THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 IRVINE 
 
 Gift of 
 THE HONNOLD LIBRARY

 
 THE 
 
 CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS 
 
 Ac 
 
 A LIBRARY OF READY REFERENCE 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, LAW, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, 
 
 INVENTION, SCIENCE, DOMESTIC ECONOMY, INDUSTRY, 
 
 FINANCE, ART, RELIGION, EDUCATION, HYGIENE, 
 
 AND USEFUL MISCELLANY. 
 
 COLLATED AND EDITED 
 
 HENRY W. RUOFF, M.A., PH.D., 
 
 Sometime Professor in Pennsylvania State College ; 
 Author of " The Origin of the Family," " Home and State," etc. 
 
 AUTHENTIC, COMPREHENSIVE, UP-TO-DATE. 
 
 The King-Richardson Conn pa ny, 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 
 
 CHICAGO. INDIANAPOLIS. SAX FRANCISCO. TORONTO. 
 
 19O1.
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1900, 
 
 BY THE KING-RICHARDSON COMPANY, 
 In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the year 1900, 
 
 BY THE KING-RICHARDSON COMPANY, 
 
 At the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 volume is designed to meet the popular demand for a book of 
 -L reliable and authentic information touching our every day 
 pursuits and requirements. It belongs to a class of publications of a 
 cyclopedic character that are not only a very great desideratum but 
 an unquestioned necessity in an age like the present, marked, as it. 
 is, by a constantly expanding spirit of invention, progress, innovation, 
 general enlightenment, and humane achievement, the record of which 
 is found in a wide and diverse literature. 
 
 It has been truly said, "Of the making of books, there is no end"; 
 nor is it desirable that there should be. The thing that is desirable 
 is, that the books we are compelled to own should be the best of their 
 class rich repositories to which we can repair with entire confidence 
 for new knowledge, or the refreshing of that which may have lapsed 
 through some trick of memory. This is especially true, not only as a 
 matter of economy in time and energy, but because of the utter futility 
 of any effort on our part to keep abreast of the knowledge- of the 
 times, and the practical issues that concern us, in any other way. 
 When it is remembered that the yearly output of books exceeds 30,000 
 volumes, and that the reading capacity of the average man is not 
 more than 3,500 in a lifetime, even though he devote the whole of his 
 working hours to the task of reading, the necessity and wisdom of 
 properly and judiciously epitomizing that knowledge which is of most 
 avail in making us into better citizens and more intelligent beings, is 
 only emphasized. 
 
 The present work is confined exclusively to those departments of 
 knowledge with which we are most practically and vitally concerned. 
 Its mission is to convey useful and general information to all classes 
 of readers, and incidentally to add something to every one's store of 
 general culture. It is the result of a large expenditure of labor, 
 painstaking care, judicious discrimination, and wide research. The 
 material included has been drawn from numerous sources and 
 authorities, and great care exercised in its collation so as to exclude 
 everything of doubtful authenticity. Obviously the grouping of related 
 facts into Books will be found advantageous for quick reference, as 
 well as in giving a comprehensive view of certain fields of knowledge. 
 The topics in the various Books are not meant to follow any specific 
 order, but have been permitted to fall in line in such fashion as seems 
 most likely to sustain their interest for the general reader. This 
 seeming disorder is, however, fully met by a complete index, both 
 direct and indirect, at the end of the volume. 
 
 The points that have been steadily kept in view are, conciseness, 
 authenticity, comprehensiveness, range, and utility ; and in these 
 respects it is believed that this volume occupies a niche peculiarly 
 its own.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE .............. 5 
 
 INDEX . . 651 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 Government of the United States Porto Rico Cuba Philippines Hawaii 
 Guam Declaration of Independence Mechlenberg Declaration Constitution 
 of the United States Government of the States and Territories Copyright 
 Law Patent Office Procedure Naturalization Laws Passport Regulations 
 Civil Service U. S. Customs Duties War Revenue Taxes British Customs 
 Tariff Labor Legislation Pension Laws Jurisdiction of Justices of the 
 Peace The Law of 'Finding U.S. Customs Regulations as to Baggage Laws 
 of Suffrage Sta^e and Territorial Statistics Federal Bankruptcy Act Law 
 of Trade-Marks Interstate Commerce Law Business Law and Forms 
 Interest Laws and Statutes of Limitation Law of Inns and Innkeepers Law 
 of the Road Landlord and Tenant Exemption Laws Marriage and Divorce 
 Laws Rights of Married Women Government of the British Empire 
 Canada Argentine Republic Austria-Hungary Belgium Brazil Chile 
 
 China France German Empire Greece Italy Japan Mexico 
 Netherlands Russia Spain Turkey Statistics of the Countries of the 
 World Heads of the Governments of the World Divisions of Africa Trial 
 by Jury Draco's Laws Laws of Subscription Chinese Emigration Laws 
 Postal Laws Indebtedness of Nations Parliamentary Law Prohibitory Laws 1C 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 Literature Languages English Language Capital Letters Punctuation Proof 
 Reading Familiar Allusions Foreign Wordd and Phrases Great Men's 
 Works Authors of Famous Poems Celebrated Characters in Literature 
 Literary Pseudonyms First Newspapers Nibelungen Lied Forty Immortals 
 of the French Academy The World's Best Books Abbreviations in General 
 Use Christian Names Alphabets Early Literature Chinese Literature 
 Greek Literature Hebrew Literature Roman Literature Sanscrit Literature 
 
 Arabic Literature Persian Literature Italian Literature Spanish Liter- 
 ature Portuguese Literature French Literature German Literature 
 Scandinavian Literature Russian Literature Polish Literature English 
 Literature American Literature Hungarian Literature Yolapiik Lan- 
 guages of the World History of Writing French Academy Troubadours 
 The Iliad The vEneid Gesta Romanorum Norse Sagas Miracle Plays 
 
 Romance of the Rose Classic and Romantic Literature Goethe's Faust 
 Dante Latin Language Surnames Poet Laureate Renaissance History 
 
 of the Theater Misuse of Words . . . . . . . . .120 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHT. 
 
 Chronological Eras Divisions of Time Old English Holidays Legal Holidays 
 Standard Time Perpetual Calendar Anniversaries First Day of the Year 
 General Church Councils Origin of Months and Days of the Week Diction- 
 ary of Mythology and Folklore Outlines of Universal History Calendar of 
 American Battles Dictionary of Biography Admission of States into the 
 Union Organization of the Territories Derivations of Names of States and 
 Territories Rulers of France from the Revolution Kings and Queens of 
 England Presidents of the U. S. Vice-Presidents of the U. S. Justices of 
 tho U. S. Supreme Court Cabinet Officers Speakers of the U. S. House of
 
 CONTENTS. 7 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Representatives Famous Naval Battles Decisive Battles of Hisfory Indian 
 'Mutiny Abyssinian War American Civil War Russo-Turkish War Zulu 
 War Franco-German War Spanish- American War Dictionary of History 196 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 The Earth's Surface Telephone Electric Light Geysers Volcanoes Elec- 
 tricity Phonograph Climate Zoology Ethnology Air Chemistry 
 Printing Ocean Cables Circulation of Blood Astronomy Anatomy 
 Acoustics Algebra Assaying Compass Solar System Specific Gravity 
 Earthquakes Electroplating Evolution Etching Railroads Glacial 
 Period Gunpowder Iron Lace-Making Matches Artillery Microscope 
 Mesmerism Magnet Embalming Engraving Ether Fire Ento- 
 mology Geology Geometry Geography Glass Typewriters Interesting 
 Origins Water Gravitation Medicine Physics Shipbuilding Spectacles 
 Stenography Sugar Telescope Weaving Wire Nebular Hypothesis 
 Paper Nails Aurora Borealis Common Names of Chemical Substances 
 Copernican System Thermometry Hypnotism Photogravure Metric 
 System Ptolemaic System Mirage Coin Day and Night Meteors 
 Comets Agricultural Machinery Spinning Wheel Stars Velocity Tel- 
 egraph Steam Engines Steel Stereotyping Weights and Measures 
 Zodiac - Violin Type-Setting Machines Vaccination Light Envelopes 
 Photography Pianoforte. .......... 300 
 
 BOOK V. 
 
 HYGIENE, DOMESTIC ECONOMY, DIETETICS. 
 
 Pure Air Food Diet of Brain-Workers Classification of Food Analysis of 
 Food Digestibility of Food Nutritiousness of Food Chemical Composition 
 of the Human Body Cleanliness Exercise Human Pulse Respiration 
 Baths Corpulency Medicinal Food Spring Fever Breakfast Dinner 
 Supper and Tea Small Points on Table Etiquette Wines and Liquors 
 Effects of Excessive Eating Insufficient Nutrition Diet of Infancy Diet of 
 Childhood and Youth Diet of Middle Life Diet of Advanced Life Gym- 
 nastics and Physical Development Medicines, with Doses Disinfectants 
 Sleeplessness Drugs Choice of Articles of Food Seasonable Food House- 
 keeper's Time -Table Terms used in French Cookery French - English 
 Dishes (translated) Housekeeper's Measures and Weights Beds and Bed- 
 ding Stimulants and Narcotics Coffee Tea Chocolate Cheese Carpets 
 Care of the Eyes Care of the Teeth Care of the Hair Spectacles Anti- 
 dotes for Poisons Cosmetics Earthenware Cancer House Furnishing 
 House Decoration Value of Woods Medical Dictionary. .... 366 
 
 BOOK VI. 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Early Forms of Currency Metallic Coins Coins of Great Britain American 
 Coinage Banks U. S. National Banking System Savings Banks Statistics 
 of Money in the United States Value of Foreign Coins Monetary Statistics 
 Statistics of Savings Banks Product of Gold and Silver in the U. S. World's 
 Production of Gold and Silver Wildcat Banks Clearing House Freedman's 
 Bank Revenue of the U. S. Government Indebtedness of Nations Credit 
 Mobilier Mississippi Scheme Trade Unions Boycotting Gold Exports 
 South Sea Bubble Wealth of Principal Nations Trusts Strikes Mining 
 and Milling Terms Foreign Trade of the U. S. South America Trade 
 Wheat Crop of the World Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Products of the 
 World Railroads Wages and Cost of Living Insurance Public Debt of 
 the U. S. Telegraph Rates Transatlantic Steamers Submarine Cables 
 Production of Coal Wool Tobacco Tea and Coffee Canals Occupations 
 in the United States Dictionary of Business and Law Terms. . . . 444
 
 8 CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK VII. 
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. PACK 
 
 European Cathedrals Translations of the Bible Catacombs Inquisition Apoc- 
 rypha Celibacy in the Roman Catholic Church English Universities Adam 
 and Eve Celebrated Paintings Buddhism -Garden of Edsn Millennium 
 Confucianism Diet of Worms Benedictines Architecture Alexandrian 
 Library Juggernaut Councilsof Nice Islam Mormons Mount Ararat 
 Obelisks Kissing the Book Tower of Pisa French Renaissance Foreign 
 Libraries Church of England Christian Association Education of the 
 Blind Gnosticism Compulsory Education Illiteracy of Various Nations 
 Gardens of Babylon Oneida Commur:'ty Hades Pagodas Oracles 
 Shakers Pantheon at Rome : Universities and Colleges of the U. S. Foreign 
 Universities Animal Worship Holy Grail Pyramids Septuagint Taj - 
 Mahal Roman Baths Religious Statistics Sunday School Statistics 
 
 Religious Denominations in the U. S Scriptural Measures Theosophy 
 
 Tower of Babel Shintiiism Sunday Public Schools Sanhedrim Scho- 
 lastics Parsees Koran Sinai Vulgate Smithsonian Institution Jesuits 
 
 Qualification for the Practice of Medicine Practice of Law Unitarians 
 Windsor Castle Roman Catholic Church The Reformation Christianity 
 Leading American Universities Music Salvation Army Military and 
 Naval Academies Royal Academy Sculpture Schools of Art Educational 
 Philanthropies Musical and Art Terms. . . . . . . . 49G 
 
 BOOK VIII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 Signers of the Declaration of Independence Center of Population Civil War 
 Statistics Diplomatic Service Rare Coins and their Values Great Financial 
 Panics Giants and Dwarfs Mason and Dixon's Line Alloys World's Fairs 
 Velocities of Bodies Mixing Colors Value of Metals Modes of Execution 
 
 Great Fires, Floods, and Inundations Waterfalls Wars of the U. S. 
 Sizes of Papers and Books Language of Flowers Weights and Measures 
 Variations in Time Library of Congress Alcoholic Liquors Notable 
 Bridges American Indian Largest Cities of the World Expectation of Life 
 
 Defective Classes Height of Noted Buildings and Monuments Holidays 
 Executive Civil List World's Seven Wonders Divorces in Different Countries 
 
 The Brain Weights of Produce Population of the United States Public 
 Lands Language of Gems Indian Folklore Bell Time on Shipboard 
 Highest Mountains Chinese Wall Bartholdi's Statue of Liberty Population 
 of Great Britain Caste among the Hindoos Harbors Bunker Hill Monu- 
 ment Alien Landholders in the U. S Government Salary List Vegetable 
 
 Origins Slavery Mardi-Gras Mound-Builders Blue Stockings Latin 
 Union Facts About the Earth The Sacred Number Molly Maguires 
 U. S. Recruiting Requirements Army Pay Table Navy Pay Table Navies 
 of the World Armed Strength of Europe The Stage State Flowers 
 Modern Explosives Longest Rivers in. the World Famous Blue Laws Aver- 
 age Rainfall in U. S. Tables of Distances Historic Minor Political Parties 
 Losses in Recent Wars Exports of Various Countries About Ships Tariff 
 Rates of Different Countries Postage Stamps White House Weddings 
 Fabian Policy Royal Incomes Famous Diamonds Oceans, Seas, Bays, and 
 Lakes Single Tax National Nicknames Dying Sayings of Famous People 
 
 Woman Suffrage Mottoes of the v States Gotham Ships of the U. S. Navy 
 
 Remarkable Caves Number of Pensioners in the U. S. Great Eastern 
 Yellowstone Park The Golden Fleece Strasburg Clock Patents Issued 
 Nihilism Tammany Rainbow -Associated Press Distances Between Euro- 
 pean Cities Grocer 's Table Pilgrim Fathers and Mothers Nautical Vocabulary 578
 
 PH 
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 Book I. 
 
 Government and I/aw.
 
 Government and 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 Constitution and Government. A 
 
 Congress representing the thirteen original 
 colonies declared their independence of Great 
 Britain July 4, 1776, and thereafter each 
 colony was known as a State. As a result of 
 the war with Great Britain, the latter acknowl- 
 edged the independence of the United States 
 November 30, 1782, and September 3, 1783, 
 a definitive treaty of peace was concluded at 
 Paris. The government of the United States 
 continued under the Congress provided by the 
 Articles of Confederation until March 4, 1789, 
 when a constitution, which had been adopted 
 by representatives of the different States Sep- 
 tember 17, 1787, went into effect. March 4, 
 1789, then, is the date of the inception of 
 the present constitutional government of the 
 American Union. 
 
 Ten amendments were added to the original 
 Constitution December 15, 1791 ; the eleventh 
 amendment, January 8, 1798 ; the twelfth 
 amendment, September 25, 1804 ; the thir- 
 teenth amendment, December 18, 1865; the 
 fourteenth amendment, July 28, 1868 ; and 
 the fifteenth amendment, March 30, 1870. 
 Amendments proposed by the Congress must 
 be adopted by three fourths of the States, 
 acting through their legislatures. 
 
 In the table of States hereafter given, the 
 date of the adoption of the original Constitu- 
 tion by each is stated, and also the dates of 
 the admission of States subsequent to that 
 time, there having been thirty-two States 
 admitted since the adoption of the Constitu- 
 tion, the whole number of States now being 
 forty-five. 
 
 By the Constitution, the government of the 
 nation is intrusted to three separate depart- 
 ments, the Executive, the Legislative, and the 
 Judicial. The executive power is vested in a 
 President, who holds his office during the term 
 of four years, and is elected, together with a 
 Vice-President chosen for the same term, in 
 the mode prescribed as follows : " Each State 
 shall appoint, in such manner as the Legisla- 
 ture thereof may direct, a number of electors, 
 equal to the whole number of senators and 
 representatives to which the State may be 
 entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or 
 representative, or person holding an office of 
 trust or profit under the United States, shall be 
 appointed an elector." The practice is that 
 in every State the electors allotted to the State 
 are chosen by direct vote of the citizens on a 
 general ticket, on the system known in France 
 
 as scrutin de liste. The Constitution enacts 
 that " the Congress may determine the time of 
 choosing the electors, and the day on which 
 they shall give their votes, which day shall be 
 the same throughout the United States ' ' ; and 
 further, that ' ' no person except a natural- 
 born citizen, or a citizen of the United States 
 at the time of the adoption of this Constitu- 
 tion, shall be eligible to the office of President ; 
 neither shall any person be eligible to that 
 office who shall not have attained to the age of 
 thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a 
 resident within the United States." 
 
 Executive. The President is commander- 
 in-chief of the army and navy, and of the 
 militia in the service of the Union. The Vice- 
 President is ex officio President of the Senate ; 
 and, in case of the death or resignation of the 
 President, he becomes the President for the 
 remainder of the term. The elections for 
 President and Vice-President are at present 
 held in all the States on the Tuesday next after 
 the first Monday in November, every four 
 years ; and, on the 4th of March following, the 
 new President-elect assumes office. 
 
 By a law approved January 19, 1886, in case 
 of removal, death, resignation, or inability of 
 both the President and Vice-President, the 
 Secretary of State, and after him, in the order 
 of the establishment of their departments, 
 other members of the Cabinet, shall act as 
 President until the disability of the President 
 is removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 On the death of a Vice-President the duties of 
 the office fall to the President pro tempore of 
 the Senate, who receives the salary of the 
 Vice-President. The party in the majority 
 usually elects a President pro tempore at the 
 beginning of each term of Congress, or reor- 
 ganization of the Senate, who acts as Presi- 
 dent of the Senate whenever the Vice-President 
 is absent. 
 
 The administrative business of the Govern- 
 ment is conducted by eight chief officers, or 
 heads of Departments, denominated " Secre- 
 taries," who constitute what is popularly 
 known as the "Cabinet," although there is 
 no legal or constitutional provision for that 
 designation. The Secretaries are chosen by 
 the President, and commissioned by him after 
 confirmation by the Senate. Each Secretary 
 presides over his particular department, and 
 acts under the immediate authority of the 
 President. Each Secretary receives an annual 
 salary of $8,000, and holds office during the 
 pleasure of the President. The Departments,
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 11 
 
 iu the chronological order of their establish- 
 ment, and the duties, are as follows : 
 
 Secretary of State. The Department of State 
 is charged with all duties appertaining to .cor- 
 respondence with public ministers, American 
 consuls, and representatives of foreign powers 
 accredited to the United States, and with 
 negotiations of whatever character relating to 
 the foreign affairs of the nation. The Secre- 
 tary is accorded first rank among the members 
 of the President's Cabinet. He is the custo- 
 dian of treaties made with foreign states, and 
 of the laws of the United States. He grants 
 and issues passports, and exequaturs to foreign 
 consuls in the United States are issued under 
 his supervision. 
 
 Secretary of the Treasury. The Secretary of 
 the Treasury is charged with the management 
 of the national finances, and prepares plans 
 for the improvement of the revenue and the 
 support of public credit. He controls the 
 plans for public buildings ; the coinage and 
 printing of money ; the collection of com- 
 mercial statistics ; the administration of the 
 Coast and Geodetic Survey, Life-Saving, Light- 
 House, Revenue-Cutter, Steamboat-Inspection, 
 and Marine Hospital branches of public ser- 
 vice, and annually submits to Congress esti- 
 mates of probable revenues and disbursements 
 of the Government. 
 
 Secretary of War. The Secretary of War 
 performs all duties relating to the military 
 service ; he has supervision of the United 
 States Military Academy at West Point, of 
 the national cemeteries, and of all matters re- 
 lating to river and harbor improvements, the 
 prevention of obstruction to navigation, and 
 the establishment of harbor lines. 
 
 The military bureaus of the War Depart- 
 ment constitute a part of the military estab- 
 lishment, and have officers of the regular army 
 at their head, while the Secretary and his im- 
 mediate assistants are civilians as a rule. 
 
 Department of Justice. The Attorney-Gen- 
 eral represents the United States in matters 
 involving legal questions, and gives advice and 
 opinion, when so required by the President or 
 by the heads of the Executive Departments, 
 on questions of law arising in the administra- 
 tion of their respective offices ; he exercises a 
 general superintendence and direction over 
 United States attorneys and marshals in all 
 judicial districts in the States and Territories, 
 and provides special counsel for the United 
 States whenever required by any department 
 of the Government. 
 
 Postmaster-General The Postmaster-Gen- 
 eral has the direction and management of the 
 general postal business of the Government ; 
 he appoints officers and employees of the De- 
 
 partment, except the four Assistant Post- 
 masters-General, who are appointed by the 
 President, by and with the advice and consent 
 ' of the Senate ; appoints all postmasters whose 
 I compensation does not exceed $1,000 ; makes 
 postal treaties with foreign governments, by 
 \ and with the advice and consent of the Presi- 
 i dent, and directs the management of the do- 
 mestic and foreign mail service. 
 
 Secretary of the Navy. The Secretary of 
 the Navy has the general superintendence of 
 construction, manning, armament, equipment, 
 and employment of vessels of war. The Sec- 
 retary, Assistant Secretary, and the attaches 
 of what is known as the Secretary's office are 
 civilians, while the heads of all bureaus are 
 navy officers. 
 
 Secretary of the Interior. The duties of the 
 Secretary of the Interior are varied ; he is 
 charged with the supervision of the public 
 business relating to patents, pensions, public 
 lands, and surveys, Indians, education, rail- 
 roads, the geological survey, the census, In- 
 dian reservations, the Territories, the various 
 public parks, and certain hospitals and elee- 
 mosynary institutions in the District of Colum- 
 bia. 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture. The Secretary of 
 Agriculture is charged with the supervision of 
 all public business relating to the agricultural 
 industry, and he exercises advisory supervision 
 over the agricultural experiment stations deriv- 
 ing support from the National Treasury ; he 
 also has control of the quarantine stations for 
 imported cattle, and of interstate quarantine 
 when rendered necessary by contagious cattle 
 diseases. 
 
 Legislative. The whole legislative power 
 is vested by the Constitution in a Congress, 
 consisting of a Senate and House of Represen- 
 tatives. The Senate consists of two members 
 from each State, chosen by the State Legisla- 
 tures for six years. Senators must be not less 
 than thirty years of age ; must have been 
 citizens of the United States for nine years ; 
 and be residents in the States for which they 
 are chosen. Besides its legislative functions, 
 the Senate is intrusted with the power of rati- 
 fying or rejecting all treaties made by the 
 President with foreign powers, a two-thirds 
 majority of senators present being required 
 for ratification. The Senate is also invested 
 with the power of confirming or rejecting all 
 appointments to office made by the President, 
 and its members constitute a High Court of 
 Impeachment. The judgment in the latter 
 case extends only to removal from office and 
 disqualification. The House of Representa- 
 tives has the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 The House of Representatives is composed
 
 12 
 
 LIBRARY OF READY REFERENCE. 
 
 of members elected every second year by the 
 vote of citizens who, according to the laws of 
 their respective States, are qualified to vote. 
 In general such voters are all male citizens 
 over twenty-one years of age. Neither race 
 nor color affects the right of citizens. The 
 franchise is not absolutely universal ; residence 
 for at least one year in most States (in Rhode 
 Island and Kentucky two years, in Michigan 
 and Maine three months) is necessary, in 
 some States the payment of taxes, in others 
 registration. On the other hand, many of 
 the Western States admit to the franchise 
 unnaturalized persons who have formally de- 
 clared their intention to become citizens. Un- 
 taxed Indians are excluded from the franchise, 
 in most States convicts, in some States duel- 
 ists and fraudulent voters ; in Massachusetts 
 voters are required to be able to read Eng- 
 lish, and in Mississippi and South Carolina 
 there are also educational restrictions. Colo- 
 rado, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming admit wo- 
 men to the franchise on equal terms with men. 
 The number of members to which each State 
 is entitled is determined by the census taken 
 every ten years. By the Apportionment Act 
 consequent on the census of 1890, the number 
 of representatives was 357, distributed as fol- 
 lows : - 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusett 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 On the basis of the last census there is one 
 representative to every 173,900 inhabitants. 
 The popular vote for President in 1896 was 
 about 14,000,000, or nearly one in five of the 
 entire population. In 1890 there were in the 
 United States 16,940,311 males of voting age 
 21 years and over, including unnaturalized 
 foreigners. 
 
 The next apportionment will be based upon 
 the Federal census of 1900, the results of which 
 census will be reported to the Congress assem- 
 bling the first Monday in December of that 
 year, the Congress passing an apportionment 
 act providing the requisite number of repre- 
 
 9 
 
 Nevada . 
 
 6 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 7 
 2 
 
 New Jersey . 
 New York 
 
 4 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 1 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 2 
 
 Ohio 
 
 11 
 
 Oregon . 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 Rhode Island 
 
 13 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 11 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 8 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 11 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 6 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 4 
 
 Vermont 
 
 
 6 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 13 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 12 
 
 West Virgin! 
 
 j 
 
 7 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 7 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 1 
 
 Total . 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 '.'A 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 '21 
 '2 
 3D 
 2 
 7 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 1 
 2 
 
 10 
 2 
 4 
 
 10 
 1 
 
 357 
 
 
 CENSUS 
 
 APPORTION- 
 
 Whole 
 
 
 
 MENT 
 
 Nu'ber 
 of Reu- 
 
 Under 
 
 Year 
 
 Populat'n 
 
 Year 
 
 Ratio 
 
 resent- 
 atives 
 
 Constitution 
 
 
 
 
 
 1789 
 
 30,000 
 
 65 
 
 First Census 
 
 1790 
 
 3,929,214 
 
 1793 
 
 33,000 
 
 105 
 
 Second Census 
 
 1800 
 
 5,308,483 
 
 1803 
 
 33,000 
 
 141 
 
 Third Census 
 
 1810 
 
 7,239,881 
 
 1813 
 
 35,000 
 
 181 
 
 Fourth Census 
 
 1820 
 
 9,633,822 
 
 1823 
 
 40.000 
 
 213 
 
 Fifth Census 
 
 1830 
 
 12,866,020 
 
 1833 
 
 47,700 
 
 240 
 
 Sixth Census 
 
 1840 
 
 17,069,453 
 
 1843 
 
 70,680 
 
 223 
 
 Seventh Census 
 
 1850 
 
 23,191,876 
 
 1853 
 
 93,423 
 
 233 
 
 Eighth Census 
 
 1863 
 
 31,443,321 
 
 1863 
 
 127,381 
 
 243 
 
 Ninth Census 
 
 1870 
 
 38,558,371 
 
 1873 
 
 131,425 
 
 293 
 
 Tenth Census 
 
 1880 
 
 50,155,783 
 
 1883 
 
 151,911 
 
 325 
 
 Eleve'th Census 
 
 1890 
 
 62,622,250 
 
 1893 
 
 173,901 
 
 356 
 
 sentatives from each State, and notifying the 
 respective States of this action. Each State 
 will then rearrange its congressional districts 
 for the next election, which will take place 
 in November, 1902, and the apportionment 
 then established in accordance with the next 
 enumeration will hold for ten years. The 
 apportionment at the various censuses has 
 been as follows : 
 
 According to the terms of the Constitution, 
 representatives must not be less than twenty, 
 five years of age, must have been citizens oi 
 the United States for seven years, and be resi- 
 dents in the States from which they are chosen. 
 In addition to the representatives from the 
 States, the House admits a "delegate" from 
 each organized Territory, who has the right 
 to speak on any subject and to make motions, 
 but not to vote. The delegates are elected in 
 the same manner as the representatives. 
 
 Each of the two houses of Congress is made 
 by the Constitution the "judge of the elec- 
 tions, returns, and qualifications of its own 
 members" ; and each of the houses may, with 
 the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 
 
 The Congress of the United States has the 
 power to propose alterations in the Constitu- 
 tion, by the 5th article of the same. The 
 article orders that the Congress, whenever two 
 thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, 
 shall propose amendments to the Constitution, 
 or, on the application of the Legislatures of 
 two thirds of all the States, shall call a con- 
 vention for proposing the amendments, which 
 in either case shall be valid to all intents and 
 purposes as part of the Constitution when 
 ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of 
 the several States, or by conventions in three 
 fourths thereof, as the one or other mode of 
 ratification may be proposed by Congress. 
 
 Slavery was abolished throughout the whole 
 of the United States by the Thirteenth Amend- 
 ment of the Constitution, adopted Dec. 18, 
 1865. The vast change in the political and 
 social organization of the Republic made by
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 13 
 
 this new fundamental law was completed by 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments of 
 the Constitution, adopted in 1868 and 1870, 
 which gave to the former slaves all the rights 
 and privileges of citizenship. 
 
 Under an act of Congress approved Jan. 20, 
 1874, the salary of a senator, representative, 
 or delegate in Congress is $5,000 per annum 
 with traveling expenses calculated at the rate 
 of twenty cents per mile, by the most direct 
 route of usual travel, and similar return, once 
 for each session of Congress. There is also 
 an annual allowance of $125 for stationery, 
 etc., for each member. The salary of the 
 Speaker of the House of Representatives is, 
 under the same Act of Congress, $8,000 per 
 annum. 
 
 No senator or representative can, during the 
 time for which he is elected, be appointed to 
 any civil office under authority of the United 
 States which shall have been created or the 
 emoluments of which shall have been increased 
 during such time; and no person holding any 
 office under the United States can be a member 
 of either house during his continuance in 
 office. No religious test is required as a quali- 
 fication to any office or public trust under the 
 United States. 
 
 The period usually termed "a Congress" 
 in legislative language continues for two years ; 
 as, for example, from noon, March 4, 1899, 
 until March 4, 1901, at which latter time the 
 term of the representatives to the Fifty-sixth 
 Congress expires, and the term of the new 
 House of Representatives commences ; but a 
 new Congress does not assemble, unless called 
 together by the President in special session, 
 until the first Monday in December following, 
 and the organization of the House, that is, the 
 election of the Speaker and other officers, takes 
 place on the first assembling, whether in special 
 session after the 4th of March of every second 
 year, as stated, or on the first Monday in De- 
 cember after its term begins. While the 
 sessions of the Senate are held contemporane- 
 ously with those of the House, its organization 
 may continue from Congress to Congress. 
 
 There are usually two sessions of each Con- 
 gress the first or long session, which may hold 
 until adjourned by resolution of the two Houses, 
 and the short session, which is the closing one, 
 and which expires on the 4th of March every 
 second year, the new Congress beginning its 
 term the same day. 
 
 Neither house of Congress can adjourn for j 
 more than three days at any one time without 
 the joint action of both. In case of a disagree- j 
 ment of the two houses as to adjournment, the 
 President has the right to prorogue the 
 Congress. 
 
 The Vice- President of the United States, a 
 before stated, is President of the Senate, but 
 he has no vote unless there is a tie. The 
 Senate has the sole power to try all impeach - 
 ments, and it acts upon the nominations for 
 appointment by the President ; it also acts 
 upon treaties submitted to it by the adminis- 
 tration. The Senate may be called in extra 
 session for these purposes by the President 
 without the Congress being called together. 
 
 All bills for raising revenue must originate 
 in the House of Representatives, but the Senate 
 may propose or concur with amendments to 
 such bills, as on all other bills. 
 
 Judiciary. The judicial system, like the 
 executive and legislative systems, is dual. The 
 Federal Government maintains courts for the 
 trial of civil causes arising out of the admiralty, 
 patent, banking, and other laws of the United 
 States ; of certain causes between citizens of 
 different States ; and of crimes against the 
 United States. These crimes are few in num- 
 ber, and the criminal jurisdiction of United 
 States courts is comparatively insignificant, 
 extending only to piracy, murder on the high 
 seas, offenses against the postal and revenue 
 laws, and the like. Almost all offenses against 
 the person and against property are dealt with 
 by the State courts ; also all civil causes where 
 the parties are residents of the same State, and 
 matters of probate, divorce, and bankruptcy. 
 
 In the separate States the lowest courts are 
 those held by Justices of the Peace, or, in 
 towns and cities, by Police Judges. In the 
 counties courts of record are held, some by 
 local county officers, others by District or 
 Circuit Judges, who go from county to county. 
 In these courts there are usually the grand and 
 petty jury. The highest court in each State 
 is the Supreme Court, or Court of Final Ap- 
 peal, with a Chief Justice and Associate 
 Judges. These judges are usually elected by 
 the people, but sometimes appointed by the 
 Governor, with or without the Senate or Coun- 
 cil; they usually hold office for terms of years, 
 but sometimes practically for life or during 
 good behavior. Their salaries vary from $2,500 
 to $7,500. 
 
 Of the Federal Courts the lowest are those 
 of the districts, of which there are about sixty, 
 each State forming one or more districts. 
 These courts may try any case of crime against 
 the United States not punishable with death. 
 Above these are nine Circuit Courts, each with 
 a Circuit Judge, with or without the local Dis- 
 trict Judge ; but one or two District Judges 
 may by themselves hold a Circuit Court. The 
 Circuit Court Judges appoint commissioners, 
 whose duty it is to arrest, examine, and com- 
 mit persons accused of crime against the
 
 14 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 United States, and to assist the Circuit and 
 District Judges in taking evidence for the trial 
 of such persons. These duties may, however, 
 be performed by a judge or magistrate of 
 either a State or the Federal Government. 
 Each of the nine Justices of the Supreme 
 Court must hold a Court in one of the nine 
 circuits at least once every two years, and with 
 each may be associated the Circuit or District 
 Judge. The Supreme Court consists of a 
 Chief Justice and eight Associate Judges, ap- 
 pointed by the President with the consent of 
 the Senate. It deals with appeals from in- 
 ferior courts, and has original jurisdiction in 
 cases affecting foreign ministers and consuls, 
 and those in which a State is a party. 
 
 Other courts with criminal jurisdiction are 
 the Court of the District of Columbia and 
 those of the Territories. There is also at 
 Washington a Court of Claims. 
 
 States and Territories. The Union 
 comprises thirteen original States, seven States 
 which were admitted without having been 
 organized as Territories dependent on the 
 Union, and twenty-five States which had been 
 Territories. Each State has its own constitu- 
 tion, which must be republican in form, and 
 each constitution derives its authority, not 
 from Congress, but from the population of the 
 State. In the case of the original States the 
 colonial charters were adopted, with more or 
 less modification, as State constitutions ; the 
 other States, before entering the Union, had 
 constitutions already made. Admission of 
 States into the Union is granted by special 
 Acts of Congress, either (1) in the form of 
 "enabling Acts," providing for the drafting 
 and ratification of a State constitution by the 
 people, in which case the Territory becomes a 
 State as soon as the conditions are fulfilled, 
 or (2) accepting a constitution already framed 
 and at once granting admission. 
 
 Each State is provided with a Legislature of 
 two Houses, a Governor, and other executive 
 officials, and a judicial system. Both Houses 
 of the Legislature are elective, but the Sena- 
 tors (having larger electoral districts) are less 
 numerous than the members of the House of 
 Representatives, while in some States their 
 terms are longer and, in a few, the Senate is 
 only partially renewed at each election. Mem- 
 bers of both Houses are paid at the same rate, 
 which varies from $150 to $1,500 per session, 
 or from $1 to $8 per day during session. The 
 duties of the two Houses are similar, but in 
 many States money bills must be introduced 
 first in the House of Representatives. The 
 Senate has to sit as a court for the trial of 
 officials impeached by the other House, and, 
 besides, has often the power to confirm or re- 
 
 ject appointments made by the Governor. In 
 most of the States the sessions are biennial, 
 the Governor having power to summon in 
 extraordinary session, but not to dissolve or 
 adjourn. State Legislatures are competent to 
 deal with all matters not reserved for the 
 Federal Government by the Federal Constitu- 
 tion, or falling within restrictions imposed by 
 the State constitutions. Among their powers 
 are the determinations of the qualifications for 
 the right of suffrage, and the control of all 
 elections to public office, including elections of 
 members of Congress and electors of President 
 and Vice-President ; the criminal law, both in 
 its enactment and in its execution, with unim- 
 portant exceptions, and the administration of 
 prisons ; the civil law, including all matters 
 pertaining to the possession and transfer of, 
 and succession to, property ; marriage and 
 divorce, and all other civil relations ; the char- 
 tering and control of all manufacturing, trad- 
 ing, transportation, and other corporations, 
 subject only to the right of Congress to regu- 
 late commerce passing from one State to 
 another; the regulation of labor ; education ; 
 charities ; licensing, including regulation of 
 the liquor traffic ; fisheries and game laws. 
 The revenues of the States are derived chiefly 
 from a direct tax upon property, in some cases 
 both real and personal, in others on land and 
 buildings only. The prohibition upon Con- 
 gress to levy direct taxes save in proportion to 
 population, contained in the National Consti- 
 tution, leaves this source of revenue to the 
 States exclusively. 
 
 The Governor is chosen by direct vote of the 
 people over the whole State. His term of 
 office varies from one year (in 2 States), to four 
 years (in 19 States), and his salary from $1,500 
 to $10,000. His duty is to see to the faithful 
 administration of the law, and he has com- 
 mand of the military forces of the State. His 
 power of appointment to State offices i* usually 
 unimportant. He may recommend measures 
 but does not present bills to the Legislature. 
 In some States he presents estimates. In all 
 the States except Delaware, North Carolina, 
 Ohio, and Rhode Island, the Governor has the 
 power to veto bills, but where this power ex- 
 ists the Legislature, by a two thirds vote, may 
 override the veto. 
 
 The officers by whom the administration of 
 State affairs is carried on the Secretaries, 
 Treasurers, and Auditors, and in some of the 
 States members of boards or commissions 
 are usually chosen by the people at the general 
 State elections for terms similar to those for 
 which Governors themselves hold office. In 
 some States commissioners are appointed by 
 the Governor.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 15 
 
 Including Hawaii, there are now six Terri- 
 tories, and when the status of Porto Rico is 
 established there will probably be seven Terri- 
 tories. Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma 
 have local Legislatures, the form of which has 
 been prescribed by the Federal Government ; 
 they have powers similar to those of the States, 
 but any of their acts may be modified or an- 
 nulled by Federal statutes. 
 
 The Governor of each of the Territories, 
 except the Indian Territory, is appointed for 
 four years by the President, to whom annual 
 reports are submitted. These Governors have 
 the power of veto over the acts of Territorial 
 Legislatures. The President appoints the Ter- 
 ritorial Secretaries and other officials, together 
 with Territorial judges. 
 
 Alaska and the Indian Territory have no 
 power of self-government, the former being 
 governed like a British crown colony, by a 
 Governor who is not assisted by a Legislature. 
 In the Indian Territory the native tribes are 
 under the direct control of the Department of 
 the Interior, but the civilized tribes, with the 
 support of the National Government, maintain 
 local governments of their own, with elective 
 Legislatures and executive officers, whose 
 functions are strictly limited to the persons 
 and personal property of their own citizens ; 
 that is, the Indians. 
 
 The District of Columbia presents an anom- 
 alous status. It is the seat of the Federal 
 Government. It is coextensive with and is 
 practically the City of Washington, and em- 
 braces an area of 69 square miles. The Dis- 
 trict has no municipal legislative body, and its 
 citizens have no right to vote, either in national 
 or municipal affairs. Under an act of 1878 
 its municipal government is administered by 
 three commissioners, appointed by the Presi- 
 dent. They constitute a non-partisan board, 
 one being selected from each of the leading 
 political parties, and the third being assigned 
 to duty as a commissioner from the Engineer 
 Corps of the army. Ail legislation relative 
 to the District of Columbia is by the Congress. 
 
 All the legislatures, State and Territorial, 
 have biennial sessions, except Georgia. Mas- 
 sachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Rhode 
 Island, and South Carolina, which have an- 
 nual- sessions, beginning in January of each 
 year, with the exception of Georgia, whose 
 Legislature meets in October. Nearly all the 
 present biennial sessions began in January, 
 1899. The States whose Legislatures meet in 
 January, 1900, are Iowa. Kentucky, Maryland, 
 Mississippi, and Ohio. Alabama's next bien- 
 nial session begins in November, 1900, Lou- 
 isiana's in May, 1900, and Vermont's in 
 October, 1900. 
 
 HAAVAII. 
 
 Constitution and Government. The 
 
 Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands, discovered by 
 Captain . Cook in 1778, formed during the 
 greater part of the nineteenth century an in- 
 dependent kingdom, whose integrity was recog- 
 nized by Great Britain, France, the United 
 States, and other governments. In 1893, how- 
 ever, the reigning Queen, Liliuokalani, was 
 deposed, and a provisional government formed ; 
 in 1894 a Republic was proclaimed, with a 
 Legislature of two Houses and a President ; 
 and in accordance with a resolution of Congress 
 I of July 7, 1898, the islands were on August 
 12, 1898, formally annexed to the United 
 States. Five commissioners were appointed to 
 recommend such legislation concerning the is- 
 lands as they should deem necessary and proper, 
 and in the beginning of December the report 
 of the Commission with its legislative pro- 
 posals was transmitted to Congress. The 
 principal Bill, providing for the erection of the 
 islands into a Territory, to be styled the Ter- 
 ritory of Hawaii, was enacted by the first 
 session of the Fifty-sixth Congress, and was 
 approved by the President, April 30, 1900. All 
 whites, including Portuguese, all persons of 
 African descent, and all descendants of 
 Hawaiian race, either on the paternal or the 
 maternal side, who were citizens of Hawaii 
 immediately prior to the transfer of the 
 sovereignty to the United States, are declared 
 citizens of the United States. Prior to the trans- 
 fer all Hawaiians of full age who could speak, 
 read, and write either Hawaiian or English, had 
 the right to vote. The number of registered 
 electors on September 3, 1897, was 2,687. 
 
 Area and Population. The total area 
 of the islands is 6,640 square miles : namely, 
 Hawaii, 4,210 ; Maui, 760 ; Oahu, 600 ; Kauai, 
 590 ; Molokai, 270 ; Lanai, 150 ; Niihau, 97 ; 
 Kahoolawe, 63 square miles. In 1896 the pop- 
 ulation numbered 109,020 (72,517 males and 
 36,503 females). Of the total, 31,019 were na- 
 tives, 8,485 half-castes, 21,616 Chinese, 24,407 
 Japanese, 15,191 Portuguese, 3,086 Americans, 
 2, 250 British, 1,432 Germans, 37 8 Norwegians, 
 101 French, 455 Polynesians, and 600 other 
 foreigners. The population comprised 7,570 
 persons engaged in agriculture. 2,100 in fishing 
 and navigation, 2,265 in the industries, 2,031 
 in trade and transport, 2,580 in liberal pro- 
 fessions, 34,498 laborers, 4,310 of various occu- 
 pations, and 53,726 without regular occupa- 
 tion. The native population (closely allied to 
 the Maories of New Zealand) is rapidly de- 
 creasing,while the foreign element is increasing. 
 
 Commerce, Shipping, and Com- 
 munications. The islands are to a great 
 extent mountainous and volcanic, but the soil
 
 16 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 is highly fertile and productive. Sugar and 
 rice are the staple industries, while coffee, 
 hides, bananas, and wool are also exported. 
 
 Steamers connect the islands with the 
 American continent, Australasia, and China. 
 In 1897 there were 62 registered vessels be- 
 longing to the islands, of 34,066 tons; of 
 these, 21 of 28,510 tons were built in England. 
 There are about 100 miles of railway in the 
 islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu. There 
 are telegraphs in the islands of Maui, Hawaii, 
 between Hawaii and Oahu, and round the lat- 
 ter island ; total length , 250 miles ; nearly 
 every family in Honolulu has its telephone. 
 In 1897 the total number of letters, etc., trans- 
 mitted and received by the Post Office was 
 5,079,872 ; there were 73 post offices. Postal 
 savings banks, 1897 : depositors, 10,620 ; 
 amount, $953,981. Honolulu is lighted by 
 electricity, and has lines of tramways. The 
 various islands will shortly be connected by 
 telegraphic cable. 
 
 PORTO RICO. 
 
 Area, Population, Etc. The island 
 of Porto Rico (added to the United States by 
 Spain in accordance with the Treaty of Paris, 
 signed Dec. 10, 1898, and ratified by the 
 Senate Feb. 6, 1899, and by the Queen Regent 
 of Spain March 17), according to a recent re- 
 port of the British consul (Foreign Office, 
 Annual Series, No. 1,917, 1897), has an extent 
 of about 3,668 square miles 35 miles broad 
 and 95 miles long. The population, according 
 to an enumeration made in 1900, was 953,243. 
 
 Government. An act providing for a 
 civil government for Porto Rico was passed 
 by the Fifty-sixth Congress, and received the 
 assent of the President, April 12, 1900. 
 Under this act a civil government was 
 established, which went into effect May 1, 
 1900. 
 
 Geographical Formation, The island 
 is traversed from east to west by a moun- 
 tain range, dividing the island into two 
 unequal portions, by far the longest slope 
 being on the north, so that the rivers on that 
 coast are much the longer. From this chain 
 several branches diverge toward the north 
 coast, giving it a rugged appearance. The 
 most of the population is situated on the low- 
 lands at the sea front of the hills. For lack 
 of roads, the interior is accessible only by 
 mule trails or saddle paths, and it is covered 
 with vast forests. 
 
 Rivers and brooks are numerous, forty-seven 
 very considerable rivers having been enumer- 
 ated. They are short and rapid, especially on 
 the Caribbean slopes, which are steep and 
 abrupt. The mountains intercept the north- 
 
 east trade winds blowing from the Atlantic 
 and wring their moisture from them, so that 
 the rainfall of the north section is very copious. 
 South of the mountains severe droughts occur 
 and agriculture demands irrigation, but such 
 work is unsystematically carried on. 
 
 The northeast coast is broken and forbid- 
 ding ; that of the south safer. The chief port 
 on the north coast is the capital, San Juan. 
 On the west is the important harbor of Maya- 
 guez. On the south side are Guanica, Ponce, 
 and Guayama. The island of Vieques, which 
 lies off the east coast of Porto Rico, is 21 
 miles long and 6 miles wide. 
 
 Climate. The climate is hot, but much 
 alleviated by the prevailing northeast winds. 
 A temperature as high as 117 Fahrenheit has 
 been recorded, but it seldom exceeds 97 Fah- 
 renheit in the shade during the hottest hours. 
 At night it sinks to 68 or 69. The rainj 
 season lasts from August to December, and the 
 rainfall is at times so copious north of the 
 mountains as to inundate cultivated fields and 
 produce swamps. The mean annual average 
 rainfall is 64 inches. The prevailing diseases 
 are yellow fever, elephantiasis, tetanus, marsh 
 fever, and dysentery. 
 
 Productions. Porto Rico is unusually 
 fertile, and its dominant industries are agri- 
 culture and lumbering. In elevated regions 
 the vegetation of the temperate zone is not 
 unknown. There are more than 500 varieties 
 of trees found in the forests, and the plains 
 are full of palm, orange, and other trees. The 
 principal crops are sugar, coffee, tobacco, cot- 
 ton, and maize, but bananas, rice, pineapples, 
 and many other fruits are important products. 
 
 The principal minerals found in Porto Rico 
 are gold, carbonates, and sulphides of copper 
 and magnetic oxide of iron in large quantities. 
 Lignite is found at Utuado and Moca, and also 
 yellow amber. A large variety of marbles, 
 limestones, and other building stones are de- 
 posited on the island, but these resources are 
 very undeveloped. There are salt works at 
 Guanica and Salinac on the south coast, and at 
 Cape Rojo on the west, and these constitute the 
 principal mineral industry in Porto Rico. 
 
 Inter-Communication. Railways are 
 in their infancy, and cart roads are deficient. 
 There are 137 miles of railway, with 170 miles 
 under construction, and 470 miles of telegraph 
 lines. These connect the capital with the 
 principal ports south and west. Submarine 
 cables run from San Juan to St. Thomas and 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Cities. The capital of Porto Rico is San 
 Juan Bautista, founded by Ponce de Leon. 
 It is situated on the small island of Morro, 
 now connected with the mainland by the San
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 17 
 
 Antonio Bridge. The district of its name con- 
 tains 27,000 inhabitants. On the western end 
 of the island Ponce de Leon built the Govern- 
 or's palace, inclosed within the Santa Catalina 
 fortifications, where also are the cathedral, 
 town house, and theater. This portion of the 
 city is now called Pueblo Viejo. It is an 
 Episcopal see subordinate to the Archbishop 
 of Santiago de Cuba. The city is strongly 
 fortified for the defense of the entrance to the 
 outer harbor. The interior harbor is land- 
 locked, capacious, and safe, and is being 
 dredged to a uniform depth of twenty-nine 
 feet. The houses are of stone, usually one 
 story high, and have roof gardens, from which 
 fine marine views may be enjoyed. Almost 
 every house has a garden in its patio or court. 
 Besides the capital, San Juan, there are 
 some sixty or seventy towns and villages of 
 considerable size in the island. Of these the 
 most important are Ponce and Arecibo, each 
 with a larger population than San Juan (that 
 of Ponce being about 35,000 or 40,000, while 
 that of San Juan is estimated at 25,000) ; 
 Mayaguez (also larger than the capital) and 
 Aguadilla, on the west coast ; Farjardo and Hu- 
 macao, on the east coast : Guanica and Aroyo, 
 on the south, and Pepino and Cayey, in the 
 interior. 
 
 Commerce. The foreign trade of Porto 
 Rico in 1896 amounted to 836,624,120, the 
 imports being valued at 18,945,793, and the 
 exports at 817,295,535. The largest trade 
 was done with Spain, being $11,259,702, and 
 the next largest with the United States, 86,- 
 526,029. In the year 1897 the imports from 
 the United States were 81,988,888, and the 
 exports to the United States 82,181,024. The 
 imports from the United States included petro- 
 leum, ironware, dried and salted meats, tex- 
 tiles, and dairy products. Rice was the prin- 
 cipal article of import from the rest of the 
 world. 
 
 The largest article of export from Porto 
 Rico is coffee, which is over 63 per cent, of the 
 whole. The next largest is sugar, 28 per cent. 
 The other exports in order of amount are to- 
 bacco, honey, molasses, cattle, timber, and hides. 
 
 PHILIPPIXE ISLANDS. 
 
 These islands, ceded by Spain to the United 
 States by the treaty signed by the Peace Com- 
 missioners, Dec. 10, 1898, and ratified by the 
 Senate, Feb. 6, 1899, and by the Queen Re- 
 gent of Spain March 17, extend almost due 
 north and south from Formosa to Borneo and 
 the Moluccas, embracing an extent of 16 of 
 latitude and 9 of longitude. They are about 
 2,000 in number ; the two largest are Luzon 
 (area 40,024 square miles) and Mindanao; 
 
 and the total area, including the Sulu Islands, 
 is about 115,300 square miles. The popula- 
 tion is estimated at about 8,000,000. The 
 capital of the Philippines, Manila, has 154,062 
 inhabitants (1887); other towns are Laoag, 
 30,642; Lipa, 43,408; Banang, 35,598; Ba- 
 tangas, 35,587. There are about 25,000 Euro- 
 peans in the islands and about 100,000 Chi- 
 nese, in whose hands are the principal indus- 
 tries. The native inhabitants are mostly of 
 the Malayan race, but there are some tribes of 
 | Negritos. The group is divided into three 
 governments : Luzon, the Visayas, and Min- 
 danao with the Sulu Islands ; but in many of 
 I the islands the natives have hitherto been 
 practically independent. 
 
 Financial and Industrial Condi- 
 tions. Silver is the basis of the currency in 
 the Philippine Islands. There is no gold in 
 general circulation, and has been none for 
 more than twenty years. The Mexican dollar 
 of a date previous to 1877 is current in the 
 islands, and it is practically the only money in 
 general circulation. The Spanish Govern- 
 ment, in the summer of 1897, coined 86,000,- 
 000 of silver in a local currency, which was 
 sent to the islands. These dollars are lighter 
 in weight than the Mexican dollar, but the 
 scarcity of money in the Philippine Islands 
 caused them to be quickly absorbed. There 
 is a local note-issuing bank, called the Banco 
 Espanol Filipino, which has in circulation 
 notes based on silver, of which there was out- 
 standing on Sept. 30. 1898, approximately 
 82,500,000. 
 
 It is estimated there are in circulation 810,- 
 000,000 of subsidiary coins, the 10-cent, 20- 
 cent, and 50-cent pieces, which have been re- 
 coined from Mexican dollars by the Spanish 
 Government. The estimate of the Mexican 
 dollars now in circulation, as given by one of 
 the best-informed bankers in the islands, is 
 from 820,000,000 to 825,000,000. This, with 
 the 82,500,000 of notes of the Banco Espanol 
 Filipino now in circulation, constitutes the 
 currency of the islands. This would make a 
 total of from 840,000,000 to 845,000,000, 
 speaking roughly, for the entire islands, or, 
 approximately, 85 per capita for the total pop- 
 ulation of the islands. It must not be over- 
 looked that these figures are given on a silver 
 basis, and that, therefore, in figuring on our 
 own standard all of these figures must be cut 
 in two. On a gold basis, the currency of the 
 islands is, therefore, from 820, 000,000 to 822,- 
 500,000, or 82.50 per capita, figuring on the 
 total population of the islands. 
 
 Three banking institutions do the banking 
 business of the Philippine Islands aside from 
 that done by the large commercial houses.
 
 18 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 which buy and sell exchange, and to a limited 
 extent carry on the business which legitimate- 
 ly belongs to banking institutions. Of the 
 three banks, the two most important are 
 branch concerns, the third being a local insti- 
 tution controlled by Spaniards and natives. 
 
 There are about 25,000 Europeans resi- 
 dent in the islands (the total population is 
 nearly 8,000,000), of course, not counting the 
 troops. Some 12,000 are established in the 
 capital, Manila, the center of the colonial gov- 
 ernment. English, Spanish, and German 
 houses are engaged in trade, advancing money 
 to the natives on their crops. Such business 
 methods involve risks and necessitate large 
 capital in the beginning, but the profits are 
 immense. The land is fertile and productive, 
 and lacks only intelligent cultivation. Abaca 
 (manila hemp) is one of the chief sources of 
 wealth of the country. Sugar cane does not 
 give as satisfactory returns, owing largely to 
 the ignorance of planters. The average 
 production is 178,000,000 kilograms (175,- 
 186.96 tons), while that of Cuba is equal to 
 720,000,000 kilograms. The sugar goes 
 almost entirely to Japan, England, and the 
 United States. It is of poor quality and very 
 cheap. The cultivation of tobacco is one of 
 the most important industries, although it is 
 capable of much greater development. The 
 native coffee, although not equal to the mocha 
 or bourbon varieties, has a fine aroma. It 
 goes chiefly to Spain. Cocoa trees grow in 
 abundance, and the oil is used for lighting 
 houses and streets. The indigo is famous for 
 its superior qualities. The inhabitants are 
 apathetic to a degree that is noticeable even in 
 these countries, where every one is averse to 
 exertion. The women have long and slender 
 fingers, remarkably fine and sensitive, and 
 well adapted to their work. The hats and 
 cigarette-holders they make and the articles 
 they embroider are models of delicacy. Cot- 
 ton spinning and work in bamboo are among 
 the chief industries. 
 
 The fiber which gets its common name from 
 the city of Manila is perennial and requires 
 little cultivation ; in fact, it does very well 
 without any. It reaches the proportions of a 
 tree, but its soft stem is cut with a knife, 
 though several inches in diameter, and the 
 decortication of the fiber is rather a matter of 
 time and patience than of skill or hard work. 
 About a million bales are exported annually, 
 nearly all of it going to England or coming to 
 this country, and our importation of the fiber 
 has been increasing. 
 
 The sugar culture has remained in its prime- 
 val condition because the supply of labor was 
 so great that there was no incentive to econo- 
 
 mize labor, and there was no United States at 
 hand, as in the case of Cuba, to invest money 
 in plantations and develop the business in ac- 
 cordance with modern ideas. There is no 
 doubt that the culture of the cane can be im- 
 mensely extended, and the methods of produc- 
 tion would be modernized very rapidly if capital 
 were directed toward the islands and there 
 were a greater degree of confidence in their 
 future. 
 
 The tobacco is as well known in Europe and 
 Asia as the tobacco of Cuba is in this country ; 
 it is extensively cultivated and its manufacture 
 is the staple business of the capital city. 
 
 Commerce. In 1891 the Philippines' 
 exports to Spain amounted to $ 2 2, 47 9,000 
 ($18,095,595 in United States currency). In 
 
 1891 the Philippines' imports from Spain 
 amounted to $17,126,000 ($13,786,430). 
 
 The total exports from the Philippines in 
 
 1892 consisted of 95,016 tons of hemp; 3,951,- 
 060 piculs (553,148,400 pounds) of sugar; 
 21,223 piculs (2,971,220 pounds) of coffee; 
 61,459 piculs (8,604,260 pounds) of sampan- 
 wood ; 5,570 piculs (779,800 pounds) of indigo ; 
 254,428 quintals (56,091,197 pounds) of to- 
 bacco leaf ; 137,059,000 cigars. The total 
 exports in 1892 were of the value of $33,479,- 
 000 ($23,803,569). Total value of imports, 
 in 1892, were of the value of $27,000,000 
 ($19,197,000). 
 
 The imports into the Philippines from the 
 United States in 1897 were but $94,597, the 
 principal item being mineral oils. The exports 
 to the United States were $4,383,740, the 
 largest items being hemp, $2,701,651, and 
 cane sugar, $1,199,202. 
 
 Climate. Mr. Hilder, Assistant Secretary 
 of the National Geographical Society, who 
 spent nine months in the islands, says in the 
 Forum that there is considerable variety in 
 the climate, and that for the tropics it is not 
 excessively hot. On the western side of Luzon 
 the hot season is from March till June, May 
 being the hottest month, when the tempera- 
 ture ranges from 80 to 100. The mean tem- 
 perature for the month is 84, 2 above the 
 summer temperature of New Orleans and 9 
 above the hottest month in Washington. 
 From October to March is a cool, dry season. 
 The northern islands are subject to terrific 
 storms, which never pass south of 9 north 
 latitude. 
 
 Railways and Shipping. In a report 
 published in Special Consular Reports, High- 
 ways of Commerce, Consul Elliott, of Manila, 
 says that there is but one railway in the 
 islands from Manila to Dagupin a distance 
 of 123 miles. It is single track and well built, 
 steel rails being used its entire length, the
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 19 
 
 bridges being of stone or iron, and the station 
 buildings substantial. English engines are 
 used, which make 45 miles per hour. The 
 Government assisted in the construction of the 
 road by making valuable concessions of land 
 with right of way its entire length and by 
 guaranteeing 8 per cent, per year upon the 
 stock of the road for a period of ninety-nine 
 years, when it is to become State property. 
 So far, adds the Consul, the road has paid 
 more than 10 per cent, per annum to share- 
 holders. 
 
 Mr. Elliott also states that the Compania 
 Transatlantic a (Manila-Liverpool) maintains 
 a monthly service to Europe ; that there are 
 four lines of steamers to Hong Kong, and many 
 local lines plying between Manila and the 
 provinces, the largest having twenty-eight 
 steamers of 25,000 tonnage. 
 
 GUAM (LADROXES). 
 
 The Island of Guam or Guahan, the largest 
 in the Marianne or Ladrone Archipelago, was 
 ceded by Spain to the LTnited States in 1898, 
 and will probably be used as a coaling station 
 for the United States navy. The. island is 
 about 32 miles long and 100 miles in circum- 
 ference, and has a population of about 9,000, 
 of whom about 6,000 are in Agana, the capital. 
 The inhabitants are mostly immigrants or the 
 descendants of immigrants from the Philip- 
 pines, the original race of the Marianne Islands 
 having become extinct. The recognized lan- 
 guage is Spanish, but English is also spoken. 
 On the island there are 18 schools, and nine 
 tenths of the islanders can read and write. 
 The island is thickly wooded, well watered, 
 and fertile, and possesses a roadstead. 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 Government. Cuba after having been 
 continuously in the possession of Spain from 
 its discovery, was by the peace preliminaries 
 and by the definite treaty signed by the Peace 
 Commissioners at Paris, December 10, 1898, and 
 ratified by the Senate February 6, 1899, and by 
 the Queen Regent of Spain March 17, 1899, re- 
 linquished by Spain, and thus has the position 
 of an independent state. The direct armed 
 interposition of the United States in the 
 struggle against Spanish domination has, how- 
 ever, brought the island into close association 
 with the United States Government, and 
 though Congress has affirmed Cuban independ- 
 ence, the island is now held in military 
 occupation by the United States forces. So 
 long as the occupation lasts the United States 
 Government assumes and discharges the result- 
 ing obligations with respect to the protection 
 of life and property, and a military Governor 
 General has been appointed, \vho will control 
 
 all branches of the administration, civil and 
 military ; while in Havana and each of the six 
 provinces military governors have been or are 
 being appointed, who will receive instructions 
 from the Governor General. 
 
 Area and Population. The area .of 
 Cuba is about 45,872 square miles. Ten per 
 cent, of the area is cultivated, 7 per cent, is unre- 
 claimed, and 4 per cent, is under forests. There 
 are large tracts of country still unexplored. 
 The population of the island in 1894 was 
 given as 1,631,696, of which 65 per cent, was 
 white, the remainder being negro. The 
 capital, Havana, has 200,000 inhabitants ; 
 Matanzas (1892), 27,000 ; Santiago de Cuba, 
 71,307; Cienfuegos (1892), 27,430; Puerto 
 Principe, 46,641 ; Holguin, 34,767 ; Sancti 
 Spiritu, 32,608; Cardenas (1892), 23,680. 
 Education was made obligatory in 1880. 
 There are 843 public schools in the island, 
 and Havana has a university. 
 
 Consul Hyatt, of Santiago do Cuba, in a 
 report dated January 8, 1897, and printed in 
 Consular Reports No. 197 (February, 1897), 
 p. 262, says that the area of Cuba is about 
 equal to that of the State of Pennsylvania, the 
 length being 775 miles and the width varying 
 from 30 to 160 miles. The productive soil, 
 mineral wealth , and climatic conditions of the 
 island entitle it to rank among the foremost 
 communities of the world. The soil is a 
 marvel of richness, and fertilizers are seldom 
 used, unless in the case of tobacco, even 
 though the same crops be grown on the same 
 land for a hundred years, as has happened in 
 some of the old sugar cane fields. The moun- 
 tains are of coral formation , while the lowlands 
 of eastern Cuba at least seem to be composed 
 largely of fossils of sea matter from prehistoric 
 times a'nd are extremely rich in lime and 
 phosphate, which accounts for their apparent 
 inexhaustibleness. 
 
 Although founded and settled more than 
 fifty years before the United States, Cuba has 
 still 13,000,000 acres of primeval forests ; ma- 
 hogany, cedar, logwood, redwood, ebony, 
 lignum-vitae, and caiguaran (which is more 
 durable in the ground than iron or steel ) are 
 among the woods. 
 
 If all the land suitable to the growth of 
 sugar cane were devoted to that industry, it is 
 estimated that Cuba might supply the entire 
 Western Heniispliere with sugar. The island 
 has already produced in a single year for ex- 
 port 1,000,000 tons, and its capabilities have 
 only been in the experimental stage. The 
 adaptability of the soil for tobacco culture has 
 long been known. Cuba tqkes great pride in 
 the quality of her coffee, and until the war the 
 plantations were flourishing.
 
 20 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The land is not suitable to the cultivation 
 of cereals, and probably no flouring mill exists 
 on the island. 
 
 Finances. The estimated revenue for 
 1897-98 was 24,755,760 pesos (a peso equals 
 $0.965), of which 11,890,000 was from cus- 
 toms ; ordinary expenditure, 26,119,124 pesos, 
 of which 12,602,216 pesos was for the debt, 
 5,896,741 pesos for the Ministry of "War, and 
 4,036,088 pesos for the Ministry of the Inte- 
 rior. The extraordinary revenue was esti- 
 mated at over 80,000,000 pesos. The debt 
 was in 1896 put at about 70,220,000, of which 
 10,000,000, was due to the Spanish treasury. 
 
 The interest on the debt is estimated to im- 
 pose a burden of $9.75 per inhabitant. 
 
 Minerals. According to Consul Hyatt, 
 Cuba is capable of taking high rank in min- 
 eral wealth. Gold and silver have not been 
 found in paying quantities. Copper was 
 mined at Cobre by the natives before Colum- 
 bus discovered the island, and there is strong 
 proof that native copper was carried across to 
 Florida and used by the Florida Indians hun- 
 dreds of years ago. From 1828 to 1840 an 
 average of from $2,000,000 to $3,000,000 
 worth of copper ore was shipped annually to 
 the United States from these mines. 
 
 The iron mines of Cuba, all of which are 
 located near Santiago, overshadow in impor- 
 tance all other industries on the eastern end of 
 the island, constituting the only industry that 
 has made any pretense of withstanding the 
 shock of the present insurrection. The Jura- 
 gua and Daiquiri iron companies (American), 
 with a combined capital of over $5,000,000, 
 now operate mines in this vicinity and employ 
 from 800 to 1400 men, shipping to the United 
 States from 30,000 to 50,000 tons of iron ore 
 per month, the largest portion of which is used 
 at Bethlehem, Steelton, and Pittsburg, Pa., 
 and Sparrows Point, Md. The ore of these 
 mines is among the richest in the world, yield- 
 ing from 62 to 67 per cent, of pure iron, and 
 is very free from sulphur and phosphorus. 
 There are numerous undeveloped mines of 
 equal value in this region. 
 
 In the Sierra Maestra range, on the southern 
 coast of Cuba, from Santiago west to Manza- 
 nillo, within a distance of about 100 miles, 
 are found numerous deposits of manganese, an 
 ore indispensable in the manufacture of steel. 
 As nearly all the manganese used in the United 
 States comes from the Black Sea regions of 
 Europe and a smaller quantity from the north 7 
 ern part of South America, it is but reasonable 
 to suppose that the products of these near-by 
 mines will be in great demand when the con- 
 ditions are such that they can be operated in 
 safety. 
 
 In the district of Santiago de Ciiba, at the 
 end of 1891, the total number of mining titles 
 issued was 296, with an extent of 13,727 hec- 
 tares. Of the mines reported and claimed, 
 138 were iron, 88 manganese, and 53 copper. 
 
 Commerce and Industry. Railroads 
 and other highways, improved machinery, and 
 more modern methods of doing business are 
 among the wants of Cuba ; and with the on- 
 ward march of civilization these will doubtless 
 be hers in the near future. Cuba, like other 
 tropical and semi-tropical countries, is not 
 given to manufacturing ; her people would 
 rather sell the products of the soil and mines 
 and buy manufactured goods. The possibili- 
 ties of the island are great, while the probabili- 
 ties remain an unsolved problem. 
 
 The number of landed estates on the island 
 in 1891 was estimated at 90,960, of the value 
 of 220,000,000 pesos, and rental of 17,000,000 
 pesos. The live stock consisted of 584,725 
 horses and mules, 2,485,766 cattle, 78,494 
 sheep, and 570,194 pigs. The chief produce 
 is sugar and tobacco. The quantity of sugar 
 produced in the year 1894-95 was 1,004,264 
 tons; 1895-96, 225,221 tons; 1896-97,212,- 
 051 tons. The insurrection and incendiarism 
 in the island ruined the prospects of sugar 
 cultivation in 1896. The tobacco crop on an 
 average is estimated at 560,000 bales (1 bale 
 = 110 Ibs.), 338,000 bales being exported and 
 the remainder used in cigar and cigarette 
 manufacture in Havana. In 1896 the cigars 
 exported numbered 185,914,000. Tobacco 
 leaf exported in 1895, 30,466,000 Ibs. ; in 
 1896, 16,823,000 Ibs. The decrease in cigar 
 exports and decrease in leaf exports is due to 
 decree of May 12, 1896, forbidding tobacco- 
 leaf exports except to Spain. Cigarettes ex- 
 ported in 1895, 48,163,846 packets. Nearly 
 all the tobacco and nearly half of the cigars 
 go to the United States. About 80,000 of the 
 inhabitants are ordinarily engaged in the cul- 
 tivation of tobacco. Mahogany and other 
 timbers are exported, as are also honey, wax, 
 and fruits. The chief imports are rice, jerked 
 beef, and flour. The Spanish official returns 
 state the value of the imports from Cuba into 
 Spain for 1896 to be 21,898,215 Spanish 
 pesetas ($4,216,355.49), and the exports from 
 Spain to Cuba 134,461,675 pesetas ($25,951,- 
 003.27). In 1897 the imports of the United 
 States from Cuba amounted to $405,326,637, 
 and the exports from the United States to 
 Cuba $100,456,712. 
 
 Railways. According to a report pub- 
 lished in Special Consular Reports, "High- 
 ways of Commerce," there are ten railway 
 companies in Cuba, the most important being 
 the Ferrocarriles Unidos ; upward of 1000
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 21 
 
 miles of main line belong to these companies, 
 and there are, besides, private branch lines to 
 all the important sugar estates. The Ferro- 
 carriles Unidos has four lines, connecting Ha- 
 vana with Matanzas, Batabano, Union, and 
 Guanajay. The roads pass through the most 
 populous part of the country and connect Ha- 
 vana with other lines. 
 
 The Western Railway was begun some forty 
 years ago, and in 1891, when it was acquired 
 by an English company, had reached Puerto de 
 Golpe, 96 miles from Havana and 10 miles 
 from Pinar del Rio, the capital of the province 
 of that name and the center of the tobacco- 
 growing district. The line has been completed 
 to Pinar del Rio, and improvements have been 
 made in the old part, many of the bridges hav- 
 ing been replaced by new steel ones, the rails 
 renewed, modern cars put on, etc. 
 
 The other companies are : Ferrocarriles 
 Cardenas-Jacaro, the main line of which joins 
 the towns of Cardenas and Santa Clara ; Fer- 
 rocarril de Matanzas, having lines between 
 Matanzas and Murga, and also between Matan- 
 zas and Guareiras ; Ferrocarril de Sagua la 
 Grande, running between Concha and Cruces ; 
 Ferrocarril Cienfuegos-Santa Clara, connecting 
 those towns ; Ferrocarriles Unidos de Caibarien, 
 from Caibarien to Placetas ; Ferrocarril de 
 Puerto Principe-Nuevitas ; Ferrocarril de 
 Guantanamo. 
 
 The Marianao Railway also belongs to an 
 English company, with headquarters in Lon- 
 don. The original line, belonging to Cubans, 
 was opened in 1863, but liquidated and was 
 transferred to the present owners. The line, 
 only 8 miles in length, runs from Havana to 
 Marianao, with a branch line to a small vil- 
 lage on the coast. During 1894, over 750,000 
 passengers were carried, this being the chief 
 source of revenue. The carriages are of the 
 American type, and are fitted, as well as the 
 locomotives, with the Westinghouse automatic 
 brake ; the rails are of steel, weighing 60 
 pounds per yard. 
 
 Ports, Interior Transportation, Etc. 
 In 1895 the port of Havana was visited by 
 1179 vessels, of 1,681,325 tons; in 1897, 231 
 vessels, of 309,758 tons, visited Cienfuegos. 
 There are 54 ports in Cuba, of which 15 are 
 open to commerce. There are 19 lighthouses. 
 
 Cables. There are four cable lines con- 
 nected with Cuba. The International Ocean 
 Telegraph Company has a cable from Havana 
 to Florida ; the Cuban Submarine Company 
 has a cable connecting Havana with Santiago 
 de Cuba and Cienfuegos ; the West India and 
 Panama Company has a cable connecting Ha- 
 vana with Santiago de Cuba, Jamaica, Porto 
 Rico, the Lesser Antilles, and the Isthmus of 
 
 Panama ; the Compagnie Franchise de Cables 
 Sous-Marins has a line connecting Havana 
 with Santiago de Cuba, Haiti, Santo Domingo, 
 Venezuela, and Brazil. 
 
 The only three towns in Cuba having cable 
 connections are Havana, Cienfuegos, and San- 
 tiago de Cuba. 
 
 Telegraphs, Telephones, Etc. The 
 telegraph and telephone systems in Cuba be- 
 long to the Government, but the latter is 
 farmed out for a limited number of years to a 
 company called the Red Telefonica de la Ha- 
 bana. Nearly all the public and private build- 
 ings in the city and suburbs are connected by 
 telephone. 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPEND- 
 ENCE. 
 
 In Congress July 4> 1776. The unanimous 
 
 Declaration of the Thirteen United States of 
 
 America. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it be- 
 comes necessary for one people to dissolve the 
 political bands which have connected them 
 with another, and to assume, among the powers 
 of the earth, the separate and equal station to 
 which the laws of nature and of nature's God 
 entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions 
 of mankind requires that they should declare 
 the causes which impel them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident, that 
 all men are created equal, that they are en- 
 dowed, by their Creator, with certain unalien- 
 able rights, that among these are life, liberty, 
 and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure 
 these rights, governments are instituted among 
 men, deriving their just powers from the con- 
 sent of the governed, that whenever any form of 
 government becomes destructive of these ends, 
 it is the right of the people to alter or to abol- 
 ish it, and to institute new government, laying 
 its foundation on such principles, and organiz- 
 ing its powers in such form as to them shall 
 seem most likely to effect their safety and hap- 
 piness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that 
 governments long established should not be 
 changed for light and transient causes ; and 
 accordingly all experience hath shown that 
 mankind are more disposed to suffer where 
 evils are sufferable, than to right themselves 
 by abolishing the forms to which they are ac- 
 customed. But when a long train of abuses 
 and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same 
 object, evinces a design to reduce them under 
 absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their 
 duty, to throw off such government, and to 
 provide new guards for their future security. 
 Such has been the patient sufferance of these 
 colonies ; and such is now the necessity which 
 constrains them to alter their former system,
 
 22 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 of government. The history of the present 
 King of Great Britain is a history of repeated 
 injuries and usurpations, all having in direct 
 object the establishment of an absolute tyranny 
 over these states. To prove this, let facts be 
 submitted to a candid world. 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most 
 wholesome and necessary for the public good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws 
 of immediate and pressing importance, unless 
 suspended in their operation till his assent 
 should be obtained ; and when so suspended, 
 he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the 
 accommodation of large districts of people, un- 
 less these people would relinquish the right of 
 representation in the legislature a right ines- 
 timable to them, and formidable to tyrants 
 only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at 
 places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant 
 from the depository of their public records, for 
 the sole purpose of fatiguing them into com- 
 pliance with his measures. 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses re- 
 peatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his 
 invasions on the rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such 
 dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; 
 whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
 annihilation, have returned to the people at 
 large, for their exercise, the state remaining, 
 in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of 
 invasion from without, and convulsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population 
 of these states ; for that purpose obstructing 
 the laws for naturalization of foreigners, re- 
 fusing to pass others to encourage their migra- 
 tion hither, and raising conditions of new ap- 
 propriations of lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of 
 justice, by refusing his assent to laws establish- 
 ing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will 
 alone for the tenure of their offices, and the 
 amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, 
 and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass 
 our people, and eat out their substance. 
 
 He has kept among us, in times of peace, 
 standing armies, without the consent of our 
 legislatures. 
 
 He has affected to render the military in- 
 dependent of, and superior to, the civil power. 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us 
 to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, 
 and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his 
 assent to their acts of pretended legislation, 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops 
 among us : 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from 
 punishment from any murders which they 
 should commit on the inhabitants of these 
 states : 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of 
 the world : 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our con- 
 sent : 
 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the 
 benefits of trial by jury : 
 
 For transporting us beyond the seas to be 
 tried for pretended offenses : 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English 
 laws in a neighboring province, establishing 
 therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- 
 ing its boundaries, so as to render it at once an 
 example and fit instrument for introducing the 
 same absolute rule into these colonies : 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing 
 our most valuable laws, and altering, funda- 
 mentally, the powers of our governments : 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures and 
 declaring themselves invested with power to 
 legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here, by de- 
 claring us out of his protection, and waging 
 war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our 
 coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the 
 lives of our people. 
 
 He is, at this time, transporting large armies 
 of foreign mercenaries, to complete the works 
 of death, desolation and tyranny, already be- 
 gun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy 
 scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, 
 and totally unworthy the head of a civilized 
 nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken 
 captive on the high seas, to bear arms against 
 their country, to become the executioners of 
 their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves 
 by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections among 
 us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabi- 
 tants of our fi'ontiers the merciless Indian 
 savages, whose known rule of warfare is an 
 undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, 
 and conditions. 
 
 Tn every stage of these oppressions we have 
 petitioned for redress in the most humble 
 terms ; our repeated petitions have been an- 
 swered only by repeated injury. A prince 
 whose character is thus marked by every act 
 which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the 
 ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in attentions to 
 
 our British brethren. We have warned them, 
 
 from time to time, of attempts by their legis- 
 
 , lature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction 
 
 I over us. We have reminded them of the cir-
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 23 
 
 cumstances of our emigration and settlement 
 here. We have appealed to their native justice 
 and magnanimity, and we have conjured them 
 by the ties of our common kindred to disavow 
 these usurpations, which would inevitably in- 
 terrupt our connections and correspondence. 
 They too have been deaf to the voice of justice 
 and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, 
 acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our 
 separation, and hold them, as we hold the 
 rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace 
 friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the Representatives of the 
 United States of America, in General Congress 
 assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of 
 the world for the rectitude of our intentions, 
 do, in the name, and by authority of the good 
 people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and 
 declare, That these United Colonies are, and 
 of right ought to be, free and independent 
 States: that they are absolved from all alle- 
 giance to the British crown, and that all politi- 
 cal connection between them and the State of 
 Great Britain, is, and ought to be, totally dis- 
 solved ; and that as free and independent States, 
 they have full power to levy war, conclude 
 peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, 
 and to do all other acts and things which inde- 
 pendent States may of right do. And for the 
 support of this declaration, with a firm re- 
 liance on the protection of Divine Providence, 
 we mutually pledge to each other our lives, 
 our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 
 
 JOHN HAXCOCK. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 Josiah Bartlett, 
 William Whipple, 
 Matthew Thornton. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS HAY. 
 
 Samuel Adams, 
 John Adams, 
 Robert Treat Paine, 
 Elbridge Gerry. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Stephen Hopkins, 
 William Ellen". 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Roger Sherman, 
 Samuel Huntington, 
 William Williams, 
 Oliver Wclcott. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 "William Floyd. 
 Philip Livingston, 
 Francis Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 Richard Stockton, 
 John Witherspoon, 
 Francis Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, 
 Abraham Clark. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Robert Morris, 
 Benjamin Rush, 
 Benjamin Franklin, 
 John Morton, 
 George Clyiner, 
 
 James Smith, 
 George Taylor, 
 - James Wilson, 
 George Ross. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 Csesar Rodney, 
 George Read,' 
 Thomas M'Kean. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 Samuel Chase, 
 William Paco, 
 Thomas Stone, 
 Charles Carroll, of Car- 
 roll ton. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 George Wythe, 
 Richard Henry Lee, 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 Benjamin Harrison, 
 Thomas Nelson, Jr., 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee. 
 Carter Braxton. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 ' William Hooper, 
 Joseph Hewes, 
 John Penn. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Edward Rutledge, 
 Thomas Hey ward, Jr., 
 Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 GEOEGIA. 
 
 Button Gwinnett, 
 Lyman Hall, 
 George Walton. 
 
 IN CONGRESS, ) 
 Ordered; JANUARY 18, 1777. J 
 
 That an authenticated copy of the Declaration of 
 Independence, with the names" of the members of Con- 
 gress subscribing the same, be sent to each of the 
 I'nited States, and that they be desired to have the 
 same put on record. 
 By order of Congress. 
 
 JOHN HANCOCK, President. 
 Attest, CHAS. THOMSON, Secy. 
 A true copy. 
 
 JOHN HANCOCK, Presidt. 
 
 THE MECKLENBURG DECLARA- 
 TION. 
 
 Some thirteen months previous to the sign- 
 ing of the great Declaration of Independence 
 there was drawn up a document in Mecklen- 
 burg County, N. C., that was almost a model 
 in wording and sentiment of the great charter 
 of American liberty. There are different ac- 
 counts of the matter, but the most reliable is 
 this : 
 
 At a public meeting of the residents of 
 Mecklenburg County, in the State of North 
 Carolina, held at Charlotte on the 20th day of 
 May, 1775, it was 
 
 ' ' Resolved, That whenever directly or indi- 
 rectly abetted, or in any way, form, or manner 
 countenanced, the unchartered and dangerous 
 invasion of our rights, as claimed by Great 
 Britain, is an enemy of our country to 
 America and to the inherent and inalienable 
 rights of man. 
 
 " Resolved, That we, the citizens of Meck- 
 lenburg County, do hereby dissolve the politi- 
 cal bonds which have connected us to the 
 mother-country, and hereby absolve ourselves 
 from all allegiance to the British crown, and 
 abjure all political connection, contract or 
 association with that nation, which has wan- 
 tonly trampled on our rights and liberties and 
 inhumanly shed the blood of American pa- 
 triots at Lexington. 
 
 ' Resolved, That we do hereby declare our- 
 selves a free and independent people : are and 
 of right ought to be a sovereign and self-gov- 
 erning association, under the control of no 
 power other than that of our God and the gen- 
 eral government of the Congress. To the 
 maintenance of which independence we sol- 
 emnly pledge to each other our mutual co- 
 operation, our lives, our fortunes, and our 
 sacred honor." 
 
 Two other resolutions in the same docu- 
 ment, regarding administration of the law and 
 regulating the militia, having no present value, 
 are omitted. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
 STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 (Went into operation first Wednesday in March, 1789.) 
 
 Preamble. We, the people of the United 
 
 States, in order to form a more perfect union,
 
 24 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, 
 provide for the common defense, promote the 
 general welfare, and secure the blessings of 
 liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain 
 and establish this Constitution for the United 
 States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 SECTION I. 1 . All legislative powers here- 
 in granted shall be vested in a Congress of the 
 United States, which shall consist of a Senate 
 and House of Representatives. 
 
 SECTION II. 1. The House of Represent- 
 atives shall be composed of members chosen 
 every second year by the people of the several 
 States ; ^,nd the electors in each State shall 
 have the qualifications requisite for electors of 
 the most numerous branch of the State Legis- 
 lature. 
 
 2. No person shall be a Representative who 
 shall not have attained to the age of twenty- 
 five years, and been seven years a citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when elect- 
 ed, be an inhabitant of that State in which he 
 shall be chosen. 
 
 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be 
 apportioned among the several States which 
 may be included within this Union, according 
 to their respective numbers, which shall be de- 
 termined by adding to the whole number of 
 free persons, including those bound to service 
 for a term of years, and excluding Indians not 
 taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The 
 actual enumeration shall be made within three 
 years after the first meeting of the Congress of 
 the United States, and within every subse- 
 quent term of ten years, in such manner as 
 they shall by law direct. The number of Rep- 
 resentatives shall not exceed one for every 
 thirty thousand, but each State shall have at 
 least one Representative ; and until such 
 enumeration shall be made, the State of New 
 Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; 
 Massachusetts, eight ; Rhode Island and Provi- 
 dence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; 
 New York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsyl- 
 vania, eight ; Delaware, one ; Maryland, six ; 
 Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South 
 Carolina, five, and Georgia three. 
 
 4. "When vacancies happen in the represen- 
 tation from any State, the executive authority 
 thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 5 . The House of Representatives shall choose 
 their speaker and other officers ; and shall have 
 the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 SECTION III. 1. The Senate of the United 
 States shall be composed of two Senators from 
 each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof; 
 
 for six years ; and each Senator shall have one 
 vote. 
 
 2. Immediately after they shall be assem- 
 bled in consequence of the first election, they 
 shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
 classes. The seats of the Senators of the first 
 class shall be vacated at the expiration of the 
 second year, of the second class at the expira- 
 tion of the fourth year, and of the third class 
 at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one 
 third may be chosen every second year; and if 
 vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, 
 during the recess of the Legislature of any 
 State, the executive thereof may make tempo^ 
 rary appointments until the next meeting of 
 the Legislature, which shall then fill such va- 
 cancies. 
 
 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall 
 not have attained to the age of thirty years, 
 and been nine years a citizen of the United 
 States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 
 inhabitant of that State for which he shall be 
 chosen. 
 
 4. The Vice-President of the United States 
 shall be President of the Senate, but shall have 
 no vote unless they be equally divided. 
 
 5. The Senate shall choose their other offi- 
 cers, and also a President pro tempore, in the 
 absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall 
 exercise the office of President of the United 
 States. 
 
 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to 
 try all impeachments. When sitting for that 
 purpose, they shall all be on oath or affirma- 
 tion. When the President of the United 
 States is tried, the chief-justice shall preside : 
 and no person shall be convicted without the 
 concurrence of two thirds of the members 
 present. 
 
 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall 
 not extend further than to removal from office, 
 and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
 office of honor, trust, or profit under the 
 United States ; but the party convicted shall 
 nevertheless be liable and subject to indict- 
 ment, trial, judgment, and punishment, ac- 
 cording to law. 
 
 SECTION IV. 1. The times, places and 
 manner of holding elections for Senators and 
 Representatives shall be prescribed in each 
 State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Con- 
 gress may at any time by law make or alter 
 such regulations, except as to the place of 
 choosing Senators. 
 
 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once 
 in every year ; and such meeting shall be on 
 the first Monday in December, unless they 
 shall by law appoint a different day. 
 
 SECTION V. 1. Each House shall be the judge 
 of the election, returns, and qualifications of
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 25 
 
 its own members, and a majority of each shall 
 constitute a quorum to do business ; but a 
 smaller number may adjourn from day to day, 
 and may be authorized to compel the attend- 
 ance of absent members, in such manner and 
 under such penalties as each House may pro- 
 vide. 
 
 2. Each House may determine the rule of 
 its proceedings, punish its members for disor- 
 derly behavior, and, with the concurrence of 
 two thirds, expel a member. 
 
 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its 
 proceedings, and from time to time publish the 
 same, excepting such parts as may in their 
 judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and 
 nays of the members of either House on any 
 question shall, at the desire of one fifth of 
 those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 4. Neither House, during the session of 
 Congress, shall, without the consent of the 
 other, adjourn for more than three days, nor 
 to any other place than that in which the two 
 houses shall be sitting. 
 
 SECTION VI. 1. The Senators and Repre- 
 sentatives shall receive a compensation for 
 their services, to be ascertained by law, and 
 paid out of the treasury of the United States. 
 They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, 
 and breach of the peace, be privileged from 
 arrest during their attendance at the sessions 
 of their respective houses, and in going to and 
 returning from the same ; and for any speech 
 or debate in either house, they shall not be 
 questioned in any other place. 
 
 '2. Xo Senator or Representative shall, 
 during the time for which he was elected, be 
 appointed to any civil office under the authority 
 of the United States which shall have been 
 created, or the emoluments whereof shall have 
 been increased during such time ; and no per- 
 son holding any office under the United States 
 shall be a member of either House during his 
 continuance in office. 
 
 SECTION VII. 1. All bills for raising rev- 
 enue shall originate in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, but the Senate may propose or concur 
 with amendments, as on other bills. 
 
 2. Every bill which shall have passed the 
 House of Representatives and the Senate 
 shall, before it become a law, be presented 
 to the President of the United States ; if he 
 approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall 
 return it, with his objections, to that House in 
 which it shall have originated, who shall enter 
 the objections at large on their journal, and 
 proceed to reconsider it. If after such recon- 
 sideration two thirds of that House shall agree 
 to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with 
 the objections, to the other House, by which 
 it shall likewise be reconsidered ; and if ap- 
 
 i proved by two thirds of that House it shall 
 
 ! become a law. But in all such cases the votes 
 
 : of both Houses shall be determined by yeas 
 
 | and nays, and the names of the persons voting 
 
 I for and against the bill shall be entered on the 
 
 journal of each House respectively. If any 
 
 bill shall not be returned by the President 
 
 within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
 
 shall have been presented to him, the same shall 
 
 be a law in like manner as if he had signed 
 
 it, unless the Congress by their adjournment, 
 
 prevent its return ; iu which case it shall not 
 
 be a law. 
 
 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which 
 the concurrence of the Senate and House of 
 Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
 question of adjournment) shall be presented to 
 the President of the United States ; and before 
 the same shall take effect shall be approved by 
 him, or being disapproved by him, shall be re- 
 passed by two thirds of the Senate and the 
 House of Representatives, according to the 
 rules and limitations prescribed in the case of 
 a bill. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 1. The Congress shall have 
 power : 
 
 To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, 
 and excises, to pay the debts and provide for 
 the common defense and general welfare of 
 the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and 
 excises shall be uniform throughout the United 
 States. 
 
 2. To borrow money on the credit of the 
 United States. 
 
 3. 'To regulate commerce with foreign na- 
 tions, and among the several States, and with 
 the Indian tribes. 
 
 4. To establish an uniform rule of natural- 
 ization and uniform laws on the subject of 
 bankruptcies throughout the United States. 
 
 5. To coin money, regulate the value there- 
 of, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard 
 of weights and measures. 
 
 6. To provide for the punishment of coun- 
 terfeiting the securities and current coin of the 
 United States. 
 
 7. To establish post offices and post roads. 
 
 8. To promote the progress of science and 
 useful arts by securing for limited times to 
 authors and inventors the exclusive rights to 
 their respective writings and discoveries. 
 
 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the 
 Supreme Court. 
 
 10. To define and punish piracies and felo- 
 nies committed on the high seas, and offenses 
 against the law of nations. 
 
 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque 
 and reprisal, and make rules concerning cap- 
 tures on land and water. 
 
 12. To raise and support armies, but no ap-
 
 26 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 propriation of money to that use shall be for a 
 longer term than two years. 
 
 13. To provide and maintain a navy. 
 
 14. To make rules for the government and 
 regulation of the land and naval forces. 
 
 15. To provide for calling forth the militia 
 to execute the laws of the Union, suppress in- 
 surrections, and repel invasions. 
 
 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and 
 disciplining the militia, and for governing 
 such part of them as may be employed in the 
 service of the United States, reserving to the 
 States respectively the appointment of the offi- 
 cers, and the authority of training the militia 
 according to the discipline prescribed by 
 Congress. 
 
 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all 
 cases whatsoever over such district (not ex- 
 ceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession 
 of particular States and the acceptance of 
 Congress, become the seat of Government of 
 the United States, and to exercise like authority 
 over all places purchased by the consent of the 
 Legislature of the State in which the same 
 shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, 
 arsenals, dry docks, and other needful 
 buildings. 
 
 18. To make all laws which shall be neces- 
 sary and proper for carrying into execution the 
 foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
 by this Constitution in the Government of the 
 United States, or in any department or officer 
 thereof. 
 
 SECTION IX. 1. The migration or impor- 
 tation of such persons as any of the States 
 now existing shall think proper to admit shall 
 not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the 
 year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
 but a tax or duty may be imposed on such im- 
 portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each 
 person. 
 
 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus 
 shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of 
 rebellion or invasion the public safety may re- 
 quire it. 
 
 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law 
 shall be passed. 
 
 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be 
 laid, unless in proportion to the census or 
 enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 
 
 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles 
 exported from any State. 
 
 6. No preference shall be given by any regu- 
 lation of commerce or revenue to the ports of 
 one State over those of another, nor shall ves- 
 sels bound to or from one State be obliged to 
 enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 
 
 7. No money shall be drawn from the Treas- 
 ury but in consequence of appropriations made 
 by law ; and a regular statement and account 
 
 of the receipts and expenditures of all public 
 money shall be published from time to time. 
 
 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by 
 the United States. And no person holding 
 any office of profit or trust under them shall, 
 without the consent of the Congress, accept of 
 any present, emolument, office, or title of any 
 kind whatever from any king, prince, or for- 
 eign state. 
 
 SECTION X. 1. No State shall enter into 
 any treaty, alliance, or confederation, grant 
 letters of marque and reprisal, coin money, 
 emit bills of credit, make anything but gold 
 and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, 
 pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, 
 or law impairing the obligation of contracts, 
 or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 2. No State shall, without the consent of 
 the Congress, lay any impost or duties on im- 
 ports or exports, except what may be absolutely 
 necessary for executing its inspection laws, 
 and the net produce of all duties and imposts, 
 laid by any State on imports or exports, shall 
 be for the use of the Treasury of the United 
 States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
 the revision and control of the Congress. 
 
 3. No State shall, without the consent of 
 Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops 
 or ships of war in time of peace, enter into 
 any agreement or compact with another State, 
 or with a foreign power, or engage in war, un- 
 less actually invaded, or in such imminent 
 danger as will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 SECTION I. 1. The Executive power shall 
 be vested in a President of the United States 
 of America. He shall hold his office during 
 the term of four years, and, together with the 
 Vice-President, chosen for the same 'term, be 
 elected as follows : 
 
 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner 
 as the Legislature thereof may direct, a num- 
 ber of electors, equal to the whole number of 
 Senators and Representatives to which the 
 State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no 
 Senator or Representative or person holding 
 an office of trust or profit under the United 
 States shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 3. [The electors shall meet in their respec- 
 tive States and vote by ballot for two persons, 
 of whom one at least shall not be an inhabi- 
 tant of the same State with themselves. And 
 they shall make a list of all the persons voted 
 for, and of the number of votes for each, which 
 list they shall sign and certify and transmit, 
 sealed, to the seat of the government of the 
 Tinted States, directed to the President of the 
 Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in 
 the presence of the Senate and House of Rep-
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 27 
 
 resentatives, open all the certificates, and the 
 votes shall then be counted. The person having 
 the greatest number of votes shall be the Presi- 
 dent, if such number be a majority of the 
 whole number of electors appointed, and if 
 there be more than one who have such major- 
 ity, and have an equal number of votes, then 
 the House of Representatiyes shall immediately 
 choose by ballot one of them for President ; 
 and if jio person have a majority, then from 
 the five highest on the list the said House 
 shall in like manner choose the President. But 
 in choosing the President, the vote shall be 
 taken by States, the representation from each | 
 State having one vote. A quorum, for this 
 purpose, shall consist of a member or members 
 from two thirds of the States, and a majority 
 of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
 In every case, after the choice of the Presi- 
 dent, the person having the greatest number 
 of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-Presi- 
 dent. But if there should remain two or more 
 who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose 
 from them by ballot the Vice-President.]* 
 
 4. The Congress may determine the time of 
 choosing the electors and the day on which 
 they shall give their votes, which day shall be 
 the same throughout the United States. 
 
