to, to. 
 
 butan (buton), except. toforan, before. 
 
 for, for. toweard, toward. 
 
 (2) The following prepositions require the accusative : 
 
 geond, throughout [be-yond]. 3urh, through. 
 
 ofer, over, upon. ymbe, about, around [urn-while, 
 
 08, until, up to. ember-days]. 
 
 (3) The preposition on (rarely in), meaning into, is 
 usually followed by the accusative; but meaning in, on, 
 or during, it takes the dative or instrumental. The 
 preposition wiS, meaning toward, may be followed by 
 the genitive, dative, or accusative; but meaning against, 
 and implying motion or hostility, the accusative is more 
 common. 
 
 (4) The following phrases are used prepositionally 
 with the dative:
 
 Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions. 63 
 
 be norSan, north of. to eacan, in addition to. 
 
 be eastan, east of. on emnlange (efn-lang = evenly 
 
 be suSan, south of. long), along. 
 
 be westan, west of. to emnes, along. 
 
 (5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pro- 
 noun that they introduce; but by their adverbial nature 
 they are sometimes drawn in front of the verb: And 
 him wees mycel m^negu to gegaderod, And there was gath- 
 ered unto him a great multitude. In relative clauses 
 introduced by Se, the preceding position is very com- 
 mon: ago sclr ... Se he on bude, the district, . . . 
 which he dwelt in ( = which he in-habited^) ; He wees 
 awySe spedig man on Seem aehtuni Se hiera speda on beoS, 
 He was a very rich man in those possessions 'which their 
 riches consist in ; nyhat Seem tune Se se deada man on liS, 
 nearest the town that the dead man lies in. 
 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 95. (1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions 
 
 are: 
 
 ac, but. for 3y, therefore. 
 
 ser, before, ere. gif, if. 
 
 butan (buton), except that, unless. hwaeSer, whether. 
 
 eac. aiso [eke]. 9nd (and), and. 
 
 for Saem oSSe, or. 
 
 for Seem Se, 
 for Son. 
 
 because. 
 
 Saet, that, so that. 
 Seah, though, however. 
 
 for Son Se, 
 (2) The correlative conjunctions are : 
 
 er ge ge. both and. 
 
 aegSer oSer 
 
 oSSe . . oSSe
 
 64 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 ne ne, neither nor. 
 
 sam -. . sam, whether or. 
 
 [the the. 
 
 swa swa 
 
 L as as. 
 
 [ when then. 
 
 oonne oonne j 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 
 Adjectives. 
 
 96. (1) Adjectives are regularly compared by add- 
 ing -ra for the comparative, and -ost (rarely -est) for 
 the superlative : 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 earm, poor 
 
 earmra 
 
 earmoat 
 
 rice, rich 
 
 ricra 
 
 ricost 
 
 smael. narrow 
 
 smaelra 
 
 smalost 
 
 brad, broad 
 
 bradra (breedra) 
 
 bradost 
 
 swift, swift 
 
 swiftra 
 
 swiftest 
 
 (2) Forms with i-umlaut usually have superlative 
 in -est : 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 eald, <>ld ieldra ieldest 
 
 l9ng, long l^ngra longest 
 
 strqng, strong str^ngra strongest 
 
 geong, young giengra giengest 
 
 heah, high hierra hiehst 
 
 (3) The following adjectives are compared irregu- 
 larly :
 
 Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs. 65 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 god, good 
 
 betra 
 
 betst 
 
 lytel, little, small 
 
 Isessa 
 
 last 
 
 micel, great, much 
 
 mara 
 
 maest 
 
 yfel, bad 
 
 wiersa 
 
 wierst 
 
 (4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb : 
 
 Positive^ Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 feor, far fierra fiercest 
 
 neah. near nearra niehst 
 
 eer, before eerra, former serest, first 
 
 (5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declen- 
 sion. The superlatives, when preceded by the definite 
 article, are weak ; but when used predicatively they 
 are frequently strong : se Isesta dal, the least part ; 
 Donne cymeS se man se Sset swiftoste hors hafaS to Seem 
 aerestan daele and to Seem msestan, Then comes the man 
 that has the swiftest horse to the first part and to the 
 largest. But, Saet byne land is easteweard bradost (not 
 bradoste), the cultivated land is broadest eastward; and 
 (hit) biS ealra wyrta meest, and it is largest of all herbs ; 
 Ac hyra ( = hiera) ar is maest on Seem gafole 3e S. Finnas 
 him gyldaS, But their income is greatest in the tribute 
 that the Fins pay them. 
 
 (6) The comparative is usually followed by Sonne 
 and the nominative case : Se hweel bi3 micle leessa 
 Sonne oSre hwalas, That ivhale is much smaller than other 
 whales ; Da wunda Saes modes beoS digelran Sonne 3a 
 wunda Sees iichaman. The wounds of the mind are more 
 secret than the ivounds of the body. 
 
 But when Sonne is omitted, the comparative is fol- 
 lowed by the dative : Ure Allesend, Se mara is
 
 66 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 meerra eallum gesceaftum, Our Redeemer, who is greater 
 and more glorious than all created things ; ne ongeat h 
 no hiene selfne b^tran oSrum godum mpnnum. nor did he 
 consider himself better than other good men. 
 
 Adverbs. 
 
 97. (1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding 
 or for the comparative and -ost (rarely -est) for the 
 superlative : 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 georne, willingly geornor geornost 
 
 awiSe, very, severely swiSor, more swiSost, most, chiefly 
 
 eer, before eeror, formerly eerest, first 
 
 norS. northwards . norSor 1101 Smest l 
 
 (2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found 
 by dropping -ra of the corresponding adjective form : 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 Ipnge, long l$ng longest 
 
 micle, inii.<-h ma ' maest 
 
 wel, well bt b^tst 
 
 Expressions of Time. 
 
 98. (1) Duration of time and extent of space are 
 usually expressed by the accusative case : Ealle Sa 
 hwne 3e Saet He biS inne, All the time that the body is 
 within; twegen dagas, for two days; ealne weg, all the 
 way, always. 
 
 1 This is really a double superlative, m being itself an old superla- 
 tive suffix. Cf. Latin opti-m-us. In Mn.E. northmost and hindmost, 
 -m-est has been confused with, -most, with which etymologically it has 
 nothing to do.
 
 Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs. 67 
 
 (2) Time when is more often expressed by the 
 instrumental case when no preposition is used : Sy ilcan 
 deege, the same day ; eelce geare, each year; 3y geare, 
 that year ; selce deege, each day. 
 
 (3) Time or space within which is expressed by on 
 and the dative: on sumera, in summer ; on wintra, in 
 winter ; on flf dagum, in five days ; on flf mllum, in five 
 miles ; on Sissum geare, in this year; on Seem timan, in 
 those times. Sometimes by the genitive without a pre- 
 ceding preposition: Sees ggares, in that year. 
 
 99. VOCABULARY. 
 
 Saet gefylce [folc], troop, division. 
 
 Seet Iqnd (land), land. 
 
 seo mil, mile. 
 
 63er . . . oSer, the one . . . the 
 other; the former . . . the lat- 
 ter. 
 
 sS sige, victory. 
 
 sige 1 habban, to win (the) vic- 
 tory. 
 
 sprecan, to speak. 
 Saet swin (swyn), swine, hog. 
 weste, waste. 
 
 100. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. He haefS Sreo swit5e swift hors. 2. Ic haebbe nigon- 
 t-iene sceap ond ma Sonne twentig swlna. 3. Seo gode cwen 
 eiest twa hund monna. 4. Uton feohtan wi(5 Sa D^iie mid 
 Srim hunde scipa. 5. Qnd hie wseron on twsem gefylcum : 
 on 65rum waes 2 Bachs^cg ^nd Half d^ne 6a heeSnan cyningas, 
 ond on oftrum wseron <5a eorlas. 6. Du spriest soSlice. 
 7. Donne rit selc niQn his weges. 8. ^Efter monigum da- 
 gum, hasfde Alfred cyning 3 sige. 9. Dis l9nd is weste 
 styccemgelum. 10. Des feld is fiftiges mila brad. 11. ^El- 
 
 1 Sige usually, but not invariably, precedes habban. 
 *See p. 100, note on gefeaht. 
 
 3 The proper noun comes first in appositive expressions : Alfred 
 cyning, Sidroc eorl, Heahmund bisceop.
 
 68 . Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 fred cyning hsefde monige friend, for Seem Se he wses segSei 
 ge wls ge god. 12. Da hwalas, $e M ymbe spriest, sind 
 micle Isessan oSrum hwalum. 13. Heo is ieldre Sonne 
 hiere svvuster, ac mm broSor is ieldra Sonne heo. 14. We 
 oumaS to Sifiin tune selce geare. 15. Da m^n 5e 8a swift- 
 ostan hors haefdon waeron mid Seem D^num feower dagas. 
 
 II. 1. Our army (werod) was in two divisions: one was 
 large, the other was small. 2. The richest men in the 
 kingdom have more (ma) than thirty ships. 3. He was 
 much wiser than his brother. 4. He fights against the 
 Northumbrians with two ships. 5. After three years 
 7ing Alfred gained the victory. 6. Whosoever chooses 
 Ihese gifts, chooses well. 7. This man's son is both wiser 
 i-'nd better than his father. 8. When the king rides, then 
 ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men are not always (a) 
 tfie wisest men. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 STRONG VERBS: CLASS I. (See 17.) 
 
 Syntax of Moods. 
 
 101. Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging 
 to the O.E. Strong Conjugation, it is estimated^ that 
 seventy-eight have preserved their strong inflections 
 in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and 
 that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have 
 entirely disappeared, their places being taken in most 
 cases by verbs of Latin origin introduced through 
 the Norman-French. 
 
 1 Lounsbury, English Language, Part II, 241.
 
 Strong Verbs. 
 
 69 
 
 NOTE. Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound 
 forms, are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss, 
 therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative prefixes. 
 "Thus from the Anglo-Saxon f 16 wan, to flow, ten new compounds 
 were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of which ten, only one, 
 oferflowan. to overflow, survives with us. In a similar manner, from 
 the verb sittan, to sit, thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not 
 a single one is to be found to-day." Lounsbury, ib. Part I, p. 107. 
 
 102. Class I: The "Drive" Conjugation. 
 
 Vowel Succession : I, a, i, i. 
 
 INFINITIVE. PRETERIT SING. PRETERIT PLUR. PAST PART. 
 Drif-an draf drif-on gedrif-en, to drive. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic drif-e 
 
 2. M drif-st (drif-est) 
 
 3. he drif-S (drif-e) 
 
 Plur. 1. we 1 
 
 2. g6 !-drlf-a 
 
 3. hie j 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic draf 
 
 2. u drif-e 
 
 3. h6 draf 
 
 Plur. 1. we ' 
 
 2. ge 
 
 3. hie 
 
 drif-on 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic 1 
 
 2. M !- drif-e 
 
 3. he j 
 
 Plur. 1. we 1 
 
 2. ge i- drif-en 
 
 3. hie j 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic 
 
 2. u 
 
 drif-e 
 
 3. h6 
 
 Plur. 1. we I 
 
 2. ge I drif-en 
 
 3. hie 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Sing. 2. drif 
 
 Plur. 1. drif-an 
 2. drif-a 
 
 Infinitive, 
 drif-an 
 
 Present Participle, 
 drlf-ende 
 
 Gerund. Past Participle. 
 
 t6 drif-anne (-enne) gedrif-en
 
 70 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 Tense Formation of Strong Verbs. 
 
 103. (1) It will be seen from the conjugation of 
 drifan that the present stem in all strong verbs is 
 used throughout the present indicative, the present 
 subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the gerund, 
 and the present participle. More than half of the end- 
 ings, therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added 
 directly to the present stem. 
 
 (2) That the preterit singular stem is used in only 
 two forms of the verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular 
 of the preterit indicative : Ic draf, he draf. 
 
 (3) That the preterit plural stem is used in the 
 preterit plural indicative, in the second person of the 
 preterit singular indicative, and in the singular and 
 plural of the preterit subjunctive. 
 
 (4) That the stem of the past participle (gedrif-) is 
 used for no other form. 
 
 Syntax of the Verb. 
 
 104. The Indicative Mood J represents the predicate 
 as a reality. It is used both in independent and in 
 dependent clauses, its function in O.E. correspond- 
 ing with its function in Mn.E. 
 
 105. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate 
 as an idea? It is of far more frequent occurrence in 
 O.E. than in Mn.E. 
 
 1 Usage sanctions mood, but the better spelling would be mode. It 
 is from the Lat. modus, whereas mood (= temper) is O.E. mod. 
 
 2 Gildersleeve's Latin Grammar, 255.
 
 Strong Verbs. 71 
 
 1. When used in independent clauses it denotes 
 desire, command, or entreaty, and usually precedes its 
 subject : Sle 8m nama gehalgod, Hallowed be Thy name ; 
 Ne sw^rigen ge, Do not swear. 
 
 2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possi- 
 bility, or mere futurity. 1 (a) Concessive clauses (intro- 
 duced by Seah, though) and (5) temporal clauses (intro- 
 duced by eer, eer Seem Se, before) are rarely found with 
 any other mood than the subjunctive. The subjunctive is 
 also regularly used in Alfredian prose (c) after verbs of 
 saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit 
 attaches to the narration. 2 " Whether the statement 
 refer to a fact or not, whether the subject-matter be 
 vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective 
 reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It 
 simply represents a statement as reported " 3 : Seah 
 man asftte twegen feetels full ealaS oSSe weeteres, though 
 one set two vessels full of ale or ivater ; eer Seem Se hit 
 call forhfrgod weere, before it was all ravaged; He seede 
 Seet NorSmanna land weere swySe lang and swySe smael, 
 He said that the Norwegians' 1 land was very long and 
 very narrow. 
 
 1 Thus when Alfred writes that an event took place before the 
 founding of Rome, he uses the subjunctive : eer Seem Se Rome- 
 burh getimbrod weere = before Borne were founded; but, set- 
 ter Seem Se RSmeburh getimbrod wees = after Some was 
 founded. 
 
 2 "By the time of JElfric, however, the levelling .influence of the 
 indicative [after verbs of saying] has made considerable progress." 
 Gorrell, Indirect Discourse in Anglo-Saxon (Dissertation, 1895), 
 p. 101. 
 
 3 Hotz, On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Anglo-Saxon 
 (Zurich, 1882).
 
 72 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 106. The Imperative is the mood of command or 
 intercession : Johannes, cum to me, John, come to me', 
 And f orgyf us ure gyltas, And forgive us our trespasses ; 
 Ne drif us fram 3e, Do not drive us from thee. 
 
 107. (1) The Infinitive and Participles are used 
 chiefly in verb-phrases ( 138-141); but apart from 
 this function, the Infinitive, being a neuter noun, 
 may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb. 
 Hatan (to command, bid), laetan (to let, permit), and 
 onginnan (to begin) are regularly followed by the Infin- 
 itive: Hine ridan lyste, To ride pleased him; Het 3a 
 beere s^ttan, He bade set down the bier ; l LeetaS 3a 
 lytlingas to me cuman, Let the little ones come to me; 
 Sa ongann he sprecan, then began he to speak. 
 
 (2) The Participles may be used independently in 
 the dative absolute construction (an imitation of the 
 Latin ablative absolute), usually for the expression of 
 time : 2 Him Sa gyt sprecendum. While he was yet speaking ; 
 gefylledum dagum, the days having been fulfilled . 
 
 108. The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used: 
 
 (1) To express purpose: Ut eode se sawere his seed 
 to sawenne. Out went the sower his seed to sow. 
 
 (2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or 
 adjective : Symon. ic haebbe Se to s^cgenne sum Sing. Simon, 
 I have something to say to thee ; Hit is sc9ndlic ymb swelc 
 to sprecanne. It is shameful to speak about such things. 
 
 1 Not, He commanded the bier to be set down. The Mn.E. passive 
 in such sentences is a loss both in force and directness. 
 
 2 Callaway, The Absolute Participle in Anglo-Saxon (Dissertation, 
 1889), p. 19.
 
 Strong Verbs. 73 
 
 (3) After beon (wesan) to denote duty or necessity: 
 Hwaet is nu ma ymbe Sis to sprecanne, What more is 
 there now to say about this? Sonne is to geo^ncenne 
 hwaet Crist self cwaeS, then it behooves to bethink what 
 Christ himself said. 
 
 NOTE. The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive after 
 to. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive ; hence the 
 use of to with the Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the Elizabethan age 
 the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even after the auxiliary 
 
 " Some pagan shore, 
 
 Where these two Christian armies might combine 
 The blood of malice in a vein of league, 
 And not to spend it so unneighbourly." 
 
 King John, V, 2, 39. 
 
 When to lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as 
 a merely formal prefix, for was used to supplement the purpose ele- 
 ment : What icent ye out for to see ? l 
 
 1 This is not the place to discuss the Gerund in Mn.E., the so-called 
 "infinitive in -ing." The whole subject has been befogged for the 
 lack of an accepted nomenclature, one that shall do violence neither 
 to grammar nor to history.
 
 74 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 STRONG VERBS: CLASSES II AND III. 
 109. Class II: The "Choose" Conjugation. 
 Vowel Succession : eo, ea, u, o. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 1 PRET. SING. PRET. PLUR. 2 
 
 PAST PART. 2 
 
 ceos-an, 
 
 ceas, cur-on, 
 
 gecor-en, to choose, 
 
 Indicative. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic ceos-e Sing. 
 2. '5u ciest (ceos-est) 
 3. he ciest (ceos-etS) 
 
 1. Ic 
 2. ftu ceos-e 
 3. he , 
 
 Plur. 1. w6 " 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. we j 
 
 2. ge 
 3. hie . 
 
 ceos-a* 
 
 2. gef ceos-en 
 3. hieJ 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic ceas Sing. 
 2. ftu cur-e 
 
 1. Ic 
 2. 'Su cur-e 
 
 3. he ceas 
 
 3. he j 
 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. we "I 
 
 2. ge 
 3. hie . 
 
 cur-on 
 
 2. ge \ cur-en 
 3. hie J 
 
 Imperative. Infinitive. Present Participle. 
 
 Sing. 2. ceos ceos-an ceos-ende 
 
 Plur. 1. ceos-an 
 2. ceos-a Gerund. 
 t5 cSos-anne (-enne) 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 gecor-en 
 
 1 A few verbs of Class II have u instead of eo in the infinitive : 
 
 brucan, breac, brucon, gebrocen, to enjoy [brook]. 
 bugan, beag, bugon, gebogen, to betid, bow. 
 
 2 By a law known as Grammatical Change, final 8, B, and h of 
 strong verbs generally become d, r, and g, respectively, in the preterit 
 plural and past participle.
 
 Strong Verbs. 
 
 75 
 
 110. Class III: The "Bind" Conjugation. 
 
 Vowel Succession : r , a, u, [ . 
 
 e j o j 
 
 The present stem ends in m, n, l, r, or h, + one or 
 more consonants : 
 
 f belomp ] 
 
 m : belimp-an, ! r , belump-on, belump-en, to belong. 
 
 I belamp j 
 
 n : bind-aii. 
 
 bund-on, 
 
 gebund-en, to bind. 
 geholp-en, to help. 
 
 I band J ' 
 
 1 : help-an. healp, hulp-on. 
 
 r : weor3-an, wearS, wurd-on, geword-en, to become. 
 
 h : gefeoht-an, gefeaht, gefuht-on, gefoht-en, to fight. 
 
 NOTE 1. If the present stem ends in a nasal (m, n) -f a consonant, 
 the past participle retains the u of the pret. plur. ; but if the present 
 stem ends in a liquid (1, r) or h, + a consonant, the past participle 
 has o instead of u. 
 
 NOTE 2. Why do we not find *halp, *warS, and *faht in the pret. 
 sing. ? Because a before 1, r, or h, + a consonant, underwent "break- 
 ing" to ea. Breaking also changes every e followed by r or h, + a 
 consonant, to eo: weorSan (< *werSan), feohtan (< *iehtan). 
 
 111. Indicative. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic bind-e 
 
 2. M bintst (bind-est) 
 
 3. he bint (bind-e) 
 
 Plur. 1. we ] 
 
 2. ge i bind-aft 
 3.- hleJ 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic bo.nd 
 
 2. u bund-e 
 
 3. h6 bond 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic 
 
 2. u 
 
 3. he 
 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 2. ge 
 
 3. hie J 
 
 bind-e 
 
 bind-en 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 . 1. Ic 
 
 2. M [ bund-e 
 
 3. he
 
 76 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 hie 
 
 bund-on 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Sing. 2. bind 
 Plur. 1. bind-an 
 2. bind-aft 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 bind-an 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 Plur. 1. we 1 
 
 2. ge |- bund-en 
 
 3. hleJ 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 bind-ende 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 t5 bind-anne (-enne) 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 gebund-en 
 
 112. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Saet gefeoht, fight, battle. 
 
 seo ger^cednes, narration [r^c- 
 can]. 
 
 Saet gesceap, creation [sciep- 
 pan]. 
 
 seo he,rgung ( 39, (3)), harrying, 
 plundering [hejgian]. 
 
 s medu (medo) ( 51), mead. 
 
 seo meolc, milk. 
 
 s middangeard, world [middle- 
 yard]. 
 
 se munuc, monk [monachus]. 
 
 seo myre, mare [mearh]. 
 
 he seede, he said. 
 
 Me saedon. they said. 
 
 seo sped, riches [speed]. 
 
 spedig, rich, prosperous [speedy]. 
 
 seo tid, time [tide]. 
 
 unspedig, poor. 
 
 se westanwind, west-wind. 
 
 Saet win, wine. 
 
 arisaii. 
 
 arts, 
 
 arison, 
 
 arisen, 
 
 to arise. 
 
 bidan. 
 
 bad, 
 
 bidon, 
 
 gebiden, 
 
 to remain, expect 
 (with gen.) 
 
 dreogan, 1 
 
 dreag, 
 
 drugon, 
 
 gedrogen, 
 
 to endure, suffer. 
 
 drincan, 
 
 drone, 
 
 druncon, 
 
 gedruncen, 
 
 to drink. 
 
 findan, 
 
 fond, 
 
 fundon, 
 
 gefunden, 
 
 to find. 
 
 geswlcan 
 
 geswac. 
 
 geswicon. 
 
 geswicen, 
 
 to cease, cease from 
 (with gen.) 
 
 iernan (yrnan), 
 
 901, 
 
 union. 
 
 geurnen, 
 
 to run. 
 
 ongimian. 
 
 ong9nn, 
 
 ongunnon, 
 
 ongunnen, 
 
 to begin. 
 
 ridan. 
 
 rad, 
 
 ridon, 
 
 geriden. 
 
 to ride. 
 
 singan, 
 
 S9ng, 
 
 sungon, 
 
 gesungen, 
 
 to sing. 
 
 wrltan, 
 
 wrtt, 
 
 writon, 
 
 gewriten, 
 
 to write. 
 
 Of. the Scotch "to dree one's weird" = to endure one's fate.
 
 Strong Verbs. 77 
 
 113. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. ^Efter Sissum wordum, se munuc wrat ealle fca ger- 
 cednesse on anre bee. 2. Da eorlas ridon up ser 5aem Se <5a 
 D^ne <5ses gefeohtes geswicen. 3. Caedmon s$ng eerest be 
 middangeardes gesceape. 4. Se cyning ond Sa ricostan 
 m^n drincaft myran meolc, ond t5a unspedigan drincaS medu. 
 5. Qnd he aras ond se wind geswac. 6. Hie ssedon 6aet hie 
 5ger westwindes biden. 7. Hwset is nu ma ymbe t5as Sing 
 to sprecanne ? 8. Da s^cgas ongunnon geswlcan SEere h^r- 
 gunga. 9. Da beag Sset lond tJeer eastryhte, oSSe seo see 
 in on Saet lond. 10. Das lond belimpaS to SBem En glum. 
 11. Deah Sa D^ne ealne dseg gefuhten, giet hsefde Alfred 
 cyning sige. 12. Qnd Sees (afterwards) ymbe anne monatS 
 gefeaht Alfred cyning wiS ealne ftone h^re set Wiltune. 
 
 II. 1. The most prosperous men drank mare's milk and 
 wine, but the poor men drank mead. 2. I suffered many 
 things before you began to help me (dat.). 3. About two 
 days afterwards (Dees ymbe twegen dagas), the plundering 
 ceased. 4. The king said that he fought against all the 
 army (h^re). 5. Although the Danes remained one month 
 ( 98, (1)), they did not begin to fight. 6. These gifts 
 belonged to my brother. 7. The earls were glad because 
 their lord was (indicative) with them. 8. What did you 
 find? 9. Then wrote he about (be) the wise man's deeds. 
 10. What more is there to endure?
 
 78 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 STRONG VERBS : CLASSES IV, V, VI, AND VII. 
 CONTRACT VERBS. 
 
 [The student can now complete the conjugation for himself ( 1O3). 
 Only the principal parts will be given.] 
 
 114. Class IV: The "Bear" Conjugation. 
 Vowel Succession : e, ae, se, o. 
 
 The present stem ends in 1, r, or m, no consonant 
 following : 
 
 1: hel-an, hael, heel-on, gehol-en, to conceal. 
 
 i: ber-aii, beer, beer-on, gebor-en, to bear. 
 
 The two following verbs are slightly irregular : 
 iiim-an. nom(nam), nom-on (nam-on), genum-en, to take. 
 
 m : , 
 
 cum-an. c(w)6m, c(w)om-on, gecum-en, to come. 
 
 115. Class V: The "Give" Conjugation. 
 
 Succession of Vowels : e (ie), ae, se, e. 
 
 The present stem ends in a single consonant, never 
 a liquid or nasal : 
 
 met-an. maet, maeton, gemet-en, to measure, mete. 
 gief-an, geaf, geaf-on. gegief-en, to give. 
 
 NOTE 1. The palatal consonants, g, c, and so, convert a following 
 e into ie, ae into ea, and ee into ea. Hence giefan (<*gefan), geaf 
 *gaef), geafon *geefon), gegiefen *gegefen). This change 
 is known as Palatalization. See 8. 
 
 NOTE 2. The infinitives of the following important verbs are only 
 apparently exceptional : 
 
 biddan, baed, baed-on, gebed-en, to ask for [bid]. 
 licgan, laeg, laeg-on, geleg-en, to lie, extend. 
 aittan, saet, saet-on, geset-en, to sit.
 
 Strong J'erbs. 
 
 79 
 
 The original e reappears in the participial stems. It was changed 
 to i in the present stems on account of a forme'r -jan in the infinitive 
 (bid-jan, etc.). See 61. To the same cause is due the doubling 
 of consonants in the infinitive. All simple consonants in O.E., with 
 the exception of r, were doubled after a short vowel, when an original 
 j followed. 
 
 116. Class VI: The "Shake" Conjugation. 
 Succession of Vowels : a, 6, 6, a. 
 
 scac-an, scoc, scoc-on, gescac-en. to shake. 
 far-an, for, for-on, gefar-en, to go [fare]. 
 
 117. Class VII : The " Fall " Conjugation. 
 
 a 1 a 1 ea 1 ea 
 
 Vowel Succession : _ L 5, e, _ \ ; or ea L eo, eo, ea \ . 
 
 x ) 5 J 6 
 
 (1) hat-an, het, hSt-on, gehat-en, i * C "' 
 
 \ command. 
 
 laet-an, let, 
 
 let-on, 
 
 gelaet-en, to let. 
 
 (2) feall-an. feoll, feoll-on, gefeall-en, to fall. 
 
 heald-an, heold, heold-on. geheald-en. to hold. 
 
 heaw-an, heow, heow-on, geheaw-en, to hew. 
 
 grov^-an, greow, greow-on, gegrow^-en. to grow. 
 
 NOTE 1. This class consists of the Reduplicating Verbs; that is, 
 those verbs that originally formed their preterits not by internal 
 vowel change (ablaut), but by prefixing to the present stem the 
 initial consonant + e (cf. Gk. \t-\onra and Lat. de-df). Contraction 
 then took place between the syllabic prefix and the root, the fusion 
 resulting in e or eo : *he-hat > heht > het. 
 
 NOTE 2. A peculiar interest attaches to hatan : the forms hatte 
 and hatton are the sole remains in O.E. of the original Germanic 
 passive. They are used both as presents and as preterits: hatte = 
 / am or was called, he is or was called. No other verb in O.E. could 
 have a passive sense without calling in the aid of the verb to be 
 ( 141)-
 
 80 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 Contract Verbs. 
 
 118. The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not 
 constitute a new class ; they fall under Classes I, II, 
 V, VI, and VII, already treated. The present stem 
 ended originally in h. This was lost before -an of 
 the infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthen- 
 ing being the result. The following are the most 
 important of these verbs : 
 
 Classes. 
 
 I. SSon *3ihan), 
 
 ge3ig-en ] 
 3ah, 3ig-on, -. *, }-, 
 I ge3ung-en j 
 
 to thrive. 
 
 II. tSon *teohan), 
 
 teah, tug-on, getog-en, 
 
 to draw, go 
 [tug]. 
 
 V. seon *sehwan), 
 
 seah, saw-on, gesew-en, 
 
 to see. 
 
 VI. slan(<*Blahan), sloh, slog-on, gesleeg-en, to slay. 
 
 VII. fon *fohan), feng, feng-on, gef9ng-en, to seize 
 
 [fang]. 
 
 119. The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as 
 follows (see rules of i-umlaut, 58): 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic iSeo t6o seo slea fo 
 2. iSu iSihst tlehst siehst sliehst fehst 
 3. heIh tleh sieh sliehS f6h 
 
 Plur. 1. w6 
 
 
 2. ge 
 
 5eo teo* seo^ sleaiS f6 
 
 3. hie . 
 
 
 The other tenses and moods are regularly formed 
 from the given stems. 
 
 120. VOCABULARY. 
 
 seo sent, property, possession 
 
 [agan]. 
 
 aweg, away [on weg]. 
 seo fierd, English army [faran], 
 se h^re, Danish army [hfrgian]. 
 
 on gehw^aeSre h 911*3 , on both 
 
 sides. 
 sige niman ( = sige habban) , to 
 
 win (the) victory. 
 seo spraec, speech, language.
 
 Contract Verbs. 
 
 81 
 
 to rice fon, to come to 
 Sset wael [Val-halla] 
 se waelsliht. 
 
 abrecan,- abraec. 
 
 cweSan. cweeS, 
 
 geseon, geseah. 
 
 growan, greow, 
 
 ofslean. of slob, 
 
 sprecan, spraec. 
 
 stelan, steel. 
 
 stqndan, stod, 
 
 weaxan. weox, 
 
 the throne.^ 
 
 1 slaughter, 
 } carnage. 
 
 se weall, wall, rampart. 
 
 Saet wilder, wild beast, reindeer. 
 se wingeard, vineyard. 
 
 abrsecon, abrocen, to break down. 
 
 cwsedon, gecweden, to say [quoth]. 
 
 gesawon, gesewen, to see. 
 
 greowon, gegrowen, to groin. 
 
 ofsldgon, ofslaegen, to slay. 
 
 spraecon. gesprecen, to speak. 
 
 staelon. gestolen, to steal. 
 
 stodon. gestQnden, to stand. 
 
 weoxon, geweaxen, to grow, increase [wax]. 
 
 121. EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. JSfter fisem soSlice (indeed) ealle m^n spreecon ane 
 (one) spruce. 2. Qnd he cwae^ : " Dis is an folc, ond ealle 
 hie sprecaft ane spreece." 3. On sumuin stowum wmgeardas 
 growa<5. 4. He het 5a nsedran ofslean. 5. Da ^ngle abrae- 
 con (5one longan weall, ond sige nomon. 6. Qnd tSaet saed 
 greow ond weox. 7. Ic ne geseah Sone mon se Se 8ses 
 cnapan adesan stael. 8. He waes swySe spedig man on Sseni 
 Shtum 6e hiera speda on 3 beo6, Sset is, on wildrum. 9. Qnd 
 Saer weartS (was) micel waelsliht on gehwaeSre h^nd. 10. Qnd 
 aefter Sissum gefeohte, com Alfred cyning mid his fierde, 
 Qnd gefeaht witS ealne Sone h^re, ond sige nom. 11. Deos 
 burg hatte 4 ^scesdun (Ashdown). 12. Deere cwene lie laeg 
 on Seem huse. 13. Qnd se dsel t5e Seer aweg com wees swyfte 
 lytel. 14. Qnd Sees Sreotlene dagas ^ESered to rice feng. 
 
 II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the 
 Danes. 2. Before the thanes came, the king rode away. 
 
 1 Literally, to take to (the) kingdom. Cf. " Have you anything to 
 take to?" (Two Gentlemen of Verona, IV, 1, 42). 
 
 2 Brecan belongs properly in Class V, but it has been drawn into 
 Class IV possibly through the influence of the r in the root. 
 
 8 See 94, (5). * See 117, Note 2.
 
 82 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 3. They said (saedon) that all the men spoke one language. 
 
 4. They bore the queen's body to Wilton. 5. Alfred gave 
 many gifts to his army (dat. without to) before he went 
 away. 6. These men are called earls. 7. God sees all 
 things. 8. The boy held the reindeer with (mid) his hands. 
 9. About six months afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, 
 and came to the throne. 10. He said that there was very 
 great slaughter on both sides. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 WEAK VERBS ( is). 
 
 122. The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation 
 are generally of more recent origin than the strong 
 verbs, being frequently formed from the roots of 
 strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the grow- 
 ing conjugation in O.E. as it is in Mn.E. We in- 
 stinctively put our newly coined or borrowed words 
 into this conjugation (telegraphed, boycotted); and 
 children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say runned 
 for ran, seed for saw, teared for tore, drawed for drew, 
 and groived for grew. So, for example, when Latin 
 dictdre and brevidre came into O.E., they came as 
 weak verbs, dihtian and brefian. 
 
 The Three Classes of Weak Verbs. 
 
 123. There is no difficulty in telling, from the infini- 
 tive alone, to which of the three classes a weak verb 
 belongs. Class III has been so invaded by Class II
 
 Weak Verbs. 83 
 
 that but three important verbs remain to it : habban, to 
 have; libban, to live; and slogan, to say. Distinction is 
 to be made, therefore, only between Classes II and I. 
 Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not 
 preceded by r. Class I contains the remaining weak 
 verbs ; that is, those with infinitive in -r-ian and those 
 
 with infinitive in -an (not -ian). 
 
 i 
 
 Class I. 
 
 124. The preterit singular and past participle of 
 Class I end in -ede and -ed, or -de and -ed respectively. 
 
 NOTE. The infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan 
 ( = -ian) . This accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these 
 verbs, and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending 
 in a double consonant ( 115, Note 2). The weak verb is frequently 
 the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In sucb cases, the 
 root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular 
 of the strong verb : Mn.E. drench (to make drink), lay (= to make 
 lie), rear (= to make rise), and set (= to make sit), are the umlauted 
 forms of dr9iic (preterit singular of drincan), Iseg (preterit singular 
 of licgan), ras (preterit singular of risan), and seet (preterit singu- 
 lar of sittan). 
 
 Preterit and Past Participle in -ede and -ed. 
 
 125. Verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or 
 the double consonants mm, nn, ss, bb, eg (= gg), add 
 -ede for the preterit, and -ed for the past participle, 
 the double consonant being always made single : 
 
 ri: neji-an. n^r-ede, gen^r-ed, to save. 
 
 mm: fremm-an. fr^m-ede, gefr^m-ed, to perform [frame]. 
 
 nn : 8nn-an, 3n-ede, ge3$ n-ed, to extend. 
 
 BB : cnyss-an, cnys-ede, gecnys-ed, to beat.
 
 84 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 bb : swf bb-an, sw^f-ede, geswe^-ed, to put to sleep. 
 eg : wcg-an, wfg-ede, gew^g-ed, to agitate. 
 
 NOTE. LfCgan, to lay, \& the only one of these verbs that synco- 
 pates the e: l^cgan, lgde (lede). gel^gd (geled), instead of 
 legede. gelged. 
 