 5. No person except a natural born citizen, 
 or a citizen of the United States at the time of j 
 the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eli- 
 gible to the office of President ; neither shall 
 any person be eligible to that office who shall ' 
 not have attained to the age of thirty-five 
 years and been fourteen years a resident with- 
 in the United States. 
 
 6. In case of the removal of the President 
 from office, or of his death, resignation, or 
 inability to discharge the powers and duties of 
 the said office, the same shall devolve on the 
 Vice-President. and the Congress may by law 
 provide for the case of removal, death, resig- 
 nation, or inability, both of the President and 
 Vice-President, declaring what officer shall 
 then act as President, and such officer shall 
 act accordingly until the disability be removed 
 or a President shall be elected. 
 
 7. The President shall, at stated times, re- 
 ceive for his services a compensation, which 
 shall neither be increased nor diminished dur- 
 ing the period for which he shall have been 
 elected, and he shall not receive within that 
 period any other emolument from the United 
 States, or any of them. 
 
 8. Before he enter on the execution of his 
 office he shall take the following oath or affir- 
 mation : 
 
 " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will 
 
 This clause is superseded by Article XII., Amend- 
 ments. 
 
 faithfully execute the office of President of the 
 United States, and will, to the best of my 
 ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Con- 
 stitution of the United States." 
 
 SECTION II. 1. The President shall be 
 Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy 
 of the United States, and of the militia of the 
 several States when called into the actual ser- 
 vice of the United States; he may require the 
 opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in 
 each of the executive departments upon any 
 subject relating to the duties of their respective 
 offices, and he shall have power to grant re- 
 prieves and pardons for offenses against the 
 United States except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 2. He shall have power, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate, to make 
 treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators 
 present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by 
 and with the advice and consent of the Senate 
 shall appoint ambassadors, other public min- 
 isters and consuls, judges of the Supreme 
 Court, and all other officers of the United 
 States whose appointments- are not herein 
 otherwise provided for, and which shall be 
 established by law ; but the Congress may by 
 law vest the appointment of such inferior offi- 
 cers as they think proper in the President 
 alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of 
 departments. 
 
 3. The President shall have power to fill up 
 all vacancies that may happen during the re- 
 cess of the Senate by granting commissions, 
 which shall expire at the end of their next ses- 
 sion. 
 
 SECTION III. He shall from time to time 
 give to the Congress information of the state 
 of the Union, and recommend to their consid- 
 eration such measures as he shall judge neces- 
 sary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary 
 occasions, convene both Houses, or either of 
 them, and in case of disagreement between 
 them with respect to the time of adjournment, 
 he may adjourn them to such time as he shall 
 think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors 
 and other public ministers ; he shall take care 
 that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
 commission all the officers of the United States. 
 
 SECTION IV. The President, Vice-Presi- 
 dent, and all civil officers of the United States 
 shall be removed from office on impeachment 
 for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other 
 high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 SECTION I. The judicial power of the United 
 States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, 
 and in such inferior courts as the Congress 
 may from time to time ordain and establish. 
 The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior
 
 28 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 courts, shall hold their offices during good be- 
 havior, and shall at stated times receive for 
 their services a compensation which shall not 
 be diminished during their continuance in 
 office. 
 
 SECTION II. 1. The judicial power shall 
 extend to all cases in law and equity arising 
 under this Constitution, the laws of the United 
 States, and treaties made, or which shall be 
 made, under their authority ; to all cases af- 
 fecting ambassadors, other public ministers, 
 and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and 
 maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to 
 which the United States shall be a party ; to 
 controversies between two or more States, be- 
 tween a State and citizens of another State, 
 between citizens of different States, between 
 citizens of the same State claiming lands under 
 grants of different States, and between a State, 
 or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, 
 citizens, or subjects. 
 
 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other 
 public ministers, and consuls, and those in 
 which a State shal-1 be party, the Supreme Court 
 shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other 
 cases before mentioned the Supreme Court 
 shall have appellate jurisdiction both as to law 
 and fact, with such exceptions and under such 
 regulations as the Congress shall make. 
 
 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of 
 impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial 
 shall be held in the State where the said crimes 
 shall have been committed ; but when not 
 committed within any State the trial shall be 
 at such place or places as the Congress may by 
 law have directed. 
 
 SECTION III. 1. Treason against the United 
 States shall consist only in levying war against 
 them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving 
 them aid and comfort. No person shall be 
 convicted of treason unless on the testimony of 
 two witnesses to the same overt act, or on con- 
 fession in open court. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to declare 
 the punishment of treason, but no attainder 
 of treason shall work corruption of blood or 
 forfeiture except during the life of the person 
 attained. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 SECTION I. Full faith and credit shall be 
 given in each State to the public acts, records, 
 and judicial preceedings of every other State. 
 And the Congress may by general laws pre- 
 scribe the manner in which such acts, records 
 and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 
 thereof. 
 
 SECTION II. 1. The citizens of each State 
 shall be entitled to all privileges and immuni- 
 ties of citizens in the several States. 
 
 2. A person charged in any State with trea- 
 son, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from 
 justice, and be found in another State, shall on 
 demand of the Executive authority of the State 
 from which he fled, be delivered up, to be re- 
 moved to the State having jurisdiction of the 
 crime. 
 
 3. No person held to service or labor in one 
 State, under the laws thereof, escaping into 
 another shall, in consequence of any law or 
 regulation therein, be discharged from such ser- 
 vice or labor, but shall be delivered up on 
 claim of the party to whom such service or 
 labor may be due. 
 
 SECTION III. 1. New States may be ad- 
 mitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no 
 new State shall be formed or erected within 
 the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any 
 State be formed by the junction of two or 
 more States, or parts of States, without the 
 consent of the Legislatures of the States con- 
 cerned, as well as of the Congress. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to dis- 
 pose of and make all needful rules and regula- 
 tions respecting the territory or other property 
 belonging to the United States ; and nothing 
 in this Constitution shall be so construed as to 
 prejudice any claims of the United States, or 
 of any particular State. 
 
 SECTION IV. The United States shall guar- 
 antee to every State in this Union a republican 
 form of government, and shall protect each of 
 them against invasion, and, on application of 
 the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the 
 Legislature cannot be convened), against do- 
 mestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 The Congress, whenever two thirds of both 
 Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose 
 amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
 application of the Legislatures of two thirds of 
 the several States, shall call a convention for 
 proposing amendments, which, in either case, 
 shall be valid to all intents and purposes, ae 
 part of this Constitution, when ratified by the 
 Legislatures of three fourths of the several 
 States, or by conventions in three fourths 
 thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratifi- 
 cation may be proposed by the Congress ; pro- 
 vided that no amendment which may be made 
 prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
 and eight shall in any manner affect the first 
 and fourth clauses in the Ninth Section of the 
 First Article ; and that no State, without its 
 consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage 
 in the Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 1. All debts contracted and engagements 
 entered into before the adoption of this Con-
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 29 
 
 stitution shall be as valid against the United 
 States under this Constitution as under the 
 Confederation. 
 
 '2. This Constitution and the laws of the 
 United States which shall be made in pursuance 
 thereof and all treaties made, or which shall 
 be made, under the authority of the United 
 States, shall be the supreme law of the land, 
 and the judges in every State shall be bound 
 thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws 
 of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 3. The Senators and Representatives before 
 mentioned, and the members of the several 
 State Legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
 cial officers, both of the United States and of the 
 several States, shall be bound by oath or af- 
 firmation to support this Constitution ; but no 
 religious test shall ever be required as a quali- 
 fication to any office or public trust under the 
 United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 The ratification of the Conventions of nine 
 States shall be sufficient for the establishment 
 of this Constitution between the States so rati- 
 fying the same. 
 
 Amendments to the Constitution. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an 
 establishment of religion, or prohibiting the 
 free exercise thereof ; or abridging the free- 
 dom of speech or of the press ; or the right of 
 the people peaceably to assemble, and to peti- 
 tion the Government for a redress of griev- 
 ances. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 A well-regulated militia being necessary to 
 the security of a free State, the right of the 
 people to keep and bear arms shall not be in- 
 fringed. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quar- 
 tered in any house without the consent of the 
 owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to 
 be prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their 
 persons, houses, papers, and effects, against 
 unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not 
 be violated, and no warrants shall issue but 
 upon probable cause, supported by oath or af- 
 firmation, and particularly describing the place 
 to be searched, and the persons or things to be 
 seized. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 No person shall be held to answer for a cap- 
 ital or other infamous crime unless on a pre- 
 
 sentment or indictment of a grand jury, except 
 in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or 
 in the militia, when in actual service, in time 
 of war or public danger ; nor shall any person 
 be subject for the same offense to be twice put 
 in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor f-hall be com- 
 pelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
 against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, 
 or property, without due process of law ; nor 
 shall private property be taken for public use 
 without just compensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions, the accused 
 shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public 
 trial, by an impartial jury of the State and dis- 
 trict wherein the crime shall have been com- 
 mitted, which district shall have been previously 
 ascertained by law, and to be informed of the 
 nature and cause of the accusation ; to be con- 
 fronted with the witnesses against him ; to have 
 compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in 
 his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel 
 for his defense. 
 
 ARTICLE VH. 
 
 In suits at common law, where the value in 
 controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the 
 right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and 
 no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re- 
 examined in any court of the United States 
 than according to the rules of the common 
 law. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. 
 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor ex- 
 cessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual 
 punishments inflicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 
 The enumeration in the Constitution of cer- 
 tain rights shall not be construed to deny or 
 disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 ARTICLE X. 
 
 The powers not delegated to the United 
 States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by 
 it to the States, are reserved to the States re- 
 spectively, or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall 
 not be construed to extend to any suit in law 
 or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
 one of the United States, by citizens of another 
 State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign 
 State. 
 
 ARTICLE XII. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective 
 States, and vote by ballot for President and 
 Vice-President, one of whom at least shall not 
 be an inhabitant of the same State with them- 
 selves ; they shall name in their ballots the
 
 30 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 person voted for as President, and in distinct 
 ballots the person voted for as Viee-President ; 
 and they shall make distinct lists of all persons 
 voted for as President, and of all persons 
 voted for as Vice-President, and of the num- 
 ber of votes for each, which list they shall 
 sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the 
 seat of the Government of the United States, di- 
 rected to the President of the Senate ; the 
 President of the Senate shall, in the presence 
 of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
 open all the certificates, and the votes shall 
 then be counted ; the person having the great- 
 est number of votes for President shall be 
 the President, if such number be a majority 
 of the whole number of electors appointed; 
 and if no person have such majority, then from 
 the persons having the highest numbers, not 
 exceeding three, on the list of those voted for 
 as President, the House of Representatives 
 shall choose immediately, by ballot, the Presi- 
 dent. But in choosing the President, the votes 
 shall be taken by States, the representation 
 from each State having one vote ; a quorum 
 for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
 members from two thirds of the States, and a 
 majority of all the States shall be necessary 
 to a choice. And if the House of Representa- 
 tives shall not choose a President, whenever 
 the right of choice shall devolve upon them, 
 before the fourth day of March next following, 
 then the Vice-President shall act as President, 
 as in the case of the death or other constitutional 
 disability of the President. The person hav- 
 ing the greatest number of votes as Vice- 
 President shall be the Vice-President, if such 
 number be a majority of the whole number of 
 electors appointed, and if no person have a 
 majority, then from the two highest numbers 
 on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice- 
 President ; a quorum for the purpose shall 
 consist of two thirds of the whole number of 
 Senators, and a majority of the whole number 
 shall be necessary to a choice. But no person 
 constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- 
 dent shall be eligible to that of Vice-President 
 of the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE XIII. 
 
 1 . Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, 
 except as a punishment for crime whereof the 
 party shall have been duly convicted, shall ex- 
 ist within the United States, or any place sub- 
 ject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this 
 article by appropriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV. 
 
 1. All persons born or naturalized in the 
 United States, and subject to the jurisdiction 
 
 thereof, are citizens of the United States and 
 of the State wherein they reside. No State 
 shall make or enforce any law which shall 
 abridge the privileges or immunities of citi- 
 zens of the United States ; nor shall any State 
 deprive any person of life, liberty, or property 
 without due process of law, nor deny to any 
 person within its jurisdiction the equal protec- 
 tion of the laws. 
 
 2. Representatives shall be apportioned 
 among the several States according to their 
 respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
 ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians 
 not taxed. But when the right to vote at any 
 election for the choice of electors for President 
 and Vice-President of the United States, Re- 
 presentatives in Congress, the executive and 
 judicial officers of a State, or the members of 
 the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the 
 male members of such State, being of twenty- 
 one years of age, and citizens of the United 
 States, or in any way abridged, except for par- 
 ticipation in rebellion or other crime, the basis 
 of representation therein shall be reduced in the 
 proportion which the number of such male citi- 
 zens shall bear to the whole number of male 
 citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
 3. No person shall be a Senator or Represen- 
 tative in Congress, or elector of President and 
 Vice-President, or holding any office, civil or 
 military, under the United States, or under 
 any State, who, having previously taken an 
 oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer 
 of the United States, or as a member of any 
 State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial 
 officer of any State, to support the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States, shall have engaged 
 in insurrection or rebellion against the same, 
 or given aid and comfort to the enemies there- 
 of. But Congress may, by a vote of two 
 thirds of each House, remove such disability. 
 
 4. The validity of the public debt of the 
 United States, authorized by law, including 
 debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
 bounties for services in suppressing insurrec- 
 tion and rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
 But neither the United States nor any State 
 shall assume or pay any debt or obligation in- 
 curred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
 against the United States, or any claim for 
 the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all 
 such debts, obligations, and claims shall be 
 held illegal and void. 
 
 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce 
 by appropriate legislation the provisions of this 
 article. 
 
 ARTICLE XV. 
 
 1. The right of the citizens of the United 
 States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 31 
 
 by the United States or by any State on ac- 
 count of race, color, or previous condition of 
 servitude. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce 
 the provision of this article by appropriate 
 legislation. 
 
 Ratification of the Constitution. 
 
 The Constitution was ratified by the thir- 
 teen original States in the following order : 
 
 Delaware, December 7, 1787, unanimously. 
 
 Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787, vote 46 
 to 23. 
 
 New Jersey, December 18, 1787, unani- 
 mously. 
 
 Georgia. January 2, 1788, unanimously. 
 
 Connecticut, January 9, 1788, vote 128 to 40. 
 
 Massachusetts, February 6, 1788, vote 187 
 to 168. 
 
 Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to 12. 
 
 South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73. 
 
 New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote 57 
 to 46. 
 
 Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79. 
 
 New York, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28. 
 
 North Carolina, November 21, 1789, vote 
 193 to 75. 
 
 Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32. 
 
 Ratification of the Amendments. 
 
 I. to X. inclusive were declared in force De- 
 cember 15, 1791. 
 
 XI. was declared in force January 8, 1798. 
 
 XII., regulating elections, was ratified by 
 all the States except Connecticut, Delaware, 
 Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, which 
 rejected it. It was declared in force Septem- 
 ber 28, 1804. 
 
 XIII. The emancipation amendment was rat- 
 ified by 31 of the 36 States ; rejected by Dela- 
 ware and Kentucky, not acted on by Texas; 
 conditionally ratified by Alabama and Missis- 
 sippi. Proclaimed December 18, 1865. 
 
 XrV. Reconstruction amendment was rati- 
 fied by 23 Northern States ; rejected by Dela- 
 ware, Kentucky, Maryland, and 10 Southern 
 States, and not acted on by California. The 
 10 Southern States subsequently ratified under 
 pressure. Proclaimed July 28, 1886. 
 
 XV. Negro citizenship amendment was not 
 acted on by Tennessee, rejected by California, 
 Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, New Jersey, 
 and Oregon ; ratified by the remaining 30 
 States. New York rescinded its ratification 
 January 5, 1870. Proclaimed March 30, 1870. 
 
 COPYRIGHT LAW OF THE 
 TJXITED STATES. 
 
 1. A printed copy of the title (besides the 
 two copies to be deposited after publication) 
 of the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical 
 
 composition, engraving, cut, print, or photo- 
 graph, or a description of the painting, draw- 
 ing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or de- 
 sign for a work of the fine arts, for which 
 copyright is desired, must be sent by mail or 
 otherwise, prepaid, addressed "Librarian of 
 Congress, Washington, D. C." This must be 
 done before publication of the book or other 
 article. 
 
 The printed title required may be a copy of 
 the title page of such publications as have 
 title pages. In other cases, the title must be 
 printed expressly for copyright entry, with 
 name of claimant of copyright. The style of 
 type is immaterial, and the print of a type- 
 writer will be accepted. But a separate title 
 is required for each entry, and each title must be 
 printed on paper as large as commercial note. 
 The title of a periodical must include the date 
 and number. 
 
 2. The legal fee for recording each copy- 
 right claim is 50 cents, and for a copy of this 
 record (or certificate of copyright) an addi- 
 tional fee of 50 cents is required. The record 
 fee from aliens and non-residents is $1. 
 
 3. On or before the day of publication of 
 each book or other article, two complete copies 
 of the best edition issued must be sent, to per- 
 fect the copyright, with the address " Librarian 
 of Congress, Washington, D. C." The postage 
 must be prepaid, or else th publication in- 
 closed in parcels covered by printed Penalty 
 Labels, furnished by the Librarian. In the 
 case of a book, photograph, chromo or litho- 
 graph, the two copies deposited shall be printed 
 from type set in the United States, or from 
 plates made therefrom, or from negatives or 
 drawings on stone made in the United States, 
 or from transfers made therefrom. 
 
 4. No copyright is valid unless notice is 
 given by inserting in every copy published, on 
 the title page or the page following it, if it be 
 a book ; or, if a map, chart, musical composi- 
 tion, print, cut, engraving, photograph, paint- 
 ing, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or 
 model or design intended to be perfected as a 
 work of the fine arts, by inscribing upon some 
 portion thereof, or on the substance on which 
 the same is mounted, the following words, 
 viz. : "Entered according to act of Congress, 
 
 in the year -, by , in the office of the 
 
 Librarian of Congress, at Washington," or, at 
 the option of the person entering the copy- 
 right, the words: " Copyright, 18 , by . " 
 
 The law r imposes a penalty of $100 upon 
 any person who has not obtained copyright 
 who shall insert the notice ' ' Entered according 
 to act of Congress," or " Copyright," etc., or 
 words of the same import, in or upon any book 
 or other article.
 
 32 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 5. Any author may reserve the right to 
 translate or dramatize his own -work. In this 
 case, notice should be given by printing the 
 words " Right of translation reserved," or " All 
 rights reserved," below the notice of copyright 
 entry, and notifying the Librarian of Congress 
 of such, reservation, to be entered upon the 
 record. 
 
 Since the phrase all rights reserved refers ex- 
 clusively to the author's right to dramatize or 
 to translate, it has no bearing upon any pub- 
 lications except original works, and will not 
 be entered upon the record in other cases. 
 
 6. The original term of copyright runs for 
 twenty-eight years. Within xix months before 
 the end of that time, the author or designer, or 
 his widow or children, may secure a renewal 
 for the further term of fourteen years, making 
 forty-two years in all. Applications for re- 
 newal must be accompanied by explicit state- 
 ment of ownership, in the case of the author, 
 or of relationship, in the case of his heirs, and 
 must state definitely the date and place of en- 
 try of the original copyright. Advertisement 
 of renewal is to be made within two months 
 of date of renewal certificate, in some news- 
 paper, for four weeks. 
 
 7. The time within which any work en- 
 tered for copyright may be issued from the 
 press is not limited by law, but the courts hold 
 that it should take place within a reasonable 
 time. A copyright may be secured for a pro- 
 jected as well as for a finished work. The law 
 provides for no caveat, or notice of interfer- 
 ence only for actual entry of title. 
 
 8. A copyright is assignable in law by any 
 instrument of writing, but such assignment 
 must be recorded in the office of the Librarian 
 of Congress within sixty days from its date. 
 The fee for this record and certificate is one 
 dollar, and for a certified copy of any record 
 of assignment one dollar. 
 
 9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certif- 
 icate) of any copyright entry will be furnished, 
 under seal, at the rate of fifty cents each. 
 
 10. In the case of books published in more 
 than one volume, or of periodicals published 
 in numbers, or of engravings, photographs, or 
 other articles published with variations, a 
 copyright is to be entered for each volume or 
 part of a book, or number of a periodical, or 
 variety, as to style, title, or inscription, of 
 any other article. But a book published seri- 
 ally in a periodical, under the same general 
 title, requires only one entry. To complete the 
 copyright on such a work, two copies of each 
 serial part, as well as of the complete work (if 
 published separately), must be deposited. 
 
 11. To secure a copyright for a painting, 
 statue, or model or design intended to be per- 
 
 fected as a work of the fine arts, so as to pre- 
 vent infringement by copying, engraving, or 
 vending such design, a definite description 
 must accompany the application for copyright, 
 and a photograph of the same, at least as large 
 as " cabinet size," should be mailed to the 
 Librarian of Congress not later than the day 
 of publication of the work or design. 
 
 12. Copyrights cannot be granted upon 
 trade-marks, nor upon mere names of com- 
 panies or articles, nor upon prints or labels in- 
 tended to be used with any article of manu- 
 facture. If protection for such names or 
 labels is desired, application must be made to 
 the Patent office, where they are registered at 
 a fee of $6 for labels and $25 for trade-marks. 
 
 13. These provisions apply to citizens of the 
 United States, British Empire, France, Bel- 
 gium, Switzerland. 
 
 14 . Every applicant for a copyright should 
 state distinctly the full name and residence of 
 the claimant, and whether the right is claimed 
 as author, designer, or proprietor. No affi- 
 davit or formal application is required. 
 
 PATENT OFFICE PROCEDURE. 
 
 Patents are issued in the name of the United 
 States, and under seal of the Patent Office, to 
 any person who has invented or discovered any 
 new and useful art, machine, manufacture, or 
 composition of matter or any new and useful 
 improvement thereof, not known or used by 
 others in this country before his invention or 
 discovery thereof and not patented or described 
 in any printed publication in this or any for- 
 eign country, before his invention or discovery 
 thereof or more than two years prior to his 
 application, and not in public use or on sale in 
 the United States for more than two years 
 prior to his application, unless the same is 
 proved to have been abandoned ; and by any 
 person who, by his own industry, genius, 
 efforts, and expense, has invented and pro- 
 duced any new and original design for a man- 
 ufacture, bust, statue, alto-relievo, or bas-re- 
 lief ; any new and original design for the 
 printing of woolen, silk, cotton, or other 
 fabrics ; any new and original impression, 
 ornament, pattern, print, or picture to be 
 printed, painted, cast, or otherwise placed on 
 or worked into any article of manufacture ; or 
 any new, useful, and original shape or config- 
 uration of any article of manufacture, the same 
 not having been known nor used by others 
 before his invention or production thereof, nor 
 patented nor described in any printed publica- 
 tion, upon payment of the fees required bylaw 
 and other due proceedings had. 
 
 Every patent contains a grant to the paten- 
 tee, his heirs or assigns, for the term of seven-
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 33 
 
 teen years, of the exclusive right to make, use, 
 and vend the invention or discovery through- 
 out the United States and the Territories, re- 
 ferring to the specification for the particulars 
 thereof. 
 
 If it appear that the inventor, at the time of 
 making his application, believed himself to be 
 the first inventor or discoverer, a patent will 
 not be refused on account of the invention or I 
 discovery, or any part thereof, having been | 
 known or used in any foreign country before 
 his invention or discovery thereof, if it had not 
 been before patented or described in any 
 printed publication. 
 
 Joint inventors are entitled to a joint pat- 
 ent ; neither can claim one separately. Inde- 
 pendent inventors of distinct and independent 
 improvements in the same machine cannot 
 obtain a joint patent for their separate inven- 
 tions ; nor does the fact that one furnishes the 
 capital and another makes the invention entitle 
 them to make application as joint inventors ; 
 but in such case they may become joint 
 patentees. 
 
 Xo person otherwise entitled thereto will be 
 debarred from receiving a patent for his inven- 
 tion or discovery, by reason of its having been 
 first patented or caused to be patented by the 
 inventor or his legal representatives or assigns 
 in a foreign country, unless the application for 
 said foreign patent was filed more than seven 
 months prior to the filing of the application in 
 this country, in which case no patent shall be 
 granted in this country. 
 
 Applications. Applications for a patent 
 must be made in writing to the Commissioner \ 
 of Patents. The applicant must also file in 
 the Patent Office a written description of the 
 same, and of the manner and process of mak- ; 
 ing, constructing, compounding, and using it, j 
 in such full, clear, concise, and exact terms as 
 to enable any person skilled in the art or 
 science to which it appertains, or with which 
 it is most nearly connected, to make, construct, . 
 compound, and use the same ; and in case of j 
 a machine, he must explain the principle 
 thereof, and the best mode in which he has j 
 contemplated applying that principle, so as to : 
 distinguish it from other inventions, and partic- ' 
 ularly point out and distinctly claim the part, 
 improvement, or combination which he claims 
 as his invention or discovery. The specifica- 
 tion and claim must be signed by the inventor 
 and attested by two witnesses. 
 
 When the nature of the case admits of draw- 
 ings, the applicant must furnish a drawing of 
 the required size, signed by the inventor or his 
 attorney in fact, and attested by two witnesses. 
 In all cases which admit of representation by 
 model, the applicant, if required by the Patent 
 
 Office, shall furnish a model of convenient size 
 to exhibit advantageously the several parts of 
 his invention or discovery. 
 
 The applicant shall make oath that he verily 
 believes himself to be the original and first in 
 ventor or discoverer of the art, machine, manu- 
 facture, composition, or improvement for which 
 he solicits a patent ; that he does not know 
 and does not believe that the same was ever 
 before known or used, and shall state of what 
 country he is a citizen and where he resides. 
 In every original application the applicant must 
 distinctly state under oath that the invention 
 has not been patented to himself or to others 
 with his knowledge or consent in this or any 
 foreign country for more than two years prior 
 to his application, or on an application for a pat- 
 ent filed in any foreign country by himself or his 
 legal representatives or assigns more than seven 
 months prior to his application. If any applica- 
 tion for patent has been filed in any foreign coun- 
 try by the applicant in this countryor by his legal 
 representatives or assigns, prior to his applica- 
 tion in this country, he shall state the country or 
 countries in which such application has been 
 filed, giving the date of such application, and 
 shall also state that no application has been filed 
 in any other country or countries than those 
 mentioned ; that to the best of his knowledge 
 and belief the invention has not been in public 
 use or on sale in the United States nor described 
 in any printed publication or patent in this or 
 any foreign country for more than two years 
 prior to his application in this country. Such 
 oath may be made before any person within 
 the United States authorized by law to ad- 
 minister oaths, or, when the applicant resides 
 in a foreign country, before any minister, 
 charg6 d'affaires, consul, or commercial agent 
 holding commission under the Government of 
 the United States, or before any notary public 
 of the foreign country in which the applicant 
 may be, provided such notary is authorized by 
 the laws of his country to administer oaths. 
 
 On the filing of such application and the 
 payment of the fees required by law, if, on 
 examination, it appears that the applicant is 
 justly entitled to a patent under the law, and 
 that the same is sufficiently useful and impor- 
 tant, the Commissioner will issue a patent 
 therefor. 
 
 Every patent, or any interest therein, shall 
 be assignable in law by an instrument in writ- 
 ing ; and the patentee or his assigns or legal 
 representatives may, in like manner, grant and 
 convey an exclusive right under his patent to 
 the whole or any specified part of the United 
 States. 
 
 Reissues. A reissue is granted to the 
 original patentee, his legal representatives, or
 
 34 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the assignees of the entire interest, when, by 
 reason of a defective or insufficient specifica- 
 tion, or by reason of the patentee claiming as 
 his invention or discovery more than he had a 
 right to claim as new, the original patent is in- 
 operative or invalid, provided the error has 
 arisen from inadvertence, accident, or mistake, 
 and without any fraudulent or deceptive inten- 
 tion. Reissue applications must be made and 
 the specifications sworn to by the inventors, if 
 they be living. 
 
 Caveats. A caveat, under the patent law, 
 is a notice given to the office, of the caveator's 
 claim as inventor, in order to prevent the 
 grant of a patent to another for the same al- 
 leged invention upon an application filed dur- 
 ing the life of a caveat without notice to the 
 caveator. 
 
 Any citizen of the United States who has 
 made a new invention or discovery, and de- 
 sires further time to mature the same, may, on 
 a payment of a fee of ten dollars, file in the 
 Patent Office a caveat setting forth the object 
 and the distinguishing characteristics of the 
 invention, and praying protection of his right 
 until he shall have matured his invention. 
 Such caveat shall be filed in the confidential 
 archives of the office and preserved in secrecy, 
 and shall be operative for the term of one year 
 from the filing thereof. The caveat may be 
 renewed, on request in writing, by the pay- 
 ment of a second fee of ten dollars, and it will 
 continue in force for one year from the pay- 
 ment of such second fee. 
 
 The caveat must comprise a specification, 
 oath, and, when the nature of the case admits 
 of it, a drawing, and, like the application, 
 must be limited to a single invention or im- 
 provement. 
 
 Fees. Fees must be paid in advance, and 
 are as follows : On filing each original appli- 
 cation for a patent, $15. On issuing each 
 original patent, $20. In design cases: For 
 three years and six months, $10 ; for seven 
 years, $15 ; for fourteen years, $30. On filing 
 each caveat, $10. On every application for the 
 reissue of a patent, $30. On filing each dis- 
 claimer, $10. For certified copies of patents 
 and other papers in manuscript, ten cents per 
 hundred words ; for certified copies of printed 
 patents, eighty cents. For uncertified printed 
 copies of specifications and drawings of patents, 
 for single copies, or any number of unclas- 
 sified copies, five cents each ; for copies by sub- 
 classes, three cents each ; by classes, two cents 
 each, and for the entire set of patents issued, 
 in one order, one cent each. For recording 
 every assignment, agreement, power of attor- 
 ney, or other paper, of three hundred words or 
 under, $1 ; of over three hundred and under 
 
 one thousand words, $2 ; of over one thousand 
 words $3. For copies of drawings, the reason- 
 able cost of making them. The Patent Office 
 is prepared to furnish positive blue-print pho- 
 tographic copies of any drawing, foreign or 
 domestic, in the possession of the office, in 
 sizes and at rates as follows : Large size, 10x15 
 inches, twenty-five cents; medium size, 7x11 
 inches, fifteen cents ; small size, 5x8 inches, 
 five cents. An order for small sized copies can 
 be filled only when it relates to the drawings 
 of an application for patent. 
 
 The total number of applications filed at the 
 Patent Office in sixty-one years, 1837-97, was 
 1,040,035; number of caveats filed, 107,415; 
 number of original patents, including designs 
 issued, 601,268. Receipts to December 31, 
 1896, $34,309,331.06 ; expenditures, $29,293,- 
 672.32; net surplus, $5,015,658.74. The 
 largest number of patents granted for an arti- 
 cle prior to January, 1895, has been for car- 
 riages and wagons, 20,000, and for stoves and 
 furnaces, 18,000. The next largest has been 
 for harvesters, 10,000 ; lamps and gas fittings, 
 10,000; boots and shoes, 10,000, and packing 
 and storing vessels, 10,000 approximately. 
 
 NATURALIZATION LAWS. 
 
 The conditions under and the manner in 
 which an alien may be admitted to become a 
 citizen of the United States are prescribed by 
 Sections 2, 165-74 of the Revised Statutes of 
 the United States. 
 
 Declaration of Intentions. The alien must 
 declare upon oath before a circuit or district 
 court of the United States or a district or 
 supreme court of the Territories, or a court of 
 record of any of the States having common 
 law jurisdiction and a seal and clerk, two 
 years at least prior to his admission, that it is, 
 bonafide, his intention to become a citizen of 
 the United States, and to renounce forever 
 all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince 
 or State, and particulai'ly to the one of which 
 he may be at the time a citizen or subject. 
 
 Oath on Application for Admission. He must 
 at the time of his application to be admitted 
 declare on oath, before some one of the 
 courts above specified, "that he will sup- 
 port the Constitution of the United States, 
 and that he absolutely and entirely re- 
 nounces and abjures all allegiance and fidelity 
 to every foreign prince, potentate, State, or 
 sovereignty, and particularly by name, to the 
 prince, potentate, State, or sovereignty of 
 which he was before a citizen or subject," 
 which proceedings must be recorded by the 
 clerk of the court. 
 
 Conditions for Citizenship. If it shall ap- 
 pear to the satisfaction of the court to which
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 35 
 
 the alien has applied that he has made a 
 declaration to become a citizen two years 
 before applying for final papers, and has re- 
 sided continuously within the United States 
 for at least five years, and within the State or 
 Territory where such court is at the time held 
 one year at least ; and that during that time 
 ' ' he has behaved as a man of good moral 
 character, attached to the principles of the 
 Constitution of the United States, and well 
 disposed to the good order and happiness of 
 the same," he will be admitted to citizenship. 
 
 Titles of Nobility. If the applicant has 
 borne any hereditary title or order of nobility 
 he must make an express renunciation of the 
 same at the time of his application. 
 
 Soldiers. Any alien at the age of twenty- 
 one years and upward who has been in the 
 armies of the United States, and has been 
 honorably discharged therefrom, may become 
 a citizen on his petition, without any previous 
 declaration of intention, provided that he has 
 resided in the United States at least one year 
 previous to his application, and is of good 
 moral character. (It is judicially decided 
 that residence of one year in a particular State 
 is not requisite.) 
 
 Minors. Any alien under the age of 
 twenty-one years who has resided in the 
 United States three years next preceding his 
 arriving at that age, and who has continued to 
 reside therein to the time he may make appli- 
 cation to be admitted a citizen thereof, may, 
 after he arrives at the age of twenty-one years, 
 and after he has resided five years within the 
 United States, including the three years of his 
 minority, be admitted a citizen ; but he must 
 make a declaration on oath and prove to the 
 satisfaction of the court that for two years 
 next preceding it has been his bona fide inten- 
 tion to become a citizen. 
 
 Children of Naturalized Citizens. The chil- 
 dren of persons who have been duly natural- 
 ized, being under the age of twenty-one years 
 at the time of the naturalization of their 
 parents, shall, if dwelling in the United States, 
 be considered as citizens thereof. 
 
 Citizens' Children Who Are Born Abroad. 
 The children of persons who now are or 
 have been citizens of the United States, are, 
 though born out of the limits and jurisdic- 
 tion of the United States, considered as citizens 
 thereof. 
 
 Chinese. The naturalization of Chinamen 
 is expressly prohibited by Section 14, Chapter 
 126, Laws of 1882. 
 
 Protection Abroad to Naturalized Citizens. 
 Section 2,000 of the Revised Statutes of the 
 L T nited States declares that ' ' all naturalized 
 citizens of the United States while in foreign 
 
 countries are entitled to and shall receive from 
 this Government the same protection of per- 
 sons and property which is accorded to native- 
 born citizens." 
 
 The Right of Suffrage. The right to vote 
 comes from the State, and is a State gift. 
 Naturalization is a Federal right and is a gift 
 of the Union, not of any one State. In nearly 
 one-half of the Union aliens (who have de- 
 clared intentions) vote and have the right to 
 vote equally with naturalized or native-born 
 citizens. In the other half only actual citizens 
 may vote. (See Table of Qualifications for 
 Voting in each State, on another page.) The 
 Federal naturalization laws apply to the whole 
 Union alike, and provide that no alien may be 
 naturalized until after five years' residence. 
 Even after five years' residence and due nat- 
 uralization he is not entitled to vote unless the 
 laws of the State confer the privilege upon 
 him, and he may vote in several States six 
 months after landing, if he has declared his 
 intention, under the United States law, to be- 
 come a citizen. 
 
 PASSPORT REGULATIONS. 
 
 RULES governing the granting and issuing of 
 passports in the United States : 
 
 BY WHOM ISSUED. No one but the Secre- 
 tary of State may grant and issue passports in 
 the United States. Revised Statutes, sees. 
 4075, 4078. 
 
 A citizen of the United States desiring to 
 procure a passport while he is temporarily 
 abroad should apply to the diplomatic repre- 
 sentative of the United States in the country 
 where he happens to be ; or, in the absence of 
 a diplomatic representative, to the consul 
 general of the United States ; or, in the ab- 
 sence of both, to the consul of the United 
 States. The necessary statement may be made 
 before the nearest consular officer of the United 
 States. 
 
 To CITIZENS ONLY. The law forbids the 
 granting of a passport to any person who is 
 not a citizen of the United States Revised 
 Statutes, sec. 4076. 
 
 A person who has only made the declaration 
 of intention to become a citizen of the United 
 States cannot receive a passport. 
 
 APPLICATIONS. A citizen of the United 
 States in this country in order to procure a 
 passport must make a written application, in 
 the form of an affidavit, to the Secretary of 
 State. 
 
 The affidavit must be attested by an officer 
 authorized to administer oaths, and if he has 
 an official seal it must be affixed. If he has no 
 seal, his official character must be authenti- 
 cated by certificate of the proper legal officer
 
 36 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 If the applicant signs by mark, two attesting 
 witnesses to his signature are required. 
 
 The applicant is required to state the date 
 and place of his birth, his occupation, and the 
 place of his permanent residence, and to declare 
 that he goes abroad for temporary sojourn and 
 intends to return to the United States with 
 the purpose of residing and performing the 
 duties of citizenship therein. 
 
 The applicant must take the oath of allegi- 
 ance to the Government of the United States. 
 
 The application must be accompanied by a 
 description of the person applying, and should 
 state the following particulars, viz. : Age, 
 years ; stature, feet inches (English 
 measure) ; forehead, ; eyes, ; nose, ; 
 mouth, ; chin, ; hair, ; complexion, 
 ; face, 
 
 The application must be accompanied by a 
 certificate from at least one credible witness 
 that the applicant is the person he represents 
 himself to be, and that the facts stated in the 
 affidavit are true to the best of the witness's 
 knowledge and belief. 
 
 NATIVE CITIZENS. An application con- 
 taining the information indicated by rule 3 
 will be sufficient evidence in the case of native 
 citizens. 
 
 A PERSON BORN ABROAD WHOSE FATHER 
 WAS A NATIVE OF THE UNITED STATES. In 
 addition to the statements required by rule 3, 
 his application must show that his father was 
 born in the United States, has resided therein, 
 and was a citizen at the time of the applicant's 
 birth. The Department may require that this 
 affidavit be supported by that of one other 
 citizen acquainted with the facts. 
 
 NATURALIZED CITIZENS In addition to 
 the statements required by rule 3, a naturalized 
 citizen must transmit his certificate of natural- 
 ization, or a duly certified copy of the court 
 record thereof, with his application. It will be 
 returned to him after inspection. He must 
 state in his affidavit when and from what port 
 he emigrated to this country, what ship he 
 sailed in, where he has lived since his arrival 
 in the United States, when and before what 
 court he was naturalized, and that he is the 
 identical person described in the certificate of 
 naturalization. The signature to the applica- 
 tion should conform in orthography to the ap- 
 plicant's name as written in the naturalization 
 paper, which the Department follows. 
 
 THE WIFE OR WIDOW OF A NATURALIZED 
 CITIZEN. In addition to the statements re- 
 quired by rule 3, she must transmit for in- 
 spection her husband's naturalization certifi- 
 cate, must state that she is the wife or widow 
 of the person described therein, and must set 
 forth the facts of his emigration, naturaliza- 
 
 tion, and residence, as required in the rule 
 governing the application of a naturalized 
 citizen. 
 
 THE CHILD OF A NATURALIZED CITIZEN 
 CLAIMING CITIZENSHIP THROUGH THE NAT- 
 URALIZATION OF THE FATHER In addition 
 to the statements required by rule 3, the ap- 
 plicant must state that he or she is the son or 
 daughter, as the case may be, of the person 
 described in the naturalization certificate, 
 which must be submitted for inspection, and 
 must set forth the facts of his emigration, 
 naturalization, and residence, as required in 
 the rule governing the application of a natural- 
 ized citizen. 
 
 EXPIRATION OF PASSPORT A passport 
 
 expires two years from the date of its issuance. 
 A new one will be issued upon a new applica- 
 tion, and if the applicant be a naturalized 
 citizen, the old passport will be accepted in 
 lieu of a naturalized certificate, if the applica- 
 tion upon which it was issued is found to con- 
 tain sufficient information as to the emigration, 
 residence, and naturalization of the applicant. 
 
 WIFE, CHILDREN, AND SERVANTS. When 
 an applicant is accompanied by his wife, minor 
 children, or servant, being an American citi- 
 zen, it will be sufficient to state the fact, giv- 
 ing the respective ages of the children and the 
 citizenship of the servant, when one passport 
 will suffice for all. For any other person in the 
 party a separate passport will be required. A 
 woman's passport may include her minor chil- 
 dren and servant under the above-named con- 
 ditions. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL TITLES. They will not be 
 inserted in passports. 
 
 FEE. By act of Congress approved March 
 23, 1888, a fee of one dollar is required to be 
 collected for every citizen's passport. That 
 amount in currency or postal money order 
 should accompany each application. Orders 
 should be payable to the Disbursing Clerk of 
 the Department of State. Drafts or checks 
 will not be received. 
 
 BLANK FORMS OF APPLICATION They 
 
 will be furnished by the Department to persons 
 who desire to apply for passports, upon their 
 stating whether they are native or naturalized 
 citizens or claim through the naturalization of 
 husband or father. Forms are not furnished, 
 except as samples, to those who make a busi- 
 ness of procuring passports. 
 
 ADDRESS. Communications should be 
 addressed to the Department of State, Pass- 
 port Division, and each communication should 
 give the post office address of the person to 
 whom the answer is to be directed. 
 
 REJECTION OF APPLICATION. The Secre- 
 tary of State may refuse to issue a passport to
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 37 
 
 anyone who, he has reason to believe, desires 
 it for an unlawful or improper purpose, or who 
 is unable or unwilling to comply with the 
 rules. 
 
 UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE. 
 
 The purpose of the Civil Service act, as de- 
 clared in its title, is "to regulate and improve 
 the Civil Service of the United States." It 
 provides for the appointment of three Com- 
 missioners, a chief Examiner, a Secretary, and 
 other employees, and makes it the duty of the 
 Commissioners to aid the President as he may 
 request in preparing suitable rules for carrying 
 the act into effect ; to make regulations to 
 govern all examinations held under the pro- 
 visions of the act, and to make investigations 
 and report' upon all matters touching the en- 
 forcement and effect of the rules and regula- 
 tions. The address of the Commission is 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 Extent of the Service. The number 
 of persons regularly employed in the Execu- 
 tive Civil Service of the United States is about 
 179,000, of whom 80,334 are classified subject 
 to competitive examination or registration un- 
 der the Civil Service act and rules. The total 
 number of persons in the classified Civil Ser- 
 vice (by which is meant all that part of the 
 Executive Civil Service embraced within the 
 provisions of the Civil Service act and rules) 
 is 83,817. Of this number 78,728 are classi- 
 fied by reason of designation, duties performed, 
 or compensation, and of these 3,483 are re- 
 quired merely to pass a non-competitive exam- 
 ination or are excepted from examination (2, 240 
 of the latter class being Indians) ; 5,063 are 
 classified under regulations of the Navy De- 
 partment, approved by the Commission and 
 sanctioned by the President, and 26 are classi- 
 fied whose appointments are made by the 
 President solely. The classified Civil Service 
 does not include persons whose appointments 
 are subject to confirmation by the Senate, or 
 mere laborers or workmen. 
 
 Divisions of the Service. The rules 
 require that all that part of the Executive 
 Civil Service of the United States which has 
 been or may hereafter be classified under the 
 Civil Service act shall be arranged in branches 
 as follows : The Departmental Service, the 
 Customs Service, the Postal Service, the Gov- 
 ernment Printing Service, and the Internal 
 Revenue Service. 
 
 The Departmental Service includes all offi- 
 cers and employees who on the one hand are not 
 appointed subject to the consent of the Senate, 
 and on the other hand are above the grade of 
 laborer, and who are serving in or on detail 
 from the Departments, Commissions, and 
 
 Offices in the District of Columbia, the Rail- 
 way Mail Service, the Indian Service, the 
 Pension Agencies, the Steamboat Inspection 
 Service, the Marine Hospital Service, the 
 Light-House Service, the Life-Saving Service, 
 the Revenue Cutter Service, the Mints and 
 Assay offices, the Sub- Treasuries, the Engi- 
 neer Department at large, the Ordnance De- 
 partment at large, the Land Office Service, and 
 the force employed under Custodians of Pub- 
 lic Buildings, and in the U. S. Penitentiary at 
 Leavenworth, Kan. In addition to these are 
 included all other employees (except laborers 
 and persons whose appointments are subject to 
 the consent of the Senate) whose duties are 
 clerical or medical, or who serve as watchmen, 
 messengers, draughtsmen, engineers, firemen, 
 computers, or as superintendents of construc- 
 tion, superintendents of repairs, or foremen 
 under the Supervising Architect of the Treas- 
 ury, or who are in any branch of the Treasury 
 Department not enumerated above. . The 
 Customs Service includes all officers and em- 
 ployees between the extremes before mentioned 
 who are serving in any customs district. The 
 Postal Service includes all similar officers and 
 employees at free delivery post offices. The 
 Government Printing Service and the Internal 
 Revenue Service cover all like positions in the 
 branches indicated by their designations. 
 
 Applications. Persons seeking to be ex- 
 amined must file an application blank. The 
 blank for the Departmental Service at Wash- 
 ington, Railway Mail Service, the Indian 
 School Service, and the Government Printing 
 Service should be requested directly of the 
 Civil Service Commission at Washington. 
 The blank for the Customs, Postal, or Internal 
 Revenue Service must be requested in writing 
 of the Civil Service Board of Examiners at the 
 office where service is sought. These papers 
 should be returned to the officers from whom 
 they emanated. 
 
 Applicants for examination must be citi- 
 zens of the United States, and of the proper 
 age. No person using intoxicating liquors to 
 excess may be appointed. No discrimination 
 is made on account of sex, color, or political or 
 religious opinions. The limitations of age 
 vary with the different services, but do not 
 apply to any person honorably discharged from 
 the military or naval service of the United 
 States by reason of disability resulting from 
 wounds or sickness incurred in the line of duty. 
 
 Examinations. The applicants to enter 
 the services designated are examined as to 
 their relative capacity and fitness. For ordi- 
 nary clerical places in the Departmental, Cus- 
 toms, and Internal Revenue Services the ex- 
 amination is confined to orthography, penman-
 
 38 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 ship, copying, letter writing, and simple arith- 
 metic. Patent examiners are examined in 
 physics and technics, mathematics, chemistry, 
 and mechanical drawing. Meat inspectors 
 are examined in letter writing, veterinary 
 anatomy and physiology, veterinary pathology, 
 and meat inspection. One of the tests for post 
 office and railway mail clerks is an exercise in 
 reading manuscript addresses. Specimen sets 
 of questions will be furnished by the Commis- 
 sion upon request. Examinations are held 
 twice a year in every State and Territory at 
 fixed times and places. All examinations re- 
 late as nearly as possible to the duties to be 
 performed, and, whenever practicable, include 
 experience and practical tests. No applicant 
 is admitted to an examination in any one of 
 the different recognized trades, such as those 
 in the Government Printing Office, unless he 
 has had five years' experience in his trade, one 
 year of which must have been as a journey- 
 man. . This information is obtained by per- 
 sonal questions relating to the applicant's ex- 
 perience at his trade and the certificates of 
 persons who have employed him. No one is 
 certified for appointment whose standing in 
 any examination is less than 70 per centum of 
 complete proficiency, except applicants whose 
 claims for military or naval preference under 
 Section 1,754 R. S. have been admitted. 
 These need obtain but 65. The law also pre- 
 scribes competitive examinations for promo- 
 tion in the service. A certificate is given to 
 each person examined, stating whether he 
 passed or failed to pass. For positions in the 
 classified service where technical qualifications 
 are needed special examinations are held. In 
 the Departmental Service they are held for the 
 State Department, the Pension, Patent, and 
 Signal Offices, Geological and Coast Surveys, 
 Engineer Department at large, Ordnance De- 
 partment at large, etc. For places which do 
 not require technical qualifications the number 
 of applicants is usually excessive, and only 
 those who attain high grades have a good 
 chance for appointment. 
 
 Excepted Places. A number of posi- 
 tions are excepted from examination or are 
 subject only to non-competitive examination. 
 In the former class are included the following 
 positions : Private secretaries and confidential 
 clerks (not exceeding two) to the President or 
 to the head of each of the eight Executive De- 
 partments ; attorneys or assistant attorneys 
 whose main duties are connected with the 
 management of cases in court ; one assistant 
 postmaster, or chief assistant to the post- 
 master, of whatever designation, at each post 
 office, and one cashier for each first-class post 
 office when employed under the roster title of 
 
 cashier only ; Indians employed in the India;- 
 Service at large, except those employed a; 
 superintendents, teachers, teachers of indus 
 tries, kindergartners, and physicians. In th 
 latter class are included the following em 
 ployees in the Customs and Internal Revenue 
 Services : One cashier in each customs district 
 one chief or principal deputy or assistant col- 
 lector in such district, and one principal 
 deputy collector at each sub-port or station ; 
 one employee in each Internal Revenue district 
 who shall act as cashier or chief deputy or 
 assistant collector, as may be determined by 
 the Treasury Department ; one deputy col- 
 lector in each Internal Revenue district where 
 the number of employees in the office of the 
 collector exceeds four, and one deputy collector 
 in each stamp (or branch) office. 
 
 Appointments. Upon the occurrence of a 
 vacancy, the appointment to fill it, if not niade 
 by pro motion, reduction, transfer, or reinstate- 
 ment (for all of which provision is made by 
 the Civil Service rules), must be made by selec- 
 tion from the eligibles of highest grade on 
 the appropriate register. In the Executive 
 Departments at Washington and in the Gov- 
 ernment Printing Office appointments are ap- 
 portioned among the States and Territories on 
 the basis of population. Every appointment 
 is made for a probationary period of six months. 
 Whenever there are no names of eligibles upon 
 a register for any position in which a vacancy 
 exists, and the public interest requires that it 
 be filled before eligibles can be provided by the 
 Commission, such vacancy may, subject to the 
 approval of the Commission, be filled by ap- 
 pointment without examination and certifica- 
 tion until an eligible can be provided by the 
 Commission. The number of women apply- 
 ing for clerical places is greatly in excess of 
 the calls of appointing officers. The positions 
 to which the largest nunbers of them are ap- 
 pointed are those of assistant microscopist in 
 the branch offices of the Bureau of Animal In- 
 dustry at the various stockyards throughout 
 the country, and teachers, matrons, seam- 
 stresses, etc., in the Indian Service. A few re- 
 ceive appointments as stenographers and type- 
 writers in the Departmental Service, and a few 
 are appointed to technical and professional 
 places. 
 
 Preference Claimants. Persons who 
 served in the military or naval service of the 
 United States, and were discharged by reason 
 of disabilities resulting from wounds or sick- 
 ness incurred in the line of duty, are, under 
 the Civil Service rules, given certain prefer- 
 ences. They are released from all maximum 
 age limitations, are eligible for appointment 
 at a grade of 65, while all others are obliged
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 39 
 
 to obtain a grade of -70, and are certified to 
 appointing officers before all others. Subject 
 to the other conditions of the rules, any person 
 who served in the military or naval service of 
 the United States in the war of the rebellion, 
 and was honorably discharged therefrom, or 
 the widow of any such person, or any army 
 nurse of said war, may be reinstated without 
 regard to the length of time he or she has been 
 separated from the service. 
 
 Provisions Concerning Political 
 Discrimination, Assessments, Etc. 
 The Civil Service rules provide that no person 
 in the Executive Civil Service shall dismiss, or 
 cause to be dismissed, or make any attempt to 
 procure the dismissal of or in any manner 
 change the official rank or compensation of 
 any other person therein, because of his polit- 
 ical or religious opinions or affiliations; that 
 no removal shall be made from any position 
 subject to competitive examination except for 
 just cause and upon written charges filed 
 with the head of the department or other ap- 
 pointing officer, and of which the accused 
 shall have full notice and an opportunity to 
 make defense ; and that no person in the Ex- 
 ecutive Civil Service shall use his* official au- 
 thority or official influence for the purpose of 
 interfering with an election or controlling the 
 result thereof. Such rules also provide that 
 any person in the Executive Civil Service who 
 shall willfully violate any provision of the 
 Civil Service act or rules shall be dismissed 
 from office. 
 
 The Civil Service act contains provisions for- 
 bidding any person in the service of the United 
 States from levying upon or collecting from 
 persons in the Executive Civil Service contri- 
 butions to be devoted to political objects, the 
 collection of such contributions by any person 
 in any public building of the United States, or 
 discrimination against persons who do not 
 make such contributions or render political 
 service. A violation of any of the provisions 
 concerning political assessments, or their col- 
 lection in a public building of the United 
 
 States, is declared to be a misdemeanor, pun- 
 ishable by a fine not exceeding five thousand 
 dollars, or by imprisonment for a term not ex- 
 ceeding three years, or by such fine and im- 
 prisonment both in the discretion of the court. 
 The act also declares that when rules to carry 
 its provisions into effect shall have been pro- 
 mulgated, " it shall be the duty of all officers 
 of the United States in the departments and 
 offices to which any such rules may relate, to 
 aid, in all proper ways, in carrying said rules, 
 and any modifications thereof, into effect." 
 
 Political Activity of Officials An 
 
 executive order of July 14, 1896, which is 
 still in force, warns office-holders that, while 
 individual interest and activity in political 
 affairs are by no means condemned, they must 
 bear in mind that their time and labor are due 
 to the Government, and that they should scru- 
 pulously avoid, in their political action as well 
 as in the discharge of their official duty, offend- 
 ing, by obtrusive partisanship, their neighbors 
 who have relations with them as public 
 officials. 
 
 The Unclassified Executive Civil 
 Service. The portion of the Executive 
 Civil Service which is not classified embraces 
 the following : All officers nominated by the 
 President and confirmed by the Senate, in- 
 cluding members of the Cabinet, assistant sec- 
 retaries, certain chiefs of bureaus, etc., in the 
 Executive Departments at Washington, col- 
 lectors, naval officers, surveyors, and ap- 
 praisers in the Customs Service, collectors in 
 the Internal Revenue Service, and first, second, 
 and third class postmasters. Other unclassi- 
 fied positions are fourth class postmasters, the 
 employees of the District of Columbia, the em- 
 ployees of the Library of Congress, clerks in 
 post offices not having free delivery, mere 
 laborers and workmen, certain positions hav- 
 ing a compensation of less than $300 a year, 
 and the Consular Service. Examinations for 
 positions in the service last named are non- 
 competitive, and conducted by a board of the 
 Department of State. 
 
 UNITED STATES CUSTOMS DUTIES. 
 
 A TABLE OF LEADING ARTICLES IMPORTED, GIVING RATE AT ENTRY BY THE 
 
 TARIFF ACT OF 1897. 
 N. e. s. indicates " when not elsewhere specified." 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Tariff Rate. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Tariff Rate. 
 
 c. * . 
 Free. 
 30 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Alcohol, amylic, or fusel oil 
 
 Animals f or'breeding purposes. . . 
 
 Barley, bushel of 48 Ibs , 
 
 Beads, glass 35 
 
 Beef, mutton, and pork 2c. 39>lb. 
 
 Beer, ale, not in bottles 20c. ^> gal. 
 
 Beer, porter, and ale, in bottles 40c. " 
 
 Bindings, cotton 45 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Bindings, flax 45 " 
 
 Bindings, wool 5Cc. ^ lb. and 
 
 i 60 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Blankets. 
 
 Blankets, value 40c. to 50c. 
 
 22c. ^ lb. and 
 
 30 p. c. ad val. 
 
 33c. $Mb. and 35 
 
 | p. c. ad val. (a) 
 
 Bonnets, silk 60 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Books, charts, maps 25 
 
 Books over 20 years old, for public 
 
 libraries .' ;Free. 
 
 Bronze, manufactures of 45 p. c. ad "val. 
 
 Brushes . 40 " 
 
 Butter, and substitutes for 6c. ^ lb.
 
 40 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Tariff Rate. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Tariff Rate. 
 
 
 50 p. c. ad val. 
 45 
 36 " 
 22c. p sq. yd. & 
 40 p. c. ad val. 
 18c. p sq. yd. & 
 40 p. c. ad val. 
 28c. p sq. yd. & 
 40 p. c. aa val. 
 60c. psq.yd. & 
 40 p. c. ad val. 
 27% p. c. ad val. 
 6c. p Ib. 
 $4.50 p Ib. and 
 25 p. c. ad val. 
 40 p. c. ad val. 
 50 " 
 
 60 " (ft) 
 Free. 
 67c. p ton. 
 Free. 
 50 p. c. ad val. 
 (if more than 
 15c. p Ib.). 
 45 p. c. ad val. 
 60 " 
 46 " 
 56 " 
 50c. to $2 p doz. 
 pairs and 15 p. 
 c. ad val. 
 COc. to $2.25 p 
 doz. pairs & 15 
 p. c. to 50 p. c. 
 ad val. 
 9c. P sq. yd. & 
 25 p. c. ad val. 
 45 p. c. ad val. 
 50 
 20c. p piece & 
 40 p. c. ad val. 
 $1.75 p doz. & 
 20 p. c. ad val. 
 16c. each and 15 
 p. c. ad val. 
 45 p. c. ad val. 
 60 " 
 10 " 
 V 4 c. p H>- and 10 
 p. c. ad val. 
 Free. 
 %c. p Ib. 
 25 p. c. ad val. 
 55 " 
 60 p. c. ad val. 
 5c. p doz. 
 25 p. c. ad val. 
 35c. p Ib. 
 Free. 
 
 (&) 
 Free. 
 %c. pib. 
 22c. p Ib. and 
 30 p. c. ad val. 
 33c. p Ib. and 
 35 p. c. ad val. 
 45 p. c. ad val. 
 50 " 
 Ic. p Ib. and 35 
 p. c. ad val. 
 25c. & ba- 
 le, p Ib. 
 50 p. c. ad val. 
 36 
 60 " 
 8c. p sq. foot, 
 lie. ' 
 Ic. p Ib. 
 
 l%c. p Ib. 
 C. |>'lb. (a) 
 46 p. c. ad val. 
 10 
 36 " 
 20 )). c.; not 
 drawn, free. 
 
 Hams and bacon 
 
 5c. p Ib. 
 $4 p ton. 
 2c. p Ib. 
 15 p. c. ad val. 
 20c. p gal. 
 5-lOc. pib. 
 12c- p Ib. 
 30 p. c. ad val. 
 830 p head, (h ) 
 30 p. c. ad val. 
 35 " 
 45 " 
 45 
 12c. p Ib. 
 iy 2 c. p Ib. 
 35 p. c. ad val. 
 60 " 
 
 38V 2 c. p Ib. 
 38V 2 c. p Ib. 
 
 44c. p Ib. (c) 
 60 p. c. ad val. 
 2c. p Ib. 
 
 35 p. c. ad val. 
 45 " 
 60 " 
 
 iy 2 c. p ib. 
 
 45c. p bu. 
 8c. p gross. 
 6c. p sq. yard. 
 60 p. c. ad val. 
 2c. p gal. 
 2c. p Ib. 
 40 3 to 56, 3c. p 
 gal. (t) 
 35 p. c. ad val. 
 45 
 6-lOc. p Ib. 
 2V 4 c. " 
 Free. 
 8 to 20c. p sq. 
 
 yd. (j). 
 
 60c. p gal., in 
 bottles, etc. 
 40c. p gal. 
 8c Pgal. 
 40c. p bu. 
 40 p. c. ad val. 
 $1 p Ib. 
 20 p. c. ad val. 
 36 
 Free. 
 2V 2 c. p Ib. 
 60c. p Ib. and 
 46 p. c. ad val. 
 35 p. c. ad val. 
 25 " 
 40 " 
 35 " 
 15c. ^ gross. 
 5c.plf>. 
 25e. p bu. 
 llOc. p Ib., 
 mechanically 
 ground. (I) 
 Ic. p Ib. 
 Free. 
 20 p. c. ad val. 
 lOc. p sq. f . and 
 40 p. c. ad val. 
 %c. p Ib. 
 30 p. c. ad val. 
 12c. plb., pack- 
 ages ;8c. p Ib., 
 bulk. 
 40 p. c. ad val. 
 Free. 
 25 p. c. ad val. 
 36 p. c. ad val. 
 Free. 
 36 p.c. ad val.(ei] 
 60 " 
 Free. 
 
 
 Hay 
 
 
 Hemp cordage . . 
 
 Carpets, treble ingrain 
 
 Hides, raw, dried, salted, pickled. . 
 
 
 Honey 
 
 H oops, iron or steel, baling 
 
 Carpets, tapestry Brussels 
 
 Hops 
 
 Horn, manufactures of 
 
 Carpets, "Wilton, Axminster, velvet 
 Cattle (over one year old) 
 
 Horses, mules 
 
 India rubber, manufactures of 
 
 India rubber, vulcanized 
 
 Instruments, metal 
 
 Cheese, all kinds 
 
 | Iron, manufactures of n. e. s. 
 
 Cigars and cigarettes 
 
 Iron screws, % inch or less in length. . . 
 Iron, tinned plates 
 
 Clocks, n e. s 
 
 Ivory, manufactures of, n. e. s. . . 
 
 Clothing, ready-made, cotton, n. e. s. . . 
 Clothing, ready-made, linen, silk, and 
 woolen 
 
 Jewelry 
 
 Knit goods, wool, value not over 30c. p 
 Ib 
 
 Coal, anthracite 
 
 Knit goods, woolen apparel, 30 to 40c. 
 
 Coal, bituminous 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Knit goods, woolen apparel, over 40c. 
 p Ib 
 
 Confectionery, all sugar , , . . 
 
 Copper, manufactures of 
 
 Knit goods, silk 
 
 Lard 
 
 Lead, pigs, bars 
 
 Cotton gloves 
 
 Lead, type metal 
 
 Cotton handkerchiefs, hemmed 
 
 Leather manufactures, n. e. s . 
 
 Cotton handkerchiefs, hemstitched 
 Cotton hosiery 
 
 Linen manufactures, n. e. s 
 
 Linen, wearing apparel 
 
 Cotton shirts and drawers 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 Malt, barlev 
 
 Matches, friction, boxed 
 
 Cotton plushes, unbleached 
 
 Matting, cocoa and rattan 
 
 Meerschaum pipes 
 
 Milk, fresh 
 
 Milk, condensed 
 
 Cotton webbing 
 
 Molasses, n. e. s 
 
 Muffs fur 
 
 Cotton curtains 
 
 Cutlery, more than $3 per doz 
 
 Musical instruments ... 
 
 Cutlery, razors, over $3 per doz 
 
 1 Nails, cut 
 
 1 Nails horseshoe 
 
 Cutlerv, table knives 
 
 Newspapers, periodicals 
 
 Oilcloth, value over 25c 
 
 Cutlery, table knives, over $4 p doz. . . 
 Diamonds (uncut, free), cut and set 
 Diamonds, cut, but not set 
 
 Oil, olive 
 Oil, olive, n e. s 
 
 Drugs (crude, free), not crude 
 
 Oil, whale and seal, foreign, n. e. s 
 Onions 
 
 Dyewoods, crude 
 
 Opium liquid preparations 
 
 Dyewoods, extracts of ... .... 
 
 
 Earthenware, common 
 Earthenware, porcelain, plain 
 
 Paintings and marble statuary 
 Paper manufactures, n. e. s 
 
 Earthenware, porcelain, etc., decorated 
 Eggs 
 
 Paper stock, crude 
 
 Pepper, cavenne, unground 
 
 Engravings 
 
 Perfumery^ alcoholic 
 
 Extracts, meat 
 
 Photograph albums 
 
 Fertilizers, guanos, manures 
 
 Firearms 
 
 Photograph slides 
 
 Fish, American fisheries 
 
 Pickles 
 
 Fish, smoked, dried 
 
 Pins, metallic 
 
 Flannels 
 
 Pipes of clay, common, 40c. p gross 
 Poultry, dressed 
 
 Flannels, value 40c. to 50c 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Flax, manufactures of, m e. s 
 
 Pulp wood, for paper-makers 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Flowers, artificial 
 
 Fruits, preserved in their own juice. . . 
 Fruits, apples 
 
 Quinine, sulphate, and salts 
 
 
 Fruits, oranges, lemons, n. e. s 
 
 Rugs, Oriental 
 
 Fur, manufactures of 
 
 Salmon, dried or smoked 
 Salmon, prepared or preserved 
 
 Furniture, wood 
 
 Glassware, plain and cut 
 
 Glass, polished plate, not over 16x24. .. 
 Glass, silvered, not over 16x24 
 
 Salt 
 
 Sauces, n. e. s 
 
 Glass bottles, over 1 pint 
 
 Gloves, men's, ladies , children's 
 
 Gl ucose 
 
 
 Glue, value not over 7c. per Ib . 
 
 Sausages, all others 
 
 Gold, manufactures of, not jewelry 
 Hair of hogs, curled for mattresses . . . 
 Hair, manulactures, n. c. s 
 
 Sealskin sacques 
 
 
 Silk, spun in skeins 
 
 Hair, human unmanufactured 
 
 
 Skius. uncured, raw. . . ,
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 41 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Tariff Rate. 
 
 Skins, tanned and dressed 20 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Slates, manufactures of. n. e. s 20 
 
 Smokers' articles, ex. clay pipes 
 
 Soap, castile ". j!V 4 c. ^ Ib. 
 
 Soap, toilet, perfumed '15 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Spirits, except bay rum $2.25 prf . gal. 
 
 Straw manufactures, n. e. s 130 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Sugars, not above 16 Dutch standard.. . 95-100c. lp Ib. 
 
 Sugars, above 16 Dutch standard !95-100c. " 
 
 Tea i Free. 
 
 Tin, ore or metal " 
 
 Tin plates lV 2 c. ^ Ib. 
 
 Tobacco, cigar wrappers, not stemmed $1.85 " 
 
 Tobacco, if stemmed j$2.50 " 
 
 Tobacco, all other leaf, stemmed ;50c. " 
 
 Tobacco, unmanufactured, not stem- 
 med 35c. " 
 
 Umbrellas, silk or alpaca 50 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Vegetables, natural, n. e. s 25 " 
 
 Vegetables, prepared or preserved 40 " 
 
 Velvets, silk, 75 p. c. or more silk '$1.50 ^ Ib. and 
 
 | 15 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Watches and parts of 40 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Wheat, bushel of 60 Ib i26 " 
 
 Willow for basket-makers '20 " 
 
 Willow manufactures, n. e. s J40 " 
 
 Wines, champagne, in % pt. bottles or 
 
 less 
 
 Wines, champagne, in bottles, % pt. to 
 
 1 pt 
 Wines, champagne, in bottles, 1 pt. to 
 
 1 qt 
 
 Wines, still, in casks containing more 
 
 than 14 p. c. absolute alcohol 
 
 $2 > doz. 
 $4 " 
 $8 " 
 50c. ^ gal. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Tariff Rate. 
 
 Woods, cabinet sawed $1 to $2 pM. ft. 
 
 Wool, first class lie. ^ Ib. 
 
 Wool, second class 12c. " 
 
 Wool, third class, n. e. s., above 13c. p 
 
 Ib 7c. $> Ib. (e) 
 
 Wool or worsted yarns, value not over 27?c. $* Ib. and 
 
 30c. ^lb 40 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Wool or worsted yarns, value 30 to 40e 3& l / 2 c. ^ Ib. & 40 
 
 $>lb p. c. ad val. (h 
 
 Wool or worsted yarns, value over 40c. 38%c. ^ Ib. and 
 
 $Mb j 40 p. c. ad val. 
 
 Woolen or worsted clothing '44c. p 1 Ib. and 
 
 | 60 p. c. ad val. 
 Woolen manufactures, n. e. s ; 33c. p 1 Ib. 
 
 *TheDingley Tariff increases rates on women's and 
 children's gloves uniformly 75c. per dozen pairs; on 
 men's gloves the rates are the same as the Wilson rates, 
 (a) Valued at more than 50c. per Ib., 33c. per Ib. and 40 
 per cent, ad val. (b) Specific duties ranging from 81.50 
 to $6 on each article and 35 per cent, aa val. (c) On 
 goods above 40c. and not above 70c. per Ib. ; duty on 
 goods above 70c. per Ib., 44c. per Ib. and 55 per cent, ad 
 val. (d) Value $1 per Ib. 20c. per Ib. and 15 per cent, ad 
 val., with increasing duty of lOc. per. Ib. for each 50c. 
 additional value up to $2.50; all over 2.50 per Ib., 60c. 
 per Ib. and 15 per cent, ad val. (e) Wool valued at 
 12c. per Ib. or less, 4c. per Ib. ; above 12c. duty is 7c. per 
 Ib. (/) Two prices only in Dingley bill, 30c. and less, 
 and above 30c. (g) If not over lOc. per Ib. (h) If valued 
 at $150 ; if more, 25 per cent, ad val. (i) Above 56, 6c. 
 per gal. (j) And 15 to 20 per cent, ad val. (k) On wool- 
 en an additional duty of lie. per Ib. (I) Chemical wood 
 pulp, l-6c. per Ib. 
 
 WAR REVENUE TAXES. 
 
 Taxes Imposed by Congress Under Revenue Act Approved June 13, 1898. 
 
 TAX ON FERMENTED LIQUORS TOOK EFFECT FROM DATE OF ACT. 
 
 Beer, lager beer, ale, porter, and other similar fermented liquor, per barrel of 31 gallons $2 
 
 (7>i per cent, discount on all sales of stamps.) 
 ANNUAL SPECIAL TAXES TOOK EFFECT JULY 1, 1898. 
 
 Bankers using a capital (including surplus) not exceeding $25,000 $60 
 
 For every additional $1,000 in excess of 25,000 2 
 
 Brokers (except those paying tax as bankers) 50 
 
 Pawnbrokers 20 
 
 Commercial brokers 20 
 
 Custom-house brokers 10 
 
 Proprietors of theaters, museums, and concert halls in cities of more than 25,000 population, as shown by 
 
 last preceding United States census 100 
 
 Proprietors of circuses 100 
 
 Proprietors of other public exhibitions or shows for money 10 
 
 Proprietors of bowling alleys and billiard rooms, for each alley or table 5 
 
 TOBACCO, CIGARS, CIGARETTES, AND SNUFF. 
 
 Tobacco and snuff, manufactured 12 cents per pound 
 
 Cigars and cigarettes : 
 
 Cigars weighing more than 3 pounds per 1,000 , $3.60 per M 
 
 Cigars weighing not more than 3 pounds per 1,000 1.00 per M 
 
 Cigarettes weigning more than 3 pounds per 1,000 3.60 per M 
 
 Cigarettes weighing not more than 3 pounds per 1,000 1.50 per M 
 
 Dealers in leaf tobacco and manufacturers of tobacco : 
 
 When annual sales do not exceed 50.000 pounds $6 
 
 When annual sales exceed 50,000 and do not exceed 100,000 pounds 12 
 
 When annual sales exceed 100,000 pounds 24 
 
 Dealers in tobacco whose annual sales exceed 50,000 pounds 12 
 
 Manufacturers of cigars: 
 
 When annual sales do not exceed 100,000 ciga.: 6 
 
 When annual sales exceed 100,000 and do not excee- <OC 'KX) cigars 12 
 
 When annual sales exceed 200,000 cigars - 24 
 
 STAMP TAXES TOOK EFFECT JULY 1, 1898. 
 Bonds, debentures, or certificates of stock and indebtedness issued after July 1, 1898, on each $100 of 
 
 face value 5 cents 
 
 Certificates of stock, original issues of, on organization or reorganization, on each $100 of face value or 
 
 fraction thereof , 5 cents 
 
 Sale or agreement to sell stock in any association, company, or corporation, on each $100 of face value 
 
 or fraction thereof 2 cents 
 
 Sale or agreement to sell any products of merchandise, at any exchange, board of trade, or similar place : 
 
 For each 100 in value 1 cent 
 
 For each additional $100 or fraction thereof 1 cent 
 
 Bank check, draft, or certificate of deposit not drawing interest, or money order at sight 2 cents 
 
 Bill of exchange (inland), draft, certificate of deposit drawing interest, or money order other than at sight or 
 on demand, or promissory note (except bank notes), and original domestic money orders issued by 
 the United States after July 1, 1898: 
 
 For a sum not exceeding"$100 2 cents 
 
 For each additional $100 or fraction thereof 2 cents
 
 42 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Bill of exchange (foreign) or letter of credit (including orders by telegraph, or otherwise, for the payment of 
 money issued by express or other companies, or any person), drawn in, but payable out of, the United States : 
 If drawn singly or otherwise than in a set of three or more 
 
 Not exceeding 100 4 cents 
 
 For each additional $100 or part thereof 4 cents 
 
 If drawn in sets of two or more 
 
 For every bill of each set not exceeding 100 2 cents 
 
 For each additional $100 or part thereof 2 cents 
 
 Bill of lading or receipt (other than charter party) for merchandise for export 10 cents 
 
 Bill of lading, manifest, or receipt, and each duplicate thereof, express and freight 1 cent 
 
 Telephone messages costing 15 cents or over each 1 cent 
 
 Bonds of indemnity 50 cents 
 
 Certificates of profit and transfers thereof, on each $100 or part of 2 cents 
 
 Certificates issued by port warden or surveyor 25 cents 
 
 Certificates, all other, required by law, not elsewhere specified 10 cents 
 
 Charter contracts or agreements, or renewals or transfers of : 
 
 For vessels not exceeding 300 tons .*.'! 
 
 For vessels exceeding 300 and not exceeding 600 tons 
 
 For vessels exceed ing 600 tons 10 
 
 Broker's note or memorandum of sale 10 cents 
 
 Conveyance deed or instrument or writing transferring realty : 
 
 When value exceeds $100 and does not exceed $500 50 cents 
 
 For each additional $500 or fraction thereof 50 cents 
 
 Telegraphic despatch 1 cent 
 
 Custom-house entry of merchandise : 
 
 Not exceeding $100 in value 25 cents 
 
 Exceeding $100 and not exceeding $500 50 cents 
 
 Exceeding $500 $1 
 
 Entry for withdrawal of merchandise from customs bonded warehouse 50 cents 
 
 Life insurance policies (except any fraternal beneficiary society or order, or farmers' purely local co- 
 operative comnany or association, or employees' relief associations operated on the lodge system or 
 local co-operation plan, organized and conducted solely by the members thereof for trie exclusive 
 benefit of its members and not for profit) : 
 
 For each $100 or fractional part of 8 cents 
 
 On policies issued on weekly-pa vment plan 40 per cent, on amount of first weekly premium 
 
 Insurance policies (marine, inland, Are), except purely co-operative or mutual, on each dollar of the 
 
 amount of premium V 2 of 1 cent 
 
 Insurance policies (casualty, fidelity, and guarantee), on each dollar of amount of premium Va of 1 cent 
 
 Lease, agreement, or contract for rent : 
 
 Not exceeding one year 25 cents 
 
 Exceeding one year and not exceeding three years 50 cents 
 
 Exceeding three years $1 
 
 Manifest for entry or clearance of vessel for foreign port : 
 
 When registered tonnage does not exceed 300 tons 1 
 
 When registered tonnage exceeds 300 tons and does not exceed 600 tons 3 
 
 When registered tonnage exceeds 600 tons 5 
 
 Mortgage or pledge of lands, estate, or property, real or personal, or assignment, transfer, or renewal of : 
 
 Exceeding $1,000 and not exceeding $1,500 25 cents 
 
 On each $500, or fractional part of, in excess of $1,500 25 cents 
 
 Passage tickets from the United States to foreign parts : 
 
 Costing not over $30 $1 
 
 Costing more than $30 and not over $60 5 
 
 Costing more than $60 5 
 
 Power of attorney or proxy for voting at any election of officers of any incorporated company or asso- 
 ciation, except religious, charitable, or literary-, or public cemeteries 10 cents 
 
 Power of attorney, other 25 cents 
 
 Protests of notes, etc 25 cents 
 
 Warehouse receipts 25 cents 
 
 Medicinal proprietary articles and preparations (on every packet, box, bottle, pot, phial, or other in- 
 closure) : 
 
 On retail value not exceeding 5 cents \' a of 1 cent 
 
 Exceeding 5 cents and not exceeding 10 cents J 4 of 1 cent 
 
 Exceeding 10 cents and not exceeding 15 cents % of 1 cent 
 
 Exceeding 15 cents and not exceeding 25 cents % of 1 cent 
 
 Each additional 25 cents of retail price or fractional part thereof % of 1 cent 
 
 Perfumery, cosmetics, and other similar articles (on every packet, box, bottle, etc.) : 
 
 On retail value not exceeding 5 cents Vs of 1 cent 
 
 Exceeding 5 cents and not exceeding 10 cents V 4 of 1 cent 
 
 Exceeding 10 cents and not exceeding 15 cents s/ 8 of 1 cent 
 
 Exceeding 15 cents and not exceeding 25 cents % of 1 cent 
 
 Each additional 25 cents or part thereof % of 1 cent 
 
 Sparkling or other wines, bottled : 
 
 Each bottle containing 1 pint or less 1 cent 
 
 Each bottle containing more than 1 pint 2 cents 
 
 Chewing gum, or substitutes : 
 
 On each jar, box, or other package, if not more than $1 retail value 4 cents 
 
 On each additional $1 or part thereof 4 cents 
 
 EXCISE TAXES. 
 
 Corporation, company, person, or firm refining petroleum or sugar, or owning or controlling 
 any pipe line for transporting oil or other products where gross annual receipts exceed 
 $250,000 on gross amount of receipts in excess of 8250,000 l ' t of 1 per cent. 
 
 On every seat sold in a palace or parlor car, and on every berth sold in a sleeping car 1 cent 
 
 LK<!.\< Y TAXES TOOK EFFECT FKOM DATE OF ACT. 
 
 I. Where the person or persons entitled to beneficial interest shall lie tin- lineal issue or lineal ancestor, brother, 
 or sister of deceased : 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds SIO.IKM) and does not exceed SU5.0OO 75 cents on each sioo 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds $25,000 and does not exceed 100,000 $1.125 on each *loo
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 43 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds $100.000 and does not exceed 500,000 1.50 on each 100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 8500.000 and does not exceed $1,000,000 $1.875 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 1,000,000 $2.25 on each $100 
 
 L'. Where the person or persons entitled to beneficial interest shall be the descendant of a brother or sister : 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 10,000 and does not exceed $25,000 $1.50 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 25,000 and does not exceed 100,000 $2 25 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 100,000 and does not exceed 500,000 $3 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds $500.000 and does not exceed 1,000,000 $3.75 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 1,000,000 $4.50 on each $100 
 
 3. Where the person or persons entitled to any beneficial interest shall be the brother or sister of the father or 
 
 mother or a descendant of a brother or'sister of the father or mother : 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 10.000 and does not exceed $25.000 $3 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 25,000 and does not exceed 100,000 $4.50 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 100,000 and does not exceed 500,000 $6 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 500.000 and does not exceed $1 ,000,000 $7.50 on each 100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 1,000,000 $9 on each $100 
 
 4. Where the person or persons entitled to beneficial interest shall be the brother or sister of the grandfather or 
 
 grandmother or a descendant of the brother or sister of the grandfather or grandmother : 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 10.000 and does not exceed 25,000 $4 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 25,000 and does not exceed $100,000 $6 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds $100,000 and does not exceed 500,000 $8 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exeeds 500,000 and does not exceed $1,000,000 $10 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds $1,000,000 $12 on each $100 
 
 6. Where the person or persons entitled to beneficial interest shall be a person of any other degree of collateral 
 
 consanguinity, or a stranger in blood, or a body politic or corporation : 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 10,000 and does hot exceed 25,000 $5 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 25,000 and does not exceed 100,000 $7.50 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 100,000 and does not exceed 500,000 $10 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds 500.000 and does not exceed $1,000,000 $12.50 on each $100 
 
 When the whole amount exceeds $1,000,000 $15 on each $100 
 
 MIXED FLOUR TOOK EFFECT 60 DAYS AFTER PASSAGE OF ACT. 
 
 Person, firm, or corporation making, packing, or repacking $12 per annum 
 
 On each barrel containing more than 98 pounds and not more than 196 pounds 4 cents per barrel 
 
 On each % barrel or package containing more than 49 pounds and not more than 98 pounds. . . 2 cents per barrel 
 
 On each l / t barrel or package containing more than 24% pounds and not more than 49 pounds. 1 cent per barrel 
 
 On each l / a barrel or package containing 24y 2 pounds or less % cent per barrel 
 
 CUSTOMS DUTIES. 
 Tea imported from foreign countries 10 cents per pound 
 
 THE BRITISH CUSTOMS TARIFF. 
 
 Formerly almost every article imported into the United Kingdom, whether manufactured or raw material, 
 was in the tariff. In 1842 the Customs Tariff numbered no fewer than 1,200 articles. Now it contains but twenty. 
 The following are the duties on importations : 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Beer, mum and spruce, the original specific 
 gravity not exceeding 1215, per barrel 
 
 of 36 galls 180 
 
 " exceeding 1215, per barrel of 36 galls 1 12 10 
 
 " and ale, worts of which were before fer- 
 mentation of a specific gravity of 1055, 
 
 per barrel of 36 galls 070 
 
 And so in proportion for any difference in 
 gravity. 
 
 Cards (playing) per doz. packs 039 
 
 Chicory, raw or kiln-dried cwt. 13 3 
 
 roasted or ground Ib. 002 
 
 " and coffee mixed " 002 
 
 Chloral hydrate " 013 
 
 Chloroform " 031 
 
 Cocoa " 001 
 
 " husks and shells cwt. 020 
 
 " or chocolate, ground, prepared, or in any 
 
 way manufactured Ib. 2 
 
 Coffee, raw cwt. 14 
 
 " kiln-dried, roasted, or ground Ib. 002 
 
 Collodion gall. 150 
 
 Confectionery, in the manufacture of which 
 
 spirit has been used Ib. % 
 
 Ether, acetic " 1 10 
 
 " butyric gall. 15 8 
 
 " sulphuric " 162 
 
 Ethyl, iodide of " 13 7 
 
 Fruit (dried) : Currants cwt. 020 
 
 " Figs, prunes, raisins " 070 
 
 Naphtha or methylic alcohol (puri.) proof, .gall. 10 10 
 
 s. d. 
 Soap, transparent, in the manufacture of which 
 
 spirit has been used Ib. 003 
 
 Spirits, or strong waters proof gall. 10 10 
 
 " Perfumed spirits and cologne water 
 
 liquid gall. 17 3 
 
 " Liqueurs, cordials, or other preparations 
 containing spirit in bottle, if not to 
 be tested for ascertaining the strength, 
 
 liquid gall. 0148 
 
 Tea Ib. 004 
 
 Tobacco, unmanuf ., containing 10 per cent, or 
 
 more of moisture Ib. 032 
 
 containing less than 10 per cent 3 6 
 
 cigars 5 
 
 Cavendish or negrohead 046 
 
 snuff not more than 13 Ibs. (in 100 
 
 Ibs.) moisture Ib. 046 
 
 snuff cont. more than 13 Ibs " 039 
 
 other manufactured 4 
 
 Cavendish or negrohead 'manufac- 
 tured in bond from unmanufactured 
 
 tobacco Ib. 4 
 
 Varnish (cont. spirit), same as spirits. 
 
 Wine, not exceeding 30 proof spirits gall. 010 
 
 " exceeding 30, but not exceeding 42 J 
 
 gall. 026 
 
 " for each additional deg. of strength be- 
 yond 42 gall. 003 
 
 Sparkling wine imported in bottle " 2 
 
 These duties are in addition to the duty in respect of 
 alcoholic strength. 
 
 There are drawbacks for roasted coffee shipped as stores, and for tobacco and snuff manufactured in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 The receipts from customs in the United Kingdom, year ending March 31, 1895, were 20,115,000 or about 
 $98,000,000. The total revenue of the Government from all sources was 101,697,304, so that the receipts from 
 customs were about 20 per cent. The other sources of revenue were: From excise, 26,050,000; from stamps, 
 14,440,000 ; from income and propertv taxes, 15,600,000 ; from post office, 10,760,000 ; from telegraphs, 2,580,000. 
 The remainder from land tax, house duty, crown lands, and miscellaneous.
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 LABOR LEGISLATION. 
 
 Anti-Boycotting and Anti-Black- 
 listing Laws. The States having laws 
 prohibiting boycotting in terms are Colorado, 
 Illinois, and Wisconsin. 
 
 The States having laws prohibiting black- 
 listing in terms are Alabama, Colorado, Con- 
 necticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, 
 Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Utah, 
 Virginia, and Wisconsin. 
 
 The following States have laws which may 
 be fairly construed as prohibiting boycotting: 
 Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, 
 Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, 
 Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New 
 York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South 
 Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, and Wisconsin. 
 
 The following States have laws which may 
 be fairly construed as prohibiting blacklisting : 
 Georgia, Michigan, New Hampshire, New 
 York, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and 
 South Dakota. 
 
 In the following States it is unlawful for 
 any employer to exact an agreement, either 
 written or verbal, from an employee not to join 
 or become a member of any labor organiza- 
 tion, as a condition of employment : Cali- 
 fornia, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Massachu- 
 setts, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New 
 York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. 
 
 Eight - Hour Laws. CALIFORNIA 
 Eight hours of labor constitute a day's work, 
 unless it is otherwise expressly stipulated by 
 the parties to a contract. A stipulation that 
 eight hours of labor constitute a day's work 
 must be made a part of all contracts to which 
 the State or any municipal corporation there- 
 in is a party. But in the case of drivers, 
 conductors, and gripmen of street cars for the 
 carriage of passengers, a day's work consists 
 of twelve hours. Employment of minor 
 children for more than eight hours per day is 
 absolutely prohibited, except in vinicultural or 
 horticultural pursuits, or in domestic or house- 
 hold occupations. 
 
 COLORADO. Eight hours constitute a day's 
 work for all workingmen employed by the 
 State, or any county, township, school district, 
 municipality, or incorporated town. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. Eight hours of labor con- 
 stitute a lawful day's work unless otherwise 
 agreed. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Eight hours con- 
 stitute a day's work for all laborers or mechan- 
 ics employed by or on behalf of the District of 
 Columbia. 
 
 IDAHO. Eight hours' actual work consti- 
 tute a lawful day's work on all State and munic- 
 ipal works. 
 
 ILLINOIS. Eight hours are a legal day's 
 work in all mechanical employments, except 
 on farms, and when otherwise agreed ; does not 
 apply to service by the day, week, or month, 
 or prevent contracts for longer hours. 
 
 INDIANA. Eight hours of labor constitute a 
 legal day's work for all classes of mechanics, 
 workingmen, and laborers, excepting those en- 
 gaged in agricultural and domestic labor. 
 Overwork by agreement and for extra compen- 
 sation is permitted. The employment of per- 
 sons under fourteen years of age for more than 
 eight hours per day is absolutely prohibited. 
 
 KANSAS. Eight hours constitute a day's 
 work for all laborers, mechanics, or other per- 
 sons employed by or on behalf of the State or 
 any county, city, township, or other munic- 
 ipality. 
 
 NEBRASKA. Eight hours constitute a legal 
 day's work for all classes of mechanics, serv- 
 ants, and laborers, except those engaged in 
 farm or domestic labor. 
 
 MISSOURI. Eight hours constitute a legal 
 day's work. The law does not prevent an 
 agreement to work for a longer or a shorter 
 time and does not apply to laborers and farm 
 hands in the service of farmers or others en- 
 gaged in agriculture. 
 
 MONTANA. Eight hours constitute a legal 
 day's work for persons engaged to operate or 
 handle any first-motion or direct-acting hoist- 
 ing engine, or any geared or indirect-acting 
 hoisting engine at any mine employing fifteen 
 or more men underground when the duties of 
 fireman are performed by the person so en- 
 gaged ; also for any stationary engineer oper- 
 ating a stationary engine developing fifty or 
 more horse power when such engineer has 
 charge or control of a boiler or boilers in addi- 
 tion to his other duties. The law applies only 
 to such steam plants as are in continuous opera- 
 tion or are operated twenty or more hours in 
 each twenty-four hours, and does not apply to 
 persons running any engine more than eight 
 hours in each twenty-four for the purpose of 
 relieving another employee in case of sickness 
 or other unforeseen cause. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. Eight hours constitute a 
 day's labor on any day whereon any general or 
 municipal election shall be held. 
 
 NEW YORK. Eight hours constitute a day's 
 work for mechanics, workingmen, and labor- 
 ers, except in farm or domestic labor, but 
 overwork for extra pay is permitted. The law 
 applies to those employed by the State or 
 municipality, or by persons contracting for 
 State work. 
 
 OHIO. Eight hours shall constitute a day's 
 work in all engagements to labor in any me- 
 chanical, manufacturing, or mining business,
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 45 
 
 unless otherwise expressly stipulated in the 
 contract. But in case of conductors, engineers, 
 firemen, or trainmen of railroads, a day's work 
 consists of ten hours. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. Eight hours of labor shall 
 be deemed and held to be a legal day's work 
 in all cases of labor and service by he day 
 where there is no agreement or contract to the 
 contrary. This does not apply to farm or 
 agricultural labor by the year, month, or 
 week, to labor in factories, laundries, and ren- 
 ovating establishments, or to labor on street 
 railways. 
 
 Eight hours out of the twenty-four shall 
 make and constitute a day's labor in peniten- 
 tiaries and reformatory institutions receiving 
 support from the State, also for all mechanics, 
 workmen, and laborers in the employ of the 
 State, or of any municipal corporation therein, 
 or otherwise engaged on public works ; this 
 shall be deemed to apply to mechanics, work- 
 ingmen, or laborers in the employ of persons 
 contracting with the State or any municipal 
 corporation therein, for the performance of 
 public work. 
 
 UTAH. Eight hours constitute a day's work 
 upon all public -works and in all underground 
 mines or workings, smelters, and all other in- 
 stitutions for the reduction or refining of ores. 
 
 WISCONSIN. In all engagements to labor in 
 any manufacturing or mechanical business, 
 where there is no express contract to the con- 
 trary, a day's work shall consist of eight hours ; 
 but the law does not apply to contracts for 
 labor by the week, month, or year. In all 
 manufactories, -workshops, or other places used 
 for mechanical or manufacturing purposes, the 
 time of labor of children under the age of 
 eighteen, and of -women employed therein, 
 shall not exceed eight hours in the day. 
 
 WYOMING. Eight hours' actual work con- 
 stitute a legal day's work in all mines and 
 public works. 
 
 UNITED STATES. Eight hours shall consti- 
 tute a day's work for all laborers, workmen, 
 and mechanics who may be employed by or on 
 behalf of the United States. 
 
 PEXSIOX LAWS. 
 
 Any person who has been, since the 4th of 
 March, 1861, disabled in the military or naval 
 service of the United States, or in its marine 
 corps, shall, upon making due proof of the 
 fact, be placed on the list of invalid pensioners 
 of the United States. Xo claim for pension 
 on the part of a State militiaman, or non-en- 
 listed person, 011 account of disability from 
 wounds received in battle, shall be valid un- 
 less prosecuted to a successful issue prior to 
 July 4, 1874. 
 
 Rates of Pension Per Month. 
 
 DISABILITIES. 
 
 | 
 
 cs 
 
 s=s 
 
 pT 
 
 Rate from 
 March 3, 
 
 IKIiT). 
 
 a . a . 
 
 C 50 _ C -* 
 
 <M ss i< 2 12 
 
 e je c 5 x 
 'S'-s t*9 
 
 
 
 * 
 t$ 
 
 2 
 ^5 
 
 1-5 
 
 Loss of both hands 
 Total disability in both 
 hands 
 
 $2500 
 
 
 
 $31 25 
 
 31 25 
 31 25 
 
 31 25 
 31 26 
 
 31 25 
 24 00 
 24 00 
 
 18 00 
 
 24 00 
 
 31 25 
 13 00 
 
 sVJ OU 
 72 00 
 
 72 00 
 
 7200 
 36 00 
 
 June 
 
 4, '74. 
 5000 
 
 
 $25 00 
 2000 
 
 Loss of both feet 
 
 20 00 
 
 
 
 Total disability in both 
 feet 
 
 Loss of sight of both 
 eyes 
 
 25 00 
 
 
 Loss of sight of one eye, 
 the sight of the other 
 having been previ- 
 ously lost 
 
 
 2500 
 
 20 00 
 1500 
 
 20 00 
 25 00 
 
 Loss of one hand and 
 one foot 
 
 >1! 
 
 Total disability in one 
 hand and one foot 
 
 
 Any disability equiva- 
 lent to the loss of a 
 hand or foot 
 
 
 
 Any disability incapac- 
 itating for the per- 
 formance of any man- 
 ual labor 
 
 
 
 Any disability resulting 
 in a condition requir- 
 ing the regular aid 
 and attendance of an- 
 other person 
 
 
 
 Total deafness . I 
 
 
 
 
 * Rate from June, 1880, in case the disability is per- 
 manent and requires the regular aid and attendance of 
 another person. An applicant for increase of pension 
 from 31.25 to $72 per month must furnish the testimony 
 of his physician, or of two credible witnesses, to prove 
 the extent to which he requires the aid and attendance 
 of another person. 
 
 The same provision of law which entitles to 
 $31.25 per month entitles to $72 per month, 
 provided that in the latter ease the disability is 
 permanent. The loss of a leg above the knee, 
 or an arm at or above the elbow, entitles the 
 person so disabled to a pension of $24 per 
 month after June 4, 1874. 
 
 The rates of $10, $12, $14, and $16 per 
 month will be allowed in cases in which the 
 disability bears the same proportion to that 
 produced by the loss of a hand or foot that 
 those rates bear to the rate of $18 per month. 
 
 Under the pension law of 1890 the soldier 
 who is wholly incapacitated from earning a 
 living receives the sum of $12 a month, 
 whether the disability -was contracted in the 
 service or not ; for a lesser degree of disability, 
 $10, $8, or $6. 
 