 Preterit and Past Participle in -de and -ed. 
 
 126. All the other verbs belonging to Class I. add 
 -de for the preterit and -ed for the past participle. 
 This division includes, therefore, all stems long by 
 nature ( 10, (3), (a)) : 
 
 dael-an. dael-de. gedeel-ed, to deal out, divide [deel]. 
 
 dem-an, dem-de, gedem-ed, to judge [dom]. 
 
 gret-an. gret-te, gegret-ed, to greet. 
 
 hier-an, hier-de, gehier-ed, to hear. 
 
 laed-an. laed-de. gelaed-ed. to lead. 
 
 NOTE 1. A preceding voiceless consonant ( 9, Note) changes -de 
 into -te : *gret-de > gret-te ; *met-de > met-te ; *iec-de > lec-te. 
 Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the participles: gegret-ed 
 > *gegret-d > gegret(t) ; gelaed-ed > gelsed(d). 
 
 NOTE 2. Buan, to dwell, cultivate, has an admixture of strong 
 forms in the past participle: buan. bude, gebud (byn, gebun). The 
 present participle survives in Mn.E. husband = house-dweller. 
 
 127- It includes, also, all stems long by position ( 10, 
 (3), (6)) except those in mm, nn, ss, bb, and eg ( 125) : 
 
 sf nd-an. send-e. ges^nd-ed. to send. 
 
 sett-an. s^t-te. geset-ed. to set , sittan]. 
 
 aigl-an, sigl-de. gesigl-ed, to sail. 
 
 spend-an. spend-e. gespend-ed. /" spend. 
 
 trfdd-an, trfd-de, getrf d-ed, to tread. 
 
 NOTE. The participles frequently undergo syncope and contrac- 
 tion : gesended > gesend ; ges^ted > gese, t(t) ; gespf nded > 
 gespfud; getrfded > getrd(d).
 
 Weak Verbs. 
 
 85 
 
 Irregular Verbs of Class I. 
 
 128. There are about twenty verbs belonging to 
 Class I that are irregular in having no umlaut in 
 the preterit and past participle. The preterit ends in 
 -de, the past participle in -d ; but, through the influ- 
 ence of a preceding voiceless consonant ( 9, Note), 
 -ed is generally unvoiced to -te, and -d to -t. The 
 most important of these verbs are as follows : 
 
 bring-an. broh-te, gebr5h-t, to bring. 
 geboh-t, 
 gesoh-t, 
 geseal-d, 
 geteeh-t, 
 geteal-d, 
 ge3oh-t, 
 ge3uh-t, 
 geworh-t, 
 
 byc-gan, 
 
 boh-te, 
 
 sec-an. 
 
 soh-te. 
 
 sen-aii. 
 
 seal-de, 
 
 teec-an, 
 
 taeh-te. 
 
 t^ll-an, 
 
 Senc-an. 
 Sync-an, 
 
 teal-de, 
 
 3oh-te. 
 ouh-te, 
 
 wyrc-an, 
 
 worh-te, 
 
 to buy. 
 
 to seek. 
 
 to give, sell [hand-sel]. 
 
 to teach. 
 
 to count [tell]. 
 
 to think. 
 
 to seem [methinks]. 
 
 to work. 
 
 NOTE. Such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently 
 written with an inserted e : bycgean, secean, teecean. etc. This e 
 indicates that c and g have palatal value ; that is, are to be followed with 
 a vanishing y-sound. In such cases, O.E. c usually passes into Mn.E. 
 ch -. tjec(e)an > to teach ; reec(e)an > to reach ; strecc(e)an > to 
 stretch. Sec (e) an gives beseech as well as seek. See 8. 
 
 Conjugation of Class I. 
 
 129. Paradigms of nerian, to save; frfmman, to per- 
 form; daelan, to divide: 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic ne,rie fre,mme 
 
 2. M newest fre,mest 
 
 3. he n^retS frame's 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 2. g6 \ n^riaiS fr^mma'S 
 
 3. hie 
 
 daile 
 dailst 
 diSKS
 
 86 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic nerede fremede 
 
 dselde 
 
 2. *5u neredest fre,medest 
 
 dseldest 
 
 3. he nerede fre,mede 
 
 dselde 
 
 Plur. 1. we j 
 
 
 2. ge ) neredon fre,medon 
 
 dteldon 
 
 3. hie J 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic ) PRESENT. 
 
 
 2. M !-n?rie fr^rnme 
 
 dle 
 
 3. he j 
 
 
 Piwr. 1. we j 
 
 
 2. ge [ n^rien fremmen 
 
 delen 
 
 3. hie J 
 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic I PRETERIT. 
 
 
 2. "Su I n^rede fr^mede 
 
 divide 
 
 3. he j 
 
 
 PZwr. 1. we 1 
 
 
 2. ge ^ n^reden f re.meden 
 
 chelden 
 
 3. hie j 
 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 
 Sing. 2. nere fr^me 
 
 dsel 
 
 Plur. 1. nerian fr^mman 
 
 dselan 
 
 2. n^riai? fremmaS 
 
 dselaiS 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 n^rian fr^mman 
 
 da;lan 
 
 f 
 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 
 nerianne (-enne) to fr^mmanne (-enne) 
 
 to dselanne ( 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 
 n^riende fr^minende 
 
 dselende 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 
 genered gefr^med 
 
 gedseled
 
 Weak Verbs. 87 
 
 NOTE. The endings of the preterit present no difficulties ; in the 
 2d and 3d singular present, however, the student will observe (a) that 
 double consonants in the stem are made single : firmest, fr^meS 
 (not *frmmest, *frmme3 ) ; Sejnest, 5$ne3 ; setest ? setst . sf teS 
 (sftt); fylst, fylS, from fyllan, to fill; (6) that syncope is the rule 
 in stems long by nature: daelst daelest), daelS deeleS); 
 demst demeBt), demS deme3); hierst Merest), MerS 
 hiereS). Double consonants are also .made single in the impera- 
 tive 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by nature 
 take no final -e in the imperative : dael. hler, dem. 
 
 Class II. 
 
 130. The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class 
 ends in -ian (not -r-ian), the preterit singular in -ode, 
 the past participle in -od. The preterit plural usually 
 has -edon, however, instead of -odon: 
 
 eard-ian eard-ode, geeard-od, to dwell [eorSe]. 
 
 luf-ian, luf-ode, geluf-od, to love [lufa]. 
 
 rics-ian, rics-ode. gerics-od, to rule [rice], 
 
 aealf-ian, sealf-ode, gesealf-od, to anoint [salve]. 
 
 segl-ian, segl-ode, gesegl-od, to sail [segel]. 
 
 4 NOTE. These verbs have no trace of original umlaut, since their 
 -ian was once -ojan. Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded from 
 the influence of the j (= i) by the interposition of o. 
 
 Conjugation of Class II. 
 
 131. Paradigm of lufian, to love : 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 PRESENT. PRESENT. 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic lufie Sing. 1. Ic ] 
 
 2. Sulufast 2. u [lufie 
 
 3. helufaiS 3. he J 
 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 2. g6 
 
 3. hie J 
 
 Plur. 1. we 1 
 
 lufia 2. gg ilufien 
 
 3. hie J
 
 88 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic lufode 
 
 2. M lufodest 
 
 3. he lufode 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 2. ge 
 
 3. hie J 
 
 lufedon (-odon) 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic 1 
 
 2. u [lufode 
 
 3. he J 
 Plur. 1. we 1 
 
 2. ge j-lufeden (-oden) 
 
 3. hie J 
 
 Imperative. 
 Sing. 2. lufa 
 Plur. 1. lufian 
 2. lufiatf 
 
 Infinitive, 
 lufian 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 to lufianne (-enne) 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 lufiende 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 gelufod 
 
 NOTE. 1. The -ie (-ien) occurring in the present must be pro- 
 nounced as a dissyllable. The y-sound thus interposed between the 
 i and e is frequently indicated by the letter g: luh'e, or lufige ; 
 lufien, or lufigen. So also for ia : lufiaS, or lufigaS ; lufian, or 
 lufig(e)an. 
 
 NOTE 2. In the preterit singular, -ade, -ude, and -ede are not 
 infrequent for -ode. 
 
 Class III. 
 
 132. The few verbs belonging here show a blending 
 of Classes I and II. Like certain verbs of Class I 
 ( 128), the preterit and past participle are formed 
 by adding -de and -d; like Class II, the 2d and 3d 
 present indicative singular end in -ast and -a8, the 
 imperative 2d singular in -a: 
 
 habb-an, haef-de geheef-d, to have. 
 
 libb-an. lif-de gelif-d, to live. 
 
 secg-an saed-e saeg-de . gesagd (geaaeg-d), to say.
 
 Weak Verbs. 
 
 89 
 
 133. 
 
 slogan. 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Conjugation of Class III. 
 
 Paradigms of habban, to have ; libban, to live ; 
 to say. 
 
 Indicative. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 libbe 
 lifast 
 
 1. Ic haebbe 
 
 2. Su haefst (hafast) 
 
 3. he haef S (hafaS) lifaS 
 
 1. we ] 
 
 2. ge UabbaS libbaS 
 
 3. hie 
 
 s^cge 
 
 saegst (sagast) 
 
 
 PRETERIT. 
 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic haefde lifde 
 2. u haefdest lifdest 
 
 saede 
 siedest 
 
 3. he haefde lifde 
 
 sasde 
 
 Plur. 1. w6 ' 
 
 
 
 2. ge j- haef don lifdon 
 3. hie J 
 
 sagdon 
 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic 
 2. u 
 3. he J 
 
 PRESENT. 
 i- haebbe libbe 
 
 s^cge 
 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 
 
 2. ge ; hsebbeu libben 
 3. hie J 
 Sing. 1. Ic 1 PRETERIT. 
 2. u [ haefde lifde 
 
 s^cgen 
 saade 
 
 3. he 
 
 
 
 Plur. 1. we 
 
 
 
 2. ge 
 3. hie 
 
 - haefden lifden 
 
 saeden 
 
 Imperative. 
 
 Sing. 2. hafa Ufa 
 
 saga 
 
 Plur. 1. habban libban 
 2. habbaS libbaft 
 
 s^cgan 
 s^cga^S
 
 90 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 habban libban slogan 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 to habbanne (-enne) to libbanne (-enne) t5 se,cganne (-enne) 
 
 Present Participle. 
 
 hsebbende libbende se,cgende 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 gehsefd gelifd 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 
 REMAINING VERBS ; VERB-PHRASES WITH habban, 
 
 beon, AND weorSaii. 
 Anomalous Verbs. (See 19.) 
 134. These are: 
 
 beon (wesan), 
 
 wees, 
 
 weeron, 
 
 t 
 
 to be. 
 
 willan, 
 
 wolde, 
 
 woldon, 
 
 > 
 
 to will, intend. 
 
 don, 
 
 dyde, 
 
 dydon, 
 
 gedon, 
 
 to do, cause. 
 
 gan, 
 
 code, 
 
 eodon. 
 
 gegan, 
 
 to go. 
 
 NOTE. In the original Indo-Germanic language, the first person 
 of the present indicative singular ended in (1) 6 or (2) mi. Cf. Gk. 
 \i5-w, el-pl, Lat. am-o, su-m. The Strong and Weak Conjugations of 
 O.E. are survivals of the o-class. The four Anomalous Verbs men- 
 tioned above are the sole remains in O.E. of the mi- class. Note the 
 surviving m in com 7 am, and dom / do (Northumbrian form). 
 These mi-verbs are sometimes called non-Thematic to distinguish 
 them from the Thematic or 6-verbs.
 
 Remaining Verbs. 91 
 
 Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs. 
 
 135. Only the present indicative and subjunctive 
 
 are at all irregular: 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 Sing. 1. Ic eom (beom) wille do ga 
 
 2. M eart (bist) wilt d6st gjest 
 
 3. he is (bi) wille de gse 
 Plur. 1. we "I 
 
 2. ge Isind(on) willaft d6 ga 
 
 3. hiej 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 wille d6 ga 
 
 > slen willen don gan 
 
 3. hie ' 
 
 NOTE. The preterit subjunctive of beon is formed, of course, not 
 from wees, but from wron. See 103, (3). 
 
 Preterit-Present Verbs. (See 19.) 
 
 136. These verbs are called Preterit-Present because 
 the present tense (indicative and subjunctive) of each 
 of them is, in form, a strong preterit, the old present 
 having been displaced by the new. They all have 
 weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E. Auxiliary Verbs 
 belong to this class. 
 
 {wiste 1 
 \ wiston, gewiten, to know [to wit, wot]. 
 
 wisse, J 
 
 agan, ante, ahton, agen(adj.), to possess [owe]. 
 
 I gecunnen, ] to fcnoto, can [uncouth, 
 cunnan, cuae, cuoon, 
 
 L cuo (adj.), J cunning].
 
 92 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 durran, dorste, dorston. 
 
 sculan, sceolde, sceoldon, 
 
 f meahte. meahton. 
 
 \ mihte. mihton. 
 
 motan, moste, moston, 
 
 magan. 
 
 to dare, 
 shall. 
 
 to be able, may. 
 may, must. 
 
 NOTE. The change in meaning from preterit to present, with 
 retention of the preterit form, is not uncommon in other languages. 
 Several examples are found in Latin and Greek (cf. novi and oUa, 
 I know}. Mn.E. has gone further still : ante and moste. which had 
 already suffered the loss of their old preterits (ah, mot), have been 
 forced back again into the present (ought, must). Having exhausted, 
 therefore, the only means of preterit formation known to Germanic, 
 the strong and the weak, it is not likely that either ought or must will 
 ever develop distinct preterit forms. 
 
 Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs. 
 
 137. The irregularities occur in the present indicative 
 and subjunctive : 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic wat 
 
 2. 'Su wast 
 
 3. he wat 
 Plur. 1. we 1 
 
 Indicative. 
 , PRESENT. 
 
 ah con (can) dear sceal mseg mot 
 ahst cgnst (canst) dearst scealt meaht most 
 ah CQU (can) dear sceal mseg mot 
 
 2. ge [ witon agon cunnon 
 
 3. hie ) 
 
 durron sculon magon moton 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic 
 2. u 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 wite age cunne durre scule(scyle) msege mote 
 
 3. he 
 Plur. 1. we 1 
 
 2. ge I witen agen cunnen durren sculen(scylen) maegen moten 
 
 3. hie J 
 
 NOTE 1. Willan and sculan do not often connote simple 
 futurity in Early West Saxon, yet they were fast drifting that way.
 
 Verb-Phrases. 93 
 
 The Mn.E. use of shall only with the 1st person and will only with 
 the 2tl and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly unknown even 
 in Shakespeare's day. The elaborate distinctions drawn between these 
 words by modern grammarians are not only cumbersome and foreign 
 to the genius of English, but equally lacking in psychological basis. 
 
 NOTE 2. Sculan originally implied the idea of (1) duty, or com- 
 pulsion ( ought to, or musty, and this conception lurks with more or 
 less prominence in almost every function of sculan in O.K. : Dryhten 
 bebead Moyse hu he sceolde beran Sa earce, The Lord in- 
 structed Moses how he ought to bear the ark ; -3Ulc mann sceal be 
 his andgietes maeSe . . . sprecan Saet he spricS, and don Saet 
 Saet he d3, Every man must, according to the measure of his intel- 
 ligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does. Its next most 
 frequent use is to express (2) custom, the transition from the obliga- 
 tory to the customary being an easy one : Se byrdesta sceall gyldan 
 flftyne mearSes fell, The man of highest rank pays fifteen marten 
 skins. 
 
 NOTE 3. Willan expressed originally (1) pure volition, and this 
 is its most frequent use in O.E. It may occur without the infinitive : 
 Nylle ic Saes synfullan deaS, ac ic wille Saet he gecyrre and 
 lybbe, / do not desire the sinner's death, but I desire that he return 
 and live. The wish being father to the intention, willan soon came 
 to express (2) purpose: He saede Saet he at sumum cirre wolde fan- 
 dian hu longe Saet land norSryhte laege, He said that he intended, 
 at some time, to investigate how far that land extended northward. 
 
 Verb-Phrases with habban, beon (wesan), and weor&an. 
 
 Verb-Phrases in the Active Voice. 
 
 138. The present and preterit of habban, combined 
 with a past participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., 
 to form the present perfect and past perfect tenses : 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. 
 
 Sing. 1. Ic hsebbe gedrifen Sing. 1. Ic haefde gedrifen 
 
 2. ftu hsefst gedrifen 2. ftu haefdest gedrifen 
 
 3. he haefiS gedrifen 3. he hsefde gedrifen
 
 94 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. 
 
 Plur. 1. w6 1 Plur. 1. we 
 
 2. ge \ habbaS gedrifen 2. e 
 
 3. hiej 3. hie 
 
 hsef don gedrifen 
 
 The past participle is not usually inflected to agree 
 with the direct object : NorSymbre qnd Eastengle haefdon 
 JElfrede cyninge aSas geseald (not gesealde, 82), The 
 Northumbrians and East Anglians had given king 
 Alfred oaths; qnd haefdon miclne dasl Sara horsa freten 
 (not fretenne), and (they) had devoured a large part 
 of the horses. 
 
 NOTE. Many sentences might be quoted in which the participle 
 does agree with the direct object, but there seems to be no clear line 
 of demarcation between them and the sentences just cited. Originally, 
 the participle expressed a resultant state, and belonged in sense more 
 to the object than to habban ; but in Early West Saxon habban 
 had already, in the majority of cases, become a pure auxiliary when 
 used with the past participle. This is conclusively proved by the use 
 of habban with intransitive verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as 08 
 Saet hie nine ofslaegenne haefdon, there is no occasion to translate 
 until they had him slain (= resultant state); the agreement here is 
 more probably due to the proximity of ofslaegenne to bine. So 
 also ac hi haefdon ba hiera stemn gesetenne, but they had already 
 served out (sat out) their military term. 
 
 139. If the verb is intransitive, and denotes a change 
 of condition, a departure or arrival, beon (wesan) usu- 
 ally replaces habban. The past participle, in such 
 cases, partakes of the nature of an adjective, and gen- 
 erally agrees with the subject : Mine welan be ic 10 
 haefde syndon ealle gewitene 9nd gedrorene, My posses- 
 sions which I once had are all departed and fallen away ; 
 waeron ba mn uppe on Iqnde of agane, the men had gone 
 up ashore; 9nd ba obre waeron hungre acwolen, and the
 
 Verb-Phrases. 95 
 
 others had perished of hunger ; 9nd eac se micla hfre 
 waes pa. peer to cumen. and also the large army had then 
 arrived there. 
 
 140. A progressive present and preterit (not always, 
 however, with distinctively progressive meanings) are 
 formed by combining a present participle with the 
 present and preterit of beon (wesan). The participle 
 remains uninflected : 9nd hie alle on Sone cyning weerun 
 feohtende, and they all were fighting against the king; 
 Symle he biS lociende, ne sleepS he neefre, He is always 
 looking, nor does He ever sleep. 
 
 NOTE. In most sentences of this sort, the subject is masculine 
 (singular or plural) ; hence no inf erence can be made as to agreement, 
 since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of the nominative 
 masculine ( 82). By analogy, therefore, the other genders usually 
 conform in inflection to the masculine : weeron ba ealle ba deoflu 
 clypigende anre stefne, then were all the devils crying with one voice. 
 
 Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice. 
 
 141. Passive constructions are formed by combining 
 beon (wesan) or weorSan with a past participle. The 
 participle agrees regularly with the subject : hie weeron 
 benumene aegSer ge baes ceapes ge baes comes, they were 
 deprived both of the cattle and the corn; hi beoS abl^nde 
 mid Seem blostrum heora scylda, they are blinded with the 
 darkness of their sins; and se weelhreowa Domicianus on 
 3am ylcan geare wearS acweald, and the murderous Domi- 
 tian was killed in the same year; $nd JBbelwulf aldorm9n 
 wearS ofslaegen, and j&thelwulf, alderman, was slain. 
 
 NOTE 1. To express agency, Mn.E. employs by, rarely of; M.E. 
 of, rarely by; O.E. frQm (fram*), rarely of: Se 8e Godes bebodu
 
 96 
 
 Etymology and Syntax. 
 
 ne gecnaewS, ne biS he oncnawen frqm Gode, He who does not 
 recognize God's commands, will not be recognized by God; Betwux 
 psem wearS ofslagen Bad-wine . . . fram Brytta cyninge, Mean- 
 while, Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons. 
 
 NOTE 2. O.E. had no progressive forms for the passive, and 
 could not, therefore, distinguish between He is being wounded and 
 He is wounded. It was not until more than a hundred years after 
 Shakespeare's death that being assumed this function. WeorSan, 
 which originally denoted a passage from one state to another, was 
 ultimately driven out by beon (wesan), and survives now only in 
 Woe worth (= be to). 
 
 142. 
 
 VOCABULARY. 
 
 Sa Beormas, Permians. 
 
 Sa Deniscan, the Danish (men), 
 
 Danes. 
 
 3a Finnas, Fins. 
 Saet ge wald, control [wealdan] . 
 seo see. sea. 
 
 seo sclr, shire, district. 
 seo weelstow, battle-field. 
 agan wselstowe gewald, to 
 
 maintain possession of the 
 
 battle-field. 
 se wealdend, ruler, wielder. 
 
 geflieman, gefliemde, gefliemed, to put to flight. 
 
 gestaSelian, gestaSelode, gestaSelod. to establish, restore. 
 
 gewissian, gewissode. gewissod, to guide, direct. 
 
 wician, wicode, gewicod, to dwell [wic = vi 
 
 143. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 I. 1. Qnd Sser waes micel wsel geslsegen on geliwaefre 
 hond, ond ^Epelwulf ealdormQn wear)) of sleegen ; ond fa 
 Deniscan ahton waelstowe gewald. 2. Ond ]>ses ymb anne 
 mona)) gefeaht Alfred cyning wi}> ealne pone h^re, ond hine 
 gefliemde. 3. He seede J>eah J>set feet land sie swipe lang 
 nor)) )>onan. 4. pa Beormas hsef don swife wel gebud ( 126, 
 Note 2) hiera land. 5. Ohth^re sSde pset seo sclr hatte 
 ( 117, Note 2) Helgoland, ]>e he on ( 94, (5)) bude. 6. pa 
 Finnas wicedon be feere sse. 7. Dryhten, selmihtiga ( 78, 
 Note) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra gesceafta, ic bidde
 
 Verb-Phrases. 97 
 
 3e for ftmre miclan mildheortnesse Seet <5u me gewissie to 
 <5mum willan ; and gestaSela mm mod to Slnum willan and 
 to mmre sawle Searfe. 8. pa sceolde he Sger bidan ryht- 
 norpanwindes, for ftem }>8et land beag peer siiSryhte, o}>)>e seo 
 see in on ftset land, he nysse hwaefter. 9. For Sy, me Sync<5 
 b^tre, gif eow swa SyncS, 3set we eac 3as bee on Seet geSeode 
 we,nden 5e we ealle gecnawan maegen. 
 
 II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went 
 he) westward with his army to Ashdown. 2. Lovest thou 
 me more than these ? 3. The men said that the shire which 
 they lived in was called Halgoland. 4. All things were 
 made (wyrcan) by God. 5. They were fighting for two days 
 with (= against) the Danes. 6. King Alfred fought with 
 the Danes, and gained the victory ; but the Danes retained 
 possession of the battle-field. 7. These men dwelt in Eng- 
 land before they came hither. 8. I have not seen the book 
 of (ymbe) which you speak (sprecan).
 
 PART III. 
 
 SELECTIONS FOR READING. 
 
 PROSE. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 I. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 THIS famous work, a series of progressive annals by 
 unknown hands, embraces a period extending from Caesar's 
 invasion of England to 1154. It is not known when or 
 where these annals began to be recorded in English. 
 
 " The annals from the year 866 that of Ethelred's 
 ascent of the throne to the year 887 seem to be the 
 work of one mind. Not a single year is passed over, and 
 to several is granted considerable space, especially to the 
 years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a certain 
 roundness and fulness, because the events nearly all of 
 them episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes 
 are taken in their connection, and the thread dropped 
 in one year is resumed in the next. Not only is the 
 style in itself concise; it has a sort of nervous severity 
 and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and 
 suggests at times the freedom of poetry ; though this purely 
 historical prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of 
 language." (Ten Brink, Early Eng. Lit., I.) 
 
 II. The Translations of Alfred. 
 
 Alfred's reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. 
 The first, the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to 
 
 98
 
 The Battle of Ashdown. 99 
 
 881 ; the second, the period of comparative quiet, from 881 
 to 893; the third, the period of renewed strife (beginning 
 with the incursions of Hasting), from 893 to 897; the 
 fourth, the period of peace, from 897 to 901. His liter- 
 ary work probably falls in the second period.* 
 
 The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the 
 vernacular were (1) Consolation of Philosophy (De Conso- 
 latione Philosophiae) by Boethius (475-525), (2) Compen- 
 dious History of the World (Historiarum Libri VII) by 
 Orosius (c. 418), (3) Ecclesiastical History of the English 
 (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum) by Bede (672-735), 
 and (4) Pastoral Care (De Cura Pastorali) by Pope Gregory 
 the Great (540-604). 
 
 The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. 
 That given is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and 
 Pauli. Wiilker argues for an exact reversal of this order. Accord- 
 ing to Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1) Orosius, 
 (2) Bede, (3) Boethius, and (4) Pastoral Care. The most recent 
 contribution to the subject is from Wiilfing, who contends for 
 (1) Bede, (2) Orosius, (3) Pastoral Care, and (4) Boethius. 
 
 I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN. 
 
 [From the Chronicle, Parker MS. The event and date are significant. 
 The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex. Alfred's older brother, 
 Ethelred, was king ; but to Alfred belongs the glory of the victory at Ash- 
 down (Berkshire). Asser (Life of Alfred) tells us that for a long time 
 Ethelred remained praying in his tent, while Alfred ahd his followers went 
 forth " like a wild boar against the hounds."] 
 
 1 871. Her cuom 1 se he_re to Eeadingum on Westseaxe, 
 
 2 nd baes ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas up. pa gemette hie 
 
 * There is something inexpressibly touching in this clause from the 
 great king's pen : gif we "5a stilnesse habbaft. He is speaking of how 
 much he hopes to do, by his translations, for the enlightenment of his 
 people.
 
 100 Selections for Reading. 
 
 aldorman 2 on Englafelda, ond him fair wif ge- 
 
 2 feaht, ond sige nam. J)ses ymb iiii niht ^E)ered cyning 
 
 3 ond Alfred his brofur 3 feer micle fierd to Readingum 
 
 4 gelaeddon, ond wif fone hre gefuhton ; ond f ter wees 
 
 5 micel wsel geslsegen on gehwaefre hond, ond JEfelwulf 
 e aldormon wear)) of sleegen ; Qnd fa D^niscan ahton wsel- 
 7 stowe gewald. 
 
 s Qnd faes ymb iiii niht gefeaht Jeered cyning ond 
 9 Alfred his bropur wi)> alne 4 fone h^re on ^Escesdune. 
 
 10 Qnd hie wserun 5 on tweem gefylcum : on 6J>rum waes 
 
 11 Bachs^cg ond Halfde_ne fa hsepnan cyningas, ond on 
 
 12 6)>rum wgeron fa eorlas. Qnd fa gefeaht se cyning 
 
 13 ^Efered wif fara cyninga getruman, ond feer wearf se 
 
 14 cyning Bags^cg of sleegen ; ^nd Alfred his brof ur wif 
 
 15 fara eorla getruman, ond feer wearf Sidroc eorl ofsleegen 
 
 16 se alda, 6 ond Sidroc eorl se gioncga, 7 ond Osbearn eorl, 
 IT ond Freena eorl, ond Hareld eorl ; ond fa h^rgas 8 begen 
 is gefliemde, ond fela fusenda ofsleegenra, ond onfeohtende 
 
 19 wseron of niht. 
 
 20 Qnd fses ymb xiiii niht gefeaht ^Efered cyning Qnd 
 
 21 Alfred his broSur wif fone h^re set Basengum, nd fser 
 
 22 fa D^niscan sige namon. 
 
 23 Qnd faes ymb ii monaf gefeaht ^Efered cyning nd 
 
 24 Alfred his brofur wif fone he_re 83t M^retune, nd hie 
 
 25 waerun on tuaem 9 gefylcium, Qnd hie butu gefliemdon, ond 
 
 26 iQnge on dasg sige ahton ; ond f ser wearf micel waelsliht 
 
 27 on gehwaef ere hond ; Qnd fa D^niscan ahton waelstowe 
 
 8. gefeaht. Notice that the singular is used. This is the more 
 common construction in O.E. when a compound subject, composed 
 of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. For thine is the 
 kingdom, and the power, and the glory. See also p. 107, note on 
 wees. 
 
 18. 9nd fela Jjuseuda ofslaegenra, and there were many thou- 
 sands of slain ( 91).
 
 The Battle of Ashdown. 101 
 
 1 gewald ; ond pair wear)) Heahmund bisceop ofslaegen, 
 
 2 gnd fela godra monna. Qnd aefter pissum gefeohte cuom J 
 
 3 micel surnorlida. 
 
 4 Qnd pses ofer Eastron gefor ^Efered cyning; ond he 
 
 5 rlcsode v gear ; ond his lie lip set Wlnburnan. 
 
 e pa feng Alfred ^Epelwulfing his bropur to Wesseaxna 
 7 rice. Qnd pses ymb anne monap gefeaht Alfred cyning 
 s wip alne * pone here ly tie werede 10 set Wiltune, ond hine 
 9 longe on dseg gefliemde, ond fa D^niscan ahton waelstowe 
 
 10 gewald. 
 
 11 Qnd fses geares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wij> 
 
 12 fone h^re on \>y cynerice be sufan T^mese, butan fam fe 
 
 13 him Alfred fees cyninges brofur ond anlipig aldormon 2 ond 
 u cyninges )>egnas oft rade onridon }>e mon na ne rimde ; 
 is ond fees geares waerun 5 ofslsegene viiii eorlas ond an cyning. 
 16 Qnd )>y geare namon Westseaxe fri)> wip pone he_re. 
 
 CONSULT GLOSSARY AND PARADIGMS UNDER FORMS GIVEN BELOW. 
 
 No note is made of such variants as y (y) or i (I) for ie (ie). See 
 Glossary under ie (ie) ; occurrences, also, of and for gnd, land for 
 Ignd, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such 
 words should be sought for under the more common forms, gnd, Ignd. 
 
 1 = cwom. * ealne. 8 = hejas. 
 
 2 = ealdorrnqn. 5 = wjeron. 9 = twiem. 
 
 3 = bro)*>r. 6 = ealda. 10 = werode. 
 
 7 = geonga. 
 
 ^ II. A PEAYER OF KING ALFRED. 
 
 [With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation of 
 Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy. Unfortunately, the only extant 
 MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore, Prof. A. S. 
 Cook's normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See Cook's First 
 Book in Old English, p. 163.] 
 
 12. butan )jam J>e, etc., besides which, Alfred . . . made raids 
 against them (him), which were not counted. See 70, Note.
 
 102 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 Dryhten, selmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra 
 
 2 gesceafta, ic bidde t5e for Smre miclan mildheortnesse, 
 
 3 and for &ere halgan rode tacne, and for Sanctae Marian 
 
 4 maegShade, and for Sancti Michaeles gehiersumnesse, and 
 
 5 for ealra ftlnra halgena lufan and hiera earnungum, ftaet 
 e Su me gewissie b^t ftonne ic aworhte to Se ; and gewissa 
 7 me to 3muni willan, and to mmre sawle Searfe, b^t Sonne 
 s ic self cunne ; and gestaSela mm mod to Smum willan and 
 9 to minre sawle Searfe ; and gestranga me wiS Saes deofles 
 
 10 costnungum ; and afierr fram me" Sa fulan galnesse and 
 
 11 Sice unrihtwisnesse ; and gescield me wiS mmum wi<5er- 
 
 12 winnum, gesewenllcum and ungesewenlicum ; and tsec me 
 is 5lnne willan to wyrceanne ; Sset ic masge Se inweardlice 
 
 14 lufian toforan eallum ftingum, mid clsenum geSance and 
 
 15 mid clsenum lichaman. For 'Son 8e Su eart mm Scieppend, 
 
 16 and mm Aliesend, mm Fultum, min Frofor, mm Treow- 
 
 17 nes, and mm Tohopa. Sie 8e lof and wuldor nu and 
 is a a a, to worulde butan seghwilcum nde. Amen. 
 
 III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHEKE AND 
 WULFSTAN. 
 
 [Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original inser- 
 tion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius's Compendious History of 
 the World. 
 
 "They consist," says Ten Brink, "of a complete description of all the 
 countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred's time, and a 
 full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which the king wrote down 
 from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian named Ohthere, had quite 
 
 3-4. Marian . . . Michaeles. O.E. is inconsistent in the treat- 
 ment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and some- 
 times retain in part their original inflections. Marian, an original 
 accusative, is here used as a genitive ; while Michaeles has the O.E. 
 genitive ending. 
 
 17. Sie 85 lof. See 105, 1.
 
 The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 103 
 
 circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia in his travels, and had even 
 penetrated to the White Sea ; the other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from 
 Schleswig to Frische Haff . The geographical and ethnographical details 
 of both accounts are exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, 
 clear, and concrete." 
 
 Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the western 
 coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into the White Sea, 
 and entered the Dwina River (an micel ea). On his second voyage he 
 sailed southward along the western coast of Norway, entered the Skager 
 Rack (widase), passed through the Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish 
 port of Haddeby (eet Heejmm), modern Schleswig. 
 
 Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days from 
 Schleswig brought him to Drauseu (Truso) on the shore of the Drau- 
 sensea.] 
 
 Ohthere's First Voyage. 
 
 ' 'i Ohthere saide his hlaforde, ^Elfrede cyninge, baet he 
 
 2 ealra XorSmonna norbmest bude. He cwae<5 baet he bude 
 
 3 on bairn lande norbweardum wij> ba Westsee. He saede 
 
 4 beah baet baet land sle swibe lang norj> bonan ; ac hit is 
 
 5 eal weste, buton on feawum stowum styccemielum wiciafc 
 e Finnas, on huntoSe on wintra, ond on sumera on fiscabe 
 T be bsere see. He ssede bset he aet sumum cirre wolde 
 s fandian hu l^nge baet land norbryhte lge, obbe hwaeSer 
 9 senig mon be nor5an bgem westenne bude. pa for he 
 
 10 norbryhte be bgem lande : let him ealne weg bset weste 
 
 11 land on Saet stgorbord, Qnd ba widsse on ftset bascbord brie 
 
 12 dagas. pa wees he swa feor nor}) swa ba hwaelhuntan 
 
 13 nrrest farab. pa for he ba giet norbryhte swa feor swa 
 
 14 he meahte on bsem obrum brim dagum gesiglan. pa beag 
 is bast land beer eastryhte, obbe seo see in on tSaet l^nd, he 
 
 16 nysse hwasSer, buton he wisse Sast he tSeer bad westan- 
 
 17 windes Qnd hwon norban, ond siglde 8a east be lande 
 is swa swa he meahte on feower dagum gesiglan. pa 
 
 19 sceolde he tSser bidan ryhtnorbanwindes, for Seem baet 
 
 20 land beag Jner subryhte, obbe seo sae in on t5aet land, he 
 
 21 nysse hwaeber. pa siglde he bonan sut5ryhte be lande
 
 104 Selections for Heading. 
 
 1 swa swa he me^hte 1 on flf dagum gesiglan. Da laeg pair 
 
 2 an micel ea up in on paet land, pa cirdon hie up in on 
 
 3 fca ea, for psem hie ne dorston for)? bi paere ea siglan for 
 
 4 unfripe ; for paem (5aet land waes eall gebun on opre healfe 
 
 5 paere eas. Ne mette he eer nan gebun land, sippan he 
 e from his agnum ham for ; ac him waes ealne weg weste 
 7 land on past steorbord, butan fiscerum ond fugelerum ond 
 s huntum, ond past waeron eall Finnas ; ond him waes a 
 9 widsai on Sset baecbord. pa Beormas haefdon swipe wel 
 
 10 gebud hira land : ac hie ne dorston pair on cuman. Ac 
 
 11 para Terfinna land waes eal weste, buton Seer huntan 
 
 12 gewicodon, opj>e fisceras, oppe fugeleras. 
 
 13 Fela spella him sSdon pa Beormas eegper ge of hiera 
 
 14 agnum lande ge of psem landum pe ymb hie utan weeron ; 
 is ac he nyste hwaet paes sopes wees, for piem he hit self ne 
 
 16 geseah. pa Finnas, him puhte, ond pa Beormas spriiecon 
 
 17 neah an gepeode. Swipost he for Sider, to eacan paes 
 is landes sceawunge, for paem horshweelum, for tSSm hie 
 
 19 habbaS swipe aepele ban on hioraHopum pa te5 hie broh- 
 
 20 ton sume psem cyninge $nd hiora hyd biS swiSe god to 
 
 21 sciprapum. Se hwael biS micle leessa ponne 65re hwalas : 
 
 22 ne bits he l^ngra Sonne syfan 3 $lna lang; ac on his agnum 
 
 23 lande is se be_tsta hwaelhuntaS : pa beoS eahta and feo- 
 
 24 wertiges e^na lange, and pa maastan f Iftiges e,lna lange ; 
 
 25 para he saede past he syxa sum ofsloge syxtig on twam 
 
 26 dagum. 
 
 6. frqin his agnum ham. An adverbial dative singular with- 
 out an inflectional ending is found with ham, daeg, morgen, and 
 gefen. 
 
 8. qnd )?aet wseron. See 40, Note 3. 
 
 15. hwaet )>ass so]?es waes. Sweet errs in explaining sopea as 
 attracted into the genitive by J>aes. It is not a predicate adjective, 
 but a partitive genitive after hwaet. 
 25. syxa stun. See 91, Note 2.
 
 The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 105 
 
 i He wses swySe spedig man on faim sehtum fe heora 2 
 2 speda on beoft, j>aet is, on wildrum. He haefde fa gyt, 3a 
 
 3 he )>one cyningc 5 sohte, tamra deora unbebohtra syx hund. 
 
 4 pa deor hi hataS ' hranas ' ; para wgeron syx stselhranas ; 
 
 5 Sa beo<5 swytSe dyre mid Finnum, for tSeem hy fotS fa 
 c wildan hranas mid. He waes mid fiem fyrstum mannum 
 7 on pieni lande : naefde he J>eah ma Sonne twentig hrySera, 
 s and twentig sceapa, and twentig swyna ; and faet lytle 
 9 faet he ^rede, he ^recle mid horsan. 4 Ac hyra ar is mSst 
 
 10 on faim gafole fe Sa Finnas him gyldaS. paet gafol bi5 
 
 11 on deora fellum, and on fugela feSerum, and hwales bane, 
 
 12 and on faem sciprapum }>e beoS of hwaeles hyde geworht 
 
 13 and of seoles. ^Eghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. Se byrd- 
 
 14 esta sceall gyldan fiftyne meart5es fell, and fif hranes, 
 
 15 and an beren fel, and tyn ambra fe^ra, and berenne kyr- 
 
 16 tel oS8e yterenne, and twegen sciprapas ; aegfer sy syxtig 
 
 17 ^Ina lang, ofer sy of hwseles hyde geworht, ofer of sioles. 6 
 is He sajde tSset NorSmanna land ware swyfe lang and 
 
 19 swyt5e smsel. Eal faet his man after oS5e ttan oSSe ^rian 
 
 20 maeg, faet lift wift fta sse ; and fset is feah on sumum 
 
 21 stowum swyfte cludig; and licgaft wilde moras wift eastan 
 
 22 and witS upp on emnlange faem bynum lande. On fsem 
 
 23 morum eardiaft Finnas. And faet byne land is easte- 
 
 24 weard bradost, and symle swa norftor swa smaelre. Easte- 
 
 25 w^rd" hit maeg blon 8 syxtig mlla brad, ofj>e hwene braedre ; 
 
 26 and middeweard jmtig oftSe bradre ; and norfteweard he 
 
 27 cwaatS, fser hit smalost weere, faet hit mihte beon freora 
 2s mlla brad to fsem more ; and se mor syt5J>an, 9 on sumum 
 
 2. onbeoS. See 94, (5). 
 
 19. Eal Jjget his man. Pronominal genitives are not always pos- 
 sessive in O.E. ; his is here the partitive genitive of hit, the succeeding 
 relative pronoun being omitted: All that (portion) of it that may, 
 either-of-the-two, either be grazed or plowed, etc. ( 70, Note).
 
 106 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 stowum, swa brad swa man maeg on twam wucum ofer- 
 
 2 feran ; and on sumum stowum swa brad swa man maeg 
 
 3 on syx dagum oferferan. 
 
 4 Donne is toemnes psem lande sutSeweardum, on 6<5re 
 
 5 healfe )>aes mores, Sweoland, of J>aet land nortSeweard ; 
 e and toemnes paem lande norSeweardum, Cwena land, pa 
 7 Cwenas hejgiao" hwllum on $a NorSme_n ofer Sone mor, 
 s hwilum J>a Nor^m^n on hy. And )>ser sint swiSe micle 
 9 m^ras fersce geond )>a moras; and beraS fa Cwenas hyra 
 
 10 scypu ofer land on $a m^ras, and fanon h^rgiaS on (5a 
 
 11 Nor<5mn ; hy habbaS swyt5e lytle scypa and swySe 
 
 12 leohte. 
 
 1 = meahte, mihte. * = horsum. 7 = -weard. 
 
 2 = hiera. 6 = cyning. 8 = beon. 
 8 = seofon. = seoles. 9 = 
 
 Ohthere's Second Voyage. 
 
 is Ohth^re saede faet sio 1 scir hatte Halgoland, )>e he on 
 w bude. He cwaeS faet nan man ne bude be nor^an him. 
 
 15 ponne is an port on sufieweardurn fseni lande, fone man 
 
 16 hset Sciringesheal. pyder he cwasS ]>set man ne rnihte 
 
 17 geseglian on anum monSe, gyf man on niht wicode, and 
 is selce daege haefde ambyrne wind ; and ealle ^a hwile he 
 
 19 sceal seglian be lande. And on faet steorbord him bit5 
 
 20 serest Iraland, and fonne $a igland \>e synd betux Ira- 
 
 21 lande and fissum lande. ponne is J)is land, o3 he cymS 
 
 22 to Scirincgesheale, and ealne weg on faet baacbord NorS- 
 
 11-12. scypa . . . leohte. These words exhibit inflections more 
 frequent in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms would 
 be scypu, leoht ; but in Late West Saxon the -u of short-stemmed 
 neuters is generally replaced by -a ; and the nominative accusative 
 plural neuter of adjectives takes, by analogy, the masculine endings ; 
 hwate, gode, halge, instead of hwatu, god, halgu.
 
 The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 107 
 
 1 weg. WitS suSan fone Sciringesheal fylS swySe mycel 
 
 2 sse up in on Saet.land ; seo is bradre fonne aenig man ofer 
 
 3 seon msege. And is Gotland on 6t5re healfe ongean, and 
 
 4 si5ftan Sille_nde. Seo see ll<5 msenig 2 hund mila up in on 
 
 5 }>8et land. 
 
 e And of Sciringesheale he cweeS Saet he seglode on fif 
 7 dagan 3 to faem porte f e moji haet set Reefum ; se ste_nt 
 s betuh Winedura, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hyrS in 
 9 on D^ne. Da he {jiderweard seglode fram Sciringes- 
 10 heale, )?a wass him on )>aet bsecbord D^namearc and on 
 n j?aet steorbord wldsae Jry dagas ; and fa, twegen dagas ier 
 
 12 he to Hsefum come, him wass on J>set steorbord Gotland, 
 
 13 and Sill^nde, and iglanda fela. On J>aim landum eardo- 
 u don Jpngle, ser hi hider on land coman. 4 And hym wees 
 is 8a twegen dagas on Saet baecbord fa igland J>e in on 
 
 16 D^nemearce hyraft. 
 
 1 = seo. 2 = mgnig. 8 = dagum. * = c6men. 
 
 Wulfstan's Voyage. 
 
 17 Wulfstan ssede faet he gefore of HaeSum, fast he wgere 
 is on Truso on syfan dagum and nihtum, faet feet scip wass 
 19 ealne weg yrnende under segle. WeonoSland him wees 
 
 7. act Haejjum. "This pleonastic use of cet with names of 
 places occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the Chronicle 
 (552), 'in J>jere stowe be is gen^mned set Searobyrg,' where the cet 
 has been erased by some later hand, showing that the idiom had 
 become obsolete. Cp. the German ' Gasthaus zur Krone,' Stamboul = 
 es tan polin." (Sweet.) See, also, Atterbury, 28, Note 3. 
 
 14-15. wees . . . )?a igland. The singular predicate is due again 
 to inversion (p. 100, note on gefeaht). The construction is compara- 
 tively rare in O.E., but frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular 
 speech of to-day. Cf. There is, Here is, There has been, etc., with 
 a (single) plural subject following.
 
 108 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 on steorbord, and on bsecbord him wees Langaland, and 
 
 2 Laeland, and Falster, and Sconeg ; and pas land eall 
 
 3 hyra<5 to De^nemearcan. And ponne Burgenda land wses 
 
 4 us on baecbord, and pa habbaS him sylfe ! cyning. ponne 
 
 5 aefter Burgenda lande wgeron us pas land, pa synd hatene 
 e gerest Blecinga-eg, and Meore, and Eowland, and Gotland 
 7 on bsecbord ; and pas land hyraS to Sweom. And Weo- 
 s nodland wses us ealne weg on steorbord o3 WlslemuSan. 
 9 Seo Wisle is swySe mycel ea, and hio 2 tollS Witland and 
 
 10 Weonodland ; and fast Witland belimpeS to Estum ; and 
 
 11 seo Wisle Ii5 ut of Weonodlande, and li(5 in Estmeje ; 
 
 12 and se Estm^re is huru fiftene 3 mila brad, ponne cymeS 
 is Ilfing eastan in Estm^re of Seem m^re, ^e Truso standeS 
 u in stse<5e ; and cumaS ut samod in Estm^re, Ilfing eastan 
 is of Estlande, and Wisle sii(5an of Winodlande. And 
 
 16 ponne benimS Wisle Ilfing hire naman, and lige<5 of }>ahn 
 
 17 m^re west and norS on see ; for Sy hit man haet Wisle- 
 is mu^a. 
 
 19 past Estland is swySe mycel, and peer biS swySe manig 
 
 20 burh, and on selcere byrig bift cyning. And peer bit5 
 
 21 swytSe mycel hunig, and fiscnaS ; and se cyning and pa 
 
 22 ricostan m^n drincaS myran meolc, and pa unspedigan 
 
 23 and pa peowan drincaft medo. 4 peer bi3 swy^e mycel 
 
 24 gewinn betweonan him. And ne bi5 t5ser nsenig ealo 5 
 
 25 gebrowen mid Estum, ac peer bi$ medo genoh. And peer 
 
 26 is mid Estum Seaw, ponne peer bift man dead, past he liS 
 
 27 inne unforbserned mid his magum and freondum mona?5, 
 
 28 ge hwilum twegen ; and pa cyningas, and pa 6<5re heah- 
 
 29 t5ungene m^n, swa micle le^ncg 6 swa hi maran speda 
 
 30 habbaS, hwilum healf gear past hi beoS unforbserned, and 
 
 1-4. him . . . us. Note the characteristic change of person, the 
 transition from indirect to direct discourse.
 
 The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 109 
 
 1 licgao" bufan eorftan on hyra husuin. And ealle pa hwlle 
 
 2 pe paat lie bio" inne, pier sceal beon gedrync and plega, 
 
 3 oft tSone daag pe hi hine forbaarnao". ponne py ylcan daege 
 
 4 }>e hi hine to paam ade beran wyllao", ponne todaalao" hi 
 
 5 his feoh, paat paar to lafe bits sefter paam gedrynce and paam 
 e plegan, on fif oSSe syx, hwylum on ma, swa swa pass feos 
 7 andefn bift. Al^cgaS hit tJonne forhwaega on anre mile 
 s pone mgestan dgel fram pem tune, ponne 6(5erne, Sonne 
 9 pone priddan, op pe hyt call aled bit5 on paere anre mile ; 
 
 10 and sceall beon se lassta dl nyhst piem tilne 5e se deada 
 
 11 man on 115. Donne sceolon 7 beon gesamnode ealle Sa 
 
 12 m^nn Se swyftoste hors habbaS on psem lande, forhwaaga 
 
 13 on fif milum o35e on syx milum fram paem feo. ponne 
 
 14 aernatS hy ealle toweard palm feo : Sonne cymeS se man 
 
 15 se past swiftoste hors hafat5 to paam Srestan daele and to 
 
 16 pasni maastan, and swa selc asfter o8rum, op hit bift eall 
 
 17 genumen ; and se nim5 pone lasstan dasl se nyhst psem 
 is tune past feoh geasrneS. And ponne rideS gelc hys weges 
 
 19 mid Seem feo, and hyt motan 8 habban eall ; and for 3y 
 
 20 pasr beoS pa swiftan hors ungefoge dyre. And ponne his 
 
 21 gestreon beoS pus eall asp^nded, ponne byr5 man hine ut, 
 
 22 and forbaarneS mid his waapnum and hraagle ; and swltSost 
 
 2. sceal. See 137, Note 2 (2). 
 
 7. Al^cgaS hit. Bosworth illustrates thus : 
 
 vi v iv iii ii i 1 2 3 456 
 
 e d c b a 
 
 Where The six parts of the 
 
 the horsemen property placed 
 
 assemble. within one mile. 
 
 "The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at d 
 or e, and run towards c ; the man who has the swiftest horse, coming 
 first to 1 or c, takes the first and largest part. The man who has the 
 horse coming second takes part 2 or 6, and so, in succession, till the 
 least part, 6 or a, is taken,"
 
 110 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 ealle hys speda hy forsp$nda<5 mid }>sem langan legere 
 
 2 fees deadan mannes inne, and paes ]>e hy be fgem wegum 
 
 3 al^cgaS, ]>e <5a fr^mdan to aerna<5, and nimaS. And J>aet 
 
 4 is mid Estum peaw }>aet pair sceal selces geSeodes man 
 
 5 beon f orbaerned ; and gy f far 9 man an ban findeS unf or- 
 
 6 baerned, hi hit sceolan 7 miclum gebetan. And peer is mid 
 
 7 Estum an maJgS J?aet hi magon cyle gewyrcan ; and )>y 
 s peer licgao" fa deadan m^n swa lange, and ne f QliaS, J>aet 
 9 hy wyrcaS pone cyle him on. And )>eah man as^tte 
 
 10 twegen fsetels full ealat5 oSSe waateres, hy gedoS faet 
 
 11 segfer bi<5 oferfroren, sam hit sy sumor sam winter. 
 
 1 = selfe. 4 = medu. " = sculon. 
 
 2 = heo. 5 = ealu. 8 = mSton. 
 8 = flftlene. 6 = l^ng. 9 = 'Saer. 
 
 5-6. man ... hi. Here the plural M refers to the singular man. 
 Cf. p. 109, 11. 18-19, aelc . . . motan. In Exodus xxxii, 24, we 
 find " Whosoever hath any gold, let them break it off" ; and Addison 
 writes, "I do not mean that I think anyone to blame for taking due 
 care of their health." The construction, though outlawed now, has 
 been common in all periods of our language. Paul remarks (Prinzipien 
 der Sprachgeschichte, 3d ed., 186) that " When a word is used as an 
 indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly speaking, incapable 
 of any distinction of number. Since, however, in respect of the 
 external form, a particular number has to be chosen, it is a matter of 
 indifference which this is. . . . Hence a change of numbers is common 
 in the different languages." Paul fails to observe that the change is 
 always from singular to plural, not from plural to singular. See Note 
 on the Concord of Collectives and Indefinites (Anglia XT, 1901). See 
 p. 119, note on 11. 19-21.
 
 The Story of Ccedmon. Ill 
 
 IV. THE STORY OF C^DMOK 
 
 [From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede's Ecclesiastical History. 
 The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley, Tanner 10. Miller 
 (Early English Text Society, No. 95, Introd.) argues, chiefly from the 
 use of the prepositions, that the original O.E. MS. was Mercian, com- 
 posed possibly in Lichfield (Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is 
 frequently sacrificed to the Latin original. 
 
 " Caedmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we know 
 who wrote poetry in our island of England ; and the first to embody in 
 verse the new passions and ideas which Christianity had brought into 
 England. . . . Undisturbed by any previous making of lighter poetry, 
 he came fresh to the work of Christianising English song. It was a great 
 step to make. He built the chariot in which all the new religious emo- 
 tions of England could now drive along." (Brooke, The History of Early 
 English Literature, cap. XV.) There is no reason to doubt the historical 
 existence of Csedmon; for Bede, who relates the story, lived near Whitby, 
 and was seven years old when Csedmon died (A.D. 680)]. 
 
 i In (Sysse abbudissan mynstre wses sum broSor syndrig- 
 2 lice mid godcundre gife gemaered $nd geweortSad, for bon 
 
 3 he gewimade gerisenlice leo<5 wyrcan, ba (5e to aef ^stnisse l 
 
 4 gnd to arfsestnisse beluinpon ; swa Ssette swa hwaet swa 
 
 5 he of godcundum stafum jmrh boceras geleornode, bset he 
 
 6 aefter medmiclum fsece in scopgereorde mid ba maestan 
 ; swetnisse o^id inbryrdnisse gegl^ngde, $nd in Englisc- 
 s gereorde wel geworht forp brohte. Qnd for his leobsongnm 
 
 1. Sysse abbudissan. The abbess referred to is the famous Hild, 
 or Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh, which, accord- 
 ing to Bede, means "Bay -of the Beacon." The Danes afterward 
 gave it the name Whitby, or " White Town." The surroundings 
 were eminently fitted to nurture England's first poet. "The natural 
 scenery which surrounded him, the valley of the Esk, on whose sides 
 he probably lived, the great cliffs, the billowy sea, the vast sky seen 
 from the heights over the ocean, played incessantly upon him." 
 (Brooke.) 
 
 Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that the 
 introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the vocabulary 
 of O.E. : abbudisse, mynster, bisceop. Laeden. preost. aestel. 
 mancuB.
 
 112 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 mgnigra monna mod oft to worulde forhogdnisse gnd to 
 
 2 gepeodnisse J>ses heofonllcan llfes onbaernde waeron. Qnd 
 
 3 eac swelce 2 monige o<5re aefter him in Qngelpeode ongun- 
 
 4 non gefe_ste leoS wyrean, ac nsenig hwseSre him J>aet gelice 
 
 5 don ne meahte ; for fon he nalaes from monnum ne Surh 
 e rnon gelgered wees feet he 5one leo^crseft leornade, ac he 
 7 wees godcundllce gefultumod, ond Jmrh Godes gife |>one 
 s songcraef t onf eng ; ond he for Son neef re noht leasnnge, 
 9 ne Idles leopes wyrean ne meahte, ac ef ne j?a an Sa Se to 
 
 10 eef ^stnisse 1 belumpon, ond his )>a sef ^stan tungan gedaf- 
 
 11 enode singan. 
 
 12 Wees he, se mon, in weoruldhade 3 ges^ted oc5 j?a tide )>e 
 
 13 he wees gelyfdre ylde, ond neefre ngenig leocS geleornade. 
 
 14 Qnd he for )>on oft in gebeorscipe, jwnne J>eer waes blisse 
 is intinga gedemed, feet heo 4 ealle sceolden }mrh ^ndebyrd- 
 
 16 nesse be hearpan singan, fonne he geseah J>a hearpan him 
 
 17 nealecan, fonne aras he for scome frgm psern symble, 
 is ond ham eode to his huse. pa he fset pa sumre tide 
 19 dyde, fset he forlet \>set hus faes gebeorscipes, ond ut waes 
 
 4-5. The more usual order of words would be ac naeiiig. hwaeSre, 
 ne meahte Saet don gelice him. 
 
 10-11. 9nd his . . . singan. and which it became his (the) pious 
 tongue to sing. 
 
 14-1&. blisse intinga, for the sake of joy ; but the translator has 
 confused laetitiae causa (ablative) and laetitiae causa (nominative). 
 The proper form would be for blisse with omission of intingan. just 
 as for my sake is usually for me ; for his (or their) sake, for him. 
 Cf. Mark vi, 26 : "Yet for his oath's sake, and for their sakes ichich 
 sat with him, he would not reject her," for 3aem a8e, 9nd for Seem 
 be him mid saeton. For his sake is frequently for his Singon 
 (Singum), rarely for his intingan. pingon is regularly used when 
 the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a person : for my wife's 
 sake, for mines wlfes Singon (Genesis xx, 11), etc. 
 
 18-19. baet . . . baet he forlet. The substantival clause intro- 
 duced by the second baet amplifies by apposition the first baet : 
 When he then, at a certain time (instrumental case, 98, (2)), did
 
 The Story of Ccedmon. 113 
 
 1 gqngende to neata scipene, para heord him wass psere 
 
 2 nihte beboden ; )>a he $a J><r on gelimpllcre tide his 
 
 3 leonm 5 on re_ste ges^tte ond onslepte, pa stod him sum 
 
 4 m$n set Jmrh swefn, ond hine halette ond grette. ond hine 
 
 5 be his noman n^mnde: "Caedmon, sing me hwaethwugu." 
 
 6 pa ondswarede he, ond cwaeft : " Ne con ic noht singan ; 
 
 7 $nd ic for ,)>on of pyssum gebeorscipe ut code ond hider 
 
 8 gewat, for pon ic naht singan ne cuSe." Eft he cwaetS se Se 
 
 9 wi5 hine sprecende wees: "HweetJre J>u meant me singan." 
 
 10 pa cwaecS he : " Hwaet sceal ic singan ? " CwaetS he : " Sing 
 
 11 me frumsceaft." pa he $a pas andsware onfeng, J>a 
 
 12 ongon he soua singan, in hejenesse Godes Scyppendes, 
 
 13 fa fers Qnd )>a word )>e he neefre ne gehyrde, )>ara nde- 
 
 14 byrdnes pis is : 
 
 15 Nu sculon he_rigean 6 heofonrices Weard, 
 
 16 Metodes meahte ond his rnodgepanc, 
 
 17 weorc Wuldorfaeder, swa he wundra gehwses, 
 is ece Drihten or onstealde. 
 
 that, namely, when he left the house. The better Mn.E. would be 
 this . . . that: "Added yet this above all, that he shut up John in 
 prison " (Luke iv, 20). 
 
 1-2. Jjara . . . beboden. This does not mean that Csedmon was 
 a herdsman, but that he served in tuni as did the other secular attend- 
 ants at the monastery. 
 
 13-14. bara ^ndebyrdnes bis is. Bede writes Hie est sensus, non 
 autem ordo ipse verborum, and gives in Latin prose a translation of 
 the hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in which Csedmon wrote. 
 The O.E. version given above is, of course, not the Northumbrian 
 original (which, however, with some variations is preserved in several 
 of the Latin MSS. of Bede's History}, but a West Saxon version made 
 also from the Northumbrian, not from the Latin. 
 
 15. Nu sculon herigean. Now ought we to praise. The subject 
 we is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic use of synonyms, 
 or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry. Observe that it is not the thought 
 that is repeated, but rather the idea, the concept, God. See p. 124. 
 
 17. wundra gehwaes. See p. 140, note on cenra gehwylcum. 
 i
 
 114 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 He serest sceop eorSan bearnum 
 
 2 heofon to hrofe, halig Scyppend ; 
 
 3 }>a middangeard monncynnes Weard, 
 
 4 ece Drihten, sefter teode 
 
 5 firum foldan, Frea selmihtig. 
 
 e pa aras he from psem sleepe, $nd eal }>a J>e he slaapende 
 7 song faeste in gemynde hsef de ; ond paim wordum sona 
 s monig word in past ilce gemet Gode wyrSes SQnges to- 
 9 gepeodde. pa com he on morgenne to Jwem tungerefan, 
 
 10 se )>e his ealdorm^n waes : saegde him hwylce gife he 
 
 11 onfeng ; nd he hine sona to faere abbudissan gelsedde, 
 
 12 ond hire \>set cySde ond saegde. pa heht heo ges^mnian 
 
 13 ealle fa gelseredestan m^n ond fa leorneras, Qnd him 
 
 14 ondweardum het slogan paet swefn, ^nd faet Ieo5 singan, 
 
 15 J>aet ealra heora 7 dome gecoreu weere, hwast ofrSe hwQnan 
 
 16 faet cumen weere. pa waas him eallum gesewen, swa swa 
 IT hit W33S, feet him waare frQm Drihtne sylfum heofonlic 
 
 7-9. pnd J?aem wordum . . . toge)peodde. and to those words he 
 soon joined, in the same meter, many (other) words of song worthy 
 of God. But the translator has not only blundered over Bede's Latin 
 (eis mox plura in eitndem modum verba Deo digna carminis adjunxit}, 
 but sacrificed still more the idioin of O.E. The predicate should not 
 come at the end ; in should be followed by the dative ; and for Gode 
 wyrSes &9nges the better O.E. would be sgnges Godes wyrSes. 
 When used with the dative wyrS (weorS) usually means dear (= of 
 worth) to. 
 
 16. Jj5 . . . gesewen. We should expect trqva. him eallum ; 
 but the translator has again closely followed the Latin (visumque est 
 omnibus), as later (in the Conversion of Edwin) he renders Talis 
 mihi videtur by Jjysllc me is gesewen. Talis (Jjyslic) agreeing with 
 a following vita (lif). ^Ifric, however, with no Latin before him, 
 writes that John wearS Sa him [ = frgm Drihtene] inweardllce 
 gelufod. It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has 
 the force of an adjective, the to relation may supplant the by relation ; 
 just as we say unknown to instead of unknown by, unknown being 
 more adjectival than participial. Gesewen, therefore, may here be
 
 The Story of Ccedmon. 115 
 
 1 gifu forgifen. pa re_hton heo 4 him ond saegdon sum halig 
 
 2 spell ond godcundre lare word : bebudon him J>a, gif he 
 a meahte, j>aet he in swmsunge leo)>songes j>aet gehwyrfde. 
 
 4 pa he Sa haefde fa wisan onfongne, )>a code he ham to 
 
 5 his huse, ond cwom eft on niorgenne, nd }>y b^tstan 
 e leofte gegle^iged him asong ond ageaf )>aet him beboden 
 7 waes. 
 
 s Da ongan seo abbudisse clyppan ond lufigean 8 )>a Godes 
 9 gife in }>sem ni^n, ond heo hine )>a m^nade ond Iserde 
 
 10 Jjget he woruldhad forlete ond munuchad onf enge : ^nd 
 
 11 he faet wel fafode. Qnd heo hine in )>set mynster onfeng 
 
 12 mid his godurn, ond hine gefeodde to gesomnunge fara 
 
 13 Godes }>eowa, ond heht hine laeran fset getsel fees halgan 
 H stseres ond spelles. Qnd he eal Ja he in gehyrnesse 
 
 15 geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ond swa s\va 
 
 16 clne neten 9 eodorcende in fset sweteste Ieot5 gehwyrfde. 
 
 17 Qud his song ond his leoS weeron swa wynsumu to gehyr- 
 is anne, J>sette }>a seolfan 10 his lareowas set his uiu^e writon 
 
 19 ond leornodon. SQng he gerest be middangeardes gesceape, 
 
 20 ond bi fruman m^ncynnes, Qnd eal fset steer Genesis (}>aet 
 
 21 is seo sereste Moyses boc) ; ond eft bi utgonge Israhela 
 
 22 folces of ^Egypta londe, ond bi ingonge )>aes gehatlandes ; 
 
 23 ond bi oSrum monegnm spellum faes halgan gewrites 
 
 translated visible, evident, patent (= gesynelic, sw^eotol); and geluf- 
 od, dear (= weorS, leof). 
 
 A survival of adjectival gesewen is found in Wycliffe's New Testa- 
 ment (1 Cor. xv, 5-8): "He was seyn to Cephas, and aftir these 
 thingis to enleuene ; aftirward he was seyn to mo than fyue hundrid 
 britheren togidere . . . aftirward he was seyn to James, and aftirward 
 to alle the apostlis. And last of alle he was seyn to me, as to a deed 
 borun child." The construction is frequent in Chaucer. 
 
 9-10. 9iid heo hine )?a mpnade . . . munuchad onfenge. Hild's 
 advice has in it the suggestion of a personal experience, for she herself 
 had lived half of her life (thirty-three years) "before," says Bede, 
 " she dedicated the remaining half to our Lord in a monastic life."
 
 116 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 canones boca ; ond bi Crlstes m^nniscnesse, ond bi his 
 
 2 browunge, ond bi his upastignesse in heofonas ; ond bi 
 
 3 paes Halgan Gastes cyme, ond para apostola lare ; ond eft 
 
 4 bi paem daege paes toweardan domes, ond bi fyrhtu paes 
 
 5 tintreglican wites, ond bi swetnesse paes heofonllcan rices, 
 e he monig leoS geworhte; ond swelce 2 eac oSer monig be 
 7 piem godcundan fr^msumnessum ond domum he geworhte. 
 s In eallum paem he geornllce gemde u paat he m^n atuge 
 9 from synna lufan ond mandseda, ond to lufan ond to 
 
 10 geornfulnesse aw^hte godra daeda ; for pon he waes, se 
 u m^n, swipe eef^st ond regolllcum peodscipum eaSmodlice 
 12 underpeoded ; ond wi<5 paem pa Se in oSre wisan don woldon, 
 is he waes mid welme 12 micelre ^llenwodnisse onbaerned. 
 14 Qnd he for Son faegre $nde his llf betynde ond ge^ndade. 
 
 1 = sefsestnesse. 5 = limu. 9 = nleten. 
 
 2 = swilce. 6 = he/ian. 10 = self an. 
 
 3 = woruldhade. 7 = hiera. 1J = giemde. 
 * = hie. 8 = lufian. ^ = wielme. 
 
 V. ALFRED'S PEEFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE. 
 
 [Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the Chronicle says: "In 
 this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with very many 
 monks, who gospelled [preached] God's word to the English folk." 
 Gregory I, surnamed " The Great," has ever since been considered the 
 apostle of English Christianity, and his Pastoral Care, which contains 
 instruction in conduct and doctrine for all bishops, was a work that 
 Alfred could not afford to leave untranslated. For this translation Alfred 
 wrote a Preface, the historical value of which it would be hard to over- 
 rate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that the Danes had 
 wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for repairing that ruin. 
 
 6. h ni9iiig leoS geworhte. The opinion is now gaining 
 ground that of these "many poems" only the short hymn, already 
 given, has come down to us. Of other poems claimed for Csedmon, 
 the strongest arguments are advanced in favor of a part of the frag- 
 mentary poetical paraphrase of Genesis.
 
 Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care. 117 
 
 This Preface and the Battle of Ashdown (p. 99) show the great king in 
 his twofold character of warrior and statesman, and justify the inscription 
 on the base of the statue erected to him in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire) , 
 his birth-place: "^Elfred found Learning dead, and he restored it; Edu- 
 cation neglected, and he revived it ; the laws powerless, and he gave them 
 force ; the Church debased, and he raised it ; the Land ravaged by a fear- 
 ful Enemy, from which he delivered it. Alfred's name will live as long 
 as mankind shall respect the Past."] 
 
 1 Alfred kyning hateS gretan Wserf erft biscep 1 his wordum 
 
 2 luflice ond freondlice ; ond Se cySan hate Saet me com 
 
 3 swrSe oft on gemynd, hwelce 2 witan m 3 wieron giond 4 
 
 4 Angelcynn, segSer ge godcundra hada ge woruldcundra ; 
 
 5 <jnd hu geseeliglica tida 8a wseron giond Angelcynn ; $nd 
 
 6 hu <5a kyningas <5e <5one onwald heefdon Sees folces on 
 T tSam dagum Gode ond his serendwrecum hersumedon 5 ; 
 s Qnd hu hie gSer ge Mora sibbe ge hiora siodo 6 ge hiora 
 9 onweald innanbordes gehioldon, 4 ond eac tit hiora eSel 
 
 10 gerymdon ; ond hu him 6a speow segSer ge mid wige ge 
 
 11 mid wlsdome ; ond eac Sa godcundan hadas hu giorne 
 
 12 hie wseron aegSer ge ymb lare ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb 
 is ealle Sa Siowotdonias Se hie Gode don scoldon ; ond hu 
 
 14 man utanbordes wisdom ond lare hieder on lond sohte, 
 
 15 ond hu we hie nu sceoldon ute begietan, gif we hie habban 
 
 16 sceoldon. Swee 7 claene hio waes oSfeallenu on Angelcynne 
 
 17 Sset swl^e feawa wteron behionan Humbre Se hiora (Seninga 
 is cutSen understondan on ^nglisc ot55e furSum an eerendge- 
 
 19 writ of Lsedene on ^nglisc ar^ccean ; Qnd ic wene Ssette 
 
 20 noht monige begiondan Humbre naeren. Swse 7 feawa 
 
 21 hiora wairon Sset ic f urSum anne anlepne 8 ne meeg 
 
 1-2. JEilfred kyning hateS . . . hate. Note the change from 
 the formal and official third person (hateS) to the more familiar first 
 person (hate). So ^Elfric, in his Preface to Genesis, writes JElfric 
 munuc gret JESelwaerd ealdormann eadmodlice. pii baede me. 
 leof, J?aet ic, etc. : ^Elfric, monk, greets ^Ethelweard, alderman, 
 humbly. Thou, beloved, didst bid me that /, etc.
 
 118 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 ean be suSan T^mese, Sa Sa ic to rice feng. Gode ael- 
 
 2 mihtegum sle S$nc Saette we nu genigne onstal habbaS 
 
 3 lareowa. Qnd for Son ic Se beblode Saet Su do swae 7 ic 
 
 4 geliefe Seet Su wille, Saet Su Se Sissa woruldSinga to Saem 
 
 5 geaemetige, swae Su oftost maege, Saet Su Sone wisdom Se 
 e Se God sealde Seer Saer Su hiene befaestan maege, befaeste. 
 i GeSe_nc hwelc 9 wltu us Sa becomon for Sisse worulde, Sa 
 s Sa we hit nohwaeSer ne selfe ne lufodon, ne eac oSrum 
 9 monnum ne lef don 10 : Sone naman anne we lufodon Sa3tte 
 
 10 we Crlstne wseren, nd swiSe feawe Sa Seawas. 
 
 11 Da ic Sa Sis eall gemunde, Sa gemunde ic eac hu ic 
 
 12 geseah, ser Saem Se hit eall forh^rgod waere ond for- 
 
 13 baerned, hu Sa ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stodon 
 u maSraa ond boca gefylda, nd eac micel m^nigeo 11 Godes 
 
 15 Siowa ; ond Sa swiSe lytle fiornie Sara boca wiston, for 
 
 16 Saem Se hie hiora nanwuht K ongietan ne meahton, for 
 
 17 Seem Se hie nseron on hiora agen geSiode awritene. 
 is Swelce 13 hie cwaeden : " Ure ieldran, Sa Se Sas stowa aer 
 
 19 hloldon, hie lufodon wisdom, ond Surh Sone hie begeaton 
 
 20 welan, ond us Igefdon. Her nnjn maeg giet gesion hiora 
 
 21 swaeS, ac we him ne cunnon aefter spyrigean, 14 ond for 
 
 22 Seem we habbaS nu eegSer forlaeten ge Sone welan ge Sone 
 
 23 wisdom, for Saem Se we noldon to Saem spore mid ure 
 
 24 mode onlutan." 
 