 The first step to be taken by an applicant 
 for a pension is to file a declaration before a 
 court of record, or before some officer thereof 
 having custody of its seal, setting forth the 
 ground upon which he claims a pension. 
 Blank forms of declaration are furnished upon 
 request at Commissioner of Pensions office. 
 The identity of the applicant must be shown 
 by the testimony of two credible witnesses, 
 who must appear with him before the officer
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 by whom the declaration may be taken. A 
 pensioner who may deem himself entitled to 
 an increase of pension should file a declaration 
 on a blank form furnished for the purpose, 
 . setting forth the ground upon which he claims 
 such increase. A declaration for increase 
 of pension may be taken before any officer 
 duly authorized to administer oaths. 
 
 All invalid pensions granted under the gen- 
 eral law will terminate at re-enlistment, or 
 when the disabilities for which they were al- 
 lowed shall have ceased. 
 
 A widow's pension will end at her re-mar- 
 riage, and not be renewable should she again 
 become a widow. 
 
 Pensions allowed to dependent mothers and 
 sisters end at re-marriage or when depen- 
 dence ceases. Pensions allowed to dependent 
 fathers end when the dependence ceases. 
 
 The name of any pensioner shall be stricken 
 from the roll upon his or her failure to claim 
 a pension for three years after the same shall 
 have become due. 
 
 To entitle a widow or children to pension, 
 the death of the soldier does not need to have 
 been the result of injury received or disease 
 contracted under such circumstances as would 
 have entitled him to an invalid pension had he 
 been disabled. 
 
 A widow is entitled to a pension of f 8 per 
 month, no matter whether the death of the 
 soldier was due to army service or not. In 
 addition to this rate, she will be allowed $2 
 per month for each child of the officer or sol- 
 dier under the age of sixteen years. 
 
 In the application of widows and children 
 for pensions, they are not required to prove 
 that death of husband resulted from the injury 
 or disease on account of which his pension was 
 granted ; but, if the husband had not estab- 
 lished his claim for an invalid pension, the 
 widow shall prove origin and cause of the 
 fatal disease. Widows will be required to 
 prove their marriage to the person on account 
 of whose service and death the claim is made ; 
 also proof of dates of birth of children by copy 
 of church record. 
 
 A mother claiming a pension must prove 
 the cause and date of the death of her son ; 
 her relationship ; that he left no widow or 
 minor child or children surviving ; and that, 
 if living, she would be dependent upon him for 
 support. 
 
 A father claiming pension on account of the 
 death of his son, upon whom he was depend- 
 ent for support, must prove facts similar to 
 those required of a mother. 
 
 The claim on behalf of minor brothers and 
 sisters should be made by a guardian duly ap- 
 pointed. 
 
 In administration of the pension laws, no 
 distinction is made between brothers and sis- 
 ters of the half blood and those of the whole 
 blood. Evidence in a claim for pension c-an 
 not be verified before an officer who is en- 
 gaged in the prosecution of such claim. 
 
 In claims for increase of pension, a fee of $2 
 will be allowed. All letters of inquiry relative 
 to claims pending in Pension Office should 
 give the number of the claim. 
 
 No sum of money due, or to become due, to 
 any pensioner, shall be liable to attachment, 
 levy or seizure, under any legal or equitable 
 process. 
 
 Agents for paying pensions shall receive 
 two per centum on all disbursements made by 
 them to pensioners. 
 
 No agent, or attorney, or other person, shall 
 demand or receive any other compensation for 
 his services in prosecuting a claim for pension 
 or bounty-land than such as the Commissioner 
 of Pensions shall direct to be paid to him, not 
 exceeding $10. 
 
 Every officer, or enlisted or hired man, w r ho 
 who has lost a limb, or the use of a limb, in 
 the military or naval service of the United 
 States, is entitled to receive, once every three 
 years, an artificial limb or apparatus, or com- 
 mutation therefor. The period of three years 
 is reckoned from the filing of first application 
 after March 2, 1891. The commutation al- 
 lowed in case of the amputation of a leg is 
 $75; in all other cases, $50. Applications for 
 artificial limbs should be transmitted through 
 the proper pension agent to the surgeon-gen- 
 eral of the army. 
 
 JURISDICTION OF JUSTICES OF 
 THE PEACE. 
 
 Justices of the Peace generally have juris- 
 diction throughout the county or township 
 in which they are elected, and the limit of the 
 amount is as follows : 
 
 Mississippi 150 
 
 Missouri 250 
 
 Montana 300 
 
 Nebraska 200 
 
 Nevada 300 
 
 New Hampshire 13 
 
 New Jersey 200 
 
 New Mexico 100 
 
 New York 200 
 
 North Carolina 200 
 
 Ohio 100 
 
 Oregon 500 
 
 Pennsylvania 300 
 
 Rhode Island 300 
 
 South Carolina 100 
 
 Tennessee 500 
 
 Texas 200 
 
 Utah 300 
 
 Vermont 200 
 
 Virginia 100 
 
 Washington 300 
 
 West Virginia 300 
 
 * Wisconsin 200 
 
 Wyoming 300 
 
 Alabama $100 
 
 Arizona 300 
 
 Arkansas 300 
 
 California 300 
 
 Colorado 300 
 
 Connecticut 100 
 
 Dakota, North 200 
 
 Dakota, South . . 100 
 
 Delaware 200 
 
 District of Columbia.. 100 
 
 Florida 100 
 
 Georgia 100 
 
 Idaho 300 
 
 Illinois 200 
 
 Indiana 200 
 
 t Iowa 100 
 
 Kansas 300 
 
 Kentucky 50 
 
 Louisiana 100 
 
 Maine 20 
 
 Maryland 100 
 
 Massachusetts 300 
 
 Michigan 100 
 
 Minnesota 100 
 
 By confession, $300. 
 
 t By consent, $300
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 47 
 
 United States Custom Regulations 
 as to Baggage. The following articles are 
 exempt from duty : Wearing apparel and 
 other personal effects (not merchandise), pro- 
 fessional books, implements, instruments and 
 tools of trade. 
 
 To ascertain what articles ought to be ex- 
 empted as the wearing apparel and other 
 personal baggage, and the tools or imple- 
 ments of a mechanical trade only, of persons 
 who arrive in the United States, due entry 
 thereof, as of other merchandise, but separate 
 and distinct from that of any other merchan- 
 dise imported from a foreign port, shall be 
 made with the Collector of the district in which 
 the articles are intended to be landed by the 
 owner thereof or his agent, expressing the per- 
 sons by whom or for whom such entry is made, 
 and particularizing the several packages and 
 their contents, with their marks and numbers ; 
 and the persons who shall make the entry shall 
 take and subscribe an oath before the Col- 
 lector, declaring that the entry subscribed by 
 him, and to which the oath is annexed, con- 
 tains, to the best of his knowledge and belief, 
 a just and true account of the contents of the 
 several packages mentioned in the entry, speci- 
 fying the name of the vessel, of her master, 
 and of the port from which she has arrived ; 
 and that such packages contain no merchandise 
 whatever, other than wearing apparel, personal 
 baggage, or, as the case may be, tools of trade, 
 specifying it ; that they are all the property of 
 a person named who has arrived, or is shortly 
 expected to arrive, in the United States, and 
 are not, directly or indirectly, imported for 
 any other, or intended for sale. 
 
 Whenever any article subject to duty is 
 found in the baggage of any person arriving 
 in the United States which was not, at the 
 time of making entry for such baggage, men- 
 tioned to the Collector before whom such 
 entry was made, by the person making 
 entry, such article shall be forfeited, and the 
 person in whose baggage it is found shall be 
 liable to a penalty of triple the value of such 
 article. 
 
 "Professional books, implements, and tools 
 of trade, occupation, or employment," are 
 understood to embrace such books or instru- 
 ments as would naturally belong to a surgeon, 
 physician, engineer, or scientific person re- 
 turning to this country. 
 
 Jewelry that has been worn or is in use as a 
 personal ornament may be admitted free of 
 duty. 
 
 Duty must be demanded on all watches but 
 one, brought into the United States by a single 
 passenger. If all the watches are old, the 
 passenger may choose the one to be treated as 
 
 personal effects. If some are old and some 
 new, the new are to be included among those 
 treated as subject to duty. 
 
 The United States Supreme Court has de- 
 cided that the free list includes (1) wearing 
 apparel owned by the passenger, and in a 
 condition to be worn at once without further 
 manufacture ; (2) brought with him as a 
 passenger, and intended for the use or wear of 
 himself or his family who accompanied him 
 as passengers, and not for sale 1 or purchased or 
 imported for other persons, or to be given 
 away ; (3) suitable for the season of the year 
 which was immediately approaching at the 
 time of arrival ; (4) not exceeding in quantity, 
 or quality, or value of what the passenger was 
 in the habit of ordinarily providing for him- 
 self and his family at that time, and keeping 
 on hand for his and their reasonable wants, 
 in view of their means and habits in life, even 
 though such articles had not been actually 
 worn. 
 
 The Law of Finding. The law of 
 finding, though not prescribed by statute, is 
 well defined by precedent. It may be stated 
 thus : The finder has a clear title against 
 the whole world except the owner. The pro- 
 prietor of a hotel or a shop has no right to 
 demand the property or premises. Such pro- 
 prietor may make regulations in regard to 
 lost property which will bind their employees, 
 but they cannot bind the public. The law 
 of finding was declared by the King's bench, 
 England, ovei 100 years ago, in a case in 
 which the facts were these : 
 
 A person found a wallet containing a sum 
 of money on a shop floor. He handed the 
 wallet and contents to the shopkeeper to be 
 returned to the owner. After three years, 
 during which the owner did not call for his 
 property, the finder demanded the wallet and 
 the money from the shopkeeper. The latter 
 refused to deliver them up on the ground that 
 they were found on the premises. The former 
 then sued the shopkeeper, and it was held as 
 above set forth, that against all the world but 
 the owner, the title of the finder is perfect. 
 And the finder has been held to stand in the 
 place of the owner, so that he was permitted 
 to prevail in an action against a person who 
 found an article which the plaintiff had origi- 
 nally found, but subsequently lost. The police 
 have no special rights in regard to articles 
 lost, unless those rights are conferred by 
 statute. Receivers of articles found are trus- 
 tees for the owner or finder. They have no 
 power in the absence of special statute to 
 keep an article against the finder, any more 
 than the finder has to retain an article against 
 the owner.
 
 48 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 QUALIFICATIONS FOB VOTING IN EACH STATE OF THE UNION. 
 
 In all the States except Colorado, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming the right to vote at general elections is restricted 
 to males of 21 years of age and upward. Women are entitled to vote at school elections in several States. They 
 are entitled by law to full suffrage in the States of Colorado, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Requirements as to Citizenship. 
 
 Previous Residence Required. 
 
 Persons Excluded from 
 Suffrage. 
 
 In 
 
 State. 
 
 In 
 
 County 
 
 In 
 
 Town. 
 
 In Pre- 
 cinct. 
 
 Alabama* 
 
 Arizona Ter... 
 Arkansas* 
 
 California* 
 Colorado* 
 
 Connecticut*.. 
 Delaware* 
 
 Dis. of Colum.. 
 Florida* 
 
 Citizen of United States or alien 
 who has declared intention. 
 Citizen of United States (a) 
 Citizen of United States or alien 
 who has declared intention. 
 
 Citizen by nativity, naturalization 
 (90 days prior to election), or 
 treaty "of Queretaro. 
 Citizen or alien, male or female, 
 w^io has declared intention four 
 months prior to election. 
 Citizen of United States who can 
 read English language. 
 Citizen who shall have paid a reg- 
 istration fee of $1, and who is 
 duly registered as a qualified 
 voter. 
 See top of page 50. 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen of the United States who 
 has paid all his taxes since 1877. 
 Citizen of the United States, male 
 or female. 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen or alien who has declared 
 intention and resided one year 
 in United States. 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen of United States or alien 
 who has declared intention. 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen of United States (/) 
 
 1 year. . 
 
 lyear. . 
 lyear.. 
 
 1 year. . 
 6mos... 
 
 lyear.. 
 lyear.. 
 
 lyear.. 
 1 year. . 
 6mos... 
 t year. . 
 
 6mos... 
 
 6mos... 
 6mos... 
 lyear.. 
 2 years. 
 
 3mos... 
 1 year . . 
 
 lyear.. 
 6 mos... 
 
 3 mos... 
 
 90 days. 
 6 mos... 
 
 90 days. 
 90 days. 
 
 3 mos... 
 
 6 mos... 
 6 mos... 
 30 days. 
 90 days. 
 
 130 days. 
 
 60 days. 
 30 days. 
 6 mos... 
 lyear.. 
 
 3 mos... 
 6 mos... 
 
 6 mos... 
 20 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 10 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 10 davs. 
 
 Jif) days. 
 
 30 days. 
 10 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 10 days. 
 30 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 w. 
 
 30 days. 
 60 days. 
 6 mos... 
 
 3 mos... 
 
 6 mos... 
 20 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 lyr(c).. 
 60 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 10 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 6 mos... 
 
 30 days. 
 
 Convicted of treason or other 
 felonies, idiots, or insane. 
 Indians and Chinamen. 
 Idiots, insane, convicted of fel- 
 ony, until pardoned, failure 
 to pay poll tax. 
 Chinese, idiots, insane, embez- 
 zlers of public moneys, con- 
 victed of infamous crime. t 
 Convicted of crime, bribery in 
 public office. 
 
 Convicted of heinous crime, un- 
 less pardoned. 
 Insane persons and paupers, or 
 persons convicted of felony. 
 
 Idiots, duelists, convicted of fel- 
 ony or any infamous crime. 
 Convicted of felony, unless par- 
 doned, idiots, and insane. 
 Idiots, insane, convicted of fel- 
 ony or treason. 
 Convicted of felony or bribery 
 in elections, unless restored to 
 citizenship, idiots, lunatics. 
 United States soldiers, sailors, 
 and marines, and persons con- 
 victed of infamous crime. 
 Idiots, insane, convicted of in- 
 famous crime. 
 Felons, insane, rebels not re- 
 stored to citizenship (d). 
 Convicted of felony, idiots, and 
 insane. 
 Idiots, insane, convicted of fel- 
 ony or treason, unless par- 
 doned, with express restora- 
 tion of franchise. 
 Paupers and Indians not taxed. 
 Convicted of felony, unless par- 
 doned, lunatics, persons non 
 compos mentis. 
 Paupers and persons under 
 guardianship. 
 Indians with tribal relations, 
 duelists, and accessories. 
 
 Convicted of treason or felony, 
 unless pardoned, under guard- 
 ianship, insane, Indians un- 
 taxed. 
 Insane, idiots, Indians not tax- 
 ed, felons, persons who have 
 not paid taxes. 
 Persons in poorhouses or asy- 
 lums at public expense, those 
 in prison or who have been 
 convicted of infamous crimes. 
 Convicted of felony, unless par- 
 doned, idiots, insane, United 
 States soldiers, seamen, and 
 marines, Indians. 
 Convicted of felony, unless re- 
 stored to civil rights, persons 
 non compos mentis, 
 Idiots, insane, unpardoned con- 
 victs, Indians, Chinese. 
 Insane or paupers. 
 Idiots, paupers, insane, con- 
 victed of crime, unless par- 
 doned or restored oy law. 
 Convicte ' of felony, unless par- 
 doned, United States soldier 
 or camp follower, Indians (/t). 
 
 30 days. 
 6 mos... 
 
 3 mos... 
 30 days. 
 
 60 days. 
 
 w 
 
 30 days. 
 60 days. 
 
 3 mos... 
 
 6 mos... 
 20 days. 
 
 Georgia* .... 
 
 Idaho* 
 
 Illinois* 
 
 Indiana* 
 
 
 Kansas* 
 
 Kentucky* 
 Louisiana* 
 
 Maine* 
 
 Citizen of the United States 
 Citizen of the United State* 
 
 Citizen who can read and write (b). 
 
 Citizen or alien who declared in- 
 tention to become a citizen prior 
 to May 8, 1892(6). 
 Citizen of United States who has 
 been such for 3 months preced- 
 ing election. 
 
 Citizen of the United States who 
 can read or understand Consti- 
 tution. 
 Citizen of United States or alien 
 who has declared intention not 
 less than 1 year or more than 5 
 before election. 
 Citizen of the United States (b). . . 
 
 Citizen of United States or alien 
 who has declared intention 30 
 days before election. 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen of the United States (b). . . 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Maryland* 
 
 Mass'chusetts* 
 Michigan* 
 
 Minnesota* 
 
 Mississippi*. . . 
 Missouri* 
 
 2 years. 
 1 year. . 
 
 lyear.. 
 
 6 mos.. . 
 
 6mos... 
 
 6 mos... 
 1 year. . 
 
 6 mos... 
 
 1 year. . 
 60 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 40 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 6 mos... 
 5raos... 
 
 3 mos... 
 
 lyear.. 
 60 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 10 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 6 mos... 
 
 Montana* 
 
 Nebraska* 
 Nevada* 
 
 N. Hampshire* 
 New Jersey*... 
 
 N. M. Territory
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 49 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Requirements as to Citizenship. 
 
 Prev 'ous Residence Required. 
 
 Persons Excluded from 
 Suffrage. 
 
 In 
 
 State. 
 
 In 
 County 
 
 In 
 Town. 
 
 In Pre- 
 inct. 
 
 New York*.... 
 
 North Carolina 
 North Dakota* 
 
 Ohio* 
 
 Citizen who shall have been a citi- 
 zen for 90 days prior to election. 
 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen of the United States, alien 
 who has declared intention 1 
 year and not more than 6 years 
 prior to election, and civilized 
 Indian} (i). 
 Citizen of the United States (i). .. 
 Citizen of the United States or 
 alien who has declared inten- 
 tion. 
 White male citizen of United 
 States or alien who has declared 
 intention (i). 
 Citizen of the United States at 
 least 1 month, and if 22 years 
 old or more must have paid tax 
 within 2 years. 
 Citizen of the United States. 
 
 lyear.. 
 
 1 year. . 
 lyear.. 
 
 1 year.. 
 6mos... 
 
 6mos... 
 1 year.. 
 
 2 yrs ( j) 
 2 years. 
 
 6 mos. 
 
 1 year. . 
 1 year. . 
 1 year . . 
 1 year. . 
 
 lyear.. 
 1 year. . 
 
 1 year. . 
 lyear. . 
 I year. . 
 
 4mos... 
 
 90 days. 
 6mos... 
 
 30 days. 
 60 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 iyear.. 
 30 days. 
 
 Omos... 
 6mos... 
 4mos... 
 
 3mos... 
 90 days. 
 
 60 days. 
 1 year. . 
 60 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 Convicted and sentenced to a 
 State prison :r penitentiary 
 for felony or oi,:.er infamous 
 crime; persons who have re- 
 ceived or offered to receive, or 
 who have paid or promised to 
 pay, compensation for giving 
 or 'withholding votes, or who 
 have laid any bet or wager up- 
 on the result of an election. 
 Convicted of felony or other in- 
 famous crime, idiots, lunatics, 
 and those who deny the being 
 of Almighty God. 
 Under guardianship, persons 
 non compos mentis, or con- 
 victed of felony and treason, 
 unless restored to civil rights. 
 
 Idiots, insane, and felons. 
 Indians having tribal relations. 
 
 Idiots, insane, convicted of fel- 
 ony punishable by imprison- 
 ment in the penitentiary. 
 Convicted of perjury and'fraud 
 as election officers", or bribery 
 of voters. 
 
 Paupers, lunatics (g). 
 Convicted of felony, or bribery 
 in elections, unless pardoned, 
 idiots, insane, paupers. 
 Underguardianship,insane,con- 
 victed of treason or felony, un- 
 less pardoned, United States 
 soldiers, seamen, and marines. 
 Convicted of bribery or other 
 infamous offense. 
 
 Idiots, lunatics, paupers, con- 
 victed of felony, United States 
 soldiers, marines, and seamen. 
 Idiots, insane, convicted of trea- 
 son or crime against elective 
 franchise, unless pardoned. 
 Those who have not obtained 
 the approbation of the board 
 of civil authority of the town 
 in which they reside. 
 Idiots, lunatics (m). 
 Idiots, lunatics, convicted of 
 infamous crimes, Indians not 
 taxed. 
 Paupers, idiots, lunatics, con- 
 victed of treason, felony, or 
 bribery at elections. 
 Indians having tribal relations, 
 insane, convicted of treason 
 or felony. 
 Idiots, insane, convicted of in- 
 famous crimes, unable to read 
 State Constitution. 
 
 30 days. 
 60 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 
 6mos... 
 4mos... 
 
 10 days. 
 
 3mos... 
 
 3mos... 
 30 days. 
 
 90 days. 
 
 20 days. 
 30 days. 
 
 Okla. Territ. (i) 
 
 Pennsylvania*. 
 
 Rhode Island*. 
 South Carolina 
 
 South Dakota* 
 
 Tennessee* 
 Texas* 
 
 2rnos... 
 
 4mos... 
 10 days. 
 
 (*) 
 CO days. 
 30 days. 
 
 30 days. 
 (*) 
 10 days. 
 
 Citizen of the United States (I). . . 
 
 Citizen of the United States or 
 alien who has declared inten- 
 tion (i). 
 
 Citizen of the United States who 
 has paid poll tax of preceding 
 year. 
 Citizen of the United States or 
 alien who has declared intention 
 6 months prior to election. 
 Citizen of the United States, male 
 or female, who has been a citi- 
 zen 90 davs. 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen of the United States 
 Citizen of the United States 
 
 Citizen of the State 
 
 Citizen of United States or alien 
 who has declared intention. 
 
 Citizen of the United States, male 
 or female. 
 
 Utah* 
 
 Vermont* 
 Virginia* 
 
 Washington*.. 
 West Virginia* 
 Wisconsin* 
 Wyoming* 
 
 10 days. 
 
 
 
 * Australian Ballot law or a modification of it in force, t Or a person unable to read the Constitution in 
 English and to write his name, j Indian must have severed tribal relations. One year's residence in theUnited 
 States prior to election required, (a) Or citizens of Mexico who shall have elected to become citizens under the 
 treaties ot 1848 and 1854. (6) Women can vote in school elections. (c)Clergymen are qualified after six months' 
 residence in precinct. (</) Also those under guardianship, public embezzlers, guilty of bribery, or dishonorably 
 discharged from the United States service, (e) Only actual residence required. (/) If unable to read and write, 
 as provided by the Constitution, then he shall be entitled to register and vote if he shall, at the time he offers to 
 register, be the bonaflde owner of property assessed to him in theState at a valuation of not less than .300 on the 
 assessment roll of the current year in which he offers to register, or on the roll of the preceding year, if the roll 
 of the current year shall not then have been completed and filed, and on which, if such property be personal only, 
 all taxes due shall have been paid, (g) Or persons non compos mentis, convicted of bribery or infamous crime, 
 until restored to right to vote, under guardianship, (h) Except Pueblo Indians, if "acequia" officers, (i) 
 Women can vote in school elections, (j) Owners of real estate, one year, (k) Actual residence in the precinct or 
 district required. (?) Who has paid six months before election any poll tax then due, and can read and write any 
 section of the State Constitution, or can show that he owns and has paid all taxes due the previous year on 
 
 Froperty in the State assessed at 300 or more, (m) Or convicted of bribery at election, embezzlement of public 
 unds, treason, felony, and petty larceny, duelists and abettors, unless pardoned by Legislature.
 
 50 
 
 CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Residents of the District of Columbia never had the right to vote therein for national officers, or on other 
 matters of national concern, after it became the seat of the general government. But from 1802 to June 20, 1874, 
 the citizens of Washington, and from January 1, 1790, to said date, the citizens of Georgetown were entitled to 
 vote on municipal subjects and for certain municipal officers ; the citizens of the portion of the District outside 
 of Washington and Georgetown were entitled to the same privilege from April 20, 1871, to June 20, 1874, but that 
 suffrage was abolished in the District of Columbia and was rescinded June 20, 1874, by the act of Congress of 
 that date. 
 
 THE STATES AND THE UNION. 
 
 THE THIRTEEN ORIGINAL STATES. 
 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Ratified the Constitution. 
 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Ratified the Constitution. 
 
 1 
 
 
 December 7 . 1787 
 
 8 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Mav 23 17X8 
 
 ? 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 December 12 178T 
 
 < 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 June 21 1788 
 
 3 
 
 
 December 18 . ..1787 
 
 10 
 
 Virginia 
 
 June 26 17f-8 
 
 \ 
 
 Georgia 
 
 January 2 .... 1788 
 
 11 
 
 New York 
 
 July 26 1788 
 
 5 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 January 9 1788 
 
 T> 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 November 21 1789 
 
 6 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 February 6 1788 
 
 V! 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Mav 29 1790 
 
 7 
 
 Maryland . . 
 
 Anril28... ...1788i 
 
 
 
 
 STATES ADMITTED TO THE UNION. 
 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Admitted. 
 
 1 
 
 Vermont 
 
 March 4 1791 
 
 17 
 
 
 May 29 1848 
 
 ? 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 June 1 1792J 
 
 18 
 
 California 
 
 September 9 1850 
 
 3 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 June 1 1796 
 
 19 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mav 11 1858 
 
 4 
 
 Ohio 
 
 November 29 1802 
 
 ?0 
 
 Oregon 
 
 February 14 1859 
 
 5 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 April 30 . .1812 
 
 ?1 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Januarv 29 1861 
 
 6 
 
 Indiana 
 
 December 11 1816 
 
 ?? 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 June 19 1863 
 
 7 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 December 10 18171 
 
 93 
 
 
 October 31 1864 
 
 B 
 
 Illinois 
 
 December 3 . 1818J 
 
 04 
 
 Nebraska .... 
 
 March 1 1867 
 
 9 
 
 Alabama 
 
 December 14 1819 
 
 Or, 
 
 Colorado 
 
 August 1 1876 
 
 10 
 
 Maine 
 
 March 15 1820 
 
 Vfi 
 
 
 November 2 1889 
 
 11 
 
 Missouri 
 
 August 10 . . 1821 ; 
 
 >- 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 November 2 1889 
 
 13 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 June 15 1836 
 
 N 
 
 Montana 
 
 November 8 1889 
 
 13 
 
 Michigan 
 
 January 26 1837 
 
 .,,, 
 
 
 November 11 1889 
 
 14 
 
 Florida 
 
 March 3 ... . 1845 
 
 :;o 
 
 Idaho . 
 
 July 3 . . . . 1890 
 
 15 
 
 Texas 
 
 December 29 1845 
 
 S1 
 
 
 July 11 1890 
 
 16 
 
 Iowa .. 
 
 December 28 ... ... 1846 
 
 32 
 
 Utah . . 
 
 January... ...1896 
 
 STATE AND TERRITORIAL STATISTICS. 
 
 STATES AHD 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Gross 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Miles.* 
 
 Extreme 
 Breadth, 
 Miles, t 
 
 Extreme 
 Length, 
 Miles. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 STATES AND 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Gross 
 Ami in 
 Square 
 Miles.* 
 
 Extreme 
 lireadth, 
 
 Miles.t 
 
 Extreme 
 Length, 
 
 Miles. 
 
 capitals. 
 
 Alabama . 
 
 52,250 
 577,390 
 113.020 
 53,850 
 158,360 
 103,925 
 4,990 
 2,050 
 $70 
 58,680 
 59,475 
 84,800 
 56,660 
 36,350 
 31,400 
 56,025 
 82,080 
 40,400 
 48,720 
 33040 
 12,210 
 8,315 
 58,915 
 83,365 
 46,810 
 69,415 
 
 200 
 800 
 335 
 275 
 375 
 390 
 90 
 35 
 9 
 400 
 250 
 305 
 205 
 160 
 210 
 300 
 400 
 350 
 280 
 205 
 200 
 190 
 310 
 350 
 180 
 300 
 
 330 
 1,100 
 390 
 240 
 770 
 270 
 75 
 110 
 10 
 460 
 315 
 490 
 380 
 265 
 210 
 210 
 200 
 175 
 275 
 235 
 120 
 110 
 400 
 400 
 340 
 280 
 
 . . Montgomery". 
 Sitka. 
 
 Montana 
 
 146.080 
 77,510 
 110,700 
 9,305 
 7,815 
 122,580 
 49,170 
 52,250 
 70,795 
 41,060 
 39,030 
 96,030 
 45,215 
 1,250 
 30,570 
 77,650 
 42.050 
 265,780 
 84,970 
 9,565 
 42,450 
 69,180 
 24,780 
 515.040. 
 97,890 
 
 580 
 415 
 :nr> 
 90 
 70 
 350 
 320 
 520 
 360 
 230 
 365 
 375 
 300 
 35 
 235 
 380 
 430 
 760 
 275 
 90 
 425 
 340 
 200 
 290 
 365 
 
 315 
 205 
 485 
 185 
 160 
 390 
 310 
 200 
 210 
 205 
 210 
 290 
 180 
 50 
 215 
 245 
 126 
 620 
 345 
 155 
 205 
 230 
 225 
 300 
 275 
 
 Helena. 
 . . .Lincoln. 
 
 Alaska Ter 
 Arizona Ter 
 Arkansas. . 
 
 "Vpbraska . 
 
 PhO3nix J "Mevarla : 
 
 Carson City. 
 Concord. 
 
 Little Rock. 
 Sacramento. 
 Denver. 
 
 New Hamp 
 New Jersey 
 N. Mexico T.... 
 New York 
 [N. Carolina 
 N. Dakota 
 Ohio 
 
 California 
 Colorado 
 
 Trenton. 
 
 Santa Fe. 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Hartford. 
 Dover. 
 . . .Washington. 
 Tallahassee. 
 A*Janta. 
 Boise City. 
 ....Springfield. 
 . . Indianapolis. 
 
 Albany. 
 
 Raleigh. 
 
 Dist. of Col 
 Florida 
 
 Bismarck. 
 Columbus. 
 Guthrie. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Oklahoma T.... 
 Oregon 
 
 
 .Salem. 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 Rhode Island... 
 iS. Carolina 
 
 .... Harrisburg. 
 . . .Npt. & Prov. 
 Columbia. 
 Pierre. 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Indian Ter 
 Iowa 
 
 Des Moines. 
 Topeka. 
 
 ,8011th Dakota. . 
 Tennessee 
 Texas 
 jp tali 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Nashville. 
 Austin. 
 
 Kentucky 
 Louisiana 
 Maine 
 
 Frankfort. 
 ..Baton Rouge. 
 Augusta. 
 
 Salt Lake City. 
 Montpelier. 
 Richmond. 
 Olynipia. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Maryland 
 Massachusetts . 
 Michigan 
 Minnesota 
 Mississippi 
 
 Annapolis. 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Boston. 
 
 Washington.. . . 
 W. Virginia 
 Wisconsin 
 Wyoming 
 
 Total U. S.... 
 
 
 Charleston. 
 Madison. 
 
 St. Paul. 
 Jackson. 
 
 Cheyenne. 
 
 Missouri 
 
 .Jefferson City. 
 
 ;.t;o2,'.i<io 
 
 ||2,720 ||1,600 
 
 Gross area includes water as well as land surface. These areas are from the U. S. Census Report of 1890. 
 t Breadth is from east to west. Length is from north to south, t The District of Columbia was originally 100 
 square miles, but 30 miles were receded to Virginia in 1846. Including the Cherokee Strip and No Man's Land. 
 || Breadth from Quoddy Head, in Maine, to Cape Flattery, in Washington; length from the 49th parallel to 
 BrownsTille, on the Rio Grande. This is exclusive of Alaska.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 51 
 
 THE TERRITORIES. 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Organized." 
 
 
 TERRITOBIES. 
 
 Organized. 
 
 
 
 September 9 
 
 1850 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 ("July 16 
 
 .1790 
 
 
 February 24 
 
 .1863 
 
 Alaska 
 
 | March 3 
 July 27 
 
 1791 
 
 .1868 
 
 Indian* 
 
 June 30 
 
 .1834 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 May 2 
 
 .1890 
 
 * The Indian Territory has as yet no organized territorial government. 
 
 Congress has before it a bill prepared by the Hawaiian Commission providing for a territorial government 
 for Hawaii. 
 
 STATE AND TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENTS. 
 
 STATES AND 
 TERRITOBIES. 
 
 GOVERNORS. 
 
 LEGISLATURES. 
 
 Time of Next 
 State or 
 Terri tonal 
 Election. 
 
 Salaries of 
 Members, 
 Annual or Per 
 Diem, while 
 in Session. 
 
 TERMS OF 
 
 MEMBERS, 
 YEARS. 
 
 Salaries. 
 
 Length 
 Term, 
 Years. 
 
 Terms Expire. 
 
 Next Session 
 Begins. 
 
 Ann. 
 or 
 Bien. 
 
 Limit 
 of 
 Session. 
 
 Sena- & 
 tors, atives. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 $3,000 
 3,000 
 2,600 
 3,000 
 6,000 
 5,000 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 3,500 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 6,000 
 5.000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 6.500 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 4,500 
 8,000 
 4,000 
 5,000 
 3.500 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 2,500 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 10,000 
 2,600 
 10,000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 8,000 
 2,600 
 1,500 
 10.000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 2,500 
 4,000 
 400') 
 2,000 
 
 1 .-in. 
 
 5,000 
 3,000 
 2,700 
 5,000 
 2,500 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 _> 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 > 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 1 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 
 Dec. 1,1900 
 Sept. 2, 1901 
 Apr. 21, 1901 
 Dec. 31, 1900 
 Dec. 31, 1902 
 Jan. 10, 1901 
 Jan. 4,1901 
 Jan. 19, 1901 
 Jan. 1,1901 
 Nov. 1, 1900 
 Jan. 5, 1901 
 Jan. 11,1901 
 Jan. 13, 1901 
 Jan. 3,1900 
 Jan. 11, 1901 
 Jan. 1,1900 
 Apr. 30, 1900 
 Jan. 1,1901 
 Jan. 8, 1000 
 Jan. 4,1900 
 Dec. 31, 1900 
 Jan. 1, 1901 
 Jan. 1, 1900 
 Jan. 1, 1901 
 Jan. 4, 1901 
 Jan. 4, 1901 
 Jan. 1, 1903 
 Jan. 6,1901 
 Jan. 16, 1902 
 Jan. 1, 1901 
 Dec. 31, 1900 
 Jan. 1,1901 
 Jan. 1,1901 
 Jan. 13, 1900 
 Mav 6,1901 
 Jan. 8,1903 
 Jan. 17, 1903 
 Mav 29, 1899 
 Dec. 31,1900 
 Jan. 1,1901 
 Jan. 15, 1901 
 Jan. 12, 1901 
 Jan. 1,1901 
 Oct. 1,1900 
 Jan. 1, 1902 
 Jan. 11,1901 
 Mar. 4, 1901 
 Jan. 2. 1901 
 Jan. 2, 1903 
 
 Nov. 13, 1900 
 
 Bien. 
 
 50 days. 
 
 Aug. 7, 1900 
 
 $4 per diem 
 
 4 2 
 
 
 
 Jan. 22, 1899 
 Jan. 9, 1899 
 Jan. 2, 1899 
 Jan. 4,1899 
 Jan. 4, 1899 
 Jan. 3, 1899 
 Apr. 4,1899 
 Oct. 25, 1899 
 Jan. 5,1899 
 Jan. 4, 1899 
 Jan. 7,1899 
 Jan. 8, 1900 
 Jan. 10, 1899 
 Jan. 1,1900 
 Mav 11,1900 
 Jan. 4,1899 
 Jan. 3, 1900 
 Jan. 4,1899 
 Jan. 4, 1899 
 Jan. 3,1899 
 Jan. 2, 1900 
 Jan. 4, 1899 
 Jan. 2, 1899 
 Jan. 3, 1899 
 Jan. 16, 1899 
 Jan. 4, 1899 
 Jan. 10, 1899 
 Jan. 18, 1899 
 Jan. 4, 1899 
 Jan. 4, 1899 
 Jan. 3, 1899 
 Jan. 1,1900 
 Jan. 12, 1899 
 Jan. 9, 1899 
 Jan. 3, 1899 
 Jan. 4,1899 
 Jan. 10, 1899 
 Jan. 9,1899 
 Jan. 2,1899 
 Jan. 7, 1899 
 Jan. 9, 1899 
 Oct. 3, 1900 
 Dec. 6,1899 
 Jan. 9, 1899 
 Jan. 11, 1899 
 Jan. 12, 1899 
 Jan. 10, 1899 
 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Ann. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Ann. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Ann. 
 Bien. 
 Ann. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Ann. 
 Ann. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Birn. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 Bien. 
 
 60 davs. 
 60 days. 
 60 davs. 
 90 days. 
 None. 
 60 days. 
 60 davs. 
 50 days. 
 60 days. 
 None. 
 60 days. 
 None. 
 50 days. 
 60 days. 
 60 days. 
 None. 
 90 days. 
 None. 
 None. 
 90 days. 
 None. 
 120 days 
 60 days. 
 60 days. 
 60 days. 
 None. 
 None. 
 60 days. 
 None. 
 60 days. 
 60 days. 
 None. 
 60 days. 
 40 days. 
 None. 
 None. 
 None. 
 60 days. 
 75 days. 
 None. 
 60 days. 
 None. 
 90 days. 
 60 days. 
 45 days. 
 None. 
 40 days. 
 
 Nov. 6, 1909 
 Sept. 3, 1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 5, 1901 
 Xov. 6,1900 
 Nov. 6,1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Oct. 3,1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 6,1900 
 Nov. 6. 1900 
 Nov. 7, 1899 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 7, 1899 
 Apr. 21, 1900 
 Sept.10, 1900 
 Nov. 7, 1899 
 Nov.. 7, 1899 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 7, 1899 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 7, 1899 
 Nov. 4, 1902 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 7, 1899 
 Nov. G, 1900 
 Nov. 7,1899 
 Nov. 6,1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 7, 1899 
 
 $4 per diem 
 $6 
 $8 
 $7 
 $300 ann. 
 $300 " 
 $6 per diem 
 4 
 85 " 
 1,000 ses'n. 
 $5 per diem 
 $550 pr term 
 S3 per diem 
 S5 
 $4 
 $150 ann. 
 $5 per diem 
 $750 ann. 
 $3 per diem 
 5 
 $400 pr ann. 
 $5 per diem 
 $6 " 
 $300 ann. 
 $8 per diem 
 $200 ann. 
 $500 " 
 $5 per diem 
 $1,500 ann. 
 $4 per diem 
 $5 " 
 $600 ann. 
 $4 per diem 
 $3 
 $1,500 ann. 
 $1 per diem 
 $4 
 $5 
 M 
 95 
 14 
 *3 
 $4 
 
 4 
 $500 reg.ses. 
 $5 per diem 
 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 2 2 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 4 4 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 1 1 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 4 4 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 2 2 
 3 1 
 2 2 
 2 1 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 2 2 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 1 1 
 4 2 
 2 2 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 2 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 
 ! 
 
 Arkansas . 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 
 Maryland 
 Massachusetts.. 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 
 Nevada .... 
 
 New Hampshire 
 New Jersey 
 New Mexico.. .. 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina. 
 North Dakota... 
 Ohio 
 
 Oklahoma 
 Oregon 
 
 June 2, 1902 
 Nov. 7,1899 
 Apr. 5, 1899 
 Nov. 6,1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Jan. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Sept. 4, 1900 
 Nov. 7,1899f 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 Nov. 6, 1900 
 
 Pennsylvania.. . 
 Rhode Island. . . 
 South Carolina. 
 South Dakota . . 
 Tennessee 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermwnt . 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Washington 
 West Virginia.. 
 Wisconsin 
 Wyoming 
 
 FEDERAL BANKRUPTCY ACT. 
 
 The States of the Union have insolvency 
 laws, xinder which debtors conforming to the 
 provisions of law can secure a release from 
 debts owed in the State. Only the Federal 
 Government can enact laws under which 
 debtors can be discharged from their debts 
 where ver they are owed. Among the duties 
 of Congress is that of providing a uniform 
 system of bankruptcy. Under this power Con- 
 
 gress has passed four bankruptcy acts, the first 
 in the year 1800, which law by its own terms 
 was limited to five years, but it was repealed, 
 nevertheless, in 1803. In 1841 the second 
 bankruptcy act was passed, and was repealed 
 in March, 1S43. The third bankruptcy act 
 was approved March 2, 1867, and repealed in 
 1878. The fourth bankruptcy act was ap- 
 proved July 1, 1898, and, in brief, this act 
 constitutes the district courts of the United
 
 52 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 States in the several States, the Supreme Court 
 of the District of Columbia, the district courts 
 of the several Territories, and the United 
 States courts in the Indian Territory and the 
 district of Alaska courts of bankruptcy. The 
 law defines acts of bankruptcy as follows : 
 
 Acts of bankruptcy by a person shall consist 
 of hie having (1) conveyed, transferred, con- 
 cealed, or removed, or permitted to be con- 
 cealed or removed, any part of his property 
 with intent to hinder, delay, or defraud his 
 creditors, or any of them ; or (2) transferred, 
 while insolvent, any portion of his property to 
 one or more of his creditors with intent to 
 prefer such creditors over his other creditors ; 
 or (3) suffered or permitted, while insolvent, 
 any creditor to obtain a preference through 
 legal proceedings, and not having at least five 
 days before a sale or final disposition of any 
 property affected by such preference vacated or 
 discharged such preference ; or (4) made a 
 general assignment for the benefit of his credi- 
 tors ; or (5) admitted in writing his inability 
 to pay his debts and his willingness to be ad- 
 judged a bankrupt on that ground. 
 
 The following described persons may be- 
 come bankrupts : 
 
 Any person who owes debts, except a cor- 
 poration, shall be entitled to the benefits of 
 this act as a voluntary bankrupt. 
 
 Any natural person, except a wage-earner or 
 a person engaged chiefly in farming or the 
 tillage of the soil, any unincorporated com- 
 pany, and any corporation engaged principally 
 in manufacturing, trading, printing, publish- 
 ing, or mercantile pursuits, owing debts to 
 the amount of one thousand dollars or over, 
 may be adjudged an involuntary bankrupt 
 upon default or an impartial trial, and shall 
 be subject to the provisions and entitled to the 
 benefits of this act. Private bankers, but not 
 national banks or banks incorporated under 
 State or Territorial laws, may be adjudged 
 involuntary bankrupts. 
 
 The act does not affect the allowance to 
 bankrupts of the exemptions which are pre- 
 scribed by State laws in force at the time of 
 the filing of a petition in the State wherein 
 they have had their domicile for six months 
 or the greater portion thereof immediately 
 preceding the filing of a petition. The law 
 creates two offices referees and trustees. 
 
 The act went into full force and effect upon 
 its passage, that is, July 1, 1898, but no peti- 
 tion for voluntary bankruptcy could be filed 
 within one month of that date, and no petition 
 for involuntary bankruptcy within four months 
 thereof. Proceedings commenced under State 
 insolvency laws before the passage of the act 
 were not affected by it. 
 
 THE LAW OF TRADE-MARKS. 
 
 Any person, firm, or corporation can obtain 
 protection for any lawful trade- mark by com- 
 plying with the following : 
 
 1 . By causing to be recorded in the Patent 
 Office the name, residence, and place of busi- 
 ness of persons desiring the trade-mark. 
 
 2. The class of merchandise and description 
 of the same. 
 
 3. A description of the trade-mark itself 
 with facsimiles. 
 
 4. The length of time that the said mark 
 has already been used. 
 
 5. By payment of the required fee $6.00 
 for labels and $25 for trade-marks. 
 
 6. By complying with such regulations as 
 may be prescribed by the Commissioner of 
 Patents. 
 
 7. A lawful trade-mark must consist of some 
 arbitrary word (not the name of a person or 
 place), indicating or not the use or nature of 
 the thing to which it is applied ; of some 
 designated symbol, or of both word and 
 symbol. 
 
 INTERSTATE COMMERCE LAW. 
 
 The Interstate Commerce Act is a law 
 passed by Congress in 1887 for the regulation 
 of rates and the management of interstate 
 commerce. It applies to carriers engaged in 
 the transportation of passengers or property 
 wholly by railroad or partly by railroad and 
 partly by water, from one State, Territory, or 
 District of the United States to any other 
 State, Territory, or District, or to or from a 
 foreign country. It provides for the appoint- 
 ment of a board of five commissioners, em- 
 powered to inquire into the management of the 
 carriers and determine the reasonableness of 
 their rates. A carrier whose line is entirely 
 within a State is subject to the act so far as it 
 makes or accepts through rates on interstate 
 commerce. 
 
 Among other things the act requires that all 
 charges shall be just and reasonable ; that 
 charges for a shorter distance shall not exceed 
 those for a longer distance on the same line in 
 the same direction, when the circumstances 
 and conditions are similar; that there shall be 
 no unjust discrimination as between persons or 
 classes of traffic or localities, in the charges 
 made, or in the service rendered ; that the rates 
 charged for transportation shall be printed, 
 filed with the Commission, and kept for public 
 inspection at the several stations, and that the 
 carriers shall annually make a complete exhibit 
 of their business to the Commission. 
 
 The act makes exceptions from its provisions 
 of the carriage of property for the United 
 States or for any State or municipal govern-
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 53 
 
 ment, or for charitable purposes, or to or from 
 fairs and expositions, and it allows of the 
 issuing of mileage, excursion, or commutation 
 tickets, and admits of the giving of reduced 
 rates to ministers of religion and free trans- 
 portation to the officers and employees of the 
 carrier, and to the principal officers of other 
 carriers. 
 
 BUSINESS LAW AXD FORMS. 
 
 Agency. "Whatever business a man 
 may do, he may employ another man to do for 
 him." An agency may exist by Implication, 
 Verbally, or by Writings. 
 
 By implication when the acts and words lead 
 people in general to believe that the agency 
 exists. 
 
 Verbally, whenever there is only the verbal 
 agreement between the parties. A verbal 
 agency permits the agent to make a contract 
 even in cases where the contract must be in 
 writing. 
 
 By writings, as notes, memoranda or formal 
 instruments under seal. 
 
 The authority conveyed must be equal to the 
 deed to be performed. The instrument of 
 agency must be under seal when the convey- 
 ance requires a seal. When the business to be 
 transacted does not require a seal, the instru- 
 ment of agency need not be under seal. 
 
 Kinds. General agents ; special agents ; 
 professional agents. 
 
 A general agent is empowered to transact all 
 the business of a particular kind. He may 
 bind his principal, generally, with innocent 
 parties so long as he keeps within the apparent 
 scope of his authority, even if he exceeds pri- 
 vate instructions. 
 
 A special agent is one invested with limited 
 powers for the performance of some especial 
 business. He cannot bind his principal when- 
 ever he exceeds his authority. Who deals 
 with a special agent, deals at his peril, when 
 the agent passes the limit of his power. 
 
 Professional agents, as attorneys, brokers, 
 captains, auctioneers, factors, etc., are usually 
 licensed by competent authority to transact a 
 particular kind of business. 
 
 They are invested with ample power and 
 the law holds them responsible for the proper 
 performance of their duties. 
 
 Liabilities of Principal. Private instructions 
 to a general agent do not avoid the principal's 
 liability to innocent parties. A principal is 
 responsible for fraud on the part of the agent, 
 if permitted while transacting his business. 
 A principal is not bound by the acts of a 
 special agent who exceeds his authority. A 
 principal is not generally liable for the willful 
 wrong done by his agent. 
 
 Forms of Powers of Attorney. 
 
 Know all men by these presents : That I, A . B. , 
 
 of , have made, constituted, and 
 
 appointed, and by these presents do make, 
 
 constitute, and appoint B. C., of , 
 
 my true and lawful attorney, for me and in 
 my name and stead (state purpose for which 
 issued), giving and granting to my said attor- 
 ney, by these presents, full power and authority 
 to do and perform all and every act and thing 
 necessary to be done in and about the premises, 
 as fully to all intents and purposes as I might or 
 could do if personally present, hereby ratifying 
 and confirming all that my said attorney shall 
 lawfully do or cause to be done by virtue 
 hereof. 
 
 In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my 
 
 hand and seal, this day of , 
 
 A. D. 189 . . 
 
 A. B. [L. s.] 
 Sealed and delivered in the presence of B. C. 
 
 Married women, lunatics, and minors, in 
 general, are disqualified from appointing 
 agents, but a married woman in the State of 
 New York, if over twenty-one years, may ap- 
 point an agent the same as though unmarried. 
 A minor may authorize an agent to perform an 
 act that is to his advantage, but not that is to 
 his prejudice. 
 
 Deeds. The grantor is the person who 
 makes the conveyance and the grantee is the 
 person who receives the conveyance. 
 
 A deed, being a contract, has the same essen- 
 tials. In most States married women may 
 convey real estate which they own in their own 
 right. A partner cannot convey real estate 
 belonging to the firm unless empowered by 
 special authority from the partners to do so. 
 
 Consideration. A sufficient consideration is 
 necessary to a valid deed. (See consideration 
 under contracts.) 
 
 Subject-matter. The description of the land 
 and its boundaries should be extremely accu- 
 rate. The usual words of the transfer are 
 "give, grant, sell, and convey," though any 
 others conveying the same idea could be used. 
 Land sold without reserving any crops at that 
 time growing on it, conveys the crops or every- 
 thing attached to the land. When a building 
 is sold it conveys everything that belongs to it. 
 The words ' ' heirs and assigns ' ' are necessary 
 in some States to convey an unconditional 
 title. 
 
 Forms of Deeds. Deed with full cove- 
 nants. (New York Laws of 1890.) 
 
 This indenture, made the . . day of ...-., 
 in the year . . . . , between A. B., of .... 
 (give occupation and residence), of the first 
 part, and C. D., of .... (occupation and 
 residence), of the second part.
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Witnesseth : That the said party of the first 
 part, in consideration of .... dollars, lawful 
 money of the United States, paid by the party 
 of the second part, doth hereby grant and re- 
 lease unto the said party of the second part, 
 his heirs and assigns forever (here describe 
 property), together with the appurtenances 
 and all the estate and rights of the party of 
 the first part in and to the said premises. 
 
 To have and to hold the above granted prem- 
 ises unto the said party of the second part, his 
 heirs and assigns forever. 
 
 And the said party of the first part, doth 
 covenant with said party of the second part, 
 as follows : 
 
 First. That the party of the first part is 
 seized of the said premises in fee simple, and 
 has good right to convey the same. 
 
 Second. That the party of the second part 
 shall quietly enjoy the said premises. 
 
 Third. That the said premises are free from 
 incumbrance. 
 
 Fourth. That the party of the first part will 
 execute or procure any further necessary assur- 
 ance of the title to said premises. 
 
 Fifth. That the party of the first part will 
 forever warrant the title of said premises. 
 
 In witness whereof, the said party of the 
 first part hath hereunto set his hand and seal 
 the day and year first above written. A. B. 
 
 In the presence of, [i,. s.] 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Acknowledgment for the above. 
 STATE OF NEW YORK, "> 
 
 County of } 
 
 On this . . day of . . . . , in the year . . . . , 
 before me, the subscriber, personally came A. 
 B. (and C. B., his wife), to me known to be 
 the person (or persons) described in and who 
 executed the within instrument, and (sever- 
 ally) acknowledged that he (or they) executed 
 the same. J. A., 
 
 (Give official title.) 
 
 NEW YORK " Every conveyance unless re- 
 corded is void against a subsequent purchaser 
 in good faith, whose conveyance shall be first 
 duly recorded. To entitle a conveyance to be 
 recorded it must be acknowledged by the party 
 or parties executing the same, or shall be 
 proved by a subscribing witness." " The ac- 
 knowledgment of married women may be made, 
 taken, and certified in the same manner as if 
 they were sole." 
 
 OHIO. All deeds, mortgages, etc., executed 
 within the State of Ohio must be signed by the 
 grantor and acknowledged before two attesting 
 witnesses, and the said grantor must also ac- 
 knowledge the same before a judge of the 
 court of record of that State or some other 
 competent authority, 
 
 STATE OF OHIO, ) 
 
 County of . . . . , \ $& 
 
 Be it remembered that on this . . day of 
 . . . . , 189. . , before me, the subscriber, a 
 (give official title), in and for the said county, 
 came A. B., and C. B., his wife, the grantors 
 in the foregoing instrument, and acknowledged 
 the signing thereof to be their voluntary act 
 and deed for the uses and purposes therein men- 
 tioned. And the said C. B., wife of the said A. 
 B., being examined by me separate and apart 
 from her said husband, and the contents of the 
 said instrument being by me made known and 
 explained to her as the statute directs, declared 
 that she did voluntarily sign and acknowledge 
 the same and that she is still satisfied therewith 
 as her act and deed. 
 
 In testimony whereof I have hereunto set my 
 hand and affixed my official seal, the day 
 [L. s.j and year last above written. 
 
 (Signature and title.) 
 
 The following States require no separate ex- 
 amination in acknowledgments by husband and 
 wife : Connecticut, the Dakotas, Illinois, In- 
 diana, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, 
 Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, 
 Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New 
 York, Wisconsin, Wyoming, and Washington. 
 
 The following States require a separate ex- 
 amination : Delaware, District of Columbia, 
 Florida, Idaho, Kentucky, Nevada, New 
 Jersey, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
 Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, and 
 Texas. 
 
 Common Carriers. A common carrier 
 is one who, for a compensation, carries the 
 goods of anyone offering them for transporta- 
 tion as a regular business. 
 
 Carrier's Obligations. He must take all 
 goods offered, unless of a dangerous kind. He 
 must charge one person no higher rates than 
 another. He must take such care of the goods 
 as a prudent man would of his own. He must 
 carry them by the usual route and make a 
 proper delivery of them. He must place the 
 goods in a proper place and give notice of their 
 arrival. 
 
 Carrier's Liabilities. In common law they 
 are liable for all losses ' ' except those occa- 
 sioned by the act of God or the acts of the 
 public enemy." He is responsible for losses 
 by theft, robbery, etc. 
 
 Railroad companies are responsible as car- 
 riers to parties sending goods by express over 
 their lines, irrespective of the said parties' 
 contract with the express company. 
 
 A carrier's liability begins as soon as he has 
 accepted the goods. It ends as soon as he has 
 carried them to their destination and has de- 
 posited them there.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 55 
 
 Th notices on their receipts whereby they I 
 seek to avoid all responsibility, are " no evi- 
 dence of assent on the part of the owner," and 
 the liability cannot be avoided that way. He 
 may avoid almost anything by making a 
 special contract. 
 
 He might avoid liability by notice if he j 
 could prove that the shipper had read his j 
 notice or was familiar with its terms, though j 
 there is some question about this in New York 
 at least. 
 
 Carriers of Passengers. They are bound to 
 make use of all ordinary methods for the 
 safety of their passengers. They must employ 
 proper vehicles and competent servants. In 
 general, they are bound to run trains on their 
 advertised time. They are liable to passengers 
 for the misconduct of their servants. If any 
 person is injured through their negligence, 
 they are liable not only for the damage that 
 person has received, but for prospective 
 damage as well. He is an insurer of his pas- 
 sengers' baggage. He is liable for such bag- 
 gage as his passengers carry for their own per- 
 sonal use. He cannot avoid liability by no- 
 tices, as a notice is no evidence of the assent 
 of the owner of the baggage. The carrier may 
 avoid liability to some extent by a special con- 
 tract. 
 
 They must take each person who tenders 
 the price of transportation and wishes to be 
 carried. They are not obliged to take dis- 
 orderly or persons of doubtful character, or 
 those afflicted with some contagious disease. 
 They are not responsible to their passengers 
 for accidents where all skill and diligence has 
 been employed. Passengers are required to 
 submit to all reasonable rules and regulations, 
 to show their tickets whenever asked, and to 
 surrender their tickets whenever required. 
 
 Currency. The National Bank Act fixes 
 the capital required to establish a National 
 Bank as follows: Towns of less than 6,000 
 inhabitants, a capital of not less than $50,000 ; 
 towns of from 6,000 to 50,000, a capital of 
 not less than 8100,000 ; in towns of over 
 50,000, at least $200,000 will be required. 
 
 Each bank must deposit with the Treasurer 
 at Washington, government bonds to the ex- j 
 tent of at least one third its capital, as security j 
 for the notes of the bank. The government 
 then issues to the bank ninety per cent, in 
 notes, which, when properly filled and signed, 
 constitute the circulation of the bank. 
 
 Such banks are required to keep on hand at 
 least twenty-five percent, in legal tender of its 
 circulation and deposits. 
 
 The notes of such banks are secured to the 
 holders, but depositors run the same risk of 
 loss as with other banks. 
 
 Checks. A check is an order to a bank 
 to pay the holder a certain sum of money on 
 presentation and without days of grace. 
 
 A check, as in the case of a promissory note, 
 may or may not be negotiable, according to 
 the way it is drawn. 
 
 A check given is no payment of a debt unless 
 paid when presented. 
 
 Payment of a check may be stopped at any 
 time before it is presented if notice is given 
 the bank. 
 
 Every indorser of a check is liable to each 
 following indorser as in the case of promissory 
 notes, but for no longer time than he would 
 have been held had .he been the maker of the 
 check. 
 
 Certificates of Deposit partake of the nature 
 of certified checks and are used when money 
 is deposited for a short time and no regular 
 bank account opened. 
 
 When wishing to draw your money in per- 
 son, draw the check payable to "Self" or 
 "Cash." 
 
 Write the amount of the check both in words 
 and figures, taking care that no blank spaces 
 are left that could be filled to ' ' raise ' ' the 
 amount of the check. 
 
 Indorsements. The left-hand end of a check 
 is the top. 
 
 Write the indorsement across the back, a 
 short distance from the top. 
 
 If your name has been improperly spelled 
 in the body of the check, indorse it exactly as 
 written therein, then below write your name 
 properly. 
 
 If titles are used in the body of the check, 
 they must appear with the name in the indorse- 
 ment. 
 
 In drawing a check payable to one not known 
 at the bank you can avoid the necessity of 
 identification by having him indorse it in your 
 presence and you write under it, " Above in- 
 dorsement correct " and sign your name. 
 
 Checks that are to be deposited are usually 
 indorsed, " For deposit," or "For deposit to 
 the credit of," and such indorsements may be 
 made by clerks, and the checks deposited to the 
 credit of their firm. For further reference see 
 indorsements of promissory notes. 
 
 Xotes. A promissory note is an uncondi- 
 tional promise in writing, to pay a certain per- 
 son a certain sum of money at a certain fu- 
 ture time. The essentials are that it be cer- 
 tainly paid, not out of any particular fund, 
 nor dependent upon any contingency ; that it be 
 for the payment of money only. 
 
 Five important points of a negotiable prom- 
 issory note are: (1) That the date of pay- 
 ment be specified. (2) That the amount be 
 plainly stated. (3) That it be paid only in
 
 56 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 lawful money. (4) That the promise be with- 
 out conditions. (5) That it contain the words 
 " order "or " bearer," or other words show- 
 ing the intention to make it negotiable. 
 
 Indorsement : A note is indorsed when any- 
 thing relating to it is written upon the back. 
 The writer of the name is called the indorser, 
 and the person for whose benefit it is written 
 is the indorsee. 
 
 There are five kinds of indorsements : (1) 
 In full. (2) In blank. (3) Conditional. (4) 
 Qualified. (5) Restrictive. 
 
 1. In full: When the name of the indorsee 
 is mentioned, when none but he can demand 
 payment. If he wishes to transfer it he must 
 add his own indorsement in writing. This is 
 the usual form and shows through what hands 
 it passes. 
 
 2. In blank: Indorsement in blank consists 
 of the indorser's name alone. It is then pay- 
 able to bearer, and is transferred by simple 
 delivery from hand to hand. The indorser in 
 full or in blank is obligated to any subsequent 
 holder if the maker does not pay it, and the in- 
 dorser is given due notice of such failure. 
 
 3. Conditional: When the payment is made 
 conditional upon some uncertain event. 
 
 4. Qualified: When the usual form is de- 
 parted from and the indorser restrains, limits, 
 or enlarges his liability as such. 
 
 An indorsement < ' without recourse to me ' ' 
 transfers the title and releases the indorser 
 from any liability. The exact words used do 
 not matter if they show the intention to avoid 
 responsibility. 
 
 When acting for another party the words 
 "agent," "attorney," or their equivalent 
 will release, if added to the indorsement, the 
 said agent from personal responsibility. 
 
 5. Restrictive: When the indorsement re- 
 strains the negotiability to some certain person 
 as, " Pay to John Doe only," or " Pay John 
 Doe for my account." 
 
 Transfer. An indorsement to bearer is trans- 
 ferred by delivery ; or, if indorsed in blank, it 
 can be done in the same way by the indorsee, 
 though drawn payable to order. 
 
 1. Before maturity an innocent purchaser can 
 enforce the collection of a note, even if it be 
 found to have been lost, stolen, or obtained 
 by fraud. Five things are necessary : (1) 
 That he obtained it in good faith. (2) That 
 he was not aware of any defect in the title of 
 the one from whom he obtained it. (3) That 
 it be negotiable. (4) That it was obtained 
 for value. (5) That it was obtained before 
 maturity. Should he be aware of any defect in 
 the title at the time of obtaining it, he takes 
 it subject to any defense that could be legally 
 brought against it at first. 
 
 2. After maturity: A note may still be nego- 
 tiable, but the purchaser now takes it subject 
 to any defense originally existing. 
 
 Demand. No demand is necessary to hold 
 the maker. For the purpose of holding those 
 conditionally liable, a demand must be made 
 first on those primarily liable. 
 
 1 . Notes should be presented for payment 
 by the holder or his authorized agent. 
 
 2. Demand should be made on the maker, or, 
 in his absence, on his authorized agent. 
 
 3. To hold indorser, the demand must be 
 made on the very day of maturity, no sooner, 
 no later. 
 
 4. If no place of payment is specified in the 
 note, it must be presented at the residence or 
 place of business of the maker, and during 
 regular business hours. A personal demand is 
 not necessary when the place of payment is 
 specified. It is sufficient if the note be sent 
 there in due time. 
 
 Law of Place. When given in one State 
 and payable in another, it will be governed by 
 the laws of the State where payable, in the 
 matter of interest, if the rate is not men- 
 tioned. The "law merchant" is, that the 
 maker is bound by the laws of the place where 
 made ; the indorser by the law where indorsed ; 
 demand, days of grace, etc., by the laws where 
 payable. 
 
 Payment. Possession is presumptive evi- 
 dence of title on paper drawn or indorsed, pay- 
 able to bearer, and payment may be made to 
 the one presenting it. Before paying, the 
 maker should be careful that any indorsements 
 are genuine, and that the title is properly 
 transferred. Payment by an indorser satisfies 
 only so far as the subsequent indorsers are 
 concerned, for the note is not discharged until 
 paid by the maker. After an indorser has paid 
 a dishonored note, he may put it in circulation 
 again. 
 
 The holder takes his title from the first in- 
 dorser if made in blank or is a general in- 
 dorsement, and the maker is protected in 
 making payment to him. 
 
 Non-payment. If the only parties con- 
 cerned are the original ones, demand need not 
 be made at maturity. The whole object of 
 demand, protest, and notice of non-payment 
 is to hold the indorsers or others conditionally 
 liable. 
 
 Protest. A protest is a formal statement 
 made by a notary public, giving a copy or 
 description of the note, stating that pay- 
 ment has been demanded and refused, giving 
 reason of refusal, if any, and the purpose 
 and object of the protest. The protest must 
 be made by the notary personally, and duly 
 signed and sealed.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 Notice. 1. Notice should be given by the 
 holder or some suitable person authorized to 
 act for him. The notary may do this. 
 
 2. Notices must be served on all whom the 
 holder wishes to make responsible for the pay- 
 ment. He may notify all prior parties, or 
 only the immediate indorser, as he may wish. 
 Each indorser should protect his own interests 
 by notifying all parties responsible to him. 
 Indorsers are liable, in order of their respective 
 indorsements, to each subsequent indorser. 
 
 3. Due diligence must be exercised in giving 
 the notice. It is best to give it the same day, 
 but if the dishonor occurs Saturday or immedi- 
 ately preceding a holiday, it will be in time if 
 given the succeeding secular day. Certain ob- 
 stacles, as war, prevalence of a contagious dis- 
 ease, floods, or act of Providence, will be ac- 
 cepted as legal excuses for want of notice. 
 
 4. Any place will do, if given personally. 
 Notice in writing may be left at the place of 
 business or at the house of the person to be 
 notified. When the person resides at a dis- 
 tance he may be notified by a letter properly 
 addressed and mailed to the office where he re- 
 ceive , his letters. 
 
 5. The notice may be either verbal or 
 written, and a.ny form that clearly conveys the 
 idea intended will be sufficient. The note 
 should be clearly described. It is well de- 
 scribed when its maker, payee, date, amount, 
 and time and place of payment are named. 
 
 Personal notice must be given when the 
 holder and person to be notified live in the 
 same place, unless the laws of the State do not 
 require it. In New York and many other 
 States written notice properly addressed and 
 mailed is sufficient 
 Notice of Protest. 
 
 $587.00. 
 SECOND NATIONAL BANK, Utica, N. Y., 
 
 June 23, 1894. 
 
 Take notice that the promissory note made 
 by C. M. Taylor for $587 and interest, dated 
 October 2, 1893, payable to your order at 
 this bank, payable this day and indorsed by 
 you, is protested for nonpayment, and the 
 holder, J. B. Morrow, looks to you for the 
 payment thereof, payment of the same having 
 this day been demanded and refused. 
 Respectfully yours, 
 
 H. K. LONG, 
 
 Notary Public. 
 
 To J. L. BROWNE. 
 
 The indorser may waive demand of pay- 
 ment, notice of protest, etc., at the time of 
 the indorsement, or even at any time before 
 maturity. The following is the usual form : 
 " I hereby waive demand, protest, and notice 
 of dishonor." (Signed) 
 
 Guaranty. Guaranties are of two kinds, 
 guaranty of payment and guaranty of collection. 
 
 1. Guaranty of payment absolutely guaran- 
 tees that the note shall be paid at maturity 
 
 2. Guaranty of collection holds the guaran- 
 tor after the holder has failed to collect of the 
 maker. 
 
 The general rule is that the guarantor is not 
 entitled to demand and notice of protest. The 
 following is the usual form. "For value re- 
 ceived I hereby guaranty the payment (or col- 
 lection) of. the within note. (Signed) 
 
 JOHN F. HERRICK. 
 
 Defenses. 1. Want of consideration, if 
 total, is a perfect defense. If it is only a par- 
 tial failure it will defeat recovery only to that 
 extent. 
 
 2. Obtained through fear or compulsion. 
 The threats and duress must be such as would 
 cause a person of ordinary firmness of mind to 
 apprehend danger to himself, reputation, or 
 property. 
 
 3. Fraud. Fraud vitiates all contracts. 
 
 4. Obtained by finding or theft. This is 
 no defense against a bona fide and innocent 
 purchaser who obtains the note before maturity 
 and gives a valuable consideration for it. 
 
 5. Illegal consideration. A note illegal on 
 its face gives warning to all. A note showing 
 on its face that it called for more than the 
 legal rate of interest would be subject to such 
 defense. 
 
 Notes given for " debts of honor " are void 
 between original parties, but if indorsed and 
 negotiated, the first indorser would be holden. 
 
 Presumptions. 1. The law presumes that 
 the negotiable paper was given for a consider- 
 ation, whether expressed or not. The con- 
 trary must be proven to constitute a defense. 
 
 2. The holder is presumed to be the owner. 
 
 3. Indorsements and transfers are presumed 
 to be made before the paper became due. 
 
 4. The law presumes the holder to have ac- 
 quired the paper in the usual course of busi- 
 ness 
 
 5. It is conclusively presumed that the 
 paper means precisely what it says and parol 
 evidence will not be allowed to offset it. 
 
 A note given by a lunatic, an intoxicated 
 person or a minor, is void. 
 
 A note given by one who cannot write 
 should be witnessed by an uninterested person. 
 
 A person receiving a note, knowing it to be 
 defective, has no better title than the person 
 from whom he purchased. 
 
 A note as a gift, being without considera- 
 tion, is voidable. 
 
 If the holder of a note extends the time of 
 payment to the maker, his action releases all 
 persons conditionally liable.
 
 58 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 In a note containing <( we promise," or "we 
 jointly promise," the liability is a joint one, 
 and all must be sued ; " we or either of us prom- 
 ise," or "we jointly and severally promise," 
 here the liability is both joint and several and 
 either or all the parties may be sued. 
 
 In a note containing " I promise " and signed 
 by two or more persons, each signer is obli- 
 gated for the whole amount, and either or all 
 may be sued. 
 
 After becoming of age a minor may ratify a 
 note given during his minority. 
 
 Forms of Notes. 
 
 A .Vote Negotiable Without Indorsement. 
 
 $260. ST. Louis, June 8, 1899. 
 
 Thirty days after date I promise to pay J. H. 
 Ames, or bearer, Two Hundred and Fifty Dollars, 
 at the Third National Bank in St. Louis, for value 
 received. CHARLES CABNS. 
 
 A Note Negotiable Only by Indorsement. 
 
 $200. CHICAGO, Nov. 26, 1899. 
 
 Three months after date I promise to pay John 
 H. Weltering, or order, Two Hundred Dollars, 
 value received. J. T. NORTON. 
 
 A Note Not Negotiable. 
 $200. ST. Louis, Nov. 17, 1899. 
 
 Ninety days after date I promise to pay Charles 
 C. Collins Two Hundred Dollars, value received. 
 SAMUEL ATKINSON. 
 
 A Note Bearing Interest. 
 
 $100. BATON ROUGE, LA. , Nov. 26, 1899. 
 
 Six months after date I pnomise to pay R. V. 
 Jennings, or order, One Hundred Dollars, with in- 
 terest, for value received. JOHN Q. WATSON. 
 
 A Note Payable on Demand. 
 $150. PHILADELPHIA, Nov. 30, 1899. 
 
 On demand I promise to pay Lamonte Whittle- 
 sey, or bearer, One Hundred and Fifty Dollars, 
 value received. JOHN Q. CHAFFINGTON. 
 
 A Note Payable at Bank. 
 
 $100. CINCINNATI, Dec. 24, 1899. 
 
 Thirty days after date I promise to pay Thomas 
 I. Rankin, or order, at the Second National Bank, 
 One Hundred Dollars, value received. 
 
 FRANK T. MORRISON. 
 
 Principal and Surety. 
 
 $793. NEWARK, N. J., Dec. 28, 1899. 
 
 Sixty days after_datel promise to pay Daniel 
 O'C. Patterson, or" order, Seven Hundred and 
 Ninety-three Dollars, with interest, value received. 
 
 JOHN G. WATTERSON, Principal. 
 
 T. R. GRAHAM, Security. 
 
 Promissory Note Secured by Mortgage. 
 $1,000. LANSING, MICH., Dec. 1, 1899. 
 
 One year after date I promise to pay to S. H. 
 Moore One Thousand Dollars at the First National 
 Bank of Lansing, Mich., with interest at the rate 
 of ten per cent, per annum, for value received. 
 
 This note is secured by a mortgage of even date 
 herewith, on a certain tract or parcel of land sit- 
 uate (describe the premises). 
 
 (Signed) R. S. MARSH. 
 
 A Married Woman's Note in New Tork. 
 $400. NEW YORK, Dec. 13, 1899. 
 
 Three months after date I promise to pay John- 
 son, Dunham & Co., or order, Four Hundred Dol- 
 lars, with interest. And I hereby charge my indi- 
 vidual property and estate with the payment of 
 this note. CLARA C. DICKERSON. 
 
 A Joint Note. 
 
 $3,000. DETROIT, MICH., Dec. 12, 1899. 
 
 One year after date we jointly promise to pay 
 E. C. Langworthy, or order, Three Thousand Dol- 
 lars, value received. JOHN C. JENNINGS. 
 
 WALTER D. CURTIS. 
 
 A Joint and Several Note. 
 $3,000. DETROIT, MICH., Dec. 12, 1899. 
 
 One year after date we jointly and severally 
 promise to pay E. C. Langworthy, or order, Three 
 Thousand Dollars, value received. 
 
 JOHN C. JENNINGS. 
 WALTER D. CURTIS. 
 
 A Partnership Note. 
 
 No. BOSTON, MASS., Nov. 26, 1899. 
 
 One month after date, without grace, we prom- 
 ise to pay to the order of ourselves Two Hundred 
 and Fifty Dollars, at any bank in Boston. 
 JOHNSON & Co., 
 $250. Due Dec. 26, 1899. 209 Temple Place. 
 
 A Note Payable by Installments. 
 
 $3,000. PHILADELPHIA, PA., April 20, 1899. 
 
 For value received, I promise to pay Smith & 
 Brown, or order, Three Thousand Dollars, in the 
 manner following, viz. : One thousand dollars in 
 one year, one thousand dollars in two years, and 
 one thousand dollars in three years, with interest 
 on all said sums, payable semi-annually, without 
 defalcation or discount. HUGH FAULKNER, 
 
 120 Chestnut St. 
 
 Sealed Note. 
 
 $5,000. CLEVELAND, O., May 8, 1899. 
 
 For value received, I promise to pay Smith & 
 Edgar, or order, Five Thousand Dollars, in three 
 years from the date hereof, with interest, payable 
 semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. 
 And in case of default of my payment of the inter- 
 est or principal aforesaid with punctuality, I hereby 
 empower any attorney-at-law, to be appointed by 
 said Smith & Edgar, or their assigns, to appear in 
 any court which said Smith & Edgar, or their 
 assigns, may select, and commence and prosecute 
 a suit against me on said note, to confess judgment 
 for all and every part of the interest or principal 
 on said note, in the payment of which I may be 
 delinquent. 
 
 Witness my hand and seal, this 8th day of June, 
 A. D. 1899. JOHN DREW. [SEAL.] 
 
 Attest, GEORGE WHITE. 
 
 Judgment Note. 
 
 For value received, I promise to pay to John 
 Doe, or order, Four Hundred Twenty-five and 
 25-100 dollars (425. 25), three months after date; 
 and I here nominate, constitute, and appoint the 
 said John Doe, or any attorney-at-law of this 
 State, my true and lawful attorney, for me and in 
 my name to appear at any court of record of this 
 State, at any time after the above promissory note 
 becomes due, and to waive all processes and serv-
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 59 
 
 ices thereof, and to confess judgment in favor of 
 the holder herein, for the sum that may be due 
 and owing hereon, with interest and costs and 
 waiving all errors. 
 
 In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my 
 hand and seal at Williamsport, Pa., this first day 
 of June, 1899. [SEAL.] RICHARD ROE. 
 
 Indorsements. 
 
 In Blank. In Full. General. 
 
 L. A. Dans. 
 
 Pay 
 
 
 Pay 
 
 Chas. Evans 
 
 
 Chas. Evans. 
 
 or order. 
 
 
 L. A. Davis. 
 
 L. A. Davis. 
 
 
 
 Qualified. 
 
 Conditional. 
 
 Restrictive. 
 
 Pay 
 
 Pay 
 
 
 Pay 
 
 Chas. Evan* 
 
 
 < 'In IK. Evans 
 or order, . 
 
 
 Chas. Evans 
 
 or order, : unless pay- 
 
 only. 
 
 ivithout re- 
 
 meiit -forbid- 
 den before 
 
 
 L. A. Davis. 
 
 course. 
 
 
 maturity. 
 
 
 
 L. A. Davis. 
 
 
 L. A. Davis. 
 
 
 
 Forms of Guaranty. 
 
 Guaranty of a Xote. 
 
 For value received, I guarantee the due payment 
 of a promissory note, dated October 8, 1883, 
 whereby John Paxson promises to pay George 
 Andrews Eighty Dollars in three mouths. 
 
 ST. Lot-is, Oct. 10, 1883. PETER FABER. 
 
 General Guaranty. 
 
 I hereby guarantee payment to any person who 
 shall- accept and retain this instrument as a guar- 
 anty, for all goods which he may from time to 
 time supply to Eugene Parsons, not exceeding at 
 any time the sum of Five Hundred Dollars, this to 
 be a continuing guaranty till specially revoked. 
 Notice to be given me within ten days after its ac- 
 ceptance. DARBY COXGEB. 
 
 ST. Louis, Sept. 8, 1883. 
 
 Extension of Time. 
 
 In consideration that George Andrews gives to 
 John Paxson additional time to the extent of one 
 month for payment of the indebtedness due him 
 from said John Paxson guaranteed by me, I here- 
 by continue my guaranty for due payment thereof. 
 
 January 8, 1884. PETEK FABER. 
 
 Guaranty of Fidelity. 
 
 In consideration of the performance of the agree- 
 ments and covenants specified in the within agree- 
 ment by M. M., with my son, A. A., I do hereby 
 bind myself ta said M. M. for the true and faithful 
 observation and performance of all the matters 
 and things by said A. A. agreed and covenanted 
 therein, and that he shall well and truly serve said 
 M. M. 
 
 Witness my hand this day of , A.D. . 
 
 P. A. 
 
 Contracts. A contract is "an agreement 
 for a suitable consideration to do or not to do 
 a certain thing." 
 
 The essentials of a contract are : 1. The 
 
 Parties; 2. Consideration; 3. Subject-matter; 
 
 j 4. Asssent ; 5. Time. These are essential 
 
 J and the other elements are those that give to 
 
 ! the contract its particular character. 
 
 1. The Parties. The parties must be com- 
 petent. A contract with a minor is not bind- 
 ing upon him for anything except necessaries, 
 though he may hold the other party to a 
 strict accounting. What constitute necessa- 
 ries would depend upon the age, the rank, and 
 fortune of the minor. 
 
 2. Consideration. No contract is valid with- 
 out a sufficient consideration. Consideration 
 may be divided ; as (A) VALUABLE ; (B) 
 GOOD ; (C) INSUFFICIENT. 
 
 (A) A^ALUABLE CONSIDERATION IS Usually 
 
 expressed by money or is convertible into 
 money. 
 
 (B) A GOOD CONSIDERATION is founded on 
 love, affection or gratitude. It will be accepted 
 as consideration for a contract already per- 
 formed, but is not good for contracts to be 
 performed some time in the future. As a gift 
 already made but not holding for one promised. 
 
 (C) INSUFFICIENT CONSIDERATION may be 
 classed, as (D) GRATUITOUS ; (E) ILLEGAL ; 
 
 (F) IMPOSSIBLE ; (G) MORAL. 
 
 GRATUITOUS. A contract based on apromise 
 wholly gratuitous is void for want of consid- 
 eration. Examples : Public subscriptions, 
 charities, etc. 
 
 ILLEGAL. A contract with an illegal consid- 
 eration is void. A contract to commit, con- 
 ceal, or compound a crime is void. Either 
 party may avoid the contract where the con- 
 sideration is illegal. 
 
 IMPOSSIBLE. If the consideration is im- 
 possible the contract is void. The law compels 
 no one to perform impossibilities. That the 
 consideration was difficult would not be an 
 excuse. 
 
 MORAL. A moral obligation, alone, is not 
 a sufficient consideration. A person is not 
 legally obligated to pay for services already 
 rendered a relative, even though he promise to 
 do so after the services are performed. Had 
 the person promised before the service was 
 performed, the case would be different. The 
 position of a parent and minor child would be 
 an exception. 
 
 3. Subject-matter. All contracts the sub- 
 ject-matter of which is illegal, immoral, or im- 
 politic are void. 
 
 Contracts in restraint of trade are void even 
 though given for a valuable consideration. A 
 contract not to carry on a lawful business
 
 60 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 anywhere, whether the time be limited or not, 
 is invalid. An agreement in partial restraint 
 of trade, if confined within reasonable bounds, 
 or to certain persons and given for a sufficient 
 consideration, would be valid. 
 
 A doctor might sell his practice and agree 
 not to practice within a certain number of 
 miles of the place. If given for a valuable 
 consideration, the contract would be valid. 
 The court would decide the reasonableness of 
 the limitation. 
 
 Contracts in general restraint of marriage are 
 void, because against public policy. A con- 
 tract not to marry a particular person would 
 be valid. A contract not to marry until of a 
 suitable or reasonable age is valid. The con- 
 dition that a widow shall forfeit certain por- 
 tions of her deceased husband's estate if she 
 marry again may be valid, if she accepted it 
 under those conditions. 
 
 Fraud vitiates any contract if the innocent 
 party so wishes, otherwise the other party may 
 be held. A contract that operates as a fraud 
 on third parties is void. Examples : Fraudu- 
 lent assignments ; fraudulent sales ; perversion 
 of insolvent laws. 
 
 ' ' Fraud consists in the employment- of any 
 kind of cunning, deception, artifice, or con- 
 cealment to cheat, circumvent, or deceive 
 another in a business matler." If both par- 
 ties are equally guilty, neither has usually any 
 redress at law. If one party is more innocent, 
 the reverse is true. The innocent party may 
 many times hold the other if he chooses, or 
 himself refuse to be bound by the contract. 
 The guilty party cannot avoid the contract on 
 account of his own fraud if the contract is 
 already executed. 
 
 4. Assent. There can be no contract valid 
 and binding, iinless the parties assent to the 
 same thing and in the same sense. There 
 must be a proposition by one party and an ac- 
 ceptance by the other. 
 
 If the proposition and acceptance are made 
 by mail, the contract is presumed to be com- 
 pleted as soon as the acceptance is mailed, and 
 even a telegram countermanding it before the 
 letter was received need not necessarily be 
 allowed to avoid it. 
 
 5. Time. Time enters into the contract as 
 an essential element and is either expressed or 
 implied. Something to be done between two 
 certain days is not performed if done on either 
 of those days. If the day for performance falls 
 upon Sunday, the performing party has the 
 privilege of performing on the next secular day. 
 
 Statute of Frauds. By the < ' Statute 
 of Frauds," which has been adopted by most 
 States, certain contracts must be in writing. 
 The following are those adopted by New York 
 
 and most other States : "Every contract for 
 the leasing of a longer period than one year, 
 or for the sale of any lands, or any interest in 
 lands, shall be void, unless the contract or 
 some note or memorandum thereof, expressing 
 the consideration, be in writing and be sub- 
 scribed by the party by whom the lease or sale 
 is made. " Annual crops resulting from culti- 
 vation, if the price is less than fifty dollars, do 
 not come within the meaning of the statute ; 
 as corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, etc. 
 
 In the following cases every. agreement shall 
 be void unless such agreement, or some note 
 or memorandum thereof, be in writing and 
 subscribed by the party to be charged there- 
 with : 
 
 1. Every agreement that, by its terms, is 
 not to be performed within one year from the 
 making thereof. 
 
 2 . Every special promise to answer for the 
 debt, default, or miscarriage of another. 
 
 3. Every agreement, promise, or undertak- 
 ing, made upon consideration of marriage, ex- 
 cept mutual promises to marry. 
 
 4. Every contract for the sale of any chattels, 
 goods, or things in action, for the price of fifty 
 dollars or more shall be void unless, 
 
 " First, A note or memorandum of such 
 contract be made in writing and subscribed by 
 the parties to be charged thereby ; or, 
 
 " Second, Unless the buyer shall accept and 
 receive part of such goods or the evidences, or 
 some of them, of such things in action ; or, 
 
 " Third, Unless the buyer shall, at the time, 
 pay some part of the purchase money." 
 
 In addition to being written, there must be 
 a consideration in the contracts, as above, 
 either express or implied. 
 
 ' ' A party to a contract is not bound until 
 he yields a full, free, and intelligent assent of 
 its terms." " An offer made may be retracted 
 any time before its acceptance." 
 
 A competent party making contract with a 
 minor cannot hold the minor, except as before 
 noted, but the minor can sue and recover for 
 the nonperformance of the other party. 
 
 Contracts required to be in writing by the 
 "Statute of Frauds," hold only the party 
 signing if but one signs. The other has it at 
 his option. 
 
 Damages " Perform your contract or pay 
 
 damages." The law cannot compel the per- 
 formance of a contract ; it only knows a money 
 remedy for nonperformance. In a contract 
 for personal service which cannot well be filled 
 by another, the sickness of the promising 
 party will excuse nonperformance. 
 
 A court of equity may compel the perform- 
 ance of certain agreements : as the convey- 
 ance of real estate.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 61 
 
 f< instruction. The following rules are ob- 
 served in the interpretation of contracts : 
 
 1. INTENTION. .The first care is to give 
 effect to the intention of the parties so far as the 
 intention was mutual and legal. 
 
 2. MKAXIX<; OK TKKMS. The terms of a 
 contract are to be interpreted according to their 
 usual meaning, if that seems to satisfy the in- 
 tention of the parties. Technical words are 
 interpreted according to their use in the pro- 
 fession, or the trade to which they belong. 
 
 Interpretation. Certain contracts are ex- 
 pouwded according to the usage or custom of 
 trade when needed to explain the meaning of 
 peculiar terms. ThQ law of place would also 
 enter as a factor ; if the custom of the place 
 where the contract was made differed from 
 other places, that would give a different mean- 
 ing to its terms. 
 
 The interpretation is made upon the whole 
 contract and not upon its parts. The object of 
 the parties is to be gathered from the whole in- 
 strument, and one clause will be interpreted by 
 another. 
 
 Wherever one portion cannot be reconciled 
 with the obvious intention of the parties, it 
 will be expunged. " Effect will be given to 
 the whole intention." 
 
 Forms of Contracts. A General Re- 
 
 all men by these presents : That I, 
 A. B., of ..... , in consideration of ..... , 
 
 and other good and valuable considerations to 
 me in hand paid by A. C., of ...... , have 
 
 remised, released and forever discharged, and 
 by these presents do, for me, my heirs, execu- 
 tors and administrators, remise, release, and 
 forever discharge said A. C., his heirs, execu- 
 tors, and administrators, of and from all and 
 all manner of actions, suits, debts, dues, sums 
 of money, accounts, reckonings, bonds, bills, 
 specialties, covenants, contracts, controversies, 
 agreements, promises, variances, damages, 
 judgments, executions, claims and demands 
 whatsoever, in law or equity, which against 
 the said A. B. I ever had, now have, or which 
 I, iny heirs, my executors and administrators 
 hereafter can, shall, or may have, for, upon or 
 by reason of any matter, cause or thing what- 
 soever (or by reason of ...... ) , from the be- 
 
 ginning of the w^orld to the day of the date of 
 these presents. 
 
 In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my 
 hand and seal, this ...... day of ...... 
 
 A.D. 189 .. 
 
 (Signed) A. B. [L. s.j 
 
 Signed and delivered in the presence of 
 
 D. E. 
 
 Memorandum of Sale. It is agreed by and 
 between A. B. and B. E., of, etc., that said 
 
 I A. B., in consideration of two hundred bushels 
 of wheat, sold to him this day by the said B. 
 E., free of all charges or expenses, whatsoever, 
 
 at , on or before , shall and 
 
 will pay or cause to be paid to the said B. 
 E., or his assigns, upon auch delivery, the sum 
 of dollars. 
 
 And the said B. E., in consideration of the 
 agreement aforesaid of the said A. B., doth 
 promise and agree, on or before the said ..... 
 at his own expense, to send in and deliver to 
 the said A. B., or his assigns, the said two 
 hundred bushels of wheat so sold to him as 
 aforesaid, and the said B. E. shall and will 
 warrant the same to be good, clean, and mer- 
 chantable grain. 
 
 In witness whereof, the said parties have 
 hereunto set their hands the day and year first 
 above written. 
 
 A. B. 
 
 In presence of B. E. 
 
 C. D. 
 
 Lease of House. I, of , 
 
 hereby lease to of , for the 
 
 term of , to commence on 
 
 the dwelling house (describe it) with its ap- 
 
 i purtenances, for the yearly rent of , 
 
 to be paid 
 
 Said , agrees to pay said , 
 
 ! said rents at the times above specified and to 
 surrender the premises at the expiration of the 
 term, in as good condition as reasonable use 
 will allow, fire and unavoidable accidents ex- 
 cepted. 
 
 In witness whereof, the said parties have 
 
 hereunto set their hands this of 
 
 , A. D. 189 . . 
 
 (Signed) . 
 
 (Signed) 
 
 General Form of Contract. Memorandum of 
 
 an agreement made this day of , 
 
 in the year 189 .. , between A. B., of , 
 
 as first party, and B. C., of , as 
 
 second party, 
 
 Witnesseth : That the said first party here- 
 by agrees to, etc., (Here insert first 
 
 party's obligations.) 
 
 In consideration .of the above being faith- 
 fully kept and performed by the said first 
 party, the said second party, etc. (Here insert 
 second party's obligations.) 
 
 In witness whereof, we have hereunto s-it 
 our hands and seals the day and year first 
 above written. 
 
 A. B. 
 
 In the presence of B. C. 
 
 C. D. 
 
 A seal on an instrument is usually conclu- 
 sive proof that it was given for a consideration.
 
 62 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 but the laws of New York permit evidence to 
 be submitted on rebuttal of this presump- 
 tion. 
 
 Partnerships. " A partnership is aeon- 
 tract between two or more competent persons 
 for joining together their money, goods, labor 
 and skill, or any or all of them, under an 
 understanding that there shall be a communion 
 of profit between them, and for the purpose of 
 carrying on a legal trade, business, or adven- 
 ture. STORY. 
 
 Partners : Any person of sound mind and 
 able to conduct ordinary business may enter 
 into a partnership. An infant may be a part- 
 ner, but in general he could incur no liability 
 and might disaffirm the contract at any time. 
 Married women can be partners only in such 
 States as have removed their disabilities. 
 
 Partners are grouped as follows : 
 
 Ostensible, those whose names are known 
 and appear as partners ; nominal, those who 
 appear to the world as partners, but who have 
 really no interest in the business. 
 
 Nominal partners are responsible to all credi- 
 tors who gave the firm credit because of their 
 apparent connection with it. 
 
 Dormant partners are those who do not ap- 
 pear to the world as partners, but are actually 
 interested in the business. They are liable to 
 creditors of the business. Special partners are 
 those who supply a certain amount of capita], 
 and on complying with certain requirements 
 are not liable for debts of the firm above the 
 amount they invest. 
 
 Relations of Partners : Mutual respect, con- 
 fidence in the honesty, skill, judgment, and 
 good business instinct of each other must be 
 the basis of each partnership. On this ac- 
 count, if the partnership suffers through the 
 neglect of any partner, he is liable to the 
 others. He is liable in damages to the other 
 partners for any breach of partnership con- 
 tract. 
 
 No partner has any right to engage in any 
 private business that will in any way operate 
 to the detriment of the partnership. 
 
 The powers of all partners in ordinary cases 
 are equal and neither can exclude the other 
 from a share in the management of the busi- 
 ness or from the possession of partnership 
 property. 
 
 A partnership can only exist by voluntary 
 contract, and no third party can be introduced 
 into the firm without unanimous consent. 
 
 Powers of Partners : The acts of one partner 
 bind all the rest. Each partner has power to 
 transact any and all necessary business for the 
 partnership. The frauds of one partner bind 
 the firm, though the others have no knowledge 
 of his action. The partner should transact all 
 
 business in the name of the firm, otherwise he 
 alone is liable. He has no power to bind the 
 partnership outside the transaction of the 
 regular business of the firm. The fraud of a 
 partner will not bind the partnership if the 
 third party is aware of the fraud or that the 
 partner is exceeding his authority. Each 
 partner is liable to third parties for partner- 
 ship debts to the extent of his whole private 
 property. 
 
 Subject-matter: By this is meant the busi- 
 ness in which they have engaged. The es- 
 sence of the contract is, that the partners are 
 jointly concerned in the profits and losses, or 
 at least the profits of some legitimate business. 
 If the contract does not specify the manner of 
 division, they will be supposed to be divided 
 equally. 
 
 Articles of Co-partnership. If the business 
 is extensive, or the relations to continue for a 
 great length of time, formal articles should be 
 adopted. Any form that clearly sets forth 
 the nature of the business, the investments of 
 each partner, the division of the profits and 
 losses, the powers and duties of each partner, 
 the commencement and termination of the 
 partnership, will answer the purpose. Tlie 
 partnership commences at once if no other 
 time is specified. The laws of New York pro- 
 hibit the use of fictitious names in the firm 
 name. " & Co." cannot there be used unless 
 it represent an actual partner. If no time is 
 expressed for termination, the partnership is 
 presumed to be "at will " only, and may be 
 dissolved at any time. 
 
 Dissolution. This may take place by acts of 
 the parties, by judicial decree, by operation of 
 law. 
 
 A partnership may be dissolved at any time 
 by mutual consent. If the partnership is for 
 any specified time it may be dissolved by one 
 partner refusing to act with the other, or by his 
 assigning his share to a third party. Such 
 assignment does not constitute the third party 
 a partner without the consent of all the others. 
 A partnership for a certain time expires when 
 that period is passed. 
 
 The partnership could be dissolved by 
 judicial decree at any time for good and suffi- 
 cient reasons, as unfitness or inability of a 
 partner developed after the commencement of 
 the partnership, or should the business be im- 
 practicable or when founded in error. 
 
 The law would operate to dissolve the part- 
 nership if one partner became insane, idiotic, 
 or in any way incapable of performing his 
 duties. 
 
 All right, title and interest of any partner 
 may be sold under execution against him. 
 The bankruptcy of one partner would dissolve
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 63 
 
 the partnership unless provided for by special 
 agreement. 
 
 After dissolution no power remains to create 
 new obligations, and a partner could not renew 
 a partnership note, or even indorse one to pay 
 a prior debt of the firm. Unless provided for, 
 to the contrary, each partner has power to 
 collect accounts and to settle up the affairs of 
 the business. 
 
 A notice of dissolution to all persons dealing 
 with the firm is necessary when the retiring 
 partner wishes to avoid further liability for 
 debts incurred by the partnership. The re- 
 tiring partner is already liable for all prior 
 debts. To avoid responsibility, notice must 
 be given to each person who has had dealings 
 with the partnership. A notice published in 
 the local paper will do for all subsequent credi- 
 tors. 
 
 AVills. No particular form of a will is re- 
 quired. A*iy words that clearly convey the 
 idea of the testator are sufficient. 
 
 Kinds. Unwritten or nuncupative and 
 written. All wills must be written, except 
 those of soldiers and sailors when in actual 
 service, or in some States they maybe allowed 
 in extreme cases when a necessity. The 
 parties to a will are the testator or person 
 making the will, the donee or person benefited 
 by the will, and the executor or person em- 
 powered to see that the provisions of the will 
 are carried out. 
 
 Testator. The testator must be competent. 
 In New York, males of 18 years of age and 
 females of 1 6 years of age may dispose of per- ' 
 sonal property. A married woman cannot 
 make a valid will without the consent of her 
 husband, except in those States where their 
 disabilities have been removed. The testator 
 must possess mind and memory enough to 
 fully understand the nature and consequences 
 of his action. 
 
 Donee. The donees are the persons bene- 
 fiting by the will. 
 
 They are called devisees when the gift is of 
 real estate, and legatees when the gift is one 
 of personal property. 
 
 Any person in general, capable of acquiring 
 property by his own exertion, may be a donee. 
 Corporations cannot take by will unless em- 
 powered to do so by their charters. 
 
 Executor. Any person capable of making a 
 will may be an executor. 
 
 He must see that the deceased is buried in a 
 suitable manner ; he must file a bond, offer 
 the will for probate, make the return and in- 
 ventory, collect the property, pay the debts 
 and distribute the remainder according to the 
 terms of the will. He must render an account 
 of all, and file with the probate office. 
 
 Subject-matter. Little form is necessary for 
 disposing of personal property. A will might 
 be accepilG for disposing of personal property 
 when parts relating to real estate would not be 
 valid. 
 
 By common law the testator must be pos- 
 sessed of real estate he devises at the time the 
 will is made. By the laws of Vermont, Massa- 
 chusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and Vir- 
 ginia, he may devise any that he is possessed 
 of at the time of his death, if that was evi- 
 dently his intention. The laws of Maine, 
 Ohio, Illinois, and Connecticut are similar. 
 
 Execution. The will must be signed by the 
 testator, or by some person acting for him at 
 his request. When he signs or acknowledges 
 the will he must declare it to be his last will. 
 
 It is best to have three witnesses, though 
 some of the States require but two. The New 
 England States and some of the Southern 
 States require three ; the Middle and Western 
 States in general require two ; Louisiana re- 
 quires four witnesses. The witnesses must 
 write their names and addresses as witnesses. 
 New York prescribes a fine of fifty dollars for 
 their failure to do so. 
 
 The testator must sign or acknowledge his 
 signature in the presence of these witnesses. 
 A codicil to be valid must be witnessed with 
 the same formalities as the will. 
 
 A subsequent will revokes the preceding one. 
 All witnesses should be disinterested parties. 
 
 The following States have particular pro- 
 visions in their statutes concerning wills : 
 
 NEW YORK. No person having a husband, 
 wife, child, or parent, shall devise more than 
 one half of his or her estate to any charitable, 
 literary, scientific, or kindred institution. 
 Should a testator marry after making a will 
 disposing of the whole of his estate, and there 
 should be born an issue of such marriage, 
 unless provision shall have been made for such 
 issue, by settlement, or unless the will provides 
 for such issue, or shqws an intention not to 
 provide for such issue, the will shall be re- 
 voked and no other evidence shall be submitted 
 in rebuttal. 
 
 A child horn after the making of a will, and 
 not provided for by will or settlement, shall 
 succeed to such portion of the estate as would 
 have fallen to it had the parent died intestate. 
 
 A bequest to a witness renders the will void 
 only so far as the witness and his bequest is 
 concerned. He is a competent witness still. 
 
 COLORADO. A married man cannot by will 
 deprive his wife of more than one half his 
 estate. A married woman cannot deprive her 
 husband of more than one half her estate 
 without his consent in writing. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. No bequest can be given to
 
 64 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 a subscribing witness, and a subsequent mar- 
 riage or birth of a child revokes the will unless 
 specially provided for therein. ^ 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Bequests to any 
 minister, teacher, or religious sect or denomina- 
 tion, unless made at least one month before 
 the testator's death, are void. 
 
 IOWA. Disposition of homestead or other 
 privileged property to wife and family is void. 
 
 KANSAS. A married person cannot, without 
 the consent of the husband or wife, dispose of 
 more than one half of his or her property. 
 
 MAINE. A posthumous child shares the 
 same as though there was no will, unless other- 
 wise provided for. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. A bequest to a subscrib- 
 ing witness is void, or to the husband or wife of 
 such witness, unless there are three other 
 witnesses. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. Bequest to subscribing 
 witness void without there are three other sub- 
 scribing witnesses. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. Same as Maine. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. Bequest to a charity 
 within one month of testator's death is void. 
 
 Short Form for a Will. I, James Dick- 
 son, of the city of Chicago, in the county of 
 Cook, and State of Illinois, being of sound 
 mind and memory and understanding, do 
 make my last will and testament in manner 
 and form following : 
 
 First. I give and bequeath to my daughters 
 Mary and Jane two thousand dollars each after 
 they have attained the age of twenty years. 
 
 Second. I give and bequeath to my wife 
 Susan all my household furniture, and all the 
 rest of my personal property, after paying 
 from the same the legacies already named, to 
 be hers forever : but if there should not be at 
 my decease sufficient personal property to pay 
 the aforesaid legacies, then so much of my 
 real estate shall be sold as will raise sufficient 
 money to pay the same. 
 
 Third. I also give, devise, and bequeath to 
 my wife Susan all the rest and residue of my 
 real estate as long as she shall remain un- 
 married, and my widow ; but on her decease 
 or marriage, the remainder thereof I give 
 and devise to my said children and their heirs, 
 respectively, to be divided in equal shares be- 
 tween them. 
 
 I appoint my wife Susan sole executrix of 
 this my last will and testament. 
 
 In testimony whereof, I hereunto set my hand 
 and seal, and publish and decree this to be my 
 last will and testament, in tlx-. presence of the 
 witnesses named below, this eighth day of 
 March, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
 eight hundred and ninety-three. 
 
 JAMES DICKSON. [L. s.] 
 
 Signed, sealed, declared and published by 
 the said James Dickson as and for his last will 
 and testament, in the presence of us, who, at 
 his request and in his presence, and in pres- 
 ence of each other, have subscribed our names 
 as witnesses hereto. 
 
 JOHN SMITH, residing at Chicago in Cook 
 County. 
 
 PETER JONES, residing at Chicago in Cook 
 County. 
 
 Another Form of Will. Know all men 
 by these presents : That I, Joseph Atkinson, of 
 Media, in the county of Chester, and State of 
 Pennsylvania, merchant, considering the un- 
 certainty of this life, and being of sound mind 
 and memory, do make, and declare, and pub- 
 lish, this my last will and testament. 
 
 First. I give and bequeath unto my beloved 
 wife Mary the use, improvement and income 
 of my dwelling house, warehouses, lands, and 
 their appurtenances, situate in Nelson town- 
 ship, Chester county, State of Pennsylvania, 
 to have and to hold the same to her for and 
 during her natural life. 
 
 Second. I give and bequeath to my son 
 Robert two thousand dollars, to be paid to 
 him by my executor, hereinafter named, within 
 six months after my decease ; and I also give, 
 devise, and bequeath to my said son Robert the 
 reversion or remainder of my dwelling house, 
 warehouses, lands and their appurtenances, 
 .situate in Nelson township, Chester county, 
 State of Pennsylvania, and all profit, income, 
 and advantage that may result therefrom, from 
 and after the decease of my beloved wife 
 Mary. 
 
 Third. I give, devise, and bequeath to my 
 beloved wife Mary all the residue of my estate, 
 real, personal, or mixed, of which I shall he 
 seized or possessed, or to which I shall be en- 
 titled at the time of my decease ; to have and 
 to hold the same to her and her executors and 
 administrators and assigns forever. 
 
 Fourth. I do nominate and appoint my 
 brother James Atkinson to be the executor of 
 this, my last will and testament. 
 
 In testimony whereof, I have to this, my last 
 will and testament, contained on two sheets of 
 paper, and to each sheet thereof, subscribed 
 my name and set my seal ; and to this, the last 
 sheet thereof, I have here subscribed my name 
 and affixed my seal, this eighteenth day of May, 
 in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 hundred and ninety-three. 
 
 JAMES ATKINSON. [L. s.] 
 
 Signed, scaled, declared and published by the 
 said James Atkinson, as and for his last will 
 and testament, in presence of us, who, at his 
 request and in his presence, and in presence of
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 65 
 
 each other, have subscribed our names as 
 witnesses hereto. 
 
 THOMAS MAY, residing at Media, Pa. 
 JOHN NOI.AN. " " " " 
 HEXKY MANN, >< " " 
 Codicil to a Will. Whereas, I, Richard 
 Roe, of the city of Pittsburg, in the county of 
 Allegheny and State of Pennsylvania, have 
 made my last will and testament, in writing, 
 bearing date the fourteenth day of February, 
 in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 himdred and ninety-three, in and by which I 
 have given to the Pennsylvania Institution for 
 Deaf Mutes, in the city of Philadelphia, the 
 sum of one thousand dollars. 
 
 Now, therefore, I do, by this my writing, 
 which I hereby declare to be a codicil to my 
 said last will and testament, and to be taken 
 as a part thereof, order and declare that my 
 will is that only the sum of five hundred dol- 
 lars shall be paid to the said Pennsylvania In- 
 stitution for Deaf Mutes as the full amount 
 bequeathed to the said institution, and that 
 the residue of the said legacy be given to the 
 person who shall be acting as treasurer at the 
 time of my decease of the Baptist Publication 
 Society, located in the city of Philadelphia, to 
 be expended by the society in such manner as 
 the officers of the said society may deem best 
 for the interests of said society ; and, lastly, 
 it is my desire that this codicil be annexed to 
 and made a part of my last will and testament 
 as aforesaid, to all intents and purposes. 
 
 In testimony whereof, etc. (as in form of 
 will). 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FORMS. 
 
 Mortgage of Lands by Husband and 
 Wife. This Indenture, made the day 
 
 of , in the year of our Lord one thousand 
 
 eight hundred and , between F. F., of the 
 
 city of New York, merchant, and J. his wife, of 
 the first part, and L. M.. of said city, mer- 
 chant, of the second part, witnesseih: That the 
 said parties of the first part, for and in consid- 
 eration of the sum of , lawful money of 
 
 the United States, to them in hand paid, the 
 receipt whereof is herebv acknowledged, have 
 granted, bargained, sold, aliened, released, 
 conveyed, and confirmed, and by these pres- 
 ents do grant, bargain, sell, alien, release, 
 convey, and confirm, unto the said party of 
 the second part, and to his assigns forever, all 
 that certain lot, etc. ; together with all and 
 singular the hereditaments and appurtenances 
 thereunto belonging, or in any wise appertain- 
 ing, and the reversion and reversions, remainder 
 and remainders, rents, issues, and profits 
 thereof ; and also all the estate, right, title, 
 interest, dower, possession, claim, and demand 
 
 whatsoever, of the said parties of the first part, 
 of, in, and to the same, and every part thereof, 
 with the appurtenances : To have and to hold 
 the said hereby granted premises, with the ap- 
 purtenances, unto the said party of the second 
 part, his heirs and assigns, to his and their 
 only proper use, benefit, and behoof forever. 
 Provided always, and these presents are upon 
 this condition, that if the said parties of the 
 first part, their heirs, executors, administra- 
 tors, or assigns, shall pay unto the said party 
 of the second part, his executors, administra- 
 tors, or assigns, the sum of , on Or before 
 
 the flay of , which will be in the year 
 
 , with interest, according to the condition 
 of a bond of the said F. F., to the said L. M., 
 bearing even date herewith, then these presents 
 shall become void, and the estate hereby 
 granted shall cease and utteny determine. 
 But if default shall be made in the payment of 
 the said sum of money, or the interest, or of 
 any part thereof, at the time hereinbefore 
 specified for the payment thereof, the said par- 
 ties of the first part, in such case, do hereby 
 authorize and fully empower the said party of 
 the second part, his executors, administrators, 
 and assigns, to sell the said hereby granted 
 premises at public auction, and convey the same 
 to the purchaser, in fee simple, agreeably to 
 the act in such case made and provided, and 
 out of the moneys arising from such sale, to 
 retain the principal and interest which shall 
 then be due on the said bond, together with all 
 costs and charges, and pay the overplus (if 
 any) to the said F. F., party of the first part, 
 his heirs, executors, administrators, or assigns. 
 
 In witness whereof, the parties to these 
 presents have hereunto set their hands and 
 seals, the day and year first above written. 
 Sealed and delivered in 
 the presence of 
 John Smith. 
 
 FRANCIS FOREST. [L. s.] 
 JULIA FOREST. [L. s.] 
 
 Articles of Copartnership. Articles 
 of copartnership made and concluded this 
 
 day of , in the year one thousand eight 
 
 hundred and sixty, by and between A. B., 
 bookseller, of the first part, and C, D., book- 
 seller, of the second part, both of , in the 
 
 county of . 
 
 Whereas, it is the intention of the said 
 parties to form a copartnership, for the pur- 
 pose of carrying on the retail business of book- 
 sellers and stationers, for which purpose they 
 have agreed on the following terms and articles 
 of agreement, to the faithful performance of 
 which they mutually bind and engage them- 
 selves each to the other, his executors and ad- 
 ministrators.
 
 66 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 First. The style of the said copartnership 
 
 shall be " and company"; and it shall 
 
 continue for the term of years from the 
 
 above date, except in case of the death of 
 either of the said parties within the said term. 
 
 Second. The said A. B. and C.-D. are the 
 proprietors of the stock, a schedule of which is 
 contained in their stock book, in the propor- 
 tion of two thirds to the said A. B., and of 
 one third to the said C. D. ; and the said 
 parties shall continue to be owners of their 
 joint stock in the same proportions ; and in 
 case of any addition being made to the same 
 by mutual consent, the said A. Bt shall ad- 
 vance two thirds, and the said C. D. one third 
 of the cost thereof. 
 
 Third. All profits which may accrue to the 
 said partnership shall be divided, and all losses 
 happening to the said firm, whether from bad 
 debts, depreciation of goods, or any other 
 cause or accident, and all expenses of the busi- 
 ness, shall be borne by the said parties in the 
 aforesaid proportions of their interest in the 
 said stock. 
 
 Fourth. The said C. D. shall devote and 
 give all his time and attention to the business 
 of the said firm as a salesman, and generally 
 to the care and superintendence of the store ; 
 and the said A. B. shall devote so much of his 
 time as may be requisite, in advising, over- 
 seeing, and directing the importation of books 
 and other articles necessary to the said busi- 
 ness. 
 
 Fifth. All the purchases, sales, transactions, 
 and accounts of the said firm shall be kept in 
 regular books, which shall be always open to 
 the inspection of both parties and their legal 
 representatives respectively. An account of 
 stock shall be taken, and an account between 
 the said parties shall be settled, as of ten as once 
 in every year, and as much of tsner as either 
 partner may desire and in writing request. 
 
 Sixth. Neither of the said parties shall sub- 
 cribe any bond, sign or indorse any note of 
 hand, accept, sign, or indorse any draft or bill 
 of exchange, or assume any other liability, 
 verbal or written, either in his own name or 
 in the name of the firm, for the accommoda- 
 tion of any other person or persons whatso- 
 ever, without the consent in writing of the 
 other party ; nor shall either party lend any of 
 the funds of the copartnership without such 
 consent of the other partner. 
 
 Seventh. No importation, or large purchase 
 of books or other things, shall be made, nor 
 any transaction out of the usual course of the 
 retail business shall be undertaken by either 
 of the partners, without previous consultation 
 with, and the approbation of, the other 
 partner. 
 
 Eighth. Neither party shall withdraw 
 from the joint stock, at any time, more than 
 his share of the profits of the business then 
 earned, nor shall either party be entitled to 
 interest on his share of the capital ; but if, at 
 the expiration of the year, a balance of profits 
 be found due to either partner, he shall be at 
 liberty to withdraw the said balance, or to 
 leave it in the business, provided the other 
 partner consent thereto, and in that case he 
 shall be allowed interest on the said bal- 
 ance. 
 
 Ninth. At the expiration of the aforesaid 
 term, or earlier dissolution of this copartner- 
 ship, if the said parties or their legal repre- 
 sentatives cannot agree in the division of the 
 stock then on hand, the whole copartnership 
 effects, except the debts due to the firm, shall be 
 sold at public auction, at which both parties 
 shall be at liberty to bid and purchase like 
 other individuals, and the proceeds shall be 
 divided, afterpayment of the debts of the firm, 
 in the proportions aforesaid. 
 
 Tenth. For the purpose of securing the per- 
 formance of the foregoing agreements, it is 
 agreed that either party, in case of any viola- 
 tion of them or either of them by the other,, 
 shall have the right to dissolve this copartner- 
 ship forthwith, on his becoming informed of 
 such violation. 
 
 In witness whereof, we have hereunto set 
 our hands and seals, the day and year first 
 above written. 
 Sealed and delivered ^ 
 
 in presence of I A. B. [L. s.] 
 
 JOHN SMITH, C. D. [L. s.] 
 
 FRANK ROBINSON. J 
 
 Agreement to Continue the Partnership; to he 
 Indorsed on the Back of the Original Articles. 
 Whereas, the partnership evidenced by the 
 within-written articles has this day expired by 
 the limitations contained therein [or, will ex- 
 pire on the day of next], it is hereby 
 
 agreed, that the same shall be continued on 
 the same terms, and with all the provisions 
 and restrictions therein contained, for the 
 
 further term of years from this date [or 
 
 from the day of next]. 
 
 In witness, &c. [as in General Forin] . 
 
 Assignment of a, Lease. Know all 
 men by these presents, that I, the within- 
 named A. B., the lessee, for and in considera- 
 tion of the sum of one thousand dollars, to me 
 in hand paid by C. D., of, &c., at and before 
 the sealing and delivery hereof (the receipt 
 whereof I do hereby acknowledge), have 
 granted, assigned, and set over, and by these 
 presents do grant, assign, and set over, unto 
 the said C. D., his executors, administrators, 
 and assigns the within indenture of lease, and
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 67 
 
 all that messuage, &c., thereby demised, with 
 the appurtenances ; and also all my estate, 
 right, title, term of years yet to come, claim, ' 
 and demand whatsoever, of, in, to, or out of 
 the same. To haye and to hold the said mes- 
 suage, &c., unto the said C. D., his executors, : 
 administrators, and assigns, for the residue of 
 the term within mentioned, under the yearly 
 rent and covenants within reserved and con- 
 tained, on my part and behalf to be done, I 
 kept, and performed. 
 
 In testimony whereof, I have hereiinto set 
 my hand and seal, this tenth day of May, one 
 thousand eight hundred and sixty. 
 
 Executed and delivered ) -, 
 
 .1 c > A. D. (SEAL. 
 
 in the presence of } J 
 
 Assignment of a Mortgage. Know 
 all men by these presents, that I, A. B., the 
 mortgagee within named, for and in considera- | 
 tion of the sum of sixteen hundred dollars, to 
 me paid by C.-D., of, &c., at and before the 
 sealing and delivery hereof (the receipt where- 
 of is hereby acknowledged), have granted, 
 bargained, sold, assigned, and set over, and by 
 these presents do grant, bargain, sell, assign, ! 
 and set over, unto the said C. D., his heirs, j 
 executors, administrators, and assigns, the j 
 within deed of mortgage, and all my right and 
 title to that messuage, &c., therein mentioned 
 and described, together with the original debt ; 
 for which the said mortgage was given, and 1 
 all evidence thereof, and all the rights and ap- 
 purtenances thereunto belonging. To have 
 and to hold all and singular the premises here- 
 by granted and assigned, or mentioned, or in- ! 
 tended so to be, unto the said C. D., his heirs 
 and assigns, forever; subject, nevertheless, to 
 the right and equity of redemption of the 
 within named E. F., his heirs and assigns (if. 
 any they have), in the same. 
 
 Jn testimony, &c. [as in General Form of 
 Assignment"]. 
 
 Assignment of a Patent. Whereas, 
 
 letters patent, bearing date day of , 
 
 in the year , were granted and issued by 
 
 the government of the United States, under the 
 
 seal thereof, to A. B., of the town of , in 
 
 the county of , in the State of , for 
 
 [here state the nature of the invention in gen- 
 eral terms, as in the patent], a more particular 
 and full description whereof is annexed to the 
 said letters patent in a schedule ; by which 
 letters patent the full and exclusive right and 
 liberty of making and using the said invention, 
 and of vending the same to others to be used, 
 was granted to the said A. B., his heirs, ex- 
 ecutors, and administrators, or assigns, for 
 the term of fourteen years from the said date : 
 
 Now, know all men by these presents, that 
 I, the said A. B., for and in consideration of 
 
 the sum of dollars, to me in hand paid 
 (the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged), 
 have granted, assigned, and set over, and by 
 these presents do grant, assign, and set over, 
 
 unto C. D., of the town of , in the county 
 
 of - , and State of - , his executors, 
 administrators, and assigns, forever, the said 
 letters patent, and all my right, title, and 
 interest in and to the said invention, so 
 granted unto me : To have and to hold the 
 said letters patent and invention, with all 
 benefit, profit, and advantage thereof, unto 
 the said C. D., his executors, administrators, 
 and assigns, in as full, ample, and beneficial a 
 manner, to all intents and purposes, as I, the 
 said A. B., by virtue of the said letters patent, 
 may or might have or hold the same, if this 
 assignment had not been made, for and dur- 
 ing all the rest and residue of the said term of 
 fourteen years. 
 
 In testimony, &c. [as in General Form of 
 Assignment"]. 
 
 Assignment of a Policy of Insu- 
 rance. Know all men by these presents, 
 that I, the within named A. B., for and in 
 
 consideration of the sum of , to me paid 
 
 by C. D., of, etc. (the receipt whereof is 
 hereby acknowledged), have granted, sold, 
 assigned, transferred, and set over, and by these 
 presentsj do absolutely grant, sell, assign, trans- 
 fer, and set over to him, the said C D., all my 
 right, property, interest, claim, and demand 
 in and to the within policy of insurance, which 
 have already arisen, or which may hereafter 
 arise thereon, with full power to use my name 
 so far as may be necessary to enable him fully, 
 to avail himself of the interest herein assigned, 
 or hereby intended to be assigned. The con- 
 veyance herein made, and the powers hereby 
 given, are for myself and my legal representa- 
 tives to said C. D. and his legal representa- 
 tives. 
 
 In testimony, etc. [as in General Form of 
 Assignment"]. 
 
 Assignment of Demand for Wages 
 or Debt. In consideration of $100 to me 
 
 in hand paid by M. D. , of the city of , the 
 
 receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, I, 
 L.C., of the same place, have sold, and by these 
 presents do sell, assign, transfer, and set over, 
 unto the said M. D., a certain debt due from 
 N. E., amounting to the sum of $150, for 
 work, labor, and services, by me performed 
 for the said N. E. (or for goods sold and de- 
 livered to the said N. E.), with full power to 
 sue for, collect, and discharge, or sell and 
 assign the same in my name or otherwise, but 
 at his own cost and charges ; and I do hereby 
 covenant that the said sum of $150 is justly 
 due as aforesaid, and that I have not done and
 
 88 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 will not do any act to hinder or prevent the ; sell and assign to M. D. the within account 
 
 collection of the same by the said M. D. 
 
 Witness my hand, this April 10th, 1863. 
 
 L. C. 
 
 Assignment of Account Indorsed Thereon. In 
 consideration of $1, value received, I hereby 
 
 which is justly due from the within named 
 X. E., and I hereby authorize the said M. D. 
 to collect the same. 
 
 Troy, April 10th, 1863. L. C. 
 
 INTEREST LAWS AND STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS. 
 
 STATES AND 
 TERRITOBIES. 
 
 INTEREST LAWS. 
 
 STATUTES OF 
 LIMITATIONS. 
 
 STATES AND 
 TBEKITORIES. 
 
 IKTITRI"T I AIV STATI TF.S OK 
 LIMITATIONS. 
 
 Legal 
 Rate. 
 
 Rate Allowed 
 by Contract. 
 
 Judg- 
 ments, 
 Years. 
 
 Notes, 
 Years. 
 
 Open 
 Ac- 
 counts, 
 Years. 
 
 Legal 
 .Kate. 
 
 Rate Allowed 
 by Contract. 
 
 J d e- Notes, 
 
 nients. Years. 
 \ ears. 
 
 Open 
 Ac- 
 counts, 
 Years. 
 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 7 
 8 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 7 
 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 
 ! 
 
 7 
 8 
 6 
 10 
 
 Per ct. 
 8 
 10 
 Any rate. 
 Any rate. 
 Any rate. 
 (J) 
 6 
 10 
 10 
 8 
 12 
 7 
 8 
 8 
 10 
 6 
 8 
 Any rate. 
 6 
 Any rate. 
 8 
 10 
 10 
 8 
 Any rate. 
 
 20 
 10 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 6 
 20 
 20 
 20(d) 
 5 
 15(a) 
 10 
 20 
 12 
 20 
 6* 
 10 
 7 
 10 
 10 
 
 6* 
 5 
 5 
 41 
 6 
 () 
 6|| 
 3 
 5 
 6 
 5 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 611 
 3 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 10 
 8 
 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 6 
 6 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 5 
 3 
 5(6) 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 3 
 5 
 3 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Per ct. 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 8 
 8 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 6 
 
 I'er ct. 
 10 
 Anv rate. 
 6 
 6 
 12 
 6tt 
 6 
 12 
 8 
 12 
 10 
 6 
 Anv rate. 
 8 
 12 
 Any rate. 
 10 
 Any rate. 
 6 
 6 
 12 
 6 
 10 
 12 
 Any rate. 
 
 5 
 6 
 20 
 20 
 
 V 
 
 10 
 6 
 
 5(h) 
 10 
 5(/) 
 20 
 20 
 10 
 10 
 10U 
 5 
 6 
 10 
 6 
 10 
 20(i) 
 g 
 
 10-30 
 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 3* 
 6 
 15 
 5 
 6 
 611 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 5* 
 C 
 10 
 6 
 5 
 5-6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 ! I 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 ^ : 
 
 3 
 
 6 ', 
 (5 
 6 1 
 6 
 6 
 2 
 4 
 6 
 
 2ir 
 
 3 
 *) 
 
 3 
 5-6 
 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Arizona 
 
 N.Hampshire.. 
 New Jersey 
 New Mexico . . . 
 New York 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado . 
 
 Connecticut ... 
 Delaware 
 
 North Carolina. 
 North Dakota. . 
 Ohio 
 
 D. of Columbia 
 Florida 
 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 Rhode Island.. 
 South Carolina 
 South Dakota. . 
 Tennessee . . 
 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts.. 
 Michigan 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington 
 West Virginia. 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Wvoming 
 
 Montana 
 
 Canada 
 
 * Under seal, 10 years, t If made in the State; if outside, 2 years, | No law and no decision regarding judg- 
 ments. Unless a different rate is expressly stipulated. || Under seal, 20 years. IT Store accounts; other 
 accounts 3 years, ft New York has by a recent law legalized any rate of interest on call loans of $5,000 or up- 
 ward, on collateral security, it Becomes dormant, but may be revived. Six years from last item, (a) Judg- 
 ments 15 years from last execution issued. (6) Actions on merchants' accounts must be commenced in two years 
 from January 1 following last item, (c) Ten years in New Castle County, twenty years in Kent and Sussex coun- 
 ties, Delaware, (d) Twenty years in Courts of Record; in Justice's Court 10 years, (e) Negotiable notes 6 years, 
 non-negotiable notes 17 years. (/) Ceases to be a lien after that period. (^)Store accounts 3 years. (/)l'nless 
 execution issue thereon. May be kept alive indefinitely by issuing execution every five years. On foreign 
 judgments 1 year. (i')Is a lien on real estate for only 10 years. ( j) Any rate, but only 6 per cent, can be collected 
 at law. 
 
 ,ln us and Innkeepers. An Inn is a 
 
 public house for the lodging and entertain- 
 ment of travelers for compensation, and the 
 person who conducts such house is called an 
 innkeeper. To enable him to obtain his com- 
 pensation the law invests an innkeeper with 
 peculiar privileges, giving him a lien upon the 
 personal property brought into the inn by the 
 guest, and on the other hand holds him to a 
 strict degree of responsibility to the guest if 
 the goods are lost or stolen. 
 
 The essential character of an inn is, that it 
 is open for all who may desire to visit it ; 
 hence, a mere private boarding house, or lodg- 
 ing house, cannot, in any proper sense, be re- 
 garded as an inn ; nor will a coffeehouse or 
 restaurant come within the term. A person 
 who entertains travelers occasionally, although 
 he may receive compensation, is not an inn- 
 keeper, nor liable as such, provided he does 
 uot bold himself out in that character. 
 
 An Innkeeper is bound to receive all trav- 
 elers and wayfaring persons who may apply to 
 him, and to provide entertainment for them, 
 if he can accommodate them, unless they are 
 drunk, or disorderly, or afflicted with conta- 
 gious diseases. If a person be disorderly he 
 may not only refuse to receive him, but even 
 after he has received him may eject him from 
 the house. 
 
 He is further bound to exercise a high degree 
 of care over the person and property of his 
 guests, and is held to a strict responsibility for 
 all loss or damage which may occur through 
 his negligence. . This responsibility extends 
 not only to his own acts, and the acts of his 
 servants, hut also to the acts of hts oilier 
 guests. The liability of an innkeeper com- 
 mences from tin* time the goods are brought, 
 into the inn or delivered to any of the inn- 
 keeper's servants ; and a delivery into the per- 
 sonal custody of the innkeeper is not necessary
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 69 
 
 in order to make him responsible. He is not 
 liable for what are termed the acts of God, or 
 the public enemy ; nor for property destroyed 
 without his negligence by accidental fire ; and, 
 generally, the innkeeper will be exonerated if j 
 the negligence of the guest occasion the loss in 
 such a way that the loss would not have hap- 
 pened if the guest had used the ordinary care 
 that a prudent man may be reasonably ex- 
 pected to have taken under the circumstances. 
 
 The strict liability of an innkeeper has been 
 much modified by statute, particularly in re- 
 gard to money and valuables, and where the 
 innkeeper provides, in the office or some other 
 convenient place in the hotel, an iron safe for 
 the keeping of moneji, jewels, etc., and notifies 
 his guests of that fact, and the guest neglects to i 
 avail himself of the opportunity thus afforded, | 
 the innkeeper will not be liable for the losses 
 sustained by the guest by theft or otherwise. 
 
 A Guest, in the restricted and legal sense, is 
 the only person who is entitled to the privilege 
 of protection, and to entitle him to this he must 
 have the character of a traveler, a mere so- 
 journer or temporary lodger, in distinction from 
 one who engages for a fixed period, and at a 
 certain agreed rate ; but if a party be in fact a j 
 wayfarer, and his visit is only transient, it mat- j 
 ters not how long he remains, provided he re- 
 tains this character. Thus, regular boarders | 
 l>y the week or month are not guests, nor are 
 they entitled to the privileges of guests, and 
 on the other hand, in the absence of an en- | 
 acted statute, the landlord is not, as to them, i 
 an innkeeper, and as such entitled to a lien on 
 their effects for his compensation. 
 
 The Law of the Road. General Princi- 
 ples. To prevent collisions, and to secure the 
 safety and convenience of travelers meeting 
 and passing each other upon the highway, a 
 code of rules has been adopted which consti- 
 tutes what is called the law of the road. These 
 rules, originally established by custom, have, 
 in many instances, been re-enacted and de- 
 clared by statute, and are of general and 
 uniform observance in all parts of the United 
 States. In general, they apply to private ways, 
 as well as public roads, and, indeed, extend to 
 all places appropriated, either by law or in , 
 fact, for the purposes of travel. 
 
 The fundamental rule, applicable alike to 
 all who use a traveled way, is, that every per- 
 son must exercise reasonable care, adapted to 
 the place and circumstances* to pi-event col- 
 lision and avoid accidents, and to this all 
 other rules are .subsidiary. No one will be 
 entitled to redress for an injury sustained on I 
 the highway where his own negligence con- 
 tributed to such injury, nor will the fact that ! 
 a fellow-traveler fails to observe the law in the ! 
 
 use of the road absolve another who is in the 
 right from the duty of exercising ordinary 
 care to avoid injury to himself or to prevent 
 injury to the party who is in the wrong. At 
 the same time, a person lawfully using a public 
 highway has a right to assume that a fellow- 
 traveler will observe the law and exercise 
 ordinary care and prudence, and to govern his 
 own conduct in determining his use of the road 
 accordingly. This assumption he may rely on, 
 not to justify carelessness on his own part, but 
 to warrant him in pursuing his business in a 
 convenient manner. 
 
 Vehicles. It is a primary rule that vehicles 
 meeting on a highway must bear or keep to 
 the right. This, however, applies only to pass- 
 ing vehicles, for a person having before him 
 the entire road free from carriages or other ob- 
 structions, and having no notice of any carriage 
 behind him, is at liberty to travel upon any 
 part of the way as suits his convenience or 
 pleasure, and no blame can be imputed to him. 
 But while a traveler may well occupy any part 
 of the road if no other is using any portion of 
 it, he must, upon all occasions of the meeting 
 of another, reasonably turn to the right ; and 
 in all cases of a crowded condition of a 
 thoroughfare must keep to the right of the 
 center or traveled part of the way. A driver 
 may, indeed, pass on the left side of the road, 
 or across it, for the purpose of stopping at a 
 house, a store, or other object on that side ; 
 but he must not interfere or obstruct another 
 lawfully passing on that side ; and if he does, 
 he acts at his peril, and must answer for the 
 consequences of his violation of duty. In 
 such case he must pass before or wait until the 
 person on that side of the w r ay has passed on. 
 
 When two drivers are moving in the same 
 direction, the one in advance is entitled to the 
 road, provided he does not obstruct it, and is 
 not bound to turn out for the other if there is 
 room for the latter to pass on either side ; if, 
 however, there is not sufficient room to pass, 
 the foremost traveler should yield an equal 
 share of the road, on request made, if that is 
 practicable. If it is not practicable, then they 
 must defer passing until they reach more 
 favorable grounds. If the leading traveler 
 then refuses to comply with the request to 
 permit the other to pass him, he will be 
 answerable for such refusal. Ordinarily, when 
 a driver attempts to pass another on a public 
 road, lie does so at his peril, and will be held 
 responsible for all damages which he causes to 
 the one whom he attempts to pass, and whose 
 right to the proper use of the road is as great 
 as his, unless the latter is guilty ot such reck- 
 lessness, or even gross carelessness, as would 
 bring disaster upon himself.
 
 70 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The rule requiring persons meeting upon 
 the highway to keep to the right is not im- 
 perative, however, and -where a driver cannot 
 safely turn to the right on meeting another 
 vehicle, the law will absolve him from negli- 
 gence in not attempting impossibilities ; but 
 where it is not practicable to pass to the right, 
 either of the travelers should stop a reasonable 
 time until the other passes ; nor will the rule 
 apply in the winter season, when the depth of 
 snow renders it difficult or impossible to ascer- 
 tain where the center of the road is. In such 
 cases the center of the road is the beaten or 
 traveled track, without reference to the worked 
 part of the road. Again, the rule does not 
 apply when one vehicle is passing along one 
 street and another is passing into said street 
 from a cross street. 
 
 A traveler is bound to keep his harness and 
 carriage in good condition, and is liable for 
 any damage that may result from a failure to 
 do so ; he must not drive at an immoderate 
 rate of speed, and must yield the road to a 
 heavier or loaded vehicle. 
 
 Equestrians are not governed by the same 
 stringent rules that apply to drivers of vehicles, 
 and usually all that is required of them is to 
 exercise prudent care under the existing cir- 
 cumstances. They need not turn out in any 
 particular direction on meeting another horse- 
 man or a vehicle, but in crowded thorough- 
 fares must keep to the proper side in passing, 
 and must yield the traveled part of the road to 
 a wagon. 
 
 Pedestrians have a right to use the carriage- 
 way as well as the sidewalk, and drivers must 
 exercise reasonable care to avoid injuring them, 
 but a foot passenger in crossing the street of a 
 city has no prior right of way over a passing 
 vehicle ; both are bound to act with prudence 
 to avoid an accident, and it is as much the 
 duty of the pedestrian to look out for passing 
 vehicles as it is for the driver to see that he 
 does not run over any one ; nor does the rule 
 requiring vehicles to keep to the right apply 
 to carriages and foot passengers, for, as regards 
 a foot passenger, a carriage may go on either 
 side. 
 
 Landlord and Tenant. The relation 
 of landlord and tenant exists by virtue of a con- 
 tract for the use or occupation of lands or ten- 
 ements, either fur a definite period, for life, or 
 at will. It is usually created by express con- 
 tract, but its existence will be implied by law 
 whenever there is an ownership of land on the 
 one hand and an occupation of it by permis- 
 sion on the other. In every such case it will 
 be presumed that the occupant intends to com- 
 pensate the owner for such use. While the 
 relation may be inferred from a variety of 
 
 circumstances, the ni9st obvious acknowledg- 
 ment is the payment of rent. If a tenant under 
 an express contract hold over after the termi- 
 nation of his term, the landlord may consider 
 him as a tenant, and, indeed, is so understood, 
 unless he takes some steps to eject him. If 
 the landlord receives i - ent from him, or by any 
 other act admits the tenancy, a new leasing 
 begins, and can only be terminated by a proper 
 notice to quit. 
 
 The rights and obligations of the parties are 
 usually considered as having commenced from 
 the date of the lease, if there be one, and no 
 other time has been designated as the com- 
 mencement of the tenancy, or, if there be no 
 date from the delivery of the papers, and if 
 there be no writings, from the time the tenant 
 entered into possession. 
 
 The Landlord is bound to protect the posses- 
 sion of his tenant, and to defend him against 
 every one asserting a paramount right. Nor 
 can the landlord do any act himself calculated 
 to disturb the enjoyment of the tenant. He 
 must, unless otherwise agreed, pay all taxes 
 and assessments on the property, and all other 
 charges of his own creation ; and if the tenant, 
 in order to protect himself in the enjoyment of 
 the land, is compelled to make a payment 
 which should have been made by the landlord, 
 he may call upon his landlord to reimburse 
 him, or deduct the amount from the rent. 
 
 The landlord has no right of possession dur- 
 ing the continuance of the lease, nor indeed 
 any substantial rights in the property further 
 than such as may be necessary to protect his 
 reversionary interests. He may go upon the 
 premises peaceably and during reasonable 
 hours, for the purpose of viewing same and 
 ascertaining whether waste or injury has been 
 committed, and may make such repairs as are 
 necessary to prevent waste ; but he is under no 
 obligation to make any repairs, nor does he 
 guarantee that the premises are reasonably fit 
 for the purposes for which they were taken. 
 Nor can the tenant make any repairs at the 
 expense of the landlord . in the absence of a 
 special agreement. 
 
 The Tenant is entitled to all the rights inci- 
 dent to possession, and to the use of all the 
 privileges appendant to the land, and, on the 
 other hand, is personally liable for any mis- 
 use or obstruction he may erect. He must 
 use the premises in such a manner that no 
 substantial injury shall be done them, and 
 that they may revert to the landlord at the end 
 o the term unimpaired by any negligent or 
 willful conduct on his part. He must keep, 
 the premises in fair repair at his own expense, 
 but is not bound to rebuild structures which 
 have accidentally become ruinous during his
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 71 
 
 occupation ; nor is be answerable for incidental 
 wear and tear, nor accidental fire, or flood. 
 
 He must further punctually pay the rent re- 
 served, or if none have been specifically 
 reserved, then such reasonable compensation 
 as the premises are fairly worth. In the ab- 
 sence of special agreement he must pay only 
 for the time he has had the beneficial enjoy- 
 ment, but if he has agreed to pay for an entire 
 term, as a rule nothing short of an eviction 
 will excuse him from such payment. If he is 
 evicted by a third person, or if the landlord 
 annoys him by the erection of a nuisance, or 
 renders the premises untenantable, or makes 
 his occupation so uncomfortable as to justify 
 his removal, he will be discharged from the 
 payment of rent. 
 
 The rights and liabilities of the relation are 
 not confined to the immediate parties, but at- 
 tach to all persons to whom the estate is 
 transferred, or who may succeed to the posses- 
 sion of the premises. A landlord may not 
 violate his tenant's rights by a sale of the 
 property, nor can the tenant avoid his responsi- 
 bility by assigning his term. The purchaser 
 of the property becomes, in one case, the land- 
 lord, with all his rights and remedies, while 
 in the other the assignee of the tenant assumes 
 all the responsibilities of the latter, but the 
 original lessee is not thereby discharged from 
 his obligations. 
 
 The Tenancy may be terminated in a variety 
 of ways. Tf for a definite time, or conditioned 
 on the happening of a certain event, it expires 
 by its own limitation, and usually, when de- 
 pending upon the express conditions of a 
 lease, no notice to quit is necessary. If from 
 year to year, or at will, a notice is always 
 necessary. This must be in writing, and ex- 
 plicitly require the tenant to surrender up the 
 premises. It must be served upon the tenant 
 and afford the statutory notice in regard to 
 time. A breach of any of the covenants of 
 the lease will forfeit the tenant's rights, and 
 when a tenancy has been terminated, by what- 
 ever cause, the landlord's right to re-enter be- 
 comes absolute. 
 
 EXEMPTIOX LAWS. 
 
 Alabama. A homestead not exceeding 160 acres of 
 land, or a lot in a city, town or village, with a dwelling 
 house thereon, not exceeding the value of 2,000. Per- 
 sonal property to the value of $1,000. May be selected 
 by the debtor. Waiver of exemption is not valid unless 
 joined in by the wife. 
 
 Arkansas. For single person, personal property in 
 addition to wearing apparel $200. For head of a family, 
 personal property to the value of 500. 
 
 For a head of a family outside of any town or city, 
 160 acres of land not to exceed $2,500 in value or not less 
 than 80 acres without regard to value. 
 
 In city or town, not exceeding one acre of the value 
 of 82,500, or not less than one fourth of an acre without 
 regard to value. 
 
 Arizona. The homestead of a married person or 
 head of a family in the country, not exceeding 160 acres. 
 
 with improvements, not to exceed $2,500. Personal prop- 
 erty of married person, $500 besides wearing apparel, 
 and of a person unmarried, $200 and wearing apparel. 
 
 California. The homestead on which debtor resides, 
 to the value of $5.<!0:>, if he is the head of a family ; if 
 not, to the value of 1.000. Personal property exempt 
 includes chairs, tables, desks and books, $'200; necessary 
 household and kitchen furniture, sewing machines, 
 stoves, beds, etc. ; provisions for family for three 
 months, three cows, four hogs, two horses, oxen or 
 mules ; seed, grain, and vegetables for sowing, not above 
 $200 in value ; tools and implements of husbandry of 
 \ the debtor, not exceeding the value of $1,000 ; the neces- 
 sary instruments of a surgeon, physician, surveyor, or 
 dentist together with their professional library and 
 necessary office furniture; the professional library of 
 attorneys, judges, ministers of the gospel, editors, 
 school teachers and music teachers and their necessary 
 office furniture ; miner's cabin, not exceeding $500 of 
 value, with all tools and gear necessary for his business, 
 not exceeding $530. Two horses or inules with harness, 
 and the miner's claim worked by him, and not exceed- 
 ing $1,000 in value, are also exempt. 
 
 Colorado. A homestead consisting of house and lot 
 in town or city, or a farm of any number of acres, in 
 value not exceeding $2,000, is exempt if occupied by a 
 householder and head of a familv, provided it has been 
 entered on record as a homestead and so specified in the 
 title. Personal property, including wearing apparel of 
 the debtor and his family, pictures, schoolbooks, 
 library, etc., and household furniture, not exceeding 
 $100 ; provisions for six months, tools, implements or 
 stock in trade, $200 ; one cow and calf, ten sheep and 
 necessary food for six months; working animals up to 
 $200 ; the library and implements of a professional man 
 up to $300. The head of ,'a family may select personal 
 property t<J the value of $1,000; others, to the value of 
 $300. 
 
 Connecticut. There is no homestead exemption. 
 Personal property is exempt as follows : Libraries not 
 above $500 in value ; a cow worth S150; ten sheep, not 
 over $50 in value ; two hogs, and 200 pounds of pork. 
 Implements of trade, the horse, harness and buggy of a 
 practicing physician, and the boat, not exceeding $200 
 in value, of a person engaged in fishing, and used for 
 that purpose, are also exempt. 
 
 North and South Dakota. A homestead consisting 
 of not more than 160 acres, with buildings and appurte- 
 nances thereon, and personal property defined by 
 statute, aggregating in value not to exceed $1,500, is 
 exempted to a householder. A firm can claim but one 
 exemption, not a several exemption for each partner. 
 Tools and implements of a mechanic to the value of 
 $200, books and instruments of a professional man to 
 the value of $600, are also exempt from seizure. 
 
 Delaware. Family pictures, family Bible, and li- 
 brary; lot in burial ground and pew in* church ; family 
 wearing apparel ana tools and implements necessary to 
 carry on business, the whole not exceeding $75 in value, 
 are exempt from attachment. In addition to the above 
 the head of a family may claim $200 of personal prop- 
 erty. In Newcastle county wages of laborers are also 
 exempt. No homestead law. 
 
 District of Columbia. Family wearing apparel; 
 household furniture to the amount of $300 ; provisions 
 and fuel for three months ; tools or instruments neces- 
 sary to carry on any trade, to the value of $200 ; library 
 and implements of a professional man or artist not 
 above $."00; family pictures and library to the value of 
 $400, and a farmer's team and other utensils to the value 
 of >100, are exempt from attachment or sale on exe- 
 cution, except for servants' or laborers' wages. There 
 is no homestead exemption. 
 
 Florida. A homestead of 160 acres of land, together 
 with improvements, in the country, or a residence and 
 one-half acre of ground in a village or city, is exempted 
 to the head of a family. Also personal property to the 
 value of $1,000. No property is exempt from sale for 
 taxes or for obligations contracted for its purchase or 
 for the erection of improvements thereon. The wages 
 of every laborer who is the head of a family are also 
 exempt under any process of law. 
 
 Georgia. Each head of a family, or guardian, or 
 trustee of a family of minor children, and every aged or 
 infirm person, or person having the care and support 
 of dependent females of any age, who is not the head of 
 a family, is entitled to realty or personalty, or both, to 
 the value in the aggregate of $1,600. Said property shall 
 be exempt from levy and sale by virtue of any process 
 whatever, under the laws of this'State, except for taxes,
 
 72 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 purchase-money, of the homestead, labor done thereon, 
 or material furnished therefor, or for the removal of 
 incumbrances. 
 
 Idaho. A homestead worth $5,000 is exempted to a 
 householder who is head of a family ; either husband 
 or wife may select the homestead. Personal property 
 is also exempted to the value of $300. Exemption does 
 not extend to purchase-money or to mortgages on the 
 property. 
 
 Illinois. A homestead valued at $1,000 is exempted 
 to every householder who has a family ; such exemption 
 not covering liabilities for purchase-money or improve- 
 ment of the homestead. After the death of a house- 
 holder his family are entitled to the exemption so long 
 as the survivor occupies it, or until the youngest child 
 is twenty-one years of age. There are also exempted to 
 every person wearing apparel, schoolbooks, family pic- 
 tures and family Bible, and $100 worth of other prop- 
 erty selected by the debtor. In addition to this, $300 
 worth may be selected by the debtor if a head of a fam- 
 ily ; but such selection cannot be made from any money 
 or wages due ; no exemption is allowed when the debt is 
 for the wages of laborer or servant ; $50 of wages is ex- 
 empt to every head of a family if residing with the 
 same. 
 
 Indiana. There is no homestead exemption ; any res- 
 ident householder has exempted real or personal prop- 
 erty, or both, to the amount of $600 on any debt founded 
 on contract since May 31, 1879. On debts founded on 
 contracts made previous to that date, exemption is $300. 
 Exemption does not, in any event, affect liens for labor, 
 purchase-money or taxes. 
 
 Iowa. A homestead in country of 40 acres, or in 
 town or city of one-half acre, with improvements and 
 buildings to the aggregate value of $500, is exempted to 
 the head of every family. If less than $500 in value, it 
 may be increased to that amount. It is not exempted 
 from execution for the purchase-money thereof, or for 
 debts contracted prior to its acquirement. Upon the 
 death of either husband or wife the homestead passes 
 to the survivor. Professional men are allowed their 
 libraries, instruments, etc., and a team and wagon; 
 printers retain their presses and type to the value of 
 $1,200. The head of a family may claim wearing ap- 
 parel, tools, a gun, his library and furniture to the ex- 
 tent of $200 in value. The personal earnings of the 
 debtor for ninety days preceding the execution, certain 
 stock, with food for them for six months, a pew in 
 church and a lot in a burying ground are also exempt. 
 Non-residents and unmarried persons, not beingheads of 
 families, can only claim their ordinary wearing apparel 
 and trunk necessary to carry the same to the value 
 of $75. 
 
 Kansas. An independent fortune is exempted in this 
 State. A homestead of 160 acres of farming land, or of 
 one acre within an incorporated town or city, with 
 buildings and improvements thereon, with no limit to 
 value. The head of every family is allowed personal 
 property as follows : The family library, schoolbooks 
 and family Bible ; family pictures and musical instru- 
 ments in use ; pew in church and lot in burial ground ; 
 all wearing apparel of the family, beds, bedsteads and 
 bedding, one cooking stove and appendages, and all 
 other cooking utensils, and all other stoves and append- 
 ages necessary for the use of the debtor and his fam- 
 ily ; one sewing machine, spinning wheel and all other 
 implements ofindustry, and all other household furni- 
 ture not herein enumerated, not exceeding $500 in 
 value ; two cows, ten hogs, one yoke of oxen and one 
 horse or mule, or in lieu of one yoke of oxen and one 
 horse or mule, a span of mules or horses ; twenty sheep 
 and their wool; food for the support of the stock for 
 one year ; one wagon, two plows, drag and other farm- 
 ing utensils not exceeding in value $300; grain, meat, 
 vegetables, groceries, fuel, etc., for the family for one 
 year: the tools and implements of any mechanic, miner 
 or other workman, kept for the purpose of carrying on 
 his business, together with stock in trade not exceed- 
 ing $400 in value ; library, instruments and office furni- 
 ture of any professional man. Residents, not the head 
 of a family, nave tools, implements and stock in trade 
 up to $400. No personal property is exempt for the 
 wages of any clerk, mechanic, laborer, or servant. A 
 lien on the homestead may be created by husband and 
 wife joining in the mortgage. 
 
 Kentucky. To bona-fide housekeepers with a family 
 are exempted from execution and attachment for debt : 
 A homestead to the value of $1,000; two work beasts, or 
 one work beast and one yoke of oxen; two cows and 
 calves; one wagon, or cart; two plows and gear; five 
 
 head of sheep ; provisions for family and provender for 
 stock for one year ; the tools and stock of a mechanic 
 who is a housekeeper and has a family, not exceeding 
 $'200 in value; libraries or instrument's of professional 
 men, which may vary in value from one to seven 
 hundred dollars;' the' wages of a laboring man to the 
 amount of fifty dollars, except for house rent and 
 necessaries. 
 
 Louisiana. A homestead of 160 acres of land, with 
 buildings and improvements thereon, is exempted to 
 the head of a family, if owned and occupied as a resi- 
 dence, together with* personal property, the whole not to 
 exceed $2,000; all wearing apparel, implements, stock, 
 etc., with provisions and supplies necessary for the 
 plantation for one year. If the wife own separate 
 property in her own right to the value of $2,000 there is 
 no exemption. 
 
 Maine. Homestead $500,_or any lot purchased from 
 State as a homestead ; $50 furniture ; $150 library ; $300 
 team; $50 poultry; $100 si-wing machine; $10 lumber; 
 cow and heifer, ten sheep and lambs, plow, wagon, 
 mowing machine, a two-ton boat, the flax, raw and 
 manufactured, from one acre of ground, wearing 
 apparel, provisions, fuel, seed, grain, provender for 
 stock, and tools. After the debtor's death his family 
 has the benefit of the exemptions. 
 
 Maryland. Besides wearingapparel, books, and tools 
 used for earning a living, there is exempt other property 
 to the value of $100. No homestead. 
 
 Massachusetts. Homestead, $800 (must be recorded 
 as such) ; furniture, $300 ; sewing machine, $100 ; library, 
 $50 ; tools and implements, $100 ; stock in trade, $100 ; 
 boats and outfit, $100 ; one cow ; one hog and six sheep, 
 and wages under $20. 
 
 Michigan. Forty acres of land, with improvements, 
 in the country, or house and lot worth $1,500 in town : 
 furniture, $250; library, $150 ; two cows, five hogs, ten 
 sheep, team, tools, provisions, and fuel. No exemptions 
 from execution for purchase money. 
 
 Minnesota. Eighty acres with improvements, in 
 country, or lot with dwelling on it, in town. Household 
 property, $500; wagon, plows and farming implements, 
 $300; three cows, ten hogs, twenty sheep, yoke of cattle 
 and a horse, or, instead, a pair'of horses ; one year's 
 provisions, fuel, feed for stock and seed grain. A 
 miner's or mechanic's tools and stock in trade to $400; 
 the library and instruments of a professional man. 
 Wages under $50 of a laboring man, earned within the 
 last ninety days, and where the debtor is publisher of a 
 newspaper, his complete outfit to value $2,000, and stock 
 $400. 
 
 Mississippi. To householding head of family, ICO 
 acres of land and improvements in country, or house and 
 lot in town, either to value of $2,000. Tools and farm- 
 ing implements necessary for two male laborers ; library 
 and instruments of professional man to value of $250'; 
 two horses or mules or a yoke of oxen, two cows and 
 calves, five hogs, five sheep ; wagon, $100 ; personal 
 property, $250; one sewing machine; provisions and 
 provender ; wages of a laborer, $100. 
 
 Missouri. To head of family one hundred and sixty 
 acres in the country to the value of $1,500, a lot (thirty 
 rods) in small town to same value, or lot (eighteen rods') 
 in city having 40,000 inhabitants, to value of $3,000. 
 Personal property, $300. One month's wages. 
 
 Montana. House and a quarter acre lot in town, or 
 a farm of eighty acres, neither to exceed $2,500 in 
 value. Personal property to the value of $1,400. No 
 exemptions are good against a mortgage, a mechanics' 
 lien or a claim for purchase-money. 
 
 Nebraska. Dwelling and ICO acres of land in 
 country, or two adjoining lots in town, value $2,000. If 
 he has no real property, the debtor may retain personal 
 property to value $500. Clothing, furniture, provisions, 
 animals, tools, and other things as per statute, and 
 sixty days' wages of laborer. Exemption! are not good 
 against mechanics' lien, mortgage, or purchase-money. 
 
 Nevada. Homestead, $5,000; tools, implements, and 
 other personal property, as per statute; miner's cabin, 
 $500. 
 
 New Hampshire. Homestead, $500 ; $100 furniture ; 
 $100 tools ; $200 books ; $500 fuel and provisions ; sewing 
 machine, cook stove, bedding and clothing, one hog, six 
 sheep, one yoke of oxen or one horse, ana four tons of 
 hay. 
 
 New Jersey. Homestead $1,500, and $200 household 
 property. 
 
 New Mexico. Homestead, $100; $10 furniture; $20 
 tools; $25 provisions. 
 
 New York. Homestead, $1,000; $250 furniture,
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 73 
 
 tools, team and other personal property; sixty days' 
 wastes. 
 
 North Carolina. A homestead to the value of $1,000, 
 and personal property worth 500. No exemption is 
 good against taxes, purchase-money, or mechanics' 
 liens. 
 
 Ohio. Homestead is exempt to the value of $1,000; 
 if appraised to a higher value a partition is made, or an 
 appropriate rental is charged. Clothing and necessary 
 furniture are exempted ; tools and farming implements 
 to value 100 ; $50 worth of provisions and three months' 
 %vages ; one horse or yoke of cattle, harness and wagon ; 
 one cow, two hogs, six sheep, and sixty days' provender, 
 or, instead, $65 in household property. A professional 
 man's books, $100. When resident debtor, being head 
 of a family, has no homestead, he may retain personal 
 property to the value of $500, besides other exempted 
 property. 
 
 Oklahoma. Exemption to head of a family outside 
 of city or town not to exceed 160 acres j and in a city or 
 town not more than one acre ; in addition thereto, cer- 
 tain personal effects and equipment appertaining to the 
 various vocations. These exemptions do not apply to 
 corporations for profit, to a non-resident, or a debtor 
 who is in the act of removing his family from the terri- 
 tory, or who has absconded, taking with him his family. 
 
 To a single person : Wearing apparel, tools, appara- 
 tus and books belonging to a trade or profession ; one 
 horse, saddle and bridle or one yoke of oxen; current 
 wages for personal service. In certain classes of debts 
 all exemptions are invalid. 
 
 Oregon. Musical instruments, books and pictures, 
 $75; household effects, $300; clothing, $100, and cloth- 
 ing to each member of the family, $50 ; team, tools, in- 
 struments, library or whatever is needed in the trade or 
 profession of debtor, $400 ; ten sheep, two cows, five 
 hogs, three months' provisions and six months' prov- 
 ender. No exemption is good against a claim for pur- 
 chase-money. No homestead. 
 
 Pennsylvania. Clothing, books, sewing machine 
 and $300 worth of other property. Right may be 
 waived. No homestead. 
 
 Rhode Island. Furniture and supplies for family, 
 $300; tools, $200; library, $300; wages, $10; clothing; 
 one cow and one hog; debts secured by negotiable 
 paper. No homestead. 
 
 South Carolina. Homestead, $1,000 ; this right can- 
 not be waived. Furniture, wagons, live stock and tools, 
 to value of $500. Homestead exemption cannot hold 
 against an execution for the purchase-money, a lien for 
 improvements or for taxes. Any person not the head of 
 a family may have one third of his annual earnings ex- 
 empted. 
 
 Tennessee. Only the head of a family can have the 
 benefit of exemptions; $1,000 homestead' and a variety 
 of personal property designated by statute, prominent 
 items being horses, mules, oxen, cows, calves, wagon, 
 tools, lumber, grain, provisions, beds, bedding, furni- 
 ture, and $30 wages. 
 
 Texas. Two hundred acres of land with improve- 
 ments in the country, or city property to value at time 
 of being designated as homestead (regardless of the 
 value of after improvements) of $5,000. Furniture, 
 farming implements, tools, books, five cows and calves, 
 two yoke of cattle, two horses and wagon, a carriage or 
 buggy, twenty hogs, twenty sheep, provision, proven- 
 der and many other articles. The exemption of the 
 homestead is not good againsttaxes, purchase-money or 
 mechanics' lien ; but in this last case the contract must 
 have been signed by both husband and wife. On the 
 death of a husband, the widow and children may have 
 one year's support out of the estate, and if the property 
 be not in such shape as to be exempted by law, enough 
 may be sold to raise an allowance for homestead to 
 value of $5,000 and other property $500. Any person 
 not the head of a family may have exempted clothing, 
 books, horse, bridle and saddle. 
 
 Utah. Homestead, $1,000; personal property to head 
 of the family, $700, and to each member $250. Not 
 good against purchase-money, mechanics' lien or a 
 mortgage. 
 
 Vermont. Homestead, 500 : growing crop, clothing, 
 furniture, sewing machine, tools, one cow, ten sheep, 
 one hog, three hives of bees, poultry, one yoke of oxen 
 or two liorses, fuel, provisions and provender; also the 
 instruments and library of a professional man, 200. 
 
 Virginia. The head of a family who is a householder 
 has a homestead exemption to the value of $2,000, which 
 may be in real or personal property, both or either. 
 Also clothing, sewing machine, furniture and animals; 
 
 books, 8100 ; tools, $100. The value of the exemptions 
 outside of the homestead is varied according to the 
 number in family, and ranges from $50 to $500. 
 
 West Virginia. Homestead, $1,000, where the 
 property has been granted or devised for the purpose, 
 to the head of a family, or where he has devoted such 
 property to that purpose by having it so recorded. 
 Also personal property to value of $200. Tools to 
 mechanic, $50. 
 
 Washington. Homestead (must be actually occu- 
 pied) to the value of $1,000; clothing, books, bedding 
 and household goods, to value of $1,600 ; one small boat 
 to value of $50 ; two cows, five hogs, bees, poultry, fuel, 
 and provisions. To a farmer, two horses, or two yoke 
 of oxen ; and farming implements to value of $200. To 
 professional man, library worth $500, office furniture 
 and fuel. To lighterman, his boats, to value of $250. 
 To drayman, his team. 
 
 Wisconsin. Forty acres in the country, or one 
 quarter of an acre in town, with the dwelling thereon. 
 Clothing, household furniture, $200 ; books, two cows, 
 ten hogs, ten sheep, one horse and yoke of cattle, or a 
 pair of horses and mules, farming tools, one year's pro- 
 visions and provender. To a mechanic, tools, $200 ; pro- 
 fessional man, his library, $200 ; a publisher or printer, 
 his outfit for $1,500. To any head of a family, sixty 
 days' earnings. No exemption good against" a me- 
 chanic's lien or claim for purchase-money. 
 
 Wyoming. House and lot in town or one hundred 
 and sixty acres of land in the country, either to value 
 of $1,500. Tools, team and stock in trade of mechanic, 
 miner, or other person, $300. Benefit of exemption can 
 only be claimed by a bona, fide resident householder. 
 
 Ontario. The exemptions from executionare, speak- 
 ing generally : the beds and bedding in ordinary use by 
 the debtor and his family ; necessary wearing apparel 
 and a list of domestic utensils necessarily incident to 
 living, not to exceed in value the sum of $150 ; necessary 
 provender for 30 days not to exceed in value the sum of 
 $40 ; a cow, six sheep, four hogs, and twelve hens, in all 
 not to exceed the value of $75 ; tools and implements 
 ordinarily used in the debtor's occupation to the value 
 of $100 or the debtor may elect to receive the proceeds 
 of the sale of such tools up to $100. 
 
 Under the Free Grants and Homestead Act, there is 
 an exemption from liability for any debt incurred be- 
 fore the issue of the patent and for twenty years from 
 date of location, except where the land itself is mort- 
 gaged or pledged or for the payment of taxes. 
 
 Quebec. The exemptions from execution are : beds, 
 bedding and bedsteads in ordinary use by debtor 
 and his family ; necessary wearing apparel ; one stove 
 and pipes and a number of smaller articles; all 
 necessary fuel, meat, vegetables, fish, flour not more 
 than sufficient for ordinary consumption of debtor and 
 family for thirty days and not exceeding in value $40; 
 one cow, four sheep, two hogs and food therefor for 
 thirty days ; tools and implements or chattels ordinarily 
 used in debtor's occupation. No real estate. 
 
 New Brunswick. Wearing apparel ; bedding, 
 kitchen utensils ; tools of trade to the value of $100 are 
 exempted. 
 
 Nova Scotia. Necessary wearing apparel ; beds, bed- 
 ding and bedsteads of debtor and his family; 
 household utensils not exceeding in value $20; 
 food enough for thirty days' consumption and not ex- 
 ceeding in value 40 ; one cow, two sheep, and hay and 
 food therefor for thirty days; tools or chattels ordi- 
 narily used in the debtor's occupation to the value of 
 $30. No real estate. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. Necessary wearing apparel 
 and bedding for the debtor and his family ; tools and 
 instruments of his trade or calling ; $16.20 in money and 
 his last cow are exempted from execution out of Su- 
 preme Court. Wearing apparel and bedding of debtor 
 and his family; the tools and implements of his trade; 
 one cook stove and one cow, in all amounting in value to 
 50, are exempt from process out of county court. 
 
 Manitoba. Household goods to the value of 8500; 
 tools, agricultural implements and necessaries used by 
 the debtor in his trade, occupation or profession, to the 
 value of $500 ; homestead to the extent of ICO acres being 
 the residence of the debtor, the buildings and improve- 
 ments thereon ; or the town residence of the debtor to 
 the value of 1.500, provided that no real or personal 
 property shall be exempt from seizure or sale under 
 execution for the purchase price of the same. A debtor 
 cannot waive his exemption from seizure and sale under 
 execution. 
 
 Northwest Territories. Necessary clothing of
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the defendant and his family ; furniture and household 
 furnishings belonging to defendant and his family to 
 the value of $500 ; also certain personalty exclusive of 
 the foregoing and homestead not exceeding K.O acres; 
 house and buildings occupied by the defendant, also 
 the lot or lots on which same is si tuate according to the 
 registered plan, to the extent of $1,500; defendant is 
 entitled to his choice from a greater number of articles 
 from the same class. 
 
 British Columbia. Personal property of debtor to 
 the value of $500 is exempt from execution. No goods 
 or personalty, however, is exempt from seizure in respect 
 to debts contracted in regard to the identical goods. 
 The stock in trade of a merchant is not exempt from 
 seizure although under $500 and they can be sold to 
 satisfy a judgment. Registered homesteads are exempt 
 from execution to the value of $2,500. 
 
 MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE LAWS. 
 
 Marriage Licenses. Required in all the 
 States and Territories except Idaho, New 
 Mexico, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, 
 Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Wisconsin. 
 
 Marriage, Prohibition of. Marriages between 
 whites and persons of negro descent are pro- 
 hibited and punishable in Alabama, Arizona, 
 Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, In- 
 diana, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, Mis- 
 souri, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, 
 Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, 
 Texas, Utah, Virginia, and West Virginia. 
 
 Marriages between whites and Indians are 
 void in Arizona, Nevada, North Carolina, Or- 
 egon, and South Carolina. 
 
 Marriages between whites and Chinese are 
 void in Arizona, Nevada, Oregon, and Utah. 
 
 The marriage of first cousins is forbidden in 
 Arizona, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, 
 Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, 
 North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, 
 South Dakota, Washington, and Wyoming, 
 and in some of them is declared incestuous and 
 void, and marriage with step-relatives is for- 
 bidden in all the States, except California, 
 Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Louisiana, 
 Minnesota, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, 
 North Carolina, Oregon, Utah, and Wis- 
 consin. 
 
 Marriage, Age to Contract, Without Consent 
 of Parents In all the States which have 
 laws on this subject 21 years is the age for 
 males, and for females 21 years in Connecticut, 
 Florida, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Ohio, 
 Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, 
 Virginia, West Virginia, and Wyoming, and 
 18 in all the other States having laws, except 
 Maryland, in which it is 16 years. 
 
 Marriages, Voidable. Marriages are void- 
 able in nearly all the States when contracted 
 under the age of consent to cohabit. 
 
 Divorce Laws. 
 
 Alabama. Divorce may be obtained for the follow- 
 ing causes: Impotency, adultery, desertion for two 
 years, habitual dninkenness, imprisonment for two 
 yean and continued cruelty. An allowance must be 
 made by the court, out of the husband's estate, for the 
 
 support of the wife pending suit; also an allowance 
 when the decree i3 made. The custody of minor chil- 
 dren may be given to either parent, in the discretion of 
 the court. 
 
 Arizona. Divorce may be granted for the violation 
 of the marriage vow ; physical incapacity ; willful deser- 
 tion for six months ; habitual drunkenness ; conviction 
 for felonv ; cruelty ; failure by husband to provide for 
 six months. 
 
 Arkansas. Divorce may be granted for impotency, 
 bigamy, adulteny, conviction of felony, habitual drunk- 
 enness, willful desertion for one year, cruel and barba- 
 rous treatment. Plaintiff must reside in the State one 
 year before bringing suit. Court may allow alimony to 
 the wife. 
 
 California. Divorces are granted for adultery, ex- 
 treme cruelty, conviction of felony, willful desertion, 
 neglect or habitual intemperance continued for one 
 year. No divorce can be granted by default. 
 
 Colorado. Divorces may be granted for adultery, 
 impotency, bigamy, willful desertion for one year, habit- 
 ual drunkenness for two years, extreme cruelty or con- 
 viction for felony or infamous crime. One year's 
 residence in the Sta';e is required before bringing suit, 
 except where the offense was committed in the State 
 or while one or both of the parties resided there. 
 
 Connecticut. Absolute divorce may be granted by 
 the Superior Court for adultery, fraud, duress or force 
 in obtaining the marriage, willful desertion for three 
 years, seven years' absence without being heard of, habit- 
 ual intemperance, intolerable cruelty, sentence to im- 
 prisonment for life, the commission of any crime 
 punishable by imprisonment in the State penitentiary 
 and any such misconduct rs permanently destroys the 
 happiness of the petitioner an;l defeats the purposes of 
 the marriage relation. Three years' residence in the 
 State is necessary before filing a petition. Either party 
 may marry again after divorce, and the court may 
 change the wife's name and make order for alimony 
 and custody of the children. 
 
 North aiid Soutli Dakota. Divorce may be granted 
 for violation of the marriage vow; willful desertion; 
 conviction for felony; cruelty and physical incapacity. 
 
 Delaware. Divorce may be granted by the Superior 
 Court for adultery, impotency at the time of marriage, 
 habitual drunkenness, extreme cruelty, desertion for 
 three years or conviction of crime sufficient to consti- 
 tute a felony. In the case of marriage by fraud or for 
 want of age, the wife being less than sixteen, the hus- 
 band being less than eighteen, at the time of marriage, 
 absolute divorce or divorce from bed and board may be 
 granted, at the discretion of the court. The wife re- 
 ceives nil her real estate and such other allowance and 
 alimony as the court may decree where the husband is 
 proved to be in fault. Willful neglect of the husband to 
 provide the necessities of life also forms sufficient 
 grounds for divorce. 
 
 District of Columbia. Divorce may be granted 
 for violation of the marriage vow ; physical incapacity : 
 willful desertion for two years ; habitual drunkenness ; 
 conviction for felony; cruelty; insanity or idiocy at 
 time of marriage. 
 
 Florida. Applicants for divorce must have resided 
 two years within the State. Absolute divorces may be 
 granted only by the Circuit Courts. Adultery, impo- 
 tency, bigamv, extreme cruelty, habitual intemperance 
 or desertion for one year are sufficient causes. Alimony 
 may be granted to the wife by the courts, and provision 
 for'a division of properly when a decree is granted. 
 
 Georgia. Grounds for total divorce are as follows: 
 Marriage within the prohibited degrees of affinity or 
 consanguinity; mental or physical incapacity at" the 
 time of marriage, force, menace, duress or fraud in ob- 
 taining it; adultery, willful desertion by either party 
 for three years; cruel treatment by, or habitual intoxi- 
 cation of "either party ; or sentence to the penitentiary 
 
 ferent times of court; and when a divorce is granted, 
 the jury rendering the final verdict determines the rights 
 and disabilities of the parties. 
 
 Idaho. Divorce mar be granted for violation of the 
 marriage vow; willful desertion for one vear; habitual 
 drunkenness ; conviction for felony ; cruelty ; failure of 
 husband to provide ior one year ; insanity and confine- 
 ment in an asylum six years.' 
 
 Illinois. Divorce may be granted, where complain- 
 ant has been a resident of the State for one year, for im- 
 potency, bigamy, adultery, desertion or drunkenness for
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 75 
 
 two years, attempt upon the life of the other by poison | 
 or other means showing- malice, extreme cruelty, con- 
 viction of felony or other infamous crime. If no de- 
 fense is interposed, decree may be granted on testimony 
 of complainant alone; but examination of witn. 
 must be had in open court, and the judge is required to 
 be satisfied that all proper means nave been taken 
 to notify defendant. When decree is granted, the court 
 may restore the wife's maiden name. During pendency 
 of suit, the court may require the husband to pay such 
 sum as may enable tlie wife to maintain or defend the 
 suit, and alimony when declared just and equitable. 
 
 Indiana. Petitioners for divorce must be bona fide ' 
 residents of the Stata for two years, and of the county j 
 at the time of, and for at least six months prior to. filing ! 
 the petition : the oath of two resident freeholders being I 
 required to this fact. Decrees may issue by the Superior 
 or Circuit Court for the following causes : Impotency 
 at marriage ; adultery (where connivance or collusion is I 
 not proven); habitua'l cruelty or habitual drunkenness I 
 by either partv; abandonment for two rears; failure 
 by the husbunct to provide for the family for a period of 
 two years, and conviction of either party of an in- 
 famous crime at any time subsequent to marriage. 
 
 Iowa. Divorce may be granted by the District or 
 Circuit Court of the county in which" plaintiff resides. 
 Plaintiff must declare under oath that he or she has re- 
 sided i:i the State for one year next preceding the filing 
 of the petition, unless defendant i.3 resident, and re- 
 
 habitual drunkenness and continued ill-treatment. 
 The husband may obtain a decree for like causes, and 
 also when the wife at the time cf marriage was preg- 
 nant by another. Bigamy or impotency at the time of 
 marria'ge is also a sufficient cause to annul. 
 
 K ansas. To obtain a decree of divorce, plaintiff must 
 have resided in the State one year, and must bring suit 
 in the county of residence. Decrees are granted in the 
 Circuit Court on the following grounds: Adultery, 
 impotencr fraudulent contract, extreme cruelty, 
 habitual drunkenness, gross neglect, abandonment for 
 one year or conviction of felony. 
 
 Kentucky. Before a petition can be presented for a I 
 decree of divorce, one year's continuous residence in 
 the State is required. Jury trials are not permitted, ard 
 decrees are granted by courts having equitable juris- j 
 diction. An absolute 'divorce may be granted to the 
 party not in fault on the ground of adultery, impotency, 
 etc., separation for live years, condemnation for felony 
 subsequent to the marriage, force, duress or fraud in 
 obtaining the marriage, or uniting with any religious 
 society which requires a renunciation of the marriage 
 contract. Habitual neglect or maltreatment on the part 
 of the husband, or where the husband is a confirmed 
 drunkard, may give the wife a divorce; and where the 
 wife is proven unchaste, or pregnant by another man at 
 at the time of marriage, the husband is entitled to 
 divorce. The parties are free to marry again, and their 
 personal property if restored. 
 
 Louisiana. Sentence of either party to imprison- 
 ment in the penitentiary is sufficient ground for 
 divorce. A decree may also be obtained by either party 
 for adultery, habitual "intemperance or cruel treatment 
 of such nature as to render living together insupport- 
 able. 
 
 Maine. The Supreme Judicial Court grants divorce 
 for impotency. adultery, or for three years' willful 
 desertion. Al'imony may be allowed and "dower if the 
 husband be to blame. 
 
 Maryland. Absolute, for adultery, three years' 
 abandonment, or ante-nuptial misconduct of wife. 
 Partial, for cruelty, abandonment, and desertion. Ali- 
 mony and restoration of wife's property. 
 
 Massachusetts. Unfaithfulness, incapacity, three 
 rears' desertion, cruelty, drunkenness, neglect to pro- 
 vide, sentence to five years' imprisonment and joining a 
 sect which disavows marriage, are grounds for absolute 
 divorce. Alimony is allowed, and where the husband is 
 at fault the wife's" personal property is restored. 
 
 Michigan. Absolute divorce may be granted for in- 
 capacity at time of marriage, adultery, two years' con- 
 tinuous deseition. drunkenness or three years' sentence 
 to imprisonment. A life sentence dissolves the mar 
 riage without any proceedings in court. Divorce from 
 bed and board 'for cruelty and neglect to provide. 
 Separation of property, d'ower, ami alimony as per 
 statute. 
 
 Minnesota. Absolute divorce for unfaithfulness, in- 
 
 capacity, three years' abandonment, one year's drunk- 
 enness, cruel treatment or sentence to State's prison. 
 Limited divorce for abuse, desertion or failure to sup- 
 port. Plaintiff, except where breach of faith occurred 
 in the State, must have been one year a resident. The 
 court i-iay order alimony and custody of the children, 
 and the -wife regains possession of tier real estate, un- 
 less decree has been obtained on account of her bad 
 conduct. 
 
 Mississippi. After one year's residence in the State, 
 divorce may be obtained for impotency, adultery, big- 
 amy, cruelty, two years' abandonment o'r imprisonment 
 in the penitentiary. Alimony is allowed when the wife 
 is the injured party, and the court awards the custody 
 of minor children. 
 
 Missouri. Grounds : Impotency at time of marriage, 
 unfaithfulness, bigamy, conviction of crime, drunken- 
 ness, cruelty, and one year's desertion. Petitioner must 
 have been one year a resident of the State. Trial with- 
 out jury. 
 
 Montana. Divorce may be granted for violation of 
 the marriage vow ; physical incapacity ; willful desertion 
 one year ; habitual drunkenness : conviction for felony ; 
 cruelty. 
 
 braska. Unless the marriage took place in the 
 State, and the plaintiff has since continuously resided 
 therein, a residence in the county of six months next 
 preceding the application is necessary. Divorce is 
 granted on the grounds of impotency at the time of 
 marriage, adultery, two years' desertion, drunkenness, 
 cruelty, three years' sentence to imprisonment, 'or fail- 
 ure on the part of husband to support wife. The court 
 may order alimony, and where a decree is granted on 
 account of the husband's bad conduct the wife takes 
 dower. 
 
 Nevada. Plaintiff must have resided six months in 
 the county. Grounds of divorce are physical incompe- 
 tency at time of marriage, adultery, one rear's deser- 
 tion, drunkenness, cruelty, conviction or crime, and 
 failure on part of husband'to support. 
 
 New Hampshire. Divorces are granted by the 
 Superior Court for physical incompetency, adultery, 
 drunkenness, cruelty, three years' desertion, one year's 
 sentence to prison or adherence to a religious sect that 
 condemns marriage. 
 
 New Jersey. Absolute for adultery , bigamy, or three 
 years' abandonment. Partial for cruelty. Applicant 
 must reside in the State, unless the marriage or the al- 
 leged misconduct occurred here. 
 
 New Mexico. Divorce may be granted for violation 
 of the marriage row; habitual drunkenness; cruelty; 
 failure of husband to provide. 
 
 New York. Only for adultery will an absolute 
 divorce be granted. Partial divorce is ordered for 
 cruelty, desertion and neglect. Marriages are annulled 
 for fraud or force, idiocy, lunacy or impotency at the 
 time of marriage, or for bigamy. 
 
 North Carolina. Only for impotency or adultery 
 can absolute divorce be obtained. Partfal divorce is 
 granted for cruelty, desertion, or drunkenness. 
 
 Ohio. Divorce "is granted for unfaithfulness, bigamy, 
 incapacity, cruelty, drunkenness, deception, three years' 
 neglect and abandonment, or imprisonment in a'peni- 
 tentiarr. Alimony may be granted: and if the decree 
 is obtained on account of the husband's ill conduct, the 
 wife has her separate property and her maiden name 
 restored. 
 
 Oklahoma. Divorce may be granted for violation of 
 the marriage vow ; physical incapacity ; willful desertion 
 one year; habitual drunkenness: conviction of felony; 
 cruelty. 
 
 Oregon. Plaintiff must have been a resident for one 
 year before bringing suit. Grounds are impotency, 
 adultery, two years' drunkenness, three years' abandon- 
 ment, cruelty," conviction of felony. Plaintiff gaining 
 the suit has'a right to one third of the real estate be- 
 longing to defendant; and if a successful plaintiff be 
 the wife, she may have a maintenance awarded her. 
 
 Pennsylvania. Plaintiff must have been a resident 
 of the State for one year next preceding the applica- 
 tion. Grounds: Deception or force in procuring the 
 marriage, impotency. adultery, bigamy, cruelty a_nof two 
 years' abandonment, and two years' sentence to impris- 
 onment. Divorce will not be 'granted on the ground of 
 adultery if proved to have been condoned. Even after 
 a divorce, defendant is not allowed to marry a co-re- 
 spondent. A wife may obtain partial divorce and ali- 
 mony for ill treatment. 
 
 Rhode Island. Divorce is granted for impotency. 
 adultery, cruelty, drunkenness, neglect to support, five
 
 76 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 years' abandonment, conviction of murder or arson, 
 presumption of death from long absence, or for defect 
 in marriage rendering it void. Divorce may only be 
 decreed by Supreme Court. Alimony may be ordered, 
 and restoration of wife's separate property. 
 
 South Carolina. Has no divorce laws. 
 
 Tennessee. The applicant must have been :i resident 
 of the State for two years next preceding the petition. 
 Grounds : physical incapacity at time of marriage, big- 
 amy, adultery, two years' abandonment, conviction of 
 crime, imprisonment in penitentiary, drunkenness, 
 ante-nuptial immorality of wife, attempt of either party 
 upon the life of the other. Limited divorce may be 
 granted for cruelty, desertion, or failure to provide. 
 
 Texas. Applicant must be really an inhabitant of 
 the State and a resident of the county for six months 
 previous to filing petition; grounds: adultery, three 
 years' desertion, unendurable cruelty. 
 
 Utah. Divorce may be granted for violation of the 
 marriage vow; willful desertion one year; habitual 
 drunkenness ; conviction for felony ; cruelty ; failure of 
 husband to provide ; parties cannot live in peace and 
 union. 
 
 Vermont. Divorce is granted for adultery, cruelty, 
 three rears' abandonment, three years' imprisonment 
 in penitentiary or seven years' absence without being 
 heard of. The wife may obtain divorce where the hus- 
 band, being able, fails to support. 
 
 Virginia. Grounds : Impotency, adultery, sentence 
 to penitentiary, guilt of either of infamous crime be- 
 fore marriage, the other being_ ignorant, notorious 
 immorality of wife before marriage, five years' aban- 
 donment. Partial divorce for cruelty or desertion. 
 Alimony and maintenance of children are decreed, and 
 the care of the children is given to either party at the 
 discretion of the court. 
 
 West Virginia. Divorce is granted for mental or 
 physical defect at time of marriage, unfaithfulness, 
 three years' abandonment, sentence to penitentiary, 
 conviction of crime before marriage, or notorious im- 
 morality of either before marriage, the other party 
 being ignorant. Partial divorce may be obtained for 
 cruelty or desertion. Alimony and custody of chil- 
 dren is decreed by the court. 
 
 Washington. Divorce may be granted for violation 
 of the marriage vow ; physical incapacity ; willful deser- 
 tion one year ; conviction for felony ; cruelty ; fraud and 
 fraudulent contract ; indignities as render life burden- 
 gome ; insanity lasting ten years. 
 
 Wisconsin. Unless the parties had been married 
 and since remained in the State, the applicant must 
 have been for one year a resident before filing a peti- 
 tion. Absolute divorce is granted for impotency, adul- 
 tery, one year's abandonment, five years' separation, 
 three years' sentence to penitentiary, cruelty and 
 drunkenness. Partial divorce for desertion, cruelty, 
 drunkenness, or failure to provide. The court may 
 decree alimony, and the wife regain her separate prop- 
 erty. 
 
 Wyoming. Divorce may be granted for violation of 
 the marriage vow ; physical incapacity ; willful desertion 
 one year ; habitual drunkenness ; conviction for felony ; 
 cruelty ; failure of husband to provide one year ; indig- 
 nities as render life burdensome ; vagrancy of husband. 
 
 PROPERTY RIGHTS OF MAR- 
 RIED WOMEN. 
 
 Alabama. Married women may hold all property, 
 real and personal, acquired before and after marriage, 
 as a separate estate not liable for the husband's 
 debts, and it mav be devised or bequeathed as by a 
 single woman. This separate estate is liable for debts 
 contracted by the woman before marriage, and for con- 
 tracts after marriage for articles of comfort and support 
 of family. The wife is entitled to dower of one half of 
 husband"'s real estate, if he leave no lineal decendants, 
 one third if there are any, provided she has no separate 
 estate ; if her separate estate is less than the dower in- 
 terest would be, she is entitled to as much as would 
 make it equal. Women attain their legal majority at 
 twenty-one, but may marry without consent of their 
 parents at eighteen. 
 
 Arizona. Married women may carry on business and 
 sue and be sued in their own names. All property 
 acquired before marriage, and all afterwards acquired, 
 by gift, grant, devise or inheritance, is separate estate, 
 liable for her own but not for her husband's debts. She 
 may control it and dispose of it in all respects like a 
 single woman. 
 
 Arkansas. Married women have absolute and un 
 qualified right in property of every kind and are not 
 liable for debts or contracts of the husband. But a 
 schedule under oath, and verified by some other repu- 
 table person, must l>e made by the husband and wife, 
 and tiled in the recorder's office of the county where 
 the prP e rty is, and of the county where they reside. 
 The wife may control her property, may carry on busi- 
 ness on her sole and separate account, may siie and be 
 sued, may make a will and may insure lier husband's 
 life for her benefit. The widow is entitled to one third 
 part of the estate, unless legally relinquished by her. 
 
 California. All property acquired in any 'manner 
 before marriage, or afterwards by gift, grant, inheri- 
 tance or devise, is wife's separate property, controlled 
 by her and not liable for debts of the husband. The 
 husband's property similarly acquired is not liable for 
 debts of the wife. All property acquired after marriage 
 by husband or wife, except as above, shall be common 
 property, but under the husband's control. Dower and 
 curtesy are abolished, but the survivor takes half the 
 common property after payment of debts and expenses 
 of administration. A married woman may disposeof her 
 separate estate by will without the consent of her hus- 
 band and may insure her husband's life for her benefit. 
 
 Colorado. Married women are treated in all re- 
 spects, as to their property rights, as if they were single. 
 A wife may carry on trade or business, sue or be sued, 
 contract debts, transfer real estate, and in all ways 
 bind her separate property, without the husband's 
 joining. She may make a will, but cannot bequeath 
 more than half her property away from her husband 
 without his consent in writing. The husband cannot 
 by will deprive his wife of overdone half of his property. 
 Dower is abolished. The husband is liable for debts of 
 the wife contracted before marriage to the extent of 
 the property he may receive through her, but no fur- 
 ther. 
 
 Connecticut. Previous to the year 1877, the husband 
 acquired a right to the use of all the real estate of the 
 wire during her life and if he had a child by her and sur- 
 vived her, then during his own life as tenant by curt- 
 esy. By the Act of May 20th, 1877, the rights of married 
 women are materially enlarged. Any woman married 
 after that date retains her real estate as if unmarried. 
 She may make contracts, convey real estate, and sue or 
 be sued in regard to any property owned by her at the 
 time of marriage, or afterwards acquired. The estate 
 is liable for her debts, and, jointly with her husband, 
 for debts contracted for joint bene'fit of both or house- 
 hold expenses. The separate earnings of a wife are her 
 sole property. Dower exists only in real estate of 
 which the husband is possessed at the time of his de- 
 cease. 
 
 North and South Dakota. Married women may 
 transact business in all respects the same as if unmar- 
 ried. Neither husband nor wife has any interest in the 
 separate estate of the other. The earnings and ac- 
 cumulations of the wife are her separate property and 
 not liable for the husband's debts nor even for house- 
 hold debts contracted by her as her husband's agent. 
 Her separate property is, however, liable for her own 
 debts, contracted before or after marriage, if such debts 
 are contracted on her own responsibility. 
 
 Delaware. Married women, married since 1873, re- 
 tain all real and personal property held at marriage, or 
 since acquired from any person other than the husband, 
 as their separate estate, and not subject to the disposal 
 of the husband or liable for his debts. They may re- 
 ceive wages for personal labor, sue or be sued in respect 
 to their own property as if unmarried ; and the rents, 
 issues, and profits of their separate estate are not con- 
 trolled by the husband. The widow is entitled to one 
 third dower of all the lands and tenements whereof the 
 husband was seized at any time during her marriage, 
 unless she shall have relinquished such right for and 
 during the term of her natural life. She may be an 
 administratrix, and the husband's life maybe insured 
 for her benefit if premium does not exceed $150. 
 
 District of Columbia. Married women may be- 
 queath, devise, or convey property or interest therein in 
 the same manner as if unmarried. Real or personal 
 property belonging to the wife at marriage or after- 
 wards acquired is separate estate. She may sue and be 
 sued in all matters pertaining to her property, and the 
 husband is notliablefor any contracts made by her in 
 respect to her personal estate. 
 
 Florida. Married women retain all real or personal 
 property owned at marriage or acquired thereafter, and 
 are not liable for the husband's debts. In order that it
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 77 
 
 shall he free from his debts, the property must be in- 
 ventoried and recorded within six months after mar- 
 riage or subsequent acquirement of the property. The 
 
 wife may ><]! and convey all real estate inherited' by her 
 the same as if she were unmarried; but her husband 
 must join in all sales, transfers, and conveyances of her 
 property, both real and personal. She is entitled to 
 dower in a life e>tate in one third of all the real estate 
 of which her husband was seized and possessed at his 
 death or at any time during his life, unless she has re- 
 linquished the same; also an absolute one third of his 
 personalty. 
 
 Georgia. Married women retain as a separate estate 
 all property in their possession at the time of marriage, 
 or afterwards acquired and are not liable for any debts, 
 defaults, or contracts of the husband. By consent of 
 her husband advertised for four weeks she 'may become 
 a free trader, in which event she is liable the same as if 
 unmarried. The wife may not bind her estate by any 
 contract of suretyship, either in behalf of her husband or 
 any other person. The widow takes dower in one third 
 of all the lands of which her husband was seized at his 
 death ; and wife and children, after the husband's death, 
 are entitled to one year's support from his property, all 
 other claims yielding to this. 
 
 Idaho. All property, both real and personal, owned 
 at marriage or afterwards acquired, by either wife or 
 husband, remains a separate estate. All property ac- 
 quired after marriage is held in common. Separate prop- 
 erty of the wife should be inventoried with the county 
 recorder; the husband has control of it during 
 marriage, but cannot create alien or encumbrance un- 
 less joined by the wife, who is examined separately. If 
 the husband mismanages, or commits waste, the Dis- 
 trict Court may, on application of the wife, appoint a 
 trustee to ma'nage her separate property. Upon the ' 
 death of husband or wife, half the common property 
 goes to survivor ; if no direct descendants, all goes to 
 survivor. 
 
 Illinois. Married women may own in their own right 
 realty and personalty, may sue and be sued, contract I 
 and incur liabilities, the same as if unmarried ; but they 
 may not enter into or carry on any partnership business 
 without consent of the husband," unless abandoned by 
 him or he is incapable of giving assent. Beyond the ! 
 necessaries, the husband is not liable for debts of the 
 wife, except in cases where he would be jointly liable if I 
 the marriage did not exist. The estate o'f both is liable 
 for family expenses, but the wife's separate earnings 
 are her own. A surviving wife or husband takes one 
 third of all the realty of the deceased, unless relin- 
 quished in due form. The husband and wife are put 
 upon the same footing as to dower, and the estate of 
 curtesy is abolished. 
 
 Indiana. Married women retain all realty and per- 
 sonalty owned by them at marriage, or afterwards ac- 
 quired, and are not liable for the husband's debts. The 
 husband is liable for debts of the wife contracted before 
 marriage only to the extent of the personal property he 
 may receive from or through her, or derive from sale 
 or rent of her lands. She may sell personal property, 
 but she may not convey or encumber her real estate 
 unless the husband joins. Suits against her separate 
 estate should be brought in the name of both. A widow 
 takes one third of her deceased husband's real estate in 
 fee simple, free from all demands of creditors, where 
 the estate does not exceed 810,000; where the estate is 
 over 10,000 and under 20,000, she takes one fourth ; and 
 one fifth if it exceeds 20,000. She also takes one third 
 of the personalty after payment of debts, and in all 
 cases takes 8">nO, without accounting, and may occupy 
 the dwelling ami forty acres of land for one year, rent 
 free. 
 
 Iowa. Married women may "own in their own right 
 real and personal property acquired by descent, gift, or 
 purchase, may sell, convey, and devise the same, may 
 sue and be sued, make contracts and buy goods in their 
 own name. Wife or husband are notliable for the debts 
 of the other before marriage, or for separate debts in- 
 curred afterwards. The wife's earnings are her own, 
 and her note is good against her own estate. Women 
 attain majority at eighteen, or earlier, upon marriage ; 
 a female of fourteen may marry. The surviving wife 
 or husband is entitled to one third of the real estate of 
 the deceased, free from all claims of creditors. If they 
 leave no children, survivor takes one half, parents the 
 other half. 
 
 Kansas. Married women have the same property 
 rights as men, and may make contracts, carry on busi- 
 ness, sue and be sued, and sell or convey real estate pre- 
 
 cisely as their husbands ; their earnings or profits are 
 their own. A note or indorsement made by a married 
 woman will bind her property the same as if unmarried. 
 Homestead is absolute property of widow and children, 
 and neither wife nor hi isha nd may bequeath more than 
 half their property without written consent of the 
 other. If either die intestate and without children, the 
 entire property goes to the survivor. 
 
 Kentucky. Married women may hold real or per- 
 sonal property as a separate estate free from the control 
 of the husband or liability for his debts. By petition to 
 the Circuit Court, in which the husband must join, she 
 may acquire the right to transact business in her own 
 name. Unless dower be barred, forfeited, or relin- 
 quished, she takes one third of the real estate and one 
 half of the personal property. 
 
 Louisiana. Married women may hold and control 
 both real and personal property owned at time of 
 marriage ; all property or revenues of separate property 
 acquired by either husband or wife after marriage is 
 held in common, and is divided equally between them 
 at dissolution of the marriage either by death or divorce. 
 The wife may carry on a separate business, but her hus- 
 band will be bound by her contracts, so long as the 
 community of property exists ; she cannot sue without 
 the concurrence of her husband, and she cannot bind 
 herself or her property for his debts. There is no right 
 of dower to the wife. 
 
 Maine. A married woman holds real and personal 
 property, acquired in any way except from the husband, 
 the same as if single. She may make contracts, sue and 
 be sued, and do business in her own name ; and her prop- 
 erty may be taken to satisfy judgments against her. 
 Her property is liable only for her own debts. She joins 
 husband in a deed selling his property to relinquish 
 dower. He joins with her in selling hers only when 
 such property comes from him. A wife, being aban- 
 doned by her husband, may be allowed to take and use 
 his personal property. Dower, life estate in one third 
 of all husband's real property owned during coverture ; 
 one half if no children. He has same interest in de- 
 ceased wife's estate. 
 
 Maryland. Property acquired by a married woman 
 is her own, controlled by herself, and is free from her 
 husband's debts. She conveys by joint deed with the 
 husband, but devises and bequeaths the same as if 
 single. She may be sued with her husband on joint 
 contracts made by them, and the property of both is 
 equally liable. Dower one third, if they have children ; 
 one half, if none. 
 
 Massachusetts. The property of a married woman 
 is managed by herself, and is not liable for her hus- 
 band's debts." She may make contracts, sue and be 
 sued, and do business iii her own name, provided a cer- 
 tificate is filed by her or her husband in the office of the 
 town clerk. Contracts and conveyances between hus- 
 band and wife are not allowed. "Her conveyances of 
 real estate are subject to husband's tenancy by curtesy. 
 A wife cannot make a will affecting her husband's right 
 to one half of the personal property or his tenancy by 
 curtesy in her real estate, without his written consent. 
 Dower as by common law. 
 
 Michigan. Married women own and control prop- 
 erty the same as if single. A wife may do business in 
 her own name and make contracts, even with her hus- 
 band. Her separate property is liable for wrongs com- 
 mitted by her. Widow has dower, but there is for the 
 surviving husband no right of tenancy by curtesy. 
 