 25 Da ic Sa Sis eall gemunde, Sa wundrade ic swiSe swiSe 
 
 26 Sara godena wiotona 15 Se giu waeron giond Angelcynn, ond 
 
 27 Sa bee ealla be fullan geliornod haefdon, Saet hie hiora Sa 
 
 6. Notice that maege (1. 5) and maege (1. 6) are not in the sub- 
 junctive because the sense requires it, but because they have been 
 attracted by geaemetige and befaeste. Sien (p. 119, 1. 15) and 
 heebben (p. 119, 1. 20) illustrate the same construction. 
 
 9-10. We liked only the reputation of being Christians, very few 
 (of MS) the Christian virtues.
 
 Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care. 119 
 
 1 nsenne dail noldon on hiora agen geSlode we^ndan. Ac 
 
 2 ic Sa sona eft me self um andwyrde, ojid cwaeS : " Hie ne 
 
 3 wendon paette aefre m$nn sceolden swai 7 reccelease weor- 
 
 4 San, <jnd sio lar swse oSfeallan ; for Ssere wilnunga hie 
 
 5 hit forleton, <jnd woldon Sset her Sy mara wisdom on 
 e londe wsere Sy we ma geSeoda cuSon." 
 
 i Da gemunde ic hii sio aj waes ierest on Ebreisc get5iode 
 s funden, Qnd eft, Sa hie Creacas geliornodon, Sa wendon 
 o hie hie on hiora agen geSiode ealle, ond eac ealle oSre 
 
 10 bee. Qnd eft Leedenware swse same, siSSan hie hie ge- 
 
 11 liornodon, hie hie wendon ealla Surh wise wealhstodas 
 
 12 on hiora agen geSiode. Qnd eac ealla oSra Cristena 
 is Sloda sumne dl hiora on hiora agen geSlode we_ndon. 
 u For Sy me SyncS b^tre, gif low swee tSyncft, Saet we eac 
 
 15 suuia bee, Sa Se nledbeSearfosta sien eallum m^nnum 
 
 16 to wiotonne, 16 Sset we Sa on Saet geSlode we_nden Se we 
 
 17 ealle gecnawan masgen, ond gedon swee we swlSe eaSe 
 is magon mid Godes fultnme, gif we Sa stilnesse habbaS, 
 
 19 Ssette call sio gioguS Se nu is on Angelcynne f riora 
 
 20 mQnna, Sara Se Sa speda hsebben Saet hie Ssem befeolan 
 
 21 maegen, sien to liornunga oSfasste, Sa hwlle Se hie to 
 
 14. Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and hence 
 uses the plural low ( = eow) , not Jjg. 
 
 16. Saet we 85. These three words are not necessary to the 
 sense. They constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which 
 "the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more intervening 
 words." p5 is the pronominal substitute for suma bee. 
 
 17. Gedon is the first person plural subjunctive (from infinitive 
 gedon). It and w^nden are in the same construction. Two things 
 seem "better" to Alfred: (1) that we translate, etc., (2) that we 
 cause, etc. 
 
 19-21. BIO gioguS ... is ... hie . . . sien. Notice how the 
 collective noun, gioguS, singular at first both in form and func- 
 tion, gradually loses its oneness before the close of the sentence is 
 reached, and becomes plural. The construction is entirely legitimate
 
 120 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 nanre 6<5erre note ne maegen, o5 <5one first Se hie wel 
 
 2 cunnen Englisc gewrit araedan : Itere mon siSSan f urSur 
 
 3 on Leedengeolode 3a Se mon f urSor lajran wille, ond to 
 
 4 hierran hade don wille. Da ic <5a gemunde hu slo lar 
 
 5 Lgedengeolodes ser olssum afeallen wses giond Angel- 
 
 6 cynn, nd Seali monige cuSon Englisc gewrit arSdan, t5a 
 T ongan ic ongemang o^rum mislicum ond manigfealduni 
 s bisgum kisses kynerices 6a boc w^ndan on ^nglisc 5e is 
 9 gen^mned on Laeden "Pastoralis," oud on Englisc "Hier- 
 
 10 deboc," hwilum word be worde, hwilum andgit of and- 
 
 11 giete, SW83 swae ic hie geliornode set Plegmunde minum 
 
 12 sercebiscepe, ond aat Assere mmum biscepe, ond set Grim- 
 
 13 bolde mmum maasseprioste, gnd set lohanne mmum mses- 
 
 14 sepreoste. SiSSan ic hie 6a geliornod haefde, swee swie 
 
 15 ic hie forstod, ond swae ic hie andgitfulllcost ar^ccean 
 
 16 meahte, ic hie on Englisc awe_nde ; ond to selcum biscep- 
 
 17 stole on mmum rice wille ane ons^ndan ; ond on telcre 
 is biS an asstel, se biS on fiftegum mancessa. Qnd ic be- 
 
 19 biode on Godes naman Saet nan mon 6one aestel from 
 
 20 SSre bee ne do, ne 5a boc from Seem mynstre ; uncu6 hii 
 
 21 l$nge t5aer swee gelserede biscepas sien, swae swge nu, Gode 
 
 22 8onc, wel hwser siendon. For t5y ic wolde ftsette hie eal- 
 
 in Mn.E. Spanish is the only modern language known to me that 
 condemns such an idiom : " Spanish ideas of congruity do not permit 
 a collective noun, though denoting a plurality, to be accompanied by 
 a plural verb or adjective in the same clause" (Ramsey, Text-Book 
 of Modern Spanish, 1452). 
 
 2. leere mgn. See 105, 1. 
 
 11-13. That none of these advisers of the king, except Plegmond, a 
 Mercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says about the scarcity 
 of learned men in England when he began to reign. Asser, to whose 
 Latin Life of Alfred, in spite of its mutilations, we owe almost all of 
 our knowledge of the king, came from St. David's (in Wales), and 
 was made Bishop of Sherborne.
 
 Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care. 121 
 
 1 neg set <5aere stowe wseren, buton se biscep hie mid him 
 
 2 habban wille, o<5Se hlo hwser to laene sie, o85e hwa 6$re 
 
 3 bi write. 
 
 1 = bisceop. 2 = hwilce. 8 = giu. 
 
 4 = For all words with io (10), consult Glossary under eo (eo). 
 
 5 = hlersumedon. 
 e = sidu (siodu). 
 7 = swa. 
 8 = anllpigne. 
 
 9 = hwilc. 
 10 = llefdon. 
 11 = m^nigu. 
 12 = nanwiht. 
 
 is swilce. 
 14 = spyrian. 
 is = witena. 
 16 = witanne. 
 
 1. Translate aet Saere stowe by each in its place. The change 
 from plural Me (in hie . . . weeren) to singular hie (in the clauses 
 that follow) will thus be prepared for. 
 
 2-3. o58e hwa oSre bi write, or unless some one icish to copy 
 a new one (write thereby another}.
 
 POETRY. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 I. HISTORY. 
 
 (a) Old English Poetry as a Whole. 
 
 NORTHUMBRIA was the home of Old English poetry. 
 Beginning with Csedmon and his school A.D. 670, 
 Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy till 
 A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages 
 of the Danes had begun. When Alfred ascended the 
 throne of Wessex (871), the Danes had destroyed the 
 seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. 
 As Whitby had been " the cradle of English poetry," 
 Winchester (Alfred's capital) became now the cradle 
 of English prose ; and the older poems that had sur- 
 vived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated 
 from the original Northumbrian dialect into the West 
 Saxon dialect. It is, therefore, in the West Saxon 
 dialect that these poems 1 have come down to us. 
 
 Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty 
 thousand lines ; but it includes epic, lyric, didactic, 
 
 1 This does not, of course, include the few short poems in the Chron- 
 icle, or that portion of Genesis ( Genesis B) supposed to have been put 
 directly into West Saxon from an Old Saxon original. There still re- 
 main in Northumbrian the version of Coedmon's Hymn, fragments of 
 the Buthwell Cross, Bedels Death- Song, and the Leiden Middle. 
 
 122
 
 History. 123 
 
 elegiac, and allegorical poems, together with war- 
 ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five 
 elegiac poems (Wanderer, Seafarer, Ruin, Wife's Com- 
 plaint, and Husband's Message), the Wanderer is the most 
 artistic, and best portrays the gloomy contrast between 
 past happiness and present grief so characteristic of 
 the Old English lyric. 
 
 Old English literature has no love poems. The 
 central themes of its poets are battle and bereavement, 
 with a certain grim resignation on the part of the hero 
 to the issues of either. The movement of the thought 
 is usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of 
 transitional particles, or connectives, "which," says 
 Ten Brink, "are the cement of sentence-structure." 
 
 (6) Beowulf. 
 
 The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, 
 Beoivulf. 1 It consists of more than three thousand 
 lines, and probably assumed approximately its present 
 form in Northumbria about A.D. 700. It is a crystalli- 
 zation of continental myths ; and, though nothing is 
 said of England, the story is an invaluable index to 
 the social, political, and ethical ideals of our Germanic 
 ancestors before and after they settled along the 
 English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony 
 is historically most valuable, in the character-portraits 
 that it contains. The fatalism that runs through it, 
 
 1 The word beowulf, says Grimm, meant originally bee-wolf, or bee- 
 enemy, one of the names of the woodpecker. Sweet thinks the bear 
 was meant. But the word is almost certainly a compound of JBeow (cf. 
 O.E. bow = grain) , a Danish demigod, and wulf used as a mere suffix,
 
 124 Poetry. 
 
 instead of making the characters weak and less human, 
 serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them. 
 "Fate," says Beowulf (1. 572), recounting his battle 
 with the sea-monsters, " often saves an undoomed man 
 if his courage hold out." 
 
 " The ethical essence of this poetry," says Ten 
 Brink, "lies principally in the conception of manly 
 virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical encounter with 
 death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to 
 help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince 
 toward his thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with 
 which they reward him." 
 
 NOTE 1. Many different interpretations have been put upon the 
 story of Beowulf (for argument of story, see texts). Thus Miillenhoff 
 sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed equinoctial sea, 
 while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who in the spring 
 drives back the sea and restores the land. LaLstner finds the proto- 
 type of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that rise from the Frisian 
 coast-marshes during the summer months ; Beowulf is the wind-hero, 
 the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates the effluvia. 
 
 II. STRUCTURE, 
 (a) Style. 
 
 In the structure of Old English poetry the most 
 characteristic feature is the constant repetition of the 
 idea (sometimes of the thought) with a corresponding 
 variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, 
 the Queen passes into the banquet hall in Beowulf, she 
 is designated at first by her name, Wealhjsgow ; she 
 is then described in turn as cwen HroSgares (Hroth- 
 gar's queen), gold-hroden (the gold-adorned}, friolic wlf
 
 Structure. 125 
 
 (the noble woman}, ides Helminga (the Helmings 1 lady}, 
 beag-hroden cwen (the ring-adorned queen}, mode gebun- 
 gen (the high-spirited}, and gold-hroden freolicu folc-cwn 
 (the gold-adorned, noble folk-queen}. 
 
 And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet's 
 verse, not content with simple (uncompounded) words 
 (such as see, lagu, holm, stream, mere, etc.), lie will Use 
 numerous other equivalents (phrases or compounds), 
 such as wabema gebind (the commingling of ivaves}, lagu- 
 flod (the sea-jlood}, lagu-strset (the sea-street}, swan-rad 
 (the swan-road^), etc. These compounds are usually 
 nouns, or adjectives and participles used in a sense 
 more appositive than attributive. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of 
 compounds, or periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the 
 desire to repeat the idea in varying language. It is to 
 be observed, also, that the Old English poets rarely 
 make any studied attempt to balance phrase against 
 phrase or clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition 
 of idea, rather than a parallelism of structure. 
 
 NOTE 1. It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous 
 expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like many 
 of the epithets in the Iliad and Odyssey, purely as padding. When, for 
 example, the poet tells us that at the most critical moment Beowulf's 
 sword failed him, adding in the same breath, Iren air-god (matchless 
 blade), we conclude that the bard is either nodding or parroting. 
 
 (6) Meter. 
 [Re-read 1O, (3).] 
 Primary Stress. 
 
 Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmi- 
 cally ordered combinations of accented and unaccented
 
 126 Poetry. 
 
 syllables. The accented syllable (the arsis) is usually 
 long, and will be indicated by the macron with the 
 acute accent over it (/) ; when short, by the breve with 
 the same accent (o). The unaccented syllable or syl- 
 lables (the thesis) may be long or short, and will be 
 indicated by the oblique cross (x). 
 
 Secondary Stress. 
 
 A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon 
 the second member of compound and derivative nouns, 
 adjectives, and adverbs. This will be indicated by the 
 macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress 
 falls on a long syllable (i) ; by the breve with the 
 same accent, if the secondary stress falls on a short 
 syllable (i>). Nouns : 
 
 HroSgares (^ i x), fgondgrapum (/ i x), freomeegum (i i x), 
 East-D^na (/ u x), Helipinga (_c i x), Scyldinga (/ i x), anhaga 
 (/ u x), Ecgjjeowes (/ x x), sinc-fato (^ u x). 
 
 Adjectives : 1 
 
 seghwylcne (/ i x), Jjristhydig (. i x), gold-hroden (i o x), 
 dreorigne (/ i x), gyldenne (jiix), oSerne (^ i x), gaestlicum 
 (j: i x), wynsume (^ ^ x), eenigne (^ i x). 
 
 Adverbs : 2 
 
 unsofte (^ i x), heardlice (^ i x), s^mninga (^ i x). 
 
 1 It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly derivatives in -ig, 
 -en, -er, -lie, and -sum. 
 
 2 Most of the adverbs belonging here end in -lice, -unga, and 
 -inga, 93, (1), (2) : such words as eet-gsedere, on-gean, on-wg, 
 to-geanes, to-middes, etc., are invariably accented as here indi- 
 cated.
 
 Structure. 127 
 
 The Old English poets place also a secondary accent 
 upon the ending of present participles (-ende), and 
 upon the penultimate of weak verbs of the second class 
 ( 130), provided the root-syllable is long. 1 Present 
 participles : 
 
 slaependne (/ i x), wis-hycgende (^ ^ i x), fleotendra (^ i x), 
 hreosende (j: i x). 
 
 Weak verbs : 
 
 swynsode (^ u x), bancode (^ ?> x), wanigean (/ u x), sceaw- 
 ian (.1 u x), sceawige (^ u x), hlifian (^ i x). 
 
 Resolved Stress. 
 
 A short accented syllable followed in the same word 
 by an unaccented syllable (usually short also) is equiv- 
 alent to one long accented syllable (J x = /) . This is 
 known as a resolved stress, and will be indicated 
 thus, * : 
 
 haeleSa (ux x), guman (ux),Gode(ux), s^le-ful (ux x), ides (ux), 
 fyrena (ox x), ma5elode (ox u x), hogode (ux x), maegen-^llen 
 (ux i x), hige-J)ihtigne (ux L \ x), Metudea (ux x), lagulade (ux i x), 
 unlyfigendes (^ ux i x), biforan (x ux), forjsolian (x vjx x), baSian 
 (ux x), worolde (u_ x). 
 
 Resolution of stress may also attend secondary 
 stresses : 
 
 sinc-fato (/ ux), dryht-sfle (^ ux), ferSloca (^ ix), forSwege 
 
 1 It will save the student some trouble to remember that this means 
 long by nature (llcodon), or long by position (swynsode), or long 
 by resolution of stress (maSelode), see next paragraph.
 
 128 Poetry, 
 
 The Normal Line. 
 
 Every normal line of Old English poetry has four 
 primary accents, two in the first half-line and two in 
 the second half-line. These half-lines are separated 
 by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative 
 letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the 
 second half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue 
 to the scansion of the whole line. It is also the only 
 alliterating syllable in the second half-line. The first 
 half-line, however, usually has two alliterating syllables, 
 but frequently only one (the ratio being about three 
 to two in the following selections). When the first 
 half-line contains but one alliterating syllable, that 
 syllable marks the first stress, rarely the second. The 
 following lines are given in the order of their frequency: 
 
 (1) Jjeer waes A^leSa Al^ahtor ; hlyn swynsode. 
 
 (2) .mode gejsungen, .m^do-ful eetbEer. 
 
 (3) sOiia pset onfiiude fyrena hyrde. 
 
 Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with 
 any other initial vowel or diphthong ; but a consonant 
 requires the same consonant, except st, sp, and so, each 
 of which alliterates only with itself. 
 
 Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially 
 the second) may begin with several unaccented sylla- 
 bles (these syllables being known in types A, D, and 
 E as the anacrusis), but that neither half-line can end 
 with more than one unaccented syllable, the student 
 may begin at once to read and properly accentuate 
 Old English poetry. It will be found that the alliter-
 
 Structure. 129 
 
 ative principle does not operate mechanically, but that 
 the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the 
 words that are really most important. Sound is made 
 . subservient to sense. 
 
 When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is 
 in doubt as to what word to stress, let him first get the 
 exact meaning of the line, and then put the emphasis 
 on the word or words that seem to bear the chief bur- 
 den of the poet's thought. 
 
 NOTE 1. A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or 
 lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read, 
 there is one line with no alliteration : Wanderer 58 ; three of the 
 type a---b | a---b: Beowulf 654, 830, 2746; one of the type a---a \ b---a: 
 Beowulf 2744 ; one of the type a---a \ b---c : Beowulf 2718 ; and one 
 of the type ab \ ca : Beowulf 2738. 
 
 The Five Types. 
 
 By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical 
 unit in Old English verse, the half-line, Professor 
 Eduard Sievers, 1 of the University of Leipzig, has 
 shown that there are only five types, or varieties, 
 
 1 Sievers' two articles appeared in the Beitrdge zur Geschichte der 
 deutschen Sprache und Literatur, Vols. X (1885) and XII (1887). 
 A brief summary, with slight modifications, is found in the same 
 author's Altgermanische Metrik, pp. 120-144 (1893). 
 
 Before attempting to employ Sievers' types, the student would do 
 well to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to accent- 
 uate according to the principles already laid down. In this way his 
 ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the line, and he will see 
 more clearly that Sievers' work was one primarily of systematization. 
 Sievers himself says : " I had read Old English poetry for years exactly 
 as I now scan it, and long before I had the slightest idea that what 
 I did instinctively could be formulated into a system of set rules." 
 (Altgermanische Metrik, Vorwort, p. 10.) 
 
 E
 
 130 Poetry. 
 
 employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpen- 
 dicular line serving to separate the so-called feet, or 
 measures : 
 
 1. A ^x U x 
 
 2. B 
 
 3. C 
 
 It will be seen (1) that each half -line contains two, 
 and only two, feet; (2) that each foot contains one, 
 and only one, primary stress ; (3) that A is trochaic, 
 B iambic ; (4) that C is iambic-trochaic ; (5) that D 
 and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order. 
 
 The Five Types Illustrated. 
 
 [All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to be read. 
 The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second half-line is cited. 
 B = Beowulf ; W = Wanderer.] 
 
 1. TYPE A, j: x | L x 
 
 Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) 
 may intervene between the two stresses, but only one 
 may follow the last stress. If the thesis in either foot 
 is the second part of a compound it receives, of course, 
 a secondary stress. 
 
 (2) ful gesealde, B. 616, ^ x | _: x 
 
 (1) widre gewindan, B. 764, L x x | ^ x 
 
 (I) 1 Gemunde ]?a se goda, B. 759, x | i. x x x | L x 
 
 (I) 1 swylce he on ealder-dagum, B. 758, xxxx|^x|ux 
 
 (1) yjjde swa Jnsne eardgeard, W. 85, L x x x x | L i 
 
 (1) wis-fsest wordum, B. 627, _: x | ^ x 
 
 (1) gryre-leoS galan, B. 787, x i | u x 
 
 (2) spmod aetgsedre, W. 39, ox x | j: x 
 
 1 The first perpendicular marks the limit of the anacrusis.
 
 Structure. 131 
 
 (1) duguSe 9nd geogoSe. B. 622, x x x | x x 
 
 (1) feeger fold-bold, B. 774, i x | jl l 
 
 (1) atellc ?gesa, B. 785, < i | 6* x 
 
 (2) goldwine mlnne, W. 22, -i ux | .i x 
 (1) gesan Jjeon [>*Jrihan: 118J, B. 2737, x x | _ x 
 
 NOTE. Rare forms of A are _: i x | j; x (does not occur in texts), 
 L i x | L i (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and ^ x i | L x (once, B. 2743 (1)). 
 
 * 
 
 2. TYPE B, x j: | x L 
 
 Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables 
 may intervene between the stresses. The type of B 
 most frequently occurring is x x ^ | x _: 
 
 (1) qnd J?a freolic wif, B. 616, x x j: 
 
 (2) he on lust ge>eah, B. 619, x x ^ 
 (2) f>a se aeSeling glong, B. 2716, x x 6-> 
 (2) seah on ^nta geweorc, B. 2718, x x ^ 
 (1) ofer floda genipu, B. 2809, x x ^ 
 
 (1) forjjam me witan ne peart, B. 2742, x x x .: 
 
 (2) J>aes )?e hire se willa gelamp, B. 627, x x x x x z 
 (1) forjjon ne maeg weorjjan wis, W. 64, x x x x L 
 (1) Neefre ic eenegum [=3en'gum] men, B.656, x x x L 
 
 NOTE. In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form 
 eengum, and supposes elision of the e in Naefre ( Naefr-ic : 
 
 X X | X ^). 
 
 3. TYPE C, x L \ x 
 
 The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by 
 compound and derivative words, and the second stress 
 (not so strong as the first) is frequently on a short 
 syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in B, 
 two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more 
 common than one.
 
 132 Poetry. 
 
 (1) beet heo on senigne, B. 628, x x x JL \ _L x 
 
 (1) beet ic anunga, B. 635, x x ^ \ ^ x 
 
 (2) code gold-hroden, B. 641, x x L \ 6 x 
 (1) gemyne niaerSo. B. 660, x ux | .: x 
 
 (1) on bisse nieodu-healle. B. 639, x x x ux | _c x 
 
 (2) get brimes nosan, B. 2804, x ux | u x 
 (2) eet Wealhbeon [ = -beowan], B. 630, x L \ L x 
 (1) geond lagulade, W. 3, x ux | L x 
 
 (1) Swa cweeS eardstapa, W. 6, x x L \ 6 x 
 
 (2) eala byrnwiga, W. 94, x x ^. | u x 
 (2) no bser fela bringeS, W. 54, x x x | jc x 
 
 4. TYPE D, 
 
 D2 JL | ^ x i 
 
 Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable 
 between the two primary stresses (/ x | L ^ x, ^ x | j: x i). 
 The secondary stress in D 1 falls usually on the second 
 syllable of a compound or derivative word, and this 
 syllable (as in C) is frequently short. 
 
 (a) DI L | ^ i x 
 
 (1) cwen HroSgares, B. 614, . 
 
 (2) dsel jeghwylcne, B. 622, ^ 
 
 (1) Beowulf maSelode, B. 632, ^ x 
 
 (2) slat unwearnum, B. 742, _i 
 (1) wrabra -wraelsleahta, W. 7, ^ x 
 (1) wod vrintercearig [= wint'rcearig], W. 24, ^ 
 (1) sohte sfle dreorig, W. 25, .i x 
 (1) ne sohte searo-niSas, B. 2739, x | ^ x 
 
 NOTE. There is one instance in the texts (B. 613, (1)) of apparent 
 .i x x | L I, x : word weeron wynsume. (The triple alliteration has 
 no significance. The sense, besides, precludes our stressing weeron.) 
 The difficulty is avoided by bringing the line under the A type:
 
 Structure. 
 
 133 
 
 (2) ForS near aetstop, B. 746, 
 
 (2) eorl furSur stop, B. 762, 
 
 (2) Denum eallum wearS, B. 768, 
 
 (1) grette Geata leod, B. 626, 
 
 (1) aenig yrfe-weard, B. 2732, 
 
 (1) hreosan brim and snaw, \V. 48, 
 
 (2) swimmaS eft on weg, W. 53, 
 
 Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded. 
 
 (2) begn ungemete till, B. 2722, L \ L x x x i 
 
 (1) hrusan heolster biwrah, W. 23, ^ x | ^ x x i 
 
 6. TYPE E, 
 
 The secondary stress in E 1 falls frequently on a 
 short syllable, as in D 1 . 
 
 (a) I 
 
 (1) wyrmlicum fan, W. 98, 
 
 (2) medo-ful setbaer, B. 625, 
 (1) see-bat geseet, B.634, 
 
 (1) sige-folca sweg, B. 645, 
 
 (2) Nor3-Denum stod, B. 784, 
 
 (1) fSond-grapum feest, B. 637, 
 
 (2) wyn eal gedreas, W. 36, 
 (2) feor oft gemgn, W. 90, 
 
 - u X 
 
 ^. 1 X 
 
 X 
 
 . ^ 1 X 
 
 As in D 2 , the thesis in the first foot is very rarely 
 expanded. 
 
 (1) win-semes geweald, B. 655, L i x x | L 
 
 (1) Hafa nu 9nd geheald, B. 659, ux i x x | ^ 
 
 (1) searo-p9ncum besmiSod, B. 776, ux i. x x | ox
 
 134 Poetry. 
 
 NOTE. Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it 
 impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases between D 2 
 and E 1 . For example, in these half-lines (already cited), 
 
 wyn eal gedreas 
 feor oft gemQn 
 For3 near aetstop 
 
 if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their verbs, 
 the type is D 2 . Lessen the stress on the adverbs and increase it on 
 the verbs, and we have E 1 . The position of the adverbs furnishes 
 no clue ; for the order of words in -Old English was governed not 
 only by considerations of relative emphasis, but by syntactic and 
 euphonic considerations as well. 
 
 (6) 
 
 This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur 
 in the texts, there being but one instance of this type 
 (1. 2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in the whole of 
 Beowulf. 
 
 Abnormal Lines. 
 
 The lines that fall under none of the five types 
 enumerated are comparatively few. They may be 
 divided into two classes, (1) hypermetrical lines, and 
 (2) defective lines. 
 
 (1) HYPERMETRICAL LINES. 
 
 Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three 
 stresses, thus giving six stresses to the whole line 
 instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in groups, 
 and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. 
 Whether the half-line be first or second, it is usually 
 of the A type without anacrusis. To this type belong 
 the last five lines of the Wanderer. Lines 92 and 93 
 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The
 
 Structure. 135 
 
 first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and 
 C, consisting of (/ x x x J_ | ^ x). 
 
 (2) DEFECTIVE LINES. 
 
 The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 
 2715 (the second half-line in each). As they stand, 
 these half-lines would have to be scanned thus : 
 
 rashte ongean 
 bealo-nlS weoll 
 
 Sievers emends as follows : 
 
 raehte togeanes _: x x | i. x = A 
 
 bealo-niSe weoll ux i x | L E 1 
 
 These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic 
 combinations found on almost every page of Old Eng- 
 lish prose. That they occur so rarely in poetry is 
 strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were 
 needed, in favor of the adequacy of Sievers' five-fold 
 classification. 
 
 NOTE. All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty to 
 the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under the dif- 
 ferent types. If these are mastered, the student will find it an easy 
 matter to scan the lines that remain.
 
 SELECTIONS FOR READING. 
 
 VI. EXTRACTS FEOM BEOWULF. 
 
 THE BANQUET IN HEOROT. [Lines 612-662.] 
 
 [The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. I have attempted 
 no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin edition 
 in a few cases where the Grein-Wiilker text seemed to give the better 
 reading. 
 
 The argument preceding the first selection is as follows : Hrothgar, 
 king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity, builds a magnificent 
 hall in which to feast his retainers ; but a monster, Grendel by name, 
 issues from his fen-haunts, and night after night carries off thane after 
 thane from the banqueting hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. 
 At last Beowulf, nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (a people of South 
 Sweden), sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers 
 his services to the aged Hrothgar. " Leave me alone in the hall to-night," 
 says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf's proffered aid, and before the 
 dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent in wassail. The banquet 
 scene follows.] 
 
 1 pair wses haeleba hleahtor, hlyn swynsode, 
 
 2 word wseron wynsume. Eode Wealhbeow for<5, 
 
 3 cwen HroSgares, cynna gemyndig ; 
 
 4 grette gold-hroden guman on healle, [615] 
 
 5 Qnd ba f reollc \vlf ful gesealde 
 
 6 serest East-D^na ebel-wearde, 
 
 7 baed hine bliftne set bgere beor-b^ge, 
 s leoduin leofne ; he on lust gebeah 
 
 9 symbel $nd s^le-ful, sige-rof kyning. [620] 
 
 10 Ymb-eode ba ides Helminga 
 
 11 dugutSe ond geogoSe deel aeghwylcne, 
 
 136
 
 Extracts from Beowulf. 137 
 
 1 sinc-fato sealde, o$ feet seel alamp 
 
 2 feet hio 1 Beowulfe, beag-hroden cwen, 
 
 3 mode gef ungen, medo 2 -f ul eetbeer ; [625J 
 
 4 grette Geata leod, Gode fancode 
 
 5 wis-feest wordum, fses fe hire se willa gelamp, 
 e feet heo on senigne eorl gelyfde 
 
 7 fyrena frofre. He feet ful gef eah, 
 
 s wael-reow wiga, set Wealhfeon, [eso] 
 
 9 ond fa gyddode gu^e gefysed ; 
 
 10 Beowulf maSelode, beam Ecgfeowes : 
 
 11 " Ic faet hogode, fa ic on holm gestah, 
 
 12 see-bat gesaet mid rnmra s^cga gedriht, 
 
 13 feet ic anunga eowra leoda [635] 
 
 14 willan geworhte, otSSe on wael crunge 
 
 15 feond-grapum fsest. Ic gefre_mman sceal 
 
 16 eorllc ^llen, o35e ^nde-dseg 
 
 IT on fisse meodu 2 -healle mlnne gebidan." 
 
 is pam wife fa word wel licodon, [6*oj 
 
 19 gilp-cwide Geates ; eode gold-hroden 
 
 20 freolicu folc-cwen to hire frean sittan. 
 
 21 pa wees eft swa ser inne on healle 
 
 22 fry5-word sprecen, 3 feod on sffilum, 
 
 23 sige-folca sweg, of feet s^mninga [645] 
 
 1. sinc-fato sealde. Banning (Die epischen Formeln im Beo- 
 wulf} shows that the usual translation, gave costly gifts, must be 
 given up ; or, at least, that the costly gifts are nothing more than 
 beakers of mead. The expression is an epic formula for passing the 
 cup. 
 
 16-17. ^nde-daeg . . . mlnne. This unnatural separation of 
 noun and possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost unknown 
 in prose. 
 
 19-20. eode . . . sittan. The poet might have employed to 
 sittanne (108, (1)) ; but in poetry the infinitive is often used for 
 the gerund. Alfred himself uses the infinitive or the gerund to 
 express purpose after gan, ggngan, cuman, and sf ndan.
 
 138 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 sunu Healfd^nes secean wolde 
 
 2 sefen-reeste ; wiste paim ahlsecan 4 
 s to paim heah-seje hilde gepinged, 
 
 4 sifrSan hie sunnan leoht geseon ne meahton 
 
 5 otSSe nipende niht ofei- ealle, [650J 
 
 6 scadu-helma gesceapu scrftian cwoman, 6 
 
 7 wan under wolcnum. Werod eall aras ; 
 
 8 grette fa giddum gurna 66erne 
 
 9 HroSgar Beowulf, ond him hgel abead, 
 
 10 win-semes geweald, ond fset word acwse'S : [655] 
 
 11 " Nsef re ic eenegum 6 m^n eer alyfde, 
 
 12 sifr&an ic hond ond rond h^bban mihte, 
 is SryJ?-aern Dna buton ]>e nu J>a. 
 
 14 Hafa nu ond geheald husa selest, 
 
 15 gemyne mserfo, 7 msegen-^llen cy5, [eeo] 
 
 16 waca wi5 wraSum. Ne bi8 ]>e wilna gad, 
 IT gif )>u J>aet ^llen-weorc aldre 8 gedigest." 
 
 1 = heo. 
 2 = medu-. 
 8 = gesprecen. 
 
 4 = aglsecan. 
 5 = cwomon. 
 6 = senigum. 
 
 7 = mser^e (ace. sing.). 
 8 = ealdre (instr. sing. ) 
 
 2-6. wiste . . . cwoman. A difficult passage, even with 
 Thorpe's inserted ne ; but there is no need of putting a period after 
 ge]?inged, or of translating oSSe by and: He (Hrothgar) knew that 
 battle was in store (gejjinged) for the monster in the high hall, after 
 [= as soon as] they could no longer see the s?m's light, or [= that is] 
 after night came darkening over all, and shadowy figures stalking. 
 The subject of cwoman [= cwomon] is niht and gesceapu. 
 
 The student will note that the infinitive (scriSan) is here employed 
 as a present participle after a verb of motion (cwoman). This con- 
 struction with cuman is frequent in prose and poetry. The infinitive 
 expresses the kind of motion : ic com drifan = 7 came driving.
 
 Extracts from Beowulf. 139 
 
 THE FIGHT BETWEEN BEOWULF AND GRENDEL. [Lines 740-837.] 
 
 [The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel stealthily 
 enters the hall. From his eyes gleams " a luster unlovely, likest to fire." 
 The combat begins at once.] 
 
 1 Ne bset se aglaeca yldan bohte, [740] 
 
 2 ac he gefeng hrafte forman siSe 
 
 3 slaependne rinc, slat unwearnum, 
 
 4 bat ban-locan, blod edrum dranc, 
 
 5 syn-snaedum swealh ; sona hsefde 
 
 e unlyfigendes eal gefeormod [746] 
 
 7 fet ond folma. ForS near setstop, 
 
 8 nam ba mid handa hige-bihtigne 
 
 9 rinc on rseste ; rsehte ongean 
 
 10 feond mid folme ; he onfeng hrabe 
 
 11 inwit-bancum $nd wiS earm gesset. [7601 
 
 12 Sona bset onfunde fyrena hyrde, 
 is bset he ne mette middan-geardes, 
 w eorSan sceatta, on ^Iran m^n 
 
 is mund-gripe maran ; he on mode wearft 
 
 1. Jjaet, the direct object of yldan, refers to the contest about 
 to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was wondering how it 
 would result. 
 
 7. aetstop. The subject of this verb and of nam is Grendel ; 
 the subject of the three succeeding verbs (raehte, onfeng, gesaet) is 
 Beowulf. 
 
 12-13. The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of stimu- 
 lating interest by indirect methods of statement, by suggesting more 
 than they affirm. This device often appears in their use of negatives 
 (ne, 1. 13; p. 140, 1. 3; no, p. 140, 1. 1), and in the unexpected promi- 
 nence that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because 
 understood ; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the terror 
 produced by Grendel's midnight visits to Heorot, says (11. 138-139), 
 "Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more commodiously, 
 sought rest for himself." It is hard to believe that the poet saw 
 nothing humorous in this point of view.
 
 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 forht, on ferh<5e ; no J>y air fram meahte. [755] 
 
 2 Hyge waes him hin-fus, wolde on heolster fleon, 
 
 3 secan deofla gedraeg ; ne waes his drohtoS bair, 
 
 4 swylce he on ealder J -dagum air gemette. 
 
 5 Gemunde ba se goda maig Higelaces 
 
 6 aifen-spriBce, up-lang astod [760] 
 
 7 <jnd him faeste wiftfeng ; fingras burston ; 
 
 8 eoten waes ut-weard ; eorl furfur stop. 
 
 9 Mynte se msera, hwair he meahte swa, 
 
 10 widre gewindan ond on weg banon 
 
 11 fleon on f^n-hopu ; wiste his fingra geweald [765] 
 
 12 on grames grapum. paet waes geocor si5, 
 is J>aet se hearm-scafa to Heorute 2 ateah. 
 