 Minnesota. A married woman holds property in her 
 own name. She may make contracts, and her property is 
 liable only for her own debts. She cannot sell or convey 
 real estate further than a mortgage for purchase-money 
 or a three years' lease, without her husband joining her. 
 Contracts between husband and wife are void. The 
 surviving husband or wife keeps the homestead for 
 life. 
 
 Mississippi. A married woman holds property ac- 
 quired in any manner, and the revenues therefrom, for 
 her own use and free from control or liability of her 
 husband. She may convey and encumber the same as if 
 single, but husband joins in conveyance. She may de- 
 vise and bequeath. Deed from husband to wife is "void 
 as to creditors at time of making it. A wife may not 
 encumber her estate by mortgage or otherwise for her 
 husband's debts ; she may do business on her own ac- 
 count the same as if single, and is then liable for her 
 contracts, housekeeping and family expenses. She 
 joins her husband in conveyance of homestead, but not 
 in that of his other property. Dower in property of 
 which the husband dies seized.
 
 78 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Missouri. A married woman controls her own prop- 
 erty, and holds it through a trustee, free from liability 
 for" her husband's debts. She may make contracts, sign 
 notes, and do business in her own name. She may 
 make a will. She joins her husband in his conveyances 
 to release dower. Her dower is one third for life of all 
 lands owned by husband. 
 
 Montana. A list of married woman's property filed 
 and recorded saves it from being liable for the hus- 
 band's debts, except necessaries for herself and children 
 under eighteen. A married woman may become a sole 
 trader by recording her intention. If she invests more 
 than $10.000 in business she must make oath that the 
 surplus did not come from her husband. The husband 
 is not liable for debts contracted by her in business. 
 She is also responsible for the maintenance of her 
 children. A surviving husband or wife takes one half 
 of deceased's property, if no children ; one third if there 
 are. 
 
 Nebraska. A married woman holds her separate 
 property free from the disposal of her husband and 
 from liability for his debts. She may bargain, sell, 
 make contracts, do business, sue and be sued, all so far 
 as her separate estate may warrant; but she cannot be- 
 come surety for another, not even beingallowed to bind 
 herself for her husband's debts. Property coming to 
 the wife from the husband is not privileged as her 
 separate property. Dower, use for life of one third of 
 real estate owned by husband during coverture. 
 
 Nevada. The separate property of a married woman 
 which is controlled by herself is such as she may have 
 owned before marriare or acquired afterwards by gift, 
 devise, or descent. All property acquired otherwise, by 
 either husband or wife, is common property, and under 
 the absolute control of the husband. On the death cf 
 the husband the widow receives one half of the common 
 property. 
 
 New Hampshire. A married woman holds property 
 owned before marriage or acquired afterwards, except 
 what may come from the husband, for her own use. 
 She may sell, convey and encumber, devise and be- 
 queath, do business, give notes, sue and be sued. Her 
 contracts are binding, excepting that there can be no 
 contracts or convevances between husband and wife, 
 nor can the wife become security for her husband. 
 Wife is entitled to dower. 
 
 New Jersey. The propertv owned before marriage, 
 and such as she may acquire afterwards by gift, descent, 
 or bequest, is the sole property of a married woman and 
 is not liable for the husband's debts. She may make 
 contracts, but cann r t sell or encumber her real estate 
 without consent of husband. She cannot indorse notes 
 or become security. She joins husband in his convey- 
 ances and mortgages. Dower and curtesy. 
 
 New Mexico. The separate property of a married 
 woman is what she owned previous to marriape, or what 
 she may inherit. All that she acquires afterwards, and 
 the revenues of her separate estate, go into the common 
 property. The husband has control and management 
 of her separate estate and the common property. There 
 is no dower, but on decease of a husband the wife's 
 private property is first deducted ; then she receives 
 one half of the common property, after all debts are 
 paid. If there be no children she' has a right to all the 
 common property. 
 
 New York. Married women may have real and per- 
 sonal property, buy and sell, and do business in their 
 own names. A married woman is liable for debts con- 
 tracted in her own trade or business, or when an agree- 
 ment or contract has been made for the benefit of her 
 separate property, when, by the terms of such instru- 
 ment, her separate property is to be charged with the 
 liability. Dower. 
 
 North Carolina. A married woman's separate prop- 
 erty is not liable for her husband's debts. She may 
 devise and bequeath, but must have husband's consent 
 to convey. Unless she be a free trader, she can make 
 no contract other than for personal or family necessi- 
 ties or for payment of ante-nuptial debts, without the 
 consent of her husband. She becomes a free trader, the 
 husband assenting, by filing her intention. Common 
 law dower and one year's subsistence. 
 
 Ohio. The property of a married woman is not liable i 
 for her husband's debts; beyond a three years' lease or i 
 a contract for the improvement of her real estate, she 
 cannot sell or encumber it without the consent of her 
 husband. If a married woman engages in trade, her 
 separate property is liable for the debts she may then ; 
 contract, and she may sue and be sued the same as if I 
 single. A deserted wife must procure an order from 
 
 court, by which she shall have all property rights as a 
 femme sole. Dower in all real estate owned by husband 
 during coverture. 
 
 Oklahoma. Neither husband nor wife has any inter- 
 est in the property of the other. Either mav enter into 
 any engagement or transaction with the other, or with 
 any other person, respecting property which either 
 might, if married, subject, between them, to rules which 
 control the actions of persons occupying confidential 
 relations. The wife may, without consent of husband, 
 convey her separate property. Woman retains the same 
 legal existence and personality after marriage as before, 
 and receives the same protection of her rights as does 
 her husband. She may hold and transfer real and per- 
 sonal property ; may buy and sell goods, give notes or 
 other obligations, and sue and be sued, same as if un 
 married. 
 
 Oregon. A married woman holds her property free 
 from the control or debts of her husband. She may 
 make contracts, buy and sell, and give notes, and her 
 own property will be liable.' The husband joins in her 
 conveyances. She may make a will, but it must not 
 interfere with her husband's rights of curtesy. 
 
 Pennsylvania. The property of a married woman is 
 held as her separate estate, but 'is chargeable for family 
 necessaries ordered by her. A wile cannot make a con- 
 tract or conveyance without her husband joining her. 
 By obtaining leave from the court she may have the 
 benefit of her own earning-s. She may ma'ke a will, 
 saving the husband's right by curtesy. She may deposit 
 money in bank and write checks against it in'her own 
 name. Dower, one third of all real estate owned by 
 husband during coverture. 
 
 Rhode Island. A married woman's property is held 
 by trustees for her separate use free from her husband's 
 debts. She cannot make contracts or do business. She 
 may make a will subject to husband's right by curtesy. 
 
 South Carolina. The property of a married woman 
 cannot be seized for her husband's debts. A married 
 woman can bequeath, devise, and encumber her separate 
 property. She can buy in her own name, and have con- 
 veyance's made to her, and make contracts, the same as 
 if "she were single. A gift from husband to wife is not 
 good against a creditor's claim. Dower rights. 
 
 Tennessee. A married woman has her separate prop- 
 erty free from the husband's control and from liability 
 for his debts. She may encumber, convey, or devise her 
 separate property without being joined by her husband 
 in the deed. Widow has dower in one third of husband's 
 real estate, and a child's share in his personalty. The 
 husband dying intestate, leaving no heirs, the wife in- 
 herits all his property. 
 
 Texas. The property owned by husband or wife be- 
 fore marriage, and wha't either may acquire afterwards, 
 by gift, devise, or descent, is community property. The 
 husband controls the common property and the wife's 
 separate estate. The common property is liable for the 
 debts of either, and the husband n:ay dispose of it. At 
 the death of either, the survivor takes one half and the 
 children the other half of the common property. The 
 husband joins wife in conveyance of her separate prop- 
 erty. She joins him in conveyance of homestead. A 
 married woman cannot do business in her own name, 
 but she may become security for her husband by mort- 
 gaging her separate estate. 
 
 Utah. A married woman's separate property is held, 
 manage. 1 , controlled, and disposed of by herself. A wife 
 may carry on business, sue and 1 e sued, give notes and 
 make contracts tlie same as if single. 
 
 Vermont. -The property of a married woman is held 
 separate, and is not liable" for her husband's debts. In 
 conveyance of the wife's real estate the husband must 
 join in deed. A married woman may make a will. 
 Widow has dower in one third the real estate of which 
 the husband died seized. 
 
 Virginia. A married woman holds the property 
 owned by her previous to marriage, and what she may 
 afterwards acquire, as sole trader, free from the control 
 of her husband, and from liability for his debts. She 
 may make a will subject to husband's rights by curtesy. 
 Common law dower. 
 
 AVest Virginia. The property of a married woman, 
 however acquired, except from the husband, is held for 
 her sole and separate use. Husband must join in con- 
 veyances of real estate. Dower. 
 
 Washington. The property owned before marriage 
 by husband or wife, and all acquired afterwards by 
 gift, devise, or descent to either, is separate property. 
 All otherwise acquired is common property, subject to 
 control of the husband. He also controls the separate
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 79 
 
 property of the wife, but cannot sell or convey it with- 
 out her "joining: in the deed. To save the separate prop- 
 erty of the wife from attachment for husband's debts, 
 there must be an inventory of it on record. 
 
 M isconsin. A married woman lias all property rights 
 the same as if single. She may buy and pell, tend and 
 borrow, make conveyances, and have real estate con- 
 veyed to her, and all such business may be transacted 
 between her and her husband as between strangers. 
 She may sue alone, but in being sued she must be joined 
 to husband. Dower, life, interest in one third of all 
 husband's realty held during the marriage. Husband 
 has wife's realty for life. 
 
 AVyomiiig. A married woman may earn- on busi- 
 ness, make contracts, keep her own earnings, hold 
 property, real or personal, receive the rents in her own 
 name, sue and be sued, make a will, free from any con- 
 trol or interference of her husband, the same as 'if she 
 were single. Her property is not liable for the debts of 
 her hushand. Women in this State have the right 
 to vote and hold office. 
 
 Canada. In the provinces of the Dominion, gener- 
 ally, a married woman nolds all her property and 
 earnings, free from the control of her husband." It is 
 liable for her debts before marriage, and her husband 
 is not. She may manage it and bequeath it. She is en- 
 titled to dower, but there is no tenancy by curtesy. In 
 the province of Quebec the law is modified by the 
 French law. There all the personal property and "gains 
 of both parties are put together, and form the com- 
 munity property, which the husband administers. Each 
 can bequeath only his or her interest, and the heirs of 
 each inherit the interest of each. 
 
 THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 The supreme legislative power of the British 
 Empire is by its Constitution given to Parlia- 
 ment. Parliament is summoned by the writ 
 of the sovereign issued out of Chancery, by ad- 
 vice of the Privy Council, at least thirty-five 
 days previous to its assembling. On a vacancy 
 occurring in the House of Commons whilst 
 Parliament is sitting, a writ for the election of 
 a new member is issued upon motion in the 
 House. It the vacancy occurs during the recess, 
 the writ is issued at the instance of the Speaker. 
 
 It has become customary of late for Parlia- 
 ments to meet in annual session extending 
 from the middle of February to about the end 
 of August. Every session must end with a 
 prorogation, and by it all Bills which have not 
 been passed during the session fall to the 
 ground. The royal proclamation which sum- 
 mons Parliament in order to proceed to busi- 
 ness must be issued fourteen days before the 
 time of meeting. A dissolution is the civil 
 death of Parliament ; it may occur by the will 
 of the sovereign, or, as is most usual, during 
 the recess, by proclamation, or finally by lapse 
 of time, the statutory limit of the duration of 
 tho existence of any Parliament being seven 
 years. Formerly, on the demise of the sover- 
 eign, Parliament stood dissolved by the fact 
 thereof ; but this was altered in the reign of 
 William III., to the effect of postponing the 
 dissolution till six months after the accession 
 of the new sovereign, while the Reform Act of 
 1867 settled that the Parliament " in being at 
 any future demise of the Crown shall not be 
 determined by such demise." 
 
 The present form of Parliament, as divided 
 
 i into two Houses of Legislature, the Lords and 
 the Commons, dates from the middle of the 
 fourteenth century. 
 
 The House of Lords consists of peers who 
 
 hold their seats (1) by hereditary right; (2) 
 
 ; by creation of the sovereign ; (3) by virtue of 
 
 i office English bishops ; (4) by election for 
 
 life Irish peers ; (5) by election for duration 
 
 i of Parliament Scottish peers. 
 
 The number of names on the " Roll " was 
 401 in 1830; 457 in 1840; 448 in 1850; 458 
 in 1860; 503 in 1877; and 586 in 1898. 
 About two thirds of the hereditary peerages 
 were created in the present century. Exclud- 
 ing the royal and ecclesiastical peerages, the 
 4 oldest existing peerages in the House of 
 i Lords date from the latter part of the 
 j thirteenth century, while 5 go back to the 
 | fourteenth and 7 to the fifteenth century. 
 j There are besides 8 peeresses of the United 
 i Kingdom in their own right, and 2 Scotch 
 peeresses, and 18 Scotch and 62 Irish peers 
 who are not peers of Parliament. 
 
 The House of Commons has consisted, since 
 49 Hen. III., of knights of the shire, or repre- 
 sentatives of counties ; of citizens, or represen- 
 tatives of cities ; and of burgesses, or represen- 
 tatives of boroughs, all of whom vote 
 together. To the House of Commons, in the 
 reign of Edward I., 37 counties and 166 
 boroughs each returned tw r o representatives ; 
 but at the accession of Henry VIII., the total 
 number of constituencies was only 147. The 
 additions from Edward VI. to Charles 1 1. were 
 almost entirely of borough members. In the 
 fourth Parliament of Char'es I., the number 
 of places in England and Wales for which re- 
 turns were made, exclusive of counties, 
 amounted to 210; and in the time of the 
 Stuarts, the total number of members of the 
 House of Commons was about 500. At the 
 union of the English and Scottish Parliaments 
 in 1707, 45 representatives of Scotland were 
 added : and at the union of the British and 
 Irish Parliaments in 1801, 100 representatives 
 of Ireland. The average number of members 
 was then about 650. 
 
 By the Reform Bill of 1832, the number of 
 English county constituencies was increased 
 from 52 to 82 ; 56 boroughs, containing a 
 population of less than 2,000 each, were 
 totally disfranchised, and 31 other boroughs, 
 of less than 4,000 each, were required to send 
 one representative instead of two. On the 
 other hand, 22 new boroughs acquired the 
 right to return two members, and 24 to return 
 one member. In Scotland the town members 
 were increased from 15 to 23 making 53 in 
 all, while the Irish representatives were in- 
 creased from 100 to 103.
 
 80 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The next great change in the constituency 
 of the House of Commons, was made by the 
 Reform Bill of 1867-68. By this Act England 
 and Wales were allotted 493 members and 
 Scotland 60, while the number for Ireland re- 
 mained \inaltered, and household suffrage was 
 conferred on boroughs in England and Scot- 
 land. A still greater reform was effected by 
 the Representation of the People Act, 1884, 
 and the Redistribution 'of Seats Act, 1885. 
 The former introduced a "service franchise," 
 extending to householders and lodgers in 
 counties the suffrages which in 1867 had been 
 conferred upon householders and lodgers in 
 boroughs, and placed the three Kingdoms on a 
 footing of equality as regards electoral qualifi- 
 cations ; while the latter made a new division 
 of the United Kingdom into county and borough 
 constituencies, and raised the total number of 
 members to 670, England receiving 6 new 
 members, and Scotland 12. 
 
 All elections for members of Parliament 
 must be by secret vote by ballot, an Act being 
 passed annually to this effect. 
 
 No one under twenty-one years of age can 
 be a member of Parliament. All clergymen of 
 the Church of England, ministers of the 
 Church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic 
 clergymen are disqualified from sitting as 
 members ; all Government contractors, and all 
 sheriffs and returning officers for the localities 
 for which they act, are disqualified both from 
 voting and from sitting as members. No Eng- 
 lish or Scottish peer can be elected to the 
 House of Commons, but non-representative 
 Irish peers are eligible. 
 
 The executive government of Great Britain 
 and Ireland is vested nominally in the Crown ; 
 but practically in a committee of Ministers, 
 commonly called the Cabinet, whose existence 
 is dependent on the possession of a majority in 
 the House of Commons. 
 
 The member of the Cabinet who fills the 
 position of First Lord of the Treasury is, as a 
 rule, the chief of the Ministry. It is on the 
 Premier's recommendation that his colleagues 
 are appointed ; and he dispenses the greater 
 portion of the patronage of the Crown. 
 
 The Cabinet officers are as follows : 
 
 Prime Minister and Secretary of State for 
 Foreign Affairs. 
 
 Lord President of the Council. 
 
 Lord High Chancellor. 
 
 Lord Privy Seal. 
 
 Chancellor of the Duchy i,f Lancaster. 
 
 First Lord of the Treasury. 
 
 Secretary <>J Stttte for the Home I 
 
 Chancellor jf the Exchequer. 
 
 Secretary of Stale for the Colon 'K-.K. 
 
 Secretary of State for War. 
 
 Secretary of State for India. 
 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 President of the. Local Government Board. 
 
 President of the Board of Trade. 
 
 Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 
 
 Lord Chancellor of Ireland. 
 
 Secretary for Scotland. 
 
 First Commissioner of Works. 
 
 President of the Board of Agriculture. 
 
 Local Government. England and Wales. In each 
 county the Crown is represented by a Lord Lieutenant, 
 who is generally also custos rotulomm, or keeper of the 
 records. He usually nominates persons whom he con- 
 siders fit and proper persons to be justices of the peace 
 for his county, to be appointed by the Lord Chancellor. 
 His duties, however, are almost nominal. There is also 
 a sheriff, who represents the executive of the Crown, an 
 under-sheriff, a clerk of the peace, coroners, who are 
 appointed and paid by the County Councils, and other 
 officers. The licensing of persons to sell intoxicating 
 liquors, and the administration of the criminal law 
 except that which deals with some of the graver of- 
 fenses is in the hands of the magistrates. For the 
 purposes of local government, England and Wales are 
 divided into sixty-one administrative eoitnties, includ- 
 ing the county or London, which differ slightly in area 
 from the geographical counties. 
 
 For each administrative county there is a popularly- 
 elected Council, called a County Council, who co-opt a 
 prescribed number of aldermen, either from their own 
 body or from outside it. Aldermen are elected for six 
 years, half of them retiring every third year. A 
 councilor is elected for three years. The juris- 
 diction of the County Councils extend to (1) making of 
 county and police rates; (2) borrowing money; (3) super- 
 vision of county treasurer; (4) management of county 
 halls and other buildings; (5) licensing of houses for 
 music and dancing, and of race courses ; (6) maintenance 
 and management of pauper lunatic asylums; (7) main- 
 tenance or reformatory and industrial schools ; (8) man- 
 agement of bridges and main roads; (9) regulation of 
 fees of inspectors, analysts, and other officers ; (10) con- 
 trol of officers paid out of the county rate ; (11) coroner's 
 
 county police is vested in a standing joint committee, 
 composed of an equal number of magistrates and mem- 
 bers of the County Council. The London police are, 
 however, under the control of the Home Secretary. 
 
 The administrative counties, with the exception of 
 the County of London, are subdivided into " County 
 Districts," which are either Urban or, Rural, as the 
 case may be. Generally speaking, an urban district 
 comprises a town or a small area more or less closely 
 populated, and a rural district takes in several country 
 parishes. Women may be elected to District Councils, 
 but may not sit on County Councils ; and the chairman 
 of a District Council is, unless a woman, a magistrate 
 for the county by virtue of his office. The District 
 Councils administer the Public Health and Highway 
 Acts, and also exercise some powers formerly exercised 
 by the justices out of session. 
 
 In every civil parish in a "rural district" there is a 
 Parish Meeting, at which every parochial elector may 
 attend and vote. In such parishes of over 300 inhabit- 
 ants there is in addition a Parish Council. To these 
 latter bodies has been transferred all the civil powers 
 of the old Vestries, including the election of overseers, 
 and in addition very considerable powers over charities, 
 allotments, and other public matters. Where there is 
 no Parish Council some of these powers, including the 
 appointment of the overseers, are exercised by the 
 Parish Meeting. Urban District Councils can, by peti- 
 tioning the Local Government Board which is the 
 supreme Local Government authority obtain part or 
 all of the powers of a Parish Council. Only Parish 
 Meetings may have power to adopt the Public Libraries 
 Acts, tin- Batnfl ami Washlxmses Acts, the Lighting and 
 Watching Acts, the Burials Acts, and the Public Im- 
 provements Acts. 
 
 In the County of London local government is carried 
 on under the County Council by the Vestries, formed 
 under the Metropolis Management Acts, which exercise 
 powers similar but somewhat wider than urban district
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 councils. These Vestries are elected on the same wide 
 suffrage as district councilors. Married women, prop- 
 erly qualified, have votes, and may now sit on them, as 
 well as single women. 
 
 In all the great towns, including " county boroughs." 
 local business is administered by a municipal Corpora- 
 tion, which derives its authority from a charter granted 
 by the Crown. In 1835 the municipalities of the country- 
 were completely reorganized. A municipal Corporation 
 consists of the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses, and acts 
 through a Council elected by the burgesses practically 
 by the ratepayers. The councilors serve for three 
 years, one third retiring annually ; the aldermen are 
 elected by the Council, and the mayor, who serves for 
 one year, also by the Council. A municipal Corporation 
 has practically all the powers of an urban district coun- 
 cil, in addition to the privilege of electing a mayor and 
 corporation, and in some cases municipal boroughs 
 have a separate commission of the peace and maintain 
 their own police force. As to Poor Law and School 
 Board administration, see "Pauperism" and "Instruc- 
 tion." 
 
 Scotland. By the Local Government (Scotland) Act, 
 1894, a Local Government Board for Scotland was con- 
 stituted, its President being the Secretary for Scotland. 
 The Local Government Act, which was passed for Scot- 
 land in 1889, followed in its main outlines the English 
 Act of the previous year. The powers of local adminis- 
 tration in counties formerly exercised by the Commis- 
 sioners of Supply and Road Trustees, were either whollv 
 or in part transferred to the new Councils, which took 
 over their duties and responsibilities in 1890. The Act 
 of 1894 provided that a Parish Council should be estab- 
 lished in every parish to take the place of the Parochial 
 Boards, and to exercise powers similar to those of the 
 Parish Councils in cost of administration. Such towns, 
 having over 1,500 inhabitants, may be constituted urban 
 sanitary districts. 
 
 The I'sle of Man and the Channel Islands are not bound 
 by Acts of the Imperial Parliament unless specially 
 mentioned. The Isle of Man is administered in accord- 
 ance with its own laws by the Court of Tynwald, con- 
 sisting of the Governor, appointed by the'Crown ; the 
 Council for Public Affairs, composed chiefly of ecclesi- 
 astical and judicial dignitaries appointed by the Crown, 
 and the House of Keys, a representative assembly of 24 
 members chosen on a property qualification for seven 
 years by the six " sheadings " or local subdivisions, and 
 the four municipalities. The Channel Islands are ad- 
 ministered according to their own laws and customs, 
 each by a Lieut. Governor, with judicial and other 
 functionaries; and a "States" Assembly, partly elec- 
 tive. Jersey has a separate legal existence. Guernsey, 
 Alderney, and Sark have a Lieut. Governor in common, 
 but otherwise their governments are separate. 
 
 Justice. England and Wales. The principal courts 
 having criminal jurisdiction are the petty sessional 
 courts, the general or quarter sessions, the courts of 
 oyer and terminer and gaol delivery, more popularly 
 known as "assizes," anil the Central Criminal Court. 
 Two or more justices of the peace sitting in a petty 
 sessional courthouse, the Lord Mayor or any alderman 
 of the City of London, or any metropolitan or borough 
 police magistrate or other sti'pendary magistrate sitting 
 in a courthouse, constitute a pettv sessional court. 
 The courts of quarter sessions are held four times a 
 year by the justices of the county. Similar courts can 
 be held at other times, and are then called "general 
 sessions." Two justices constitute a court, but usually 
 a larger number attend. Certain boroughs have a court 
 of quarter sessions, with similar jurisdiction to the 
 county justices in quarter sessions assembled, in which 
 the recorder of the borough is the judge. The assize 
 courts are held four times a year in various towns 
 throughout the country by " commissioners " nominated 
 by the Crown. These commissioners are generally 
 judges of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court 
 of Justice, but sometimes Queen's Counsel of good 
 standing are appointed. The trial takes place before a 
 single commissioner. The Central Criminal Court is 
 the court of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery for the 
 City of London and a large surrounding district. The 
 sessions of this court are held at least twelve times a 
 year, and more often if necessary. The Recorder and 
 the Common Sergeant, and, if the number of the pris- 
 oners makes it necessary, the judge of the City of 
 London Court, sit on the first two days, after which 
 they are joined by the judges of the High Court on the 
 rota, for whom the more serious cases are reserved. A 
 petty sessional court deals summarily with minor 
 
 offenses. Cases of a more serious nature are usually 
 investigated by a petty sessional court before being 
 tried at the sessions or the assizes. To every session, 
 assize, and to every sitting of the Central Criminal 
 Court, the sheriff cites 24 of the chief inhabitants of the 
 district, of whom not less than 12 and not more than 
 23 are sworn and constitute a grand jury. The grand 
 jury examines the bill of indictment against the 
 accused person, hears the evidence of witnesses for 
 the prosecution, and if they think a prima facie case 
 for trial is made out they indorse the bill " a true bill." 
 All criminal trials, except those which come before a 
 court of summary jurisdiction, take place before a 
 judge and a petty jury of twelve men. Except on some 
 highly technical point of procedure there is no appeal 
 in criminal cases. No man can be tried again for the 
 same crime after a petty jury has found him "not 
 guilty." On a conviction the judge can, if he think tit, 
 reserve a question of law (but not of fact) for the Court 
 for Crown Cases Reserved. This Court is fonned by 
 five or more judges of the High Court, and can reverse, 
 amend, or affirm the judgment. The only other method 
 of securing the revision of a sentence is by the royal 
 prerogative, exercised on the advice of the Home Sec- 
 retary, bv which a sentence can be modified or annulled. 
 Nominally all the judges are appointed by the Queen, 
 but in practice the Lord_ Chancellor (who is a Cabinet 
 minister, ex ofHcio president of the House of Lords, 
 and oes out with the ministry) and the Lord Chief 
 Justice are appointed on the recommendation of the 
 Prime Minister, and all the other judges on the recom- 
 mendation of the Lord Chancellor. 
 
 Scotland. The High Court of Justiciary is the su- 
 preme criminal court in Scotland. It consists of all the 
 judges of the Court of Session, and sits more or less 
 frequently, as the number of cases before it may 
 require, in Edinburgh or in the circuit towns. One 
 judge can, and usually does, try cases, but two or more 
 preside in cases of difficulty or importance. It is the 
 only competent court in cases of treason, murder, rob- 
 bery, rape, fire-raising, deforcement of messengers, and 
 generally in all cases in which a higher punishment 
 than imprisonment is by statute directed to be inflicted ; 
 and it has moreover an inherent jurisdiction to punish 
 all criminal acts, both those already established by 
 common law or statute, and such as have never previ- 
 ously come before the courts and are not within any 
 statute. 
 
 The sheriff of each county is the proper criminal 
 j"udge in all crimes occurring within the county which 
 infer only an arbitrary punishment, and if the case is 
 tried with a jury the High Court has no power of review 
 on the merits. Even in cases indicted to the High Court 
 the accused is, under the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) 
 Act of 1887, regularly asked to plead in the sheriff court, 
 and minor objections to the indictment can be wholly 
 or in part disposed of there. Borough magistrates and 
 justices of the peace have jurisdiction in petty cases 
 occurring within the burgh or county, and in a number 
 of minor offenses under various statutes. 
 
 Ireland. In Ireland persons charged with crime are 
 first brought before the petty sessions court, which 
 must consist of at least two ordinary justices of the 
 peace, one of whom may be a stipendiary commonly 
 called a resident magistrate. Then if the charge be 
 trifling it may be disposed of, the prisoner, if convicted, 
 having a rig'ht of appeal to the quarter sessions or 
 recorder's court (according as it is in a borough or in 
 the county), provided he is fined more than twenty 
 shillings of sentenced to a longer imprisonment than 
 one month (Petty Sessions Act, sec. 24). If the charge 
 be of a more serious character it must either be dis- 
 missed or sent for trial to the quarter sessions or 
 recorder's court, or to the assizes, as in England. There 
 is this difference, however, between quarter sessions in 
 Ireland and in England: in England they are presided 
 over by an unpaid chairman, who need not be a lawyer, 
 and who is elected by his fellow justices of the peace 
 for the county ; while'in Ireland they are presided over 
 by a paid official, who must be a barrister, whose de- 
 cision on points of law binds the court, who is appointed 
 by the Crown, and who is also judge of the civil bill 
 court of the county, which corresponds to the English 
 county court. The'assizes are presided over by one of 
 the common law judges of the High Court of Justice. 
 In the quarter sessions, recorder's court, and assizes 
 the trial is by jurv in all cases save appeals from petty 
 sessions. Under the Crimes Aet witnesses and persons 
 suspected of crime may be interrogated before a secret 
 court of inquiry; but admissions then made are not
 
 82 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 evidence against the persons making them. Prisoners in cases where the sentence exceeds a month, convicted 
 mav he convicted hefore two resident magistrates spe- persons have a right of appeal to the county chairman 
 dally appointed to hear cases under the Crimes Act, and | at quarter sessions. 
 
 Territorial Extent of the British Empire. 
 
 THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Area in 
 Square Miles. 
 
 How Acquired by England. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Population, 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 50,840 
 
 
 
 27,499,984 
 
 Wales 
 
 7,470 
 
 Conquest 
 
 1282 
 
 1,501,034 
 
 
 29,785 
 
 Union 
 
 1603 
 
 4,033.103 
 
 
 32,~>K{ 
 
 Conquest 
 
 1372 
 
 4,70j.448 
 
 
 295 
 
 
 
 147 870 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 120,973 
 
 
 
 37,888,439 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES. 
 
 EUROPE : 
 Gibraltar 
 
 2 
 
 Conquest 
 
 1704 
 
 25,869 
 
 
 122 
 
 Treaty cession 
 
 1814 
 
 165 66 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ASIA: 
 
 
 ( Conquest 
 
 Begun 1757 ) 
 
 
 India (including Burmah) 
 Cevlon . .... 
 
 1,800,258 
 25 365 
 
 1 Transfer from East India Co. . . 
 Treaty cession 
 
 1858 ( 
 1801 
 
 3,008 239 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 3 584 
 
 Convention with Turkev 
 
 1878 
 
 187,000 
 
 
 3 070 
 
 (Aden) conquest 
 
 1839 
 
 44,000 
 
 
 1 500 
 
 Treaty cession 
 
 1785-1824 
 
 506 S77 
 
 
 SO 1 /, 
 
 Treaty cession 
 
 1841 
 
 221 411 
 
 
 31 
 
 Treatv cession 
 
 >46 
 
 5 853 
 
 
 31 000 
 
 Cession to Company . . . . 
 
 18.7 
 
 150 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AFRICA : 
 Cape Colony 
 
 221,310 
 
 Treatv cession 
 
 1588, 1814 
 
 1,527,224 
 
 Natal 
 
 21,150 
 
 
 18)3 
 
 643,913 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 47 
 
 
 1673 
 
 4,116 
 
 Ascension 
 
 38 
 
 Annexation 
 
 1815 
 
 200 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 1787 
 
 300.000 
 
 British Guinea, Gold Coast, etc 
 
 339,900 
 
 Treatv cession. . . . 
 
 1K^2 
 
 23,455,000 
 
 Mauritius, etc : 
 
 1,063 
 
 
 1S10. 1814 
 
 3! 12.500 
 
 British South and East Africa 
 
 1,989,247 
 
 Conquest and cession 
 
 1870-1890 
 
 14,911,000 
 
 AMERICA : 
 Canada Proper ... 
 
 370,488 
 
 Conquest 
 
 1759-60") 
 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 28,200 
 
 Treaty cession 
 
 in.3 
 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 20,907 
 
 Conquest 
 
 1C27 
 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 73,956 
 
 Settlement 
 
 1813 } 
 
 4,833,239 
 
 British Columbia, etc 
 
 383.300 
 
 Transfer to Crown 
 
 1858 
 
 
 Northwest Territories 
 
 3,257.500 
 
 Charter to Company 
 
 1670 
 
 
 Prince Edward Island 
 
 2,133 
 
 Conquest 
 
 17-J5J 
 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 42.200 
 
 Treaty cession 
 
 1713 
 
 198,000 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 76,000 
 
 Conquest and cession 
 
 1803 1811 
 
 282.000 
 
 British Honduras 
 
 7,562 
 
 Conquest 
 
 1.9* 
 
 28,000 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 4,193 
 
 Conquest . . 
 
 1655 
 
 581.000 
 
 Trinidad and Tobago 
 
 1,754 
 
 Conquest .' 
 
 1797 
 
 205.000 
 
 Barbadoes 
 
 166 
 
 Settlement 
 
 1605 
 
 172,000 
 
 Bahamas 
 
 5,794 
 
 
 1629 
 
 48 000 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 41 
 
 
 1612 
 
 16,000 
 
 Other Islands 
 
 8,742 
 
 
 
 255,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AUSTRALASIA: 
 New South Wales 
 
 310,700 
 
 Settlement 
 
 1788 
 
 1,132,234 
 
 Victoria < 
 
 87,884 
 
 
 1832 
 
 1,140.405 
 
 South Australia 
 
 903,690 
 
 Settlement 
 
 1836 
 
 320,431 
 
 Queensland 
 
 668,497 
 
 
 1824 
 
 393 718 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 975,876 
 
 Settlement 
 
 1828 
 
 49,782 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 26,215 
 
 
 1x03 
 
 146 667 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 104,032 
 
 
 1845 
 
 626.658 
 
 Fiji 
 
 7,423 
 
 
 1874 
 
 125 402 
 
 New Guinea (British) 
 
 234,768 
 
 
 1884 
 
 350 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 Constitution and Government. As 
 
 originally constituted the Dominion of Canada 
 was composed of the Provinces of Canada 
 Upper and Lower Nova Scotia, and New 
 Brunswick. They were united under the pro- 
 visions of an Act of the Imperial Parliament 
 
 passed in March, 1807, known as " The 
 British North America Act 1887," which 
 came into operation on the 1st July, 1867, by 
 royal proclamation. The Act provides that 
 the Constitution of the Dominion shall be 
 " similar in principle to that of the United 
 Kingdom " ; that the executive authority shall
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 83 
 
 be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and carried on in her name by a 
 Governor General and Privy Council ; and 
 that the legislative power shall be exercised by 
 a Parliament of two Houses, called the " Sen- 
 ate " and the "House of Commons." Pro- 
 vision was made in the Act for the admis- 
 sion of British Columbia, Prince Edward Is- 
 land, the North-West Territories, and New- 
 foundland into the Dominion ; Newfoundland 
 alone has not availed itself of such provision. 
 In 1869 the extensive region known as the 
 North- West Territories was added to the Do- 
 minion by purchase from the Hudson's Bay 
 Company ; the province of Manitoba was set 
 apart out of a portion of it, and admitted 
 into the confederation on the loth July, 1870. 
 On 20th July, 1871, the province of British 
 Columbia, and on the 1st J ily, 1873, the pro- 
 vince of Prince Edward Island, respectively 
 entered the confederation. 
 
 The members of the Senate of the Parlia- 
 ment of the Dominion are nominated for life, 
 by summons of the Governor General under 
 the Great Seal of Canada. By the terms of 
 the Constitution, there are now 81 Senators 
 namely, 24 from the Province of Ontario, 24 
 from Quebec, 10 from Nova Scotia, 10 from 
 New Brunswick, 4 from Manitoba, 3 from 
 British Columbia, 4 from Prince Edward Is- 
 land, and two from the Territories. Each 
 senator must be 30 years of age, a born or 
 naturalized subject, and reside in, and be pos- 
 sessed of property, real or personal, of the 
 value of 4,000 dollars within, the province for 
 which he is appointed. The House of Com- 
 mons of the Dominion is elected by the peo- 
 ple, for five years, unless sooner dissolved, at 
 the rate at present of one representative for 
 every 22, 688, the arrangement being that the 
 province of Quebec shall always have 65 mem- 
 bers, and the other provinces proportionally 
 according to their populations at each decen- 
 nial census. On the basis of the census of 
 the Dominion taken in April, 1891, and in ac- 
 cordance with a redistribution bill passed in 
 1892, the House of Commons consists of 213 
 members 92 for Ontario, 65 for Quebec, 
 20 for Nova Scotia, 14 for New Brunswick, 7 
 for Manitoba, 6 for British Columbia, 5 for 
 Prince Edward Island, and 4 for the North- 
 West Territories. 
 
 The members of the House of Commons 
 are elected by constituencies, the electors of 
 which are supplied by franchises under the 
 control of the several provincial assemblies, 
 an Act having been passed to that effect in the 
 session of 1898. The qualifications for vot- 
 ing at provincial elections vary in the several 
 provinces. Voting is by ballot. 
 
 The Speaker of the House of Commons has 
 a salary of 4,000 dollars per annum, and each 
 member an allowance of 10 dollars per diem, 
 up to the end of 30 days, and for a session 
 lasting longer than this period the sum of 
 1,000 dollars, with, in every case, 10 cents per 
 mile for traveling expenses. The sum of 8 
 dollars per diem is deducted for every day's 
 absence of a member, unless the same is 
 caused by illness. There is the same allow- 
 ance for the members of the Senate of the 
 Dominion. 
 
 Dominion Executive Officers. 
 
 Governor General. 
 
 Premier and President of Privy Council. 
 
 Minister of Public Works. 
 
 Minister of 'Customs. 
 
 Minister of Militia and Defense. 
 
 Minister of Agriculture. 
 
 Minister of Finance. 
 
 Minister of Justice. 
 
 Minister of Marine and Fisheries. 
 
 Minister of the Interior. 
 
 Minister of Railways and Canals, 
 
 Minister without Portfolio. 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 Postmaster- General. 
 
 Rulers since 1867. 
 
 Lord Mouck, Governor General. 1867-1868. 
 
 Lord Lisgar, Governor General. 1868-1872. 
 
 Earl Dufferin, Governor General. 1872- 
 1878. 
 
 Marquis of Lome, Governor General. 
 1878-1883. 
 
 Marquis of Lansdowne, Governor General. 
 1883-1888. 
 
 Baron Stanley of Preston, Governor Gen- 
 eral. 1888-1893. 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen, Governor General. 1893- 
 1898-. 
 
 Earl of Minto, Governor General. 1898. 
 
 Each of the ministers has a salary, fixed by 
 statute, of 7, 000 dollars, or 1,400/. a year, with 
 the exception of the recognized Prime Minister, 
 who has 8,000 dollars, or 1,600/. and the Min- 
 isters of Customs and Inland Revenue, who 
 have each 5,000 dollars a year. The body o 
 ministers is officially known as the " Queen's 
 Privy Council of Canada." The Governor 
 General has a salary of 10,OOOZ. per annum. 
 
 Provincial Government. The seven provinces form- 
 ing the Dominion have each a separate Parliament and 
 administration, with a Lieutenant Governor at the head 
 of the executive. They have full powers to regulate 
 their own local affairs'and dispose of their revenues, 
 provided only they do not interfere with the action and 
 policy of the central administration. The Lieutenant 
 Governors are appointed by the Governor General. 
 Quebec and Nova Scotia have each two Chambers (a 
 Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembly) and a 
 responsible Ministry. In New Brunswick, Ontario, 
 Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island 
 there is only one Chamber (the Legislative Assembly; 
 and a responsible Ministry. The members of the Legis-
 
 84 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 lative Council of Nova Scotia number 21, and Quebec 24. 
 The membership of the Legislative Assemblies are: 
 Prince Edward Island 30, Nova Scotia 38, New Bruns- 
 wick 41, Quebec 73, Ontario 94, Manitoba 40, British 
 Columbia 33, and the North- West Territories 26. The 
 North-West Territories are presided over by a Lieu- 
 tenant Governor and a Legislative Assembly. The Ex- 
 ecutive Council consists (since October 1, 1897) of the 
 Lieutenant Governor and five members, elected, as such, 
 by the people. 
 
 Instruction. All the provinces of the Dominion 
 have one or more universities, and several colleges 
 which prepare for university degrees. There are in all 
 about 16 degree-granting bodies in the Dominion, with 
 about 24 colleges, including denominational, medical, 
 and other special institutions. From special official 
 statistics of these institutions it may be estimated that 
 they are attended by about 13,000 students, and their 
 total annual expenditure is upwards of $700,000, while 
 the estimated value of their endowments, buildings, 
 land, etc., is over $16,000,000. 
 
 The expenditure for the year on public and high 
 schools, including Government grants, was over $10,- 
 000,000. The supervision of education is under the 
 control of the Governments of the several provinces, 
 and the systems in use vary somewhat, but are all based 
 on the principle of free education, the funds being sup- 
 plied in nearly all the provinces by Government grants 
 and local taxation. In British Columbia and the North- 
 West Territories the schools are supported wholly by 
 Government. Education is more or less compulsory 
 in all the provinces, but the law is not very strictly 
 enforced. In Ontario, Quebec, and the North-West 
 Territories there are separate schools for Roman Catho- 
 lics ; in the other provinces the schools are unsectarian. 
 Separate schools in Manitoba were abolished by a Pro- 
 vincial Act passed in 1890. 
 
 Justice. There is a Supreme Court in Ottawa, hav- 
 ing appellate, civil, and criminal jurisdiction in and 
 throughout Canada. There is also an exchequer court, 
 which is also a colonial court of admiralty, with powers 
 as provided in the Imperial " Colonial Courts of Admi- 
 ralty Act, 1890." There is a Superior Court in each prov- 
 ince; county courts, with limited jurisdiction, in most 
 of the provinces ; all the judges in these courts being 
 appointed by the Governor General . Police magistrates 
 and j ustices of the peace are appointed by the Provincial 
 Governments. 
 
 Religion. There is no State Church in the whole of 
 British North America. The Church of England is gov- 
 erned by twenty bishops, with about 1,000 clergy; the 
 Roman Catholic Church by one cardinal, seven arch- 
 bishops, twenty-three bishops, and about 1,500 clergy : 
 and -the Presbyterian Church in Canada, with about 
 1,000 ministers formed in 1875 by the union of two 
 formerly distinct bodies by presbyteries, synods, and 
 an annual assembly as in the Scotch Church, with 2,358 
 churches and stations. The Methodists have 1,700 and 
 the Baptists about 500 ministers. All these bodies have 
 one or more divinity schools. The number of members 
 of each religious creed in the Dominion was as follows 
 at the census of April 6, 1891 : 
 
 Congregationalists 28,157 
 
 Miscellaneous creeds.,106,739 
 No creed stated *89,355 
 
 Roman Catholics.. 1,992,017 
 
 Presbyterians 755,326 
 
 Anglicans 646,059 
 
 Methodists 847,765 
 
 Baptists 303,839 
 
 Lutherans 63,982 
 
 * Including Pagans. 
 
 The following shows the, numbers of the leading de- 
 nominations in the several provinces according to the 
 census of 1891 : 
 
 Total 4,833,239 
 
 
 
 <H . 
 
 
 
 
 PROVINCE. 
 
 1- 
 
 S,g 
 
 o- 
 
 .3 S 
 - 
 
 ii 
 
 4 
 3.2 
 
 01 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 British Columbia. . . 
 Prince Edw'd Island 
 The Territories 
 
 20,r.7i :).*>_' :i!i,(Mii -..'8,43 
 
 20,843 23.i;l'. l.V_'s4 11.2! is :i.0!is 
 
 47XS7 6.646 33.072 K1..V.K; (i,'Jf,5 
 
 14,344 15,966 12,558 8,158 1,555 
 
 I 
 
 Production and Industry. Agriculture. Of the 
 total area of Canada in 1891, there were 28,537,242 acres 
 of improved land, out of 60,287,730 acres of occupied 
 land. Of the improved lands, 19,904,826 acres were un- 
 der crop, being 4,792,542 acres more than were under 
 crop in 1881. The acreage under pasture in 1891 was 15,- 
 234,788 acres, an increase of 8,899,226 acres since 1881. 
 The acreage under wheat in 1891 was 2,723,861 acres, an 
 increase of 381,506 acres in ten years. The average yield 
 of 1891 per acre was 15.4 bushels, an increase of 1.6 
 bushels per acre over the yield of 1881. There is a cen- 
 tral experimental farm near Ottawa, and others in sev- 
 eral of the provinces. In 1895 there were 195 ranches 
 in the N.-W. Territories, covering an area of 904,187 
 acres. 
 
 Forestry. The timber wealth of Canada is very 
 large, and timbering one of its most important indus- 
 tries. The forest area is estimated at 1,248,798 square 
 miles. The forest products of 1891 were valued at 80,- 
 071,415 dollars, of which 27,207,547 dollars were exported. 
 The census returns show an aggregate of 2,045,073,072 
 cubic feet as the total cut of the year. The forest prod- 
 ucts exported to the United Kingdom in 1897 amounted 
 in value to 14,973,292 dollars out of a total of 32,937,976 
 dollars. The recently introduced wood pulp industry is 
 increasing rapidly, the exportable surplus being 741,960 
 dollars in 1897, cliiefly going to Great Britain and the 
 United States. The Crown forests belong to the Pro- 
 vincial Governments, except in Manitoba, the N.-W. 
 Territories, and the Railway Belt (forty miles wide) in 
 British Columbia, where they belong to the Dominion. 
 
 Fisheries. The total value.of the produce of the risher- 
 iesof Canada in 1896 was 20,407,424 dollars; in!895, 20,185,- 
 298 dollars. The values of the principal catches in 1896 
 were: cod, 3,610,979 dollars; salmon, 4,009,679 dollars; 
 herring, 2,909,744 dollars ; lobsters, 2,205,762 dollars, and 
 mackereV'727,743 dollars. In 1896, according to prov- 
 inces, the values were: Nova Scotia, 6,070,895 dollars; 
 British Columbia, 4,183,999; New Brunswick, 4,799,433; 
 Quebec, 2,025,754; Ontario, 1,605,674; Prince Edward 
 Island, 976,126; Manitoba and N.-W. Territories, 745,543. 
 
 Mining. Nova Scotia, British Columbia, Quebec, N. 
 and W. Ontario, and part of the N.-W. Territories, are 
 the chief mining districts of Canada. The total value 
 of the mineral produce of Canada was, in 1897, 28,779,173 
 dollars ; in 1896, 22,009,825 dollars. The principal product 
 is coal, of which, in 1896, 3,745,716 tons were raised, val- 
 ued at 7,226,462 dollars ; in 1897, 3,876,201 tons, valued at 
 7,442,204 dollars. Among the other minerals produced 
 in 1897 were gold, 6,190,000 dollars ; nickel, 1,400,000 dol- 
 lars; asbestos, 324,700 dollars; petroleum, 1,011,546 dol- 
 lars; copper, 1,501,660 dollars; silver, 3,322,000 dollars; 
 lead, 1,396,850 dollars; iron ore, 178,719 dollars. It is 
 estimated that the coal-bearing area of the N.-W. 
 Territories extends over 65,000 square miles. 
 
 Capital. The capital of Canada was transferred in 
 1841 from Kingston to Montreal, and in 1849 serious riots 
 arose resulting in the burning of the Parliament Houses 
 on the 26th of April, over the question of compensation 
 for those who had suffered losses during the recent 
 rebellion. The riots were in reality caused by the hostil- 
 ity of the British and French inhabitants. "One of the 
 results was the establishment of two seats of govern- 
 ment, one at Toronto and the other at Ottawa, Parlia- 
 ment sitting four years in each city alternately. Ottawa 
 later on was made the capital of Canada and eventually 
 of the Dominion. 
 
 Naturalization. No question of naturalization arises 
 in connection with the emigration of British subjects to 
 Canada. Settling in the Dominion makes no more 
 change in this respect than a removal from York, Glas- 
 gow, Swansea, or Dublin to London, and a new arrival 
 lias all the privileges of a Canadian born fellow subject. 
 For foreigners the Canadian naturalization laws are 
 marked by a spirit of liberality, and such persons can 
 transact any business and hold real estate without being 
 naturalized. By residing three years and taking the 
 oath of allegiance they become naturalized British sub- 
 jects. The oath is one of .simple allegiance and does 
 not require any offensive, renunciations. Na t lira li Ca- 
 tion confers political and all other rights. 
 
 Money and Credit. The Bank Acts of Canada im- 
 ]io>e stringent lit ions as to capital, notes iu circula- 
 tion, limit, of dividend, returns to the Dominion 
 Government, and other points in all chartered and 
 incorporated banks. In making pa\ nientsevery bank is 
 compelled if required to pay a certain proportion in 
 Dominion Government notes, and must hold not less 
 than 40 per cent, of its cash reserve in Dominion Govern- 
 ment notes. In 1897 there were 37 incorporated banks
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 85 
 
 making retnrns to the Government, with 575 branches 
 all over the Dominion. 
 
 Post-office savings banks under charge of the 
 Government have been in operation in Canada since 1868 ; 
 there are also Government savings banks, under the 
 management of the Finance Department, in the Mari- 
 time Provinces, Manitoba, and British Columbia. In 
 1897 there were 779 offices of the former and 28 of the 
 latter. In 1897 the post-office savings banks had 135,737 
 depositors and 32,380,829 dollars on deposit. 
 
 Internal Communications. Canada has a system of 
 canal, river, and lake navigation over 2,700 miles in 
 length, and vessels from the lake ports reach the Atlan- 
 tic without breaking bulk. Up to 1897, 71,750,000 dollars 
 had been spent on canals for construction alone. In 
 1896, 25,622 vessels, of 4,677,826 tons, passed through the 
 Canadian canals, carrying 151,342 passengers and 3,413,674 
 tons of freight, chiefly grain, timber, and coal. 
 
 The Dominion of Canada had a network of railways 
 of a total length of 16,687 miles completed at the 'end of 
 June, 1897, being an increase of 300 miles over that of 
 1S96. The number of miles in operation was 16,550. The 
 Canadian Pacific Railway main line from Montreal to 
 Vancouver is 2,906 miles in length. By means of this 
 railway and a line of Pacific steamers subsidized by the 
 Imperial and Dominion Governments, Montreal and 
 Yokohama have been brought within 14 days of one an- 
 other. There is a monthly steam service between A ustra- 
 lia and British Columbia, for which the Dominion Gov- 
 ernment gives 25,000?. a year and the Australian 12,0001. 
 a year. 
 
 The number of electric railways in Canada in 1897 was 
 35, with a mileage of 535 ; the number of passengers 
 carried during the year was 83,811,306 ; the total paid up 
 capital was 18,727,355 dollars, and the bonded debt, 9,- 
 894,452 dollars. 
 
 On June 30, 1897, there was 9,191 post offices in the 
 Dominion. During the year ended on the foregoing 
 date the number of letters sent through the post office 
 was 123,830,000, of post cards 26,140,000, of newspapers, 
 books, etc. 26,640,000, and of parcels 369,570. Newspa- 
 pers sent from the office of publication are carried free. 
 Their number in 1897 was estimated at upwards of 74,- 
 319,976. The letters and post cards posted amounted to 
 28.88 per head, and the other articles to 19.54 per head. 
 Revenue, 4,311,243 dollars; expenditure, 4,897,783 dol- 
 lars. A uniform rate of postage of three cents has 
 been established over the whole Dominion. The num- 
 ber of money order offices in Canada in 1897 was 1,349 
 and of orders issued 1,162,209, their value having been 
 13,081 ,860 dollars. 
 
 There were 29,318 miles (2,786 being Government) of 
 telegraph lines in Canada in 1897 and 70,761 miles of 
 wire, with 2,572 offices, and the number of messages 
 sent, as nearly as could be ascertained, 4,313,925. There 
 were in 1894, 44,000 miles of telephone wire, and 33.500 
 sets of instruments ; 72,500,000 messages were sent. The 
 returns for 1897 do not vary greatly from those of 1894. 
 
 Area, Population, and Seats of Gov- 
 ernment of the Provinces. 
 
 The following table shows the value of the leading 
 imports and exports in 1897 : 
 
 Imports, 1897, 
 for Home 
 Consumption. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Exports of 
 Canadian prod- 
 uce, 1897. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Wool, mf rs. of. . . 
 I Iron, steel, and 
 mfrs. of 
 Coal and coke 
 Breadstuff's 
 
 7,125,748 
 
 10,613,630 
 9,276,534 
 1,136,263 
 4,269,620 
 4,034,208 
 8,560,790 
 
 3,290,240 
 1,988,305 
 655,316 
 878,339 
 
 861,728 
 397,902 
 
 1,362,853 
 1,379,436 
 4,676,194 
 50,786,915 
 
 Cheese 
 
 14,676,239 
 7,132,807 
 1,710,922 
 1,002,011 
 978,479 
 
 13,744,794 
 741,959 
 
 32,169,087 
 
 7,085,048 
 2,352,891 
 2,682,472 
 999,238 
 
 4,862,997 
 2,706,827 
 
 7,607,496 
 3,330,017 
 
 2,804,101 
 5,164,797 
 
 522,988 
 1,541,732 
 327,298 
 9.815,638 
 13,990,415 
 
 Horned cattle 
 Horses 
 Sheep 
 
 Eggs . . 
 
 Cotton mfrs 
 
 Other animal 
 | products 
 
 Tea and coffee 
 Sugar of all kinds 
 Cotton wool and 
 waste 
 
 Wood pulp 
 
 Wood and other 
 mfrs. of 
 
 Silk and mfrs. of 
 Provisions 
 Wool, raw 
 
 .Wheat and wheat 
 flour 
 Peas . ... 
 
 Wood and mfrs. 
 of 
 Animals, living.. 
 Flax, hemp, jute, 
 and mfrs. of 
 Spirits and wines 
 Coin and bullion. 
 All other articles. 
 
 Apples . . . 
 
 Hay 
 Other agricul- 
 tural products.. 
 Codfish 
 Fish of other 
 kinds 
 
 Coal 
 
 Gold-b'r'g quartz 
 & nuggets, etc. 
 Other minerals. . . 
 Iron and steel and 
 mf s 
 
 Leather and mfrs. 
 Coin and bullion. 
 All other articles. 
 Foreign produce . 
 
 Total 
 
 111,294,021 
 
 Total 
 
 137,950,253 
 
 
 
 PROVINCES. 
 
 Area, 
 Square 
 Miles.* 
 
 Popula- 
 tion, 
 1891. 
 
 Seats of 
 Government. 
 
 Alberta 
 
 100,000 
 90,340 
 251,300 
 383,300 
 73,956 
 28,200 
 20,600 
 222,000 
 2,000 
 347,350 
 114,000 
 
 1,019,200 
 198,300 
 
 25,278 
 30,374 
 
 Regina 
 
 Assiniboia 
 
 Regina. 
 
 Athahaska 
 
 
 British Columbia... 
 Manitoba 
 
 98,17.3 
 t!52,506 
 321,270 
 450,523 
 2,114,475 
 109,088 
 1,488,586 
 11,146 
 
 31,462 
 
 Victoria. 
 Winnipeg. 
 ...Fredericton. 
 Halifax 
 
 New Brunswick 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Toronto. 
 Charlottetown. 
 
 Prince Edw'd Island 
 Quebec 
 
 Saskatchewan 
 
 
 Mackenzie, I'ngava, 
 and Franklin 
 Yukon 
 
 Regina 
 
 
 Keewatin 
 
 756,000 
 
 
 GreatLakes& Rivers 
 Total 
 
 47,400 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,653,946 
 
 4,823,875 
 
 
 * Land and water included in area, 
 t 187,926 by census of 1896, 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 The Constitution of the Argentine Repub- 
 lic, formerly known by the name of < ' Pro- 
 vincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata," bears date 
 May 15, 1853, with modifications in 1860, 
 when Buenos Ayres joined the confederacy. 
 By its provisions, the executive power is left 
 to a President, elected for six years by repre- 
 sentatives of the fourteen provinces, equal to 
 double the number of senators and deputies 
 combined ; while the legislative authority is 
 vested in a National Congress, consisting of a 
 Senate and a House of Deputies, the former 
 numbering 30, two from the capital and from 
 each province, elected by a special body of 
 electors in the capital, and by the legislatures 
 in the provinces ; and the latter 133 members 
 elected by the people. By the constitution as 
 revised in 1898, there should be one deputy for 
 every 33,000 inhabitants. A deputy musi be 
 25 years of age, and have been a citizen for 
 four years. The deputies are elected for four 
 years, but one half of the House must retire 
 every two years. Senators must be 30 years 
 of age, have been citizens for six years, and 
 have an annual income of 12,000 dollars. 
 One third of the Senate is renewed every three 
 years. The two chambers meet annually from 
 May 1 to September 30. The members of both 
 the Senate and the Housa of Deputies are paid 
 for their services, each receiving 12,000 pesos 
 per annum. A Vice-President, elected in the
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 same manner and at the same time as the 
 President, fills the office of Chairman of the 
 Senate, but has otherwise no political power. 
 The President is commander-in-chief of the 
 troops, and appoints to all civil, military, and 
 judicial offices, and has the right of presenta- 
 tion to bishoprics ; he is responsible with the 
 ministry for the acts of the executive ; both 
 President and Vice-President must be Roman 
 Catholics, Argentine by birth, and cannot be 
 re-elected. 
 
 The Ministry, appointed by and acting un- 
 der the orders of the President, consists of eight 
 Secretaries of State namely, of the Interior, 
 Foreign Affairs, Finance, War, Justice, Agri- 
 culture, Marine, and Public Works. 
 
 The President has a salary of 36,000 dollars, 
 the Vice-President of 18,000 dollars, and each 
 of the five ministers of 16,800 dollars per 
 annum. 
 
 Local Government. The Constitution, with certain 
 small exceptions, id identical with that of the United 
 States. Such matters as affect the Republic as a whole are 
 under the superintendence of the Central Government. 
 The governors of the various provinces are invested 
 with very extensive powers, and in their constitutional 
 functions are independent of the central executive. 
 They are not appointed by the President of the Repub- 
 lic, but elected by the people of each province for a term 
 of three years and four years. The provinces elect their 
 own legislatures, and nave complete control over their 
 own affairs; they can contract loans (internal and ex- 
 ternal) under their sole and exclusive responsibility. 
 
 Religion and Instruction. Although the Consti- 
 tution recognizes the Roman Catholic religion as that of 
 Jhe State, all other creeds are tolerated. There are 1 
 archbishop and five suffragan bishops. For the instruc- 
 tion of the clergy there are 5 seminaries. In 1888 civil 
 marriage was established in the Republic. 
 
 Primary education is free, secular, and compulsory 
 for children from 6 to 14 years of age. The elementary 
 schools are supported in the capital and each province 
 by the taxes established in their Education Acts, aided 
 by large subsidiesf rom the general Government. 
 
 There are also 35 normal schools with 10,049 pupils. 
 There are 3 universities, at Cordova, Buenos Ayres, and 
 La Plata, comprising faculties of law, medicine, and 
 engineering, with a total of '2,500 students: a school of 
 mines (39 students), 2 colleges of agriculture, a naval 
 and military school. There is a well-equipped national 
 observatory at Cordova, and another at La Plata, 
 museums at Buenoa Ayres and La Plata, and a meteoro- 
 logical bureau. 
 
 Justice. Justice is exercised by a Supreme Court of 
 five judges and an attorney-general, which is also a court 
 of appeal, and by a number of inferior and local courts, 
 trial by jury being established by the Constitution for 
 criminal cases. Each State has its own judicial sys- 
 tem. 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
 
 Austria and Hungary, or, as in international 
 relations they are officially called, the Austro- 
 Hungarian monarchy, consists of two States, 
 the Austrian Empire and the Hungarian King- 
 dom. The relation between the two States in 
 its present form was fully regulated by the so- 
 called Compromise of 1867. According to 
 this agreement the two States are perfectly 
 independent of each other, possessing each its 
 own constitution, its legislative power, and its 
 executive departments for most branches of 
 State affairs. There is, however, a close polit- 
 
 ical connection between them through the 
 identity of the Sovereign and the community 
 of certain departments of state affairs. 
 
 The common head of the monarchy is the 
 Emperor (Kaiser) of Austria and King (Kiraly) 
 of Hungary. The crown is hereditary in the 
 llabsburg-Lothringen dynasty, passing by 
 right of primogeniture and lineal succession to 
 males and (on failure of males) to females. 
 The monarch must be a member of the Roman 
 Catholic Church. He is styled " His Imperial 
 and Royal Apostolic Majesty," being " Em- 
 peror of Austria, King of Bohemia, etc., and 
 Apostolic King of Hungary." 
 
 Affairs common to the two States are : (1 ) 
 Foreign affairs ; (2) military and naval affairs, 
 but excluding legislation concerning the army ; 
 (3) finance relating to common affairs, but 
 each State provides separately for the assess- 
 ment, collection, and transmission of its. con- 
 tribution. The two States, moreover, form 
 one commercial territory, having the same sys- 
 tem of coinage and of weights and measures, 
 a joint bank of issue, and the same commercial 
 (as well as political) representation abroad, 
 while the monopolies and taxes connected 
 with industrial production (salt, tobacco, 
 spirits, beer, sugar, and mineral oil) are the 
 same in both. This commercial union, unlike 
 the political connection, which has a perma- 
 nent character, depends on a compromise re- 
 newable every ten years. 
 
 Legislative power relating to common affairs 
 is exercisad by the Parliaments of both States, 
 but the voting of money to be applied to com- 
 mon purposes, and the control of the official 
 action of the common ministries, belong to the 
 so-called Delegations. Of these there are two, 
 each consisting of 60 members, of whom 20 
 are chosen from each of the Upper Houses (the 
 Austrian Herrenhaus and the Hungarian For- 
 endihaz), and 40 from each of the Lower 
 Houses (the Austrian Abgeordnetenhaus and 
 the Hungarian KepviselohaY) . The members 
 are appointed for one year. The Delegations 
 are summoned annually by the Emperor, al- 
 ternately at Vienna and Budapest. They de- 
 liberate independently of each other, their 
 decisions being communicated reciprocally in 
 writing ; and if, after three such interchanges, 
 they do not agree, then all the delegates (or 
 an equal number of members from each Dele- 
 gation) meet together, and, without discussion, 
 settle the matter by vote. The three minis- 
 tries or executive departments for common 
 affairs are : 
 
 1. The Common Ministry of Foreign Affairs 
 and of the Imperial House. 
 
 2. The Common Ministry of War. 
 
 3. The Common Ministry of Finance.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 87 
 
 To these departments must be added : 
 The Common Court of Public Accounts. 
 The ministers are responsible for the dis- 
 charge of their official functions to the Dele- 
 gations. 
 
 Religion. In Austria the relation of the State to the 
 religious bodies is regulated by the statutes of Decem- 
 ber 21, 1867, and of May 25, 18('8. In these the leading 
 principle is religious liberty, the independence of the 
 Church as regards the State, saving the rights of the 
 sovereign arising from ecclesiastical dignity. Full 
 liberty of faith and conscience is secured, and the en- 
 jovme'nt of civil and political rights is independent of 
 religious profession. Every religiousbody, legally recog- 
 nized, has the right of ordinary public worship, the 
 management of its own affairs, and the undisturbed pos- 
 session of its premises, endowments, and funds for the 
 purposes of worship, instruction, or charity. Recog- 
 nized religious bodies in Austria are : The Roman 
 Catholic, Old Catholic, Greek-Oriental, Evangelical 
 (Augsburg or Lutheran, and Helvetian or Reformed), the 
 Evangelical Brotherhood, the Gregorian-Armenian, and 
 the Jewish. The Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs will 
 
 frant legal recognition to any religious bodies if their 
 octrine, worship, constitution, and designation con- 
 tain nothing illegal or immoral. 
 
 In Hungary there is perfect equality among all legally 
 recognized religions. These are: The Roman and Greek 
 Catholic, the Evangelical (Augsburg and Helvetian), the 
 Greek -Oriental, the Gregorian-Armenian, the Unitarian, 
 and the Jewish. Each has the independent administra- 
 tion of its own affairs. 
 
 Justice. In Austria the ordinary judicial authori- 
 ties are : 
 
 (1) The Supreme Court of Justice and Court of Cassa- 
 tion (Oberste Gerichts-und Kassationshof) in Vienna. 
 
 (2) The 9 higher provincial courts (Oberlandesgerichte). 
 
 (3) The 71 provincial and district courts (Landes-und 
 Kreisgerichte), and, in connection with these, the jury 
 courts (GeschworenengerichteX (4) The 937 county 
 courts (Bezirksgerichte). Of these the third and fourth 
 groups are courts of first instance; the second group 
 consists of courts of second instance. Courts of first 
 instance act as courts of inquiry and have summary ju- 
 risdiction. Courts of second instance are courts of ap- 
 peal from the lower courts, and have the supervision of 
 the criminal courts in their jurisdiction. The jury 
 courts try certain cases where severe penalties are in- 
 volved, political offenses, and press offenses. The 
 county courts exercise jurisdiction in cases of misde- 
 meanor in the counties, and co-operate in preliminary 
 proceedings regarding crime. 
 
 There are in all for Austria 71 provincial and 937 county 
 or district courts. 
 
 There exist also special courts for commercial, reve- 
 nue, military, and other matters. 
 
 In case of conflict between different authorities the 
 Imperial Court (Reichsgerichte) in Vienna has power to 
 decide. 
 
 In Hungary the ordinary judicial authorities are : 
 
 The Royal Court (kir. "kuria) in Budapest and the 
 Supreme Court of Justice (Table of Septemvirs) in 
 Z&gr&b (Agram), of the highest instance in all civil and 
 criminal matters; 12 Royal Tables (kiralyi tablak) of 
 second instance. As courts of first instance, 76 courts 
 (torveiiyszekek) with collegiate judgeships; 456 county 
 courts (jarasbirtisagok) with single judges; 15 jury 
 courts (saj tribirdsagok) for press offenses, besides ah 
 army special court. 
 
 Instruction. Public education in Hungary com- 
 prises the following grades : (1) Infant schools ; (2) ele- 
 mentary schools: (3) middle or secondary schools, 
 gymnasia and realschools (in Croatia ami Slavonia, real- 
 gymnasia); (4) preparatory and traininginstitutions for 
 infant-school nurses and male and female teachers ; (5) 
 academies (high schools) of law; (6) institutions for 
 religious education; (7) universities; (8) polytechnicum 
 (technicalhigh school). The schools for special-subjects, 
 such as agricultural, industrial, commercial, mining, 
 and military schools, are for the greater part adminis- 
 tered by the competent ministries, while the philan- 
 thropic and artistic schools are placed under the 
 authority of the Ministry of Public Instruction. 
 
 Compulsory school attendance was established by law 
 in 1868, for children of six to twelve years, and repeti- 
 tion courses for children of twelve to fifteen years ; the 
 industrial law of 1872 requires special courses for ap- 
 
 
 Pro- 
 
 
 
 Pro- 
 
 
 Universities. 
 
 fes- 
 sors, 
 
 Stu- 
 dents 
 
 Universi- 
 ties. 
 
 fes- 
 sors, 
 
 Stu- 
 dents 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cracow 
 
 153 
 
 1.201 
 
 Vienna 
 
 444 
 
 5,796 
 
 Lemberg 
 Innsbruck 
 
 ?4 
 111 
 
 1,640 
 93} 
 
 ( German 
 Prague ] Bohe- 
 
 166 
 
 1,232 
 
 Czernowitz 
 
 40 
 
 369 
 
 ( mian 
 
 168 
 
 2,470 
 
 
 
 
 Graz 
 
 140 
 
 1,421 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,306 
 
 14,887 
 
 prentices; and by the law of 1891, children from three 
 to six years of age may be sent to infant schools, unless 
 otherwise provided for. 
 
 Every parish or commune is bound to maintain an 
 infant school. 
 
 The educational organization of Austria comprises : 
 
 (1) Elementary schools; (2) gymnasia and realschu- 
 len; (3) universities and colleges; (4) technical high 
 schools ; and (5) schools for special subjects. 
 
 The erection of elementary schools is incumbent on 
 the school districts. Compulsory attendance begins 
 with the completion of the sixth year, and continues 
 in Austria generally, till the completion of the four- 
 teenth. 
 
 In Austria there are eight universities maintained by 
 the State, each comprising four faculties, viz.: the- 
 ology, law, medicine, philosophy. 
 
 In addition to the universities there are in Austria 48 
 theological colleges, viz. : 44 Roman Catholic, 1 Greek 
 Catholic, 1 Armenian Catholic, 1 Greek Oriental, and 1 
 Protestant, with a total of 2,<X>8 students. 
 
 There are six Government technical high schools for 
 various branches of engineering and technical chemis- 
 try, and a high school for agriculture in Vienna. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 According to the Constitution of 1831 Bel- 
 gium is "a constitutional, representative, and 
 hereditary monarchy." The legislative power 
 is vested in the King, the Senate, and the 
 Chamber of Representatives. The royal suc- 
 cession is in the direct male line in the order 
 of primogeniture. By marriage without the 
 King's consent, however, the right of succes- 
 sion is forfeited, but may be restored by the 
 King with the consent of the two Chambers. 
 The King's person is declared sacred ; and his 
 ministers are held responsible for the acts of 
 the Government. No act of the King can 
 have effect unless countersigned by one of his 
 ministers, who thus becomes responsible for it. 
 The King convokes, prorogues, and dissolves 
 the Chambers. In default of male heirs, the 
 King may nominate his successor with the 
 consent of the Chambers. If the successor be 
 under eighteen years of age, which is declared 
 to be the age of majority, the two Chambers 
 meet together for the purpose of nominating a 
 regent during the minority. 
 
 According to the law amending the consti- 
 tution, promulgated 7th September, 1893, the 
 Senate consists of members elected for eight 
 years, partly directly, and partly indirectly. 
 The number of Senators elected directly is 
 proportioned to the population of each prov- 
 ince, and is equal to half the number of mem- 
 bers of the Chamber of Representatives. The
 
 88 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 constituent body is similar to that which elects 
 deputies to the Chamber, except that the min- 
 imum age of electors is fixed at thirty years. 
 In 1895-96 the number of electors was 1,186,- 
 000, disposing of 1,92-4,000 votes. Senators 
 elected indirectly are chosen by the provincial 
 councils, two for each province with less than 
 500,000 inhabitants ; three for each with a 
 population up to 1,000,000 ; and four for each 
 with over 1,000,000. No one, during two 
 years preceding the election, must have been a 
 member of the council appointing him. All 
 senators must be at least forty years of age, 
 and those elected directly must pay not less 
 than 1,200 francs in direct taxes, or own im- 
 movable property in Belgium yielding an in- 
 come of 12,000 francs. In provinces, how- 
 ever, where the number eligible for the Sen- 
 ate would be less than one in 5,000 of popula- 
 tion, the list is extended to this proportion by 
 admission of the most highly taxed. Sons of 
 the King, or failing these, Belgian princes of 
 the reigning branch of the Royal Family are 
 by right Senators at the age of eighteen, but 
 have no voice in the deliberations till the age 
 of twenty-five years. 
 
 The members of the Chamber of Represen- 
 tatives are elected directly. Their number 
 is proportioned to the population, and cannot 
 exceed one for every 40,000 inhabitants. 
 They sit for four years, one half retiring 
 every two years, except that after a dissolu- 
 tion a general election takes place. Every 
 citizen over twenty-five years of age, dom- 
 iciled for not less than one year in the 
 same commune, and not legally disqualified, 
 has a vote. Every citizen over thirty-five 
 years of age, married or widower, with legiti- 
 mate issue, and paying at least 5 francs a year 
 in house tax, has a supplementary vote, as has 
 also every citizen over twenty-five years of age 
 owning immovable property to the value of 
 2,000 francs, or having a corresponding in- 
 come from such property, or who for two 
 years has derived at least 100 francs a year 
 from Belgian funds either directly or through 
 the Savings Bank. Two supplementary votes 
 are given to citizens over twenty-five years of 
 age who have received a diploma or certificate 
 of higher instruction, or who fill or have filled 
 offices or engaged in private professional prac- 
 tice, implying at least average higher instruc- 
 tion. No person has more than three votes ; 
 failure to vote is a misdemeanor, punishable 
 by law. There were in 1896-97, 1,401,951 
 electors possessing, in all, 2,141,041 votes. 
 Deputies must be not less than twenty-five 
 years of age, and resident in Belgium. Each 
 deputy has an annual indemnity of 4,000 
 francs (1GO/.), and a free pass over Govern- 
 
 ment railways between his home and the place 
 of Session. 
 
 The Senate and Chamber meet annually in 
 the month of November, and must sit for at 
 least forty days ; but the King has the power 
 of convoking them on extraordinary occasions, 
 and of dissolving them either simultaneously 
 or separately. In the latter case a new elec- 
 tion must take place within forty days, and a 
 meeting of the Chambers within two months. 
 An adjournment cannot be made for a period 
 exceeding one month without the consent of 
 1,he Chambers. Money bills and bills relating 
 to the contingent for the army originate in the 
 Chamber of Representatives. 
 
 The Executive Government consists of eight 
 departments, under the following Ministers : 
 
 President of the Council. 
 
 Minister of Railways. 
 
 Minister of War. 
 
 Minister of Finance. 
 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
 
 Minister of Justice. 
 
 Minister of Interior and Public Instruction. 
 
 Minister of Agriculture and Public Works. 
 
 Minister of Industry and Labor. 
 
 Besides the above responsible heads of de- 
 partments, there are a number of " Minis- 
 tres d'Etat, " without portfolio, who form a 
 Privy Council called together on special occa- 
 sion by the sovereign. The acting ministers, 
 as such, do not form part of the Privy Council. 
 
 Local Government. The provinces and communes 
 (2,607 in 1896) of Belgium have a large amount of au- 
 tonomous government. The provincial and communal 
 electors are the same as those who elect the senators 
 directly. Communal electors must have been domiciled 
 at least three years in the commune, and a supplemen- 
 tary vote is given to owners of real property yielding an 
 income of at least 150 francs. No one has" more than 4 
 votes. In communes with over 20.000 inhabitants there 
 are councilors elected directly, by single vote, by citizens 
 enrolled on the communal electoral lists, and possess- 
 ing the qualifications requisite for electors to the Coun- 
 cils of Industry and Labor; half the councilors are ap- 
 pointed by the workingmen electors, and half by the 
 electors who are industrial heads (chefs d' Industrie). 
 In communal elections vote by ballot is suppress^ I. ex- 
 cept when there is merely a single mandate to be con- 
 ferred. Candidates obtaining an absolute majority are 
 declared elected ; others have seats allocated in accord- 
 ance with the system of " Proportional Representa- 
 tion." In the year 1896-97 there were 1,188,208 provincial 
 and 1,124,276 communal electors. To be eligible to the 
 Provincial or Communal Council, persons must be 
 twenty-five years of age and domiciled in the province 
 or commune. Half the Provincial Council is renewed 
 every four years, and it meets fifteen days each year. 
 There is a permanent deputation of six members elected, 
 which is presided over by the Governor of the province. 
 All provincial and communal interests, including local 
 finances, are under the care of the Council, as far as 
 they are not provided for in the general administration. 
 The Communal Councils are elected for eight years, half 
 being renewed every four years. In each commune 
 there is a college composed of the burgomaster, presi- 
 dent, and a certain number of aldermen, corresponding 
 to the permanent deputation of the Provincial Council, 
 and both are the organs of the central administration. 
 
 Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is professed 
 by nearly the entire population of Belgium. The Pro- 
 testants number only 10,000, while the Jews number 
 about 4,000. The State does not interfere in any way
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 89 
 
 with the internal affairs of either Catholic or Protes- 
 tant Churches. Full religious liberty is granted by the 
 Constitution, and part of the income or the ministers 
 of all denominations is paid from the national treas- 
 sury. 
 
 Instruction. There are four universities in the 
 kingdom, three of them with four "facult^s," or 
 branches of study, and one Louvain, nursery of the 
 clergy, with five;" Ghent and Liege are State universi- 
 ties, Brussels and Louvain free. 
 
 Attached to the universities are various ^special 
 schools of engineering, arts, manufactures, mining, 
 etc. 
 
 Besides the above public schools there are many pri- 
 vate or free schools about 80 colleges, 65 middle-class 
 schools for boys, 150 institutions for girls, besides many 
 infant, primary, and adult schools, mostly under ecclesi- 
 astical care. 
 
 Justice. Judges are appointed for life by the King 
 from lists prepared by the Senate and by the Court. 
 There is one Court of Cassation for t e whole kingdom: 
 There are three Courts of Appeal, and there are Assize 
 Courts for criminal cases. The country is divided into 
 26 judicial arrondissements or districts, in each of 
 which is a Court of first instance. In each canton there 
 is a justice of the peace, a police court, and a judge of 
 the peace ; there are 216 such cantons. There are, be- 
 sides, special military, commercial, and other tribunals. 
 There is trial by jury'in all criminal and political cases. 
 The Gendarmerie (2~,586) and the Garde Civique are util- 
 ized for the maintenance of internal order. 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 In 1807 the royal family of Portugal fled to 
 Brazil; in 1815 the colony was declared " a 
 kingdom ' ' ; and the Portuguese Court having 
 returned to Europe in 1821, a National Con- 
 gress assembled at Rio de Janeiro, and on May 
 13, 1822, Dorn Pedro, eldest son of King Joao 
 VI. of Portugal, was chosen " Perpetual De- 
 fender" of Brazil. He proclaimed the inde- 
 pendence of the country on September 7, 1822, 
 and was chosen " Constitutional Emperor and 
 Perpetual Defender "on October 12 following. 
 In 1831 he abdicated the crown in favor of his 
 only son, Dom Pedro II., who reigned as Em- 
 peror until November 15, 1889, when by a 
 revolution he was dethroned, and he and his 
 family exiled, and Brazil declared a Republic 
 under the title of the United States of Brazil. 
 
 General Deodoro Fonseca was the first Pres- 
 ident. On November 23, 1891, he resigned, 
 and Vice-President Peixoto took his place. 
 Dissatisfaction, occasioned principally by mil- 
 itary interference in the States, led to a rising 
 in Rio Grande do Sul, and to a naval revolt in 
 the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. The rising in the 
 South terminated in August, 1895, and the 
 naval revolt was suppressed in March, 1894. 
 
 According to the constitution adopted by the 
 National Congress in February, 1891, the Bra- 
 zilian nation is constituted as the United 
 States of Brazil Each of the old Provinces 
 forms a State, administered at its own expense 
 without interference from the Federal Gov- 
 ernment save for defense, for the maintenance 
 of order, and for the execution of the Federal 
 laws. Fiscal arrangements in such matters as 
 import duties, stamps, rates of postage, and 
 bank note circulation belong to the Union ; 
 
 but export duties are the property of the vari- 
 ous States. 
 
 The legislative authority is exercised by the 
 National Congress with the sanction of the 
 President of the Republic. Congress consists 
 of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. 
 It meets annually on the 3d of May, without 
 being convoked, unless another day be fixed 
 by law, and sits four months, but may be pro- 
 rogued or convoked extraordinarily. No mem- 
 ber of Congress, after his election, can con- 
 tract with the executive power or accept any 
 commission or paid office, except such as are 
 diplomatic or military or imposed by law. If, 
 in ordinary circumstances, the acceptance of 
 diplomatic or military office would cause the 
 loss of the legislative services of a member, 
 the permission of the Chamber is required. 
 Nor can any member of Congress take part in 
 the administration of any company which re- 
 ceives a subsidy from the Federal Government. 
 Deputies and Senators are paid, and neither 
 can be Ministers of State, and retain at the 
 same time their seats in Congress. Deputies 
 must have been Brazilian citizens for four 
 years. Senators must be over thirty-five years 
 of age and must have been citizens for six 
 years. 
 
 The Chamber of Deputies consists cf 212 
 members elected for three years by direct vote 
 (providing for the representation of the minor- 
 ity), in a proportion not greater than one to 
 every 70,000 of population as shown by a de- 
 cennial census, but so that no State will have 
 less than four representatives. It has the in- 
 itiative in legislation relating to taxation. 
 
 Senators, 63 in number, are chosen by direct 
 vote, three for each state, and for the Federal 
 district, for nine years, and the Senate is re- 
 newed to the extent of one third every three 
 years. The Vice-President of the Republic is 
 President of the Senate. 
 
 The executive authority is exercised by the 
 President of the Republic. He must be a na- 
 tive of Brazil, over thirty-five years of age. 
 His term of office is four years, and he is not 
 eligible for the succeeding term. The Presi- 
 dent and the Vice-President are elected by the 
 people directly, by an absolute majority of 
 votes. The election is held on the 1st of 
 March in the last year of each presidential 
 period in accordance with forms prescribed by 
 law. No candidate must be related by blood 
 or marriage, in the first or second degree, to 
 the actual President or Vice-President, or to 
 either who has ceased to be so within six 
 months. 
 
 The President has the nomination and dis- 
 missal of ministers, supreme command of the 
 army and navy, and, within certain limits, the
 
 90 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 power to declare war and make peace. He 
 (with the consent of Congress) appoints the 
 members of the Supreme Federal Tribunal and 
 the diplomatic ministers. No minister can 
 appear in Congress, but must communicate by 
 letter, or in conference with commissions of 
 the Chambers. Ministers are not responsible 
 to Congress or the Tribunals for advice given 
 to the President of the Republic. 
 
 The franchise extends to all citizens not un- 
 der twenty-one years of age, duly enrolled, ex- 
 cept beggars, "illiterates," soldiers actually 
 serving, and members of monastic orders, etc., 
 under vows of obedience. 
 
 There are six Secretaries of State at the 
 head of the following Departments : 
 
 1, Finance; 2, Justice, Interior and Public 
 instructions; 3, War; 4, Marine; 5, Foreign 
 Affairs ; 6, Industry, Communications and Pub- 
 lic Works. 
 
 In 1885 a bill was passed for the gradual ex- 
 tinction of slavery, and on May 13, 1888, an 
 act was passed repealing all former acts on the 
 subject, and abolishing slavery from the day 
 of the promulgation of the law. 
 
 I. oral Government. -According to the new Con- 
 stitution each State must be organized under the repub- 
 lican form of government, and must have its adminis- 
 trative, legislative, and judicial anthorities distinct 
 and independent. The governors and members of the 
 legislatures must be elective ; the magistrates must not 
 be elective nor removable from office save by_ judicial 
 sentence. The Federal executive cannot intervene 
 directly in the local government of the States. In cases 
 of obstinate infringement of the Federal Constitution 
 by State authorities the only resource of the central 
 power is an appeal to the Supreme Tribunal of Federal 
 District. The Federal District is administered by a 
 council elected by the citizens of the District, the munic- 
 ipal executive authority being exercised by a Prefect 
 appointed for four vears by the President of the Repub- 
 lic. There are in Brazil 892 municipalities and 1,886 
 parishes. 
 
 Religion. The established religion under the Empire 
 was the Roman Catholic, but under the Republic the 
 connection between Church and State has been abolished, 
 and absolute equality declared among all forms of reli- 
 gion. The Federal' Government continues to provide 
 for the salaries and maintenance of the existing func- 
 tionaries of the Catholic Church. The population in 
 1890 contained 14,179,615 Catholics; 143,746 Protestants; 
 3.300 of other faiths ; and 7,257 of no religious profes- 
 sion. 
 
 Brazil constitutes an ecclesiastical province, with a 
 metropolitan archbishopric, the seat of which is at 
 Bahia, 11 suffragan bishops, 12 vicars-general, and 2.000 
 curates. For the private instruction of the clergy there 
 are 11 seminaries. 
 
 Instruction. Public instruction is divided into three 
 distinct forms or classes namely, primary; secondary, 
 or preparatory; and scientific, or" superior. The higher 
 education is controlled by the central Government. 
 There are two schools of medicine, four of law, four 
 military and one naval school, a school of mines, and a 
 polytechnic. In 1890 these schools had, in all, 2,916 pu- 
 pils. There are, besides, the Lyceum of Arts and Trades 
 with 2,277 pupils, and five other special schools with 575 
 pupils. Connected with' the observatory at Rio is a 
 school for astronomy and engineering. The two estab- 
 lishments for secondary education, called jointly the 
 Gymnasia National (o'ld Pedro II. college), confer a 
 degree, and are controlled by Federal Government. 
 The States Governments are allowed to found gymnasia 
 with similar organization and privileges, and to a cer- 
 tain extent control this branch or instruction. All 
 other secondary schools are private. Examinations arc 
 always official. Primary instruction in the Federal Dis- 
 
 trict is under the charge of the municipality, and in the 
 States under the municipal and State authorities. Ac- 
 cording to the Constitution education is, at all stages, 
 under lay management, and primary education is gra- 
 tuitous. The central department complain that they 
 can get no data from the States on public instruction. 
 It seems that education is nowhere compulsory in 
 Brazil. In 1889 there were, it was officially stated, 7.500 
 public and private primary schools, attended by 300,000 
 pupils in all. The number of illiterates is returned at 
 8,365,997, or 84 per cent, of the population. 
 
 Justice. There is a supreme tribunal of Justice at 
 Rio de Janeiro; and a court of appeal in the capital of 
 each State. There are courts of tirst and second in- 
 stance, both in civil and criminal cases. Judges are ap- 
 pointed for life. There are also municipal magistrates 
 and justices of the peace, who are elected, and whose 
 chief function is to settle cases by arbitration. 
 
 CHILE. 
 
 The Republic of Chile threw off allegiance 
 to the Crown of Spain by the declaration of 
 independence of September 18, 1810, finally 
 freeing itself from the yoke of Spain in 1818. 
 The Constitution voted by the representatives 
 of the nation in 1833, with a few subsequent 
 amendments, establishes three powers in the 
 State the legislative, the executive, and the 
 judicial. The legislative power is vested in 
 the National Congress, consisting of two as- 
 semblies, called the Senate and the Chamber 
 of Deputies. The Senate is composed of mem- 
 bers, elected for the term of six years, in the 
 proportion of one Senator for every three Dep- 
 uties ; while the Chamber of Deputies, com- 
 posed of members chosen for a period of three 
 years, consists of one representative for every 
 30,000 of the population, or a fraction not less 
 than 15,000 ; both bodies are chosen by the 
 same electors the Chamber directly by de- 
 partments, and the Senate directly by prov- 
 inces on the cumulative system of voting. Elec- 
 tors must be 21 years of age, and be able to read 
 and write. In 1887 there were 134,119 regis- 
 tered electors, or 1 to 18 of the population. In 
 the election of deputies in March, 1888, 89,977 
 citizens voted, or 67 per cent, of those who had 
 the right to vote. Deputies must have an in- 
 come of 100L a year, and Senators 400Z. The 
 executive is exercised by the President of the 
 Republic, elected for a term of five years, by in- 
 direct vote, the people nominating, by ballot, 
 delegates who appoint the President. A re- 
 tiring President is not re-eligible. In legisla- 
 tion the President has a modified veto ; a bill 
 returned to the Chambers with the President's 
 objections may, by a two-thirds vote of the mem- 
 bers present (a majority of the members being 
 present), be sustained and become law. The 
 day of a Presidential election is June 25 of the 
 last of the five years of a Presidency, and the 
 inauguration takes place on September 18 of 
 the same year. 
 
 The salary of the President is fixed at 18,- 
 000 pesos, with 12,000 pesos for expenses. 
 
 The President is assisted in his executive
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 91 
 
 functions by a Council of State, and a Cabi- 
 net or Ministry, divided into seven depart- 
 ments, under six Ministers, viz. : Of the In- 
 terior ; of Foreign Affairs ; of Worship and 
 Colonization ; of Justice and Public Instruc- 
 tion ; of Finance ; of War and Marine ; of 
 Industry and Public Works. The Council of 
 State consists of five members nominated by 
 the President, and six members chosen by the 
 Congress. 
 
 Local Government. For the purposes of local gov- 
 ernment the Republic is divided into Provinces, presi- 
 ded over by Ititendents; and the Provinces into Depart- 
 ments, with Gobemadores as chief officers. The Depart- 
 ment." constitute one or more municipal districts each 
 with a council or municipality of 9 members, inhabit- 
 ants" popularly elected for three years. The police of 
 Santiago and of the capitals of departments is organ- 
 ized and regulated by the President of the Republic at 
 the charge of the national treasury. 
 
 Religion.- -The Roman Catholic religion is main- 
 tained T>y the State, but according to the Constitution 
 all religious are respected and protected. There is one 
 archbishop and three bishops. For 1818 tho amount of 
 subsidies to the clergy and for building and other pur- 
 poses was 578,888 pesos. Civil marriage is the only form 
 acknowledged by law. 
 
 Instruction. Education is gratuitous and at the 
 cost of the State, but is not compulsory. It is di- 
 vided into superior or professional, medium or second- 
 ary, and primary or elementary instruction. Profes- 
 sional and secondary instruction is provided in the 
 University and the National Institute of Santiago, and 
 in the lyccums and colleges established in the capitals 
 of provinces, and in some departments. In the Uni- 
 versity the branches included are law, physical and 
 mathematical sciences, medicine, and fine arts. The 
 number of students inscribed for the study of these 
 branches in 1897 was 774. The number of studentsat the 
 National Institute in 1897 "was 1,278. There are 2 ly- 
 ceums for girls in Santiago maintained by Government. 
 There are, besides, provincial colleges, normal, agri- 
 cultural, and other special schools. At the seats of the 
 bishops there are seminaries under ecclesiastics where 
 instruction is given similar to that in the Government 
 colleges. There were, in 1897-. 1,321 public primary 
 schools, with 109,058 pupils, and an average attendance 
 of 65,507, and 2,CG8 teachers. There were also 411 private 
 schools, with an attendance of 18,052. The National Li- 
 brary contains over 86,0.00 volumes of printed books, and 
 24,04 5 manuscripts. Other educational institutions are 
 the Pedagogic Institute, the National Conservatory of 
 Music, the National Observatory, School of Arts and 
 Trades, Institute for Deaf Mutes, and public museums. 
 In 1897 the cost of higher instruction to the State was 
 2,OGO,000 pesos; the cost of maintaining the elementary 
 schools was 1,9-0,200 pesos : and the total cost of instruc- 
 tion supplied by the State, including buildings, pen- 
 sions, books, etc., in 1897, was 5.633,021 pesos. 
 
 Justice. There are, in addition to a High Court of 
 Justice in the capital, six Courts of Appeal, Courts of 
 First Instance in the departmental capitals, and subordi- 
 nate courts in the districts. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 The laws of the Chinese Empire are laid 
 down in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien, or " Collected 
 Regulations of the Ts'ing dynasty," which 
 prescribe the government of the State to be 
 based upon the government of the family. 
 
 The supreme direction of the Empire is 
 vested in the Chun Chi Ch'u, the Privy Coun- 
 cil, or Grand Council. The administration is 
 under the supreme direction of the Nei-ko or 
 Cabinet, comprising four members, two of | 
 Mauchu and two of Chinese origin, besides 
 two assistants from the Han-lin, or Great Col- 
 
 lege, who have to see that nothing is done 
 contrary to the civil and religious laws of the 
 Empire, contained in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien 
 and in the sacred books of Confucius. These 
 members are denominated " Ta-hsio-shih," or 
 Ministers of State. Under their orders are the 
 I Ch'i-pu, or seven boards of government, each 
 I of which is presided over by a Manchu and a 
 j Chinese. These boards are: (1) the hoard 
 | of civil appointments, which takes cognizance 
 i of the conduct and administration of all civil 
 j officers ; (2) the board of revenues, regulating 
 all financial affairs ; (}) the board of rites and 
 ceremonies, which enforces the laws and cus- 
 toms to be observed by the people ; (4) the 
 military board ; (5) the board gf public works ; 
 (G) the high tribunal of criminal jurisdiction ; 
 and (7) the admiralty board at Tientsin, es- 
 tablished in 1885. 
 
 Independent of the Government, and theo- 
 retically above the central administration, is 
 the Tu-ch'a-yuen, or board of public censors. 
 It consists of from 40 to 50 members, under 
 two presidents, the one of Manchu and the 
 other of Chinese birth. By the ancient cus- 
 tom of the Empire, all the members of this 
 board are privileged to present any remon- 
 strance to the sovereign. One censor must be 
 present at the meetings of each of the Gov- 
 ernment boards. 
 
 The Tsungli Yamen, or Foreign Office, was 
 created by a decree of January 19, 1861, and 
 comprises among its members all those of the 
 Council of State and six other officials of the 
 highest rank. It controls not merely the mat- 
 ters \vith foreign nations, but also those insti- 
 tutions in which foreigners form part of the 
 working staff, such as the Maritime Customs, 
 and Peking University. 
 
 The present sovereign, reigning under the 
 style of Kwangsii, is the ninth Emperor of 
 China of the Manchu dynasty of Ts'ing, which 
 overthrew the native dynasty of Ming, in the 
 year 1G44. There exists no law of hereditary 
 succession to the throne, but it is left to each 
 sovereign to appoint his successor from among 
 the members of his family of a younger gene- 
 ration than his own. The late Emperor, dying 
 suddenly in the eighteenth year of his age, did 
 not designate a successor, and it was in conse- 
 quence of arrangements directed by the Em- 
 press Dowager, widow of the Emperor Hien- 
 Feng, predecessor and father of T'ung-chi, in 
 concert with Prince. Ch'un, that the infant 
 son of the latter was made the nominal occu- 
 pant of the throne. Having become of age 
 the young Emperor nominally assumed gov- 
 ernment in March, 1887. In February, 1889, 
 he undertook the full control, but on Septem- 
 ber 22, 1898, an Imperial edict was issued
 
 92 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 announcing that the Emperor had resigned 
 power to the Empress Dowager, who has since 
 retained the direction of affairs. 
 
 Local Government. Each of the 18 provinces is 
 ruled by a Governor or Governor General, who is re- 
 sponsible to the Emperor for the entire administration, 
 political, judicial, military, and fiscal. He is assisted 
 by a council and various other officials, such as the 
 Treasurer, the sub-Commissioner, and the Literary 
 Chancellor. Each province is subdivided into depart- 
 ments ruled by prefects, and each department into dis- 
 tricts, each with a district ruler. Two or more depart- 
 ments are sometimes united into a tau, the ruler of 
 which is called a tatitai. Each town and village has also 
 its governing body, and among the various rulers there 
 is regular gradation of rank, each being responsible to 
 his immediate superior. Political office in the gen- 
 eral administration of the Empire is less sought 
 after than the position of viceroy or r ~>vernor in the 
 provinces, where the opportunities of ac, 'ring wealth, 
 not from official salaries but from gifts, eve., are abun- 
 dant. 
 
 Religion. Three religions are acknowledged by the 
 Chinese as indigenous and adopted ; viz., Confucianism, 
 Buddhism, and Taoism. 
 
 The Emperor is considered the sole high priest of the 
 Empire, and can alone, with his immediate representa- 
 tives and ministers, perform the great religious cere- 
 monies. No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at 
 the public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the 
 Confucian religion. The Confucian isthe State religion, 
 if the respect paid to the memory of the great teacher 
 can be called religion at all. But distinct and totally 
 separate from the stated periodic observances of respect 
 offered to the memory of Confucius as the Holy Man of 
 old, and totally unconnected therewith, there is the dis- 
 tinct worship of Heaven (t'ien), in which the Emperor, 
 as the "sole high priest," worships and sacrifices to 
 " Heaven " every year at the time or the winter solstice, 
 at the Altar of Heaven in Peking. With the exception 
 of the practice of ancestral worship, which is every- 
 where observed throughout the Empire, and was fully 
 commended by Confucius, Confucianism has little out- 
 ward ceremonial. The study and contemplation and at- 
 tempted performance of the moral precepts of the 
 ancients constitute the duties of a Confucianist. Bud- 
 dhism and Taoism present a very gorgeous and elabo- 
 rate ritual in China, Taoism originally a pure philos- 
 ophy haying abjectly copied Buddhist ceremonial 
 on the arrival of Buddhism 1,800 years ago. Large num- 
 bers of the Chinese in Middle and Southern China pro- 
 fess and practice all three religions. The bulk of the 
 people, however, are Buddhists. There are probably 
 about thirty million Mahometans, chiefly in the north- 
 east and southwest. Roman Catholicism has long had 
 a footing in China, and is estimated to have about 1,- 
 000,000 adherents, with 25 bishoprics besides those of 
 Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, and Corea. Other Chris- 
 tian societies have stations in many parts of the coun- 
 try, the number of Protestant adherents being estimated 
 at 50,000. Most of the aboriginal hill tribes are still 
 nature worshipers, and ethnically are distinct from the 
 prevailing Mongoloid population. 
 
 Instruction. Education of a certain type is very 
 general, but still there are vast masses of adult country- 
 men in China who can neither read nor write. There 
 is a special literary class who alone know the literature 
 of their country, to the study of which they devote 
 their lives. There are boarding schools and day schools 
 for boys and young men, thelatter being held in the 
 entrance halls of temples and in the spare chambers of 
 guilds, and in all the important cities there are colleges 
 for training candidates for degrees. Examinations, 
 mainly confined to moral philosophy and literature, are 
 held in the prefectorial cities of each province twice in 
 three years for the lower degree necessary as a passport 
 to the public service, but of the six or seven thousand 
 candidates who come forward, not more than sixty can 
 be admitted to the degree by the Literary Chancellor. 
 For the higher degree, examinations are held in each 
 provincial capital once in three years, and the success- 
 ful candidates are subjected to a third and fourth ex- 
 amination, those who finally emerge being divided into 
 four classes to wait for appointments to offices of dif- 
 ferent grades. There are, however, other means (e. g 
 military service) by which such appointments mav Vie 
 obtained. In 1887, for the first time, mathematics were 
 admitted with the Chinese classics among the subjects 
 
 of examination, and schools for the propagation of 
 Western science and literature are now on the increase. 
 The " Tung Wen Kwan," or College of Foreign Knowl- 
 edge, at Peking, is a Government institution, where the 
 English, French, German, Japanese, and Russian lan- 
 guages, and mathematics, chemistry, physiology, etc., 
 are taught by European, Japanese, and American pro- 
 fessors, while the Chinese education of the pupils is 
 entrusted to Chinese teachers. There are, besides, 
 numerous Catholic and Protestant mission schools and 
 colleges at Shanghai and other ports, where the Eng- 
 lish language and lower branches of Western science 
 are taught. The Chinese Government has of late years 
 established naval and military colleges and torpedo 
 schools in connection with the different arsenals at 
 Tientsin, Nanking, Shanghai, and Foochow, in which 
 foreign instructors are engaged to teach such young 
 Chinese as intend to make their career in the army or 
 navy of their country Western modes of warfare, be- 
 sides Western languages and literature. Ten Chinese 
 newspapers are published at Shanghai, and the success 
 they have achieved has led to the establishment of others 
 at some of the other treaty ports. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Since the overthrow of Napoleon IIT. , on Sep- 
 tember 4, 1870, France has been under a Re- 
 publican form of government, confirmed on 
 February 25, and June 16, 1875, by an organic 
 law (Constitution Wallori), which has been 
 partially modified in June, 1879, August, 1884, 
 June, 1885, and July, 1889. It vests the leg- 
 islative power in the Chamber of Deputies and 
 the Senate, and the executive in the President 
 of the Republic and the Ministry. 
 
 The President is elected for seven years, by 
 a majority of votes, by the Senate and Cham- 
 ber of Deputies united in a National Assembly, 
 or Congress. He promulgates the laws voted 
 by both Chambers, and ensures their execu- 
 tion. He selects a Ministry from the Cham- 
 ber, appoints to all civil and military posts, 
 has the right of individual pardon, and is 
 responsible only in case of high treason . The 
 President concludes treaties with foreign 
 Powers, but cannot declare war without the 
 previous assent of both Chambers. Every act 
 of the President has to be countersigned by a 
 Minister. With the consent of the Senate he 
 can dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. In 
 case of vacancy, the two Chambers united im- 
 mediately elect a new President. 
 
 The Ministers or Secretaries of State, the 
 number of whom varies, are usually, but not 
 necessarily, members of the Senate or Cham- 
 ber of Deputies. The President of the Coun- 
 cil (Premier) chooses his colleagues in concert 
 with the President of the Republic. Each 
 Minister has the direction of one of the great 
 administrative departments, and each is respon- 
 sible to the Chambers for his acts, while the 
 Ministry as a whole is responsible for the gen- 
 eral policy of the Government. 
 
 The Ministry is constituted as follows : 
 
 President of the Council and Minister of the 
 Inferior. 
 
 Minister of Finance. 
 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 93 
 
 Minister of War. 
 
 Ministf-r of Marine. 
 
 Minister i if Colonies. 
 
 Minister <>t' Pulilic 1 nut ruction and Worship. 
 
 Minister of Justice. 
 
 Minister of Commerce, Industry, and Posts and 
 Telegraphs. 
 
 Minister of Agriculture. 
 
 Minister of Public Works. 
 
 The Chamber of Deputies is elected for four 
 years, by universal suffrage, and each citizen 
 21 years old, not actually in military service, 
 who can prove a six months' residence in any 
 one town or commune, and not otherwise dis- 
 qualified, has the right of vote. Deputies 
 must be citizens and not under 25 years of age. 
 The manner of election of Deputies has been 
 modified several times since 1871. The scrutin 
 de liste, under which each elector votes for as 
 many Deputies as the entire department has to 
 elect, was introduced in 1871. In 1876 it was 
 replaced by the scrutin d'arrondissement, under 
 which each department is divided into a num- 
 ber of arrondissements, each elector voting for 
 one Deputy only; in 1885, there was a return 
 to the scrutin de liste, and in 1889 the uni- 
 nominal vote was reintroduced. In 1889 it 
 was enacted that each candidate is bound to* 
 make, within the fortnight which precedes the 
 elections, a declaration as to his being a candi- 
 date for a given constituency, and for one con- 
 stituency only all votes which eventually 
 may be given for him in other constituencies 
 being reckoned as void. Multiple elections 
 and elections of persons previously condemned 
 by the law courts are thus rendered impos- 
 sible. The Chamber verifies the powers of 
 its members. In each constituency the votes 
 are cast up and the Deputy proclaimed elected 
 by a commission of Councilors-General ap- 
 pointed by the Prefect of the department. 
 
 The Chamber is now composed of 584 De- 
 puties ; each arrondissement elects one Deputy, 
 and if its population is in excess of 100,000, it 
 is divided into two or more constituencies. ] 
 There were 10,446,178 inscribed electors in 
 1893, and 7,427,354 voted. 
 
 The Senate is composed of 300 members, 
 elected for nine years from citizens 40 years 
 old, one third retiring every three years. The 
 election of the Senators is indirect, and is 
 made by an electoral body composed (1) of 
 delegates chosen by the Municipal Council of 
 each commune in proportion to the population ; 
 and (2) of the Senators, Deputies, Councilors- 
 General, and District Councilors of the de- 
 partment. Besides the 225 Departmental 
 Senators elected in this way, there were, ac- 
 cording to the law of 1875, 75 Senators elected j 
 for life by the united two Chambers ; but by | 
 
 the Senate Bill of 1884 it was enacted that 
 vacancies arising among the Life Senatorships 
 would be filled by the election of ordinary 
 nine-years Senators, the department which 
 should have the right to the vacant seat to be 
 determined by lot. The Princes of deposed 
 dynasties are precluded from sitting in either 
 House. 
 
 The Senate and Chamber of Deputies as- 
 semble every year on the second Tuesday in 
 January, unless a previous summons is made 
 by the President of the Republic, and they 
 must remain in session at least five months out 
 of the twelve. The President is bound to 
 convoke them if the demand is made by one 
 half of the number of members composing 
 each Chamber. The President can adjourn 
 the Chambers, but the adjournment cannot 
 exceed the term of a month, nor occur more 
 than twice in the same session. 
 
 Bills may be presented either in the Cham- 
 ber or Senate by the Government, or on the 
 initiative of private members. In the first 
 case they are remitted to the bureaux for ex- 
 amination ; in the second, they are first sub- 
 mitted to a commission of parliamentary ini- 
 tiative. Financial laws must be first presented 
 to and voted by the Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 The President and the Ministers may be 
 impeached by the Chamber of high treason, in 
 which case the Senate acts as a High Court of 
 Justice. The same function is vested in the 
 Senate for all other cases of high treason. 
 
 Senators and Deputies are paid 9,000 francs 
 (360) a year, and the Presidents of the two 
 Chambers receive, in addition, 72,000 francs 
 (2,840) for the expense of entertainment. 
 Members of both Chambers travel free on all 
 railways by means of a small annual pay- 
 ment. The dotation of the President of the 
 Republic is 600,000 francs, with a further al- 
 lowance of 600,000 francs for his expenses. 
 
 France has, besides, a special institution 
 under the name of Conseil d'Etat, which was 
 introduced by Napoleon I., and has been 
 maintained since. It is presided over by the 
 Minister of Justice or (in his absence) by a 
 vice-president, and is composed of Councilors, 
 Masters of Requests (Maitres de Requetes), 
 and Auditors, all appointed by the President 
 of the Republic. Its duty is to give opinion 
 upon such questions, chiefly those connected 
 with administration, as may be submitted to it 
 by the Government. It is judge in the last 
 resort in administrative suits, and it prepares 
 the rules for the public administration. 
 
 Local Government. For administrative purposes 
 France is divided into 86 departments, or 87 if the " ter- 
 litory of Belfort" (a remnant of the department of Haut- 
 Rhin) be considered as a separate department. Since 
 1881 the three departments of Algeria are also treated,
 
 94 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 for most purposes, as part of France proper. The de- 
 partment has representatives of all the Ministries, and 
 is placed under a Prefect, nominated by Government, 
 and having wide and undefined functions. He is 
 assisted by a Prefectorial Council, an administrative 
 body, whose advice he may take without being bound to 
 follow it. The Prefect is a representative of the Execu- 
 tive, and, as such, supervises the execution of the laws, 
 issues police regulations, supplies information on mat- 
 ters which concern the department, nominates subor- 
 dinate officials, and has under his control all officials of 
 the State. There is a sub-Prefect in every arrondisse- 
 ment, except capitals of departments and the depart- 
 ment of the Seine. 
 
 The unit of local Government is the commune, the 
 size and population of which vary very much. There 
 are 36,170 communes, and new ones cannot be created 
 otherwise than by law. Most of them (31,610) have less 
 than 1,600 inhabitants, and 18.034 h-ve even less than 
 500; while 117 communes only have more than 20,000 in- 
 habitants. The local affairs of the commune are under 
 a Municipal Council, composed of from 13 to 36 mem- 
 bers, elected by universal suffrage, and by the scrntin 
 de liste for 4 years by Frenchmen after 21 years and 6 
 months' residence ; but each act of the Council must re- 
 ceive the approval of the Prefect, while many must be 
 submitted to the Council General, or even to the Presi- 
 dent of the Republic, before becoming lawful. Even 
 the commune's quota of direct taxation is settled by 
 persons (report Ueiirs) chosen by the Prefect from among 
 the lists of candidates drawn up by the Municipal Coun- 
 cil. 
 
 Each Municipal Council elects a Mayor, who is both 
 the representative of the commune and the agent of the 
 central government. He is the head of the local police 
 and, with his assistants, acts under the orders of the 
 Prefect. 
 
 In Paris the Municipal Council is composed of 80 mem- 
 bers ; each of the 20 arrondissements into which the city is 
 subdivided has its own Mayor. The place of the Mayor 
 of Paris is taken by the Prefect of the Seine, and, in 
 part, by the Prefect of Police. Lyons has an elected 
 Mayor, but the control of the police is vested in the Pre- 
 fect of the department of the Rhone. 
 
 The next unit is the canton (2. 839 in France), which is 
 composed of an average of 12 communes, although some 
 of the largest communes are, on the contrary, divided 
 into several cantons. It is a seat of a justice of the 
 peace, but is not an administrative unit. 
 
 The district, or arrondtesement (3f;2 in France), has an 
 elected conseil d'arrondisement, with as many members 
 as there are cantons, its chief function being to allot 
 among the communes their respective parts in the direct 
 taxes assigned to each arrondissement by the Council 
 General. That body stands under the control of the 
 sub-Prefect. A varying number of arrondissements 
 form a department, which has its conseil g&neral re- 
 newed by universal suffrage. 
 
 Religion. All religions are equal bv law, and any 
 sect which numbers 100,000 adherents fs entitled to a 
 grant ; but at present only the Roman Catholics, Protes- 
 tants, and Jews have State allowances. 
 
 Instruction. Public education in France is entirely 
 under the supervision of the Government. The highes't 
 schools, or " f acultes de 1'Etat," are now often designated 
 by the name of universities. There are 15 " faculte's des 
 lettres," one in each academy (except Chamb^ry) at 
 Paris, Aix, Besancon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, 
 Lille, Grenoble, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, 
 Rennes, and Toulouse. At all of these, except Aix, arc 
 also " faculte's des sciences," besides one at Marseille? 
 (instead of Aix, belonging to the sameacademy). There 
 arealso 2 " faculte's" of Protestant theology, 13"" faculty's 
 dedroit," and 7 " f acultes de m&lecine etpharmacie," 19 
 superior or preparatory schools of pharmacy, and 8 
 schools of law, science, or letters. In January, 1898, 
 there were 137 students of Protestant theology; 9,371 of 
 law ; 7,426 of medicine ; 3,544 of sciences ; 3,404 of letters ; 
 and 4,( 61 at superior and preparatory schools of phar- 
 macy, etc.; total, 2<*,543 students. To the support of 
 the " facultds " the sum of 1-2,406,911 francs was set down 
 in the budget of 1899. The Roman Catholic theological 
 "faculte's "were suppressed in 1885. Catholic "faculte's" 
 or"^coles libres" exist on certain conditions as private 
 establishments. The "College de France," " Museum 
 d'histoire naturelle," " Ecole pratique deshautes etudes," 
 " Ecole des chartes," etc., are public establishments for 
 highest education. The " Ecole libre des Sciences poli- 
 tiques" is a private establishment. 
 
 There are many other public establishments for spe- 
 
 cial training. For military and naval education : Ecole 
 Superieure de Guerre, Ecole Polytechnique, Ecole Spe- 
 ciale Militaire de St. Cyr, Ecole Superieure de la Marine. 
 Ecole Navale de Brest, etc. ; for civil servicesand indus- 
 try : Ecole des Mines, Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, 
 Ecole Centrale des Artes et Manufactures, Ecole Supe- 
 rieure des Hautes Etudes commerciales, Conservatoire 
 des Artes et Metiers. 
 
 Elementary schools existed before the Revolution in 
 the towns and in many of the rural parishes of France, 
 but little was done for the advancement of education 
 till near the first quarter of this century. In 1833 a 
 law was passed requiring every commune "to maintain 
 at least one primary school, every town one higher pri- 
 mary school, and every department one primary normal 
 school. A law of 1850 obliged every commune with a 
 population of 800 (extended in 1867 to communes with a 
 population of 500) to have a school for girls. Since 187 
 elementary education has advanced rapidly : many 
 schools have been built, the number of teachers and 
 pupils has increased (until 1889), and the standard of 
 education has been raised. In 1881 primary instruction 
 was made free, and in 1882, obligatory for children from 
 6 to 13 years of age. In 1886 the system of education 
 was reorganized, and it was ordained that all public 
 schools should be under the charge of laymen. In 1892 
 there were only 50 communes which had no primary 
 school, public or private. 
 
 Colonies and Dependencies. 
 
 
 Year of 
 Acquisi- 
 tion. 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 IN ASIA : 
 India 
 
 1679 
 
 197 
 
 286,910 
 
 Annam 
 
 1884 
 
 81,000 
 
 6,000.000 
 
 - Cambodia 
 
 1862 
 
 40.000 
 
 1.500.000 
 
 Cochin-China 
 
 1861 
 
 22,950 
 
 2,035,000 
 
 Tonking (with Laos) 
 
 1884-93 
 
 135,000 
 
 12,000.000 
 
 Total of Asia 
 
 
 285,147 
 
 21,821,910 
 
 
 
 
 
 IN AFRICA: 
 Algeria 
 
 1830 
 
 184,474 
 
 4,430.000 
 
 Algerian Sahara 
 
 
 123,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 Tunis 
 
 1881 
 
 50,840 
 
 1.500,000 
 
 
 
 1,684,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Senegal 
 
 lisa 
 
 115,800 
 
 2,00),000 
 
 Western Sudan.. . 
 
 1880 
 
 250. 190 
 
 4,900 000 
 
 Ivory Coast, etc 
 
 1813 
 
 64,420 
 
 650,0<iO 
 
 Dahomey 
 
 1893 
 
 14.140 
 
 (KM 000 
 
 Congo 
 
 1884 
 
 490,920 
 
 8950 000 
 
 Bagirmi 
 
 1895 
 
 65,(>50 
 
 1,000.000 
 
 Obock and Somali Coast 
 Reunion 
 
 1864 
 1649 
 
 8,640 
 970 
 
 30,000 
 171,720 
 
 Comoro Isles 
 
 1880 
 
 620 
 
 53.000 
 
 Mavotte 
 
 1843 
 
 143 
 
 8,700 
 
 Nossi-B^ 
 
 1841 
 
 113 
 
 7 800 
 
 Ste. Marie 
 
 1643 
 
 64 
 
 7,670 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 1896 
 
 227,750 
 
 3 500 OuO 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total of Africa 
 
 
 3.288,034 
 
 30,358 890 
 
 
 
 
 
 IN AMERICA : 
 Guiana 
 
 1626 
 
 46,850 
 
 22,710 
 
 Guadeloupe and Depend- 
 encies 
 
 1634 
 
 688 
 
 1(17.100 
 
 Martinique 
 
 1635 
 
 380 
 
 187,690 
 
 St. Pierre and Miquelon 
 
 1635 
 
 93 
 
 6,250 
 
 Total of America 
 
 
 48,011 
 
 383,750 
 
 IN OCEANIA : 
 New Caledonia and De- 
 pendencies .... 
 
 185 1 
 
 7 630 
 
 51 000 
 
 Marquesas Islands 
 Tahiti and Moorea 
 TuhuaYand Raivavae . .. 
 Tuamotu and Gambier 
 Islands 
 
 1841 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 1F81 
 
 480 
 455 
 80 
 
 390 
 
 4,450 
 
 11,800 
 880 
 
 5250 
 
 Wallis Archipelago, etc.. . 
 
 1887 
 
 100 
 
 5.000 
 
 Total of Oceania 
 
 
 9,135 
 
 78,^80 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 
 3630327 
 
 52 642 930 
 
 
 

 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 95 
 
 Justice. The Courts of First Instance in France are 
 those of the Justices of Peace who try civil cases and 
 act also as judges of Police Courts, where all petty 
 offenses are disposed of. In criminal cases the Police 
 Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver cases of 
 misdemeanour (delits), including cases involving impris- 
 onment up to 5 years. They have no jury, and consist of 
 3 judges belonging to the civil tribunals. In all general 
 cases, the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy 
 by an examining magistrate (jnye cV instruct ion), who, 
 acting under the public ministry (Procureiir), may dis- 
 miss the case or send it f>>r trial". The Court of Assizes 
 i j assisted by 1'J jurors, who decide by simple majority 
 on the fact with respect to crimes involving a severe 
 penalty. The highest courts are the 26 Courts of Appeal, 
 composed each of one President and 4 Councilors for 
 all criminal cases which have been tried without a jury, 
 and by one Court of Cassation which sits at Paris, and 
 is composed of a first President, 3 Presidents of Sec- 
 tions, and 45 Councilors, for all criminal cases tried by 
 jury. 
 
 For civil cases there is, under the Justice of Peace, in 
 each arrondissfment, a civil tribunal of first instance, 
 then the Appeal Courts and Courts of Cassation. For 
 commercial cases there are Tribunals of Commerce and 
 Councils of ex\)erts(prn<r homines). 
 
 All Judges are nominated by the President of the Re- 
 public. They can be removed* only by a decision of the 
 Court of Cassation constituted as the Consell Superieur 
 of the magistracy. 
 
 GERMAX EMPIRE. 
 
 The present German Empire is essentially 
 different from the Holy Roman Empire which 
 came to an end in 1806. But though Austria, 
 the most important factor in the earlier Empire, 
 is not a member of the present, a brief histor- 
 ical summary, including both, is for conven- 
 ience inserted here. The imperial throne, 
 after the extinction of the Carlovingian line, 
 was filled by election, though with a tendency 
 towards the hereditary principle of succession. 
 At first the Emperor was chosen by the vote of 
 all the Princes and Peers of the Reich ; but the 
 mode came to be changed in the fourteenth 
 century, when a limited number of Princes, 
 fixed at seven for a time, and afterwards en- 
 larged to eight (nine from 1692 to 1777), 
 assumed the privilege of disposing of the 
 crown, and, their right being acknowledged, 
 were called Electors. With the overthrow of 
 the old Empire by the Emperor Napoleon, in 
 1806, the Electoral dignity virtually ceased, 
 although the title of Elector was retained sixty 
 years longer by the sovereigns of Hesse-Cassel, 
 the last of them dethroned in 1866 by Prussia. 
 The election of Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, 
 as the German Emperor (1871) was by vote of 
 the Reichstag of the North German Confeder- 
 ation, on the initiative of all the reigning 
 Princes of Germany. The imperial dignity is 
 hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, and 
 follows the law of primogeniture. 
 
 The Constitution of the Empire bears date 
 April 16, 1871. By its terms, all the States of 
 Germany " form an eternal union for the pro- 
 tection of the realm and the care of the welfare 
 of the German people. " The supreme direction 
 of the military and political affairs of the Em- 
 pire is vested in the King of Prussia, who, in 
 
 this capacity, bears the title of Deutscher Kaiser. 
 According to Art. 11 of the Constitution, "the 
 Emperor represents the Empire internation- 
 ally," and can declare war, if defensive, and 
 make peace, as well as enter into treaties with 
 other nations, and appoint and receive ambas- 
 sadors. But when treaties relate to matters 
 regulated by imperial legislation, and when 
 war is not merely defensive, the Kaiser must 
 have the consent of the Bundesrath, or Federal 
 Council, in which body, together with the 
 Reichstag, or Diet of the realm, are vested the 
 legislative functions of the Empire. The 
 Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these 
 bodies. The Bundesrath represents the indi- 
 vidual States of Germany, and the Reichstag 
 the German nation. The 58 members of the 
 Bundesrath are appointed by the Governments 
 of the individual States for each session, while 
 the members of the Reichstag, 397 in number 
 (about one for every 131,604 inhabitants), are 
 elected by universal suffrage and ballot for the 
 term of five years. By the law of March 19, 
 1888, which came into force in 1890, the dura- 
 tion of the legislative period is five years. 
 
 Both the Bundesrath and the Reichstag 
 meet in annual session, convoked by the Em- 
 peror. The Emperor has the right to prorogue 
 and dissolve, after a vote by the Bundesrath, 
 the Reichstag. Without consent of the Reichs- 
 tag the prorogation may not exceed thirty 
 days ; while in case of dissolution new elec- 
 tions must take place within sixty days, and a 
 new session must open within ninety days. 
 All laws for the Empire must receive the votes 
 of an absolute majority of the Bundesrath and 
 the Reichstag. The Bundesrath is presided 
 over by the Reichskanzler, or Chancellor of 
 the Empire, and the President of the Reichs- 
 tag is elected by the deputies. 
 
 The laws of the Empire, passed by the 
 Bundesrath and the Reichstag, to take effect 
 must be promulgated by the Emperor, and the 
 promulgation, like all other official acts of the 
 Emperor, requires the counter-signature of 
 the Chancellor of the Empire. All the mem- 
 bers of the Bundesrath have the right to be 
 present at the deliberations of the Reichstag. 
 
 The following are the imperial authorities 
 or Secretaries of State : they do not form a 
 Ministry or Cabinet, but act independently of 
 each other, under the general supervision of 
 the Chancellor. 
 
 1. Chancellor of the Empire. 
 
 2. Ministry for Foreign Affairs. 
 
 3. Imperial Home Office and "Representative 
 of the Chancellor." 
 
 4- Imperial Admiralty. 
 
 5. Imperial Ministry of Justice, 
 
 6. Imperial Treasury.
 
 96 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 7. imperial Pout Office. 
 8 ^Imperial Railways. 
 . 9. Imperial Exchequer. 
 
 10. Imperial Invalid Fund. 
 
 11. Imperial Bank. 
 
 12. Imperial Debt Commission. 
 
 Acting under the direction of the Chancello 
 of the Empire, the Bundesrath represents also 
 a supreme administrative and consultive board 
 and as such has twelve standing committees 
 namely, for army and fortifications ; for nava 
 matters ; tariff, excise, and taxes ; trade anc 
 commerce ; railways, posts, and telegraphs 
 civil and criminal law ; financial accounts 
 foreign affairs ; for Alsace-Lorraine ; for the 
 Constitution ; for the standing orders ; anc 
 for railway tariffs. Each committee consists 
 of representatives of at least four States of the 
 Empire ; but the foreign affairs committee 
 includes only the representatives of Bavaria, 
 Saxony, Wiirtemberg, and two other repre- 
 sentatives to be elected every year. 
 
 Religion. The Constitution provides for entire 
 liberty of conscience and for complete social equality 
 among all religious confessions. The relation between 
 Church and State varies in different parts of the Em- 
 pire. The order of the Jesuits is interdicted in all 
 parts of Germany, and all convents and religious orders, 
 except those engaged ia nursing the sick and purely 
 contemplative orders, have been suppressed. There are 
 live Roman Catholic archbishops, and twenty bishop- 
 rics. The " Old Catholics " have a bishop at Bonn. 
 
 The various creeds were distributed as follows at the 
 last religious census, 1895 : 
 
 Instruction. Education is general and compulsory 
 throughout Germany. The laws of Prussia, which pro- 
 vide for the establishment of elementary schools( rolks- 
 schiden), supported from the local rates, in every town 
 and village, and compel all parents to send their chil- 
 dren to these or other schools, have been adopted, -with 
 slight modifications, in all the States of the Empire. 
 The school age is from six to fourteen. The system of 
 secondary education is also practically homogeneous. 
 Above the elementary schools rank the middle schools of 
 thetowns, the Bilrgerschulcn and IKhere Biirfferschulen, 
 which fit their pupils for business life. Children of the 
 working classes may continue their education at the 
 Fortbildungs- Schulen or continuation schools, which 
 are open in the evening or other convenient time. The 
 Gymnasia are the most fully developed classical 
 schools, preparing pupils in a nine years' course for the 
 universities and the learned professions. The l'nj>/i/iii- 
 nasiri, differ from these only in not having the high- 
 est classes. In the Rea/gymnasia, Latin, but not Greek 
 is taught, and what are usually termed " modern sub- 
 jects >r have more time devoted to them. Real progym- 
 nosiahavea similiar course, but have no class co'rre- 
 spondingtothehighestclass in the preceding. In the 
 Oberreafschii/en and Realschulen Latin is wholly dis- 
 placed in favor of modern languages. In 1*97, 1,048 
 secondary schools (including 60 private schools), also 
 181 public fo&msSeminore and "1 public. />/,*,// /r// . 
 total 1,201 institutions, possessed the right :f granting 
 certificates to pupils, entitling them to serve in the 
 army as one-year volunteers. The teachers in German 
 schools are required to hold a Government certificate, 
 and to have undergone a year's probation. Higher 
 schools for girls are called Hohere Tochterschulcn. Be- 
 sides these there are numerous Gewerbeschulen or tech- 
 
 Universities 
 
 Professors 
 and 
 Teachers 
 
 Students 
 
 The- 
 ology 
 
 Juris- 
 pru- 
 dence 
 
 Medi- 
 cine 
 
 Philos- 
 ophy 
 
 Total 
 
 Berlin 
 
 372 
 147 
 164 
 68 
 115 
 72 
 123 
 91 
 144 
 147 
 96 
 102 
 113 
 208 
 100 
 180 
 48 
 49 
 137 
 98 
 101 
 
 441 
 304 
 324 
 240 
 218 
 58 
 187 
 209 
 411 
 54 
 35 
 61 
 67 
 348 
 110 
 152 
 315 
 30 
 82 
 409 
 146 
 
 1,984 
 409 
 443 
 182 
 249 
 236 
 336 
 167 
 346 
 340 
 158 
 125 
 211 
 1,032 
 229 
 1,145 
 
 335 
 441 
 249 
 
 1,360 
 264 
 345 
 434 
 392 
 224 
 236 
 293 
 265 
 203 
 198 
 263 
 235 
 724 
 249 
 1,396 
 
 ioe 
 
 329 
 255 
 742 
 
 2,150 
 694 
 385 
 112 
 214 
 156 
 445 
 87 
 584 
 487 
 241 
 131 
 171 
 1,173 
 320 
 1,124 
 211 
 196 
 320 
 121 
 288 
 
 5,935 
 1,671 
 1,497 
 1,068 
 1,073 
 674 
 1,154 
 756 
 1,606 
 1.0.H4 
 <H2 
 580 
 684 
 3,277 
 908 
 3,817 
 526 
 451 
 1,066 
 1,226 
 1,425 
 
 Bonn 
 
 Breslau 
 Erlangen . . . 
 Freiburg 
 Giessen 
 Gottingen . . 
 Greif swald . 
 Halle 
 
 Heidelberg . 
 Jena 
 
 Kiel 
 
 Konigsberg 
 Leipzig 
 Marburg 
 MUnchen . . . 
 Munster 
 Rostock 
 Strassbmrg. 
 Tubingen. .. 
 Wurzburg... 
 
 Creed 
 
 Numbers 
 
 Per Cent, of Pop. 
 
 Evangelicals 
 
 1,440,240 
 
 69 2 
 
 Roman Catholics 
 Other Christians 
 Jews 
 
 621,474 
 7,451 
 11,887 
 
 29.9 
 0.36 
 57 
 
 Others 
 
 99 
 
 004 
 
 
 
 
 nical schools, Polytechnica, normal schools, seminaries, 
 and the universities. 
 
 There are 21 universities in the German Empire, be- 
 sides the Lyceum Hosianum at Braunsberg (!) teachers 
 and about forty students), which has only faculties of 
 theology (Roman Catholic) and philosophy. 
 
 The following table gives the number of teachers for 
 the summer half-year, 1898, and the number of students 
 for the winter half-year, 1897-98. 
 
 In four universities, namely, Freiburg, Miinchen, 
 Munster, and Wurzburg, the faculties of theology are 
 Roman Catholic ; three are mixed, both Protestant and 
 Roman Catholic Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen; and 
 the remaining fourteen are Protestant. 
 
 Justice. In terms of Judicature Acts in 1877 and 
 1879 a uniform system of law courts was adopted 
 throughout the Empire not later than January 1, 1879, 
 though with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all 
 :ourts are directly subject to the Government of the 
 ;pecial State in -which they exercise jurisdiction, and 
 not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of 
 ;he judges is also a State and not an Imperial function. 
 The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and 
 criminal law, and. the civil code of August 18, 1896, will 
 :ome into force on January 1, 1900. 
 
 The lowest courts of first instance are the Amtsge- 
 ichte, each with a single judge, competent to try petty 
 :ivil and criminal cases. There was on January 1, 1897, 
 ,926 Amtsgerichtein the Empire, or one for every 27,- 
 44 inhabitants. The LandgericMe exercise a revising 
 urisdiction over the Amtsgerichte, and also a more ex- 
 ensive original jurisdiction in both civil and criminal 
 :ases, divorce cases, etc. In the criminal chamber live 
 udges sit, and a majority of four votes is required for 
 a, conviction. Jury courts (Schwurgerichte) are also 
 leld periodically, In which three judges preside; the 
 ury are twelve in number. There are 172 Landgerichte 
 n the Empire, or one for every 303,953 of the popula- 
 ion. The first court of second instance is the Obcrland.es- 
 qcricht. In its criminal senate, which also has an 
 riginal jurisdiction in sorious cases, the number of 
 be jndgea is seven. There are twenty-eight such courts 
 n the Empire. The total number of judges on the 
 nch in all the courts above mentioned is 7,f>.'i4. In 
 Bavaria alone there is an Oberste L<\ mlesgcricht, with 
 ighteen judges, with a revising jurisdiction over tho 
 Bavarian Oberlandesgerichte. The supreme court is the 
 teichsgertcM, which sits at Leipzig. The judges, 
 ighty-four in number, are appointed by the Emperor 
 n the ad vice of the Bundesrath. The court exercises 
 u appellate jurisdiction over all inferior courts, and 
 Iso an original jurisdiction in cases of treason. It has 
 our criminal and six civil senates. 
 
 Foreifrn Dependencies. Germany has declared 
 er protection over various areas or spheres of intlu- 
 ncein Africa, in China, and in the Western Pacific, 
 'he following is a list of the various foreign regions at 
 .resent (1899) under the protection or influence of Ger- 
 many, the estimates given being necessarily vague :
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 97 
 
 
 Date of 
 Acquisi- 
 tion. 
 
 Method of Government. 
 
 Estimated 
 Area, 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 ^^HF 
 
 Estimated 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 IN A ! Jin \ : 
 Togoland 
 
 1884 
 
 
 33 000 
 
 2 500 000 
 
 Kamerun 
 
 1884 
 
 Imperial Governor 
 
 191 130 
 
 3 500 000 
 
 German South- West Africa 
 
 1884-90 
 
 Imperial Commissioner. . . . 
 
 322 450 
 
 200 000 
 
 German East Africa .... 
 
 1885-90 
 
 Imperial Governor. 
 
 384 180 
 
 4 000 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total African Possessions 
 
 1884-90 
 
 
 930 7CO 
 
 10 200 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I y ASIA : 
 Kiaiichau Bay 
 
 1897 
 
 
 120* 
 
 GO 000* 
 
 IN THE PACIFIC : 
 Kaiser Wilhelm's Land 
 
 1885-86 
 
 ^ j 
 
 70 000 
 
 110 000 
 
 Bismarck Archipelago 
 
 1885 
 
 
 20 000 
 
 188 000 
 
 Solomon Islands 
 
 1886 
 
 
 ; i 000 
 
 89 000 
 
 Marshall Islands, etc 
 
 1886 
 
 Imperial Commissioner 
 
 150 
 
 13 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Pacific Possessions 
 
 1884-86 
 
 
 90 270 
 
 4 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Foreign Dependencies 
 
 1884-97 
 
 
 1 030 030 
 
 10 600 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Exclusive of the Bay with an area of about 200 square miles, and the neutral zone with an area of about 
 2,500 square miles, and population of 1,200,000. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Greece, a province of the Turkish Empire 
 since the commencement of the 16th century, 
 gained its independence in the insurrection of 
 1821-29, and by the Protocol of London, of 
 February 3, 1830, was declared a kingdom, 
 under the protection of Great Britain, France, 
 and Russia. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg 
 having declined the crown of Greece, on the 
 ground that the boundaries proposed were in- 
 sufficient, and especially excluded the island 
 of Crete, it was offered to, and accepted by, 
 Prince Otto of Bavaria, who ascended the 
 throne January 25, 1833, being under the age 
 of eighteen. He was expelled from the King- 
 dom, after a reign of 29 years, in October, 
 1862, which event was followed by the election, 
 under the directing guidance of the three pro- 
 tecting Powers, of the present sovereign. 
 
 The King, according to Art. 49 of the Con- 
 stitution of 1864, attains his majority upon 
 completing his eighteenth year. Before he 
 ascends the throne, he must take the oath to 
 the Constitution in the presence of the minis- 
 ters, the sacred synod, the deputies then in the 
 metropolis, and the higher officials of the realm. 
 Within two months at the most the King must 
 convoke the Legislature. If the successor to 
 the throne is either a minor or absent at the 
 time of the King's decease, and no Regent has 
 been appointed, the Legislative Chamber has 
 to assemble of its own accord within ten days 
 after the occurrence of that event. The con- 
 stitutional royal authority in this case has to 
 be exercised by the ministerial council, until 
 the choice of a Regent, or the arrival of the 
 successor to the throne. The present sover- 
 eign is allowed, by special exception, to adhere 
 to the religion in which he was educated, the 
 Protestant Lutheran faith, but his heirs and 
 
 successors must be members of the Greek Or- 
 thodox Church. 
 
 The Constitution of Greece, adopted Octo- 
 ber 29, 1864, vests the whole legislative power 
 in a single chamber, called the Boul, consist- 
 ing of 207 representatives, elected by manhood 
 suffrage for the term of four years. Repre- 
 sentatives must be at least 30 years of age, and 
 electors 21 . The elections take place by ballot, 
 and each candidate must be put in nomination 
 by the requisition of at least one thirtieth of 
 the voters of an electoral district. At the 
 election of 1881 there were 460,163 voters on 
 the list, being 1 voter in every 4.3 of the pop- 
 j ulation ; the number who voted was 306,957, 
 I or 66 percent, of the voters. The Boul6 must 
 meet annually for not less than three, nor 
 more than six, months. No sitting is valid 
 unless at least one half of the members of the 
 Assembly are present, and no bill can pass into 
 law without an absolute majority of members. 
 Every measure, before being adopted, must be 
 discussed and voted, article by article, thrice, 
 and on three separate days. But the Legisla- 
 tive Assembly has no power to alter the Con- 
 stitution itself ; particular provisions may be 
 reviewed after the lapse of ten years, with the 
 exception of ' < fundamental principles. ' ' The 
 Chamber of Deputies, unless specially con- 
 voked at an earlier date, for extraordinary 
 occasions, must meet on November 1 (old 
 style) of every year. The deputies are paid 
 2,000 old drachma! (equal to 1,800 new dra- 
 chmai, or 72/.) each per session ; for an extra 
 session the allowance varies according to its 
 length from 20/. to 72/. 
 
 The Ministry is as follows : 
 
 President of the Council and Minister of 
 Foreign Affairs.' 
 
 Minister of Interior, Worship, and Instruction.
 
 98 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Minister of Marine. 
 Minister of War. 
 Minister of Finance. 
 Minister of Justice. 
 
 The Ministers of Finance and Justice are 
 not members of the Cabinet. 
 
 KeHeion. The great majority of the inhabitants of 
 the Kingdom are adherents o"f the Greek Orthodox 
 Church. Before the census of 1889 there were 1,902,800 
 belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church ; 14,677 other 
 Christians, mainly Roman Catholics; 5,792 Jews; and 
 24,165 Mohammedans. By the terms of the Constitution, 
 of 1864, the Greek Orthodox Church is declared the reli- 
 gion of the State, but complete toleration and liberty of 
 worship is guaranteed to all other sects. Nominally, 
 the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, though he now exercises no governing 
 authority ; he is elected by the votes of the bishops and 
 optimates subject to the Sultan; his jurisdiction ex- 
 tends over Thrace and other countries, including Bosnia, 
 as well as the greater part of Asia Minor. The real 
 ecclesiastical authority, formerly exercised by him in 
 Greece, was annulled by the resolutions of a'National 
 Synod, held at Nauplia in 1833, which vested the govern- 
 ment of the Orthodox Church, within the limits of the 
 Kingdom, in a permanent council, called the Holy 
 Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens and 
 fourarchbishops and bishops, who must during their 
 year of office reside at the seat of the executive. The 
 Orthodox Church has nine archbishops and eight 
 bishops in Northern Greece; six archbishops and six 
 bishops in the Peloponnesus; one archbishop and 
 five bishops in the islands of the Greek Archipelago ; 
 and five archbishops and ten bishops in the Ionian 
 Islands. There are 161 monasteries and nunneries, with 
 2,620 monks and 485 nuns. 
 
 Instruction. All children between the ages of five 
 and twelve years must attend school, but the law is 
 not well enforced in country districts. Of the army re- 
 cruits 30 per cent, are illiterate, and 15 per cent, can read 
 only. 
 
 There are (1892) 2,745 primary schools, 295 secondary 
 schools, and a university. The total number of teachers 
 is 3,680, and of pupils, 139,385, of whom 22, 100 are females. 
 There are 2 agricultural schools in Greece with, together, 
 51 pupils. In 1895 an industrial and commercial school, 
 with 40 teachers, was opened at Piraeus to give instruc- 
 tion in the industries relating to wine, spirits, beer, 
 soap, perfumes, dairy-keeping, cattleand silkworm rear- 
 ing, and in the duties of commercial clerks. In 1895 the 
 University of Athens had 2,987 students, of whom 967 
 studied medicine, 1,327 law, 516 philosophy, 51 theology, 
 124 chemistry. Of the total number 604 were from 
 abroad, chiefly from Turkey. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 The present Constitution of Italy is an ex- 
 pansion of the "Statute fondamentale del 
 Regno," granted on March 4, 1848, by King 
 Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. Ac- 
 cording to this charter, the executive power of 
 the State belongs exclusively to the Sovereign, 
 and is exercised by him through responsible 
 ministers ; while the legislative authority rests 
 conjointly in the King and Parliament, the 
 latter consisting of two Chambers an upper 
 one, the Senato, and a lower one, called the 
 "Camerade'Deputati." The Senate is composed 
 of the princes of the royal house who are of 
 age, and of an unlimited number of members, 
 above forty years old, who are nominated by 
 the King for life ; a condition of the nomina- 
 tion being that the person should either fill a 
 high office, or have acquired fame in science, 
 literature, or any other pursuit tending to the j 
 
 benefit of the nation, or, finally, should pay 
 taxes to the annual amount of 3,000 lire, or 
 1201. In 1897, there were 372 senators. By 
 the electoral law of March 28, 1895, electors 
 for deputies to the Lower House are all citi- 
 zens over twenty-one years of age who can read 
 and write and who possess one or other of the 
 following qualifications : they must have 
 reached a certain standard in elementary edu- 
 cation ; or must pay not less than 19.80 lire in 
 direct (including provincial) taxation ; or, if 
 peasant farmers, must pay annually at least 
 500 lire of rent, or be managers, with a share 
 in the profits, of farms on which direct (in- 
 cluding provincial) taxes of not less than 80 
 lire are paid ; or, being occupants of lodgings, 
 shops, etc., in towns, pay an annual rent rang- 
 ing from 150 lire in communes of 2,500 inhab- 
 itants to 400 lire in communes of 150,000 
 inhabitants. Non-commissioned officers and 
 men in the army have no vote while under 
 arms. Members of academies, professors, per- 
 sons who have served their country under arms 
 for two years, and numerous other classes are 
 qualified to vote by their position. The num- 
 ber of deputies is 508, or 1 to every 57,000 
 of the population (census 1881). In 1896 the 
 number of enrolled electors was 2,120,909, 
 exclusive of the electors temporarily disfran- 
 chised on account of military service (39,029 
 in 1895). At the general election in March, 
 1897, the number of those who voted was 
 1,241,486, or 58.5 per cent, of those who had 
 the right to vote. For electoral purposes the 
 whole of the Kingdom is divided into 508 
 electoral colleges or districts, and these again 
 into several sections. No deputy can be, 
 returned to Parliament unless he has obtained 
 a number of votes greater than one sixth of 
 the total number of inscribed electors, and than 
 half the votes given. A deputy must be thirty 
 years old, and have the requisites demanded 
 by the electoral law. Incapable of being 
 elected are all salaried Government officials, as 
 well as all persons ordained for the priesthood 
 and filling clerical charges, or receiving pay 
 from the State. Officers in the army and navy, 
 ministers, urider-secretaries of State, and vari- 
 ous other classes of functionaries high in office, 
 may be elected, but their number must never 
 be more than forty, not including the minis- 
 ters and the under-secretaries of State. Neither 
 senators nor deputies receive any salary or 
 other indemnity, but are allowed to travel free 
 throughout Italy by rail or steamer. 
 
 The duration of Parliament is five years ; 
 but the King has the power to dissolve the 
 Lower House at any time, being bound only to 
 order new elections, and convoke a new meet- 
 ing within four months. It is incumbent upon
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 99 
 
 the executive to call the Parliament together 
 annually. Each of the Chambers has the right 
 of introducing new bills, the same as the Gov- 
 ernment ; but all money bills must originate in 
 the House of Deputies. The ministers have 
 the right to attend the debates of both the 
 Upper and the Lower House ; but they have no 
 vote unless they are members. The sittings 
 of both Chambers are public ; and no sitting is 
 valid unless an absolute majority of the mem- 
 bers are present. 
 
 The executive power is exercised, under the 
 King, by a ministry divided into 11 depart- 
 ments, as follows : 
 
 1. President of the Council and Minister of 
 Interior. 
 
 2. Minister of Foreiyn Affairs 
 
 3. Minister of the Treasury. 
 
 4. Minister of Finance. 
 
 5. Minister of Justice and of Ecclesiastical 
 Affairs. 
 
 6. Minister of War. 
 
 7. Minister of Marine. 
 
 8. Minister of Commerce, Industry, and Agri- 
 culture. 
 
 9. Minister of Public Instruction. 
 
 10. Minister of Public Works. 
 
 11. Minister of Posts and Telegraphs. 
 
 L,ooal Government. The two principal elective 
 local administrative bodies are the communal councils 
 and the provincial councils. According to the law of 
 February 10, 1889, each commune has a communal coun- 
 cil, a municipal council, and a syndic. Both the com- 
 munal councils and the municipal councils vary accord- 
 ing to population, the members of the latter being 
 selected by the former from among themselves. The 
 syndic is the head of the communal administration, and 
 is a Government official ; ha is elected by the com- 
 munal council from among its own members, by secret 
 vote, in all the chief communes of provinces and dis- 
 tricts, and in other communes having more than 10,- 
 000 inhabitants. In other communes the syndic is ap- 
 pointed by the King from among the communal coun- 
 cilors. Each province has a provincial council and a 
 provincial commission, the members varying according 
 to population. The council elects its president and 
 other officials. The provincial commission is elected by 
 the council from its own members. It conducts the 
 business of the province when the latter is not sitting. 
 Both communal and provincial councilors are elected for 
 live years, one fifth being renewed every vear. The 
 communal council meets twice and the provincial once 
 ayear in ordinary session, though, they may be con- 
 vened for extraordinary purposes. All communal elec- 
 tors a re eligible to the council except those having an 
 official or pecuniary interest in the commune. Persons 
 not resident in the province, or having no solid interest 
 in it, or who do not pay taxes on movable property, as 
 well as officials in any way interested in the province, 
 are ineligible to the provincial councils. Electors must 
 be Italian citizens, twenty-one years of age, and able to 
 read and write, be on the Parliamentary electoral list, 
 orpr.y a direct annual contribution to tlie commune, of 
 any nature, or comply with other conditions of a very 
 simple character. 
 
 Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is, nominally, 
 the ruling State religion of Italy; but many Acts of tlie 
 Legislature, passed since the establishment of the 
 Kingdom, and more especially since the suppression of 
 the Supreme Pontiff's temporal government, have su- 
 bordinated the power of the Church and clergy to the 
 authority of the civil government, and secured freedom 
 of worship to the adherents of all recognized religions. 
 However, scarcely any other positive creed as yet exists 
 but Roman Catholicism. At the census of 1881, of the 
 
 : total population about 62,000 were Protestants and 38,- 
 
 000 Jews. Of the Protestants 22,000 belonged to the 
 
 j Waldensian Church ef Piedmont, about 10,000 to the 
 
 I other evangelical Italian Churches, and 30,000 to foreign 
 
 Protestant bodies. 
 
 Under the Roman Pontiff, the Catholic episcopal 
 | hierarchy in Italy consists of 49 archbishoprics and 220 
 bishoprics besides the 6 cardinal bishoprics near 
 Rome. Of these prelacies, 76 are immediately subject to 
 the Apostolic See, 12 being archbishoprics. Thus there 
 are altogether 37 metropolitan sees, the average number 
 of suffragan sees to each metropolitan being about 4. 
 Every archbishop or bishop is appointed by the Pope, 
 on the advice of a council of Cardinals ; but the royal 
 exequatur is necessary for his installation. The number 
 of parishes in 1881 was 20,465; of churches and chapels, 
 55,263; of secular clergy, 76,560. 
 
 The immense wealth of .he Italian clergy has greatly 
 dwindled since the year 1850, when the Siccardi bill, 
 abolishing external ecclesiastical jurisdiction and cler-. 
 ical privileges, passed the Sardinian Chambers. This 
 law was extended, in 1861, over the whole Kingdom, and 
 had the effect of rapidly diminishing the numbers as 
 well as the incomes of the clergy. 
 
 In 1*65 there were in Italy 2,382 religious houses, of which 
 1,506 were for men and 876 for women. The number of 
 religious persons was 28,991, of whom 14,807 were men 
 and 14,184 women. The mendicant orders numbered 
 8.2J9 persons, comprised in the above-mentioned total. 
 A law for the entire suppression of all religious houses 
 throughout the Kingdom was adopted by the Italian 
 Parliament in 18"6. This law provided a small pension 
 to all religions persons who had taken regular vows be- 
 fore January 18, 1804. Several monasteries were tem- 
 porarily set aside for such monks, friars, or nuns as 
 might wish to continue their conventual life, the in- 
 mates, when come down to a certain number, to be 
 drafted off to another house, and so again, until all fi- 
 nally died out. All collegiate chapters were likewise 
 dissolved. The lands and goods of these suppressed 
 bodies wereappropriated by the State. 
 
 See and Church of Rome. The " Statuto fonda- 
 mentale del Regno " enacts, in its first article, that " the 
 Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion is the sole 
 religion of the State." By the Royal decree of October 
 9, 1870, which declared that " Rome and the Roman 
 Province* shall constitute an integral part of the King- 
 dom of Italy," the Pope or Roman Pontiff was acknowl- 
 edged supreme head of the Church, preserving his 
 former rank and dignity as a sovereign prince. Fur- 
 thermore, by a bill that became law May 13, 1871, there 
 was guaranteed to His Holiness and his successors for- 
 ever, besides possession of the Vatican and Lateran 
 palaces and the villa of Castel Gandolfo, a yearly in- 
 come of 3,225,000 lire or 129,000?., which allowance (whose 
 arrears would in 1899 amount to 93,525,000 lire, or 3,741,- 
 000?.) still remains unclaimed and unpaid. 
 
 Supreme Pontiff. Leone XIII. (Gioacchino Pecci), 
 born at Carpinetb in the diocese of Anagni, March 2, 
 1810, son of Count Luigi Pecci ; consecrated Archbishop 
 of Damiata, 1843; Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium, 1843-46; 
 ]'-ishop of Perugia, 1846; proclaimed Cardinal, Decem- 
 ber 19, 1853 ; elected Supreme Pontiff, as successor of 
 Pio IX., February 20, 1878; crowned, March 3 following. 
 He is, therefore, now 88 years old, and has filled the 
 Pontifical throne for 20 years. 
 
 The election of a Pope'ordinarily is by scrutiny. Each 
 Cardinal in conclave writes on a ticket his own name 
 with that of the Cardinal whom he chooses. These 
 tickets, folded and sealed, are laid in a chalice which 
 stands on the altar of the conclave chapel; and each 
 elector approaching the altar repeats a prescribed 
 form of oath. Thereupon the tickets are taken from 
 the chalice by scrutators appointed from the electing 
 body; the tickets are compared with the number of 
 Cardinals present, and when it is found that any 
 Cardinal has two thirds of the votes in his favor he is 
 declared elected. Should none have received the need- 
 ful number of votes, another process is gone through, 
 viz., access so called because any Cardinal may accede 
 to the choice of another by filling up another ticket 
 made for that purpose. The present Pontiff, Leone 
 XIII., was chosen almost unanimously. He is regarded 
 as the ?63d Pope (or thereabouts) from St. Peter. 
 
 The rise of the Roman Pontificate, as an avowed tem- 
 poral sovereignty, dates from the year 755, when Pepin, 
 King of the Franks, gave to Pope Stefano III. the Ex- 
 archate and Pentapolis (or Romagna), conquered from 
 the Lombards, to which Charles the Great added part of 
 Tuscany and Sabina ; and three centuries later Countess
 
 100 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy See her 
 ample territories. Rome, however, with the Roman 
 duchy, came practically under the I'ope's civil dominion 
 in the days of Gregorio the Great (590-604). In 1860 the 
 whole Pontifical State comprised an area of about 
 16,000 square miles, with a population of 3,125,000 souls: 
 thenceforth, until 1870, about 5,000 square miles and 
 692,000 souls. 
 
 The Bishop of Rome, or Pope, by Roman Catholics 
 accounted Vicar of Jesus Christ upon earth, and, in that 
 office, Successor of St. Peter, is the absolute and irre- 
 sponsible ruler of the Roman Catholic Church, regarded 
 as the whole Christian Church here below. His ex cathe- 
 dra definitions on matters of faith or morals are held 
 to be infallible, and against his judgments there is no 
 appeal. Every baptized person is held to be spiritually 
 subject to him, and his jurisdiction over such to be im- 
 mediate. The Roman Pontiff has for advisers and coad- 
 jutors the Sacred College of Cardinals consisting, when 
 complete, of seventy members, namely, six cardinal- 
 bishops, fifty cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal- 
 deacons, but hardly ever comprising the full number. 
 In January 1899 the Sacred College consisted of six car- 
 dinal-bishops, forty-five cardinal-priests, and five cardi- 
 nal-deacons. 
 
 The central administration of the Roman Catholic 
 Church is carried on by a number of permanent com- 
 mittees called Sacred Congregations, composed of Car- 
 dinals, with Consultors >and Officials. There are now 
 twenty sacred Congregations, viz. : Inquisition or Holy 
 Office^ Consistorial, Apostolic Visitation, Bishops and 
 Regulars, Council, Residence of Bishops, State or Regu- 
 lars, Ecclesiastical Immunity, Propaganda, Propaganda 
 for Eastern Rite, Index, Sacred Rites, Ceremonial, Reg- 
 ular Discipline, Indulgences and Sacred Relics Exam- 
 ination of Bishops, Fabric of St. Peter's, Lauretana, Ex- 
 traordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, Studies. 
 
 Instruction. The State regulates public instruction, 
 and maintains, either entirely or in conjunction with 
 the communes and provinces, public schools of every 
 grade. Every teacher in a public institution maintained 
 by the State, or by any other public body, must have the 
 qualifications required by law ; and in all public insti- 
 tutions not belonging to the State, the same programme 
 must be followed, and the same rules observed. No 
 private person can keep a school without having ob- 
 tained the authorization of the State. 
 
 Justice. In Italy, justice in penal matters is admin- 
 istered in the first instance by the Pretori, by the penal 
 Tribunals, and by the Courts of Assize ; on appeal, by the 
 penal Tribunals, and by the Courts of Appeal. The 
 highest court is the Court of Cassation, which confines 
 itself to inquiring whether the forms prescribed by law 
 have been observed. 
 
 The Pretori have jurisdiction concerning all delicts 
 (delitti) punishable _by imprisonment not exceeding 
 three months, or banishment not exceeding one year, or 
 by fine not exceeding 1,000 lire and all misdemeanors 
 (contra venzioni). The penal Tribunals have jurisdiction 
 in the first instance in offenses (delitti) (excepting of- 
 fenses for which the ('ode establishes a minimum of five 
 years) punishable by imprisonment from ten months 
 to ten years, or by fine exceeding 1,000 lire. The Courts of 
 Assize, which in most cases have juries, have jurisdiction 
 inall proceedings concerningseriousoffenses(delitti)pun- 
 ishable by imprisonment for life (ergastolo) or by impris- 
 onment from ten to twenty-four years, or by minimum 
 Imprisonment exceeding five yea'rs. They have exclu- 
 sive jurisdiction concerning offenses against the inter- 
 nal and external security of the State, and all press of- 
 fenses. Appeal is allowed to the penal Tribunals from 
 the sentences of the Pretori, and to the Courts of Ap- 
 peal from those of the penal Tribunals. The Court, of 
 Cassation has power to annul, for illegality, sentences 
 passed by the inferior Courts, and to decide questions 
 of jurisdiction or competency. 
 
 Italy is divided, for the administration of justice, into 
 twenty appeal court districts, each of wliich is sub- 
 divided into tribunal districts, 162 in all, and these 
 again into inandainciiti, oach with its own magistracy 
 (Pretura), l,fHs in all. 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 Tli Japanese claim that their empire \\as 
 founded by the first Emperor Jimma <i<>o B.C., 
 and that the dynasty founded by him still 
 reigns. It was revived in the year 1868, when 
 
 the now ruling (de jure) sovereign overthrew, 
 after a short war, the power of the Shogun 
 (the de facto sovereign), who had held the 
 ruling power in successive families since the 
 twelfth century ; and in 1871 the feudal sys- 
 tem (Hoken Seiji) was entirely suppressed. 
 The sovereign bears the name of Kotei, or 
 Emperor ; but the appellation by which he is 
 generally known in foreign countries is the 
 ancient title of Mikado, or "The Honorable 
 Gate." 
 
 By the Imperial House Law of February 
 11, 1889, the succession to the throne has 
 been definitely fixed upon the male descen- 
 dants. In case of failure of direct descen- 
 dants, the throne devolves upon the nearest 
 Prince and his descendants. 
 
 The system of government of the Japanese 
 Empire was that of an Absolute Monarchy. 
 A Constitution was, however, promulgated on 
 February 11, 1889. 
 
 By this Constitution the Emperor is the 
 head of the Empire, combining in himself the 
 rights of sovereignty, and exercising the whole 
 of the executive powers with the advice and 
 assistance of the Cabinet Ministers, who are 
 responsible to him, and are appointed by him- 
 self. There is also a Privy Council, who de- 
 liberate upon important matters of State when 
 they have been consulted by the Emperor. 
 The Emperor can declare war, make peace, 
 and conclude treaties. The Emperor exer- 
 cises the legislative power with the consent of 
 the Imperial Diet. It is the prerogative of 
 the Emperor to give sanction to laws, to con- 
 voke the Imperial Diet, to open, close, and 
 prorogue it, and to dissolve the House of Rep- 
 resentatives. The Imperial Diet consists of 
 two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of 
 Representatives. Every law requires the con- 
 sent of the Imperial Diet. Both Houses may 
 respectively initiate projects of law, can make 
 representations to the Government as to laws 
 or upon any other subject, and may present 
 addresses to the Emperor. 
 
 The House of Peers is composed of (1) male 
 members of the Imperial family of the age of 
 20 and upwards ; (2) princes and marquises 
 of the age of 25 and upwards (11 princes 
 and 28 marquises) ; (3) counts, viscounts, and 
 barons of the age of 25 and upwards, and who 
 have been elected by the members of their re- 
 spective orders, never to exceed one fifth of 
 each order (80 counts, 355 viscounts, 29 bar- 
 ons) ; (4) persons above the age of 30 years, 
 who have been nominated members by the 
 Emperor for meritorious services to the State 
 or for erudition ; (5) persons who shall have 
 been elected in each Fu and Ken from among 
 and by the 15 male inhabitants thereof, of
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 101 
 
 above the age of 30 years, paying therein the 
 highest amount of direct national taxes on 
 land, industry, or trade, and have been nomi- 
 nated by the Emperor. The term of member- 
 ship under (3) and (5) is seven years ; under 
 (1), (2), and (4) for life. The number of 
 members under (4) and (5) not to exceed the 
 number of other members. The entire mem- 
 bership of the House of Peers is to be about 
 300. 
 
 The members of the House of Representa- 
 tives number 300, a fixed number being re- 
 turned from each election district. The pro- 
 portion of the number of members to the 
 population is about one member to 128,000. 
 The qualifications of electors are (1) male 
 Japanese subjects of not less than full 25 years 
 of age ; (2) fixed permanent and actual resi- 
 dence in the Fu or Ken for not less than a 
 year ; (3) payment of direct national taxes to 
 the amount of not less than 15 yen for one 
 year in the Fu or Ken, and in case of income 
 tax for three years. 
 
 The qualifications of persons eligible for 
 election are generally the same as those of 
 electors, except that they must be of not less 
 than 30 years, and need not have fixed resi- 
 dence in the Fu or Ken. The term of mem- 
 bership is four years. 
 
 Disqualified for members of the House of 
 Representatives are officials of the Imperial 
 Household, judges, auditors, officials connected 
 with the collection of taxes, police officials, 
 officials of electoral districts within their own 
 districts, military and naval officers, and priests 
 or ministers of religion. The President and 
 Vice-President of the House of Peers are nomi- 
 nated by the Emperor from among the mem- 
 bers, and President and Vice-President of the 
 House of Representatives are nominated by 
 the Emperor from among three candidates 
 elected by the House. The Presidents of both 
 Houses receive an annual salary of 4,000 yen ; 
 Vice-Presidents, 2,000 yen; elected and nomi- 
 nated members of the House of Peers and 
 members of the House of Representatives, 800 
 yen, besides traveling expenses. No one is 
 allowed to decline these annual allowances. 
 
 The Imperial Diet has control over the 
 finances and the administration of justice. 
 Voting is by secret ballot, and the system is 
 that of scrutin de liste. The Diet must be as- 
 sembled once every year. 
 
 At the head of local administration in the 
 provinces are the governors, one of them re- 
 siding in eadi of the 46 districts ('3 Fns and 
 43 Kens) into which Japan is divided. In 
 1879, city and prefecture! assemblies were 
 created, based on the principle of election ; 
 their power is confined to fixing the estimates 
 
 of the local rates, subject to the confirmation 
 of the governors, and finally of the Minister of 
 the Interior. Eligible to the assembly are all 
 male citizens 25 years of age, resident in the 
 district at least three consecutive years, and 
 paying land tax of more than ten yen annu- 
 ally. The franchise is conferred on all male 
 citizens of 20 years residing in the district, 
 and paying more than five yen land tax. An- 
 nually, or in every other year, governors are 
 summoned to the Department of the Interior 
 to deliberate upon matters of local administra- 
 tion. Each district is subdivided into cities 
 (ku), and counties (gun), each with its chief 
 magistrate (cho), who manages local affairs. 
 The Island of Hokkaido (Yezo) has a governor 
 and a special organization. 
 
 To further carry out the principle of decen- 
 tralization and self-government a system of 
 local administration in shi (municipality), cho 
 (town), and son (village) was established by 
 Imperial Rescript, April 17, 1888, which came 
 into effect April 1, 1889, and is to be applied 
 gradually according to the circumstances and 
 requirements of these localities. 
 
 Religion. By the Constitution absolute freedom of 
 religious belief and practice is secured, so lone as it is 
 not prejudicial to peace and order, The chief forms of 
 religion are (1) Shintoism, with 11 sects ; (2) Buddhism, 
 with 12 sects and 30 creeds. There is no State religion, 
 and no State support. The principal Shinto temples 
 are, however, maintained by State or local authorities. 
 In 1895 Shinto temples, 190,754 ; priests, 14,927 ; stu- 
 dents, 1,939. Buddhist temples, 71,821 ; priests, 53,275; 
 students, 9,286. There are also numerous Roman Cath- 
 olics, adherents of the Greek Church, and Protestants. 
 
 Instruction. Elementary education is compulsory. 
 The number of children of school age (6-14) on December 
 31, 1895, was 7,670,837. The following are the educa- 
 tional statistics for 1895 : 
 
 INSTITUTES. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Teaching 
 Staff. 
 
 Students 
 and 
 Pupils. 
 
 Elementary schools 
 
 26,631 
 
 73,182 
 
 3,670,345 
 
 Lower middle schools 
 H igh schools 
 
 96 
 
 7 
 
 1,324 
 279 
 
 30,871 
 3,580 
 
 
 15 
 
 186 
 
 1,266 
 
 
 49 
 
 743 
 
 7,734 
 
 Technical schools 
 
 97 
 
 1,078 
 
 14,806 
 
 Special schools 
 
 1,263 
 
 3,250 
 
 64,948 
 
 
 3 
 
 184 
 
 1,646 
 
 Kindergarten schools 
 
 220 
 
 482 
 
 17,481 
 
 The University consists of a University Hall, Colleges 
 of Law, Sciencej Medicine, Literature, Engineering, and 
 
 schools is for high school teachers. 
 
 In 1895 there were 25 libraries in Japan, with 441,034 
 volumes. In 1895, 26,792 books of various kinds, and 753 
 periodicals, monthly, weekly, daily, were published. 
 Of the periodicals 40!>,429,528 copies were issued. 
 
 .Justice. A system of justice founded on modern 
 jurisprudence has been established. Judges are irre- 
 movable, except by way of criminal or disciplinary pun- 
 ishment. There is'a Court of Cassations at Tokio, which 
 takes cognizance of civil and criminal appeals. There 
 are seven courts of appeal for civil and criminal cases 
 decided in the courts of first instance. There are 49 
 courts of first instance, one in each Fu or Ken, with 
 branch courts in some Fus and Kens having unlimited 
 original civil jurisdiction. As criminal courts they try
 
 102 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 and decide all lesser crimes, and also make preliminary 
 examination of serious crimes. Justice of Peace Courts 
 (301), established in principal towns and villages of every 
 Fu and Ken, take cognizance of all petty offenses. Once 
 in three months criminal courts are constituted in courts 
 of appeal, and sometimes in courts of first instance, a 
 president and four judges, to try serious crimes. 
 
 A few judges of high rank are directly appointed by 
 the Emperor, and some are appointed by him on nomina- 
 tion by the Minister of Justice. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 The present Constitution of Mexico bears 
 date February 5, 1857, with subsequsnt modi- 
 fications down to May, 1896. By its terms 
 Mexico is declared a federative republi c, divided 
 .into States 19 at the outset, but at present 
 27 in number, with 2 territories and the 
 Federal District each of which has a right 
 to manage its own local affairs, while the 
 whole are bound together in one body politic 
 by fundamental and constitutional laws.' The 
 powers of the supreme Government are divided 
 into three branches, the legislative, executive, 
 and judicial. The legislative power is vested 
 in a Congress consisting of a Houso of Rep- 
 resentatives and a Senate, and the executive 
 in a President. Representatives elected by 
 the suffrage of all respectable male adults, at 
 the rate of one member for 40,000 inhabit- 
 ants, hold their places for two years. The 
 qualifications requisite are, to be twenty-five 
 years of age, and a resident in the State. The 
 Senate consists of fifty-six members, two for 
 each State, of at least thirty jears of age, 
 who are returned in the same manner as the 
 deputies. The members of both Houses re- 
 ceive salaries of 3,000 dollars a year. The 
 President is elected by electors popularly 
 chosen in a general election, holds office for 
 four years, and, according to an amendment 
 of the Constitution in 1887, may be elected 
 for consecutive terms. Failing the President 
 through absence or otherwise, whether the 
 disability be temporary or permanent, Con- 
 gress has power to elect an acting-president who 
 shall discharge the functions of President 
 temporarily or, if necessary, to the end of the 
 constitutional period. Congress has to meet 
 annually from April 1 to May 30, and from 
 September 16 to December 15, and a per- 
 manent committee of both Houses sits during 
 the recesses. 
 
 The administration is carried on, under the 
 direction of the President and a Council, by 
 seven Secretaries of State, heads of the De- 
 partments of : 1, Foreign Affairs; 2, In- 
 terior ; 3, Justice and Public Instruction ; 4, 
 Fomento, Colonization and Industry ; 5, Com- 
 munications and Public Works; 6, Financial 
 and Public Credit ; 7, War and Marine. 
 
 Local Government. Kiicli separate State lias its own 
 internal constitution, government, and laws; but inter- 
 State customs duties are not permitted. Each has its 
 
 ! governor and legislature popularly elected under rules 
 similar to those of the Federatio'n ; and the civil and 
 criminal code in force in the Federal District prevails, 
 with few exceptions(Vera Cruzandthe State of Mexico), 
 in the different States. 
 
 Religion, Instruction, and Justice. The prevail- 
 ing religion is the Roman Catholic, but the Church is 
 independent of the State, and there is toleration of all 
 other religions. In 1889 there were 10,112 Roman Catho- 
 lic churches and chapels, and 119 Protestant churches in 
 the Republic. No ecclesiastic;;! body can acquire landed 
 property. On August 12, 1890, there were in the munic- 
 ipality of Mexico 320,143 Catholics and 2,623 Protestants. 
 
 In almost all the States education is free and compul- 
 sory, but the law has not been strictly enforced. In the 
 municipality of Mexico there were" in 1890,15.268 per- 
 sons who could read only, and 176,692 persons who could 
 neither read nor write. Primary instruction is mostly 
 at the expense of the states and municipalities, but the 
 Federal Government makes frequent grants, and many 
 schools are under the care of beneficent societies. 
 Higher education is carried on in secondary schools 
 and seminaries, and in colleges for professional instruc- 
 tion, including schools of law, medicine, engineering, 
 mining, tinearts, agriculture, commerce, arts. and trades, 
 music. In 18!i6 the number of schools supported by the 
 States was 5,852, and by the municipalities, 3218'; the 
 number of teachers in both was 13,352 ; there weroO' 6.301 
 enrolled pupils, and an average attendance of 41:;, 790. 
 The cost of these schools for the year was 5,463,350 dol- 
 lars. The private and clerical schools numbered 2,4-12, 
 with 101,641 enrolled pupils, and an average attendance 
 of 7C>,956. The total number of schools was thus 11,512, 
 with 707,942 enrolled pupils, and an average attendance 
 of 490.74R. Of the average attendance, oOO,272 were boys 
 and 190 501 were girls. There are also one military and 
 one naval college. The number attending the higher 
 schools is stated at 21,000. 
 
 In 1896 there were in the Republic the National Li- 
 brary, with 159,000 volumes, and 102 other public libraries. 
 There were in that year 17 museums for scientific and 
 educational purposes, and 3 meteorological observato- 
 ries. The number of newspapers published was 531, of 
 which 7 were in English, 5 in Spanish and English, 2 in 
 French, and 1 in German. 
 
 The judicial power, which is entirely distinct from 
 and independent of the executive, consists of the Su- 
 preme Court, with 15 judges chosen for a period of six 
 years, Circuit Courts, with 3 judges, and District Courts, 
 with 32 judges. 
 
 The Ordinary, Civil, Criminal, and Correctional Courts 
 are controlled by the Department of Justice and Public 
 Instruction. 
 
 NETHERLANDS (THE). 
 
 The first Constitution of the Netherlands 
 after its reconstruction as a kingdom was given 
 in 1815, and was revised in 1848 and in 1887. 
 According to this charter the Netherlands form 
 [ a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. 
 The royal succession is in the direct male line 
 in the order of primogeniture ; in default of 
 male heirs, the female line ascends the throne. 
 In default of a legal heir, the successor to the 
 throne is designated by the Sovereign and a 
 joint meeting of both the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment (each containing twice the usual number 
 of members), and by this assembly alone if 
 the case occurs after the Sovereign's death. 
 The age of majority of the Sovereign is eighteen 
 years. During his minority the royal power is 
 vested in a Regent designated bylaw and 
 in some cases in the State Council. 
 
 The executive power of the State belongs 
 exclusively to the Sovereign, while the whole 
 legislative authority rests conjointly in the 
 Sovereign and Parliament, the latter called 
 the States-General consisting of two Cham-
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 103 
 
 hers. The Upper or First Chamber is com- 
 posed of 50 members, elected by the Provincial 
 States from among the most highly assessed 
 inhabitants of the eleven provinces, or from 
 among some high and important function- 
 aries, mentioned by law. Members of the 
 First Chamber not residing in the Hague, 
 where the Parliament meets, are allowed 10 
 guilders (16s. 8d.) a day during the session of 
 the States-General. The Second Chamber of 
 the States-General numbers 100 deputies, who 
 are elected directly. 
 
 The Government and the Second Chamber 
 only may introduce new bills ; the functions 
 of the Upper Chamber being restricted to ap- 
 proving or rejecting them, without the power 
 of inserting amendments. The meetings of 
 both Chambers are public, though each of 
 them, by the decision of the majority, may 
 form itself into a p7-ivate committee. The 
 ministers may attend at the meetings of both 
 Chambers, but they have only a deliberative 
 vote, unless they are members. Alterations in 
 the Constitution can be made only by a bill 
 declaring that there is reason for introducing 
 those alterations, followed by a dissolution of 
 the Chambers and a second confirmation by 
 the new States-General by two thirds of the 
 votes. Unless it is expressly declared, the 
 laws concern only the realm in Europe, and 
 not the colonies. 
 
 The executive authority, belonging to the 
 Sovereign, is exercised by a responsible Council 
 of Ministers. There are eight heads of depart- 
 ments in the Ministerial Council, namely : 
 
 The Minister of Foreign Affairs and President 
 of the Ministerial Conm-il. 
 
 Tlte Minister of the Interior. 
 
 The Minister of Finance. 
 
 The Minister of Justice. 
 
 The Minister of the Colonies. 
 
 The Minister of Marine. 
 
 The Minister of War. 
 
 The Minifti-r <>f /'iiti/!c Works and Commerce. 
 
 Each of the above Ministers has an annual 
 salary of 12,000 guilders, or 1,OOOZ. 
 
 There is a State Council " Raad van 
 State " of 14 members, appointed by the 
 Sovereign, of which the Sovereign is president, 
 and which is consulted on all legislative and a 
 great number of executive matters. 
 
 Local Oovernmen*. The territory of the Nether- 
 lands is divided into 11 provinces and 1.183 communes. 
 Each province has its own representative body, "the 
 Provincial States." The members are elected for 6 
 years, directly from among the irale Dutch inhabitants 
 of the province who are 25 years of age. one half of tlie 
 number l>eing subject to re-election or renewal every 
 three years. Except that they must be inhabitants o'f 
 the province, the electors, as well as tlie mode of voting, 
 are the same as for the Second Chamber. The number 
 of members varies according to the population of the 
 province, from 80 for Holland (South) to 35 for Drenthe. 
 The Provincial States are entitled to make ordinances 
 
 concerning the welfare of the province, and to raise 
 taxes according to legal precepts. All provincial ordi- 
 nances must be approved by the King. The Provincial 
 States exercise a right of control over the municipali- 
 ties. They also elect the members of the First Cham- 
 ber of the States-General. They meet twice a year, as a 
 rule in public. A permanent commission composed of 
 six of their members, called the " Deputed States," is 
 charged with the executive power in the province arid 
 the daily administration of its affairs. This commit- 
 tee has also to see the common law executed in the 
 province. Both the Deputed as well as the Provincial 
 States are presided over by a Commissioner of the Sov- 
 ereign, who in the former assembly hasa deciding vote, 
 but in the latter named only a deliberative vote. He is 
 the chief magistrate in the province. Only the members 
 of the Deputed States receive an allowance. 
 
 The communes form each a Corporation with its own 
 interests and rights, subject to thegeneral law. In each 
 commune is a Council, elected for six years directly, by 
 the same voters as for the Provincial States, pi ovided 
 I they inhabit the commune : one third of the Council 
 retiring every two years. All the male Dutch inhabi- 
 tants 23 years of age are eligible, the number of mem- 
 bers varying from 1 to 41, according to the population. 
 The Council has a right of making and enforcing by- 
 laws concerning the communal welfare. The Council 
 may raise taxes acording to rules prescribed by com- 
 mon law ; besides, each commune receives from the 
 State Treasury an allowance proportioned to the total 
 number of its inhabitants and to the share which its 
 non-contributing inhabitants have failed to pay toward 
 local taxes. All by-laws may be vetoed by the Sover- 
 eign. The Municipal Budget and the resolution to 
 alienate municipal property require the approbation 
 of the Deputed States of the province. The Council 
 meets in public as often as may be necessary, and is pre- 
 sided over by a Mayor, appointed by the Sovereign for 
 six years. The executive power is vested in a college 
 formed by the Mayor and 2, 3, or 4 Aldermen (wethou- 
 ders) elected by and from the Council ; this college is 
 also charged with the execution of the common law. 
 Municipal Police is under the authority of the Mayor ; 
 as a State functionary the Mayor supervises the actions 
 of the Council ; he may suspend their resolutions for 30 
 days, but is bound to inform the Deputed States of the 
 province. 
 
 Religion. According to the terms of the Constitu- 
 tion, entire liberty of conscience and complete social 
 equality are granted to the members of all religious con- 
 fessions. The royal family and the majority of the in- 
 habitants belong'to the Reformed Church. Tlie salaries 
 of several British Presbyterian ministers, settled in the 
 Netherlands, and whose churches are incorporated with 
 the Dutch Reformed Church, are ] aid out of the public 
 funds. The State Budget contained fixed allowances 
 for the different churches; for Protestant Churches, 
 1.370,852 guilders; for Roman Catholics, 578,035; and for 
 Jews, 12,775. 
 
 Instruction. Public instruction (primary) is given 
 in all places where needed, but education i.s not compul- 
 sory nor necessarily free ; religious convictions are re- 
 spected. 
 
 From the beginning of this century elementary schools 
 have been more or les* under State" regulation" a:id in- 
 spection. In 1806, and more expressly in 1848, secular 
 instruction was separated from religious or sectarian 
 instruction. Elementary education is now regulated by 
 the Primary Instruction Act, passed in 1857, supple- 
 mented by an Act of 1878, and again considerably altered 
 by the Act of December 1889. By the last Act public in- 
 struction is diminished and a greater share in the edu- 
 cation of the youths left to private instruction, which is 
 now supported by the State. According to the regula- 
 tions of the present Act the cost of public primary in- 
 struction is borne jointly by the State and the csin- 
 munes, the^Sffite contributing to the salaries of the 
 teachers aniijpeing responsible for 25 per cent, to the 
 costs of founding or purchasingschools. Tliereare four 
 universities Leyden. Grongingen, L'trecht, a:id Am- 
 sterdam attend'ed by over 3 000 students ; 1.278 private 
 and higher schools; and 2. 9C3 public elementary schools. 
 Justice. Justice is administered by the High Court 
 of the Netherlands (Court of Cassation), by 5 courts of 
 justice (Courts of Appeal), 1 y 23 district tribunals, and 
 by 106 cantonal courts ; trial by jury is unknown ia Hol- 
 la'nd. All Judges are appointed for life by the King 
 (the Judges of the High Court from a list prepared by 
 the Second Chamber). They can be removed only by a 
 decision of the High Court.
 
 104 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Constitution and (lovernmeut. The 
 
 government of Russia is an absolute hereditary 
 monarchy. The whole legislative, executive, 
 and judicial power is united in the Emperor, 
 whose will alone is law. There are, however, 
 certain rules of government which the sover- 
 eigns of the present reigning house have 
 acknowledged as binding. The chief of these 
 is the law of succession to the throne, which, 
 according to a decree of the Emperor Paul, of 
 the year 1797, is to be that of regular descent, 
 by the right of primogeniture, with preference 
 of male over female heirs. This decree an- 
 nulled a previous one, issued by Peter I., Feb- 
 ruary 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign 
 to select his successor to the throne from 
 among the members of the imperial family, 
 irrespective of the claims of primogeniture. 
 Another fundamental law of the realm pro- 
 claimed by Peter I. is that every sovereign of 
 Russia, with his consort and children, must be 
 a member of the orthodox Greek Church. The 
 princes and princesses of the imperial house, 
 according to a decree of Alexander I., must 
 obtain the consent of the Emperor to any mar- 
 riage they may contract ; otherwise the issue 
 of such union cannot inherit the throne. By 
 an ancient law of Russia, the heir-apparent is 
 held to be of age at the end of the sixteenth 
 year, and the other members of the reigning 
 family with the completed twentieth year. 
 
 The administration of the Empire is en- 
 trusted to four great boards, or councils, pos- 
 sessing separate functions. The first of these 
 boards is the Council of the State, established 
 in its present form by Alexander I., in the 
 year 1810. It consists of a president the 
 Grand Duke Mikhail since 1882 and an 
 unlimited number of members appointed by 
 the Emperor. In 1894 the Council consisted 
 of 62 members, exclusive of the ministers, who 
 have a seat ex officio, and six princes of the 
 imperial house. The Council is divided into 
 three departments, namely, of Legislation, of 
 Civil and Church Administration, and of 
 Finance. Each department has its own presi- 
 dent, and a separate sphere of duties ; but 
 there are collective meetings of the three sec- 
 tions. The chief function of the Council of 
 the Empire is that of examining into the proj- 
 ects of laws which are brought isfcefore it by 
 the ministers, and of discussing the budget and 
 all the expenditures to be made during the 
 year. But the Council has no power of pro- 
 posing alterations and modifications of the 
 laws of the realm ; it is, properly speaking, a 
 consultative institution in matters of legisla- 
 tion. A special department is intrusted with 
 the discussion of the requests addressed to the 
 
 Emperor against the decisions of the Senate. 
 The second of the great colleges or boards 
 of government is the Ruling Senate, or " Pra- 
 vitelstvuyuschiy Senat, " established by Peter I. 
 in the year 1711. The functions of the Senate 
 are partly of a deliberative and partly of an 
 executive character. To be valid a law must 
 be promulgated by the Senate. It is also the 
 high court of justice for the Empire. The 
 Senate is divided into nine departments or 
 sections, which all sit at St. Petersburg, two 
 of them being Courts of Cassation. Each 
 department is authorized to decide in the last 
 resort upon certain descriptions of cases. The 
 senators are mostly persons of high rank, or 
 who fill high stations ; but a lawyer of emi- 
 nence presides over each department, who 
 represents the Emperor, and without whose 
 signature its decisions would have no force. 
 In the plenum, or general meeting of several 
 sections, the Minister of Justice takes the 
 chair. Besides its superintendence over the 
 courts of law, the Senate examines into 
 the state of the general administration of 
 the Empire, and has power to make remon- 
 strances to the Emperor. A special depart- 
 ment consisting of seven members is intrusted 
 with judgments in political offenses, and 
 another (six members) with disciplinary judg- 
 ments against officials of the crown. 
 
 The third college, established by Peter I. in 
 the year 1721, is the Holy Synod, and to it is 
 committed the superintendence of the religious 
 affairs of the Empire. It is composed of the 
 three metropolitans (St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
 and Kieff), the archbishops of Georgia (Cau- 
 casus), and of Poland (Kholm and Warsaw), 
 and several bishops sitting in turn. All its 
 decisions run in the Emperor's name, and have 
 no force till approved by him. The President 
 of the Holy Synod is the Metropolitan of Nov- 
 gorod and St. Petersburg. 
 
 The fourth board of government is the Com- 
 mittee of Minister*. It consists of all the min- 
 isters, who are : 
 
 I. The Minifltry '//' ///' fm/n-riaf ffuust unfit 
 Imperial />i>///ains. 
 
 ..'. 'l'li>' . Min istt-f/ <>f l^ori-iijn A /fairs. Assist- 
 ant Minisfir. 
 
 3. The Ministri/ of }\'r. 
 
 4- Tin' Ministri/ of tin' Xari/. 
 
 r>. The Minittry <>/' tin ///h riur. 
 
 c>. 'I' In- Ministry i if I'nlilic Instruction. 
 
 7. Tin Minist rii <>f /^inance. 
 
 8. Tlir Ministri/ of .lustier. 
 
 9. Tlir Ministri/ i if . I f/ricnltnre unit State 
 Domains. 
 
 10. Tin Ministri/ of Public Works anil Uuil 
 wayt. 
 
 II. Tin l>i fiui-tnn-nt of flrnerul Control
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 105 
 
 J2. The Procurator-* 1 1 n< nil nf t//<: lfl;/ 
 Synod. 
 
 Besides the Ministers, four Grand Dukes, 
 and six functionaries, chiefly ex-ministers, 
 form part of the Committee, of which Actual 
 Privy Councilor Durnovo -is President. 
 
 Minister and State /sVr/v fur// fur I-'I/iland. 
 
 Most of the above heads of departments 
 have assistant ministers who supply their place 
 on certain occasions. They all communicate 
 directly with the sovereign. 
 
 The Emperor has two Private Cabinets, one 
 of which is occupied with charitable affairs, 
 and the other is devoted to public instruction 
 of girls and to the administration of the insti- 
 tutions established by the late Empress Maria, 
 mother of the Emperor Nicholas I. Besides, 
 there is the Imperial Head-Quarters (Glavnaya 
 Kvartira), and a Cabinet, which is entrusted 
 also with the reception of petitions presented 
 to the Emperor, formerly received by a special 
 Court of Requests (abolished in 1884). Ac- 
 cording to a law of May 19, 1888, a special 
 Imperial Cabinet having four sections (Admin- 
 istrative, Economical, Agricultural and Man- 
 ufacturing, and Legislative) has been created, 
 instead of the same departments in the Minis- 
 try of Imperial Household. According to the 
 law of May 22, 1894, a special chief for the 
 protection of the Imperial residences and trains 
 has been appointed under the title of " General 
 in Service at the Emperor' (Dezhurni/i General), 
 General Aide-de-Camp Tckerevin holding this 
 position. 
 
 Local Government. The Empire is divided into gen- 
 eral governments, or vice-royalties, governments, and 
 districts. There are at present in European Russia(in- 
 cluding Poland and Finland) 08 governments, with 635 
 districts (mjezd), 2 oMyels, and 1 okrug, also considered 
 as separate governments. Some of them are united into 
 general governments, which are now those of Finland, 
 Poland, Wilna, Kieff, and Moscow. The Asiatic part of 
 the Empire comprises 5 general governments : Caucasus, 
 Turkestan, Stepnoye(of the Steppes), Irkut-sh, and of the 
 Amur, with 10 governments (ffitberniya), 17 territories 
 (oblasts), and 3 districts (okriiy, or bttlyel: Zakataly, 
 Chernomorsk, and Sakhalin). At the head of each gen- 
 eral government is a governor-general, the representa- 
 tive of the Emperor, who as such has the supreme con- 
 trol and direction of all affairs, whether civil or mili- 
 tary. In Siberia the governors-general are each assisted 
 by acouncil, which has a deliberativevoice. A civil gov- 
 ernor assisted by a council of regency, to which all meas- 
 ures must be submitted, is established in each govern- 
 ment, and a military governor in twenty frontier prov- 
 inces. A vice-governor is appointed to "fill the place of 
 the civil governor when the latter is absent or unwell. 
 There is also, in each government, a council of control 
 under the presidency of a special officer, depending di- 
 rectly on the Department of Control. Each government 
 is divided into from 8 to 15 districts, having each sev- 
 eral administrative institutions. A few districts (okrug 
 or otfJye') in Siberia, in the Caucasus, in Turkestan, and 
 in the Transcaspian region are considered as indepen- 
 dent governments. So also the townships (r/rnrlonficli- 
 tiistro't of st. Petersburg, Odessa, Kerteh, Sebaatopol, 
 and Taganrog: Cronstadt, Vladivostok, and Nikolaevsk 
 are under separate military governors. In 1894, the Gov- 
 ernment of Warsaw has been increased by one district 
 of Plock and one district of Lomja.' 
 
 In European Russia the government of the parish, in 
 so far as the lands of the peasantry are concerned, and 
 
 part of the local administration, is entrusted to the 
 people. For this purpose the whole country is divided 
 into communes (107,676 in European Russia, exclusive of 
 the three Baltic provinces), which elect an elder (Sta- 
 rosta), or executive of a commune, as also a tax-collector 
 or superintendent of public stores. All these officers are 
 elected at communal assemblies (" Mir " which means 
 both " the village " and " the world ") by the peasants, 
 and from among themselves. The communal assemblies 
 are constituted by all the householders in the village, 
 who discuss and decide all communal aft'airs. These 
 communal assemblies are held as business requires. The 
 communes are united into cantons, or " Voloste," each 
 embracing a population of about 2,000 males (10,530 in 
 European Russia). Each of the cantons is presided over 
 also by an elder " Starshina," elected at the cantonal as- 
 semblies, which are composed of the delegates of the vil- 
 lage communities in proportion of one man to every ten 
 houses. The canton assemblies decide the same class of 
 affairs as do the communal assemblies, but concerning 
 each its respective canton. The peasants have thus spe- 
 cial institutions of their own, which are submitted also to 
 special colleges " for peasants' affairs," instituted in each 
 government. In Poland the " Voloste " is replaced by 
 the " Gmina," the assemblies of which are constituted 
 of all landholders nobility included, the clergy and 
 the police excluded who have each but one voice, what- 
 ever the area of land possessed. The " Gmina " has, 
 however, less autonomy than the " Voloste," being sub- 
 ject directly to the " Chief of the District." In conjunc- 
 tion with the assemblies of the Voloste and Gmina are 
 cantonal tribunals, consisting of from four to twelve 
 judges elected at cantonal assemblies. Injuries and of- 
 fenses of every kind, as well as disputes relating to 
 property between the peasants, not involving more than 
 a hundred roubles, come under the jurisdiction of these 
 popular tribunals. Affairs of more importance, up to 
 300 roubles, are judged by Judges of Peace, elected in 
 Central Russia, and nominated elsewhere ; appeal against 
 their judgments can be made to the " Syezd,'' or gath- 
 ering of judges of the district, and further to the Sen- 
 ate. In 1889 an important change was made in the above 
 organization. Justices of Peace have been replaced in 
 twenty provinces of Central Russia by Chiefs of the dis- 
 trict (uyezdnyi nachalnik), nominated by the adminis- 
 tration from among candidates taken from the nobility, 
 recommended by the nobility, and endowed with wide 
 disciplinary powers against the peasants; in the cities, 
 except St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Odessa, special 
 "town magistrates" (gorodskoi sudia), nominated in 
 the same way, are to take the place of the former Jus- 
 tices of Peace. As to the peasants' tribunals (volostnoi 
 sud), ihey are placed in direct subjection to the " Chiefs 
 of the Districts." The same measure has been extended 
 in 1890 and 1891 over all the provinces endowed with 
 provincial institutions (zemstvos). 
 
 Religion. The established religion of the Empire in 
 the Graeco-Russian, officially called the Orthodox-Cath- 
 olic Faith. It has its own independent synod, but main- 
 tains the relations of a sister Church with the four patri- 
 archates of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and 
 Alexandria. The Holy Synod, the board of government 
 of the Church, was established with the concurrence of 
 the Russian clergy and the four Eastern patriarchs. 
 
 The Emperor is head of the Church ; ne appoints to 
 every office in the Church, and is restricted only so far 
 as to leave to the bishops and prelates the privilege of 
 proposing candidates; and he transfers and dismisses 
 persons from their offices in certain cases. But he has 
 never claimed the right of deciding theological and 
 dogmatic questions. Practicallv, the Procurator of the 
 Holy Synod enjoys wide powers in Church matters. 
 
 The points in which the Greece-Russian Church differs 
 from the Roman Catholic faith are, its denying the 
 spiritual supremacy of the Pope, its not enforcing ths 
 celibacy of the clergy, and its authorizing all individ- 
 uals to'read and study the Scriptures in the vernacular 
 tongue. With the exception of the restraints laid on the 
 Jews, all religions may be freely professed in the Em- 
 pire. The dissenters have been and are still, however, 
 severely persecuted, though recently some liberty has 
 been extended to those of the " United Church." It is 
 estimated that there are more than 12,000,000 dissenters 
 in Great Russia alone. The affairs of the RomanCatho- 
 lic Church are entrusted to a Collegium, and those of 
 the Lutheran Church to a Consistory, both settled at St. 
 Petersburg. Roman Catholics are most numerous in the 
 former Polish provinces, Lutherans in those of the Bal- 
 tic, and Mohammedans in Eastern and Southern Russia, 
 while the Jews are almost entirely settled in the towns
 
 106 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 and larger villages of the western and southwestern 
 provinces* 
 
 Instruction. Most of the schools in the Empire are 
 under the Ministry of 1'ublic Instruction, and the Em- 
 pire i3 divided into 11 educational districts (St. 1'eters- 
 
 Kie 
 
 West 
 
 cial schools are under separate' Ministries. The total 
 
 contribution for education from the various Ministries 
 
 in 1?94 was 3J.336,096 roubles; of this, 7,294,473 roubles 
 
 was for universities, 13,570,208 roubles for middle-class 
 
 schools, and 7,403,612 roubles for primary schools. 
 
 Justice. The organization of justice was totally re- 
 formed by the law of 1864; but the action of that law 
 
 beenapj 
 
 tic Provinces and the government of Arkhangelsk. In 
 the above-named governments the Justice of J'eace has 
 been introduced, but the other tribunals remain in the 
 old state. No juries are allowed in Poland and the 
 Caucasus; the justices of peace are nominated by the 
 Government in the provinces which have no zemstvos. 
 In Poland there are judges of pence in the towns only, 
 their functions in the villages beinrr performed by Gmina 
 courts, elected by the inhabitants of the Gmina. Siberia 
 has maintained the tribunals of old; in the Steppe Prov- 
 inces there are district judges, while courts of higher 
 instance are represented by the Justice Department of 
 the provincial administration. 
 
 There were in 191, 2apper.l departments of the Senate, 
 10 high courts, 85 courts of first instance. There were 
 besides 1.280 i.iquiry judges, and 1,345 notaries; 2,126 
 actual, and 3 652 honorary justices of peace. In the un- 
 reformed tribunals there were 604 judges, 129 public 
 prosecutors, and 156 inquiry judges. 
 