 H Dryht-s^le dynede ; D^num eallum wearS 
 
 15 ceaster-buendum, cenra gehwylcum, 
 
 16 eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre wseron begen [770] 
 
 1. no ... meahte, none the sooner could he away. The omission 
 of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries niagan. motan, sculan, and 
 willan is very frequent. Cf. Beowulf's last utterance, p. 147, 1. 17. 
 
 14. The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit of 
 description by indication of effects. The two contestants are with- 
 drawn from our sight ; but we hear the sound of the fray crashing 
 through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a blast ; we see 
 the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as they listen to the 
 strange sounds that issue from their former banqueting hall ; by 
 these sounds we, too, measure the progress and alternations of the 
 combat. At last we hear only the "terror-lay" of Grendel, "lay of 
 the beaten," and know that Beowulf has made good his promise at 
 the banquet (gilp gelsested). 
 
 15. cenra gehwylcum. The indefinite pronouns ( 77) may be 
 used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns ; but they fre- 
 quently, as here, take a partitive genitive : anra gehwylcum, to each 
 one (= to each of ones) ; eenige (instrumental) )?inga, for any thing 
 ( = /or any of things') ; on healfa gehwone, into halves (= into each 
 of halves) ; ealra dogra gehwam, every day (= on each of all days) ; 
 uhtna gehwylce, every morning (on each of mornings').
 
 Extracts from Beowulf. 141 
 
 1 repe ren-weardas. Recced hlynsode ; 
 
 2 pa wees wundor micel, paet se wm-s^le 
 
 3 wrShsefde heapo-deorum, paet he on hrusan ne feol, 
 
 4 faeger fold-bold ; ac he fees faeste waes 
 
 5 innan Qnd titan iren-b^ndum [775] 
 e searo-poncum besmiSod. paar fram sylle abeag 
 
 7 medu-b^nc monig, mine gefraege, 
 
 s golde geregnad, peer J>a graman wimnon ; 
 
 9 }>aes ne wendon eer witan Scyldinga, 
 
 10 paet hit a mid gemete manna Snig, [780] 
 
 11 betllc oud ban-fag, tobrecan meahte, 
 
 12 listum tolucan, nympe liges faeSm 
 
 13 swulge on swafule. Sweg up astag 
 u niwe geneahhe ; NorS-D^num stod 
 
 15 atelic $gesa, anra gehwylcura, [785] 
 
 16 para pe of wealle wop gehyrdon, 
 
 17 gryre-leoS galan Godes Qndsacan, 
 is sige-leasne sang, sar wanigean 
 
 19 h^lle hsefton. 3 Heold hine faeste, 
 
 20 se pe manna wees maegene strongest [790] 
 
 21 on peem daege pysses llfes. 
 
 22 Nolde eorla hleo senige pinga 
 
 23 pone cwealm-cuman cwicne forlgetan, 
 
 24 ne his llf-dagas leoda aenigum 
 
 10. Notice that hit, the object of tobrecan, stands for win-Bfle, 
 which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2. Manna is genitive after 
 gemete, not after aeiiig. 
 
 17-19. gryre-leoS . . . haefton [= heeftan]. Note that verbs of 
 hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the infinitive. 
 They heard God's adversary sing (galan) . . . helVs captive bewail 
 (wanigean). Had the present participle been used, the effect would 
 have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize the agent (the subject of the 
 infinitive) rather than the action (the infinitive itself).
 
 142 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 nytte tealde. pier genehost braegd [795] 
 
 2 eorl Beowulfes ealde lafe, 
 
 8 wolde frea-drihtnes feorh ealgian, 
 
 4 maeres peodnes, ftser hie meahton swa. 
 
 5 Hie (5aet ne wiston, fa hie gewin drugon, 
 
 6 heard-hicgende hilde-m^cgas, [soo] 
 
 7 nd on healfa gehwone heawan }>6hton, 
 
 8 sawle secan : pone syn-sca<5an 
 senig ofer eorSan irenna cyst, 
 
 10 gup-billa nan, gretan nolde ; 
 
 11 ac he sige-wtepnum forsworen hsefde, [805] 
 
 12 cga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor 4 -gedal 
 is on Saem dsege fysses lifes 
 
 14 earmllc wurSan 5 ond se ^llor-gast 
 is on feonda geweald feor siftian. 
 
 16 pa fset onfunde, se ]>e fela ieror [sio] 
 
 17 modes myrSe manna cynne 
 
 is fyrene gefr^mede (he wees fag wi8 God), 
 
 19 faet him se lic-hgina Isestan nolde, 
 
 20 ac hine se modega 6 mgeg Hygelaces 
 
 21 haefde be honda ; waes gehwaeper oSrum [815] 
 
 22 lifigende laft. Llc-sar gebad 
 
 23 atol seglseca 7 ; him on eaxle wear8 
 
 1-2. J>eer . . . lafe. Beowulf's followers now seem to have 
 seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that Grendel, 
 having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against the best of 
 swords. Then many an earl of Beowulf s (= an earl of B. very often) 
 brandished his sword. That no definite earl is meant is shown by the 
 succeeding hie meahton instead of he meahte. See p. 110, Note. 
 
 5. They did not know this (Seet), while they were fighting ; but 
 the first Hie refers to the warriors who proffered help ; the second 
 hie, to the combatants, Beowulf and Grendel. In apposition with 
 3aet, stands the whole clause, Jjone synscaSan (object of gretan) 
 . . . nolde. The second, or conjunctional, Sset is here omitted before 
 Jjone. See p. 112, note on 11. 18-19.
 
 Extracts from Beowulf. 143 
 
 1 syn-dolh sweotol ; seonowe onsprungon ; 
 
 2 burston ban-locan. Beowtilfe wearS 
 
 3 gu$-hre(5 gyfe<5e. Scolde Gr^ndel bonan [820] 
 
 4 feorh-seoc fleon under f^n-hleoSu, 8 
 
 5 secean wyn-leas wlc ; wiste be geornor, 
 e baet his aldres 9 wees nde gegongen, 
 
 7 dogera daeg-rim. D^num eallum wearft 
 
 s aefter bam wael-rsese willa geluinpen. [825] 
 
 9 Hsefde fa gefgelsod, se J>e ser feorran com, 
 
 10 snotor gnd swy6-ferli5, s^le HroSgares, 
 
 11 gen^red Avi6 niSe. Niht-weorce gefeh, 
 
 12 ^llen-mserfum ; hsef de East-D^num 
 
 is Geat-ni^cga leod gilp gelgested ; [sso] 
 
 14 swylce oncytSSe ealle gebette, 
 
 15 inwid-sorge, fe hie ger drugon 
 
 16 ond for )>rea-nyduin folian scoldon, 
 n torn unlytel. pset wses tacen sweotol, 
 
 is sy<5<5an hilde-deor hond al^gde, [sss] 
 
 19 earm ond eaxle (peer wses eal geador 
 
 20 Gr^ndles grape) under geapne hrof. 
 
 1 = ealdor-. * = ealdor-. 7 = aglieca. 
 
 2 = Heorote. 5 = weorSan. 8 -hliiSu. 
 
 3 = hseftan. 6 = modiga. 9 = ealdres. 
 
 BEOWULF FATALLY WOUNDED. [Lines 2712-2752.] 
 
 [Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts upon 
 Beowulf; but Grendel's mother must he reckoned with. Beowulf finds 
 her at the sea-hottom, and after a desperate struggle slays her. Hrothgar 
 again pours treasures into Beowulf's lap. Beowulf, having now accom- 
 plished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a reign of fifty years, he 
 goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon that is ravaging his kingdom. 
 In the struggle Beowulf is fatally wounded. Wiglaf, a loyal thane, is 
 with him.] 
 
 20. grape = genitive singular, feminine, after eal.
 
 144 Selections for Heading. 
 
 1 pa sio 1 wund ongon, 
 
 2 fe him se eorS-draca eer geworhte, 
 
 3 swelan $nd swellan. He baet sona onfand, 
 
 4 baet him on breostum bealo-mS weoll [2715] 
 
 5 attor on innan. pa se seSeling glong, 2 
 e baet he bi wealle, wis-hycgende, 
 
 7 gesaet on sesse ; seah on ^nta geweorc, 
 
 s hu fa stan-bogan stapulum faeste 
 
 9 ece eor<5-re,ced innan healde. [2720] 
 
 10 Hyne fa mid handa heoro-dreorigne, 
 
 11 )>eoden mserne, fegn ungemete till, 
 
 12 wine-dryhten his wsetere gelafede, 
 
 13 hilde-ssedne, ond his helm onspeon. 
 
 u Blowulf 3 ma^elode ; he of er b^nne spraec, [2725] 
 
 5. se asSeling is Beowulf. 
 
 7. nta geweorc is a stereotyped phrase for anything that occa- 
 sions wonder by its size or strangeness. 
 
 9. healde. Heyne, following Ettmiiller, reads heoldon. thus 
 arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the original. Either 
 mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be legitimate. As to the tense, 
 the narrator is identifying himself in time with the hero, whose wonder 
 was "how the stone-arches . . . sustain the ever-during earth-hall ": 
 the construction is a form of oratio recta, a sort of miratio recta. 
 The singular healde, instead of healden, has many parallels in the 
 dependent clauses of Beowulf, most of these being relative clauses 
 introduced by ]?ara J?e (= of those that . . . + a singular predicate). 
 In the present instance, the predicate has doubtless been influenced 
 by the proximity of eorS-r^ced, a <7?< cm-subject ; and we have no 
 more right to alter to healden or heoldon than we have to change 
 Shakespeare's gives to give in 
 
 " Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives." 
 
 (Macbeth, II, i, 61.) 
 
 11. The J?egn ungemete till is Wiglaf, the bravest of Beowulf's 
 retainers. 
 
 14. he ofer benne spraec. The editors and translators of Beo- 
 wulf invariably render ofer in this passage by about; but Beowulf
 
 Extracts from Beowulf. 145 
 
 1 wunde wsel-bleate ; wisse he gearwe, 
 
 2 faet he daeg-hwila gedrogen heefde 
 s eorSan wyune ; J>a wees call sceacen 
 
 4 dogor-ge rimes, deao" ungernete neah : 
 
 5 " Nu ic suna mlnum syllan wolde [2730] 
 
 6 guft-gewiedu, J>ser me gife<5e swa 
 
 7 senig yrfe-weard sefter wurde 
 
 B lice gele_nge. Ic ftas leode heold 
 9 f If tig wintra ; naes se f olc-cyning 
 
 10 ymbe-sittendra senig para, [2735] 
 
 11 }>e mec guS-wimim gretan dorste, 
 
 12 ^gesan Seon. Ic on earde bad 
 
 13 meel-gesceafta, heold mm tela, 
 
 H ne sohte searo-nlSas, ne me swor fela 
 
 15 afta on unriht. Ic Sees ealles maeg, l<2740] 
 
 16 feorh-b^nnum seoc, gef can habban ; 
 
 n for-fam me wltan ne Searf Waldend 4 flra 
 is morSor-bealo 5 maga, Jjonne mm sceaceS 
 
 19 llf of lice. Nu Su lungre geong 6 
 
 20 hord sceawian under harne stan, [2745] 
 
 21 Wlglaf leofa, nu se wyrm ligeS, 
 
 22 swefeS sare wund, since bereafod. 
 
 says not a word about his wound. The context seems to me to show 
 plainly that ofer (cf . Latin supra} denotes here opposition = in spite 
 of. We read in Genesis, 1. 594, that Eve took the forbidden fruit 
 ofer Drihtenes word. Beowulf fears (1. 2331) that he may have 
 ruled unjustly = ofer ealde riht ; and he goes forth (1. 2409) ofer 
 willan to confront the dragon. 
 
 6-8. J?aer me . . . gelfnge, if so be that (J>aer . . . swa) any 
 heir had afterwards been given me (me gifeSe . . . setter wurde) 
 belonging to my body. 
 
 19-20. geong [ = gQng] . . . sceawian. See note on eode . . . 
 sittan, p. 137, 11. 19-20. In Mn.E. Go see, Go fetch, etc., is the 
 second verb imperative (coordinate with the first), or subjunctive 
 (that you may see), or infinitive without to ? 
 
 L
 
 146 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 Bio 7 nu on ofoste, J>aet ic ser-welan, 
 
 2 gold-gent ongite, gearo sceawige 
 
 3 swegle searo-gimmas, J>set ic (5y seft maege [2750] 
 
 4 sefter ma&5um-welan mm alsetan 
 
 5 llf Qnd leod-scipe, bone ic longe heold." 
 
 1 = seo. 3 = Beowulf. 6 = go,ng (gang). 
 
 2 = geong. * = Wealdend. ~ Beo. 
 
 5 = morSor-bealu. 
 
 BEOWULF'S LAST WORDS. [Lines 2793-2821.] 
 
 [Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf's triumph. Beowulf, 
 rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives advice and final direc- 
 tions to Wiglaf.] 
 
 6 Biowulf 1 mafielode, 
 
 7 g^mel on giohSe (gold sceawode) : 
 
 s " Ic para f raetwa Frean ealles Sane, [2795] 
 
 9 Wuldur-cyninge, wordiim s^cge 
 
 10 ecum Dryhtne, pe ic her on starie, 
 
 11 J>aes )>e ic moste mlnum leodurn 
 
 12 ser swylt-daege swylc gestrynan. 
 
 is Nu ic on maftma hord mine bebohte [2800] 
 
 4-5. min . . . llf. See note on ^nde-deeg . . . mmne, p. 137, 
 11. 16-17. 
 
 8-12. The expression sfcgan pane takes the same construction 
 as )?ancian ; i.e., the dative of the person (Frean) and the geni- 
 tive (a genitive of cause) of the thing (]?ara fraetwa). Cf. note on 
 biddan, p. 45. The antecedent of J>e is fraetwa. For the position 
 of on, see 94, (5). The clause introduced by Jjaes J?e (because) is 
 parallel in construction with fraetwa, both being causal modifiers of 
 secge pane. The Christian coloring in these lines betrays the 
 influence of priestly transcribers. 
 
 13. Now that 7, in exchange for (on) a hoard of treasures, have 
 bartered (bebohte) the laying down (-l?ge>licgan) of my old life. 
 The ethical codes of the early Germanic races make frequent mention 
 of blood-payments, or life-barters. There seems to be here a sug- 
 gestion of the " wergild."
 
 Extracts from Beowulf. 147 
 
 1 frode feorh-l^ge, fr^mmaS ge nu 
 
 2 leoda )>earfe ; ne maeg ic her l^ng wesan. 
 s Hatao" heafto-msere hlsew gewyrcean, 
 
 4 beorhtne eef ter bsele set brimes nosan ; 
 
 5 se seel 2 to gemyndum minum leodum [2805] 
 e heah hlifian on Hrones nsesse, 
 
 7 }>8et hit sse-li5end sySSan hatan 3 
 s Blowulf es J biorh J fa ]>e brentingas 
 9 ofer floda genipu feorran drifaft." 
 
 10 Dyde him of healse hring gyldenne [28io] 
 
 11 floden 1 J?rist-hydig; fegne gesealde, 
 
 12 geongum gar-wigan, gold-fahne helm, 
 
 is beah ond byrnan, het hyne brucan well, 
 w " pu eart ^nde-laf usses cynnes, 
 
 15 Weegmundinga; ealle wyrd forswgop [2815] 
 
 16 mine magas to metod-sceafte, 
 
 IT eorlas on e_lne ; ic him aefter sceal." 
 is paet W33S )>am gomelan gingeste word 
 19 breost-gehygdum, ger he bael cure, 
 
 1. fr^mmaS ge. The plural imperative (as also in HataS) shows 
 that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in particular 
 as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general, to his comitatus. 
 
 6. The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent expres- 
 sion in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was situated "high 
 on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that it might be seen from 
 off the sea." Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury him in the same way. 
 ^Eneas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a high mound on a head- 
 land of the sea. 
 
 7. hit = hlaw, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2. 
 
 10-11. him . . . Jrioden. The reference in both cases is to Beo- 
 wulf, who is disarming himself ($o-al>doff) for the last time ; )?egne 
 = to Wiglaf. 
 
 Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the dative 
 instead of the more colorless possessive ; him of healse, not of his 
 healse. 
 
 17. ic . . . sceal. See note on n.5 . . . meahte, p. 140, 1. 1.
 
 148 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 hate heaSo-wylmas ; him of hreftre gewat fzszo) 
 
 2 sawol secean soft-faestra dom. 
 
 1 io, io = go, eo. 2 = sceal. 8 = haten. 
 
 VII. THE WANDERER 
 
 [Exeter MS. " The epic character of the ancient lyric appears espe- 
 cially in this : that the song is less the utterance of a momentary feeling 
 than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps the reflection of an entire 
 life, generally that of one isolated, or bereft by death or exile of protectors 
 and friends." (Ten Brink, Early Eng. Lit., I.) I adopt Brooke's three- 
 fold division (Early Eng. Lit., p. 356) : " It opens with a Christian pro- 
 logue, and closes with a Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the 
 poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of the 
 goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were unin- 
 fluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine." 
 
 The author is unknown.] 
 
 PROLOGUE. 
 
 s Oft him anhaga are gebideft, 
 
 4 Metudes l miltse, beah be he modcearig 
 
 5 geond lagulade longe sceolde 
 
 6 hreran mid hondum hrimcealde see, 
 
 7 wadan Avrseclastas : wyrd bi5 f ul areed ! [5] 
 
 8 Swa cwssS eardstapa earfepa 2 gemyndig, 
 
 9 wrapra waelsleahta, winemsega hryres : 
 
 PLAINT OF THE WANDERER. 
 
 10 " Oft ic sceolde ana uhtna gehwylce 
 
 11 mine ceare cwlban ; nis nu cwicra nan, 
 
 1. him of hreSre. Cf. note on him . . . Jrioden, p. 147, 11. 10-11. 
 1-2. For construction of gewat . . . secean, see note on eode 
 . . . sittan, p. 137, 11. 19-20. 
 
 9. The MS. reading is hryre (nominative), which is meaningless. 
 10. For uhtna gehwylce, see note on cenra gehwylcum, p. 140.
 
 The Wanderer. 149 
 
 1 J>e ic him modsefan mmne durre [loj 
 
 2 sweotule 3 as^cgan. Ic to sope wat 
 s pset bij> in eorle indryhten }>eaw, 
 
 4 )?aet he his ferSlocan faeste binde, 
 
 5 healde his hordcofan, hycge swa he wille ; 
 
 c ne maeg Averig mod wyrde wrSstQndan [15] 
 
 7 ne se hreo hyge helpe gefr^mman: 
 
 8 for Son domgeorne dreorigne oft 
 
 9 in hyra breostcofan bindaS faeste. 
 
 10 Swa ic modsefan mmne sceolde 
 
 11 oft earmcearig eSle bidseled, [20] 
 
 12 freomsegum feor feterum saelan, 
 is sipfan geara iu goldwine mmne 
 
 w hrusan heolster biwrah, and ic hean fgnan 
 
 15 wod wintercearig ofer wafema gebind, 
 
 16 sohte s^le dreorig sinces bryttan, [25] 
 
 17 hwser ic feor o)>J>e neah findan meahte 
 is pone ]>e in meoduhealle * miltse wisse 
 
 19 offe mec freondleasne frefran wolde, 
 
 20 w^nian mid wynnum. Wat se }>e cunnatS 
 
 21 hu slifen bi(5 sorg to gef eran [so] 
 
 22 pam )>e him lyt haf a3 leof ra geholena : 
 
 23 waraS hine wraeclast, nales wunden gold, 
 
 24 fer^loca freorig, nalaes foldan bleed ; 
 
 25 geniQn he s^les^cgas and sincf^ge, 
 
 26 hu hine on geoguSe his goldwine [85] 
 
 27 we^nede to wiste : wyn eal gedreas ! 
 
 1. Ipe . . . him. See 75 (4). Cf. Merchant of Venice, II, 6, 50-51. 
 18. For mine (MS. in), which does not satisfy metrical require- 
 ments, I adopt Kluge's plausible substitution of miltse ; miltse witan 
 = to show (know, feel), pity. The myne wisse of Beowulf (1. 169) 
 is metrically admissible.
 
 150 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 For bon wat se be sceal his winedryhtnes 
 
 2 leofes larcwidum longe forbolian, 
 
 3 <5onne sorg and slaip somod setgsedre 
 
 4 earmne anhagan oft gebindaS : [40J 
 
 5 binceS him on mode bset he his mondryhten 
 e clyppe and cysse, and on cneo le_cge 
 
 7 honda and heafod, swa he hwilum aer 
 
 s in geardagum giefstoles breac ; 
 
 9 tSonne onwsecneS eft wineleas guma, [45] 
 
 10 gesihS him biforan fealwe weegas, 
 
 11 ba)>ian brimfuglas, breedan fefra, 
 
 12 hreosan hrim and snaw hagle gem^nged. 
 is Ponne beoS ]>y h^figran heortan b^nne, 
 
 w sare aefter swSsne ; sorg 1 16 geniwad ; [5oJ 
 
 15 Jjonne maga gemynd mod geondhweorfeft, 
 
 16 grete6 gliwstafum, georne geondsceawaS. 
 IT S^cga geseldan swimmafc eft on weg; 
 
 is fleotendra ferS 5 no J>aer fela bringeft 
 
 19 cu^ra cwidegiedda; cearo 6 bi6 geniwad [55] 
 
 1. The object of w5t is JjinceS him on mode; but the con- 
 struction is unusual, inasmuch as both ]?aet's (Jjaet pronominal before 
 wat and J>aet conjunctional before JjinceS) are omitted. See p. 112, 
 11. 18-19. 
 
 5. )rince3 him on mode (see note on him . . . Jjioden, p. 147). 
 "No more sympathetic picture has been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon 
 poet than where the wanderer in exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams 
 again of his dead lord and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts, 
 then wakes to look once more upon the waste of ocean, snow and hail 
 falling all around him, and sea-birds dipping in the spray." (Gum- 
 mere, Germanic Origins, p. 221.) 
 
 17-19. S?cga . . . cwidegiedda = But these comrades of warriors 
 [= those seen in vision] again swim away [ = fade away] ; the ghost 
 of these fleeting ones brings not there many familiar icords; i.e. he 
 sees in dream and vision the old familiar faces, but no voice is heard : 
 they bring neither greetings to him nor tidings of themselves.
 
 The Wanderer. 151 
 
 1 J>am fe se^ndan sceal swipe geneahhe 
 
 2 ofer wapema gebind werigne sefan. 
 
 3 For fon ic gep^ncan ne maeg geond fas woruld 
 
 4 for hwan modsefa mm ne gesweorce, 
 
 5 ponne ic eorla lif eal geondf^nce, [eo] 
 
 6 hu hi faerlice fl$t ofgeafon, 
 
 7 modge magupegnas. Swa )>es middangeard 
 
 8 ealra dogra gehwam dreoseo" and f eallej) ; 
 
 9 for }>on ne mseg weorj>an wls wer, ser he age 
 
 10 wintra deel in woruldrlce. Wita sceal gefyldig, [65] 
 
 11 ne sceal no to hatheort ne to hrsedwyrde, 
 
 12 ne to wac wiga ne to wanhydig, 
 
 13 ne to forht ne to fsegen ne to feohgifre, 
 
 14 ne nsefre gielpes to georn, eer he geare cunne. 
 
 15 Beorn sceal gebldan, J>onne he beot spricetS, [TO] 
 
 16 o]> }>8et collenfertS cunne gearwe 
 
 17 hwider hrejjra gehygd hweorfan wille. 
 
 is Ongietan sceal gleaw hsele hu gsestlic bits, 
 
 19 fonne eall Jnsse worulde wela weste stondet5, 
 
 20 swa nu missenlice geond )>isne middangeard [T5] 
 
 21 winde biwaune 7 weallas stgndaf, 
 
 10. Wita sceal ge)?yldig. Either beon (wesan) is here to be 
 understood after sceal, or sceal alone means ought to be. Neither 
 construction is to be found in Alfredian prose, though the omission of 
 a verb of motion after sculan is common in all periods of Old English. 
 See note on no ... meahte. p. 140. 
 
 20. swa nu. " The Old English lyrical feeling," says Ten Brink, 
 citing the lines that immediately follow swa. nu, " is fond of the image 
 of physical destruction " ; but I do not think these lines have a merely 
 figurative import. The reference is to a period of real devastation, 
 antedating the Danish incursions. " We might fairly find such a time 
 in that parenthesis of bad government and of national tumult which 
 filled the years between the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed 
 peace of Xorthumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729." 
 (Brooke, Early Eng. Lit., p. 355.)
 
 152 Selections for Reading. 
 
 1 hrime bihrorene, 8 hrySge fa ederas. 
 
 2 WoriaS fa wlnsalo, 9 waldend licgaS 
 
 8 dreame bidrorene 10 ; duguft eal gecrong 
 
 4 wl$nc bi wealle : sume wig fornom, [so} 
 
 5 f e.rede in f orftwege ; sumne f ugel n of baer 
 
 6 ofer heanne holm ; sumne se hara wulf 
 
 7 deaSe gedeelde ; sumne dreorighleor 
 
 8 in eorSscrsefe eorl gehydde : 
 
 9 yfde swa fisne eardgeard selda Scyppend, [86] 
 
 10 of faet burgwara breahtma lease 
 
 11 eald $uta geweorc idlu stodon. 
 
 12 Se fonne fisne wealsteal wise gepohte, 
 
 13 and fis decree lif deope geondf^nceS, 
 
 w frod in ferSe 12 feor oft gem^n [so] 
 
 15 waelsleahta worn, and fas word acwi'S : 
 
 16 ' Hwser cwom mearg ? hweer cwom mago 13 ? hwaer 
 
 cwom maff umgyf a ? 
 IT hwser cwom symbla gesetu ? hwser sindon s^le- 
 
 dreanias ? 
 is Eala beorht bune ! eala byrnwiga ! 
 
 19 6ala f eodnes f rym ! hu seo frag gewat, [95] 
 
 20 genap under nihthelm, swa heo no wsere ! 
 
 21 St^ndetJ nu on laste leofre dugufe 
 
 22 weal wundrum heah, wyrmllcum fah : 
 
 23 eorlas fornomon asca f ryf e, 
 
 17. cwom . . . gesetu. Ettmiiller reads cwomon ; but see 
 p. 107, note on wees . . . J>5. Igland. The occurrence of hweer cwom 
 three times in the preceding line tends also to hold cwom in the 
 singular when its plural subject follows. Note the influence of a 
 somewhat similar structural parallelism in seas hides of these lines 
 (Winter's Tale, IV, iv, 500-502) : 
 
 " Not for ... all the sun sees or 
 The close earth wombs or the profound seas hides 
 In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath."
 
 The Wanderer. 153 
 
 1 wjgpen waelgifru, wyrd seo meere ; [100] 
 
 2 and pas stanhleojm 14 stormas cnyssatS ; 
 
 3 hriS hreosende hrusan bindetS, . 
 
 4 wintres woma, ponne w^n cymetS, 
 
 5 mpeS nihtscua, norpau onse,nde$ 
 
 e hreo hseglfare haelejnmi on andan. [105] 
 
 7 Eall is earfoftlic eorfan rice, 
 
 8 onw^ndet? wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofo- 
 
 num: 
 
 9 her biS feoh leene, her bi5 freond Isene, 
 
 10 her bi(5 mon leene, her bi6 mseg leene ; 
 
 11 eal pis eorfan gesteal idel weorpeS ! ' ' [no] 
 
 EPILOGUE. 
 
 12 Swa cwseS snottor on mode, gesaet him sundor aet 
 
 rune. 
 
 13 Til bi)> se J>e his treowe gehealdeft ; ne sceal nsefre 
 
 his torn to rycene 
 w beorn of his breostum acyfan, nempe he ser fa 
 
 bote cunne ; 
 15 eorl mid ejne gefre.mman. Wei biS fam pe him 
 
 are seceS, 
 
 16 frof re to 
 
 Feeder on heofonum, 
 
 fser us eal seo 
 
 ftestnung stondeS. 
 
 [115] 
 
 1 = Metodes. 
 
 6 = cearu. 
 
 = fugol. 
 
 2 = earfo^a. 
 
 7 See bewawan. 
 
 12 = ferhe. 
 
 3 = sweotole. 
 
 8 See behreosan. 
 
 13 = magu. 
 
 4 = medu-. 
 
 9 = wlnsalu. 
 
 14 = -hlin. 
 
 6 = ferh. 
 
 10 See bedreosan. 
 
 
 12. gesaet . . . rune, sat apart to himself in silent meditation. 
 .15. eorl . . . gefrftnman. Supply sceal after eorl.
 
 I. GLOSSARY. 
 
 OLD ENGLISH MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 [The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that 8 follows t. 
 The combination ae follows ad. 
 
 Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. ( = masculine) , f. 
 ( = feminine) , n. ( = neuter) . The usual abbreviations are employed 
 for the cases, nom., gen., dat., ace., and instr. Other abbreviations 
 are sing. (= singular), pi. (= plural), ind. (= indicative mood), sub. 
 (= subjunctive mood), pres. (= present tense), pret. (= preterit tense), 
 prep. (= preposition), adj. (= adjective), adv. (= adverb), part. 
 (= participle), conj. (= conjunction), pron. (= pronoun), intrans. 
 (= intransitive), trans. (= transitive). 
 
 Figures not preceded by refer to page and line of the texts.] 
 
 5, ever, always, aye. 
 
 abbudisse. f., abbess [Lat. abba- 
 
 tissa]. 
 abeodan ( 109), bid, offer; him 
 
 hsel ahead 138, 9 = bade him 
 
 hail, wished him health. 
 abrecan ( 120, Note 2), break 
 
 down, destroy. 
 abugan ( 109, Note, 1), give 
 
 way, start [bow away]. 
 
 ac, conj., but. 
 
 acweSan ( 115), say, speak. 
 acySan ( 126), reveal, proclaim 
 [cu3]. 
 
 ad, m., funeral pile. 
 adesa, m., adze, hatchet. 
 se (sew), f., law. 
 
 sedre (edre), f., stream, canal, 
 vein; blod edrum dranc 139, 
 4 = drank blood in streams 
 (instr.). 
 
 aefaestnis. f ., piety. 
 
 aef en-raest, f . , evening rest. 
 
 eefen-spreec, f., evening speech. 
 
 eef?st (eewffst), law-abiding, 
 pious. 
 
 eeff stnis, see eefeestnis. 
 
 aefre. ever, always. 
 
 setter, prep. ( 94, (1)), after; 
 setter Seem, after that, there- 
 after; getter Seem 3e, conj., 
 after. 
 
 aefter, adv., after, afterwards. 
 
 eeghwa ( 77, Note), each, every. 
 
 Sghwilc ( 77, Note), each, any. 
 
 eegleeca, see aglaeca. 
 
 155
 
 156 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 aegSer (eeghwasSer, aSer) ( 77, 
 Note), each, either; aegSer . . . 
 oSer . . . oSer, either ... or 
 . . . or; segSer ge . . . ge 
 ( 95, (2)), both . . . and; 
 aegSer ge . . . ge . . . ge, both 
 . . . and . . . and. 
 
 gent, f., property, possession 
 [agan]. 
 
 selc ( 77), each. 
 
 aelde (ielde) ( 47), m. pi., 
 men; gen. pi., aelda. 
 
 aelmihtig. almighty. 
 
 aemetta. m., leisure [empt t'-ness] . 
 
 senig ( 77), any ; eenige Singa 
 141, 22 =for anything. (See 
 140, 15, Note.) 
 
 Ser, adv., before, formerly, sooner ; 
 no py eer 140, 1 = none the 
 sooner; eeror, comparative, be- 
 fore, formerly; aerest, superla- 
 tive, first. 
 
 Sr, conj. ( 105, 2), ere, before 
 = aer Saem 3e. 
 
 eer, prep, with dat., before (time); 
 eer Seem Se, conj. ( 105, 2), 
 fee/ore. 
 
 asrcebisceop, m. , archbishop 
 [Lat. archiepiscopus]. 
 
 eerendgewrit, n., message, letter. 
 
 eerendwreca (-raca), m., mes- 
 senger. 
 
 eerest, adj. ( 96, (4)), jfo-sJ. 
 
 aernan ( 127), n'cZe, gallop 
 [iernan]. 
 
 aerra, adj. ( 96, (4~)~) , former. 
 
 eerwela, m., ancient wealth. 
 
 aesc, m., ash, spear ; gen. pi., asca. 
 
 JEscesdun, f., Ashdown (in Berk- 
 shire). 
 
 aestel, m., book-mark [Lat. has- 
 tula]. 
 
 set ( 94, (1)), at, in; with leor- 
 nian, to learn, geSicgan. to 
 receive, and other verbs of simi- 
 lar import, set = from : 115, 18 ; 
 137, 8, etc. 
 
 aetberan ( 114), bear to, hand. 
 
 aetgaed(e)re, adv., together. 
 
 getsteppan ( 116), step up, ad- 
 vance; pret. sing., setstop. 
 
 aeSele, noble, excellent. 
 
 oeSeling. m. , a noble, prince. 
 
 .ZESelwulfing. in., son of Ethel- 
 wulf. 
 
 .ffiSered, m., Ethelred. 
 
 afeallan ( 117), fall. 
 
 afierran ( 127), remove [feor]. 
 
 agan ( 136), to own, possess. 
 
 agen, adj. -part., own; dat. sing., 
 agnum [agan]. 
 
 agiefan ( 115), give back. 
 
 aglaeca (eegleeca), m., monster, 
 champion. 
 
 ahton. see agan. 
 
 aleetan ( 117), let go, leave. 
 
 aldor, see ealdor. 
 
 al^cgan ( 125, Note), lay down 
 [licgan] ; past part., aled. 
 
 Alieaend, m., Redeemer [ aliesan 
 = release, ransom] . 
 
 alimpan. ( 110), befall, occur. 
 
 alyfan ( 126), entrust, permit. 
 
 ambor, m., measure; gen. pi., 
 ambra (27, (4)). 
 
 ambyre, favorable. 
 
 an ( 89), one; ana, alone, only ; 
 anra gehwylcum 141, 15 = to 
 each one. (See 140, 15, Note.) 
 
 anda, m., zeal, injury, indigna- 
 tion ; haeleSiim on andan 153, 
 6 = harmful to men. 
 
 andefn, f., proportion, amount. 
 
 andgiet (-git), n., sewse, meaning.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 157 
 
 andgitfulllce, intelligibly; -git- 
 
 fullicost, superlative. 
 andswaru, f., answer. 
 andwyrdan ( 127), to answer; 
 
 pret., andwyrde. 
 Angel, n., Anglen (in Denmark) ; 
 
 dat. sing., Angle ( 27 (4)). 
 Angelcynn. n., English kin, 
 
 English people, England. 
 anhaga (-hoga), m., a solitary, 
 
 wanderer [an hogian. to med- 
 itate"] . 
 
 anlipig. single, individual. 
 anunga ( 93, (2)), once for all 
 
 [an]. 
 apostol, m., apostle [Gr. &ir6<TTo- 
 
 Xoj]. 
 ar, f., honor, properly, favor ; are 
 
 gebideS 148, 3 = waits for 
 
 divine favor (gen.), 
 araed, adj., inexorable. 
 araedan ( 126), read. 
 arfcc(e)an ( 128), translate, 
 
 expound. 
 
 arfaestnis, f., virtue. 
 arisan ( 102), arise. 
 asca, see aesc. 
 asecgan ( 132), say, relate. 
 asfttan ( 127), set, place. 
 asingan ( 110), sing. 
 aspendan ( 127), spend, expend. 
 astigan ( 102), ascend, arise. 
 astpndan ( 116), stand up. 
 ateah, see ateon. 
 atelic, horrible, dire. 
 ateon ( 118), draw, draw away, 
 
 take (as a journey). 
 atol, horrible, dire. 
 attor, n., poison. 
 atuge, see ateon. 
 aS, m., oath. 
 , see aegSer. 
 
 ( 128), awake, arouse; 
 pret. sing., aweahte, aw^hte. 
 
 away. 
 
 aw$ndan ( 127), turn, translate. 
 Swritan ( 102), write; compose. 
 Swyrcan ( 128), work, do, per- 
 form. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bachsecg. m., Bagsac. 
 
 baecbord, n., larboard, left side 
 of a ship. 
 
 bael, n. , funeral fire, funeral pile. 
 
 ban, n., bone. 
 
 ban-fag, adorned with bones or 
 antlers. 
 
 ban-loca, m. , flesh [bone-locker] . 
 
 Basengas, m. pi., Basing (in 
 Hantshire). 
 
 be (bi) ( 94, (1)), by, about, 
 concerning, near, along, accord- 
 ing to ; be norSan balm wSs- 
 tenne ( 94, (4)), north of the 
 waste {desert) ; befullan,/M%, 
 perfectly. 
 
 beag. see bugan. 
 
 beag-hroden, ring-adorned. 
 
 bean (beag), m., ring, bracelet, 
 collar [bugan]. 
 
 bealo-ni3, m., dire hatred, poison, 
 venom. 
 
 beam, n., child, son [bairn]. 
 
 bebeodan ( 109), command, bid, 
 entrust (with dat. ) . 
 
 bebio-, see bebeo-. 
 
 bebohte, see bebycgan. 
 
 bebycgan ( 128), sell. 
 
 bee, see boc. 
 
 becuman ( 114), come, arrive^ 
 befall. 
 
 bedselan ( 126), separate, de- 
 prive.
 
 158 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 bedreosan ( 109), deprive ; past 
 part, pi., bedrorene (bidro- 
 rene) [dross, dreary]. 
 
 befaestan ( 127) , fasten, implant. 
 
 befeolan ( 110), apply one's self; 
 Sara 5e 3a speda hasbben 
 daet Me Seem befeolan maegen 
 119, 20 = of those who have the 
 means by which they may apply 
 themselves to it. 
 
 beforan, prep, with dat., before. 
 
 begen (declined like twegeii. 
 89), both. 
 
 begeondan begiondan . prep, 
 with dat. , beyond. 
 
 begietan ( 115), get, obtain, 
 find. 
 
 beginnan (110), begin. 
 
 beheonan behionan , prep, 
 with dat., on this side of. 
 
 behreSsan ( 109), fall upon, 
 cover ; past part, pi., behrorene 
 (bihrorene) . 
 
 belimpan ( 110) , pertain, belong. 
 
 beniman ( 114), take, derive. 
 
 benn, f., wound [bana = mur- 
 derer]. 
 
 beon (blon) ( 134), be, consist. 
 
 beorh (beorg, biorh), m., mound 
 [barrow] . 
 
 beorht, bright, glorious. 
 
 Beormas, m. pi., Permians. 
 
 beorn, m., man, hero, chief. 
 
 beor-bgu, f., beer-drinking [bic- 
 gan = receive]. 
 
 beot, n., boast. 
 
 beran ( 114), bear. 
 
 bereafian (130), bereave; since 
 bereafod 145, 22 = bereft of 
 treasure. 
 
 beren, adj., of a bear, bear. 
 
 berstan ( 110) , burst, crack. 
 
 besmi&ian ( 130), make hard 
 (as at the forge of a smith). 
 
 bet, see wel ( 97, (2)). 
 
 betan ( 126), make good, re- 
 quite; past. part, pi., gebette. 
 
 betera (betra), see god ( 96, 
 (3))- 
 
 betlic, excellent. 
 
 betsta, see god ( 96, (3)). 
 
 betuh (betux) ( 94, (1)), be- 
 tween. 
 
 betweonan (94, (1)), between. 
 
 betynan ( 126), close, end [tun 
 = enclosure']. 
 
 bewawan ( 117), blow upon ; 
 past part, pi., bewaune (bi- 
 waune, bev^a^^ene). 
 
 bewreon ( 118, 1), enwrap; pret. 
 3d sing., bewrah (biwrah). 
 
 bi, see be. 
 
 bi-, see be-. 
 
 bidan ( 102), bide, await, expect, 
 endure (with gen.). 
 
 biddan ( 115, Note 2), bid, pray, 
 request ( 65, Note 3) ; baed 
 nine bliSne 136, 7 = bade him 
 be blithe. 
 
 bindan ( 110), bind. 
 
 bio, see beo (imperative sing.). 
 
 bisceop (biscep), m., bishop 
 [Lat. episcopus]. 
 
 bisceop-stol, m., episcopal seat, 
 bishopric. 
 
 bisigu, f., business, occupation; 
 dat. pi., bisgum. 
 
 bitan ( 102), bite, cut. 
 
 biwrah, see bewreon. 
 
 bleed, m., glory, prosperity [blaw- 
 an = blow, inflate]. 
 
 Blecinga-eg, f., Blekingen. 
 
 bliss, f., bliss [bHSe]. 
 
 bliSe, blithe, happy.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 159 
 
 blod, n., blood. 
 
 hoc ( 68, (1), Note 1), f., book. 
 
 bocere, m., scribe [boc]. 
 
 bQna (bana), m., murderer 
 [bane]. 
 
 bot, f., boot, remedy, help, com- 
 pensation. 
 
 brad ( 96, (1)), broad. 
 
 brae dan ( 126), extend, spread 
 [brad]. 
 
 brsedra. see brad. 
 
 braegd, see bregdan. 
 
 breac, see brucan. 
 
 breahtm. m., noise, revelry; 
 burgwara breahtma lease 152, 
 10 = bereft of the revelries of 
 citizens. 
 
 bregdan ( 110), brandish, draw 
 [braid] ; pret. ind. 3d sing., 
 braegd. 
 
 brenting, m., high ship. 
 
 breost, n., breast (the pi. has the 
 same meaning as the sing.). 
 
 breost-cofa, m., breast-chamber, 
 heart, mind. 
 
 breost - gehygd, n., breast- 
 thought, thought of the heart, 
 emotion. 
 
 brim, n., sea, ocean. 
 
 brimfugol, in., sea-fowl. 
 
 bringan ( 128), bring. 
 
 brohte, brohton, see bringan. 
 
 broSor (broSur) ( 68, (2)), m., 
 brother. 
 
 brucan ( 109, Note 1), use, en- 
 joy ( 62, Note 1 ; but Alfred 
 frequently employs the ace. with 
 brucan) . 
 
 brycg, f., bridge. 
 
 brycS, see brucan. 
 
 brytta, m., distributor, dispenser 
 [breotan = break in pieces'}. 
 
 buan ( 126, Note' 2), dwell, cul- 
 tivate [bower]. 
 
 bude, see buan. 
 
 bufan, prep, with dat. and ace., 
 above. 
 
 bugan ( 109, Note 1), bow, bend, 
 turn. 
 
 buiie. f., cup. 
 
 burg (burh) ( 68, (1), Note), f., 
 city, borough; dat. sing., byrig. 
 
 Burgenda, m. gen. pi. , of the 
 Burgundians; Burgenda land, 
 Bornholm. 
 
 burgware ( 47), m. pi., burgh- 
 ers, citizens. 
 
 burh, see burg. 
 
 butan (buton), prep. ( 94, (1)), 
 without, except, except for, but. 
 
 butan (buton), conj., except that, 
 unless. 
 
 butu, both ( = both two. The 
 word is compounded of the com- 
 bined neuters of begen and 
 twegen, but is m. and f. as 
 well as n.). 
 
 byn ( 126, Note 2), cultivated. 
 
 byrde, adj., of high rank, aristo- 
 cratic. 
 
 byrig, see burg. 
 
 byrne, f., byrnie, corselet, coat of 
 mail. 
 
 byrnwiga, m., byrnie-warrior, 
 mailed soldier. 
 
 byr8, see beran. 
 
 C. 
 
 canon, in., sacred canon, Bible 
 
 [Lat. canon, Gr. Kaviav}. 
 cearu (cearo), f.. care. 
 ceaster-biiend, in., castle-dweller. 
 cene, keen, bold, brave.
 
 160 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 ceosan ( 109), choose, accept, 
 
 encounter. 
 cild, n., child. 
 cirice, f. , church ; nom. pi., ciric- 
 
 ean. 
 
 cirr (cierr), m., turn, time, occa- 
 sion [char, chore, ajar = on 
 
 char, on the turn]. 
 cirran ( 127), turn. 
 claene. clean, pure. 
 claene, adv., entirely ["clean out 
 
 of the way," Shaks.]. 
 cludig, rocky [having boulders or 
 
 masses like clouds}. 
 clyppan ( 127), embrace, accept 
 
 [clip = clasp for letters, papers, 
 
 etc.]. 
 
 cnapa, m., boy [knave]. 
 cneo (cneow), n., knee; ace. 
 
 pi., cneo. 
 
 cniht, m., knight, warrior. 
 cnyssan ( 125), beat. 
 collenferS (-ferb.5), proud-minded, 
 
 fierce. 
 
 costnung. f., temptation. 
 Crecas (Creacas), m. pi., Greeks. 
 cringan ( 110), cringe, fall. 
 Crist, m., Christ. 
 Cristen, Christian; nom. pi. m., 
 
 Cristene. Ciistne. 
 cuma, m., new-comer, stranger. 
 cuman ( 114), come. (See p. 138, 
 
 Note on 11. 2-6.) 
 
 cunnan ( 137), know, can, under- 
 stand. 
 cunnian ( 130), make trial of, 
 
 experience [cunnan]. 
 cure, see ceosan. 
 cu3, well-known, familiar [past 
 
 part, of cunnan: cf. uncouth]. 
 cvi8e, cuSen, cuSon. see cunnan. 
 cweeden, c waedon. see cweSan. 
 
 cwalu, f., death, murder [cwel- 
 an]. 
 
 cwealm-cuma, m., murderous 
 comer. 
 
 cwelan ( 114), die [to quail]. 
 
 cwen, f., queen. 
 
 Cwenas, in. pi., a Finnish tribe. 
 
 cweSan ( 115), say, speak 
 [quoth, bequeath]. 
 
 cwic, living, alive [quicksilver ; 
 the quick and the dead]. 
 
 cwidegiedd, n., ivord, utterance 
 [cweSan and gieddian, both 
 meaning to speak}. 
 
 cwiSan ( 126), bewail (trans.). 
 
 cwom, see cuman. 
 
 cyle (ciele), m., cold [chill] ; 
 cyle gewyrcan 110, 7 = pro- 
 duce cold, freeze. 
 
 cyme, m., coming [cuman]. 
 
 cyn(n), n., kin, race. 
 
 cyn(n), adj. (used only in pi.), 
 fitting things, etiquette, proprie- 
 ties, courtesies ; cynna gemyn- 
 dig 136, 3 = mindful of courte- 
 sies. 
 
 cynerlce, n., kingdom. 
 
 cyning, m., king. 
 
 cyssan ( 125), kiss. 
 
 cyst, f . , the choice, the pick, the 
 best [ceosan]. 
 
 cySan ( 126), make known, dis- 
 play, [cuS] ; 2d sing, impera- 
 tive, cyS. 
 
 D. 
 
 died, f., deed. 
 
 daeg, m., day. 
 
 deeg-hwil, f., day-while, day ; hS 
 deeg-hwfla gedrogen hsefde 
 eorSan wynne 145, 2 = he had 
 spent his days of earth's joy.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 161 
 
 daeg-nm, n., number of days [day- 
 rime] ; dogera daeg-rim 143, 7 
 = the number of his days. 
 
 dael, n., dale. 
 
 deel, m.,part, deal, division. 
 
 dead. dead. 
 
 deaS, m., death. 
 
 demau ( 126), deem, judge. 
 
 D^namearc, see Denemearc. 
 
 Dene ( 47), m. pi., Danes. 
 
 Dfnemearc (D^nemearce), f., 
 Denmark; dat. sing., D^ne- 
 mearce (strong) , D? nemearcan 
 (weak). 
 
 Denisc, Danish ; 3a Deniscan. 
 the Danes. 
 
 deofol, m. n., devil; gen. sing., 
 deofles ( 27, (4)). 
 
 deope, deeply, profoundly [deop]. 
 
 deor, n., wild animal [deer]. 
 
 deorc, dark, gloomy. 
 
 dogor, n., day ; gen. pi., ddgora, 
 dogera, dogra. 
 
 dogor-gerim, n., number of days, 
 lifetime. 
 
 dom, in., doom, judgment, glory. 
 
 domgeorn, adj., eager for glory 
 [doom-yearning] . 
 
 don ( 135), do, cause, place, 
 promote, remove. 
 
 dorste, dorston, see durran. 
 
 dream, m.,joy, mirth [dream]. 
 
 dreogan ( 109), endure, enjoy, 
 spend [Scotch dree]. 
 
 dreorig, dreary, sad. 
 
 dreorighleor, adj., with sad face 
 [hleor = cheek, face, leer] . 
 
 dreosan ( 109), fall, perish 
 [dross]. 
 
 drifan ( 102), drive. 
 
 drihten. see dryhten. 
 
 drincan ( 110), drink. 
 
 drohtoS (-a8), m., mode of liv- 
 ing, occupation [dreogan]. 
 
 drugon, see dreogan. 
 
 dryhten (drihten), m., lord. 
 Lord; dat. sing., dryhtne. 
 
 dryht-s^le, m., lordly hall. 
 
 duguS, f., warrior-band, host, 
 retainers [doughtiness]. In 
 duguS and geogoS. the higher 
 (older) and lower (younger) 
 ranks are represented, the dis- 
 tinction corresponding roughly 
 to the mediaeval distinction be- 
 tween knights and squires. 
 
 durran ( 137), dare. 
 
 duru, f., door. 
 
 dyde, see don. 
 
 dynnan ( 125), resound [din]. 
 
 dyre (dlere, deore, diore), dear, 
 costly. 
 
 E. 
 
 Sa, f., river; gen. sing., gas ; dat. 
 
 and ace. sing., ga. 
 gac, also, likewise [a nickname = 
 
 an eek-name. See 65, Note 2] ; 
 
 eac swilce (swelce) 112, 3 
 
 = also. 
 eaca, in., addition [gac] ; to 
 
 eacan = in addition to ( 94, 
 
 (4))- 
 
 cage, n., eye. 
 eahta. eight. 
 gala, oh! alas! 
 ealaS. see ealu. 
 eald ( 96, (2)), old. 
 ealdor (aldor), n., life; gif Su 
 
 Saet e^lenweorc aldre gedl- 
 
 gest 138, 17 = if thou survivest 
 
 that feat with thy life (instr.). 
 ealdor-daeg (aldor-, ealder-), 
 
 m., day of life.
 
 162 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 ealdor-gedal (aldor-), n., death 
 [life-deal]. 
 
 ealdonngn, m., alderman, chief, 
 magistrate. 
 
 ealgian, ( 130), protect, defend. 
 
 eall (eal), all; ealne weg, all 
 the way ( 98, (1)) ; ealneg 
 (< ealne weg), always; ealles 
 ( 98, (3)), adv., altogether, en- 
 tirely. Eall (eal) is frequently 
 used with partitive gen. = all of: 
 143, 19 ; 145, 3. 
 
 ealu (ealo) ( 68), n., ale; gen. 
 sing., eala8. 
 
 ealu-scerwen, f., mortal panic 
 [ale-spilling]. 
 
 eard, m., country, home [eorSe]. 
 
 eardgeard, m., earth [earth-yard]. 
 
 eardian ( 130), dwell [eard]. 
 
 eardstapa, m., wanderer [earth- 
 stepper]. 
 
 eare, n., ear. 
 
 earfoS (earfeS), n., hardship, 
 toil; gen. pi., earfeSa. 
 
 earfoollc, adj., full of hardship, 
 arduous. 
 
 earm. m., arm. 
 
 earm, adj., poor, wretched. 
 
 earmcearig, wretched, miserable. 
 
 earmlic. wretched, miserable. 
 
 earnung, f., merit [earning]. 
 
 east, east. 
 
 eastan ( 93, (5)),/rom the east. 
 
 East-Dene (47), East-Danes. 
 
 easteweard, eastward. 
 
 eastrihte (eastryhte) (93, (6)), 
 eastward. 
 
 Eastron, pi., Easter. 
 
 eaSe, easily. 
 
 eaSmodllce. humbly. 
 
 eaxl, f., shoulder [axle]. 
 
 Ebreisc, adj., Hebrew. 
 
 ece, eternal, everlasting. 
 
 ecg, f., sword [edge]. 
 
 edor, m., enclosure, dwelling', 
 
 nom. pi., ederas. 
 edrum, see aedre. 
 efne, adv., just, only [evenly]. 
 eft, adv., again, afterwards [aft], 
 egesa, m.,fear, terror [awe]. 
 f lien, n. , strength, courage ; mid 
 
 fine = boldly ; on fine 147, 17 
 
 = mightily, suddenly, or in their 
 
 (earls''') strength (prime). 
 fllen-meerSu, i., fame for strength, 
 
 feat of strength. 
 
 fllen-weorc, n., feat of strength. 
 fllenwodnis, f., zeal, fervor. 
 fllor-gast, m., inhuman monster 
 
 [alien ghost], 
 fin, f., ell [el-bow]. 
 fine, see fllen. 
 flra, adj. comparative, another 
 
 [*f le cognate with Lat. alius] ; 
 
 on flran mfn 139, 14 = in 
 
 another man. 
 emnlgng (-lang), equally long; 
 
 on emnlange along ( 94, 
 
 (4)). 
 
 fnde, m., end. 
 
 fndebyrdnes, f., order. 
 
 fnde-deeg, m., end-day, day of 
 death. 
 
 fnde-laf, f., last remnant [end- 
 leaving]. 
 
 fngel, m., angel [Lat. angelus]. 
 
 ^nglafeld ( 51), m., Englefield 
 (in Berkshire). 
 
 Engle ( 47), m. pi., Angles. 
 
 Englisc, adj., English; on 3j!ng- 
 lisc 117, 18 and 19 = in English, 
 into English. 
 
 Engliscgereord, n., English lan- 
 guage.
 
 Grlossary. 
 
 163 
 
 fnt, m., giant. 
 
 eode, see gan. 
 
 eodorcan ( 130), ruminate. 
 
 eorl, in., earl, warrior, chieftain. 
 
 eorlic, earl-like, noble. 
 
 eorS-draca, m., dragon [earth- 
 drake]. 
 
 eorSe, f., earth. 
 
 eorS-r^ced, n., earth-hall. 
 
 eorSscraef. n., earth-cave, grave. 
 
 eoten. m., giant, monster. 
 
 eow. see 3u. 
 
 Eowland, n. , bland (an island in 
 the Baltic Sea). 
 
 erian ( 125), plow [to ear]. 
 
 Estland, n. , land of the Estas (on 
 the eastern coast of the Baltic 
 Sea). 
 
 Estmeje. m., Frische Haff. 
 
 Estum, dat. pi., the Estas. 
 
 etan ( 115), eat [ort]. 
 
 f ttan ( 127) , graze [etan]. 
 
 eSel, m., territory, native land 
 [allodial]. 
 
 eSel-weard, m., guardian of his 
 country. 
 
 P. 
 
 faec, n., interval, space. 
 feeder ( 68, (2)), m., father. 
 f aegen. fain, glad, exultant. 
 faeger (faeger),/azr, beautiful. 
 feelsian ( 130), cleanse. 
 faerlice, suddenly [feer = fear~\. 
 tseat.fast, held fast. 
 feeste, adv., fast, firmly. 
 faestnung, f., security, safety. 
 feet, n., vessel [wine-fat, vat], 
 faetels, m., vessel; ace. pi., 
 
 faetels. 
 feeSrn, m., embrace, bosom 
 
 [fathom = the space embraced 
 
 by the extended arms]. 
 
 fag (fan), hostile; he wees fag 
 wi3 God 142, 18 = he icas hos- 
 tile to God. 
 
 fah (fag), variegated, orna- 
 mented. 
 
 Falster, Falster (island in the 
 Baltic Sea). 
 
 fandian ( 130), try, investigate 
 [find an]. 
 
 faran ( 116), go [fare]. 
 
 feallan ( 117), fall, flow. 
 
 fealu, fallow, pale, dark; nom. 
 pi. m., fealwe. 
 
 feawe (lea, feawa), pl.,/ew. 
 
 fela (indeclinable), much, many 
 (with gen.). 
 
 feld (51), m., field. 
 
 fell (fel), n., fell, skin, hide. 
 
 feng, see fon. 
 
 ffn-hli3. n., fen-slope. 
 
 f^n-hop. n., fen-retreat. 
 
 feoh, n., cattle, properly [fee] ; 
 gen. and dat. sing., feos, feo. 
 
 feohgifre, greedy of property, 
 avaricious. 
 
 feohtan ( 110),.tfgr/^. 
 
 feol. see feallan. 
 
 feond ( 68, (3)), m., enemy, 
 fiend. 
 
 feond-grap, f., fiend-grip. 
 
 feor ( 96, (4)), adj., far, far from 
 (with dat.). 
 
 feor, adv.,/r, far back (time). 
 
 feorh, m., n., life. 
 
 feorh-bfnn, f., life-wound, mortal 
 wound. 
 
 feorh-lfgu, f., laying down of life. 
 (See p. 146, Note on 1. 13.) 
 
 feorh -seoc, life -sick, mortally 
 wounded. 
 
 feorm (tiorm), f., use, benefit 
 (/oo<?, provisions} [farm].
 
 164 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 feormiaii ( 130), eat, devour. 
 
 feorran, from afar. 
 
 feowertig, forty ; gen., feower- 
 
 tiges ( 91, Note 1). 
 ferhS (ferS), m., heart, mind, 
 
 spirit. 
 f^rian ( 125), carry, transport 
 
 [to ferry] ; ff rede in forSwege 
 
 152, 5 = carried away. 
 fers, n., verse [Lat. versus]. 
 ferae, fresh. 
 ferSloca (ferhS-), m., heart, 
 
 mind, spirit [heart-locker]. 
 fgt, see fot. 
 fetor, f., fetter [fot] ; instr. pi., 
 
 feterum. 
 
 feSer, f., feather,' ace. pi., feSra. 
 fierd, f., English army [faran]. 
 fif, five. 
 
 fiftiene, fifteen. 
 fiftig, fifty; ge n - sing., fiftiges 
 
 ( 91, Note 1) ; dat. pi., flfte- 
 
 gum ( 91, Note 3). 
 findan ( 110), find. 
 finger, m., finger. 
 Finnas, in. pi., Fins. 
 fiorm. see feorm. 
 firas, m. pi., men [feorh] ; gen. 
 
 pi., fira ; dat. pi., firum. 
 firrest (fiercest), see feor ( 96, 
 
 (4)). 
 
 first, m., time, period. 
 fiscaS (fiscnaS), m., fishing. 
 fiscere, m., fisherman. 
 fiscnaS. see fiscaS. 
 fleon ( 118, II.), flee. 
 fleotan ( 109), float. 
 fl^t, n., floor of the hall. 
 flod, m., flood, wave. 
 folc, n., folk, people. 
 f olc-cwen, f . , folk-queen. 
 folc-cyning, m., folk-king. 
 
 folcgefeoht, n., folk-fight, battle, 
 
 general engagement. 
 fold-bold, n., earth-building, hall. 
 folde, f., earth, land, country 
 
 [feld]. 
 
 folm, f., hand [felan = feel]. 
 fon ( 118), seize, capture, take 
 
 [fang] ; to rice fon come to 
 
 (ascend) the throne. 
 for ( 94, (1)), for, on account 
 
 of; for 3am (3e), for Son 
 
 (Se), because ; for Son, for 8y, 
 
 for Seem (for-Sam). therefore. 
 for, see faran. 
 
 forbaeruau ( 127), burn thor- 
 oughly [for is intensive, like 
 
 Lat. per]. 
 forgiefan (-gifan) ( 115), give, 
 
 grant. 
 forhfsrgian ( 130), harry, lay 
 
 waste. 
 
 forhogdnis, f., contempt. 
 forht, fearful, afraid. 
 forhwaega, about, at least. 
 forlaetan ( 117), abandon, leave. 
 forlet, forleton, see forlaetan. 
 forma, first; forman siSe, the 
 
 first time (instr.). 
 forniman ( 114), take off, destroy. 
 forspeiidaii ( 127), spend, 
 
 squander. 
 forstpndan (-standan) ( 116), 
 
 understand. 
 forswapan ( 117), sweep away ; 
 
 pret. 3d sing, indie., forswgop. 
 forswfrian ( 116), forswear 
 
 (with dat.); past part., for- 
 
 sworen. 
 
 forS, forth, forward. 
 forSolian ( 130), miss, go with- 
 out (with dat.) [not to thole or 
 
 experience].
 
 Glossary. 
 
 165 
 
 f orSweg, m. , way forth ; in forS- 
 
 wege, away. 
 fot ( 68, (1)), m.,foot. 
 Freena, m., Frene. 
 frsetwe, f. pi., fretted armor, 
 
 jewels [fret]. 
 fram, see frym. 
 frea, in., lord, Lord. 
 frea-drihten, m., lord, master. 
 frefran ( 130), console, cheer 
 
 [froforj. 
 frfmde, strange, foreign; 3a 
 
 fremdan. the strangers. 
 fr^mman ( 125), accomplish, 
 
 perform, support [to frame], 
 fremsumnes (-nis), f., kindness, 
 
 benefit. 
 freo (frio),/ree; gen. pi., freora 
 
 (friora). 
 
 freedom, m., freedom. 
 freolic, noble [free-like]. 
 freomeeg, m.,free kinsman. 
 freond ( 68, (3)), m., friend. 
 freondleas, friendless. 
 freondlice, in a friendly manner. 
 freorig, cold, chill [frSoran]. 
 friora, see freo. 
 
 friS, in., n., peace, security [bel-/j-y]. 
 frod, old, sage, prudent. 
 frofor, f., comfort, consolation, 
 
 alleviation ; fyrena frofre 137, 7 
 
 = as an alleviation of outrages 
 
 (dat.). 
 
 frqm (fram) ( 94, (l)),/rom, by. 
 frQm, adv. , away, forth. 
 fruma, m., origin, beginning 
 
 [frpm]. 
 
 frumsceaft, f., creation. 
 fugela, see fugol. 
 fugelere, m., fowler. 
 fugol (fugel), m., foiol, bird; 
 
 gen. pi., fugela. 
 
 ful, n., cup, beaker. 
 
 ful, foul. 
 
 fuliaii ( 130), grow foul, decom- 
 pose. 
 
 fuU (ful), adj., full (with gen.) ; 
 be fullan, fully, perfectly. 
 
 full (ful) adv., fully, very. 
 
 fultum, m.. help. 
 
 furSor (furSur), adv., further. 
 
 furSum, adv., even. 
 
 fyl8, see feallan. 
 
 fyren (tiren), f., crime, violence, 
 outrage. 
 
 fyrhtu, f., fright, terror; dat. 
 sing., fyrhtu. 
 
 fyrst, adj., superlative, first, chief. 
 
 fysan ( 126), make ready, pre- 
 pare [fus = ready~\ ; guSe ge- 
 fysed 137, 9 = ready for battle. 
 
 G. 
 
 gad, n., lack. 
 
 gaest. see gast. 
 
 gafol, n., tax, tribute. 
 
 galan ( 116), sing [nightingale]. 
 
 games, f., lust, impurity. 
 
 gan ( 134), go. 
 
 gar, in., spear [gore, gar-fish]. 
 
 gar-wiga, m., spear-warrior. 
 
 gast (geest), m., spirit, ghost. 
 
 gastlic (geestlic), ghastly, ter- 
 rible. 
 
 ge, and; see aegSer. 
 
 ge, ye ; see Su. 
 
 geador, together. 
 
 geaemetigian. ( 130), disengage 
 from (with ace. of person and 
 gen. of thing) [empty]. 
 
 geaernan ( 127), gain by run- 
 ning [iernan]. 
 
 geap, spacious.
 
 166 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 gear, n., year ; gen. pi., geara. is 
 used adverbially = of yore, for- 
 merly. 
 
 geardeeg, m., day of yore. 
 
 geare (gearo, gearwe), readily, 
 well, clearly [yarely]. 
 
 Geat, m., a Geat, the Geat (i.e. 
 Beowulf). 
 
 Geatas, m. pi., the Geats (a peo- 
 ple of South Sweden). 
 
 Geat-mecgas, m. pi., Geat men 
 (= the fourteen who accom- 
 panied Beowulf to Heorot) . 
 
 gebeorscipe. m., banquet, enter- 
 tainment. 
 
 gebetan ( 126), make amends 
 for [bot]. 
 
 gebidan ( 102), wait, bide one's 
 time (intrans.) ; endure, experi- 
 ence (trans., with ace.). 
 
 gebind, n., commingling. 
 
 gebindan ( 110), bind. 
 
 gebreowan ( 109), brew. 
 
 gebrowen, see gebreowan. 
 
 gebud, gebun, see buan ( 126, 
 Note 2). 
 
 gebyrd, n., rank, social distinc- 
 tion. 
 
 geceosan ( 109), choose, decide. 
 
 gecnawan ( 117), know, under- 
 stand. 
 
 gecoren, see geceosan. 
 
 gecringan ( 110), fall, die 
 [cringe]. 
 
 gedaelan ( 126), deal out, give; 
 deaSe gedselde 152, 7 = ap- 
 portioned to death (dat.), or, 
 tore (?) in death (instr.). 
 
 gedafenian ( 130), become, befit, 
 suit (impersonal, usually with 
 dat., but with ace. 112, 10). 
 
 gedigan ( 126) , endure, survive. 
 
 gedon ( 135), do, cause, effect. 
 
 gedraeg, n., company. 
 
 gedreosan ( 109), fall, fail. 
 
 gedriht (gedryht), n., band, 
 troop. 
 
 gedrogen, see dreogan. 
 
 gedrync, n., drinking. 
 
 geendian ( 130), end, finish. 
 
 gefaran ( 116), go, die. 
 
 gefea, m., joy. 
 
 gefeaht, see gefeohtan. 
 
 gefeh. see gefeon. 
 
 gefeng, see gefon. 
 
 gefeoht, n., fight, battle. 
 
 gefeohtan ( IIQ), fight. 
 
 gefeon ( 118, v.), rejoice at (with 
 dat.) ; pret. 3d sing., gefeah, 
 gefeh. 
 
 gefera. m., companion, comrade 
 [co-f arer] . 
 
 geflieman ( 126), put to flight 
 [neon]. 
 
 gefohten, see gefeohtan. 
 
 gefon ( 118, vii.), seize. 
 
 gefor, see gefaran. 
 
 gefraege. n., hearsay, report; 
 mine gefreege (instr.) 141, 7 
 as I have heard say, accord- 
 ing to my information. 
 
 gefremman ( 125), perform, ac- 
 complish, effect. 
 
 gefultumian ( 130), help [ful- 
 tum]. 
 
 gefylce, n., troop, division [folc] ; 
 dat. pi., gefylcum, gefylcium. 
 
 gefyllan ( 127), fill (with gen.) ; 
 past part, pi., f., gefylda. 
 
 gegl?ngan ( 127), adorn. 
 
 gehatland, n., promised land 
 [gehatan = to promise']. 
 
 gehealdan ( 117), hold, main- 
 tain.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 167 
 
 gehieran (gehyran) ( 126), 
 
 hear. 
 
 gehiersumnes, f., obedience. 
 
 gehola. m., protector [helan]. 
 
 gehwa ( 77, Note), each; on 
 healia gehwone 142, 7 (see 
 Note 140, 15. Observe that the 
 pron. may, as here, be masc. 
 and the gen. fern.). 
 
 gehwee9er ( 77, Note), each, 
 either, both. 
 
 gehwylc (gehwilc) ( 77, Note), 
 each (with gen. pi. See Note 
 140, 15). 
 
 gehwyrfan ( 127), convert, 
 change. 
 
 gehydan ( 126), hide, conceal, 
 consign. 
 
 gehygd, f., n., thought, purpose. 
 
 gehyran, see gehieran. 
 
 gehyrnes, f., hearing; eal 8a 
 he in gehyrnesse geleornian 
 meahte 115, 14 = all things that 
 he could learn by hearing. 
 
 geleedan ( 126), lead. 
 
 geleered, part. -adj., learned ; su- 
 perlative, gelaeredest. 
 
 gelafian ( 130), lave. 
 
 gelenge. along of, belonging to 
 (with dat.). 
 
 geleornian (-liornian) ( 130), 
 learn. 
 
 gelice, likewise ; in like manner 
 to (with dat.). 
 
 geliefan (gelyfan) ( 126), be- 
 lieve ; Seet heo on aenigne eorl 
 gelyfde 137, 6 = that she be- 
 lieved in any earl. 
 
 gelimpan ( 110), happen, be 
 fulfilled. 
 
 gelimplic. proper, fitting. 
 
 gelyfan, see geliefan. 
 
 gelyfed, weak, infirm [left 
 (hand)]. 
 
 gemde. see giemaii. 
 
 gemet. n., meter, measure, ability 
 
 gemetan (126), meet. 
 
 gempn. see gemunan. 
 
 gemunan ( 136), remember; 
 indie, pres. 1st and 3d sing., 
 gem9n ; pret. sing., gemunde. 
 
 gemynd, n., memory, memorial; 
 to gemyndum 147, 5 = as a 
 memorial. 
 
 gemyndgian (-mynian) ( 130), 
 remember ; mid nine gemynd- 
 gade 115, 15 = he treasured in 
 his memory; gemyne masiSo 
 138, 15 = be mindful of glory 
 (imperative 2d sing.). 
 
 gemyndig, mindful of (\v\ih gen.). 
 
 genap, see genipan. 
 
 geneahhe, enough, often ; geneh- 
 ost, superlative, very often. 
 
 genip, n., mist, darkness. 
 
 genipan ( 102), grow dark. 
 
 geniwian ( 130), renew. 
 
 genoh, enough. 
 
 genumen, see niman. 
 
 geoc, n., yoke. 
 
 geocor, dire, sad. 
 
 geogoS, f., youth, young people, 
 young warriors. (See duguS.) 
 
 geond (giond) ( 94, (2)), 
 throughout [yond]. 
 
 geondhweorfan ( 110), pass 
 over, traverse, recall; Sonne 
 maga gemynd mod geond- 
 hw^eorfeS 150, 15 then his 
 mind recalls the memory of kins- 
 men. 
 
 geondsceawian ( 130) , survey, 
 review ; georne geondsceawaS 
 150, 16 = eagerly surveys them.
 
 168 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 geond8enc(e)an ( 128), think 
 over, consider. 
 
 geong ( 96, (2)), young,- gien- 
 gest, (gingest), superlative, 
 youngest, latest, last. 
 
 geong = gqng, see g9ngan (im- 
 perative 2d sing. ). 
 
 geong (giong), see 9ngan (pret. 
 3d sing.). 
 
 georn (giorn), eager, desirous, 
 zealous, sure [yearn]. 
 
 georne, eagerly, certainly ; wiste 
 Se geornor 143, 5 = knew the 
 more certainly. 
 
 geornfulnes, f., eagerness, zeal. 
 
 geornlice, eagerly, attentively. 
 
 geornor, see georne. 
 
 gerecednes. f., narration [rc- 
 can]. 
 
 gerisenllc. suitable, becoming. 
 
 geryman( 126), extend, (trans.) 
 [rum]. 
 
 gesaeliglic. happy, blessed [silly]. 
 
 gesamnode, see ges9mnian. 
 
 gesceaft. f., creature, creation, 
 destiny [scieppan]. 
 
 gesceap, n., shape, creation, des- 
 tiny [scieppan]. 
 
 gescieldan ( 127), shield, de- 
 fend. 
 
 gesealde, see gesellan. 
 
 geseglian ( 130), sail. 
 
 geselda, m., comrade. 
 
 geseUan ( 128), give. 
 
 geseon (geslon) ( 118), see, 
 observe; pres. indie. 3d sing., 
 gesiho 1 . 
 
 geset, n., habitation, seat. 
 
 gesettan ( 127), set, place, estab- 
 lish. 
 
 gesewen. see seon. geseon (past 
 part.). 
 
 gesewenllc, seen, visible [seen- 
 like]. 
 
 gesiglan ( 127), sail. 
 
 gesihS. see geseon. 
 
 gesittan ( 115, Note2), srt(trans., 
 as to sit a horse, to sit a boat, 
 etc.); sit, sit down (intrans.). 
 
 geslaegen, see slean ( 118). 
 
 gespmnian ( 130), assemble, 
 collect. 
 
 gesgmnung, f., collection, as- 
 sembly. 
 
 gestah. see gestlgan. 
 
 gestaSelian ( 130), establish, 
 restore [standan]. 
 
 gesteal, n., establishment, foun- 
 dation [stall]. 
 
 gestlgan ( 102), ascend, go 
 [stile, stirrup, sty ( = a rising 
 on the eye)]. 
 
 gestrangian ( 130), strengthen. 
 
 gestreon, n., property. 
 
 gestrynan ( 126), obtain, ac- 
 quire [gestreonj. 
 
 gesweorcan ( 110), grow dark, 
 become sad ; For Son ic geS$n- 
 can ne maeg geond Sas woruld 
 for hwan modsefa min ne 
 gesweorce 151, 3-4 = There- 
 fore in this world I may not 
 understand wherefore my mind 
 does not grow " black as night" 
 (Brooke.) 
 
 geswican ( 102), cease, cease 
 from (with gen.). 
 
 geteel, n., something told, nar 
 rative. 
 
 getnuna, m., troop, division. 
 
 geSanc. m., n., thought. 
 
 geSeah, see geoicgan. 
 
 ge3enc(e)an ( 128), think, re- 
 member, understand, consider.
 