 Bv a law, dated June 'A, 1889, the functions of the 
 juries were limited to some extent, especially as regards 
 the crimes committed by the representatives of nobility 
 in their elective functions. 
 
 By a law of April 6, 1891, reformed courts as well as 
 chiefs of districts have been introduced in the prov- 
 inces of the Kirghize Steppes. In Siberia, the reformed 
 Courts and trial by jury were introduced in 1897, and in 
 Turkestan in 1898. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 The present Constitution of Spain, drawn 
 up by the Government and laid before a Cortes 
 Constituventes, elected for its ratification, 
 March 27, 1876, was proclaimed June 30, 
 1876. It consists of 89 articles or clauses. 
 The first of them enacts that Spain shall be a 
 constitutional monarchy, the executive resting 
 in the King, and the power to make laws " in 
 the Cortes with the King." The Cortes are 
 composed of a Senate and Congress, equal in 
 authority. There are three classes of senators 
 first, senators by their own right, or Sena- 
 dores de derecTio propio; secondly, 100 life sen- 
 ators nominated by the Crown these two 
 categories not to exceed 180 ; and thirdly, ISO 
 senators, elected by the Corporations of State 
 that is, the commnnal and provincial states, 
 
 the church, the universities, academies, etc 
 
 and by the largest payers of contributions. 
 Senators in their own right are the sons, if 
 any, of the King and of the immediate heir to 
 the throne, who have attained their majority ; 
 Grandees who are so in their own right and 
 who can prove an annual ran fa of 60,000 
 pesetas, or 2,400/. ; captain-generals of the 
 army ; admirals of the navy ; the patriarch of 
 the Indias and the archbishops ; the presi- 
 
 dents of the Council of State, of the Supreme 
 Tribunal, of the Tribunal of Cuentas del Reino, 
 and of the Supreme Council of War and of the 
 Navy, after two years of office. The elective 
 senators must be renewed by one half every 
 five years, and by totality every time the Mon- 
 arch dissolves that part of the Cortes. The 
 Congress is formed by deputies " named in tho 
 electoral Juntas in the form the law deter- 
 mines," in the proportion of one to every 50,- 
 000 souls of the population. According to the 
 law of June 26, 1890, the electoral qualifica- 
 tion is held by all male Spaniards, 25 years of 
 age, who enjoy full civil rights, and have been 
 citizens of a municipality for at least two 
 years. Members of Congress must be 25 years 
 of age ; they are re-eligible indefinitely, the 
 elections being for 5 years. Deputies, to the 
 number of 10, are admitted who, although not 
 elected for any one district, have obtained a 
 cumulative vote of more than 10,000 in several 
 districts. Deputies to the number of 88 are 
 elected by scrutin de Uste in 26 large districts, 
 in which minorities may be duly represented. 
 There are in all 431 deputies. The deputies 
 cannot take State office, pensions, and salaries ; 
 but the ministers are exempted from this law. 
 Both Congress and Senate meet every year. 
 The Monarch has the power of convoking 
 them, suspending them, or dissolving them ; 
 but in the latter case a new Cortes must sit 
 within three months. The Monarch appoints 
 the president and vice-presidents of the Senate 
 from members of the Senate only ; the Con- 
 gress elects its own officials. The Monarch 
 and each of the legislative chambers can take 
 the initiative in the laws. The Congress has 
 the right of impeaching the ministers before 
 the Senate. 
 
 The Constitution of June 30, 1876, further 
 enacts that the Monarch is inviolable, but his 
 ministers are responsible, and that all his de- 
 crees must be countersigned by one of them. 
 The Cortes must approve his marriage before 
 he can contract it, and the King cannot marry 
 anyone excluded by law from the succession 
 to the crown. Should the lines of the legiti- 
 mate descendants of the late Alphonso XII. 
 become extinct, the succession shall be in this 
 order first, to his sisters ; next to his aunt 
 and her legitimate descendants ; and next to 
 those of his uncles, the brothers of Fernando 
 VII., "unless they have been excluded." If 
 all the lines become extinct, " the nation will 
 elect its Monarch." 
 
 The executive is vested, under the Monarch, 
 in a Council of Ministers, as follows, March 
 4, 1899: 
 
 President of the Council. 
 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 107 
 
 Minister of Justice. 
 
 Minister of Finance. 
 
 Minister of the Interior 
 
 Minister of War. 
 
 ^ fin inter of Marine. 
 
 Minister of Agriculture and Commerce and of 
 Public Works. 
 
 The Ministry of the Colonies was abolished 
 February 10, 1899. 
 
 Local Government. The various provinces and 
 communes of Spain are governed by the provincial and 
 municipal laws. Every commune 'has its own elected 
 Ayuntamiento, consisting of from five to thirty-nine 
 Regidores, or Concejales ; and presided over by the Al- 
 calde, at whose side stand, in the larger towns, several 
 Tenientes Alcaldes. The entire municipal government, 
 with power of taxation, is vested in the Ayuntamientos. 
 Half the members are elected everv two years, and they 
 appoint the Alcalde, the executive functionary, from 
 their own body. In the larger towns he may be ap- 
 pointed by the King. Members cannot be re-elected un- 
 til after two years. Each province of Spain has its own 
 Parliament, the Diputacion Provincial, the members of 
 which are elected by the constituencies. The IMputa- 
 ciones Provinciates meet in annual session, and are per- 
 manently represented by the Commission Provincial, r\ 
 committee elected every year. The Constitution of 1876 
 secures to the Diputaciones Provinciales and the Ayun- 
 tamientos the government and administration of the 
 respective provinces and communes. Neither the na- 
 tional executive iior the Cortes have the right to inter- 
 fere in the established municipal and provincial admin- 
 istration, except in the case of the action of the Dipu- 
 taciones Provincialcs and Ayuntamientos going beyond 
 the locally limited sphere to" the injury of general and 
 permanent interests. In the Basque provinces self- 
 government has been almost abolished since the last 
 civil war, and they are ruled as the rest of Spain. Not- 
 withstanding the provisions of the Constitution, pres- 
 sure is too frequently brought to bear upon the local 
 elections by the Central Government. 
 
 Religion. The national Church of Spain is the Ro- 
 man Catholic, and the whole population of the Kingdom 
 adhere to that faith, except (in 1887) 6 654 Protestants, 
 402 Jews, 9.645 Rationalists, 510 of other religions, and 
 13,175 of religion not stated. There were in 1884 in 
 Spain 32.43") priests in the 62 dioceses into which the 
 country ii divided; 1 6?4 monks resident in 161 monas- 
 tic houses, ami 14,5r2 nui.s in 1,027 convents. The num- 
 ber of cathedrals was 65, of religious colleges 30, of 
 churches 18,661, and of convents, religious houses, sanc- 
 tuaries, and other buildings of a relitrious character 11.- 
 202. According to Article 12 cf the Constitution of 1876, 
 a restricted liberty of worship is allowed to Protestants, 
 but it has to be entirely in private, all public announce- 
 ments of fie same being strictly forbidden. The Con- 
 stitution likewise enacts that " the nation binds itself to 
 maintain the worship and ministers of the Roman Cath- 
 olic religion." Resolutions of former legislative bodies 
 not repealed in the Constitution of 1876, settled that the 
 clergy of the Established Church are to be maintained 
 by the State. On the other hand, Vy two decrees of the 
 Cortes, passed July 23, 1835, and lurch 9, 1836, all con- 
 ventual establishments were suppressed, and their 
 property confiscated for the benefit of 1 he nation. These 
 decrees gave rise to a long dispute with the head of the 
 Roman Catholic Church, which ended in the sovereign 
 pontiff conceding the principle of the measure. By a 
 concordat with Rome concluded in August, 159, the 
 Spanish government was authorized to sell the whole 
 ecclesiastical property, except churches and parsonages, 
 in return for an equal amount of untransferable public 
 debt certificates bearing interest at the rate of 3 per 
 cent. 
 
 Instruction. The latest census returns show that a 
 large proportion of the inhabitants are illiterate. In 
 I860 20.0 per cent, of the population cou'd read and 
 write ; 4.6 per cent, could read only; and 75.3 per cent, 
 could neither read nor write. In 1889, out of a popula- 
 tion of 17. 512,346 accounted for, 5,004,460 (:U17.f 55 males, 
 and 1,686.615 females'), rr 2 '.5 per cent, could read and 
 write; 608.005 (221,613 males, and 380.3P2 females), or 3 4 
 percent, could read only; and 11,945,871 (5,067,098 males, 
 and 6,878,773 females), or C8.1 per cent, could neither 
 read nor write. 
 
 By a law of 1857 an elaborate system of primary edu- 
 cation was ordained: education was to be compulsory, 
 there was to be a primary school for every 500 inhabi- 
 tants, and instruction was to be on a rigidly uniform 
 plan. Compulsion has never been enforced, and, partly 
 from political causes and partly from the wretched 
 pay of most of the elementary teachers (Wl. to 201. per 
 annum), education is very inefficient. In 1881, how- 
 ever, several Improvements were introduced. Under 
 the Minister of Public Works there is a Director-General 
 of Public Instruction, with a council ; there are ten ed- 
 ucational districts, with the universities as centers, 49 
 inspectoral districts, and numerous local educational 
 authorities. The public and primary schools are sup- 
 ported mainly by the municipalities, the total sum spent 
 in each of the last three years on primary education, in- 
 cluding a small contribution bv Government, being 
 about 1,000,000?. Most of the children are educated free. 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty- 
 fourth, in male descent, of the house of Oth- 
 man, the founder of the empire, and the 
 twenty-eighth Sultan since the conquest of 
 Constantinople. By the law of succession 
 obeyed in the reigning family, the crown is 
 inherited according to seniority by the male 
 descendants of Othman, sprung from the Im- 
 perial Harem. The Harem is considered a 
 permanent State institution. All children 
 born in the Harem, whether offspring of free 
 women or of slaves, are legitimate and of equal 
 lineage. The Sultan is succeeded by his eldest 
 son, but only in case there are no uncles or 
 cousins of greater age. 
 
 The fundamental laws of the empire are 
 based on the precepts of the Koran. The will of 
 the Sultan is absolute, in so far as it is not in 
 opposition to the accepted truths of the Ma- 
 hometan religion as laid down in the sacred 
 book of the Prophet. Next to the Koran, the 
 laws of the " Multeka," a code formed of the 
 supposed sayings and opinions of Mahomet, 
 and the sentences and decisions of his imme- 
 diate successors, are binding upon the Sov- 
 ereign as well as his subjects. Another code 
 of laws, the " Cahon nameh," formed by Sultan 
 Solyman the Magnificent, from a collection of 
 " hatti-sheriffs," or decrees, issued by him and 
 his predecessors, is held in general obedi- 
 ence, but merely as an emanation of human 
 authority. 
 
 The legislative and executive authority is 
 exercised, under the supreme direction of the 
 Sultan, by two high dignitaries, the "Sadr- 
 azam," or Grand Vizier, the head of the tempo- 
 ral Government, and the " Sheik-ul-Tslam, " 
 the head of the Church. Both are appointed 
 by the Sovereign, the latter with the nominal 
 concurrence of the " Ulema," a body compris- 
 ing the clergy and chief functionaries of the law, 
 over which the " ShoTk-ul- Islam " presides, 
 although he himself does not exercise priestly 
 functions. Connected with the " Ulema " are 
 the " Mufti," the interpreters of the Koran. 
 The Ulema comprise all the great judges,
 
 108 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 theologians, and jurists, and the great teachers 
 of literature and science, who may be sum- 
 moned by the Mufti. The principal civic 
 functionaries bear the titles of Effendi, Bey, 
 or Pasha. 
 
 Forms of constitution, after the model of 
 the West European States, were drawn up at 
 various periods by successive Ottoman Gov- 
 ernments, the first of them embodied in the 
 " Hati-Hume'youn" of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, 
 proclaimed February 18, 1856, and the most 
 recent in a decree of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II., 
 of November, 1876. But the carrying out of 
 these projects of reform appears entirely im- 
 possible in the present condition of the Otto- 
 man Empire. 
 
 The Grand Vizier, as head of the Govern- 
 ment and representative of the Sovereign, is 
 assisted by the Medjliss-i-Hass, or Privy Coun- 
 cil, which corresponds to the British Cabinet. 
 The Medjliss-i-Hass consists of the following 
 members: 1, The Grand Vizier; 2, The 
 She'ik-ul-Islam ; 3, The Minister of the Inte- 
 rior; 4, The Minister of War ; 5, The Minis- 
 ter of Evkaf (Worship) ; 6, The Minister of 
 Public Instruction ; 7, The Minister of Public 
 Works; 8, President of Council of State; 9, 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs ; 10, Minister of 
 Finance; 11, Minister of Marine ; 12, Minis- 
 ter of Justice ; 13, Minister of Civil List. 
 
 The whole of the empire is divided into 
 thirty Vilayets, or governments, and sub- 
 divided into Sanjaks, or provinces, Kazas, or 
 districts, NahieX or subdistricts, and Kane's, 
 or communities. A Vali, or governor general, 
 who is held to represent the Sultan, and is 
 assisted by a provincial council, is placed at 
 the head of each Vilayet. The provinces, dis- 
 tricts, etc., are subjected to inferior authori- 
 ties (Mutesarifs, Cai'makams, Mudirs and 
 Muktars) under the superintendence of the 
 principal governor. The division of the country 
 into Vilayets has been frequently modified of 
 late for political reasons. For similar reasons 
 six of the Sanjaks of the empire are governed 
 by Mutesarifs appointed directly by the Sultan, 
 and are known as Mutessarifats. All subjects, 
 however humble their origin, are eligible to, 
 and may fill, the highest offices in the State. 
 
 Under the capitulations foreigners residing 
 in Turkey are under the laws of their respect- 
 ive countries, and are amenable for trial ( in 
 cases in which Turkish subjects are not con- 
 cerned) to a tribunal presided over by their 
 consul. Foreigners who own real property 
 are amenable to the Ottoman civil courts in 
 questions relative to their landed property. 
 Cases between foreign and Turkish subjects 
 are tried in the Ottoman courts, a dragoman 
 of the foreign consulate being present to see 
 
 that the trial be according to the law ; the 
 carrying out of the sentence, if against the 
 foreigner, to be through his consulate.. Cases 
 between two foreign subjects of different na- 
 tionalities are tried in the court of the 
 defendant. 
 
 Religion and Education. Mahometans form the 
 vast majority of the population in Asiatic Turkey, but 
 only one half of the population in European Turkey. 
 Recognized by the Turkish Government are the adher- 
 ents of seven non-Mahometan creeds namely: 1, 
 Latins, Franks, or Catholics, who use the Roman Lit- 
 urgy, consisting of the descendants of the Genoese 
 and Venetian settlers in the empire, and proselytes 
 among Armenians ; Bulgarians, and others ; 2, Greeks ; 
 3, Armenians; 4, Syrians and United Chaldeans; 5, 
 Maronites, under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Leb- 
 anon; 6, Protestants, consisting of converts chiefly 
 among the Armenians ; 7, Jews. These seven religious 
 denominations are invested with the privilege of pos- 
 sessing their own ecclesiastical rule. The Bishops and 
 Patriarchs of the Greeks and Armenians, and the " Chae- 
 ham-Baschi," or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in con- 
 sequence of those functions, considerable influence. 
 
 The Mahometan clergy are subordinate to tha SheVk- 
 nl-Islam. Their offices" are hereditary, and they can 
 only be removed by Imperial irade. A'priesthood', how- 
 ever, in the strict sense of a separate class, to whom 
 alone the right of officiating in religious services be- 
 longs, cannot be said to exist in Turkey. 
 
 The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, 
 and, as a consequence, public schools have been long es- 
 tablished in most considerable Turkish towns: while 
 "medresses," or colleges, with public libraries, arc at- 
 tached to the greater number of the principal mosques. 
 But the instruction afforded by these establishments is 
 rather limited. 
 
 The number of mosqvies in the Turkish Empire is 
 2,120, of which 379 are in Constantinople. The number 
 of the clergy is 11,600. Connected with the mosques are 
 1,780 elementary schools, where education is supplied 
 gratis. The private revenue of the Evkaf (church), pre- 
 vious to the war of 1878, was 30,200,000 piastres (250,000?.) 
 per annum, but they have now been reduced to 20,000,000 
 piastres (166.000?.). The expenses are reckoned at 15.ooo.- 
 000 piastres (125,000?.). The stipend of the Sheik-ul-Islaui. 
 7,031 ,520 piastres (59,000?.), and thoseof the Naibs and Muf- 
 tis, 7,876,646 piastres(66,000?.), are paid by the State. The 
 principal revenues of the Evkaf are derived from the 
 sale of landed property which has been bequeathed it. 
 and which is known under the name ot'Vacouf. Three 
 fourths of the urban property of the empire is sup- 
 posed to belong to the vacouf . Purchasers of property 
 of this description pay a nominal annual rent to the 
 Evkaf; but should they die without direct heirs the 
 property reverts to the Church. 
 
 CIVIL LISTS OF EUROPEAN SOV- 
 EREIGNS. 
 
 Austria-Hungary, Emperor of, $3,875,000. 
 
 Bavaria, King of, $1,412,000. 
 
 Belgium, King of, $660,000. 
 
 Denmark, King of, 227,775; and Crown Prince, $33,330. 
 
 Greece, King of , $260,000, including $20,000 a year each 
 from Great Britain, France, and Russia. 
 
 Italy, King of, 82,858,000, of which 180,000 for family. 
 
 Netherlands, King of, $250.000, also a large revenue 
 from domains, and $62,500 for royal family, courts, 
 and palaces. 
 
 Norway and Sweden, King of, $575,525. 
 
 Portugal, King of, $634,440. 
 
 Prussia, King of, $3.852,770 : also a vast amount of pri- 
 vate property, castles, forests, and estates, out ol 
 which the court expenditure and royal family are 
 paid. 
 
 Roumania, King of, $237,000. 
 
 Russia, Czar of , has private estates of more than 1,000, 000 
 square miles of cultivated land and forests, besides 
 gold and other mines in Siberia. The annual income 
 has been estimated at about $12,000,000. 
 
 Saxony, King of, $735,000. 
 
 Servia, King of, $240,000. 
 
 Spain, King of, $1,400,000, besides $600,000 for family. 
 
 WUrtemlvjrg. King of, $44'.t,or.O. 
 
 Barker's Facts.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 109 
 
 HEADS OF THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLJ>. 
 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 Official Head. 
 
 Title. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Abyssinia Menelik II Emperor 
 
 Afghanistan Abdur Rahman Khan Ameer 
 
 Annum Bun-Can ^Kin^ 
 
 Argentine Republic Julio A. Roca President 
 
 Austria-Hungary Francis Joseph Emperor Aug. 18, 
 
 Baluchistan . . . . '. Mir Mahmud Khan '< 
 
 Belgium Leopold II King April 9, 
 
 Bokhara Seid Abdul Abad 'Ameer 
 
 Bolivia Sefior Severo Fernandez Alonzo President 
 
 Borneo Hasim Jalilal Alain Akamaldin Sultan 
 
 Brazil Sefior Campos Salles President 
 
 Bulgaria Ferdinand 
 
 Central America, IT. S. of (Confederation dissolved) 
 
 Chile Frederico Errazuriz President. 
 
 Acceded. 
 
 1843 \larchl2, 
 isr, .luly 22, 
 1879! Jan. 30, 
 
 Oct. 12, 
 
 1830jDec. 2, 
 
 . ...(August, 
 1835 Dec. 10, 
 1804 Nov. 12, 
 
 Prince Feb. '_'C, 1801 
 
 China Kuang Hsu (Dowager Empress rules). , Emperor > Aug 
 
 Colombia General Quinto Calderon 'President.. 
 
 Congo Free State Leopold (King of the Belgians) (Sovereign , 
 
 Costa Rica Rafael Iglesias President., 
 
 Dahomev Guthili .. Ki 
 
 April 9, 
 
 May, 
 October, 
 Aug. 11, 
 
 1889 
 1880 
 1889 
 1898 
 1848 
 1*93 
 1865 
 1885 
 189C 
 1885 
 1898 
 1887 
 
 Sept. 18, 
 
 2. 1872 Jan. 12, 
 
 Denmark Christian IX Kin| April 8, 
 
 Dominican Republic General Ulises Heureaux President 
 
 Ecuador '" 
 
 Egypt 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Saxonv 
 
 General Eloy Alfaro President. 
 
 Abbas Pacha Khedive July 14, 
 
 Francois Felix Faure President Jan. 31, 
 
 William II Emperor 
 
 William II .. King , 
 
 Otto . . King April 27, 
 
 Albert King April 23, 
 
 Wiirteinberg William II iKing Feb. 25, 
 
 Baden Frederick Grand Duke Sept. 9, 
 
 Hesse 'Ernst Louis V ;Grand Duke Nov. 25, 
 
 Lippe-Detmoid Adolphus Prince 
 
 Anhalt Frederick Duke April 29. 
 
 Brunswick Prince Albrecht Regent May *, 
 
 Mecklenburg-Scli weri n Frederick Francis IV. (A Regency). . . Grand Duke April 9, 
 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz Frederick William Grand Dnke Oct. 17, 
 
 Oldenburg Peter Grand Duke July 8, 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg Ernest |Duke Sept. 16, 
 
 Saxe-Coburg and Gotlia . .. Alfred (Duke of Edinburgh) IDuke Aug. (!, 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen George II jDuke April 2. 
 
 Saxe-Weimar Karl Alexander [Grand Duke June 24, 
 
 Waldeck-Pyrmont Frederick IPrince Jan. 20, 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland... Edward VII IKing Nov. 9, 
 
 Greece George iKing Dec 
 
 1835 April M 
 
 1864 May 8 
 
 Jan. 15 
 
 1818 Nov. 15 
 
 iSept. 1 
 
 Sept., 
 
 1874 Jan. 7 
 
 1841 Jan. 17 
 
 George 
 
 Guatemala Manuel Estrado Cabrera (President 
 
 Hayti General Tiresias Simon Sam 'President 
 
 Honduras Terencio Sierra (President 
 
 India (British) Victoria I Empress 
 
 Italy Humbert King 
 
 Japan Mutsuhito IMikado 
 
 Khiva Seid Mehomed Rahim Khan 
 
 Korea Li Hsi Emperor 
 
 Liberia 'William David Coleman iPresident 
 
 Luxemburg ! Adolphus (Duke of Nassau) Grand Dnke 
 
 Mexico , General PortirioDiaz President 
 
 Monaco Albert iPrince 
 
 Montenegro Nicholas Prince 
 
 Morocco Muley Abdul Azziz Sultan 
 
 Nepaul Surendra Bikram Shamsher Jang Maharaja 
 
 Netherlands Wilhelmina 'Queen . : 
 
 Nicaragua ! General Jos Santos /elaya President .... 
 
 Oman Seyyid Feysal bin Turkee Sultan 
 
 Orange Free State M.'T. Stevn iPresident.; 
 
 Paraguay General Egusguiza 'President 
 
 Persia . .'. Muzafer ed Din Shah 
 
 Peru General Nicola Pierola "President. 
 
 Portugal Carlos 'King 
 
 Roumania Charles King 
 
 Nicholas II 'Emperor 
 
 General Gutierrez (deposed) (President 
 
 Russia 
 
 Salvador 
 Samoi 
 
 Jan. 27, 1859 June 15, 
 
 1848 ! June 13, 
 
 1828 Oct. 29, 
 
 1848 Oct. 6, 
 
 1826 Sept. 5, 
 1868 March 13, 
 1859J 
 
 1831 May 22, 
 
 1837 Oct. 21, 
 
 1882 April 10, 
 
 1819 Sept. 6, 
 
 1827 Feb. 27. 
 1826 Aug. 3, 
 
 1844 Aug. 23, 
 1826 Sept. 20, 
 1818, July 8, 
 1865 May 12, 
 1841 Jan. 22, 
 
 1845 Oct. 31, 
 1856 
 1835;March31, 
 
 . ... Nov. 19, 
 
 1819 'Jan. 1, 
 
 1844!Jan. 9, 
 
 1852;Feb. 13, 
 1845 
 1851 Jan., 
 
 Nov. 13, 
 
 Nov. 23, 
 
 Dec. 24 
 May 15, 
 
 May 24, 
 March 14, 
 Nov. 3, 
 
 July 25, 
 
 July 24, 1817 
 
 Nov. 13, 
 Oct. 7, 
 
 Aug. 31, 
 
 Sept. 28, 
 April 20 
 
 May 18, 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1848 Sept. 10, 
 
 1841 Aug. 14, 
 
 1878 June 11 
 1874 
 
 1880 Nov. 23, 
 
 Oct., 
 
 June 4, 
 
 Feb. 19, 
 
 Nov. 25, 
 
 May 1, 
 
 Aug. 1! 
 
 1863 Oct. 19, 
 1839 March 26, 
 1868 Nov. 2, 
 June 5, 
 
 1896 
 1875 
 1896 
 1885 
 1898 
 1894 
 1863 
 1886 
 1895 
 1892 
 1895 
 
 1886 
 1873 
 1891 
 1858 
 1892 
 1895 
 1871 
 1885 
 1897 
 1860 
 1853 
 1853 
 1893 
 1866 
 1853 
 1893 
 1901 
 1863 
 1892 
 1896 
 1898 
 1877 
 1878 
 1867 
 1865 
 1864 
 1896 
 1890 
 1896 
 1889 
 1860 
 1894 
 1884 
 1890 
 1893 
 1888 
 1896 
 1894 
 1896 
 1895 
 1889 
 1881 
 1894 
 1894 
 
 Sarawak Sir Charles Johnson Brooke I Raja June 3, 
 
 Ser via Alexander King 'Aug. 14, 
 
 Siam Khoulalongkorn JSi n I Sept. 21, 
 
 May 17. 
 
 Jan. 21, 
 
 Spain AlphonsoXIII. (a minor) iKing 
 
 Sweden and Norway Oscar II King 
 
 Switzerland JE. Ruffy President 
 
 Transvaal (S. African Rep.). . Stephanus J. Paul Kriiger President 
 
 ---- .. SidiAli Past- ' 
 
 Tunis. 
 
 Turkey 
 
 United States of America . . . 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Zanzibar 
 
 Bey. 
 
 1829 June 11, 
 arch 6, 
 
 1853 Oct. 1, 
 May VI, 
 Sept. 18, 
 Dec. 21, 
 
 Oct. 10, 1825 Feb 
 
 Abdul Hamid II. . ......."."" "M.i .' Sultan "........... 
 
 William McKinley President 
 
 Jos Cuestas (ad interim) President 
 
 General Andrade President 
 
 Hainoud Bin Mohamed Sultan (Seyyid). . 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1817 
 
 1842 
 
 Oct. 
 Aug. 
 
 28, 
 31, 
 
 1843 March 4, 
 August, 
 
 1844 
 
 1868 
 1889 
 1868 
 1886 
 1872 
 1897 
 1898 
 1882 
 1876 
 1897 
 
 1897 
 
 189S
 
 110 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE AVORLI). 
 
 CorUTRIES. 
 
 Populatl'n. 
 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Populati'n Sq. Miles. Capitals. 
 
 
 402,680,000 
 381.037.874 
 129 211,113 
 76,000.000 
 
 85,000,000 
 8,000.000 
 900.000 
 109,029 
 
 2,600 
 
 63.166,967 
 38.517.975 
 21.44 (.064 
 3,870.000 
 183 237 
 1,500 000 
 26502 
 1.500.000 
 1.223 000 
 12,000 000 
 62 752 
 12 800 
 1,100.000 
 3,500,000 
 52.279 901 
 31,855.123 
 5589.382 
 3500 513 
 2,035 443 
 1.656 817 
 1,603.987 
 956,170 
 
 575.140 
 6J2.530 
 372580 
 341 250 
 313 668 
 247.603 
 214,697 
 
 198.717 
 180443 
 161.129 
 123,250 
 
 112,118 
 98,371 
 83,939 
 
 73,623 
 76485 
 56.565 
 53,787 
 
 37,204 
 5,950,000 
 
 41.827,700 
 41.089,940 
 4,450,870 
 
 33,042,238 
 1,073.500 
 2.000.000 
 21,974 161 
 353.000 
 200,000 
 
 4,218,401 
 11,335,806 
 8,644,100 
 3,602,990 
 
 3,756 380 
 143,000 
 3,600 
 6,740 
 
 50 
 
 3.357,856 
 204 177 
 2,923679 
 260 000 
 580.000 
 45 000 
 46 697 
 32,254 
 13,692 
 60.000 
 7,624 
 462 
 1,550.000 
 230.000 
 211.K8 
 134,467 
 29.291 
 5,789 
 7.531 
 5803 
 5.602 
 2,965 
 
 6,137 
 158 
 1.425 
 2,479 
 1,387 
 906 
 953 
 
 760 
 99 
 511 
 472 
 
 319 
 1,131 
 363 
 
 333 
 115 
 433 
 122 
 
 131 
 
 822,000 
 
 201,591 
 147,669 
 12,680 
 
 778.187 
 203 714 
 72.000 
 50.848 
 42,420 
 150,755 
 
 Peking 
 London 
 St. Petersburg 
 Washington 
 
 Washington 
 Manila 
 San Juan 
 Honolulu 
 
 Paris 
 Paris 
 
 Algiers 
 St. Louis 
 Tunis 
 Cayenne 
 Saigon, 
 
 Hanoi 
 Noumea 
 
 Antananarivo 
 Berlin 
 Berlin 
 Munich 
 Dresden 
 Stuttgart 
 Karlsruhe 
 Strasburg 
 Darmstadt 
 
 Schwerin 
 
 Brunswick 
 Oldenburg 
 Weimar 
 Dessau; 
 Meiningen 
 
 Gotha 
 
 Altenburg 
 Detmold 
 
 Gera 
 
 Neu Strelitz; 
 Rudolstadt 
 Sondershausen 
 
 Arolsen 
 Greiz 
 
 Buckeburg 
 
 Vienna 
 Tokio 
 The Hague 
 
 The Hague 
 
 Batavia 
 Amboyna 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 2,750,000 
 57,141 
 33,559,787 
 4,790.000 
 16,133 900 
 1,000,000 
 3,154,375 
 9.700,000 
 29,699,785 
 
 34,970,785 
 4.500.000 
 660.000 
 210 000 
 17,550 216 
 437.000 
 127.172 
 18.000.000 
 12 570,195 
 10.519.000 
 8,000.000 
 7.653.600 
 4,708,178 
 
 11,073,681 
 
 5,416,000 
 847,503 
 
 6,785,898 
 4784 981 
 2.000.917 
 6,500.000 
 6,030.043 
 5,700,000 
 5,376,000 
 
 4 042,990 
 4 600 .0(10 
 4.000,000 
 3 509 000 
 2,300.000 
 2,933 334 
 2,300 000 
 2433.806 
 2,172,205 
 
 2,288.193 
 72.445 
 9,780 
 33.763 
 2,323 988 
 2.09U 043 
 2.0')0.000 
 1.600 000 
 
 i.eoo.noo 
 
 1.470,000 
 
 1.300 000 
 1,050 000 
 950. 0('0 
 800 000 
 816.000 
 850 000 
 700.000 
 476 000 
 45'i 000 
 400,000 
 350,000 
 
 245.380 
 26"). 000 
 133,518 
 
 170,744 
 46,060 
 1,652 533 
 63.850 
 729 170 
 398 873 
 37 860 
 400,000 
 110,665 
 
 425,765 
 189.000 
 56.100 
 70,000 
 196 173 
 203.767 
 1,957 
 3.219 000 
 767 316 
 85.000 
 802.000 
 636.000 
 34,038 
 
 951,785 
 
 841,025 
 7,923 
 
 297.321 
 172.876 
 124,445 
 314000 
 11.373 
 280.550 
 46,314 
 
 1,095.013 
 331.420 
 279,000 
 256 860 
 405 040 
 15.981 
 472 COO 
 24977 
 14,780 
 
 101,403 
 39,756 
 46,740 
 118 
 566.159 
 18,757 
 56,800 
 41,65 
 81,OiO 
 46,774 
 144,000 
 14,000 
 29,830 
 110.193 
 7.228 
 72.112 
 22 320 
 145.000 
 4:2,658 
 51.660 
 20,596 
 
 3.46 
 19,985 
 41,484 
 
 Paramaribo 
 Constantino'le 
 
 Tripoli 
 Sofia 
 Cairo 
 Rome 
 
 Rome 
 
 Madrid 
 
 C. Rio Janeiro 
 City of Mexico 
 Seoul 
 
 Teheran 
 Lisbon 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 Stockholm 
 Christiania 
 Fez 
 Brussels 
 Bangkok 
 Bucharest 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 Bogota 
 Cabul 
 Santiago 
 Lima 
 Berne 
 La Paz 
 Athens 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Copenhagen 
 Reykjavik 
 Godthaab 
 
 Caracas 
 Belgrade 
 Khatmandu 
 Havana 
 Muscat 
 N. Guatemala 
 Quito 
 Monrovia 
 Port au Prince 
 Pretoria 
 San Salvador 
 Montevideo 
 Khiva 
 Asuncion 
 Tegucigalpa 
 Managua 
 San Domingo 
 
 Cettinje 
 San Jose 
 Bloemfontein 
 
 British Empire 
 Russian Empire... 
 United States 
 
 Surinam 
 
 Turkish Empire... 
 European Turkey 
 Asiatic Turkey.. 
 Tripoli 
 
 United States and 
 
 Philippines 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Porto Rico . 
 
 Egvpt . . . 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 Sulus, Carolines, 
 
 Italy and Colo- 
 nies 
 
 France and Colo- 
 nies 
 
 Abyssinia 
 
 Eritrea 
 
 France 
 
 Somal Coast 
 
 Colonies 
 Algeria 
 
 Spain 
 
 Spanish Africa . . 
 Spanish Islands. . 
 Brazil 
 
 Senegal, etc 
 
 Tunis 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Cambodia 
 
 
 Cochin-China 
 Tonquin 
 
 Congo State 
 
 Persia 
 
 New Caledonia.. 
 Tahiti 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Portugal and 
 Colonies 
 
 Sahara 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 Portu guese 
 Africa 
 
 German Empire.-.. 
 Prussia 
 
 Portuguese Asia. 
 Sweden and Nor- 
 way 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Wiirtemberg 
 Baden 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine . 
 Hesse 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin 
 
 Siam 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Argentine Repub- 
 lic 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 
 Saxe- Weimar 
 Anhalt 
 
 
 Chile 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen . 
 Saxc-Coburg- 
 Gotha 
 
 Peru 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 
 Bremen 
 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg . 
 Lippe 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Denmark and 
 Colonies 
 
 Reuss (younger 
 line) 
 
 
 Meckle nburg- 
 Strelitz 
 
 Greenland 
 
 
 Schwarzburg-Ru- 
 dolstadt 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 
 Sch warzburg- 
 Sondershausen 
 Liibeck 
 
 Nepaul 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 Waldeck 
 
 
 Reuss (elder line) 
 Schatimburg- 
 Lippe 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Liberia 
 
 Hayti 
 
 German Africa.. 
 Austria-Hungarian 
 Empire 
 
 Transvaal 
 
 Salvador 
 
 
 Japan 
 
 
 Netherlands . . . 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Netherlands and 
 Colonies... . 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Borneo 
 Celebes. . . . 
 
 Dominican Repub- 
 lic 
 
 Java 
 
 
 Moluccas 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 New Guinea 
 
 Orange Free State. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN FEDERATION. 
 
 COLONIES. 
 
 Area in 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 COLONIES. 
 
 Area in 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 .'(10.700 
 
 1,132,234 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 26.215 
 
 146,667 
 
 Victoria 
 
 87,884 
 
 1,140 405 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 104,032 
 
 626,658 
 
 South Australia 
 
 903,' : 90 
 
 320,431 
 
 Fiii 
 
 7,423 
 
 125,402 
 
 Queensland 
 Western Australia 
 
 668.497 
 903,690 
 
 393,718 
 49,782 
 
 British New Guinea 
 Total 
 
 234,768 
 3,246,729 
 
 350,000 
 4,285,297
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 Ill 
 
 DIVISION OF AFRICA 
 
 AMONG THE EUROPEAN POWERS. 
 
 
 Area. 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Area. 
 
 Population. 
 
 BRITISH AFRICA : Basutoland, 
 Bechuanalantl Protectorate, 
 Cape Colonv, Central Africa, 
 
 
 
 GERMAN AFRICA: Togoland, 
 Cameroons, South West Af- 
 rica, East Africa 
 
 920,920 
 
 10,200,0 JO 
 
 East Africa Protectorate, 
 Uganda Protectorate, Zanzi- 
 
 
 
 ITALIAN AFRICA: Eritrea, 
 Somaliland 
 
 278,500 
 
 850,000 
 
 bar Protectorate, Mauritius, 
 Natal, Niger Coast Protect- 
 orate, Territory of the Royal 
 
 
 
 PORTUOUESEAFRICA : Angola, 
 the Congo, Guinea, East Af- 
 rica and Islandst 
 
 735,304 
 
 4,431,970 
 
 Niger Company, South Af- 
 rica, West Africa, Zululand 
 and Islands* 
 
 2,587,755 
 
 41,133,953 
 
 SPANISH AFRICA : Rio de Oro, 
 Adrar, Fernando Po and Isl- 
 lands 
 
 243,877 
 
 136,000 
 
 FRENCH AFRICA : Algeria, Sen- 
 egal, French Soudan and the 
 Niger, Gaboon and Guinea 
 
 
 
 TURKISH AFRICA : Tripoli and 
 the Mediterranean Coast, 
 Egypt* 
 
 798,738 
 
 8,117,265 
 
 Coast, Congo Region, Somali 
 Coast, Madagascar and Isl- 
 ands 
 
 1,232,454 
 
 18,073,890 
 
 CONGO INDEPENDENT STATE. 
 (Under the sovereignty of the 
 King of the Belgians 
 
 900,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7,697,548 
 
 113,243.070 
 
 * Egypt and the Egyptian Soudan, although nominally under the suzerainty of Turkey, are really controller 
 by Great Britain, and ic'is only a matter of time as to when they will be incorporated into the British Empire. 
 Adding Egypt and the Soudan to the Empire would increase the figures above given to 2,987,755 square miles and 
 47.951,218 population, t Negotiations have baen concluded between Great Britain and Germany on the one part 
 and Portugal on the other, by which the latter sells and disposes of all her African possessions to the two former, 
 which divide the purchases batween them. Th3 details are not yet made public further than that Great Britain 
 gets Dslagoa Bay, thus hemming in the South African Republic from the sea, save through British territory. 
 
 The remaining territory of Africa unoccupied is a part of the great Desert of Sahara and the Independent 
 States of Abyssinia ami Liberia. Even this territory, except the last, is destined to pass under the power of the 
 Europeans. 'The tabular figures are from " The Statesman's Year-Book." 
 
 Egyptian (British)and French tjrritory in the Soudan, according to British claims, touches along the lina of 
 the 27tii degree of latitude. Prior to the revolt of the Mahdi in 1882, Egypt claimed Darfar, Kordofan, Senaar, 
 Taka, the Equatorial Province, and the Bahr-el-Ghazal Province. Though authority over these was lost by the 
 success of the Mahdi, Egypt did not relinquish her claim, and her full authority was resumed by the victories of 
 General Kitchener i.i 1898'. Tli3 French were disposed to dispute these claims and assert a right to territory as 
 far east as the banks of the Nile, thus covering the Bahr-el-Ghazal Province. Hence the appearance of Major 
 Marchand at Fashoda on the Nile, many miles south of Khartoum. But this position the French have now 
 abandoned. 
 
 INDEBTEDNESS OF NATIONS. 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE ELEVENTH UNITED STATES CENSUS, 1890. 
 
 COUNTRIES 
 
 Debt Less 
 Sinking 
 Fund, 1890. 
 
 Debt per 
 Capita. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Debt Less n M 
 
 SJit.lrino- JJCUC per 
 
 blliKing ranita 
 Fund, 1890. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 $2*4,867,069 
 2,866.339.53!! 
 381.504.099 
 14 763.367 
 585.345.927 
 8519 .339 
 63451,583 
 33 004 7'. : 2 
 1,446,793.398 
 77,577,719 
 3,837.373 
 71,165.252 
 335 503 1<>5 
 16,217.400 
 4,876.174 
 59,202 946 
 7,562 763 
 3.295.709 
 9.211 095 
 1,109,384,127 
 143,897.747 
 955 311 
 2,550,698 
 743 800 
 842 631 
 568 200 
 107.7.35 500 
 3,350.719.563 
 8<1.003.592 
 110.817,720 
 22,028,424 
 
 $70.40 
 7084 
 63.10 
 12.38 
 41 .SO 
 31.96 
 1636 
 1566 
 11635 
 157 
 2.39 
 42.95 
 60.03 
 8994 
 12.10 
 9485 
 7.60 
 4310 
 25.95 
 37 03 
 41 11 
 4.63 
 11.39 
 867 
 11.16 
 992 
 52.93 
 779 
 327 
 7756 
 45.76 
 
 Canada 
 
 5237,533,212 $47.51 
 233289,245 214.87 
 184.898.305 298.01 
 129.204.750 333.46 
 102,177.500 321.00 
 22.235 345 147.46 
 179.614,005 161.63 
 6,509.736 15 ; >.23 
 107.306.518 49 06 
 10,825 836 7.59 
 13,500,000 14 06 
 63.394,?67 146.77 
 2,324826.3.91 76.06 
 305.727,8161 7.83 
 113 606 675 1 9 98 
 
 Austria-Hungary and Hung.. 
 
 New South Wales . . 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 
 Queensland 
 
 Brazil 
 
 South Australia 
 
 Chile 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 France 
 
 Greece 
 
 
 Guatemala . 
 
 VNace-Lorraine. 
 
 Havti 
 
 Baden 
 
 Honduras 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Japan . . 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 430.589 858) 95.56 
 1,711206 4.28 
 13.973.752 7.13 
 19,633 013 59.56 
 382,175 f 55 145.77 
 1*0,145.800 32.75 
 3,491,018,074 30.79 
 60,811,330 30.20 
 1,251.453,6961 73.85 
 64.220,807 13.53 
 10,912.925 3.72 
 821,000.000 37.20 
 517.278.200 75.88 
 915,962.112 14.63 
 22,517,437 11.00 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Lubeck. . 
 
 Norway 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Paragua y 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Sa\e-Col>ur ir -Gotha 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 Servia 
 
 Schwa rzburg-Rudolstadt 
 " Sondershausen 
 Waldecl: 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 S wi tzerland 
 
 
 Turkey . . 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 India 
 
 Egvpt 
 
 United States 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 
 Natal 
 
 
 
 * Inclusive of floating debt, but exclusive of annuities, whose capitalized value is estimated by good authority 
 to be not less than $2,000,000,000. 
 
 The national debts of the larger nations in 1896 or 1897 were as follows : Austria-Hungary, 1897, $3,225,405,000; 
 France, 1896, S6,218.851.34S; German Empire, 1896. S510.006.120; Prussia. 1897, $1,625,000,000 ;" Great Britain and 
 Ireland, 18:n, $3,203.868,395: Italy. 1897, $1,182,471,200; Spain. 189Z, $1.415 230,000; Russia, 1896. $3,307,512,500 ; United 
 States. 1898. $1.964.837.130.
 
 112 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
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 address written on the face, letter postage is 
 charged. Postage on all newspapers and peri- 
 odicals sent from newspaper offices to any part 
 of the United States, to regular subscribers, 
 must be paid in advance at the office of mailing. 
 
 Second-Class Matter. Periodicals issued at 
 regular intervals, at least four times a year, 
 and having a regular list of subscribers, with 
 supplement, sample copies, 1 cent a pound ; 
 periodicals, other than weekly, if delivered by 
 letter carrier, 1 cent each ; if over 2 ounces, 2 
 cents each. When sent by other than publish- 
 ers, for 4 ounces or less, 1 cent. 
 
 Third - Class Matter (not exceeding four 
 pounds). Printed matter, books, proof-sheets, 
 corrected or uncorrected, unsealed circulars, 
 inclosed so as to admit of easy inspection 
 without cutting cords or wrappers, 1 cent for 
 each 2 ounces. 
 
 Fourth-Class Matter. Not exceeding four 
 pounds, embracing merchandise and samples, 
 excluding liquids, poisons, greasy, inflammable 
 or explosive articles, live animals, insects, etc., 
 1 cent an ounce. Postage to Canada and British 
 North American states, 2 cents per ounce ; must 
 be prepaid ; otherwise, 6 cents. 
 
 Postage Rates to Foreign Countries. To the 
 countries and colonies which, with the United 
 States, comprise the Universal Postal Union, 
 the rates of postage are as follows : Letters, 
 per 15 grams ( ounce), pre-payment optional, 
 5 cents ; postal cards, each, 2 cents ; news- 
 papers and other printed matter, per 2 ounces, 
 
 1 cent. Commercial papers First 10 ounces 
 or fraction thereof, 5 cents ; every additional 
 
 2 ounces, 1 cent. Samples of merchandise 
 First 4 ounces, 2 cents ; every additional 2 
 ounces, 1 cent. Registration fee on letters or 
 other articles, 10 cents. Ail correspondence 
 other than letters must be prepaid at least 
 partially. 
 
 Printed matter other than books received in 
 the mails from abi-oad under the provisions of 
 postal treaties or conventions is free from 
 customs duty. 
 
 Dutiable books forwarded to the United 
 States from the Postal Union are delivered to 
 addresses at post offices of destination upon 
 payment of the duties levied thereon. 
 
 Postal Money Orders The limit of a single 
 money order is $100, instead of $50, as for- 
 merly. The fees charged are as follows : For 
 orders not exceeding $10, 8c. ; $10 to f 1.5, lOc. ; 
 $15 to $30, 15c. ; $30 to $40, 20c. ; $40 to $50, 
 25c. : $50 to $60, 30c. ; $60 to $70, 35c. ; $70 
 to $80, 40c. ; $80 to $100, 45c. 
 
 To Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Portu- 
 gal, Canada, Newfoundland, Italy, France, 
 Algeria, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasma- 
 nia, New Zealand, Jamaica : Fees, for not ex- 
 ceeding $10, 15 cents; $10 to $20, 30 cents; 
 $20 to $30, 45 cents ; $30 to $40, 60 cents ; 
 $40 to $50, 75 cents. To Great Britain and 
 Ireland, and adjacent islands : Fees, for not 
 exceeding $10, 25 cents ; $10 to $20, 50 cents ; 
 $20 to $30, 70 cents ; $30 to $40, 85 cents ; 
 $40 to $50, $1 . To British India : Fees, for 
 sums not exceeding $10, 35 cents ; not exceed- 
 ing $20, 70 cents ; not exceeding $30, $1 ; not 
 exceeding $40, $1.25 ; not exceeding $50, $1.50. 
 
 THE NATIONAL BANK LAW. 
 
 The National bank act provides for a limit 
 of capital in establishment of the national 
 banks proportioned to the importance of their 
 locality. To start a bank in a town of 6,000 
 population or less requires a capital of not less 
 than $50,000. In a town between 6,000 and 
 50,000 people, the capital of the bank must 
 be $100,000, while not less than $200,000 is 
 required in a town of more than 50,000 in- 
 habitants. Each bank must deposit with the 
 United States Treasury bonds to the extent 
 of at least one third of its entire capital as 
 security for its creditors. The Government 
 then issues to the bank 90 per cent, of the 
 deposits in blank notes, which, when properly 
 filled and signed, become the circulation of the 
 bank. Each bank must report its condition 
 quarterly to the Comptroller of the Currency, 
 and must at all times have on hand in lawful 
 money of the United States an amount equal 
 to at least 25 per cent, of its circulation and 
 deposits. The notes issued by the national 
 banks are thus secured, but depositors run the 
 same risk of loss through dishonesty or mis- 
 management of funds as with other banks. 
 The act originally provided that the whole 
 amount of notes was not to exceed $300,000,- 
 000 ; but even this limit to paper inflation has 
 not afforded complete immunity against crises.
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 113 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY I,AW CON- 
 DENSED. 
 
 Letters refer to Rules below. 
 
 Modifying or amending. 
 
 8. To amend or to substitute, or to 
 
 divide the question K 
 
 To refer to committee. 
 
 7. To commit, (or recommit) ... D 
 
 Deferring action. 
 
 6. To postpone to a fixed time . . C 
 
 4. To lay on the table AEG 
 
 Suppressing or extending delate. 
 
 5. For the previous question .... A E M 
 To limit, or close, debate .... AM 
 To extend limits of debate ... A 
 
 Suppressing the question. 
 
 Objection to consideration of 
 
 question A II M N 
 
 9. To postpone indefinitely .... D E 
 4. To lay upon the table AEG 
 
 To bring up a question the second lime. 
 To reconsider debatable ques- 
 tion D E F I 
 
 To reconsider undebatable ques- 
 tion AEFI 
 
 Concerning Orders, Rules, etc. 
 
 3. For 'the orders of the day .... A E II N 
 Tp make subject a special order. M 
 
 To amend the rules M 
 
 To suspend the rules A E F M 
 
 To take up a question out of its 
 
 proper order A E 
 
 To take from the table AEG 
 
 Questions touching priority of 
 
 business A 
 
 Questions of privilege. 
 
 Asking leave to continue speak- 
 ing after indecorum A 
 
 Appeal from chair's decision 
 
 touching indecorum A E II L 
 
 Appeal from chair's decision 
 
 generally E II L 
 
 Question upon reading of papers A E 
 
 Withdrawal of a motion .... A E 
 
 Closing a meeting. 
 
 2. To adjourn (in committees, to 
 rise), or to take a recess, 
 
 without limitation A E F 
 
 1. To fix time to which to adjourn B 
 
 Order of Precedence. - The motions above 
 numbered 1 to 9 take precedence over all others 
 in the order given, and any one of them, ex- 
 cept to amend or substitute, is in order while 
 a motion of a lower rank is pending. 
 
 RULE A. Undebatable, but remarks may 
 be tacitly allowed. 
 
 RULE B. Undebatable if another question 
 is before the assembly. 
 
 RULE C. Limited debate allowed on pro- 
 priety of postponement only. 
 
 RULE 1). Opens the main question to de- 
 bate. Motions not so marked do not allow of 
 reference to main question. 
 
 RULE E. Cannot be amended. Motion to 
 adjourn can be amended when there is no 
 other business before the house. 
 
 RULE F. Cannot be reconsidered. 
 
 RULE G. An affirmative vote cannot be 
 reconsidered. 
 
 RULE II. In order when another has the 
 floor. 
 
 RULE I. A motion to reconsider may be 
 moved and entered when another has the floor, 
 but the business then before the house may 
 not be set aside. This motion can only be en- 
 tertained when made by one who voted orig- 
 nally with the prevailing side. When called 
 up it takes precedence of all others which may 
 come up, excepting only motions relating to 
 adjournment. 
 
 RULE K. A motion to amend an amend- 
 ment cannot be amended. 
 
 RULE L. When an appeal from the chair's 
 decision results in a tie vote, the chair is sus- 
 tained. 
 
 RULE M. Requires a two-thirds vote unless 
 special rules have been enacted. 
 
 RULE N. Does not require to be seconded. 
 
 General Rules. No motion is open for 
 discussion until it has been stated by the chair. 
 
 The maker of a motion cannot modify it or 
 withdraw it after it has been stated by the 
 chair, except by general consent. 
 
 Only one reconsideration of a question is 
 permitted. 
 
 A motion to adjourn, to lay on the table, or 
 to take from the table, cannot be renewed un- 
 less some other motion has been made in the 
 interval. 
 
 On motion to strike out the words. " Shall 
 the words stand part of the motion? " unless a 
 majority sustains the words, they are struck 
 out. 
 
 On motion for previous question, the form 
 to be observed is, "Shall the main question 
 be now put? " This, if carried, ends debate. 
 
 On an appeal from the chair's decision, 
 " Shall the decision be sustained as the ruling 
 of the house? " the chair is generally sus- 
 tained. 
 
 On motion for orders of the day x " Will the 
 house now proceed to the orders of the day? " 
 This, if carried, supersedes intervening mo- 
 tions. 
 
 When an objection is raised to considering 
 questions, " Shall the question be considered? ' ' 
 objections may be made by any member before 
 debate has commenced, but not subsequently.
 
 114 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Draco's L<aws. Draco, an Athenian 
 lawgiver and archon, was the author of the 
 first written code of laws at Athens, which he 
 ia supposed to have published in the fourth 
 year of the 39th Olympiad, 621 B. C. He 
 was of distinguished birth, honored for his 
 severe manners and his large experience in 
 public affairs, and the people of Athens, a 
 prey to anarchy, besought him to give them a 
 code of laws. These, however, effected little 
 change in the form of the state, but by being 
 committed to writing put an end to the arbi- 
 trary administration of justice on the part of 
 the archons, and resulted in the establishment 
 of a court of appeals that of the Ephetae. 
 The system which he proposed linked together 
 civil and moral duties. He took the citizen 
 at the moment of his birth, prescribed the 
 manner in which he should be nourished and 
 educated, and followed him with directions 
 through the different epochs of life. His leg- 
 islation had a beneficial and permanent effect 
 upon the political development of Athens. 
 The extraordinary severity of these laws, how- 
 ever, which punished the slightest theft, or 
 even laziness, with death, no less than sacri- 
 lege, murder, and treason, caused them to be 
 often neglected, and made them so hated that 
 Solon was appointed to draw up a new code. 
 Solon, though he softened their severity in 
 some instances, retained that law which pun- 
 ished a murderer with death. Draco, at a 
 later period, went to ^gina, where, after 
 having introduced his laws, he is said to have 
 been stifled in the theater by the garments 
 thrown upon him as a mark of respect by the 
 people. Extremely severe and sanguinary 
 laws are still called Draconic, and in ancient 
 Greece it was commonly said that Draco's 
 laws " were written in blood." 
 
 Trial by Jury. The form of trial by 
 jury is generally conceded to be derived from 
 the institutions of the Greeks and Romans. 
 There was a custom in the ancient city of 
 Athens whereby a certain number of freemen, 
 selected by lot, heard and decided, under the 
 direction of a presiding judge, every case to 
 be tried at law, each case being heard and 
 determined by a different set of men. A sim- 
 ilar system was adopted in Rome ; and as the 
 Romans always introduced their laws and in- 
 stitutions into all their provinces, it is proba- 
 ble that their mode of judicial procedure was 
 established among the Britains. Another form, 
 called the trial by compurgation, was in use 
 among the Saxons. In this, each party to a 
 suit appeared, with certain of his friends, who 
 swore with him to the truth of his case. As 
 the number of the compurgators was usually 
 six on each side, it is supposed by some that 
 
 we have here the origin of the number of the 
 modern jury. Witnesses were first brought in 
 to aid the jury during the reign of Edward 
 III., but it was not until the reign of Queen 
 Anne that the law provided that those who 
 had evidence to give could not serve as jurors. 
 In Scotland the jury system was established 
 at a very early date, but was soon after discon- 
 tinued in civil cases. A jury in that country 
 consists of fifteen, and a majority may render 
 a verdict. The jury in civil cases was re- 
 introduced in the time of George III. In 
 Ireland the jury is substantially the same as in 
 England ; but the Repression-of-Crime bill, 
 passed in 1882, provided for the trial of cer- 
 tain cases without juries. In France a jury is 
 only allowed in cases of felony, where a ma- 
 jority of the jurors can render a verdict. In 
 Germany, trial by jury in criminal cases was 
 introduced early in the century. It was estab- 
 lished in Prussia in 1819, and again by the 
 Constitution of 1848 ; but in 1851 political 
 offenses were withdrawn from its operation. 
 The system was adopted by Aiistria in 1850, 
 by Greece in 1834, and by Portugal in 1837. 
 It has also been introduced in recent times 
 into Italy, into Brazil, and finally into Russia, 
 where the first trial by jury was held Augusts, 
 1886. In each of these last-named countries 
 a verdict can be rendered by the majority. 
 The jury system has existed in Belgium since 
 that country separated from Holland, and in- 
 cludes within its operations political offenses 
 and those of the press. In Switzerland all 
 crimes against the Confederation are tried by 
 jury, and for other crimes each canton has its 
 own machinery. The form of trial by jury 
 was brought from England to America by the 
 colonists, and is protected by mention in the 
 Federal Constitution and in the Constitutions 
 of most of the states. It is also in use in the 
 South American republics. The origin of the 
 institution as found in England is also ascribed 
 by some to the establishment of Norman law 
 there by William the Conqueror, as the Nor- 
 mans had a form of trial by jury much more 
 like that of modern times than any legal 
 usage of the Saxons. 
 
 Chinese Immigration Law. Ac- 
 cording to the law passed by both houses of 
 Congress and approved by the President in 
 1882, and amended in May, 1884, Chinese 
 laborers are forbidden to come to the United 
 States under penalty of being returned. The 
 law further declares that any master of any 
 vessel who shall knowingly land any Chinese 
 laborer shall be deemed guilty of a misde- 
 meanor, and for every Chinese brought shall 
 be fined a sum not exceeding $500, and may 
 also be imprisoned for one year. Chinese
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 115 
 
 persons who are not laborers desiring to visit 
 this country are obliged to bring with them 
 from the Chinese Government (or any other 
 Government of which they may at the time be 
 subjects) certificates of identification, giving 
 their names in full, description, statement of 
 business, place of residence, etc., the certifi- 
 cates to be also indorsed by the American 
 diplomatic representative in the country where 
 issued, and the forgery or substitution of any 
 name for the correct one in such certificates 
 shall render the perpetrator thereof liable to 
 a fine of $1,000 and an imprisonment of five 
 years. A master of any vessel bringing into 
 a United States port any such Chinese per- 
 sons, not laborers, is required to give a list of 
 them to the Collector of Customs of the port. 
 Any master of a vessel who violates any of 
 these provisions against admitting the Chinese 
 forfeits his vessel to the Government, and any 
 person aiding or abetting a Chinaman not 
 lawfully entitled to visit this country to land 
 here renders himself liable to a fine of $1,000 
 and one year's imprisonment. Further, any 
 Chinese person found traveling in the United 
 States without a proper certificate shall be re- 
 moved to the country from whence he came at 
 the cost of the United States, any person who 
 may have been instrumental in bringing such 
 Chinese to the United States being liable for | 
 all the expenses of his removal ; and all peace 
 officers of the several States and Territories 
 are invested with the powers of a United 
 States marshal for the purpose of carrying the 
 law into effect. The only Chinese persons ex- 
 empted from the action of this law are diplo- 
 matic officers traveling on the business of their 
 Government, their retinue of servants, and 
 Chinamen who arrived within ninety days 
 after the passage of the act. The law also re- 
 quires Chinese already established in the coun- 
 try to take out certificates, if they leave the 
 United States, in order to prove their identity 
 in the event of return. 
 
 Massachusetts Blue-Laws. In re- 
 gard to the so-called " blue- laws " of Massa- 
 chusetts it is difficult to determine just where 
 the line between fact and fancy is to be drawn. 
 It is claimed that the founders of Connecticut 
 borrowed most of their laws and judicial pro- 
 ceedings from Massachusetts. Many of these 
 laws were enacted previous to 1640, and a 
 number were the orders and sentences of the 
 Massachusetts Court of Assistants and Geri- j 
 eral Court. For instance, one order we find I 
 is as follows: "It is ordered, that all Rich, j 
 Clough's strong water shall presently be seazed 
 upon, for his selling greate quantytie thereof 
 to several men servants, which was the oc- j 
 casion of much disorder, drunkenes, and mis- ; 
 
 demeanor." Another record, in March, 1631, 
 is to the effect that " Nich. Knopp is fyned 5 
 for takeing upon him to cure the scurvey, by a 
 water of noe worth nor value, which he solde 
 att a very deare rate, to be imprisoned till hee 
 pay his fine or give securitye for it, or else to 
 be whipped ; and shal be lyable to any man's 
 action of whome he hath receved money for 
 the said water." In September, 1634, a num- 
 ber of restrictions regarding the fashions of 
 dress were enacted. One of them was as fol- 
 lows : " The court, takeing into consideration 
 the greate, superflous, and unnecessary ex- 
 penses occasioned by reason of some newe and 
 immodest fashions, as also the ordinary weare- 
 ing of silver, golde, and silke laces, girdles, hat- 
 bands, etc., hath therefore ordered that noe 
 person, either man or woman, shall hereafter 
 make or buy apparell, either woollen, silke or 
 lynnen, with any lace on it, silver, golde, silke, 
 or threed, under the penalty of forfecture of 
 such cloathes." That there was restraint put 
 upon the tongue is shown by the following, 
 under date of September, 1636 : " Robert 
 Shorthose, for swearing by the bloud of God, 
 was sentenced to have his tongue put into a 
 cleft stick, and to stand so by the space of 
 haulfe an houre." And here is one against 
 cakes and buns : " It is ordered, also, that no 
 person shall sell any cakes or buns, either in 
 the markets or victualing houses, or elsewhere, 
 upon paine of 10s. fine ; provided that this 
 order shall not extend to such cakes as shal 
 be made for any buriall, or marriage, or such 
 like spetiall occasion." 
 
 Prohibitory Laws. The first actual pro 
 hibitory law was enacted in Maine in 1851. This 
 was the famous Maine Liquor Law, and it is still 
 in force in that State, and in 1884 its specifica- 
 tions were put in the form of a constitutional 
 amendment, and adopted by a large popular 
 majority. Vermont enacted a prohibitory law 
 in 1852, its provisions, however, being much 
 less stringent than those of the Maine law. It 
 was strengthened by the passage in 1869 of a 
 civil-damage act, which provided that damages 
 might be collected from the liquor seller for 
 injuries inflicted by his customers, while in a 
 state of intoxication, upon themselves or 
 others. A mild prohibitory law was also 
 passed by New Hampshire in 1855, which has 
 been strengthened by enactments since adopted. 
 Damages are assessed on the liquor seller for 
 the acts of drunkards in that state also, by an 
 act passed in 1870. In Massachusetts the 
 temperance excitement of 1852 resulted in the 
 passage of a prohibitory law by the legislature, 
 but the courts decided the law was unconstitu- 
 tional, and in 1853 it was repealed. In 1855 
 the Know Nothing party being in power in the
 
 116 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Assembly, another prohibitory law was passed. 
 This was on trial for several years before the 
 courts, but at length its constitutionality was 
 affirmed. In 1868 this law was repealed be- 
 cause of great popular dissatisfaction with its 
 manner of working. A milder law was passed 
 in 1869, but, being even more unsatisfactory, 
 was abolished in 1875, and replaced by a 
 license law, which still exists. In Rhode 
 Island, as in Massachusetts, a law passed 
 during the excited state of public feeling in 
 1852 was declared unconstitutional the follow- 
 ing year. The law was then amended so as 
 not to conflict with the constitution, and the 
 question of its adoption being submitted to the 
 people, it was approved by a small majority. 
 In 1863, however, the law was repealed. In 
 1874 a similar law was passed, only to be 
 abolished in the next year, when a license law 
 prohibiting the sale of liquors to minors and 
 drunkards, and also on Sundays, and providing 
 for the collection of damages from the liquor 
 dealer, was passed. An amendment was offered 
 to the people in 1886, which was not adopted, 
 but in the next year a stringent prohibitory 
 law was passed. Connecticut passed a prohibi- 
 tory law in 1854, but owing to some defect in 
 the law, or to the indifference of the people, it 
 could not be enforced, and became virtually a 
 dead letter. About 1870, therefore, it was 
 superseded by the present license law, which 
 has the local option feature. This has given 
 opportunity to a large number of towns and 
 districts to positively forbid the sale of liquor 
 in their localities, so that nearly half of the 
 State is under practical prohibition. Michi- 
 gan, in 1853, adopted a prohibitory law which 
 was repealed almost immediately. A similar 
 law, however, was adopted in 1855, which 
 continued on the statute books for about 
 twenty years. As it had become inoperative 
 through popular indifference, it was replaced 
 by a license law in 1875. This latter was 
 strengthened in 1883 by the adoption of a 
 damage clause. In 1885 New York passed a 
 prohibitory law, which shared the fate of many 
 similar enactments, being declared imconsti- 
 tutional, and was repealed the following year. 
 In 1861 efforts had been made to secure prohi- 
 bition in the Revised Constitution, but the 
 result was a failure. The extent of New Jer- 
 sey's prohibition is a law passed in 1797, and 
 still in force, forbidding the distribution or 
 sale of liquors at a public auction. Pennsyl- 
 vania once had a prohibitory statute on its 
 books for a few months. It was adopted in 
 1855 and repealed in 1850. This law hail l'<'ii 
 preceded bya "no-license act " which had IMM-II 
 enacted by the Legislature in 1846, and had i 
 been pronounced unconstitutional by the Su- j 
 
 preme Court. In 1872 a law was passed giving 
 local option to the counties, and sixty-seven of 
 them voted against licensing the traffic. In 
 two years that law was repealed and a license 
 law adopted, which is still in force. The pro- 
 hibition issue was squarely before the people 
 in the spring elections of this year (1889), and 
 was defeated by a large popular majority. 
 Delaware has tried prohibition twice. The 
 first law was passed in 1847, only to be re- 
 pealed in 1848. The second law was made in 
 1885 ; but it was in a few years displaced by 
 a license law, which is still in existence. Three 
 other States Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa 
 adopted prohibitory laws in 1855. That of 
 Indiana was declared void soon after, and has 
 never been reenacted. The legislative enact- 
 ment of Illinois was submitted to the people 
 and rejected by them. Since then no effort 
 has been made to make the State prohibitory, 
 but a high license law was passed by the Leg- 
 islature of 1882-'S3. This law has been de- 
 clared constitutional by the courts, and has 
 been generally successful in its operation. The 
 Iowa law has stood, with some modifications, 
 and, where public opinion has supported it, 
 lias been generally executed. In 1882 a pro- 
 hibitory clause was put into the Constitution 
 by popular vote. This amendment has been 
 declared void by the Supreme Court on account 
 of certain technical errors in drawing it up. 
 In 1884 a prohibitory law was passed. Ohio 
 put a "no-license" clause in its constitution 
 in 1851, and the sale of liquors has been vir- 
 tually free throughout the State. Attempts 
 have been made at several times to regulate 
 the traffic by law, but all have failed. Two 
 of the States adopted prohibitory laws while 
 they were still under territorial organization 
 Minnesota in 1352 and Nebraska in 1855. In 
 both cases the law was modified to make it fit 
 public sentiment more nearly, and both States 
 now have high license laws. Kansas adopted 
 a modified prohibitory law in 1866. In 1880 
 the popular vote added an amendment to the 
 Constitution prohibiting the manufacture and 
 sale of intoxicating liquors in the State "ex- 
 cept for medical, scientific, and mechanical 
 purposes." In Georgia, ninety-five counties 
 have suppressed the sale of liquor through the 
 privilege of local option. Similar laws are 
 made somewhat effective, also, in Texas, 
 Arkansas, and Florida. Other States have 
 laws forbidding the sale of liquor within a cer- 
 tain distance of a school, or to minors, to 
 persons of notoriously intemperate habits, etc. 
 The Ijuw of Subscriptions. 1. Sub- 
 scription is the placing of a signature under a 
 written or printed engagement. By such an 
 act a person contracts, in writing, to pay a
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LAW. 
 
 117 
 
 nm of money for a specific purpose ; as a sub- 
 scription to a charitable institution, a sub- 
 scription for a book, etc. 
 
 2. " The law on the subject of these sub- 
 scription papers, " says Parsons, "and of all 
 voluntary promises of contribution, is substan- 
 tially this : Xo such promises are binding 
 unless something is paid for them, or unless 
 some party for whose benefit they are made 
 (and this party may be one or more of the 
 subscribers), at the request, express or implied, 
 of the promisor, and on the faith of the sub- 
 scription, incurs actual expense or loss, or 
 enters into valid contracts with other parties 
 which will occasion expense or loss. As the 
 objection to these promises, or the doubt about 
 them, comes from the want of consideration, 
 it may be removed by a seal to each name, or 
 by one seal, which is declared in the instru- 
 ment to be the seal of each." 
 
 3. A person subscribing for a book is bound 
 to take it when delivered by the agent, pro- 
 vided it corresponds with the sample copy 
 shown him when the subscription was given. 
 The agent or publisher may recover at law the 
 price of the book should the subscriber refuse 
 to take it when presented to him. 
 
 4. There is no postal law regulating the 
 transactions between publishers and subscrib- 
 ers. The ordinary rules of contract govern 
 all relations between the parties concerned, 
 and the post office has no part except to deliver 
 the article, or return it when ordered to do so. 
 
 5. If the publisher of any paper or periodi- 
 cal sends his paper or magazine, the post- 
 master must deliver it, if the person to whom 
 it is sent will take it. If he will not take it, 
 the postmaster must notify the publisher. 
 
 6. If a person subscribes for a periodical 
 for a given period, say one year, and the pub- 
 lisher sends it accordingly, the subscriber can- 
 not terminate the contract by stopping his 
 paper at any time during the year. But at 
 the end of the year the subscriber may stop 
 his paper even without paying the subscription 
 due. He is under no legal obligation to take 
 the paper another year. The fact that he has 
 not paid for the expired year's subscription 
 does not bind him to continue taking the 
 paper. He can stop taking it at the end of the 
 year and the publisher can sue for and collect 
 his year's subscription only. 
 
 7. If at the end of the year the publisher 
 continues to send his paper and the subscriber 
 to receive it, the sending is the offer of another 
 year's subscription at the same price, and the 
 receiving of the paper is an acceptance. The 
 implied contract from such action is a renewal 
 of the subscription ; and the publisher can 
 send the paper for the renewed term of one 
 
 year and collect the subscription price for that 
 year as well as the preceding. 
 
 8. If the publisher advertises terms of sub- 
 scription, all parties taking the paper under 
 these conditions will be held according to the 
 conditions. 
 
 RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF 
 PARENTS AND CHILDREN. 
 
 In ancient domestic life the father ruled as 
 absolute monarch over the family. So it is 
 still in oriental countries. Christian civiliza- 
 tion has greatly modified this and laws have 
 been enacted that set forth the relation of par- 
 ent and child, defining the duties and obliga- 
 tions of each. 
 
 Rights of Parents. 1. As long as a 
 child is under age he is subject to the control 
 of the parents, who have all reasonable au- 
 thority to enforce obedience. As long as a 
 child is properly treated by the parents no one 
 has a right to interfere nor to take away and 
 retain a child against their wishes. 
 
 2. Adopting a Child. When a child is 
 adopted by another family its parents lose 
 their claim upon it and the adopting persons 
 take their place. A child cannot be adopted 
 without the consent of its parents, but if con- 
 sent is once given it cannot be revoked. 
 
 A child over fourteen must himself consent 
 to the adoption. The Court has in all cases 
 the right to consent to or refuse the adoption. 
 
 Application must therefore be made at the 
 County Court and the Judge will consider it 
 and pass upon it. 
 
 3. Punishment. Parents have a right to 
 punish theirminor children providing they are 
 not guilty of cruelty. Brutality is severely 
 punished by law as a crime. The punishment 
 must be reasonable, leaving no bruises nor in- 
 juring the health of the child. 
 
 4. Claims upon Earnings. While the child 
 is a minor parents have a righi to all his earn- 
 ings. They can claim them of his employer. 
 Parents, however, may free the child and allow 
 him to collect and use his own wages. When 
 this is once made public the parents cannot 
 thereafter collect the child's wages. 
 
 5. .1 Runaway Child. A child has no 
 right to leave home without permission of the 
 parents ; if he does he can be brought back by 
 force. Relations or others who would keep 
 him can be forced by law to give him up un- 
 less it can be shown that the father is brutal 
 in his treatment of the child or is not capable 
 because of drunkenness or other causes to 
 properly care for the child. 
 
 Obligations of Parents. Obligation to 
 S'l/ipiirt. The law requires that parents shall 
 support their minor children. A child having
 
 118 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 property of his own does not relieve the par- 
 ents from supporting him. They can, how- 
 ever, by applying to the Court, get permission 
 to use a part or all of the income from the 
 child's property for his support. Beyond this 
 the parents have no claim upon or control over 
 the child's property. 
 
 Children's Bights and Obligations. 
 1. A child can own property over which 
 the parents have no control, except the use of 
 the income of the same for the support of the 
 child, as stated above. 
 
 2. Where it is shown that parents are un- 
 able to support themselves the child is under 
 legal obligations to support and care for them, 
 at least do what he can toward such support. 
 
 3. If a child commits a premeditated crime 
 he is personally liable ; parents cannot be held 
 responsible for crimes committed by their minor 
 children. 
 
 4. Guardian. A guardian may be ap- 
 pointed over an orphan child, or the child 
 may choose his own guardian, who in a legal 
 sense exercises all the authority of a parent. 
 
 LAW OF APPRENTICESHIP. 
 
 An apprentice is a minor, male or female, 
 bound by due form of law to leain some art, 
 trade, or business, and when so bound is un- 
 der obligation to serve the master during the 
 time of the apprenticeship. 
 
 The Contract should be signed by the ap- 
 prentice and his father, or in case of death or 
 incapacity of the latter, by the mother or 
 legally constituted guardian. It is executed in 
 duplicate, one copy going to the master, the 
 other to the apprentice. The minor cannot be 
 bound for a longer time than until he becomes 
 of age. Without the consent of the parent or 
 guardian, the contract would not be binding 
 upon the minor. 
 
 Consent of Minor. The minor cannot be 
 bound without his consent, which consent must 
 be stated in the contract. 
 
 Duties of the Master. It is made the master's 
 duty by the contract to teach the apprentice 
 the trade or business which he himself follows, 
 to provide him with suitable food, clothing, 
 and shelter. He has no right to employ the 
 apprentice in menial labors not connected with 
 
 the trade or business which he undertook to 
 teach him. If he corrects for misbehavior, 
 the punishment must be moderate and reason- 
 able. 
 
 'Duties of the Apprentice. He is under obliga 
 tion to serve his master faithfully and well , 
 to obey all lawful commands ; to guard his 
 master's property and interests, and to faith- 
 fully endeavor to learn the business, and to 
 perform what is required of him in the con- 
 tract. 
 
 Termination of Apprenticeship. His time of 
 service ends when he becomes of age, or in 
 case his master dies, unless the contract in- 
 cludes the master's executors and administra- 
 tors. 
 
 If the apprentice runs away, and enters the 
 employment of another, the master is not 
 bound to take him back, but is entitled- to 
 whatever he may earn, provided he can prove 
 that the new employer was aware of the ex- 
 istence of the apprenticeship. 
 
 The apprentice cannot be compelled to leave 
 the State, nor can he be assigned to anyone else. 
 
 BILLS OF LADING. 
 
 A bill of lading is a document delivered by 
 
 a master or o.wner of a vessel, or the officer of 
 
 a transportation company, and signed by such 
 
 parties as an acknowledgment that the goods 
 
 : have been received for transportation. 
 
 The bill constitutes the contract between the 
 shipper and the carrier. Three copies of the 
 bill are made out, one is kept by the shipper, 
 another by the party transporting the goods, 
 and the third is sent to the person to whom 
 the goods are directed. 
 
 Bills of Lading are transferable and assign- 
 able, and the assignee may sue for the recovery 
 of the goods. 
 
 If the goods perish without fault of the 
 master of a ship, the freight must be paid, 
 otherwise the master or owner of a ship ia 
 liable for damages. 
 
 Railroad companies, as common carriers, 
 are subject to the common State laws regula- 
 ting such business ; their bill of lading usually 
 states as to how far they hold themselves re- 
 sponsible for the safe transportation of the 
 goods.
 
 WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE.
 
 Book II. 
 
 Language and Literature.
 
 Language and Literature. 
 
 LITERATURE, 
 
 In the general sense of the word, comprises 
 the entire results of knowledge, and mental 
 activity, expressed in writing ; but in a nar- 
 rower sense, it is nsed to denote the depart- 
 ment of elegant letters, excluding works of 
 abstract science and mere erudition. In this 
 limited view it comprehends languages, par- 
 ticularly Greek and Latin, grammar, etymol- 
 ogy, logic, rhetoric, poetry, history, criticism, 
 bibliography, and a description of the attain- 
 ments of the human mind in every sphere of 
 research and invention. The history of liter- 
 ature represents the development and success- 
 ive changes of civilization, so far as these arc 
 exhibited in written works, and embraces the 
 history of the literature of special ages or 
 countries, and of the separate branches of lit- 
 erature, as poetry, rhetoric, philology, and so 
 forth. 
 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 The classification of the different languages 
 of the earth into a few great families is due to 
 the science of comparative philology, and is of 
 recent origin. Till the latter end of the last 
 century the preference as to the antiquity of 
 language was usually given to the Hebrew, but 
 a striking improvement of linguistic study is 
 dated from the discovery of the Sanskrit, the 
 ancient language of the northern parts of Hin- 
 dustan, in the latter part of the last century. 
 A belief in an affinity in languages and a sep- 
 aration of them into certain great groups or 
 families then arose. 
 
 The languages of the world are divided into 
 four great branches ; viz., the ARYAN, or Indo- 
 European, the most important ; the SEMITIC, 
 the TURANIAN, and the DRAVIDIAN. 
 
 The TURANIAN family, called also the Ta- 
 taric or Altaic, includes the numerous and 
 widely different languages of the Manchoos, 
 the Mongols, the Turks (in Asia and Europe), 
 tha Magyars (in Hungary), the Finns (in Rus- 
 sia), and a multitude of other tribes. 
 
 The DRAVIDIAN includes the Tamil and the 
 dialects in Ceylon and the islands off Asia, etc. 
 
 The SEMITIC includes the Hebrew, Syriac, 
 Arctic and Ethiopic, Basque (in the Pyrenees) , 
 etc. 
 
 The INDO-EUROPEAN, to which extensive 
 family the English language belongs, is divided 
 into six principal branches. 
 
 I. The IinJinn branch, represented by the 
 Sanskrit, which has now ceased to be spoken, 
 but is the mother of the Hindustani, Bengali, 
 
 Mahratti, and the other numerous dialects of 
 modern India. 
 
 II. The A[e.<1n-Persic branch, at the head 
 of which is the Zend, in which the Zend-Avesta 
 is composed, and the cuneiform inscriptions of 
 Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes. Next follow the 
 Pehlevi, of the Sarsanian dynasty ; the Parsee, 
 in which the national poem of Ferdusi is writ- 
 ten (A. D. 1000), and lastly the modern Per- 
 sian. 
 
 III. The Celtic branch, divided into two 
 dialects, the Gaelic and the Cymric ; the former 
 comprising the Irish or Erse, the Scottish 
 Gaelic or Highland-Scotch, and the Manx of 
 the Isle of Man ; and the latter Welsh, the 
 Cornish (now extinct) and the Armorican of 
 Britanny. 
 
 IV. The Grceco-Latin branch, comprising 
 the two ancient classical languages, and the 
 so-called Romanic languages, derived from the 
 Latin, which are six in number; namely, the 
 French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Walla- 
 chian, and the Roumanishor Romanese spoken 
 in the Grisons in Switzerland. 
 
 V. The Teutonic branch, which comprises all 
 the different German and Scandinavian dia- 
 lects. 
 
 VI. The Slavonic branch, divided into three 
 principal classes : 1 . The Lettic, comprising 
 the Lithuanian, the Old Prussian (now extinct), 
 and the Lettish, tha language of Kurland and 
 Livonia. 2. The Western Slavonic, compris- 
 ing the Polish; the Bohemian or Tchechian, 
 spoken in Bohemia; the Slovakian, spoken by 
 the Slovaks in Hungary, and the AVendian, 
 spoken in Lusatia. 3. The Eastern Slavonic, 
 comprising the Old Slavonic, preserved in the 
 translations of the Bible made by Cyrillus in 
 the ninth century, and its derivate dialect, the 
 Bulgarian ; the Russian, Servian, Croatian, and 
 Slovinian. 
 
 The Teutonic branch of the Indo-European 
 family of languages is divided into two great 
 branches, the German and Scandinavian. 
 
 The GERMAN is divisible into three principal 
 dialects, the Moeso-Gothic, the Low German, 
 and the High German, the two latter being so 
 called because the Low German is spoken by 
 the inhabitants of the low or flat country near 
 the shore* of the German Ocean, while the 
 High German belongs to the higher country in 
 the interior. 
 
 1. The MfK^o-GoTHic, the most easterly of 
 all the German dialects, has long ceased to be 
 spoken, but is preserved in the translation of 
 the gospels by Ulfilas.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 121 
 
 2. The Low GERMAN comprised the follow- 
 ing dialects : (1) Anglo-Saxon, which was cul- 
 tivated with great success in England, and in 
 which the second most ancient specimens of 
 the Germanic language are preserved. (2) The 
 Old Saxon, so called to distinguish it from the 
 Anglo-Saxon in England, formerly spoken in 
 Westphalia. (3) The Frisian, now confined 
 to a small district in Holland. (4) The Dutch, 
 the present language of Holland. (5) The 
 Flemish, spoken in many parts of Belgium. 
 
 3. The HIGH GERMAN comprises the Old 
 High German, from the seventh to the eleventh 
 century ; the Middle High German, from the 
 twelfth century to the Reformation, and the 
 New High German, which since Luther's time 
 has been the literary language of Germany. 
 
 The SCANDINAVIAN branch, of which the 
 most ancient language is the Old Norse, the 
 language of Norway, is represented by the Ice- 
 landic, which was carried into Iceland by 
 the Norse colonists in the ninth century and 
 which continues to be spoken on that island 
 with little alteration. On the Continent the 
 Old Norse is represented by the Swedish, 
 Danish, and Norwegian, of which the last has 
 now become a mere patois. 
 
 The following table exhibits the relation- 
 ship of the different Teutonic languages : 
 
 fl. Mcrso-Gothic. 
 I 2. Lmc German. 
 (i) Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 English. 
 (ii)OloT Saxon, 
 (iii) Frisian, 
 (iv) Dutch. 
 (v) Flemish. 
 3. High German. 
 (i) Old High 
 German 
 (ii) Middle High 
 
 German, 
 (iii) New High 
 German. 
 
 1. Old Scandinavian. 
 (i) Icelandic. 
 
 (ii) Ferroic. 
 
 2. Modern 
 
 Scandinavian. 
 (i) Danish, 
 (ii) Swedish, 
 (iii) Norwegian. 
 
 The English Language is the descend- 
 ant and representative of the Anglo-Saxon. 
 It has lost very much of the inflection and 
 very many of the words which belong to the 
 .parent language ; and on the other hand it 
 has borrowed words largely, to the extent 
 even of half its vocabulary, from other lan- 
 guages, especially the French and the Latin. 
 Yet all the inflections that remain in it, and 
 most of its formative endings, the pronouns 
 and particles, and in general the words which 
 are in most frequent and familiar use, have 
 come to it from the Anglo-Saxon. All the 
 constituents of the English Language as it now 
 exists are presented in a condensed form as 
 follows : 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 I. GERMAN 
 
 II. SCANDINAVIAN 
 
 1st. Saxon and Danish words, of Teutonic and Gothic 
 origin. 
 
 2d. British or Welsh, Cornish and Ainionc-, of Celtic 
 origin. 
 
 3d. Norman, a mixture of French and Gothic. 
 
 4th. Latin. 
 
 5th. The French, chiefly Latin corrupted. 
 
 Cth. Greek. 
 
 7th. A few words directly from the Italian, Spanish 
 German, and other Continental languages of Europe. 
 
 8th A few foreign words introduced by commerce 
 or by political and literary intercourse. 
 
 Capital Letters. Begin with a capi- 
 tal : 
 
 1. Every sentence and every line of poetry. 
 Examples. Forget others' faults. How bright t'he 
 
 day! What is fame? Custom forms us all. 
 " Time is the warp of life ; oh ! tell 
 The young, the fair, to weave it well." 
 
 2. All proper nouns, and titles of office, 
 honor, and respect. 
 
 Examples. Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Ger 
 many; Robert Roe, Esquire, His Honor the Mavor: 
 Elizabeth Barrett Browning; the Red Hiver; Union 
 Square , the Superior Court of the City of New York. 
 
 3. All adjectives formed from proper names. 
 Examples. African, Italian, Welsh, Ciceronian. 
 
 Also adjectives denoting a sect or religion. 
 Examples. Methodist, Puritan, Catholic. 
 
 4. Common nouns, where personified in a 
 direct and lively manner ; not where sex is 
 merely attributed to an inanimate object. 
 
 Examples Then War waves his ensanguined sword, 
 and fair Peace flees sighing to some happier land. But, 
 the sim pursues his tiery course; the moon sheds her 
 silvery beams. 
 
 5. All appellations of the Deity. The per- 
 sonal pronouns Thou and He standing for His 
 name are sometimes capitalized. 
 
 Examples. The Almighty; the King of kings; the 
 Eternal Essence; Jehovah; the Supreme Being; our 
 Father. 
 
 In the standard editions of the Bible, the 
 pronouns, when referring to God, are never 
 capitalized, not even in forms of direct address 
 to the Deity. 
 
 6. The first word of a complete quoted sen- 
 tence not introduced by that, if, or any other 
 conjunction. 
 
 Examples. Thomson says, "Success makes villains 
 honest." But, Thomson says that " success makes vil- 
 lains honest." 
 
 7. Every noun, adjective, and verb in the 
 title of books and headings of chapters. 
 
 Examples. Butler's "Treatise on the History of 
 Ancient Philosophy " ; Cousins' " Lectures on the True, 
 the Beautiful, and the Good." 
 
 8. Words that denote the leading subjects 
 of chapters, articles or paragraphs. 
 
 A word defined, for instance, may com- 
 mence with a capital. Do not introduce cap- 
 itals too freely under this rule. When m 
 doubt use a small letter. 
 
 9. The pronoun / and the interjection 0. 
 
 10. Words denoting great events, eras of 
 history, noted written instruments, extraordi- 
 nary physical phenomena and the like. 
 
 Examples. The Creation, the Confusion of Lan- 
 guages, the Restoration, the Dark Ages, the Declara- 
 i tion f Independence ; the Aurora Boreahs.
 
 122 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 11. Letters standing for words are generally 
 written as capitals. 
 
 Examples. A. D. for Anno Domini, the year of our 
 Lord. 
 
 12. The months of the year, and the clays 
 of the week. The names of the seasons, 
 however, should not generally be capitalized, 
 although it is customary with some authors. 
 
 13. The words North, South, East, and West, 
 and their compounds, as Northwest, when they 
 signify a section of country. Also adjectives 
 derived therefrom. This class of words should 
 not be capitalized, however, when merely de- 
 noting direction. 
 
 Punctuation Points. The Punctua- 
 tion Points are as follows : 
 
 Period 
 
 Colon 
 
 Semicolon 
 
 Comma 
 
 Interrogation Point 
 
 Exclamation Point 
 
 Dash 
 
 Parentheses 
 
 Brackets 
 
 Hyphen 
 
 Quotation Marks 
 
 Apostrophe 
 
 Ellipsis | i ; 
 
 Caret 
 Index 
 
 Acute Accent 
 
 Grave Accent 
 
 Circumflex Accent 
 
 Tilde, or Circumflex 
 
 The Long, or Macron 
 
 The Short, or Breve 
 
 Diaeresis 
 
 Cedilla 
 
 Asterisk 
 
 Dagger, or Obelisk 
 
 Double Dagger 
 
 Section 
 
 Parallel 
 
 Punctuation is the art of dividing com- 
 position by points or stops for the purpose of 
 showing more clearly the sense and relation 
 of the words, and of noting the different 
 pauses and inflections required in reading. 
 
 The usage of to-day is not that of the past 
 and will not be that of the future. 
 
 The following rules are the most important 
 and are compiled from the best modern au- 
 thorities : 
 
 THE PERIOD must be placed after every 
 declarative and imperative sentence and every 
 abbreviated word. 
 
 Examples. Obey your parents. Virtue is the only 
 nobility. We write Jas. for James, N. Y. for New York, 
 No. for number, George I. for George the First. 
 
 After all abbreviations. 
 
 Example. Mdse. Amt. Ph. D. LL. D. 
 
 After numbers written in the Roman notation. 
 
 Example. XIX. Psalm XC. 
 
 A nickname which is not really an abbrevi- 
 ation is not followed by a period. 
 
 Examples. Dave Bidwell ; Sam Slick. 
 
 A COLON is placed after a sentence which 
 formally introduces a distinct quotation. 
 
 Example. We are often reminded of this remark of 
 Marshal Lannes : " Know, Colonel, that none but a 
 poltroon would boast that he was never afraid." 
 
 The colon may be used to separate the great 
 parts of a long complex sentence when the 
 minor sentences therein are separated by the 
 semicolon. 
 
 The colon is passing out of use, its place 
 being taken by the dash, the semicolon, and 
 the period. 
 
 A SEMICOLON is placed before a*, to n-it, 
 riz., namely, and that is when they introduce 
 examples or illustrations. 
 
 /:.iinnpte. Every solid has three dimensions; 
 namely, length, breadth, and thickness. 
 
 Place a semicolon at the close of a sentence 
 which by its terms promises another sentence. 
 
 Example. " Tic-tac, tic-tac, go the wheels of 
 thought ; our will cannot stop them ; they cannot stop 
 themselves ; sleep cannot still them ; madness only 
 makes them go faster; death alone can' break into the 
 case." 
 
 A semicolon may be used to separate short 
 sentences which have but a slight connection 
 with each other. 
 
 Example. He was a poor boy ; he had no showy 
 accomplishments ; he had no influential friends ; but 
 he was rich in youth, courage, and honesty of purpose. 
 
 COMMA. Set off by the comma an explana- 
 tory modifier when it does not restrict -the 
 modified term. 
 
 Example. The order, to lire, was given. 
 
 Set off by the comma a word or phrase that 
 is independent. 
 
 Example. To tell the truth, he was not at home. 
 
 Set off by the comma a phrase that is out of 
 its natural order. 
 
 Example. Shifting his burden, he hurried on. 
 
 Set off by the comma a particle used as an 
 adjective. 
 
 Example. The water, expanding, hurst the pipe. 
 
 Set off by the comma connected words and 
 phrases unless the conjunctions are all ex- 
 pressed. 
 
 Example. "From the mountain, from the river, 
 from the hill, and from the plain, we are sweeping to 
 the rescue." 
 
 A comma is used before a direct quotation 
 unless it is formally introduced. Greeley said, 
 " The way to resume is to resume." 
 
 Set off by commas all parenthetical expres- 
 sions and the following words when used as 
 such ; however, that is, indeed, of course, 
 finally, again, first, second, also, therefore, 
 yes, no, too, etc. 
 Example. He is, indeed, worthy. 
 
 Use the comma after as, viz.,to-wit, namely, 
 and that is, when they introduce examples. 
 
 Example. We will promote the man; that is, if be is 
 worthy. 
 
 The parts of a complex sentence should be 
 separated by a comma when the auxiliary pre- 
 cedes the principal sentence. 
 
 l''..r<iiiH>lf. If the messenger calls, give him the letter. 
 Separate by the comma a phrase or sentence 
 used as a subject and its verb. 
 Extnnplf. " That all men are created equal, is a self- 
 vident truth." 
 
 Words used in direct address should be 
 separated by the comma. 
 Example. " Stranger, I am Roderick Dim." 
 
 THE INTERROGATION POINT must be placed 
 after every interrogative sentence, member, 
 and clause ; also after the interjections eh and 
 hey implying a question.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 123 
 
 Example. Has the air weight ? Air has weight; do 
 you not believe it ? You thought it would rain, eh ? 
 
 Aii interrogation inclosed in parentheses de- 
 notes doubt. 
 
 Example. Your friend (?) told ine this. 
 THE EXCLAMATION POINT should be placed 
 after every exclamatory sentence, member, 
 clause, and expression. 
 
 Examples. How disgusting is vice ! Life is short ; 
 how careful we should T>e to use it aright ! For shame i j 
 
 An exclamation point placed in parentheses 
 denotes peculiar surprise. 
 
 A DASH is usually placed before the answer 
 to a question when both are in the same para- 
 graph. 
 
 Example. Are you acquainted with the defendant? 
 I am. 
 
 A dash is often used in place of the paren- 
 theses. 
 
 Example. With a firm step for he was brave he 
 advanced. 
 
 Use the dash where there is an omission of 
 such words as, namely, that is, as, introducing 
 equivalent expressions and when letters or 
 figures are omitted. 
 
 Kriimple. " Some wit has divided the world into two 
 
 classes the wise and the otherwise." General M 
 
 was present. 
 
 Use the dash when there is a sudden transi- 
 tion. 
 
 Example. We have learned the bitter lesson let us 
 bury the past. 
 
 PARENTHESES. Marks of Parenthesis are 
 used to inclose words which explain, modify, 
 or add to the main proposition, when so in- 
 troduced as to break the connection between 
 dependent parts and interfere with the har- 
 monious flow. 
 
 Example. The Saxons (for they descended from the 
 ancient Sacae i retained for centuries the energy and 
 morality of their ancestors. 
 
 BRACKETS. Brackets are used principally 
 in quoted passages, to inclose words improperly 
 omitted or added byway of correction, observa- 
 tion, or explanation. 
 
 Example. She is weary with [of] life. 
 In regard to the use of points before and 
 after the brackets, and the punctuation of any 
 sentence or clause within the brackets, the 
 same rules apply that have been given in re- 
 gard to the marks of parenthesis. 
 
 THE APOSTROPHE denotes the omission of a 
 letter or letters, and the possessive case of nouns. 
 
 K i ninnies. ' Tis for it is ; e'en for even ; don't for do 
 not: o'clock for on [the] clock. So in the possessive : 
 hero's, Charles', men's, heroes', children's. 
 
 Pronouns never take the apostrophe in the 
 possessive case. 
 
 THE HYPHEN is used to connect the elements 
 of a compound word, when each retains its 
 own accent. 
 Example. Castle-builder, father-in-law. 
 
 The hyphen is also used after a complete 
 syllable at the end of a line, to connect the 
 parts of a divided word ; also to denote that j 
 
 the final vowel of a prefix does not form a 
 diphthong with the first vowel of a primitive ; 
 but in this latter case a mark of diaeresis is 
 more appropriate. 
 
 II * maple. Pre-engagement, re-establish [preengage- 
 ment, reestablish.] 
 
 QUOTATION POINTS are used to inclose 
 words quoted from an author or speaker, or rep- 
 resented in narrative as employed in dialogue. 
 Example. " Remember now thy Creator in the davs 
 of thy youth." 
 