 G-lossary. 
 
 169 
 
 geSeodan ( 126), join. 
 geSeode (-Siode), n., language, 
 
 tribe. 
 geSeodnis, f., association; but in 
 
 1 12, 2 this word is used to render 
 
 the Lat. appetitus = desire. 
 ge3icg(e)an ( > 115, Note 2), 
 
 take, receive; pret. indie. 3d 
 
 sing., geSeah. 
 geSungen, part.-adj., distinguished, 
 
 excellent [Seon, to thrive]. 
 geSyldig, patient [Solian]. 
 geweald (gewald), n., control, 
 
 possession, power [wield]. 
 geweorc, n., work, labor. 
 geweorSian ( 130), honor [to 
 
 attribute worth to]. 
 gewician ( 130), dwell. 
 gewin(n), n., strife, struggle. 
 gewindan ( HQ).flee [wend]. 
 gewissian ( 130), guide, direct. 
 gewltan ( 102), go, depart. 
 geworht, see gewyrcan. 
 gewrit, n., writing, Scripture. 
 gewunian ( 130), be accustomed, 
 
 be wont. 
 gewyrc(e)an ( 128), work, 
 
 create, make, produce. 
 gid(d), n., icord, speech. 
 giefan ( 115), give. 
 giefstol, m., gift-stool, throne. 
 giefu (gifu), f., gift. 
 gielp (gilp), m., n., boast [yelp]. 
 gieman (geman) ( 126), en- 
 deavor, strive. 
 giet (git, gyt), yet, still. 
 gif (gyf), if [not related to give}. 
 gifeSe (gyfeSe), given, granted. 
 gilp, see gielp. 
 gilp-cwide, m., boasting speech 
 
 [yelp- speech]. 
 gingest, see geong (adj.). 
 
 giohSo (geh8u), f., care, sorrow, 
 grief. 
 
 giu (in), formerly, of old. 
 
 glaed (glaed), glad. 
 
 gleaw, wise, prudent. 
 
 gliwstaef, m., glee, joy ; instr. pi. 
 (used adverbially), gliwstafum 
 150, 16= joyfully. 
 
 God, m., God. 
 
 god ( 96, (3)), good; mid his 
 godum 115, 12 = with his pos- 
 sessions (goods). 
 
 godcund, divine [God]. 
 
 godcundlice, divinely. 
 
 gold, n., gold. 
 
 gold-eeht, f . , gold treasure. 
 
 gold-fah, gold-adorned. 
 
 gold-hroden, part.-adj., gold- 
 adorned. 
 
 goldwine. m., prince, giver of 
 gold, lord [gold-friend], 
 
 gomel (gomol), old, old man. 
 
 g9ngan (gangan) ( 117), go 
 [gang] ; imperative 2d sing., 
 
 geong; pret. sing., geong, 
 glong, geng ; past part., ge- 
 g9ngen, gegangen. The most 
 commonly used pret. is code, 
 which belongs to gan ( 134). 
 
 Gotland, n., Jutland (in Ohthere's 
 Second Voyage), Gothland (in 
 Wulfstan's Voyage). 
 
 gram, grim, angry, fierce, the 
 angry one. 
 
 grap, f., grasp, clutch, claw. 
 
 gretan ( 126), greet, attack, 
 touch. 
 
 growan ( 117, (2)), grow. 
 
 gryre-leoS, n., terrible song 
 [grisly lay]. 
 
 guma, in., man, hero [groom; 
 see 65, Note 1].
 
 170 
 
 G-lossary. 
 
 guS, f., war, battle. 
 
 guS-bill, n., sword [war-bill]. 
 
 guS-geweede, n., armor [war- 
 weeds]. 
 
 guS-hreS, f. , war-fame. 
 
 guS-wine, m., sword [ war-friend]. 
 
 gyddian ( 130), speak formally, 
 chant [giddy ; the original mean- 
 ing of giddy was mirthful, as 
 when one sings]. 
 
 gyf, see gif. 
 
 gyfeSe, see gifeSe. 
 
 gyldan (gieldan) ( 110), pay ; 
 indie. 3d sing., gylt. 
 
 gylden, golden [gold]. 
 
 H. 
 
 habban ( 133), have. 
 
 had, m., order, rank, office, de- 
 gree [-hood, -head]. 
 
 naefta. m., captive. 
 
 hsegel (hagol), m., hail; instr. 
 sing., hagle. 
 
 haeglfaru, f., hail-storm [hail- 
 faring]. 
 
 haele, see hseleS. 
 
 heel, f., hail, health, good luck. 
 
 heeled 1 (heele), m., hero, warrior. 
 
 hset, see hatan. 
 
 haeSeii. heathen. 
 
 HeeSum (set HeeSum), Haddeby 
 (= Schleswig}. 
 
 hal, hale, whole. 
 
 halettan ( 127), greet, salute 
 [to hail]. 
 
 Halfdene. Halfdane (proper 
 name). 
 
 halga. m., saint. 
 
 Halgoland, Halgoland (in ancient 
 Norway). 
 
 halig, holy. 
 
 halignes, f., holiness. 
 
 ham, m., home ; dat. sing., hame, 
 ham (p. 104, Note) ; used ad- 
 verbially in ham code 112, 18 
 = went home. 
 
 hand, see hQnd. 
 
 har, hoary, gray. 
 
 hat, hot. 
 
 hatan ( 117, Note 2), call, name, 
 command; pret. sing., heht, 
 het. 
 
 hatheort, hot-hearted. 
 
 hatte, see hatan. 
 
 he, heo, hit ( 53), he, she, it. 
 
 heafod. n., head. 
 
 heah ( 96, (2)), high; ace. sing. 
 m., heanne. 
 
 heah-sele, m., high hall. 
 
 heahSuiigen. highly prosperous, 
 aristocratic [heah + past part, 
 of Seon ( 118)]. 
 
 healdan ( 117), hold, govern, 
 possess ; 144, 9 = hold up, sus- 
 tain. 
 
 healf, adj., half. 
 
 healf, f., half, side, shore. 
 
 heall, f., hall. 
 
 heals, m., neck. 
 
 hean, abject, miserable. 
 
 heanne, see heah. 
 
 heard, hard. 
 
 heard -hicgende, brave-minded 
 [hard-thinking]. 
 
 heann-scaSa, m., harmful foe 
 [harm-scather] . 
 
 hearpe, f., harp. 
 
 heaSo-deor, battle-brave. 
 
 heaSo-meere, famous in battle. 
 
 heaSo-wylm, m., flame -surge, 
 surging of fire [battle-welling]. 
 
 heawan ( 117), hew, cut. 
 
 hejbban, hof, hofon, gehafen 
 ( 117), heave, lift, raise.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 171 
 
 hefig, heavy, oppressive. 
 
 heht. see hatan. 
 
 helan ( 114), conceal. 
 
 heU, f., /je. 
 
 helm, m., helmet. 
 
 Helmingas, m. pi., Helmings 
 
 (Wealtheow, Hrothgar's queen, 
 
 is a Helming). 
 help, f., help. 
 
 helpan ( 110), help (with dat.). 
 heofon, in., heaven. 
 heofonlic, heavenly. 
 heofonrice, n. , kingdom of heaven. 
 heold, see healdan. 
 heolstor (-ster), n., darkness, 
 
 concealment, cover [holster]. 
 heora (hiera), see he 1 , 
 heord, f., care, guardianship 
 
 [hoard]. 
 
 heoro-dreorig, bloody [sword- 
 dreary]. 
 Heorot, Heorot, Hart (the famous 
 
 hall which Hrothgar built). 
 heorte, f., heart. 
 her, here, hither ; in the Chronicle 
 
 the meaning frequently is at this 
 
 date, in this year: 99, 1. 
 here, m., Danish army. 
 herenis. f . , praise. 
 hejgian ( 130), raid, harry, 
 
 ravage [h^re]. 
 
 hergung. f . , harrying, plundering. 
 herian (h^rigean) ( 125), praise. 
 hersumedon, see hiersumian. 
 het, see hatan. 
 hider (hieder), hither. 
 hiera, see he. 
 hieran (hyran) ( 126), hear, 
 
 belong. 
 hierde, m., shepherd, instigator 
 
 [keeper of a herd~\. 
 hierdeboc, f., pastoral treatise 
 
 [shepherd-book, a translation of 
 Lat. Cura Pastorales'], 
 
 hierra. see heah. 
 
 hiersumian (hyr-, her-) ( 130), 
 obey (with dat.). 
 
 hige (hyge), m., mind, heart. 
 
 hige-Sihtig, bold-hearted. 
 
 hild, f., battle. 
 
 hilde-deor, battle-brave. 
 
 hilde-mecg, m., warrior. 
 
 hilde-saed. battle-sated. 
 
 hin-fus, eager to be gone [hence- 
 ready]. 
 
 hira. see he. 
 
 hlsew (hlaw), m., mound, burial 
 mound [LudZorc and other place- 
 names, low meaning hill']. 
 
 hlaford. m., lord, master [loaf- 
 ward?]. 
 
 hleahtor, m., laughter. 
 
 hleo. m., refuge, protector [lee]. 
 
 hlitiau ( 130), rise, tower. 
 
 hlyn, m., din, noise. 
 
 hlynsian ( 130), resound. 
 
 hof, n., court, abode. 
 
 hogode, see hycgaii. 
 
 holm, m., sea, ocean. 
 
 h9iid (hand), f., hand; on geh- 
 M73e8re hQnd, on both sides. 
 
 hoid. m., n. , hoard, treasure. 
 
 hordcofa, m., breast,heart [hoard- 
 chamber]. 
 
 hors. n., horse. 
 
 horshwael, m., walrus. 
 
 hreedwyrde, hasty of speech 
 [breed = quick]. 
 
 hraegel, n., garment; dat. sing., 
 hraegle. 
 
 hi an. m., reindeer. 
 
 hraSe. quickly, soon [ra^-er]. 
 
 hreo (hreoh), rough, cruel, sad. 
 
 hreosan ( 109), fall.
 
 172 
 
 Grlossary. 
 
 hreran ( 126), stir. 
 
 hreSer, m., n., breast, purpose; 
 dat. sing., hreSre. 
 
 brim, m., rime, hoarfrost. 
 
 hrimceald, rime-cold. 
 
 bring, m., ring, ring-mail. 
 
 hri3, f. (?), snow-storm. 
 
 hrof, m., roof. 
 
 Hrones naess. literally Whale's 
 Ness, whale's promontory ; see 
 naess. 
 
 hruse, f., earth [hreosan: de- 
 posit]. 
 
 hryre, ra., fall, death [hreosan]. 
 
 hrySer, n., cattle [rinder-pest]. 
 
 hrySig, ruined (?), storm-beaten; 
 nom. pi. m., hrySge. 
 
 hu, how. 
 
 Humbre. f., river Number. 
 
 bund, hundred. 
 
 hunig, n., honey. 
 
 hunta, m., hunter. 
 
 huntoS (-ta3), m., hunting. 
 
 hum, adv., about. 
 
 bus, n., house. 
 
 hwa, hwaet ( 74), who ? what? 
 swa hwaet swa (77, Note), 
 whatsoever ; indefinite, any one, 
 anything; for hwan (instr.), 
 v)h ere fore. 
 
 hwael, m., whale. 
 
 hwaelhunta. m., whale-hunter. 
 
 hwaelhuntaS, m., whale-fishing. 
 
 hwser, where ? h waei . . . swa, 
 wheresoever ; wel h wser. 
 nearly everywhere. 
 
 hwaethwugu. something. 
 
 hweeSer, whether, which of two? 
 
 hwaeSre, however, nevertheless. 
 
 hwene, see hwon. 
 
 hweorfan ( 110), turn, go. 
 
 hwider, whither. 
 
 hwil, f., while, time; ealle 35 
 
 hwile 3e, all the while that; 
 
 hwflum (instr. pi.), sometimes. 
 hwilc (hwylc, hwelc) ( 74, 
 
 Note 1), which ? what ? 
 hwon, n., a trifle; hwene (iustr. 
 
 sing.), somewhat, a little. 
 hwpnan. when. 
 hy, see Me. 
 hycgan ( 132), think, resolve; 
 
 pret. 3d sing., hogode. 
 hyd, f., hide, skin. 
 hyge, see hige. 
 hyra (hiera), see he. 
 hyran, see hieran. 
 hyrde. see hierde. 
 hys (his), see he. 
 hyt (hit), see he. 
 
 ic ( 72), /. 
 
 idel, idle, useless, desolate. 
 
 ides, f., woman, lady. 
 
 ieldra, adj., see eald. 
 
 ieldra, m., an elder, parent, an- 
 cestor. 
 
 iernan (yrnan) ( 112), run. 
 
 iglqnd (igland), n., island. 
 
 ilca (ylca), the same [of that ilk]. 
 
 Ilfing, the Elbing. 
 
 in, in, into (with dat. and ace.) ; 
 in on, in on, to, toicard. 
 
 inbryrdnis (-nes), f., inspiration, 
 ardor. 
 
 indryhten, very noble. 
 
 ing9ng, in., entrance. 
 
 innan, adv., within, inside; on 
 ianan. inthin. 
 
 innanbordes, adv. -gen., within 
 borders, at home. 
 
 inne, adv., within, inside. 
 
 intinga, in., cause, sake.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 173 
 
 inweardllce, inwardly, fervently. 
 
 inwid-sorg (inwit-sorh), f., sor- 
 row caused by an enemy. 
 
 inwit-Sanc, m., hostile intent. 
 
 Ir aland, n. , Ireland (but in 
 Ohthere's Second Voyage, Ice- 
 land is probably meant). 
 
 iren, n., iron, sword; gen. pi., 
 irenna, irena. 
 
 iren-b^nd, in., f., iron-band. 
 
 iUy see giu. 
 
 K. 
 
 kynerice, see cynerice. 
 kyning, see cyning. 
 kyrtel, m., kirtle, coat. 
 
 L. 
 
 Laeden, Latin. 
 LeedengeSeode (-Slode), n., 
 
 Latin language. 
 Leedenware ( 47), m. pi., Latin 
 
 people, Romans. 
 leefan ( 126), leave. 
 Isege, see licgan. 
 Leeland. n., Laaland (in Den- 
 mark), 
 lain, n., loan; to laene 121, 2 
 
 = as a loan. 
 laene, adj., as a loan, transitory, 
 
 perishable. 
 leeran ( 126), teach, advise, 
 
 exhort [lar]- 
 leessa, l*sta, see lytel. 
 leestan ( 127), last, hold out 
 
 (intrans.) ; perform, achieve 
 
 (trans.). 
 
 leetan ( 117), let, leave. 
 laf, f., something left, remnant, 
 
 heirloom (often a sword) ; to 
 
 lafe, as a remnant, remaining. 
 
 lagulad. f. , sea [lake-way, lad = 
 leading, direction, way). 
 
 land, see 
 
 lang. see 
 
 Langaland, n., Langeland (in 
 Denmark). 
 
 lar, f., lore, teaching. 
 
 larcwide, m., precept, instruction, 
 [cwide < c weSan] . 
 
 lareow, m., teacher [lar + 8eow]. 
 
 last, m., track, footprint [shoe- 
 maker's last] ; on last(e), in the 
 track of, behind (with dat.). 
 
 laS, loathsome, hateful. 
 
 leas, loose, free from, bereft of 
 (with gen.). 
 
 leasung, f., leasing, deception, 
 falsehood. 
 
 IfCgan ( 125, Note), lay. 
 
 lefdon, see llefan. 
 
 leger,n., lying in, illness [licgan]. 
 
 lng, see l9nge. 
 
 Ifngra, see l9ng. 
 
 leod. m., prince, chief. 
 
 leod, f., people, nation (the plural 
 has the same meaning) . 
 
 leod-scipe, m., nation [people- 
 ship]. 
 
 leof, dear [lief]. 
 
 leoht, adj., light. 
 
 leoht, n., light, brightness. 
 
 leornere, m., learner, disciple. 
 
 leornian ( 130), learn. 
 
 leornung (liornung), f., learn- 
 ing. 
 
 leoiS, n., song [lay?]. 
 
 leoScreeft, m., poetic skill [lay- 
 craft] . 
 
 Ieo3sqng, n., song, poem. 
 
 let, see leetan. 
 
 libban ( 133), live; pres. part., 
 lifigende, living, alive.
 
 174 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 He, n., body, corpse [lich-gate, 
 
 Lichfield]. 
 licgan ( 115, Note 2), lie, extend, 
 
 flow, lie dead; 3d sing, indie. 
 
 pres., ligeS. 113. 
 
 1 ichama (-h9ma) , m. , body [body- 
 covering] . 
 lician ( 130), please (with dat.) 
 
 [like]. 
 llc-sar, n., body-sore, wound in 
 
 the body. 
 Hefan (lefan) ( 126), permit, 
 
 allow (with dat.) [grant leave 
 
 to]. 
 
 lif, n., life. 
 
 lif-dagas, m. pi., life-days. 
 lifigende, see libban. 
 lig, m. , flame, Jire. 
 ligeS. see licgan. 
 lim, n., limb. 
 list, f. , cunning ; dat. pi., listum, 
 
 is used adverbially = cunningly. 
 IIS, see licgan. 
 lof, in., praise, glory. 
 Ignd (land), n., land, country. 
 Igng (lang) ( 96, (2)), long. 
 Ignge (lange) ( 97, (2)), long; 
 
 l$nge on daeg, late in the day. 
 lufan, see lufu. 
 
 lufian (lufigean) ( 131), love. 
 lufllce, lovingly. 
 luhi, f., love; dat. sing, (weak), 
 
 lufan. 
 
 lungre, quickly. 
 
 lust, m., joy [lust]; on lust, joy- 
 fully. 
 lyt, indeclinable, little, few (with 
 
 partitive gen.), 
 lytel (litel) ( 96, (2)), little, 
 
 small. 
 
 M. 
 
 ma, see micle ( 97, (2)). 
 
 maeg. see magan. 
 
 maeg. m., kinsman ; nom. pl. ( 
 
 magas ( 27, (2)). 
 masgen, n., strength, power [might 
 
 and maiii}. 
 maegen-fllen, n., main strength, 
 
 mighty courage. 
 msegS, f., tribe. 
 
 maegShad. m., maidenhood, vir- 
 ginity. 
 mael-gesceaft, f., appointed time 
 
 [msel = meal, time]. 
 meeran ( 126), make famous, 
 
 honor. 
 
 maere. famous, glorious, notori- 
 ous. 
 meerSo (maerSo, maerS), f., 
 
 glory, fame. 
 
 masssepreost, in., mass-priest. 
 maest, see micel. 
 magan ( 137), be able, may. 
 magas, see maeg. 
 magu (mago), m., son, man. 
 niaguSegn. m., vassal, retainer. 
 man(n), see m9n(n). 
 mancus, m., mancus, half-crown; 
 
 gen. pi., mancessa. 
 mandsed, f . , evil deed. 
 manig, see mpiiig. 
 manigfeald, see mqnigfeald. 
 mara. see micel. 
 maSelian ( 130), harangue, 
 
 speak. 
 maSum (maSSum), in., gift, 
 
 treasure, jewel ; gen. pi., maSnia. 
 maSSumgyfa. m. , treasure-giver, 
 
 lord. 
 ma33um-wela, m., wealth of 
 
 treasure. 
 me, see ic. 
 
 meaht, f., might, power. 
 meahte. see magan.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 175 
 
 mearc, f., boundary, limit [mark, 
 
 march]. 
 mearg (mearh), m., horse; nom. 
 
 pi., mearas. 
 mearS, in., marten. 
 mec. see ic. 
 medmicel, moderately large., short, 
 
 brief. 
 
 medu (medo), m., mead. 
 medu-b^nc, L, mead-bench. 
 medu-ful, n., mead-cup. 
 medu-heall, f., mead-hall. 
 m$n. see m9n(n). 
 m^ngan ( 127), mingle, mix. 
 m^nigu (m^nigeo), f., multitude 
 
 [many]. 
 
 m^nniscnes, f., humanity, incar- 
 nation [man]. 
 meolc, f., milk. 
 Meore, More (in Sweden). 
 m^re, m., lake, mere, sea [mer- 
 maid]. 
 
 Meretun. m., Merlon (in Surrey), 
 metan ( 126), meet, find. 
 Metod (Meotod, Metud), m., 
 
 Creator, God. 
 metod-sceaft, f . , appointed doom, 
 
 eternity. 
 micel ( 96, (3)), great, mighty, 
 
 strong, large [mickle] ; mara, 
 
 more, stronger, larger. 
 micle (micele), greatly, much. 
 miclum. ( 93, (4)), greatly. 
 mid, with, amid, among (with dat. 
 
 and ace.). 
 middangeard, in., earth, icorld 
 
 [middle-yard]. 
 middeweard, midward, toward 
 
 the middle. 
 
 Mierce, m. pi., Mercians. 
 mihte, see magan. 
 mil, f., mile [Lat. mille]. 
 
 mildheortnes, f., mild-hearted- 
 ness, mercy. 
 
 milts, f., mildness, mercy. 
 
 min ( 76), my, mine. 
 
 mislTc. varioits. 
 
 missenllc, various. 
 
 mod, n. , mood, mind, courage. 
 
 modcearig, sorrowful of mind. 
 
 modega, modga, see modig. 
 
 modgeSaiic. m., purpose of mind. 
 
 modig, moody, brave, proud. 
 
 modor. f., mother. 
 
 modsefa, m., mind, heart. 
 
 m9n(n) (man, mann) ( 68; 
 70, Note), m., man, one, 
 person, they. 
 
 mona. in., moon. 
 
 monaS ( 68, (1), Note), m., 
 month [mona] ; dat. sing., 
 monSe. 
 
 mQn(n)cynn, n., mankind. 
 
 mqndryhten, in., liege lord. 
 
 mpniaii (manian) ( 130), ad- 
 monish. 
 
 mqnig (manig. niyneg. maenig), 
 many. 
 
 mqnigfeald (manig-), manifold, 
 various. 
 
 moiiSe. see monaS. 
 
 mor, m., moor. 
 
 morgen, m., morning ; dat. sing., 
 morgen(n)e. 
 
 morSor-bealu (-bealo), n., mur- 
 der [murder-bale] ; see Surfaiv 
 
 moste. see motan. 
 
 motan ( 137), may, be permitted, 
 must. 
 
 mund-gripe, m., hand-grip. 
 
 munuc, m., monk [Lat. mona- 
 chus] . 
 
 munuchad, m., monkhood, mo- 
 nastic rank.
 
 176 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 mii8. m., mouth. 
 
 myntan ( 127), be minded, in- 
 tend; pret. indie. 3d sing., 
 mynte. 
 
 mynster, n., monastery [Lat. 
 monasterium] ; dat. sing., 
 mynstre. 
 
 myre, f., ware [mearh]. 
 
 myr8, f., joy, mirth; modes 
 myrSe 142, 17 = with joy of 
 heart. 
 
 N. 
 
 n5 (no), not [ne 5 = n-ever} ; na 
 
 ne, o, not at all. 
 nabban (p. 32, Note), not to have. 
 naedre. f., serpent, adder. 
 neefde, see nabban. 
 nsefre, never. 
 
 naenig ( 77), no one, no, none. 
 naere. naeren. naeron. see 40, 
 
 Note 2. 
 
 uses = ne wees, see 40, Xote 2. 
 naess, in., ness, headland. 
 naht. see noht. 
 nalaes (nales), not at all [na 
 
 ealles]. 
 
 nam. see iiirnan. 
 nama, see npma. 
 namon, see niman. 
 nan, not one, no, none [ne an], 
 nanwuht, n., nothing [no whit]. 
 ne, not. 
 ne, nor ; ne . . . ne, neither . . . 
 
 nor. 
 
 neah ( 96, (4)), near. 
 neah, adv., nigh, near, nearly, 
 
 almost ; comparative, near, 
 
 nearer. 
 
 neaht, see niht. 
 nealecan (-laecan) ( 126), draw 
 
 near to, approach (with dat.). 
 
 nar, see neah, adv. 
 neat, n., neat, cattle. 
 nemnan ( 127), name. 
 nemSe, (nymSe), except, unless. 
 nerian ( 125), save, preserve. 
 neten, see meten. 
 nledbeSearf, needful, necessary. 
 niehst, see neah (96, (4)). 
 nieten (neten), n., neat, beast, 
 
 cattle. 
 
 nigontiene, nineteen. 
 niht (neaht) ( 68, (1), Note), 
 
 night. 
 nihthelm, m., night-helm, shade 
 
 of night. 
 
 nihtscua. m., shadow of night. 
 niht-weorc, n., night-work. 
 niman ( 114), take, gain [nimble, 
 
 numb] . 
 
 nlpan ( 102), grow dark, darken. 
 nis, see 40, Note 2. 
 ni3, m., malice, violence. 
 nlwe, new, novel, startling. 
 no, see na. 
 noht (naht, na-wiht), n., not a 
 
 whit, naught, nothing; not, not 
 
 at all. 
 n6hweeSer(nahwae3er), neither ; 
 
 nohweeSer ne . . ne . . . ne 
 
 . . ne 118, 8 = neither . . . nor. 
 nolde, noldon = ne wolde. ne 
 
 woldon, see T^illan. 
 npma (nama), m., name. 
 nor8 ( 97, (1)), north, in the 
 
 north, northwards. 
 norSan ( 93, (5), from the north ; 
 
 be norSan, see 94, (4). 
 NorS-Dene, in. pi., Xorth-Danes. 
 norSeweard, northward. 
 NorShymbre, in. pi., Northum- 
 brians. 
 NorSmamia. see
 
 Glossary. 
 
 177 
 
 NorSnif n. see NorSn^n. 
 
 norSmest, see norS. 
 
 Nor6m9n (-man) ( 68, (1)), 
 
 Norwegian, 
 norSor, see norS. 
 norSryhte, northward. 
 norSweard, northward. 
 NorSweg, Xurway. 
 nose, f., cape, naze [ness, nose]. 
 notu, f., office, employment. 
 nu. now; now that, seeing that; 
 
 nu 3a 138, 13 = now then. 
 nyhst (niehst) , see neah. 
 nymSe, see nemSe. 
 nysse, see iiytan. 
 nyste, see nytan. 
 nyt(t), useful, profitable. 
 nytan (nitan<ne witan, 136), 
 
 not to know; 3d sing, pret., j 
 
 nysse. nyste. 
 
 of ( 94, (1)), of, from, concern- 
 ing. 
 
 ofer(94, (2)), over, across, after, 
 in spite of (see 144, 14) ; ofer 
 eorSan 142, 9 = on earth. 
 
 ofer, adv., over, across. 
 
 oferferan ( 126), go over, trav- 
 erse. 
 
 oferfreosan ( W9~), freeze over. 
 
 oferfroren. see oferfreosan. 
 
 ofgiefan ( 115), give up, relin- 
 quish. 
 
 ofost, f. , haste. 
 
 ofsleegen. see ofslean. 
 
 ofslean ( 118), slay off, slay. 
 
 ofsloge, see ofslean. 
 
 oft, oft, often ; superlative, oftost. 
 
 on( 94, (3)), in, into, on, against, 
 to, among, (hiring ; onfifoSSe 
 
 syx 109, 6 = into five or six 
 parts ; on weg 140, 10 = away ; 
 on innan 144, 5 = within, on 
 unriht 145, 15 falsely. 
 
 onbaernan ( 126), kindle, inspire. 
 
 oncySS, f., distress, suffering. 
 
 qnd (and), and. 
 
 qndsaca, in., adversary. 
 
 9iidswarian ( 130), answer. 
 
 9nd^veard, adj., present. 
 
 onfeng, see onf on. 
 
 onfeohtan ( 110), fight. 
 
 oiifindan ( 110), find out, dis- 
 cover; pret. indie. 3d sing., 
 onfunde. 
 
 onfon ( 118), receive, seize vio- 
 lently. 
 
 onfunde, see oiifindan. 
 
 ongean, prep., against, towards 
 (with dat. and ace.). 
 
 ongean. ad\~.,jut across, opposite. 
 
 Ongelcynn (Angel-), n., Angle 
 kin, English people, England. 
 
 QngelSeod (Angel-), f., the Eng- 
 lish people or nation. 
 
 ongemang (-m9ng), among (with 
 dat.). 
 
 ongietan (-gitan) ( 115), per- 
 ceive, see, understand. 
 
 onginnan ( 110), begin, attempt. 
 
 onlutan ( 109), bow, incline 
 (intrans.) [lout = a stooper]. 
 
 onrldan ( 102), ride against, 
 make a raid on. 
 
 onsendan ( 127). send. 
 
 onslaipan (onslepan) ( 126), 
 fall asleep, sleep. 
 
 onsp9nnan ( 117), loosen [un- 
 span] ; pret. 3d sing, indie., 
 onspeon. 
 
 onspringan (110), spring apart, 
 unspring.
 
 178 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 onstal. ra., institution, supply. 
 onstellan ( 128), establish ; pret. 
 
 3d sing, indie., onstealde. 
 onwaecnan ( 127), awake (in- 
 
 trans.). 
 onweald (-wald), m., power, 
 
 authority [wield], 
 onweiidaii ( 127), change, over- 
 turn [to wind]. 
 5r, n., beginning. 
 08 ( 94, (2)), until, as far as 
 
 (of time and place) ; 08 Seet, 
 
 08 Se, until. 
 
 oSberan ( 114), bear away. 
 68er, other, second; offer . . . 
 
 oSer, the one . . . the other. 
 oSfaestan ( 127), set to (a task). 
 oSfeallan ( 117), fall off, decline. 
 o88e, or ; oSSe . . . oSSe, either 
 
 ... or. 
 
 E. 
 
 plega, m., play, festivity. 
 port, m., port [Lat. portus]. 
 
 r&d, f., raid. 
 
 reecan ( 126), reach; pret. 3d 
 
 sing., rsehte. 
 reest, see rest. 
 Readingas, m. pi., Beading (in 
 
 Berkshire). 
 rfccan ( 128), narrate, tell; 
 
 pret. pi. indie., rehton, reahton. 
 rfcceleas, reckless, careless. 
 rfced, n., house, hall. 
 regnian (renian) ( 130), adorn, 
 
 prepare ; past part. , geregnad. 
 regollic (-lee), according to rule, 
 
 regular. 
 ren-weard. m., mighty warden, 
 
 guard, champion. 
 
 r^st (reest), f., rest, resting-place, 
 bed. 
 
 re3e, fierce, furious. 
 
 rice, rich, powerful, aristocratic. 
 
 rice, n., realm, kingdom [bishop- 
 ric] . 
 
 ricsian ( 130), rule. 
 
 rldan ( 102), ride. 
 
 riman ( 12ti), count [rime]. 
 
 rinc, m., man, warrior. 
 
 rod, f., rood, cross; rode tacen, 
 sign of the cross. 
 
 RSmware, m. pi., Romans. 
 
 rpnd (rand), m., shield. 
 
 run, f. , rune, secret meditation 
 [to round = to whisper] . 
 
 rycene (ricene), quickly, rashly. 
 
 ryhtnorSanwind, m., straight 
 north-wind. 
 
 S. 
 
 see, f., sea. 
 
 sse-bat, m., sea-boat. 
 
 seed, n., seed. 
 
 saede. see secgan 
 
 sael, m. f., time, happiness [sil-ly] ; 
 on saelum 137, 22 = joyous, 
 merry. 
 
 seelan ( 126), bind. 
 
 see-liSend ( 68, (3)), m., sea- 
 farer (nom. and ace. pi. same as 
 nom. and ace. sing. ) . 
 
 sam . . . sam, whether . . . or. 
 
 same, similarly ; swa same, just 
 the same, in like manner. 
 
 samod. see S9mod. 
 
 sanct, m., f., saint [Lat. sanctus]; 
 gen. sing. , sanctae. f . , sancti, m, 
 
 sang, see spng. 
 
 sar. f., n., sore, pain, wound. 
 
 sar, adj., sore, grievous. 
 
 sare, sorely.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 179 
 
 sawan ( 117,) sow. 
 
 sawol. f., soul; oblique cases, 
 sing., sawle ( 39, Note). 
 
 scacan (sceacan) ( 116), shake, 
 go, depart; past part., scacen. 
 sceacen. 
 
 scadu-helm, m., cover of night, 
 shadow-coiwing [shadow-helm]; 
 scadu-helma gesceapu. see 
 Note on 138, 2-6. 
 
 sceal. see sculan. 
 
 sceap. n., sheep. 
 
 sceat. in., corner, region, quarter 
 [sheet] ; eorSan sceatta 13',), 
 14 = in the regions of < xrth 
 (gen. used as locative). 
 
 aceawi(g)an ( 130), view, see 
 [shew]. 
 
 sceawung, f., seeing. 
 
 sceolde, see sculan. 
 
 sceop (scop), see scieppan. 
 
 sceowyrhta, m., shoe-maktr. 
 
 sce65an ( 116), injure, scathe 
 (with dat. ) . 
 
 scieppan ( 116), create. 
 
 Scieppend, m., Creator. 
 
 scinan ( 102), shine. 
 
 scip (scyp), n., ship. 
 
 scipen, n.. stall. 
 
 sciprap. m., ship-rope, cable. 
 
 scir, f., shire, district. 
 
 Sciringesheal, m., Sciringesheal 
 (in Norway). 
 
 scolde, see sculan. 
 
 scpmu. f., shame, dishonor. 
 
 Sconeg, f., Skaane (southern dis- 
 trict of the Scandinavian penin- 
 sula). 
 
 scopgereord, n., poetic language. 
 
 scriSan ( 102), stride, stalk. 
 
 sculan ( 136; 137, Note 2), 
 shall, have to, ought. 
 
 Scyldingas, m. pi., Scyldings, 
 
 scyp, see scip. 
 
 Scyppend, see Scieppend. 
 
 88, seo, 3eet ( 28; 28, Note 
 3), the; that; he, she, it; who, 
 which, that; Saes, from then, 
 afterwards, therefore ; Saes Se 
 (p. 110, 1. 2), with what; 3y 
 . . . 3aet (p. 110, 11. 7-8), for 
 this reason . . . because ; to 
 Saeni . . . swa. to such an 
 extent ... as; 8y (Se), the 
 (adverbial, with comparatives) ; 
 Sy . . . Sy, the . . . the. 
 
 seali. see seon. 
 
 sealde, see sellan. 
 
 searo-gimm, m., artistic gem, 
 jewel. 
 
 searo-niS, m., cunning hatred, 
 plot. 
 
 searo-39nc, m., cunning thought, 
 device. 
 
 Seaxe. m. pi., Saxons, Saxony. 
 
 sec e an ( 128), to seek, visit, 
 meet. 
 
 secg. m., man, warrior. 
 
 secgan ( 132), say, tell. 
 
 sefa, m., mind, spirit. 
 
 sefte, more easily (comparative of 
 softe. 
 
 segel, m., n., sail; dat. sing. 
 = segle. 
 
 seglian ( 130), sail. 
 
 s^le, m., hall. 
 
 seledream. m., hall joy, festivity. 
 
 sfle-ful, n., hall cup. 
 
 selesecg. m., hall warrior, re- 
 tainer. 
 
 selest. best (no positive). 
 
 self (sylf), self, himself (declined 
 as strong or weak adjective).
 
 180 
 
 GrloBzary, 
 
 aellan (syllan) ( 128), give [sell, 
 han(d)sel]. 
 
 semninga. forthwith, straightway. 
 
 sndan ( 127), send. 
 
 seo, see se. 
 
 seoc, sj'cA;. 
 
 seofon (syfan), seven. 
 
 seolh. in., seal; gen. sing. = 
 seoles (27, (3)). 
 
 seon ( 118), see, look. 
 
 seonu, f., sinew; nom. pi., seon- 
 owe. 
 
 sess. in., seat. 
 
 sibb, f., friendship, peace [gosssp]. 
 
 sidu (siodu), m., custom, mo- 
 rality, good conduct. 
 
 site, see beon. 
 
 siex. six; syxa (siexa) sum, 
 see sum. 
 
 siextig. sixty. 
 
 sige, m., victory. 
 
 sige-folc, n., victorious people. 
 
 sige-leas, victory-less, of defeat. 
 
 sige-rof, victory-famed, victorious. 
 
 sige-waipen, n., victory-weapon. 
 
 siglan ( 127), sail. 
 
 Sillende, Zealand. 
 
 sine, n., treasure, prize. 
 
 sinc-faet, u., see 137, 1 [treasure- 
 vat]. 
 
 sinc-3gu, f., receiving of treasure 
 [Slogan]. 
 
 sind, sint. siiidon see beon. 
 
 singan ( 110), sing. 
 
 sittan ( 115, Note 2), sit, take 
 position. 
 
 eS.3, m., journey, time; forman 
 siSe 139, 2 = the first time 
 (instr. sing.). 
 
 siSian ( 130), journey. 
 
 siSSan, after that, afterwards, 
 after. 
 
 sleep, m., sleep. 
 
 sleepan ( 117), sleep. 
 
 slean ( 118), slay [slow-worm]. 
 
 slitan ( 102), slit, tear to pieces. 
 
 sliSen. savage, perilous. 
 
 smael. narrow. 
 
 smalost, see sniael. 
 
 snaw, m., snow. 
 
 snot (t) or, icise, prudent. 
 
 sohte. see secan. 
 
 SQmod (samod), together. 
 
 sona, soon. 
 
 SQng, m., n., song, poem. 
 
 SQngcreeft, n., art of song and 
 
 poetry. 
 
 sorg (sorh), f. , sorrow. 
 BO&, true. 
 s58, n., truth; to soSe, for a 
 
 truth, truly, verily. 
 s5S-feest, truthful, just. 
 soSlice, truly. 
 sped, f., possessions, success, 
 
 riches [speed]. 
 spedig, rich, prosperous. 
 spell, n., story, tale [gospel]. 
 speow, see spowan. 
 spere, n., spear. 
 spor, n., track, footprint. 
 spowan ( 117), succeed (imper- 
 sonal with dat.). 
 spiaec. f., speech, language. 
 sprecan ( 115), speak. 
 spyrian (spyrigean) ( 130), 
 
 follow (intrans.) [spor]. 
 staef, staff, rod; pi. = literature, 
 
 learning. 
 
 staelhran, m., decoy-reindeer. 
 staelwierSe, serviceable (see p. 56, 
 
 Note 2). 
 stair, n., story, narrative [Lat 
 
 historia] . 
 staeS. n., shore.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 181 
 
 stan. m., stone, rock. 
 stan-boga, in., stone-arch [stone- 
 bow] . 
 
 standan, see stpndaii. 
 stanhliS (-hleo3), n., stone-cliff. 
 stapol. m., column [staple!. 
 starian ( 125), stare, gaze. 
 stfde, in., place. 
 stelan ( 114), steal. 
 st^nt, see stQndan. 
 steorbord, n., starboard, right 
 
 side of a ship. 
 steppan ( 116), step, advance; 
 
 pret. indie. 3d sing. , stop. 
 stilnes, f., stillness, quiet. 
 st9iadan ( 116), stand. 
 stop, see st^ppan. 
 storm, m., storm. 
 stow, f., place [stow, and in 
 
 names of places], 
 strang, see strQng. 
 strongest, see sti^ng. 
 strQng ( 96, (2)), strong. 
 styccemeelum, here and there. 
 sum ( 91, Note 2), some, certain, 
 
 a certain one ; he syxa sum 
 
 104, 25 = he with five others. 
 sumera, see sumor. 
 sumor, in., summer; dat. sing. = 
 
 sumera. 
 
 sumorlida, m., summer-army. 
 sundor. apart. 
 sunue, f., sun. 
 sunn, m., son. 
 suS, south, southwards. 
 BfiSan ( 93, (f>)), from the 
 
 south ; be suSan, south of 
 
 ( 94, (4)). 
 
 suSeweard, southward. 
 suSryhte, south n-nnl. 
 swa (swai), so, as, how, as if; 
 
 swa swa. just as, as far as; 
 
 swa . . . swa, the . . . the, 
 as . . . as; swa hweet swa, 
 whatsoever ( 77, Note). 
 
 swaes, beloved, own. 
 
 swaeS, n., track, footprint 
 [swath]. 
 
 swaSul, m. ? n. ?, smoke. 
 
 swealh, see swelgan. 
 
 swefan ( 115), sleep, sleep the 
 sleep of death. 
 
 swefn, n., sleep, dream. 
 
 sweg, m., sound, noise. 
 
 swegle, bright, clear. 
 
 swelan ( 126), burn [sweal]. 
 
 swelgan ( 110), swallow; pret. 
 indie. 3d sing., swealh; subj., 
 swulge. 
 
 swellan ( 110), swell. 
 
 Sweoland, n., Sweden. 
 
 Sweom, m., dat. pi., the Swedes 
 
 sweotol, clear. 
 
 sweotole, clearly. 
 
 swfrian ( 116), swear. 
 
 s^vete, sweet. 
 
 swetnes (-nis), f., sweetness. 
 
 swift (swyft), swift. 
 
 swilc (swylc) ( 77), such. 
 
 swilce, in such manner, as, like- 
 wise; as if, as though (with 
 subj.). 
 
 swimman ( 110), swim. 
 
 swm (swyn), n., swine, hog. 
 
 swinsung, f., melody, harmony. 
 
 swiSe (swySe), very, exceedingly 
 greatly. 
 
 swiSost. chiefly, almost. 
 
 swor, see swf rian. 
 
 swulge, see swelgan. 
 
 swuster (68, (2)), f., sister. 
 
 swylce (swelce), see swilce 
 
 swyn. see swin. 
 
 swynsian ( 130), resound.
 
 182 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 swySe, see swiSe. 
 
 swyS-ferhS, strong -souled. 
 
 sylf, see self. 
 
 syll, f., sill, floor. 
 
 syllan. see s^llan. 
 
 symbel, n., feast, banquet. 
 
 symle, always. 
 
 synd. see beon. 
 
 syn-dolh, n., ceaseless wound, 
 
 incurable wound. 
 syndriglice, specially. 
 synn, f., sin. 
 syn-scaSa, m., ceaseless scather, 
 
 perpetual foe. 
 syn-sneed, f., huge bit [ceaseless 
 
 bit]. 
 
 sySSan, see siSSan. 
 syx, see siex. 
 syxtig, see siextig. 
 
 T. 
 tacen, n., sign, token; dat. sing., 
 
 tacne ( 33, Note). 
 taecan ( 128), teach. 
 tain. tame. 
 
 tela, properly, well [til]. 
 teUan ( 128), count, deem [tell] ; 
 
 pret. 3d sing., tealde. 
 Tfmes, f., the Thames. 
 teon. arrange, create ; pret. sing. , 
 
 teode. 
 
 Terfimaa, m., gen. pi., the Terflns. 
 teS, see toS. 
 tid, f., tide, time, hour. 
 tien (tyn), ten. 
 til(l), good. 
 tuna, m., time. 
 tintregllc, full of torment. 
 fro ( 94, (1)), to. for, according 
 
 to, as; to hrofe 114, 2= for 
 
 (as) a roof [cf. Biblical to wife, 
 
 modern to boot]. 
 
 to, adv., too. 
 
 tobrecan (p. 81, Note 2), break 
 
 to pieces, knock about. 
 todeelan ( 126), divide. 
 toemnes (to emnes) ( 94, (4)), 
 
 along, alongside. 
 toforan (94, (1)), before. 
 togeSeodan ( 126), join. 
 tohopa. m., hope. 
 tolicgan ( 115, Note 2), separate, 
 
 lie between ; 3d sing, indie. = 
 
 toliS. 
 
 toliS, see tolicgan. 
 tolucan (109, Note 1), destroy 
 
 [the prefix to reverses the mean- 
 ing of lucan, to lock}. 
 torn, m., anger, insult. 
 to3 ( 68, (1)), m., tooth. 
 toweard ( 94, (1)), toward. 
 toweard, adj., approaching, 
 
 future. 
 
 treow^, f., pledge, troth. 
 treownes, f., trust. 
 Tirus5, Drausen (a city on the 
 
 Drausensea). 
 tiin, m., town, village. 
 tunge, f., tongue. 
 tungerefa. in., bailiff [town-reeve ; 
 
 so sheriff = shire-reeve]. 
 tungol, n., star. 
 twa, see tw^egen. 
 twegen, ( 89), two, twain. 
 twentig, twenty. 
 tyn, see tien. 
 
 >. 
 
 8a, then, when ; Sa . . . 3a, when 
 . . . then ; 3a 8a, then when 
 when. 
 
 3a. see se. 
 
 Sser, there, where; Seer Seer, 
 there where = where ; Seer . . .
 
 Glossary. 
 
 183 
 
 swa 142, 4 = wheresoever ; 145, 6 
 
 = if so be that. 
 Sees, afterwards, therefore, thus, 
 
 because; see se. 
 Seet (Saette = Saet 3e), that, so 
 
 that. 
 
 Safian ( 130), consent to. 
 Sane, see 89110. 
 Sancian (Soncian) ( 130), 
 
 thank. 
 
 Saiion. see 8911311. 
 Sas, see Ses. 
 
 Se, see se (instr. sing.) and 8u. 
 8e ( 75), who, whom, which, 
 
 that. 
 Sean, though, although; Seah 
 
 3e, though, although. 
 Searf, see Surfan. 
 Searf, f., need, benefit. 
 Seaw, m., habit, custom [thews]. 
 Segn (Segen), m., servant, thane, 
 
 icarrior. 
 
 8nc(e)an ( 128), think, intend. 
 Sening(-ung), f., service; the pi. 
 
 may mean book of service (117, 
 
 17). 
 
 Seod, f., people, nation. 
 Seoden, m., prince, lord. 
 Seodscipe, in., discipline. 
 Seon (Sywan) ( 126), oppress 
 
 [Seow]. 
 
 Seow, m., servant. 
 Seowa, m., servant. 
 Seowotdom (Siowot-), m., ser- 
 vice. 
 
 Ses ( 73), this. 
 Sider, thither. 
 Siderweard. thitherward. 
 Sin (76), thine. 
 Sing, n., thing ; genige 3inga, see 
 
 140, 15, Note. 
 Singan ( 127), arrange, appoint. 
 
 Sis, see 3es 
 
 Sissuni. see 8es. 
 
 3ohte, Sohton, see S^ncean. 
 
 Solian ( 130), endure [thole]. 
 
 39iiaii. thence. 
 
 39nc, m., thanks. 
 
 8one, see se. 
 
 Sonne, than, then, when; Sonne 
 . . . Sonne, when ... then. 
 
 3rag, f., time. 
 
 3rea-nyd, f., compulsion, oppres- 
 sion, misery [throe-need]. 
 
 Sreora, see Srie. 
 
 Sridda, third. 
 
 Srie (3ry) ( 89), three. 
 
 Srini. see Srie. 
 
 Srist-hydig, bold-minded. 
 
 Sritig, thirty. 
 
 3rowung, f., suffering. 
 
 Sry, see Srie. 
 
 Srym(m), m., renown, glory, 
 strength. 
 
 Sry3. f., power, multitude (pi. used 
 in sense of sing.) ;- asca SrySe 
 152, 23 = the might of spears. 
 
 SryS-eern, n., mighty house, noble 
 hall. 
 
 SryS-word, n., mighty word, ex- 
 cellent discourse. 
 
 Su ( 72), thou. 
 
 Sulite. see Syncan. 
 
 Surian ( 136), need ; pres. hidic. 
 3d sing., Searf; pret. 3d sing., 
 Sorfte ; for-Sam me -witan 
 ne Searf Waldend fira mor- 
 8or-bealo maga 145, 17 = 
 therefore the Ruler of men need 
 not charge me icith the murder 
 of kinsmen. 
 
 Surh ( 94, (2)), through. 
 
 3us, thus. 
 
 Susend, thousand.
 
 184 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 Sy, see s. 
 
 Syder, see Sider. 
 
 3yncan ( 128), seem, appear 
 (impersonal) ; me SyncS, me- 
 thinks, it seems to me ; him 
 Suhte, it seemed to him. 
 
 U. 
 
 uhta, m., dawn; gen. pi., uhtna. 
 
 unbeboht. unsold [bebycgan = 
 to sell}. 
 
 uncuS, unknown, uncertain [un- 
 couth] . 
 
 under, under (with dat. and ace.). 
 
 understQiidan ( 116), under- 
 stand. 
 
 underSeodan (-Sledan) ( 126), 
 subject to; past part. under- 
 Seeded = subjected to, obedient 
 to (with dat.). 
 
 unforbaerned, unburned. 
 
 unfriS. m., hostility. 
 
 ungefoge. excessively. 
 
 ungemete, immeasurably, very. 
 
 ungesewenlic, invisible [past 
 part, of aeon + He]. 
 
 unlyfigend, dead, dead man [un- 
 living]. 
 
 unlytel, no little, great. 
 
 unrint, n., wrong; on unriht. 
 see on. 
 
 unrihtwisnes, . , unrighteous- 
 ness. 
 
 unspedig, poor. 
 
 \inwearnum, unawares. 
 
 up (upp), up. 
 
 upastignes, f., ascension [sti- 
 gan]. 
 
 up-lang, upright. 
 
 ure ( 76), our. 
 
 usses = gen. sing. neut. of user, 
 see ic 
 
 ut, out, outside. 
 
 utan, from without, outside. 
 
 utanbordes, abroad. 
 
 utgQng, in., exodus. 
 
 uton, let us (with inh'n.) [literally 
 let us go with infin. of purpose 
 (see 137, 19-20, Note) ; uton = 
 wuton, corrupted form of 1st 
 pi. subj. of witan, to go]. 
 
 ut-weard, outward bound, mov- 
 ing outwards. 
 
 W. 
 
 wac, weak, insignificant. 
 
 wacian ( 130), watch, be on 
 guard; imperative sing., waca. 
 
 wadan ( 116), go, tread [wade]. 
 
 waeg, m., wave. 
 
 Weegmundigas, m., Wcegmun- 
 dings (family to which Beowulf 
 and Wiglaf belonged). 
 
 wael, n., slaughter, the slain. 
 
 weel-bleat, deadly [slaughter- 
 pitiful]. 
 
 weelgifre, greedy for slaughter. 
 
 wael-raes, m., mortal combat 
 [slaughter-race] . 
 
 wael-reow, fierce in strife. 
 
 weelsliht (-sleaht),m., slaughter. 
 
 waelstow, f . , battle-field [slaugh- 
 ter-place] ; weelstowe ge- 
 wald, possession of the battle- 
 field. 
 
 weepen, n., weapon. 
 
 weere, see beon. 
 
 waBB, see beon. 
 
 waster, n., water. 
 
 waldend. see wealdend. 
 
 wan (wgn), wan, dark. 
 
 wanhydig, heedless, rash. 
 
 wanigean (wanian) ( 130), 
 bewail, lament (trans.) [whine].
 
 Glossary. 
 
 185 
 
 warian ( 130), attend, accom- 
 pany. 
 
 wat, see witan. 
 
 waSum, m., wave ; gen. pi., 
 waSema. 
 
 weal(l), m., wall, rampart. 
 
 wealdend ( 68, (3)), wielder, 
 ruler, lord. 
 
 wealh, m., foreigner, Welshman. 
 
 wealhstod, m., interpreter, trans- 
 ' lator. 
 
 weallan ( 117), well up, boil, be 
 agitated; pret. 3d. sing, indie., 
 weoll. 
 
 wealsteal(l), m., wall-place, foun- 
 ' dation. 
 
 weard, m., ward, keeper. 
 
 wearS, see weorSan. 
 
 weaxan ( 117), wax, grow. 
 
 weg, m., way; hys weges, see 
 93, (3) ; on weg, see on. 
 
 wel(l), well, readily. 
 
 wela, m., weal, prosperity, riches. 
 
 welm, see wielm. 
 
 wenan ( 126), ween, think, ex- 
 pect. 
 
 w^ndan ( 127), change, translate 
 [wend, windan]. 
 
 we^iian ( 130), entertain; wn- 
 ian mid wynnum 149, 20 = 
 entertain joyfully ; w^nede to 
 wiste 149, 27 feasted (trans.). 
 
 Weonodland (WeonoSland), 
 n., Wendland. 
 
 weorc, n., work, deed. 
 
 weorold (weoruld), see woruld. 
 
 weorpan ( 110), throw. 
 
 weorSan ( 110), be, become. 
 
 wer, m., man [werwulf]. 
 
 werig, weary, dejected. 
 
 werod, n., army, band. 
 
 wesan, see beon. 
 
 Wesseaxe, m. pi., West Saxons; 
 gen. pi. = Wesseaxna. 
 
 west, west, westward. 
 
 vyestanv^ind, m., west wind. 
 
 weste, waste. 
 
 westen, n., waste, desert. 
 
 Westsse, f., West Sea (west of 
 Norway). 
 
 Westseaxe, m. pi., West Saxons, 
 Wessex. 
 
 wic, n., dwelling [bailiwick]. 
 
 wlcian ( 130), stop, lodge, so- 
 journ [wic]. 
 
 widre, adv., farther, more widely 
 (comparative of wide). 
 
 wldsa, f., open sea. 
 
 wielm (welm), m., welling, surg- 
 ing flood [weallan]. 
 
 wif, n., wife, woman. 
 
 wig, m., n., war, battle. 
 
 wiga, m., warrior. 
 
 wild, wild. 
 
 wilder, n., wild beast, reindeer; 
 dat. pi. = wildrum ( 33, Note). 
 
 willa, m., will, pleasure ; gen. pi., 
 wilna (138, 16). 
 
 willan ( 134 ; 137, Note 3), 
 will, intend, desire. 
 
 wilnung, f., wish, desire; for 
 Saere wilnunga 119, 4= pur- 
 posely. 
 
 Wiltun, m. , Wilton (in Wiltshire). 
 
 win, n., wine. 
 
 win-eern, n., wine-hall. 
 
 WInburne, f . , Wimborne (in Dor- 
 setshire) . 
 
 wind, m., wind. 
 
 wine, m. , friend. 
 
 Winedas, m. pi., the Wends, the 
 Wend country. 
 
 wine-dryhten, m., friendly lord. 
 
 wineleas, friendless.
 
 186 
 
 G-lossary. 
 
 winemaeg, m., friendly kinsman. 
 
 wlngeard, m., vineyard. 
 
 winnan ( 110), strive, fight 
 [win]. 
 
 winsael. n., wine-hall. 
 
 win-sele, in., wine-hall. 
 
 winter, m., winter; dat. sing. = 
 wintra. 
 
 wintercearig, winter-sad, winter- 
 worn. 
 
 wis, wise. 
 
 wisdom, in., wisdom. 
 
 wise, wisely. 
 
 wise, f., manner, matter, affair 
 [in this wise]. 
 
 wls-faest, wise [wise-fast ; cf. 
 shame-faced = shamefast]. 
 
 wis-hycgende, wise-thinking. 
 
 Wisle, f., the Vistula. 
 
 WislemuSa, m., the mouth of the 
 Vistula. 
 
 wisse, see witan. 
 
 wist, f., food, feast. 
 
 wita, m., wise man, councillor. 
 
 witan ( 136), know, show, 
 experience. 
 
 witan ( 102), reproach, blame 
 (with ace. of thing, dat. of per- 
 son). 
 
 wite, n., punishment. 
 
 Witland, n., Witland (in Prussia). 
 
 wiS (94, (3)), against, toward, 
 with ; wi3 eastan and wiS upp 
 on emnlange Saem bynuni 
 lande, toward the east, and up- 
 wards along the cultivated land; 
 wiS earm gesaet 139, 11 = sup- 
 ported himself on his arm ; ge- 
 nered wi8 niSe (dat.) 143, 11 
 = had preserved it from(against'} 
 violence. 
 
 wiSerwinna, m., adversary. 
 
 wiSfon ( 118), grapple with 
 
 (with dat.). 
 wiShabban ( 133), withstand, 
 
 resist (with dat.). 
 wiSstqndan ( 116), withstand, 
 
 resist (with dat.). 
 wl9nc, proud. 
 wod, see wadan. 
 wolcen, n., cloud [welkin] ; dat. 
 
 pi., wolcnum. 
 wolde, see willan. 
 woma, in., noise, alarm, terror. 
 wxjn, see wan. 
 wop, n., weeping. 
 word, n. , word. 
 
 worian ( 130), totter, crumble. 
 worn, m., large number, multi- 
 tude. 
 woruld, f., world; to worulde 
 
 butan ^ghwilcum ^nde 102, 
 
 18 = world without end. 
 woruldcund, worldly, secular. 
 woruldhad, m., secular life 
 
 [world-hood]. 
 woruldrice, n., world-kingdom, 
 
 world. 
 
 woruldSing, n., worldly affair. 
 wreeclast, in., track or path of 
 
 an exile. 
 
 wraS, wroth, angry ; foe, enemy. 
 writan ( 102), write. 
 wncu, f., week. 
 wudu, m. , wood, forest. 
 wuldor, n., glory. 
 Wuldorfaeder ( 68, (2)), m., 
 
 Father of glory; gen. sing., 
 
 Wuldorfaeder. 
 Wuldur-cyning, in., King of 
 
 glory. 
 
 wulf, m., wolf. 
 wund, f., wound. 
 wund, wounded.
 
 Glossary. 
 
 187 
 
 wunden, twisted, woven, con- 
 volute (past part, of windan). 
 
 wundor, n., wonder, marvel. 
 
 wundrian ( 130), wonder at 
 (with gen.). 
 
 wurdon, see weorSan. 
 
 wurSan, see weorSan. 
 
 wylf, f., she wolf. 
 
 wyllaS, see willan. 
 
 wyn-leas, joyless. 
 
 wynn, f . , joy, delight. 
 
 wynsum, winsome, delightful. 
 
 wyrc(e)an ( 128), icork, make, 
 compose. 
 
 wyrd, f . , iceird, fate, destiny. 
 
 wyrhta, in., worker, creator 
 [-wright] . 
 
 wyrm, m., icorm, dragon, serpent. 
 
 wyrmlica, in., serpentine orna- 
 mentation. 
 
 wyr3 (weorS), worthy ; see 114, 
 7-9, Note. 
 
 ylca, see ilca. 
 
 yldan ( 127), delay, postpone 
 
 [eald]. 
 
 yldu, f., age [eld]. 
 ymbe (ymb) ( 94, (2)), about, 
 
 around, concerning [?<mwhile] ; 
 
 Sees ymb iii niht 99, 2 = about 
 
 three nights afterwards. 
 ymb-eode, see ymb-gan. 
 ymbe-sittend, one who sits 
 
 (dwells) round about another, 
 
 neighbor. 
 ymb-gan ( 134), go about, go 
 
 around, circle (with ace.). 
 yrfe-weard, m., heir. 
 yrnan, see iernan. 
 yrre, ireful, angry. 
 yteren, of an otter [otor], 
 ySan ( 126), lay waste (as by a 
 
 deluge) [yS = wave~\.
 
 II. GLOSSARY. 
 
 MODERN ENGLISH OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 a, an ( 77). 
 
 abide, bidan ( 102), dbidan. 
 
 about, be ( 94, (1)), ymfte ( 94, 
 (2)) ; to write about, icritan 
 be; to speak about (=of), 
 sprecan ymbe ; about two days 
 afterwards, (Sees ymbe twegen 
 dagas. 
 
 adder, nsedre (64). 
 
 afterwards, Sees ( 93, (3)). 
 
 against, wiS ( 94, (3)), on ( 94, 
 (3)). 
 
 Alfred, Alfred (26). 
 
 all, eall ( 80). 
 
 also, ""'. 
 
 although, Veah ( 105, 2). 
 
 always, a; ealne weg ( 98, (1)). 
 
 am, com ( 40). 
 
 an, see a. 
 
 and, gnd (and). 
 
 angel, sngel ( 26). 
 
 animal, dear ( 32). 
 
 are, sind, sint, sindon ( 40). 
 
 army, werod ( 32) ; Danish 
 army, h^re ( 26) ; English 
 army, flerd ( 38). 
 
 art, eart ( 40). 
 
 Ashdown, ^Escesdun ( 38). 
 
 ask, biddan ( 65, Note 3 ; 115, 
 
 Note 2). 
 away, aweg. 
 
 B. 
 
 battle-field, wcelstow ( 38). 
 be, 6eon ( 40) ; not to be, see 
 
 40, Note 2. 
 bear, beran ( 114). 
 because, for ti&m (3c), for Son 
 
 (3e). 
 
 become, weorfian ( 110). 
 before (temporal conjunction), 
 
 r, r Sm &c ( 105, 2). 
 begin, onginnan ( 107, (1) ; 
 
 HO). 
 belong to, belimpan to + dative 
 
 ( HO). 
 best, see good, 
 better, see good, 
 bind, bindan ( 110). 
 bird, fugol ( 26). 
 bite, b'ltan ( 102). 
 body, Uc ( 32). 
 bone, ban ( 32). 
 book, boc ( 68). 
 both . . . and, segtSer ge . . . ge. 
 boundary, mearc ( 38). 
 boy, cnapa (.64). 
 
 189
 
 190 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 break, breotan ( 109), brecan, 
 
 dbrecan ( 114). 
 brother, brodor ( 68, (2)). 
 but, ac. 
 by, fryn (/ram) ( 94, (1) ; 
 
 141, Note 1). 
 
 C. 
 
 Ceedmon, Ccedrngn ( 68, (1)). 
 
 caU, hdtan ( 117, (1)). 
 
 cease, cease from, geswlcan 
 
 ( 102). 
 
 chUd, beam ( 32). 
 choose, ceosan ( 109). 
 Christ, Crist (26). 
 church, cirice ( 64). 
 come, cuman ( 114). 
 comfort, frofor ( 38). 
 companion, gefera ( 64). 
 consolation, frofor ( 38). 
 create, gescieppan ( 116). 
 
 D. 
 
 Danes, D^e ( 47). 
 
 day, dceg (26). 
 
 dead, dead (80). 
 
 dear (= beloved), leof ( 80). 
 
 deed, deed ( 38). 
 
 die, cwelan ( 114). 
 
 division (of troops), gefylce 
 
 ( 32), getruma ( 64). 
 do, do?i ( 134). 
 door, dor ( 32), duru ( 52). 
 drink, drincan ( 110). 
 during, o ( 94, (3)). See also 
 
 98. 
 dwell in, buan on ( 126, Note 
 
 2). 
 
 earl, eorl ( 26). 
 endure, dreogan ( 109). 
 England, Englalnnd (32). 
 enjoy, brucan ( 62, Note 1 ; 
 
 109, Note 1). 
 every, selc ( 77). 
 eye, eage ( 64). 
 
 F. 
 
 father, feeder ( 68, (2)). 
 
 field, feld ( 51). 
 
 fight, feohtan, gefeohtan ( 110). 
 
 find, Jindan ( 110). 
 
 finger, finger ( 26). 
 
 fire, fyr ( 32). 
 
 fisherman, fiscere ( 26). 
 
 foreigner, wealh { 26). 
 
 freedom, freedom ( 26). 
 
 friend, icte ( 45),freond ( 68, 
 
 (3))- 
 
 friendship, freondscipe ( 45). 
 full, full (with genitive) ( 80). 
 
 gain the victory, sige habban, 
 sige niman. 
 
 gift, giefu ( 38). 
 
 give, giefan (with dative of in- 
 direct object) ( 115). 
 
 glad, glced ( 81). 
 
 glove, $rZ6/(38). 
 
 go, gran ( 134),/aran ( 116). 
 
 God, God ( 26). 
 
 good, god ( 80). 
 
 Halgoland, Helgoland ( 32). 
 hall, heall ( 38).
 
 Modern English Old English. 
 
 191 
 
 hand, h?nd ( 52). 
 
 hard, heard ( 80). 
 
 have, habban ( 34) ; not to 
 
 have, nabban (p. 32, Note). 
 he, he ( 53). 
 head, heafod ( 32). 
 hear, hieran ( 126). 
 heaven, heofon ( 26). 
 help, helpan (with dative) ( 110). 
 herdsman, hierde ( 26). 
 here, her. 
 hither, hider. 
 
 hold, healdan ( 117, (2)). 
 holy, halig ( 82). 
 horse, mearh ( 26), hors ( 32). 
 house, hus (32). 
 
 I. 
 I, ic ( 72). 
 
 in, on ( 94, (3)). 
 
 indeed, sodlice. 
 
 injure, scfidan (with dative) 
 
 ( H6). 
 it, Art ( 53). 
 
 king, cyning ( 26). 
 kingdom, rice ( 32), cynerice 
 ( 32). 
 
 L. 
 
 land, l v nd ( 32). 
 
 language, sprac ( 38), geSeode 
 
 (32). 
 
 large, micel ( 82). 
 leisure, xmetta ( 64). 
 let us, ?iow (with infinitive). 
 limb, Urn (32). 
 little, lytel ( 82). 
 live in, buan on ( 126, Note 2). 
 lord, Ma/ord ( 26). 
 
 love, luflan ( 131). 
 love (noun), lufu ( 38). 
 
 M. 
 
 make, wyrcan ( 128). 
 
 man, sjcgr (26), myw (^68, (1)). 
 
 many, mynig ( 82). ' 
 
 mare, my re ( 64). 
 
 mead, medu ( 51). 
 
 Mercians, Mierce ( 47). 
 
 milk, ??eoZc ( 38). 
 
 month, monad ( 68, (1), Note 1). 
 
 mouth, mud ( 26). 
 
 much, nu'ceZ ( 96, (3)), micle 
 
 ( 97, (2)). 
 
 murderer, 6(wa ( 64). 
 my, mm ( 76). 
 
 N. 
 
 natives, lyndleode ( 47). 
 nephew, ?^/a ( 64). 
 new, mice ( 82). 
 Northumbrians, Xorftymbre 
 
 ( 47). 
 not, we. 
 
 O. 
 
 of, see about. 
 
 on, on ( 94, (3)), ofer ( 94, 
 
 (2))- 
 one, an ( 89) ; the one . . . 
 
 the other, oSer . . . ofier. 
 other, oder (77). 
 our, ure ( 76). 
 ox, oxa ( 64). 
 
 P. 
 
 place, stow ( 38). 
 plundering, h^rgung ( 38).
 
 192 
 
 Glossary. 
 
 poor, earm ( 80), unspedig( 82). 
 prosperous, spedig ( 82). 
 
 Q 
 
 queen, cwen ( 49). 
 
 reindeer, hran ( 26). 
 remain, lildan ( 102), dbulan. 
 retain possession of the battle- 
 field, dgan iccelstmce gewald. 
 rich, rice (82), spedig (82). 
 ride, rldan ( 102). 
 
 8. 
 
 say, cweiSan ( 115), s^cgan 
 
 ( 133). 
 
 scribe, bocere ( 26). 
 seal, seoUi ( 26). 
 see, seon ( 118), geseon. 
 serpent, needre ( 64). 
 servant, deowa ( 64), ftegn (26). 
 shall, sculan ( 136; 137, 
 
 Note 2). 
 
 she, heo ( 53). 
 shepherd, hierde ( 26). 
 ship, scip ( 32). 
 shire, scir ( 38). 
 shoemaker, sceovnjrhta ( 64). 
 side, on both sides, on gehwceSre 
 
 six, siex ( 90). 
 
 slaughter, wcel ( 32), wcelsliht 
 
 ( ). 
 
 small, lytel (82). 
 son, sunu ( 51). 
 soul, sawol ( 38) . 
 speak, sprecan ( 115). 
 spear, gar ( 26), spere ( 32). 
 
 stand, stqndan ( 116). 
 
 stone, stdn ( 26). 
 
 stranger, wealh ( 26), cuma 
 
 ( 64). 
 
 suffer, dreogan ( 109). 
 sun, sunne ( 64). 
 swift, sioi/ ( 80). 
 
 T. 
 
 take, niman ( 110). 
 
 than, Sonne ( 96, (6)). 
 
 thane, degn ( 26). 
 
 that (conjunction), ft&t. 
 
 that (demonstrative), se, seo, 8cet 
 
 ( 28). 
 
 that (relative), tie ( 75). 
 the, se, seo, 8oet ( 28). 
 then, #a, Sonne. 
 these, see this, 
 they, Me (53). 
 thing, Zing ( 32). 
 thirty, iSrltig. 
 this, ftes, Seos, 3is ( 73). 
 those, see that (demonstrative). 
 thou, du (72). 
 though, tieah ( 105, 2). 
 three, tSrie (89). 
 throne, ascend the throne, to 
 
 rice fdn. 
 
 throw, weorpan ( 110). 
 to, to ( 94, (1)). 
 tongue, tunge ( 64). 
 track, spor ( 32). 
 true, sod ( 80). 
 truly, scftlice. 
 two, twegen ( 89). 
 
 V. 
 
 very, swiSe. 
 vessel, feet (32). 
 victory, sigre ( 45).
 
 Modern English Old English. 
 
 193 
 
 wall, weall ( 26). 
 
 warrior, s$cg ( 26), eorl ( 26). 
 
 way, weg ( 26). 
 
 weapon, ic&pen ( 32). 
 
 well, icel ( 97, (2)). 
 
 Welshman, Wealh ( 26). 
 
 went, see go. 
 
 westward, west, loestrihte. 
 
 whale, hiccel ( 26). 
 
 what? hwcet ( 74). 
 
 when, #<7, fionne. 
 
 where? hwxr. 
 
 which, tie ( 75). 
 
 who? hwd ( 74). 
 
 who (relative), 8e ( 75). 
 
 whosoever, swd hwd stoa'( 77, 
 
 Note). 
 will, willan ( 134; 137, 
 
 Note 3). 
 
 Wilton, Wiltun ( 26). 
 win, see gain. 
 
 wine, win ( 32). 
 
 wisdom, wisdom ( 26). 
 
 wise, wls ( 80). 
 
 with, mid ( 94, (1)) ; to fight 
 
 with (= against), gefeohtan 
 
 wti ( 94, (3)). 
 withstand, wifistyndaii (with 
 
 dative) ( 116). 
 wolf, wulf (26), wylf ( 38). 
 woman, wlf ( 32). 
 word, word (32). 
 worm, wyrm ( 45). 
 
 Y. 
 
 ye, ge ( 72). 
 
 year, gear ( 32). 
 
 yoke, geoc ( 32). 
 
 you, (5u (singular), ge (plural) 
 ( 72). 
 
 your, din (singular), lower (plu- 
 ral) ( 76).
 
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