 When the substance merely is given, and 
 not the exact words, quotation points are un- 
 necessary. 
 
 Matter within quotation points is to be 
 punctuated just as if it stood in any other 
 position. 
 
 When quotation points are needed at the end 
 of a sentence, they come after whatever other 
 point is required there if this point applies to 
 the quotation alone, but before this point if it 
 applies to the whole sentence and not ex- 
 clusively to the quotation. 
 
 Example. Pilate asked, "What is truth?" Where 
 now is the " man of destiny "? 
 
 When a quotation incloses within it another 
 quotation, the external quotation has the 
 double marks, and the one included has only 
 the single marks. 
 
 Example. It has been well said, "The command. 
 ' Thou shalt not kill,' forbids many crimes besides that 
 of murder." 
 
 If the inclosed or secondary quotation ends 
 a sentence, three apostrophes will there come 
 together, of which the first will belong to the 
 inclosed quotation, and the other two to the 
 original. When an inclosed quotation itself 
 contains words or phrases that are quoted, 
 those words or phrases have the double marks. 
 Example. "French says, ' What a lesson the word 
 " diligence" contains !' " 
 
 When the sentence becomes more involved 
 than this, the additional marks of quotation 
 would create confusion, and may therefore be 
 omitted. 
 
 THE PARAGRAPH is used to indicate a new 
 subject of remark. The sign is retained in 
 the Holy Scripture but in ordinary composi- 
 tion is indicated to the eye by beginning a lit- 
 tle to the right of the marginal line of the page. 
 
 ACCENT MARKS are used to denote the 
 proper pronunciation of words. They are : 
 
 The Acute [ ' ], which marks the syllable 
 which requires the principal stress in pronun- 
 ciation ; or to denote a rising inflection of the 
 voice, or a close or short vowel. 
 
 The Grave [ v ] is used in opposition to the 
 acute to distinguish an open or long vowel, or 
 to denote the falling inflection of the voice. 
 
 The Circumflex [ " ] generally denotes a 
 broad sound or a combination of the acute 
 and grave.
 
 124 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The Breve ["I is used to denote either a 
 
 i L J 
 close vowel or a syllable of short quantity. 
 
 open vowel or a syllable of long quantity 
 
 The Diceresi 
 
 two vowels to sliow that they are to be pro- 
 nounced in separate syllables, as aerial. In Ger- 
 man this character is called the Umlaut, and 
 denotes a modification of the sound of a vowel 
 over which it is placed, peculiar to the Ger- 
 manic languages. 
 
 The Cedilla [ , ] is placed under the letter c 
 to give it the sound of s before a or o ; as in 
 the Vfordsfacadc, Alencon. 
 
 The Tilde [ ~ ] is placed over the letter n in 
 Spanish words to give it the sound of ny ; as, 
 senor, minon. 
 
 OTHER MARKS. The Ellipsis or Suppression 
 denotes the omission of some letters or words. 
 
 Examples. K g, for King; G * * * * in, for 
 
 Graham; A .... s, for Adams; H m hr y, for 
 Humphrey. 
 
 The Caret, used only in writing, shows 
 
 1 ,, 
 
 Example. James said he A be home to-mgiit. 
 or 
 
 the reader should 
 
 . The or 
 
 [- ] is used to denote either an thi markabl ^ 
 
 a syllable of long quantity. , nart f olllai . lv n i ' vp 
 
 The Diceresis [ " 1 is placed over the latter of P a culai ly observe. 
 
 w J - T *] serves to unite a triplet, 
 
 where to insert words or 
 been accidentally omitted. 
 
 letters that have 
 
 The Brace [, 
 
 or to connect several terms to something to 
 w T hich they are all related. 
 Examples. 
 
 ( Nominative. fW. Brown. 
 
 Case { Possessive. rommittpp J H - Jones - 
 ( Objective. 1 R. Smith. 
 
 l^M. Mills. 
 
 The Section [ ] marks the smaller divisions 
 of a book or chapter, and, with the help of 
 numbers, serves to abridge references. 
 
 The Paragraph [ If ] denotes the commence- 
 ment of a new subject. The parts of discourse 
 which are called paragraph save ia general suf- 
 ficiently distinguished by beginning a new line 
 and carrying the first word a little backwards. 
 
 Leaders [ ] are used ia contents 
 
 and indexes of books and similar matter to 
 lead the eye to the end of the line for the 
 
 completion of the sense. 
 
 Example. Wharf age, $50. 
 
 Marks in Proof Heading. 
 
 ^ / THOUGH several differing opinions exist as to 
 /the individual by wifom the art of printing was ' 
 first discovered; yet all authorities concur in 
 admitting Peter Schoeffer to be the person 3 
 . who invented cast metal types, having learned 
 4 Uj the art -ef of cutting the letters from the Gu- 
 ';/ tenbergs/ he is also supposed to have been 
 '# the first whoengraved on copper plates. The 7 
 
 A A 8 
 
 following testimony is preseved in the family, 
 ' / by /Jo. l/Fred. "/Faustus, ^of ^Ascheffenburg : 
 ioj 1 ^' Peter SchoefTer, of Gernsheim, perceiving 
 "W his master Fausts design, and being himself 
 
 A 
 
 "/, ('clesirouTl ardently] to improve the art, found 
 
 out (by the good providence of God) the 
 
 method of cutting (infiddi) the characters 
 
 in a matrix, that the letters might easily be 
 
 *>\ singly cast! instead of bieng cut. He pri- 
 
 *^ vately cut matrices^ for the whole alphabet: 
 
 Faust was so pleased with the contrivan 
 
 -^at he promised ]reter to give him hjafonly 
 
 ' 'daughter Christina in marriage, ^ar promise 
 
 'which he soon after performed. 
 *gl4i C Bu t there were, many/difficulties at first 
 with these letters, asxtnere had been before 
 
 with wooden one 
 
 the metal being too soft 3 
 to support th^Torce of the im pression : but 
 this defecr was soon remedied, by mixing 
 
 ince with the metal which sufficiently "f 
 
 [ y 
 
 _ c&nc wnen ne anoi&ea nt4 ma*)fai tne 
 canf /loin tn&> 
 
 /&(//* 
 Wat. 
 
 THOUGH several differing opinions exist as to 
 the individual by whom the art of printing was 
 first discovered; yet all authorities concur in 
 admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the 
 person who invented cast metal types, having 
 learned the art of culling the letters from the 
 Gutenbergs : he is also supposed to have been 
 the first who engraved on copper-plates. The 
 following testimony is preserved in the family, 
 by Jo. Fred. Faustus. of Ascheffenburg: 
 
 ' PETER SCHOEFFER, of Gernsheim, perceiv- 
 ing his master Faust's design, and being him- 
 self ardently desirous to improve the art, found 
 out (by the good providence of God) the 
 method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in 
 a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly 
 cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut 
 matrices for the whole alphabet: and when he 
 showed his master the letters cast from these 
 matrices, Faust was so pleased with the con- 
 trivance, that he promised Peter to give him 
 his only daughter Christina in marriage, a 
 promise which he soon after performed. But 
 there were as many difficulties at first with 
 these letters, as there had been before with 
 wooden ones, the metal being too soft to sup- 
 port the force of the impression : but this defect 
 was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with 
 a substance which sufficiently hardened h/
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 125 
 
 A wrong letter in a word Is noted by drawing a short 
 perpendicular line through it, and" making another 
 short line in the margin, behind which the right letter 
 is placed. (See No. 1.) In this manner whole words are 
 corrected, by drawing a line across the wrong word and 
 making the right one in the margin opposite. 
 
 A turned letter is noted by drawing a line through it. 
 and writing the mark No. 2 in the margin. 
 
 If letters or words require to be altered from one 
 character to another, a parallel line or lines must be 
 made underneath the word or letter; viz., for capitals, 
 three lines; small capitals, two lines; and italics, one 
 line ; and, in the margin opposite the line where the 
 alteration occurs, caps, small caps, or ital. must be 
 written. (See No. 3.) 
 
 When letters or ^yords are set double, or are required 
 to be taken out, a line is drawn through the superfluous 
 word or letter, and the mark No. 4 placed opposite in the 
 margin. 
 
 Where the punctuation requires to be altered, the 
 correct point, marked in the margin, should be en- 
 circled. 
 
 When a space is omitted between two words or letters 
 which should be separated, a caret must be made where 
 the separation ought to be and the sign No. 6 placed 
 opposite in the margin. 
 
 No. 7 describes the manner in which the hyphen and 
 ellipsis line are marked. 
 
 When a letter has been omitted, a caret is put at the 
 place of omission, and the letter marked as No. 8. 
 
 Where letters that should be joined are separated, or 
 where a line is too widely spaced, the mark No. 9 must 
 be placed under them, arid the correction denoted by the 
 marks in the margin. 
 
 Where a new paragraph is required, a quadrangle is 
 drawn in the margin, and a caret placed at the begin- 
 ning of the sentence. (See No. 10.) 
 
 No. 11 shows the way in which the apostrophe, Inverted 
 commas, the star, aiid other references, and superior 
 letters and figures, are marked. 
 
 Where two words are transposed, a line is drawn over 
 one word and below the other, and the mark No. 12 
 placed in the margin; but where several words require 
 to be transposed, their right order is signified by a 
 figure placed over each word, and the mark No. 12 in the 
 margin. 
 
 Where words have been struck out, that have after- 
 ward been approved of, dots should be marked under 
 them, and stet written in the margin. 
 
 Where a space sticks up between two words, a hori- 
 zontal line is drawn under it, and the mark No. 14 placed 
 opposite, in the margin. 
 
 Where several words have been left out, thev are 
 transcribed at the bottom of the page, and a line drawn 
 from the place of omission to the written words (see No. 
 15); but if the omitted matter is too extensive to be 
 copied at the foot of the page, Out, see copy, is written 
 in the margin, and the missing lines are inclosed be- 
 tween brackets, and the word Out is inserted in the 
 margin of the copy. 
 
 Where letters stand crooked, they are noted by a line 
 (see No. 16); but where a page ha'ngs, lines are drawn 
 across the entire part affected. 
 
 When a smaller or larger letter, of a different font, is 
 improperly introduced into the page, it is noted by the 
 mark No. 17, which signifies wrong font. 
 
 If a paragraph is improperly made, a line is drawn 
 from the broken-off matter to the next paragraph, and 
 A T written in the margin. (See No. 18.) 
 
 Where a word has been left out or is to be added, a 
 caret must be made in the place where it should come 
 in, and the word written in the margin. (See No. 19.) 
 
 Where a faulty letter appears, it is denoted by making 
 
 a cross under it, and placing a similar mark in the mar* 
 gin (see No. 20) ; though some prefer to draw a perpen- 
 dicular line through it, in the case of a wrong letter. 
 
 Where a word has been accidentally separated by a 
 space, it is marked as in No. 21. 
 
 v Turn letter. 
 ^ Indent line one em quad. 
 Cx> Take out ; expunge 
 /\ The caret shows where the letter or word is 
 
 omitted. 
 
 ^ Insert space. 
 * * Less space. 
 ^~^ Close up entirely. 
 C-* "5& Remove type, and insert a space in place of 
 
 n what is removed. 
 
 C/" >J^ Take out type and close up. 
 Bad type. 
 Push down space. 
 Plane down a letter. 
 No paragraph. 
 
 Placed under erased words, restores them. 
 Written in margin, restores a canceled 
 word or words that have dots under 
 them. 
 
 Begin a paragraph. 
 Letters stand crooked. 
 Should be a compound word. 
 C err L. Remove to left. 
 3 OT-_I Remove to right. 
 
 < | Elevate a letter, word, or character that is 
 sunk below the proper level. 
 
 | | Sink or depress a letter, word, or character 
 
 raised above the proper level. 
 
 * Three lines, beneath writing, denote cap- 
 
 itals. 
 
 - Two lines, beneath writing, denote small 
 
 capitals. 
 
 One line, beneath writing, denotes italics. 
 
 <<-*r. 4r, Wrong font. 
 
 fc\. Transpose letters, words, or sentences. 
 X- . . Lower case, or small letters. 
 A. . C. . Small capitals. 
 Period. 
 Colon. 
 OM trr i Calls attention to some doubtful word or 
 
 " sentence. 
 
 e-v A.C. Words are omitted or wanting, see copy. 
 
 H 
 
 Famous Poems and Their Authors. 
 
 "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" is the 
 master composition of Thomas Gray (1716-1771). 
 
 "The Minstrel" is the production of James Beattie 
 (1735-1803). 
 
 " Rook of Ages" is from the pen of Augustus Mon- 
 tague Toplady (1740-1778). 
 
 "The Farmer's Boy" was written by Robert Bloom- 
 field (1766- 1823). 
 
 " The Burial of Sir John Moore" is the effort of Charles 
 Wolf e(1791-1823). 
 
 "Woodman, Spare that Tree" is the work of George 
 P. Morris (1802- 1864). 
 
 "The Buccaneer" was composed by Richard Henry 
 .Dana (1789-1879). 
 
 " Star Spangled Banner" was written by Francis Scott 
 Key (1790-1843). 
 
 ""La Marseillaise" is the work of Rouget de L'lslc 
 (1760-1836). 
 
 "Home, Sweet Home" is by John Howard Payn 
 (1792-1862). 
 
 " From Greenland's Icy Mountains " is the composition 
 of Reginald Heber (1783^1826). 
 
 " Battle Hymn of the Republic " was written by Julia 
 | Ward Howe (1819). 
 
 " Ben Bolt " is from the pen of Thomas Dunn English 
 1 (1819). 
 
 " Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep" is by Emma C. 
 i Willard (1847-1870). 
 
 "Hail, Columbia" is the production of Joseph Hop 
 kinson (1770-1842).
 
 126 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOR OF FACTS. 
 
 I/ 
 
 FAMILIAR AJLLUSIOXS. 
 
 Abderit/ Democritus, the original laughing philoso- 
 pher, was born in Abdera, a Thracian city. From him 
 ascoffer or person given to continual laughing is called 
 an Abderite. 
 
 Abraham's Bosom. The rest of the blessed dead. 
 
 Abyla and Calpe, the Pillars of Hercules, the exit 
 from the Mediterranean. 
 
 Academics. Plato's disciples were so called from 
 the Academy. 
 
 Academy. (Academe.) Plato founded his school in 
 a gymnasium of this name near Athens, 368 B. C. 
 
 Academy, The French. A French scientific body 
 limited to forty members. 
 
 Acadia. Formerly the name of Nova Scotia. 
 
 Adam's Apple. A part of the throat where, it is 
 said, a piece or the forbidden fruit lodged. 
 
 Adi*irable Crichton, The. James Crichton, an 
 accomplished Scotchman of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Admiral. The highest rank in the Navy. 
 
 yKiioid. An epic poem by Virgil. 
 
 Ages. The five ages of the world according to He- 
 siod, are the Golden, the Silver, the Brazen, the Heroic, 
 and the Iron. 
 
 Alabama. A Confederate privateer built in Eng- 
 land. Sunk by the Kearsarge June 19, 1864. 
 
 Aladdin's Window, To Finish. Trying to com- 
 plete another's work. Aladdin's palace was perfect 
 except one window left for the Sultan to finish, but his 
 treasure failed him. 
 
 Albany Regency. Name applied sixty years ago to 
 some Democrats at Albany, N. Y. 
 
 Albino. A person with white skin and hair and red 
 eyes. The Portuguese so called the white negroes. 
 
 Albion. England, so called from the chalky white 
 cliffs. 
 
 Aldine Press. Founded by Aldus Manutius at 
 Venice in 1496. Editions of the classics issued from 
 this press were called the Aldine editions. This term is 
 now applied to some elegant editions of English works. 
 
 Alexandrian Library. Was founded by Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus. It contained 700,000 volumes; and was 
 burnt 47 B.C. 
 
 Alexandrine Age. 323-640, when Alexandria was the 
 seat of the highest culture. 
 
 Alhambra. A magnificent palace and a fortress 
 built by the Moors at Granada, in Spain. 
 
 All-Hallows. All Saints' day, November 1st. 
 
 Allah. Arabic name of God. 
 
 Al in a<-ks. Assembly room in London where the most 
 exclusively aristocratic balls were given. 
 
 Almighty Dollar. A phrase first used by Irving in 
 his Creole Village, and which has become quite com- 
 mon. The title of a play. 
 
 Alsatia. A quarter in London where criminals take 
 refuge. 
 
 Alto-Relievo. Figures in marble or castings pro- 
 jecting one half or more from the tablet. 
 
 Ambrosia. Food of the Gods. 
 
 Anachronism. An error in computing time. 
 
 Anacreontics. Poems composed in the manner of 
 Anacreon, a great poet noted for his exact imitation of 
 nature. 
 
 Ancien Regime. The French Government previous 
 to the revolution of ITSIS. ) 1 L Q 
 
 Angrling, The Father of. Tz&aH "Walton. 
 
 Annus Mirabilis. (Wonderful year.) A. D. 1666. 
 Noted for the great fire in London, the Plague, and an 
 English victory over the Dutch. 
 
 Antoninns, The Wall of. Was built by the Romans 
 in A. D. 140 across Scotland between the Clyde and the 
 Frith of Forth ; an embankment of earth. 
 
 Apollo Belvedere. One of the most beautiful and 
 perfect representations of the human form is the statue 
 of Apollo in the Belvedere Gallery of the Vatican 
 Palace at Rome. 
 
 Appian Way. The road from Rome to Capua. The 
 oldest Roman road. 
 
 Apples of Sodom. Beautiful fruit, but full of ashes. 
 Applied figuratively to the disappointment of sin. 
 
 Apple, Golden. Prize for beauty disputed before 
 Paris, between Juno, Pallas, and Venus; awarded by 
 him to Venus. 
 
 Arabesque. Decoration in Moorish style. 
 
 Arcadian. A shepherd; a Greek grazing country 
 named Arcadia has furnished this word to the poets. 
 
 Argo. The ship in which Jason and his fifty-four 
 companions sailed when going to Colchis for the d-olden 
 Fleece. 
 
 Argonauts. The adventurers on the Argo. 
 
 Argus-eyed. Crafty, watchful. Argus had a Hun- 
 dred eyes ; the jealous Juno put him on detective duty 
 over lo. 
 
 Armada, The Spanish. A fleet of 130 ships gath- 
 ered by Philip II. of Spain for the invasion of England 
 in 1588. Queen Elizabeth was busy preparing for resist- 
 ance when the news came that a storm had completely 
 wrecked the Armada. 
 
 Artesian Well. Boring in the earth until water is 
 reached that will flow spontaneously. Their first use 
 was in Artois, France. 
 
 Aryans. The stem of the Indo-European peoples. 
 
 Astor Library. Founded by John Jacob Astor in 
 New York City. 
 
 Athens, The Modern. Boston. 
 
 Augustan Age. As the most flourishing period of 
 the Roman literature was during the time of Augustus, 
 that name is given to any age wherein literature is pre- 
 eminent. 
 
 Auld Reekie. Edinburgh, Scotland. 
 
 Avalon. King Arthur's burial place, Glastonbury. 
 
 Ayrshire Poet, The. Burns. Born 1759, died 1796. 
 His birthplace was near Ayr in Scotland. 
 
 Barnburners. A name given some years ago to 
 radical Democrats, a leading man amongst whom was 
 John Van Buren. 
 
 Babylonish Captivity. The seventy years' captivity 
 of the Jews at Babylon, 608-538 B. C. 
 
 Baconian Philosophy. The inductive philosophy 
 of Lord Bacon. 
 
 Balmoral Castle. A Scotch castle owned by Queen 
 Victoria, where she spends most of her time in summer. 
 
 Bank of England. Founded 1694. 
 
 Bard of Avon. Shakespeare, so called from his home 
 being Stratford-on-Avon. 
 
 Barmecide's Feast. A mockery, a delusion, and a 
 sham. Barmecide asked a starving beggar to dinner, 
 and seated him at a table of empty dishes. 
 
 Basilisk. A mythical serpent with power to kill by 
 merely looking at'its victim. 
 
 Basso Relievo. Figures in marble and castings that 
 project but a little from the plane. 
 
 Bastile. French prison and fortress. People were 
 incarcerated here by lettre de cachet, without notice or 
 trial. Destroyed 'oy a mob, 1789. 
 
 Battle of the Books. Satire by Dean Swift compar- 
 ing ancient and modern literature. 
 
 Battle of the Kegs. A practical joke on the British 
 General Loring. Detailed in a ballad of the Revolution- 
 ary War. 
 
 Battery, The. 'A park in New York City adjoining 
 the river. 
 
 Beacon Street. The aristocratic residence street of 
 Boston. 
 
 Beauty and the Beast. A fairy tale. Beauty lives 
 with the Beast to save her father's life. By her love she 
 disenchants the Beast, who proves to be a great Prince. 
 
 Bedlam. A mad-house. 
 
 Bee, The Attic. Plato ; so called from his honeyed 
 style. 
 
 Bee, The Busy. An example of communal industry. 
 
 Beelzebub. A Philistine deity. 
 
 Begging the Question. Assuming as true what you 
 are to prove. 
 
 Belle France, La. Beautiful France. 
 
 Belgravia. Fashionable quarter of London. 
 
 Bell the Cat. In a convention of mice it was pro- 
 posed to hang a bell on the cat's neck, to give warning 
 of her coming. No one would serve on the committee. 
 
 Bell, The Passing. Rung formerly when persons 
 were dying. 
 
 Beloved Disciple, The. St. John. 
 
 Bess, Good Queen. Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Bibliotheque National. (National Library.) At 
 Paris ; contains over 1,000,000 books, 150,000 MSS. 
 
 Billingsgate. Coarse language. Such as is used at 
 the ftsli market of Billingsgate in London ; a fishwife's 
 tongue being said to be remarkably expressive. 
 
 Black Death. A plague which desolated Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa in the fourteenth century. 
 
 Black Friday. Gold panic Sept. 24, 1869. Immense 
 fortunes lost and won same day. Investigation could 
 never discover the true cause of it. 
 
 Black Hole of Calcutta. Dark prison cell wherein 
 Surajah Dowlah shut up 146 British soldiers; only 23 
 lived till morning. 
 
 Black Prince, The. Edward, Prince of Wales, son 
 of Edward in.
 
 LANGUAGE AND V LITERATURE. 
 
 127 
 
 Black Republicans. The Republican party of U. S., 
 so called when opposing the extension of slavery. 
 
 Blarney Stone. Its supposed virtue when kissed is 
 to impart a smooth and oily tongue. 1'rof vision of com- 
 pliments is called Blarney. This stone is in Blarney 
 Castle, near Cork, Ireland. 
 
 Bluebeard. A wife-killing tyrant, in a nursery story. 
 
 Blue Laws. Some severe New England statutes were 
 so called. 
 
 Blue Stocking:. A literary society at Venice in 1400, 
 whose members wore blue stockiugs, is the origin of this 
 name for a female pedant. 
 
 Bohemian. As opposed to Philistine, an artist or 
 literary man living loosely by his wits. 
 
 Bois de Boulogne. A Parisian promenade. 
 
 Border, The. Frontier of England and Scotland. 
 
 Border Minstrel, The. Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 Border States. Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, Ken- 
 tucky, Missouri. 
 
 Bo'urgeoisie. A class of the people of France mostly 
 composed of traders and manufacturers. 
 
 Boulevard. A wide street in Paris, in the place of 
 the ancient ramparts. 
 
 Bourse. Parisian stock exchange. 
 
 Bow Bells. A set of bells in the Church of St. Mary- 
 Ic-Bow, London. One "born within sound of Bow 
 Bells" is a Cockney. 
 
 Bowery, The. "A New York thoroughfare. 
 
 Boycott. To refuse to have anything to do with a 
 person. To let him severely alone. A trying ordeal 
 passed through by Captain Boycott in Ireland in 1881. 
 No one woulu sell to him, buy from him, work for him, 
 or speak to him. 
 
 Brandy Nose. Queen Anne of England. 
 
 Breeches Bible, The. An edition in which "aprons" 
 in Gen. iii. 7 is rendered " breeches." 
 
 Bride of the Sea. Venice. 
 
 Bridge of Sighs. In Venice. Connects Doge's Pal- 
 ace and State Prison. Over this bridge the condemned 
 passed when on their way to be executed. 
 
 British Museum. Library and museum in London. 
 
 Broadway. The principal business street of New 
 York. 
 
 Brook Farm. A Socialistic community to carry out 
 the idea of Fourierism ; was founded at West Roxbury, 
 Mass., 1841. 
 
 Brother Jonathan. America"; an American. Some 
 doubt as to its origin, but it is said to come from 
 Gov. Jonathan Trumbull, of Connecticut, in speaking 
 of whom Washington would say, "We must consult 
 Brother Jonathan. 
 
 Buncombe. Clap-trap speeches, to cajole constitu- 
 ents, more than for immediate effect. Buncombe is in 
 North Carolina. A North Carolina member said a fiery 
 speech was not delivered to the House, but to Bun- 
 combe. 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument. An obe'isk of granite 
 marking the site of the battle of Bunker Hill, fought 
 between the British and Americans, June 17, 1775. 
 
 Cachet, Lettres de. (Sealed letters.) Blank war- 
 rants with the seal of the French King already affixed 
 for imprisoning or releasing any person in the Bastile. 
 
 Caledonia. Scotland. 
 
 Calumet. An Indian pipe. In old times a treaty of 
 peace with the red men would be ratified by smoking 
 the calumet. 
 
 Campagna. The plains around the city of Rome. 
 
 Carbonari. A secret political society organized in 
 Italy, 1820. 
 
 Carmagnole. Song and dance in the French Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 Cartesian Philosophy. From Descartes, " I think, 
 therefore I exist." 
 
 Castle Garden. At New York City, the landing-place 
 of emigrants. 
 
 Catacombs. Subterranean sepulchers. About three 
 miles from Rome in the Appian Way a vast number of 
 long underground passages about three feet wide and 
 ten feet high. On each side in niches were deposited 
 the bodies of the martyrs and early Christians. These 
 niches were closed witli tiles or slabs of marble having 
 proper inscriptions on them. During the persecutions 
 the Christians concealed themselves in these caves. 
 
 Cavalier Servente. The escort of a married woman. 
 
 Cecilia, St. A martyr ; patroness of music. 
 
 Celestial Empire. China, whose first emperors were 
 all divinities. 
 
 Central Park. The great park of New York City; 
 contains 863 acres. 
 
 Champs de Mars. A field in Paris for military 
 manceuvers. 
 
 Champs Elysees. A promenade in Paris. 
 
 Charter Oak. A tree in Hartford, Conn., in which 
 the Colonial Charter was secreted in 1688. It was blown 
 down in 1856. 
 
 Chauvinism. Patriotism of the blatant kind, from 
 Chauvin, one of Scribe's characters. 
 
 Cheapside. A thoroughfare in London. 
 
 Chiltern Hundreds, To Accept the. A member of 
 the English Parliament cannot resign, and cannot hold 
 office during membership. If he wishes to leave, he can 
 vacate his seat by accepting the office of Steward of the 
 Chiltern Hundreds. 
 
 Chiltern Hundreds. A tract in Buckinghamshire 
 and Oxfordshire, England, to which is attached the 
 nominal office of steward under the crown. 
 
 Christ Church. The name of the largest college in 
 the University of Oxford. 
 
 Cid, The. "The Spanish hero, Don Roderigo Laynez, 
 Count of Bivar. 
 
 Cincinnati, The. Society of American Revolution- 
 ary officers. 
 
 Citizen King, The. Louis Philippe of France. 
 
 Cockagne, Land of. An imaginary country of ease 
 and pleasure ; usually applied to London. 
 
 Colossus of Rhodes. A brass statue, one of the 
 wonders of the world, which stood astride the entrance 
 to the port of Rhodes. 
 
 Columbia. Poetical name of the United States. 
 
 Column of Vendome. A stone pillar in Paris 
 erected by Napoleon, commemorating the successes of 
 the Fre"hch armies. It was thrown down by the Com- 
 munists in 1871. 
 
 Confederate States. The eleven states which se- 
 ceded in 1861, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, 
 Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. 
 
 Congressional Library. At Washington; it is the 
 largest in the United States. 
 
 Consols. English public securities. 
 
 Copperheads. Northern sympathizers with the South 
 in the Ci-vil war. 
 
 Corncrackers, The. Kentuckians. 
 
 Corn Law Rhymer, The. Ebenezer Elliott. 
 
 Corso. The chief thoroughfare of Rome. 
 
 Crapaud Johnny. A Frenchman. 
 
 Credit Mobilier. An authorized stock company. 
 The American Credit Mobilier formed for raising money 
 for the Pacific Railroad raised a foul odor in 1873. 
 
 Crocodile Tears. Counterfeit sorrow. A fable says 
 the crocodile weeps as it eats its victim. 
 
 Cumberland. A United States vessel sunk by the 
 Confederate ram Merrimac in Hampton Roads, March 
 8, 18G2. 
 
 Curfew Bell. At 8 o'clock, the ringing of the curfew 
 bell in old times in England, all lights were extinguished, 
 the fires raked up and covered, and the people of the 
 Kingdom retired to bed. This rule, made by William 
 the Conqueror, lasted for a long time, and even yet there 
 is some sign of its observance in the nine o'clock bell 
 rung in many parts of New England. 
 
 Damocles' Sword. Damocles, having commented 
 upon the happiness which the tyrant Dionysius must 
 enjoy, was invited by him to a feast where, whilst dis- 
 cussing the good things, he looked up and discovered a 
 sword Tianging by a single hair immediately over his 
 head. 
 
 Darby and Joan. The loving couple. 
 
 Darwinian Theory. An explanation of the origin 
 of species in animals, that they come from one or a few 
 original forms, the present differences resulting from 
 development and natural selection. 
 
 De Profundis. The 130th Psalm ; part of the burial 
 service. 
 
 Debatable Ground. Land on the western border of 
 Scotland, disputed between England and Scotland. 
 
 Defender of the Faith. Henry VIII. received this 
 title from Pope Leo X., and his successors have borne it 
 ever since. 
 
 Directory, The French. By the Constitution of 
 1705 the executive power was vested in five Directors; 
 it lasted only four years. 
 
 Dixie, The Land of. The Southern States. 
 
 Dizzy. The nickname of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of 
 Beaconsfield. 
 
 Doctors' Commons. The place where the Ecclesi- 
 astical Court sat in London. 
 
 Doctrinaire. A cant term in French politics, given
 
 128 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 to the proposer of an impracticable compromise meas 
 ure. 
 
 Doe, John. The fictitious plaintiff in ejectment 
 suits, the 'defendant being Richard Roe. 
 
 Doomsday Book. Compiled by order of William 
 the Conqueror. It contained a survey and an estimate 
 of value of all the lands in England. 
 
 Donnybrook Fair. A once celebrated annual fair 
 near Dublin. 
 
 Douay Bible, The. The English Bible authorized by 
 the Roman Catholic Church ; first published at Douay, 
 France. 
 
 Downing Street. The official residence of the Eng- 
 lish Prime Minister since the time of Sir Robert Walpole 
 is in Downing Street, London. 
 
 Drury Lane Theater. In London ; was opened in 
 1688. 
 
 Dying Gladiator. An ancient statue in the Capitol 
 at Rome. 
 
 Eastern States, The. Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- 
 mont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 
 
 Ecce Homo. A painting by Correggio representing 
 the Saviour crowned with thorns. 
 
 I :<! Pplytechnique. A Parisian school, the grad- 
 uates of which are given places in the public service. 
 
 El Dorado. A fabulous region in South America, 
 surpassing all other countries in the production of 
 gems and precious metals. A name for any wealthy 
 country. 
 
 Elephant, Seeing the. Seeing the world. 
 
 Elgin Marbles. A collection of Greek sculptures 
 made by Lord Elgin. Now in the British Museum. 
 
 Escurial, The. A royal residence built by Philip II. ; 
 it is the largest structure in Spain, and one of the most 
 splendid buildings in Europe. It is 22 miles from Mad- 
 rid and contains a palace, a church, a monastery, free 
 schools, and a mausoleum. 
 
 Eternal City, The. Rome. 
 
 Eureka. (I have found it.) Exclamation of Archi- 
 medes when he discovered the method of proving that 
 the sum of the squares of the sides of a right-angled 
 triangle equaled the square of the hypotenuse. 
 
 Evangelists, Symbols of the. Matthew has a scroll 
 before him and holds a pen ; Mark sits writing, with a 
 winged lion by his side; Luke has a pen and a scroll, 
 near him is an ox ; John is a young man, behind whom 
 is an eagle. . 
 
 Exclusion, Bill of. A bill which passed the English 
 House of Commons in 1679, proposing to exclude the 
 Duke of York from the throne because ne was a Roman 
 Catholic. 
 
 Expounder of the Constitution, The. Daniel 
 Webster. 
 
 Fabian Policy. Delaying; dilatory. From Quintus 
 Fabius Maximus, the Roman General who successfully 
 opposed Hannibal, the Carthaginian, by avoiding a battle 
 and continually harassing him. 
 
 Fabins, The American. George Washington. 
 
 Fairmount Park. In Philadelphia, where the Cen- 
 tennial Exhibition of 1876 was held; contains nearly 
 3,000 acres. 
 
 Faineants, Les Rois. (Do-nothing Kings.) The last 
 twelve Kings of the Merovingian Dynasty were so 
 called. For about 100 years previous to 720, when Pepin 
 dethroned Childeric III., they were mere puppets, and 
 the supreme authority was exercised by the mayors of 
 the palace. 
 
 Falernian. A celebrated ancient Italian wine grown 
 at Falernum. 
 
 Faneuil Hall. In Boston, built 1742 ; called the 
 "Cratlle of Liberty," for there the Revolutionary pa- 
 triots were wont to assemble. 
 
 Farmer George. George III. of Engljfnd ; so called 
 from his love of agriculture. 
 
 Fata Morgana. A mirage in the Straits of Messina. 
 
 Father of his Country. George Washington. 
 
 Fathers of the Latin Church. St. Ambrose of 
 Milan, St. Augustine, St. Bernard, St. Hilary, St. Jerome, 
 Lactantius. 
 
 Faubourg St. Antoine. The part of Paris where 
 the workingmen live. 
 
 Faubourg St. Germain. Aristocratic part of Paris. 
 
 Fenians. A society of Irishmen formed in the United 
 States in 1865 to free Ireland. 
 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold. Plain in France where 
 Francis I. and Henry VIII. met on a mutual visit. It is 
 historical on account of the gorgeous display, both par- 
 ties being moat extravagant in their outfit. 
 
 Fifth Avenue. A celebrated residence street in New 
 York. 
 
 Fighting Joe. The American General Joseph Hooker. 
 
 First Gentleman in Europe. George IV. of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Five Points. A once notorious locality in New York. 
 
 Flagellants. Religious fanatics of the thirteenth 
 century who went about naked and scourging them- 
 selves. 
 
 Fleet, The. A London prison taken down in 1845. 
 
 Flowery Kingdom, The. China. 
 
 Flying Dutchman. A specter ship cruising about 
 the Cape of Good Hope. Forebodes trouble to whoever 
 sees it. 
 
 Forte. Strong point. 
 
 Fort Sumter. In the harbor of Charleston, S. C. 
 Here were heard the lirst sounds of the cannons' thun- 
 der in the late Civil War. 
 
 Fourierism. Charles Fourier, a French visionary, 
 proposed a system of communism in which the world 
 should be divided into " phalansteries" of four hundred 
 families who were to live and work in common. 
 
 Freshman. A student in his first year at college. 
 
 Funk, Peter. A mock auction ; a person employed 
 to act as an apparent purchaser and bid up articles for 
 sale. 
 
 Gadshill. Near Rochester, in Kent, England. Place 
 where Falstaff met so many men in buckram. Charles 
 Dickens' residence was at Gadshill. 
 
 Genre Painting. Represents ordinary domestic and 
 rural scenes. 
 
 George, St., and the Dragon. St. George, the 
 patron saint of England, is said to have slain in Libya a 
 hideous dragon whose daily food was a virgin. 
 
 Gerrymander. The geographical apportionment of 
 districts to give preponderance to one political party. 
 Started in Massachusetts, and named from its Governor, 
 Elbridge Gerry. Example, a shoestring district in Mis- 
 souri. 
 
 Ghetto. The quarter in Rome to which the Jews were 
 formerly restricted. 
 
 Ghibelline. One of a faction in Italy in the thir- 
 teenth century, which favored the German Emperors, 
 in opposition to the Guelphs, adherents of the Pope. 
 
 Girondists; The Gironde. Moderate "Constitu- 
 tional " Republican party in the French Revolution in 
 1798. 
 
 Glencoe. A pass in Argyleshire, Scotland. Here, 
 February 13, 1091, were massacred thirty-eight of the 
 McDonalds by one hundred and twenty soldiers under 
 Capt. Campbell. 
 
 Gobelins. A tapestry and carpet manufactory at 
 Paris, founded by Gobelin, a dyer, about 370 years ago. 
 
 Godiva, Lady.' Wife of Leofric, Earl of Mercia. who 
 offered to remit certain exactions to his tenants if she 
 would ride naked through the streets of Coventry. She 
 did so, all the people closing their doors and keeping 
 within except one, "Peeping Tom," who was struck 
 blind for peeping at her. 
 
 Golconda. The neighborhood of some rich diamond 
 mines in India. 
 
 Gold Fever. 1849; peopled California. 
 
 Golden .Age. A period of innocence and prosperity. 
 Nearly always refers to some past age. 
 
 Golden Gate. The entrance to the harbor of San 
 Francisco. 
 
 Golden Horn. The estuary of the Bosphorus, upon 
 whose banks Constantinople is built. 
 
 Gordian Knot. A difficulty ; an obstacle. Gordius, 
 King of Phrygia, consecrated to Jupiter a wagon, the 
 beam and yoke of which were tied together by such an 
 intricate k'not that no one could unravel it. An oracle 
 having foretold that he who could untie this knot would 
 be master of Asia, Alexander cut it asunder with his 
 sword. 
 
 Gordon Riots, The. In 1780. in London, the bill 
 passed by the House of Commons for the relief of the 
 Roman Catholics caused so much ill feeling that Lord 
 George Gordon, a fanatic, incited the mob to try to 
 force its repeal. Dickens in his Barnaby Rudge gives a 
 vivid description of these riots. 
 
 Gotham. A name sometimes applied to New York 
 City. 
 
 G'otham, The Wise Men of. Noted for their folly. 
 Gotham was an English village. 
 
 Great Commoner, The. William Pitt. 
 
 Great Duke, The. Wellington. 
 
 Great Eastern. The largest vessel ever launched. 
 She was built to carry 1,000 passengers and 5,000 tons of
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 129 
 
 cargo. Her chief work has been in the laying of ocean 
 telegraph cables. 
 
 Great Pyramid, The. Is at Geezeh, Egypt. It is 
 484 feet high. 
 
 Greenbacks. United States Treasury notes. So 
 named from their color. 
 
 Green Isle, The. Ireland. Sometimes also called 
 the Emerald Isle. 
 
 Greenwood. A cemetery in Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Gregorian Year. 1582; it being proved that the 
 years were eleven minutes shorter than what they were 
 counted at, Gregory XIII. took ten days of October out 
 of that year and advanced the dates so as to correct the 
 calendar. The reform has been accepted throughout 
 Christendom, except in Russia. Example: George 
 Washington, born February 11, O. S. 
 
 Gretna Green. A Scotch village famous for runa- 
 way matches. 
 
 Grub Street. In London; used to be noted for its 
 literary denizens. 
 
 Guelphs. The adherents in the thirteenth century 
 of the Papacy against the German Emperors. They 
 were the constant opponents of the Ghibellines, and 
 between them Italy was kept in turmoil. 
 
 Guildhall. The London town hall. 
 
 Gunpowder Plot, The. A plot to blow up the Eng- 
 lish Parliament in its House, November 5, 1605. A cellar 
 underneath was stored with gunpowder intended to be 
 touched off during the session by Guy Fawkes. The 
 discovery was made in time to prevent mischief. To 
 use a modern but inelegant phrase, the plot was consid- 
 ered by some people tol>e " a put up job." 
 
 Gyges' King. A ring which made the wearer in- 
 visible. Gyges, having found a man's corpse in a 
 brazen horse that he discovered in a cave, took a ring 
 from the linger of the dead that rendered him invisible. 
 By using this ring he entered unseen the chamber of 
 the King of Lydia and murdered him. He became 
 King. 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act, The. "Was passed in the time 
 of Charles II. and provides that the body of any person 
 restrained of his liberty must on proper application be 
 brought before a judge and the reason of hi.s confine- 
 ment stated. The judge will then determine the amount 
 of bail he shall furnish, or he will remand him to prison 
 or allow him his freedom, as the case may require. 
 
 Halcyon l>ays. A period of happiness; days of 
 peace and tranquillity. The halcyon, as the kingfisher 
 was anciently called, was said to lay her eggs in nests 
 on rocks near the sea during the calm weather about 
 the winter solstice. 
 
 Handicap. Apportionment of the weights that must 
 be carried in a race by different horses, considering 
 their age and strength, to equalize their chances. 
 
 Hansard. Name of the firm which prints the de- 
 bates of the British Parliament. 
 
 Hanse Towns. In the twelfth century some com- 
 mercial cities in the north of Germany formed an asso- 
 ciation for the protection of commerce. To these other 
 similar cities in Holland, England, France, Spain, and 
 Italy accedetl, and for centuries this confederacy com- 
 manded the respect and defied the power of kings. 
 
 Hanseatic League. The name of the confederation 
 of Hanse towns. There were seventy-two cities in the 
 league, and they held triennial conventions called 
 Ha lisa. It has long since fallen to pieces. Four of its 
 members, Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort, 
 are called free cities, but are really part of the German 
 Empire. 
 
 Hare, Mad as a March. The hare is wilder than 
 usual in March. 
 
 Harpies. Three ravenous and filthy monsters, each 
 having a woman's face and the body of a vulture. 
 Their names were Aello, Ocypete, and Celeno. Juno 
 sent them to plunder the table of Phineus. 
 
 Hari-Kari. (Happy dispatch.) Japanese official 
 suicide. 
 
 Harvest, Moon. The full moon at or nearest the fall 
 equinox ; rises for a number of days about sunset. 
 
 Heathen Chinee, The. A poem. 
 
 Heidelberg Castle. Ruins near Heidelberg, Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Hegira. The date of Mohammed's flight from Mecca, 
 July 16, 622. The epoch from which the Mohammedans 
 compute their time. 
 
 High Church. The more conservative portion of 
 the Episcopal Church. 
 
 High Seas, The. The sea beyond three miles from 
 the coast. 
 
 History, The Father of. Herodotus, the Greek 
 historian. 
 
 Hobson's Choice. Take what is offered or go with- 
 out. Tobias Hobson, an English stable-keeper, made 
 whatever customer came to nire a horse take the one 
 nearest the door. 
 
 Holborn. A street in London by which criminals 
 used to be carried out to execution at Tyburn. 
 
 Holy Alliance. Formed in 1816 by Austria, Prussia, 
 and Russia. 
 
 Holy Family, The. The name of pictures repre- 
 senting in group the infant Jesus, St. Joseph, the 
 Blessed Virgin, John the Baptist, Anna, and St. Eliza- 
 beth. The most celebrated are by Michael Angelo at 
 Florence, by Raphael in London, and by Leonardo da 
 Vinci in the Louvre. 
 
 Holy Land, The. Palestine. 
 
 Holy League, The. The alliance of Pope Julius II., 
 France, Germany, Spain, and some of the Italian Re- 
 publics in 1508, against Venice. 
 
 Honi soit qui mal y pense. (Shame to him who 
 evil thinks.) Motto of the highest order of knight- 
 hood in Great Britain, that of the Garter, instituted 
 by Edward III. At a ball, a garter of the Countess of 
 Salisbury, having fallen off, was picked up by the King, 
 who expressed himself in the above phrase and fastened 
 it around his own knee. This incident led to the forma- 
 tion of the order. 
 
 Honors of War. Allowing a surrendered enemy to 
 keep his arms. 
 
 Hotel de Ville. The city hall in French and Belgian 
 cities. 
 
 Houris. Beautiful virgins of Paradise : promised by 
 the Koran for the delight of the true believers. 
 
 Hundred Days, The. From March 20, 1815, when 
 Napoleon escaped from Elba, to June 22, 1815, when he 
 abdicated. 
 
 Iconoclast. (Image-breaker.) A radical reformer. 
 
 Iliad. A Greek epic poem by Homer, relating the 
 story of the siege of Troy by the Greeks. 
 
 Independence, Declaration of. Issued July 4,1776. 
 
 Independence Hall. In Philadelphia, Pa., where 
 Congress met and adopted the Declaration of Inde 
 pendence. 
 
 Index Kxpurgatorius. A list of books forbidden 
 to be read by the Roman Catholic Church 
 
 Inns of Conrt. The four London law societies which 
 have the sole right of admitting candidates to the Bar. 
 They are Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, the Inner Temple, 
 and the Middle Temple. 
 
 Inquisition. A tribunal established in some coun- 
 tries to try heretics. 
 
 Irish Agitator, The. Daniel O'Connell. 
 
 Iron City, The. Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Iron Duke, The. The Duke of Wellington. 
 
 Iron Mask, The Man in the. A mysterious French 
 state prisoner. 
 
 Jack Ketch. The hangman. The name of an Eng- 
 lish hangman. 
 
 Jack Robinson. Before you can say Jack Robinson : 
 at once. Jack Robinson was noted for the shortness of 
 his visits; the servant had scarcely time to repeat his 
 name, before he would leave. 
 
 Jack, The Giant Killer. A nursery hero. 
 
 Jack, The American, or Union. The blue ground 
 of the American flag with the stars but without the 
 stripes. 
 
 Jacobins. A revolutionary club, 1789, in Paris, held 
 its meetings in what had been the Jacobin Monastery. 
 They were violent and extreme in the measures they 
 proposed. Their name spread to all similar organiza- 
 tions and to individuals acting with them throughout 
 France. 
 
 Jacobites. Adherents of James II. of England, and 
 of the Stuarts, his descendants. 
 
 Jardin des Plantes. Botanical and zoological 
 garden in Paris. 
 
 Jardin Mabille. Of world-wide notoriety. A Paris- 
 ian resort where the can-can flourished. Suppressed in 
 1882. 
 
 Jericho, Gone to. Disappeared ; ruined. 
 
 Jerusalem Delivered. An Italian epic poem by 
 Torquato Tasso. 
 
 Jingo, Jingoism. Expression applied in England 
 to those who wanted the English Government to assume 
 an aggressive foreign policy, 1874-1880. 
 
 John Bull. England. Nickname for an Englishman. 
 
 John Chinaman. The Chinese in America.
 
 130 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Johnny Cakes. Made of Indian meal baked in the 
 ashes. 
 
 Jubilee, Year of. Among the Jews the jubilee came 
 every fiftieth year, which was the year after one week 
 of weeks of years had passed (seven times seven). All 
 slaves who were of Hebrew blood were freed, all debts 
 were canceled, and all lands returned to original owners 
 during the jubilee. In the Roman Catholic Church it 
 is observed every twenty-fifth year. 
 
 Juggernaut. A Hindoo god who has a famous 
 temple in India. There is an immense car in the serv- 
 ice of this god, which, when moved about the country, 
 causes the greatest excitement. The car resembles a 
 large building, and its weight is very heavy. It is 
 dragged along by the multitude, and their fanaticism 
 is so great that crowds of devotees cast themselves 
 under the wheels and are crushed to death, a fate which 
 they believe insures paradise. 
 
 Julian Era, The. A method of reckoning time 
 from 46 B.C., when Caesar reformed the calendar. 
 
 Junius, Letters of. Some remarkable political let- 
 ters written during the reign of George III. Their 
 authorship is unknown. 
 
 Kansas, Bleeding:. So called by Horace Greeley 
 during the Free Soil controversy. 
 
 Kensington Gardens. A London Park near which 
 Queen Victoria was born. 
 
 Kilkenny Cats, The. Disputing people ; from the 
 old verse : 
 
 There once were two cats in Kilkenny, 
 
 Who each thought there was one cat too many, 
 
 So they howled and they fit, and they scratched 
 
 and they bit, 
 Until instead of two cats there wasn't any. 
 
 King can do no wrong, The. Meaning that the 
 Ministers and not the King are responsible for mistakes 
 of government. 
 
 King of Yvetot. The Seigneur of Yvetot was made 
 king of his estate by the King of France as a recom- 
 pense for the killing of his father. It was a kingdom 
 of eight square miles. 
 
 King Cole. A legendary king of Britain, who affected 
 tobacco and spirits. 
 
 King Cotton. A name given to the great Southern 
 industry before the war. 
 
 King's Evil. The scrofula. So called from the belief 
 that a king's touch would cure the disease. 
 
 King Log. A good-for-nothing ruler. The name 
 comes from one of Esop's fables, wherein Jupiter puts 
 a log to rule over the frogs. 
 
 King-Maker, The. Richard Nevill, the Earl of 
 Warwick, who set up and deposed kings at his will 
 during the Wars of the Roses, in the fifteenth century. 
 
 King Stork. A tvrant. The sequel to the Esop fable 
 mentioned above. The frogs grew tired of King Log, 
 whereupon King Stork was Drought in at their request, 
 who devoured the whole community. 
 
 Kit Kat Club, The. A London club founded in 
 1688. It had many eminent members. 
 
 Knickerbocker. A member of any old Dutch family 
 in New York. Derived from Irving's immortal history. 
 
 Knight of Malta. A chivalric and monastic order 
 founded during the Crusades, also called the Knights 
 Hospitallers of St. John. 
 
 Know-Nothings. A political party in the United 
 States, whose cardinal principle was opposition to 
 foreign office-holders. 
 
 Koh-i-Noor. A Golconda diamond, the largest in 
 the world, now one of the crown diamonds of England. 
 Value, $625,000. 
 
 Koran, The. The Mohammedan Bible. 
 
 Kremlin, The. The Royal Russian residence in 
 Moscow. 
 
 Labyrinth, The. A celebrated structure built by 
 Minos, King of Crete, which consisted of a maze out of 
 which no one who entered could find the way back. 
 
 Laconic. Curt. So called from the brief speech in 
 fashion in old Laconia, afterwards called Sparta. 
 
 Lacrymal Christi. An Italian wine. 
 
 Lake School, The. A society of English poets con- 
 sisting of Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey. 
 
 Land of liondage, The. Egypt. 
 
 Land o' Cakes, The. Scotland. 
 
 Land of Nod, The. Sleep; Dreamland. 
 
 Land of Promise, The. Canaan, the goal of the 
 Jewish wanderings in the wilderness. 
 
 Luiij,' Syne. Long ago. 
 
 Langue d'Oc. Provence, a part of France so called 
 from the dialect in use. 
 
 Langue d'CEil. All of France except Provence. 
 
 Laocoon, The. A celebrated statue in the Vatican 
 representing Laocoon strangled by serpents. 
 
 Laodicean. A person lukewarm in religion. 
 
 Lares and Penates. The household gods. 
 
 Last Judgment, The. The theme of a number of 
 irescoes of the Renaissance period in Italy. 
 
 Last Supper, The. Similar to the above. Leonardo 
 da Vinci's best canvas is on this subject. 
 
 Later an Palace, The. One of the Papal residences 
 at Kerne. 
 
 Laughing Philosopher, The. Democritus of Ah- 
 dera, who believed that life was only to be laughed at. 
 
 Leaning Tower, The. A cele'brated structure .it 
 Pisa. Italy, which leans fourteen feet out of the perpen- 
 dicular; 180 feet high. 
 
 Learned TOacksrnith, The. Elihu Burritt. 
 
 Leonine Verses. Verses which rhyme at the middle 
 and the end. 
 
 Libby Prison. A Confederate jail for prisoners of 
 war at Richmond, Va. 
 
 Lilliput. The pigmy land in Gulliver's travels. 
 
 Lingua Franca. A dialect of French, Italian, ancL 
 Arabic spoken on the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Lion and Unicorn. The supporters of the British; 
 royal arms. 
 
 Lion of the North, The. Gustavus of Sweden, the' 
 great leader of the Protestant forces during the Thirty 
 Yearc' War. 
 
 Lion's Share. The bigger portion in a division. So; 
 called from one of Esop's fables. 
 
 Little Corporal, The. Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 Little Giant, The. Stephen A. Douglas. 
 
 Lloyds. The originators of marine insurance. 
 
 Lombard Street. The financial street of London. 
 
 Lono Star State, The. Texas. 
 
 Long Parliament. The Parliament which sat for 
 thirteen years at the beginning of the civil war in 
 England. It sat from 1640 to 1653. 
 
 Lorelei. A malignant but beautiful water-sprite of 
 the Rhine. 
 
 Lotus-Eaters, The. Homer in the Odyssey describes 
 the effect of eating the lotus as making the eater forget 
 his home. 
 
 Louvre, The. The art palace of Paris. 
 
 Low Church, The. A part of the Episcopal Church 
 which is opposed to ceremonials. 
 
 Lusiad, The. The Portuguese epic poem, written by 
 Camoens, describing Vasco da Gama's adventures. 
 
 Lynch Law. Mob law. The name comes from a 
 Virginia farmer who instituted the first vigilance com- 
 mittee in America. 
 
 Mab, Queen. The queen of the fairies. So called 
 from an Irish fairy princess named Medh, who flourished 
 in the night of time. 
 
 Macadamize. Paving with broken stones. So called 
 from the inventor, Sir John MacAdam. 
 
 Macaronic Verse. A verse made by mixing different 
 languages. 
 
 Macchiavellism. Political trickery. 
 
 Madam Tussaud's Exhibition. A famous London 
 wax-works show. 
 
 Mad Poet, The. Nathaniel Lee, an insane English 
 dramatist. 
 
 Madman of Macedonia, The. Alexander the Great. 
 
 Madman of the North, The. Charlesl^L of Sweden. 
 
 Madonna. The Blessed Virgin. 
 
 Maecenas. A noted patron of poets during the reign 
 of Augustus of Rome. 
 
 Magtia Charta. The charter making the corner stone 
 of English liberty, extorted from King John Lack-Land. 
 
 Mahomet's Coffin. The body of Mahomet is said to 
 hang in mid-air over Medina. 
 
 Maid of Orleans. Joan of Arc. 
 
 Maid of Saragossa. August ina Zaragoza, the hero- 
 ine of the siege of Saragossa in 1808-9. 
 
 Maiden Oueen, The. Elizabeth of England. 
 
 Maine Law. A prohibitory law first adopted in 
 Maine. 
 
 Maltliiisian I>octrine, The. The theory that the 
 population of the world is growing faster than the food 
 supply. 
 
 Mammoth Cave. A cave near the Green River, 
 Kentucky, the largest cave in the world. 
 
 Man in the Moon. According to the legend the 
 man who first broke the Sabbath. 
 
 Man of Destiny. Napoleon Bonaparte.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 131 
 
 Man of Iron, The. Bismarck. 
 
 Man of Straw. An irresponsible person. 
 
 Mare's Nest. A matter which seems of importance 
 but turns out to be nothing. 
 
 Marriage a la Mode. The title of six satirical pic- 
 tures by Hogarth. 
 
 Marseillaise. The French national air, composed by 
 Rouget de Lisle. 
 
 Martinet. A strict disciplinarian. So called from a 
 French officer of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Mason and Dixon's Line. The north boundary of 
 the Slave States, dividing Virginia and Maryland from 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Mausoleum. The tomb of Mausolus, built by Queen 
 Artemisia, one of the seven wonders of the world. 
 
 Mayfair. The west end of London. 
 
 Mercator's Projection (or Mercator's Chart) is so 
 called after Gerard Mercator, a Flemish geographer of 
 the sixteenth century, the first to give an unbroken 
 view of the whole surface of the earth. In it all the 
 meridians are straight lines perpendicular to the equa- 
 tor, and all the parallels parallel to the equator, the 
 effect being to greatly exaggerate the polar regions. 
 
 Merry Andrew. A buffoon, from Andrew Borde, the 
 whimsical physician of Henry VIII. . 
 
 Merry Monarch, The. Charles II. of England. 
 
 Mesmerism takes its name from Mesmer, a German 
 physician. 
 
 Mezzo Relievo. Carved or cast figures projecting 
 from the tablet a little more than basso relievo, and 
 something less than alto relievo, are called mezzo re- 
 lievo. 
 
 Middle Ages, The. The period between the destruc- 
 tion of the Roman Empire and the revival of learning 
 in Italy 476 to 1500, 
 
 Middle States, The. New York, Pennsylvania, New 
 Jersey, and Delaware. 
 
 Minnesingers. (Love singers.) The German lyric 
 poets of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 
 
 Miserere. The fifty-first psalm. 
 
 Mississippi Bubble, The. A hollow financial scheme. 
 
 Missouri Compromise, The. A measure that pro- 
 hibited slavery north of 36 30' north latitude. 
 
 Mistress of the Seas. England. 
 
 Molly Maguires. A secret society in the United 
 States. Many crimes were attributed to it, especially in 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Monarch, L,e Grand. Louis XIV. of France. 
 
 Monroe Doctrine. The United States is not to 
 meddle in European affairs, nor to allow European 
 Governments to meddle in the affairs of the American 
 Continent. 
 
 Mont de Piete. A pawnbroker's shop. 
 
 Montmartre. A Parisian cemetery. 
 
 Monumental City, The. Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Morey Letter, The. A forged letter attributing to 
 General Garfield anti-Chinese sentiments, 1880. 
 
 Morganatic Marriage. A marriage between a man 
 of high rank and a woman of a lower one. She does not 
 take her husband's title. 
 
 Mother of Presidents. Virginia; having produced 
 seven Presidents of the United States. 
 
 Mother Carey's Chickens. Stormy Petrels. 
 
 Mother Goose. She lived near Boston, and was a 
 nursery rhymer. She sang rhymes to her grandson, 
 Thoma's Fleet, who printed them in 1819. 
 
 Mount Vernon. The home of Washington, in Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 Muscular Christianity. An expression of Charles 
 Kingsley. " A sound mind in a sound body." 
 
 Music of the Spheres. Order, harmony. Plato 
 taught that each planet had a siren whose song har- 
 monized with the motion of our sphere and with that 
 of the others. 
 
 Namby-Painby. Childish. A term used for poor 
 literary productions. 
 
 Nantes, Edict of. A decree issued at Nantes, 
 France, in 1598, by Henry IV., granting toleration to 
 the Protestant religion. 'Revoked by Louis XIV., Octo- 
 ber 22, 1G85. 
 
 Nation of Shop-keepers. The name given to the 
 English by Napoleon. 
 
 Natural Bridge, The. A natural arch over Cedar 
 Creek near James River in Virginia. It is two hundred 
 feet high. 
 
 Newgate. A London prison. 
 
 New "World. The Americas. 
 
 Nibelungenlied. A German epic poem of the thir- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Nine Worthies, The. Joshua, David, Judas Macca- 
 baeus, Hector, Alexander, Julius Caesar, Arthur, Charle- 
 magne, and Godfrey of Bouillon. 
 
 Noctes Ambrosianae. The title of a work by Pro- 
 fessor Wilson (Christopher North). 
 
 Noel. Christmas day. 
 
 Non-Conformists. Dissenters from the Church of 
 England. 
 
 Northern Giant, The. Russia. 
 
 Notre Dame. The Cathedral of Paris. 
 
 Odyssey. Homer's narrative poem of the adventures 
 of Ulysses on his voyage from Troy to Ithaca. 
 
 Ogres. Giants who feed on human flesh. 
 
 Oi Polloi. The multitude. 
 
 Old Abe. Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 Old Bailey. A London criminal court. 
 
 Old Dominion, The. Virginia. 
 
 Old Guard, The. A favorite regiment of Napoleon 
 Bonaparte. In the Chicago Convention, 1880, the 
 friends of General Grant received this name. 
 
 Old Hickory. Gen. Andrew Jackson. 
 
 Old Probs. (Old Probabilities.) The United States 
 Signal Service. 
 
 Old Public Functionary. President James Bu- 
 chanan. 
 
 Old South, The. A famous church in Boston, Mass. 
 
 Orangeman. A Protestant Irishman. Member of 
 an organization which cherishes the memory of William 
 Prince of Orange. 
 
 Orange Peel. Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 Ordinance of 1787. An act fixing the government 
 of the Northwest Territory of the United States. 
 
 Orlando Furioso. An Italian poem by Ariosto. 
 
 Ossian. The son of Fingal, a Scotch bard. Ossian's 
 poems, published in 1760, were the work of James 
 McPherson, a gifted Caledonian. 
 
 Ostend Manifesto. Issued by the United States 
 Ministers to England, France, and Spain, during 
 Pierce's administration, declaring that Cuba must be- 
 long to the United States. 
 
 Ostracism. The Athenians expelled every public 
 man against whom a sufficient number of votes were 
 cast. The votes were written on oyster shells. 
 
 Palimpsest. A parchment haying the original writ- 
 ing erased and new writing substituted. 
 
 Pall Mall. A street in London. 
 
 Palladium. Something that affords defense, pro- 
 tection, and safety. A statue of Pallas was the palla- 
 dium of Troy. 
 
 Pantheon. A circular building in Rome erected in 
 the time of Augustus. It is now a church, the Rotunda. 
 
 Paradise Lost. A poem by John Milton, treating 
 of the fall of man. 
 
 Paradise Regained. Poem by Milton on the temp- 
 tation and triumph of Jesus. 
 
 Paris of America, The. Cincinnati. 
 
 Parthenon. A temple of Minerva in Athens. 
 
 Partington, Mrs. The American Mrs. Malaprop. 
 The creation of B. P. Shillaber. 
 
 Pasquinade. A lampoon or satirical writing. Po- 
 litical squibs used to be posted on an old statue that 
 stood in Rome near the house of a sneering old cobbler 
 named Pasquin. 
 
 Peeler. A policeman. Sir Robert Peel founded the 
 Irish constabulary. 
 
 Peninsular War. The war between England and 
 France in Spain and Portugal, 1808-1812. 
 
 People's William. William E. Gladstone. 
 
 Pere-la-Chaise. A cemetery near Paris. 
 
 Philippic. An invective. The orations of Demos- 
 thenes against Philip of Macedon originated this word. 
 
 Philistine. A word in use in the German universi- 
 ties for a person below caste. 
 
 Philosopher's Stone, The. A substance supposed 
 to have the property of turning anything else into gold. 
 
 Phcenix. A mythical bird, without a mate, renews 
 itself every five hundred years by being consumed in a 
 fire of spices, whence it rises from the ashes and starts 
 for a new flight. 
 
 Pied Piper of Hamelin, The. Not being paid for 
 having drawn, by the sound of his pipe, the rats and 
 mice out of Hamelin into the river, he piped the chil- 
 dren of the town into Koppelberg hill, where 130 of 
 them died. 
 
 Pigeon English. A mixture of English, Chinese, 
 and Portuguese. 
 
 Plon-Plon. Prince Napoleon J. C. Bonaparte. 
 
 Plumed Knight, The. J. G. Blaine, American 
 statesman.
 
 132 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Plymouth Rock. The rock at Plymouth, Mass., 
 where the pilgrims landed in 1620. 
 
 Poet's Corner. A corner in "Westminster Abbey 
 where poets are burieifc The poetical column in a news- 
 paper. 
 
 Pons A M im i-ii in. (The bridge of asses.) Fifth prop- 
 osition, first book Euclid's Geometry. 
 
 Poor Richard. Benjamin Franklin. 
 
 Porkopolis. Cincinnati. 
 
 Prater, The. A promenade in Vienna, Austria. 
 
 Protestant Duke, The. The Duke of Monmouth, 
 natural son of Charles II. of England. 
 
 Pyramids. A number of remarkable old structures 
 in Egypt. 
 
 Quaker City, The. Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Quaker Poet, The. John G. Whittier. 
 Quartier Latin. A district of Paris inhabited prin- 
 cipally by students. 
 Queen of the Antilles. The island of Cuba. 
 
 linns, des Vaches. The air the Swiss mountaineers 
 play on the Alpine horns when tending their cattle. 
 
 Railway King, The. George Hudson, an English- 
 man. 
 
 Rebellion, The Great. The war between Charles I. 
 of England and Parliament. 
 
 Red Letter Day. A fortunate day. In old calendars 
 a red letter was used to mark the saints' days. 
 
 Red Tape. Official routine. 
 
 Reign of Terror. The time during the French Revo- 
 lution between the overthrow of the Girondists, May 
 31, 1793, and the fall of Robespierre, July 27, 1794. 
 
 Reynard the Fox. A romance of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 Rialto, The. A bridge over the Grand Canal, 
 Venice. 
 
 Rights, Declaration of. An instrument securing 
 annual Parliaments, trial by jury, free elections, the 
 right of petition, and denying to the crown the privi- 
 lege of keeping a standing army or of levying taxes, was 
 drawn up after the revolution of 1689, and accepted by 
 William and Mary. 
 
 Roost, To Rule the. To take the leading part. 
 
 Robert the Devil. The first Duke of Normandy. 
 
 Robin Goodfellow. Puck, a celebrated fairy. 
 
 Roland for an Oliver, A. Tit for tat. Roland and 
 Oliver, two peers of Charlemagne. So many romances 
 were related of these knights that whenever one told 
 an improbable story to match one that had been told 
 before, it was called giving a Roland for an Oliver. 
 
 Rossius, The British. David Garrick. 
 
 Rough and Ready. Gen. Zachary Taylor. 
 
 Round Robin. A petition or remonstrance signed 
 by the names in a circle, so as to conceal who signed it 
 first. 
 
 Round Table, The. King Arthur's knights sat at 
 a round table so that any distinction of rank was 
 avoided. 
 
 Roundheads. The Puritans, who wore short hair. 
 
 Royal Martyr, The. Charles I. of England. 
 
 Royal Society, The. A society for the advancement 
 of natural science, founded at London, 1C45. 
 
 Rozinante. The horse of Don Quixote. 
 
 Rubicon, To Pass the. To take an irretrievable step. 
 When Caesar crossed the Rubicon he became an enemy 
 of the Republic. 
 
 Rule Britannia. An English song. 
 
 Rump Parliament, The. A remnant of the Long 
 Parliament broken up by Cromwell. 
 
 Rye House Plot. A conspiracy in 1683 to assassinate 
 Charles II. and the Duke of York. Rye House was the 
 name of the conspirators' place of meeting. 
 
 Sabbath Day's Journey. About one mile. 
 
 Sack, To Get the. To be discharged. The Sultan, 
 when he wants to lie rid of one of his harem, has her put 
 into a sack and thrown into the Bosphorus. 
 
 Sadducees. A sect of the ancient Jews who denied 
 the resurrection of the dead and the expectation oi' a 
 future state. 
 
 Sagas. Scandinavian books containing the Northern 
 legends. 
 
 Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of. Massacre of the 
 French Huguenots in the reign of Charles IX., on St. 
 Bartholomew's day, 1572. 
 
 Sailor King, The. William IV. of England. 
 
 Saint Cloud. A once famous French palace, de- | 
 stroyed in the Franco-Prussian war 
 
 Saint James, The Court of. The English court, so 
 called from the Palace of St. James in London, formerly 
 a royal residence. 
 
 St. Mark's. Cathedral of Venice, Italy. 
 
 Saint Paul's. The cathedral of London; designed 
 by Sir Christopher Wren. 
 
 'Saint Peter's. At Rome; is the most splendid 
 church building in the world. 
 
 Saint Sophia. A mosque in Constantinople, Turkey. 
 
 Saint Stephens. A Gothic cathedral in Vienna, 
 Austria. 
 
 Salt River. Oblivion. Gone up Salt River is gen- 
 erally taken to mean political defeat. 
 
 Sambo. Nickname for colored man. 
 
 Sanctum. One's private office. 
 
 Sandwich. A piece of meat between two pieces of 
 bread. 
 
 Sang Azul. Of aristocratic descent. 
 
 Sanhedrim. The Jewish court of seventy elders. 
 
 Sans-Culottes. (Without trousers.) The French 
 revolutionists. 
 
 Sans Souci. Palace of Frederick the Great, at Pots- 
 dam, near Berlin. 
 
 Santa Croce. A church in Florence, Italy; the burial 
 place of Michael Angelo, Galileo, Mactiiavelli, and 
 others. 
 
 Saturnalia. A festival in honor of Saturn observed 
 annually by the Romans by giving way to the wildest 
 disorders. Unrestrained license for all classes, even to 
 the slaves, ruled the city for three days, December 17, 
 18, and 19. 
 
 Schoolmen. The mediaeval theologians. 
 
 Scotland Yard. The headquarters of the London 
 police. 
 
 Scourge of God, The. Attila, King of the Huns. 
 
 Scratch, Old. The Devil. 
 
 Scylla. (Avoiding Scylla he fell into Charybdis.) In 
 trying to avoid one danger he fell into another. Scylla 
 arid Charybdis were the two dangers in the Straits of 
 Messina, 'Italy. 
 
 Sea-girt Isle, The. Great Britain. 
 
 Secessia. The seceding Southern States. 
 
 Secular Games. Games held by the Romans once 
 in a century. 
 
 Semiraniis of the North. Catherine II., Empress of 
 Russia. 
 
 September Massacres. The massacre of the French 
 Royalist prisoners in Paris, September '_', 3, and 4, 1792. 
 About 8,000 were killed. 
 
 Septuagint. A G reek version of the Old Testament 
 prepared by seventy doctors. 
 
 Seven-hilled City. The. Rome. 
 
 Seven Wonders of the World. The pyramids of 
 Egypt; the Temple of Diana at Ephesus: the hanging 
 gardens of Babylon; the Colossus at Rhodes; the Mau- 
 soleum at Halic'arnassus ; the statue of Zeus by Phidias 
 at Olympus; and the Pharos (or lighthouse) of Alexan- 
 dria in Egypt. 
 
 Seven Y'ears' "War. The war of Frederick the Great 
 against France, Austria, and Russia, 1756 to 1763. 
 
 Shamrock. The emblem of Ireland. St. Patrick 
 made use of it to prove the doctrine of the Trinity. 
 
 Shibboleth. A countersign. The password of a 
 secret society. When the Ephraimites, after being 
 routed by Jephthah, tried to pass the Jordan, they were 
 detected by not being able to pronounce properly the 
 word Shibboleth. 
 
 Sick Man, The. The Ottoman Empire. 
 
 Sinews of War, The. Money. 
 
 Single-Speech Hamilton. An English statesman of 
 the eighteenth century, W. G. Hamilton. He never 
 made but one speech, but that one was most eloquent. 
 
 Six Hundred, Charge of the. At the battle of 
 Balaklava, October 25, 1854, by a mistaken order, the 
 'British light cavalry, 670 strong, made a most gallant 
 charge on the Russians. 
 
 Sleeping Beauty. The. A fairy tale. 
 
 Smell of the Lamp. A phrase first applied to the 
 orations of Demosthenes, showing their careful and 
 labored preparation. Demosthenes studied in a cave 
 by lamplight. 
 
 Song of Roland. An old French poem recounting 
 the deaths of Oliver and Roland at Roncesvalles. 
 
 Sorbonne, The. A university in Paris founded by 
 Robert de Sorbonne in the thirteenth century. 
 
 Sortes Biblicce. Fortune telling by consulting the 
 Bible. 
 
 South Kensington Museum. A collection of works 
 of art and manufactures in London. 
 
 South Sea Bubble, The. A company formed in 1710
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 133 
 
 in England to pay the national debfc and to have in 
 return a monopoly of the South Sea trade. This com- 
 pany lasted about ten years, and its failure was the ruin 
 of thousands. 
 
 Spanish Main. The southwestern part of the Gulf 
 of Mexico. 
 
 Sphinx. An emblem of silence and mystery. A 
 monument near Cairo, Egypt ; half woman, half lion. 
 
 Stabat Mater. A Latin hymn on the Crucifixion. 
 
 Stalwart. A member of the Republican party of the 
 United States clinging to the principles and practices 
 of the party. His opposite, a " Half-Breed, " is a Re- 
 publican unwilling to be controlled by the party 
 leaders. 
 
 Star Chamber. A court of criminal jurisdiction in 
 England having extensive powers. It existed from the 
 time of Henry VII I. until that of Charles I. 
 
 " Stonewall " Jackson. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson, 
 Confederate General. 
 
 Strasburg Cathedral. At Strasburg ; Gothic ; 468 
 feet high ; has a wonderful clock. 
 
 Swedish Nightingale. Jenny Lind (Mme. Gold- 
 schmidt). 
 
 Tabooed. Prohibited. A Polynesian word meaning 
 consecrated; used for what is but of date or in bad 
 taste. 
 
 Tammany Hall. A section of the Democratic party 
 in New York City, named from their place of meeting. 
 
 Tammany King, or the "Tweed Ring," or "the 
 Ring." A set of New York City officials which absorbed 
 large sums of the city money. Exposed in 1871. 
 
 Tammany, Saint." Patron saint of the Democratic 
 party in New York. He was an Indian chief, whose 
 name was really Timenund. 
 
 Tapis, On the. On the carpet ; proposed for discus- 
 sion. From the tapis or cloth on a council table. 
 
 Temple Bar. A stone house in London over which 
 the heads of traitors used to be exposed. Torn down 
 in 1878. 
 
 Termagant. A shrew. Termagant was, according 
 to the Crusaders, the wife of Mahomet. 
 
 Terra Firma. Dry land. 
 
 Tertium Quid. A third somebody not to be named. 
 
 Theatre Traiicais. A theater in Paris. 
 
 Theleme, Abbey of. A creation of Rabelais in his 
 Gargantua. Its motto was, "Do as you please." 
 
 Thirty Years' AA'ar, The. Between the Catholics 
 and Protestants in Germany, 1618-1648. 
 
 Thistle. The national emblem of Scotland. One 
 night when the Danes were attempting to surprise an 
 encampment of the Scotch, one of them trod upon a 
 thistle; the pain caused him to raise an alarm and the 
 Scotch defeated them. Ever since the thistle has been 
 the insignia of Scotland. 
 
 Thor. The god of -war, son of Odin, the Scandinavian 
 Myth. 
 
 Threadneedle Street, The Old Lady of. The Bank 
 of England. 
 
 Three Estates of the Kealm. The nobility, the 
 clergy, and the commonalty , represented in the two 
 houses of Parliament. 
 
 Thunderer, The. The London Times (newspaper). 
 
 Tick, On. On credit. 
 
 Tit for Tat. An equivalent ; this for that 
 
 Tom Thumb. Charles A. Stratton. Also a fairy tale. 
 
 Tory. The name of an English political party , oppo- 
 site of Whig. 
 
 Tour, The Grand. From England, through France, 
 Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and home. 
 
 Tower, The. The citadel of London. 
 
 Transfiguration, The. One of Raphael's most fa- 
 mous pictures, now in the Vatican. 
 
 Trimmer. One who takes a moderate course in 
 polities. 
 
 Trinity Church. An Episcopal church on Broad- 
 way at the head of Wall street, New York. The richest 
 church in America. 
 
 Triple Alliance, The. Alliance between Great Brit- 
 ain, Holland, and Sweden against France, 1668. 
 
 Troubadours. Provincial poets from the eleventh 
 to the fourteenth century. 
 
 Trouveres. Northern French poets 1100 to 1400. 
 
 Trumpet, To Sound One's Own. To bqast. The 
 entrance of knights into a list was announced by the 
 heralds with a flourish of trumpets. 
 
 Tuft-Hunter. A toady. At Oxford a nobleman was 
 called a tuft because of the gold tnf t on his college cap. 
 
 Tuileries. A French royal palace burned by the 
 Commune in 1871. 
 
 Tulip Mania. A European craze of the seventeenth 
 century centering in Holland. Everybody was buying 
 tulip bulbs, which ran up to enormous prices. Many 
 fortunes were sunk in their acquisition. 
 
 Tune the Old Cow Died of. Words instead of alms. 
 Old song: a man having nothing with which to feed 
 his cow, sings to he r of the grass which is to grow. The 
 expression is also used for a worn-out, tiresome tune. 
 
 Tyburn. Once a London place of execution, now a 
 wealthy and fashionable quarter called Tyburnia. 
 
 Uffizi. A building in Florence in which is a magnifi- 
 cent art collection. 
 
 Ultramontanes. In France, the more extreme ad- 
 herents of the Pope. 
 
 Underground Kail road. The. Organization of the 
 different means used for the escape or runaway slaves, 
 about the middle of the present century. 
 
 Under the Rose. (Sub rosa.) Confidentially. 
 
 Unlicked Cub. An ill-bred boy. The bear 'cub was 
 believed to be licked into shape by its dam. 
 
 Unter den Linden. A street in Berlin having four 
 rows of lime trees. 
 
 Unwashed, The Great. The mob. 
 
 Up the Spout, or, more elegantly, "gone where the 
 woodbine twineth," or " at my uncle's," means in pawn. 
 
 Upas Tree. An object that does harm and should be 
 avoided. The upas tree is common in Java ; its gum is 
 poisonous, and fable states that the atmosphere about 
 it is as deadly. 
 
 Upper Ten Thousand. The aristocracy; fashion- 
 able society. 
 
 Utilitarians. Those who believe that the fitness of 
 anything to promote happiness is the right standard of 
 morality. 
 
 Utopia. An ideal commonwealth. The imaginary 
 island, scene of Sir Thomas More's romance of Utopia. 
 
 Valhalla. The palace of immortality, where the 
 heroes slain in battle dwell. (From the Saga legends.) 
 
 Vampire. An extortioner. A fabulous bat said to 
 suck the blood of persons during sleep. 
 
 Vatican. Tlie palace of the Popes, Rome. 
 
 Vatican, Council of the. The Oecumenical Council, 
 18C9, promulgated Papal infallibility. 
 
 Vedas, The. Revelations of Brahma in four sacred 
 books. 
 
 A'eni, A'idi, A'ici. (I came, I saw, I conquered.) Phrase 
 used by Julius Caesar, announcing his victory at Zela. 
 
 Venus de Medici. A Greek statue at Florence. 
 
 Venus of Milo. A Greek statue found in the Island 
 of Melos, 1S20 : it is now in the Louvre. 
 
 Verbum Sap. A word to the wise. 
 
 Veronica. A relic at St. Peter's, Rome. 
 
 Versailles. A palace at Versailles, ten miles from 
 Paris. 
 
 Vespers, The Sicilian. The massacre of the French 
 in Sicily, March 30, 1282. The sounding of the vesper 
 bell was the signal. 
 
 A'ia Dolorosa. The sorrowful way of our Lord from 
 the Mount of Olives to Golgotha. 
 
 Vinegar Bible, The. Has"vinegar" for "vineyard" 
 in the head line of Luke xx., Oxford, 1017. 
 
 Virgin Queen, The. Queen Elizabeth of England. 
 
 Vitus Dance, St. A disease anciently supposed to 
 be under control of St. Vitus. 
 
 Wabash Avenue. A street in Chicago. 
 
 Wall of China, The. A wall 1,200 miles long and 20 
 feet high, built as a protection against the Tartars. 
 
 Wall Street. The great financial street of New York. 
 
 W r a11ack's. A theater in New York. 
 
 Walton, An Izaak. An angler. 
 
 W T andering Jew, The. A legendary personage con- 
 demned to wander over the world until the day of 
 judgment. 
 
 War of 1812. Between Great Britain and the United 
 States, 1812-1815. 
 
 War of the Roses. The English civil wars in the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, between the houses 
 of York and Lancaster. 
 
 AVard, Art emus. C. F. Browne. 
 
 AVashington Street. A street in Boston, Mass. 
 
 Wassail. (What hail !) A bowl of spiced ale used on 
 New Year's day is the Wassail bowl. 
 
 Waters, The Father of. The Mississippi. 
 
 AVays and Means. An important committee of the 
 House of Representatives ; is charged with the duty of 
 devising ways and means for the supply of the Govern- 
 ment expenses.
 
 134 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Wedding. The first anniversary of a wedding is the 
 paper wedding, the gifts being paper articles ; the fifth, 
 wooden; the tenth, tin; the fifteenth, glass; twenty- 
 fifth, silver; fiftieth, golden; seventv-fifth, diamond. 
 
 Well of St. Keyne. A well in Cornwall. The first 
 of a married couple to taste its waters will " wear the 
 breeches." 
 
 Westminster Abbey. A church in London where 
 many of the illustrious dead of England are buried. 
 
 Wetherell, Elizabeth. Pseudonym of Miss Susan 
 Warner, author of The Wide, Wide World. 
 
 Whig. The name of a political party now extinct. 
 
 "Whistle. (To pay too dearly for the whistle.) Dr 
 Franklin's story. Cost greater than benefit. 
 
 White Feather, To Show the. A display of cow- 
 ardice. 
 
 White House. The Presidential mansion at Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 Whiteboys. A secret society in Ireland, 1789. 
 
 Wild Huntsman, The. A spectral huntsman in the 
 Black Forest. German legend. 
 
 Windmills, To Fight with. To oppose imaginary 
 objects. Don Quixote. 
 
 Windsor Castle. A royal residence near London. 
 
 Wise Men of the Mast, The. The three Magi 
 guided by a star to Bethlehem. 
 
 Witch of Endor, The. The soothsayer who foretold 
 the death of Saul. 
 
 Witch-Hazel. A forked twig used for finding 
 witches; in use still for finding water. 
 
 Wooden Horse. A ruse at the siege of Troy. 
 
 Woolsack, To Sit on the. To be Lord Chancellor 
 of England. 
 
 Wyoming Massacre. The Valley of Wyoming was 
 ravaged by Indians in 1778. 
 
 Xanthos. The prophetic horse of Achilles. 
 Xantippe. The scolding wife of Socrates. 
 
 Yahoo. A ruffian. The Yahoos in Gulliver's Travels 
 are brutes shaped like men. 
 
 Yankee. A name given to all Americans. In America 
 itself the name is only used for natives of New England. 
 
 Yarmouth Bloater. A red herring. 
 
 Yellow Jack. The yellow fever. 
 
 Young America. The growing generation. 
 
 Young Chevalier. Charles Edward Stuart, the sec- 
 ond pretender to the throne of Great Britain. (1720-88.) 
 
 Young Germany. Heinrich Heine and his followers. 
 
 Yosemite Valley. In California. Also a picture by 
 Bierstadt. , 
 
 Yule. Christmas. 
 
 Yule-log. A large log of wood burnt on the hearth 
 at Christmas. 
 
 Zend-Avesta, The. Persian Scriptures written in 
 the Zend language. 
 
 Zollverein. An association between German States 
 for the maintenance of uniform tariff rates. 
 
 Latin. Pater noster, qui es'in ccelis, sanctificeter 
 nomen tuum. Adveniat regnum tuum. Fiat voluntas 
 tua, sicut in co3lo, et in terra. Panem nostrum quotidi- 
 anum da nobis hodie. Et remitte nobis debita nostra, 
 sicut et nos remittimus debitoribus nostris. Et ne nos 
 inducas in tentationem, sed libera nos a malo. Tibi 
 enim est regnum, et potentia, et gloria, in sempiternum. 
 Amen. 
 
 Italian. Padre nostro, che sei ne' cieli, sia santifi- 
 cato i' tuo nome. II tuo regno venga. La tua volonta 
 sia fatta in terra come in cielo. Dacci oggi il nostro 
 pane cotidiano. E rimettici i nostri debiti, come noi 
 ancora gli rimettiamo a' nostri debitori. E non indurci 
 in tentazione, ma liberaci dal maligno. Percioche tuo 
 fe il regno, e la potenza, e la gloria, in sempiterno. 
 Amen. 
 
 THE LORD'S PRAYER. 
 
 French. Notre Pere qui es atix cieux, ton nom soit 
 sanctifie. Ton regne yienne ; ta volont6 soit faite sur la 
 
 terre. comme au~ciel. Donne-nous aujourd'hui notre 
 pain quotidien. Pardonne-nous nos phone's, comme aussi 
 nous pardonnons a ceux qui nous ont offenses. Et ne 
 nous abandonne point a la tentation, mais de'livre nous 
 du malin. Car a toi appartient le regne, la puissance, 
 et la gloire, a jamais. Amen. 
 
 German. Unser Vater in dem Himmel, dein Name 
 werde geheiliget. Dein Reich komme. Dein Wille 
 geschehe auf Erden wie im Himmel. Unser tagllchea 
 Brod gieb uns heute. Und vergieb uns unsere Schulden, 
 wie wir unsern Schuldigern vergaben. Und f iihre uns 
 nicht in Versuchung, sondern erlese uns von dem Uebel. 
 Denn dein ist das Reich, und die Kaft, und die Herr- 
 lichkeit, in Ewigkeit. Amen. 
 
 Shelley wrote " Queen Mab " at 18. 
 
 Mohammed began the Koran at 35. 
 
 Keats wrotehis "Endymion" at 22. 
 
 Alexandre Dumas wrote plays at 22. 
 
 Disraeli wrote "Vivian Grey" at 
 21. 
 
 Heine published his first songs at 
 23. 
 
 Seneca wrote " De Beneficiis " after 
 50. 
 
 Swift wrote the "Tale of a Tub" 
 at 37. 
 
 Richardson published "Pamela" 
 at 51. 
 
 Racine wrote the "Andromache" 
 at 28. 
 
 Paley wrote the "Horae Paulinae" 
 at 47. 
 
 Coleridge published "Christabel" 
 at 44. 
 
 Pliny finished the " German War" 
 at 31. 
 
 Luther wrote his ninety-five theses 
 at 34. 
 
 Poe wrote " The Raven " in his 36th 
 year. 
 
 Confucius began his religious works 
 at 30. 
 
 Butler wrote " Htidibras" after he 
 was 60. 
 
 Shakespeare wrote his first play at 
 about 24. 
 
 Sterne published "Tristram Shan- 
 dy" at 46. 
 
 Owen Meredith published "Lu- 
 cille" at 29. 
 
 GREAT MEN'S WORKS. 
 
 Boileau wrote his first satirical 
 poems at 24. 
 
 Corneille wrote " Melite," his first 
 drama, at 21. 
 
 Calvin published his "Psychopan- 
 nychia" at 25. 
 
 Spenser published the " Faerie 
 Queene" at 38. 
 
 It is said that Horace wrote his 
 first odes at 23. 
 
 Sheridan wrote his "School for 
 Scandal " at 26. 
 
 Machiavelli completed " The 
 Prince " at 45. 
 
 Sir Thomas More finished his 
 "Utopia" at 73. 
 
 Livy is said to have finished his 
 "Annals" at 50. 
 
 Goldsmith finished " The Deserted 
 Village" at 42. 
 
 Josephus published his " Wars of 
 the Jews" at 6i. 
 
 Lamartine's poems appeared when 
 the poet was 30. 
 
 Perseus is thought to have written 
 his satires at 45. 
 
 . Thackeray was 36 when " Vanity 
 Fair" appeared. 
 
 Lord Bacon wrote the " Novum 
 Organum" at 41. 
 
 Tacitus finished the first part of 
 his history at 50. 
 
 David is said to have written his 
 first psalm at IK. 
 
 Homer is said to have composed 
 the Iliad after 60. 
 
 Bryant was 19 when made famous 
 by "Thanatopsis." 
 
 Solomon is said to have collected 
 the Proverbs at 50. 
 
 Baxter wrote the "Saint's Ever- 
 lasting Rest " at 34. 
 
 Dante finished the "Divina Corn- 
 media" at about 51. 
 
 Von Ranke finished his "History 
 of the Popes " at 39. 
 
 George Eliot was 39 when " Adam 
 Bede " was printed. 
 
 Fichte wrote the famous " Wissen- 
 schaftslehre" at 32. 
 
 Robert Browning wrote "The Ring 
 and the Book" at 67. 
 
 Snmuel Johnson published "Lon- 
 don " when he was 29. 
 
 The Bucolics of Virgil were writ- 
 ten between 43 and 47. 
 
 Thomas & Kempis wrote the " Imi- 
 tation of Christ >f at 34. 
 
 Joseph Addison's first essays ap- 
 peared when he was 29. 
 
 John Bunyan finished the ''Pil- 
 grim's Progress " at 50. 
 
 "The Robbers," by Schiller, made 
 the author famous at 23. 
 
 Hannah More wrote "The Search 
 After Happiness" at 28. 
 
 Martial is said to have written epi- 
 grams before he was 20. 
 
 Voltaire's first tragedy came out 
 when the author was 22. 
 
 Adam Smith published " The 
 Wealth of Nations" at 65.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 135 
 
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 Whitney, German Grammar. Henry Holt 
 
 Matzke, Primer of French Pronunciation. Henry Holt 
 Dupuy, Great Masters of Russian Literature. Crowell 
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 Fromentin, Old Masters of Belgium and Holland. 
 
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 Vasari, Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects. 
 
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 136 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
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 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 137 
 
 Newman, The Arians of the 4th Century. Longmans 
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 Parton, Princes, Authors, and Statesmen of Our Time. 
 
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 Prescott, The Conquest of Mexico. 3v. McKay 
 
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 Probyn, Land Tenures in Various Countries. Cassell 
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 Parkman, The Jesuits in North America. Little, Brown 
 Powell, Nullification and Secession in the IT. S. 
 
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 Plutarch, Lives (Dryden). 3v. Coates 
 
 llenan, History of the People of Israel. 5v. 
 
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 Ranke, Universal History. Amsterdam 
 
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 Rambaud, History of Russia. 2v. Dana Estes 
 
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 Spence, Cloister Life in the Days of Cceur de Lion. 
 
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 Sybel, Founding of the German Empire, by William I. 
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 Warner, Life of Capt. John Smith. Henrv Holt 
 
 Wellhausen, Sketch of the History of Israel and Judah. 
 
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 Clodd, The Childhood of Religions. Appleton 
 
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 138 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Le Gallienne.The Religion of a Literary Man. Putnams 
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 Murray, Manual of Mythology. Scribners 
 
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 Maurice, The Religions of the World. Macmillan 
 
 MUller, Origin and Growth of Religion. Scribners 
 
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 Noble Lectures (Harvard University). 
 
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 Newman, A Grammar of Assent. Longmans 
 
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 Neander, Life of Jesus in its Historical Connection. 
 
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 Oort and Hooykaas, The Bible for Learners. 3v. 
 
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 Pfleiderer, Development of Theology. Macmillan 
 
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 Pfleiderer, Influences of Paul on Christianity. 
 
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 Rickaby, Aquinas Ethicus. 2v. Benziger 
 
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 Reville, The Devil, His Origin, Greatness and Decadence. 
 
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 Renan, The Apostles. Little, Brown 
 
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 Ramsay, Regeneration. Putnams 
 
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 Harpers 
 Ramsay, St. Paul, the Traveler and the Roman Citizen. 
 
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 Renouf , Origin and Growth of Religion. Scribners 
 
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 Steenstra, The Being of God as Unity and Trinity. 
 
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 Schaff , Creeds of Christendom. 3v. Harpers 
 
 siir<i< I , The Confessions of St. Augustine. Draper 
 
 Sanday, Inspiration. Longmans 
 
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 Stevens, Theology of the New Testament. Scribners 
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 Schleierraacher, On Religion. Scribners 
 
 Schopenhauer, Religion : a Dialogue. Scribners 
 
 Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. 
 
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 Sayce, Origin and Growth of Religion. Scribners 
 
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 Toy, Judaism and Christianity. Little, Brown 
 
 Tyler, Bases of Religious Belief. Putnams 
 
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 Wilbefm and Scannell, Manual of Catholic 
 
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 Wiseman, Doctrines of the Catholic Church. Benziger 
 Weizsacker, The Apostolic Age. 2v. Putnams 
 
 Wescott, History of the Canon of the New Testament. 
 
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 Wace, Christianity and Agnosticism. Appleton 
 
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 Balzac, Eugenie Grandt. Macmillan 
 
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 Beckford, Vathek: An Eastern Romance, Scribners 
 
 Bronte', Jane Eyre. Crowell 
 
 Bourdillon, Aucassin and Nicolette. Macmillan 
 
 Burnaby, Khiva. Cassell 
 
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 Cooper, Pathfinder, Rand, McNally 
 
 Cooper, Pioneers, Rand, McNally 
 
 Cooper, The Prairie, Rand, McNally 
 
 Cooper, The Spy. Coates 
 
 Corelli, Thelma. Rand, McNally 
 
 Cervantes, Don Quixote. 2v. Crowell 
 
 Collins, The Woman in White. Harpers 
 
 Collins, The Moonstone. Harpers 
 Craddock, The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains. 
 
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 Crane, Italian Popular Tales. Houghton 
 
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 Henry Holt 
 
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 Coppee, Ten Tales. Harpers 
 
 Curtis, Prue and I. Harpers 
 
 Cable, Old Creole Days. Scribners 
 
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 De Stae'l, Corinne. Crowell 
 
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 Dickens, Tale of Two Cities. Rand, McNally 
 
 Dickens, Pickwick Papers. Rand, McNaliy 
 
 Dickens, Old Curiosity Shop. Coates 
 
 Dumas, Three Musketeers. Caldwell 
 
 Dumas, Twenty Years After. Caldwell 
 
 Dumas, Count of Monte Cristo. 2v. Caldwell 
 
 Doyle, Micah Clarke. Rand. MpN.ally 
 
 Doyle, The White Company. Crowell 
 
 De Foe, Robinson Crusoe. Rand, McNally 
 
 Dumas, Vicomte De Bragelonne. Caldwell 
 
 Dumas, Louise de la Valliere. Caldwell 
 
 Dumas, The Man with the Iron Mask. Caldwell 
 
 Deland, John Ward, Preacher. Hough ton, Mifflir 
 
 Appleton 
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 Jordan, Footnotes to Evolution. Appleton 
 
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 Romanes, Animal Intelligence. Amsterdam 
 
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 65, 66, 67. Appleton 
 
 Thudicum, ATreatise on Wines. Macmillan 
 
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 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 148 
 
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 Story, The Conflict of Laws. Little, Brown 
 
 Story, Constitution of the United States. Harpers 
 
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 Alphabets, The alphabets of different 
 languages contain the following number of let- 
 ters : English, 26 ; French, 23 ; Italian, 20; 
 Spanish, 27 ; German, 26 ; Slavonic, 27 ; Rus- 
 sian, 41 ; Latin, 22 ; Greek, 24 ; Hebrew, 22 ; 
 Arabic, 28; Persian, 32; Turkish, 33; San- 
 skrit, 50 ; Chinese, 214. 
 
 Early Literature. The first Greek' writ- 
 ers were Homer and Hesiod, 1000 B. C., Tyr- 
 taeus and Archilochus, 700 B. C., and Alcaeus, 
 Sappho, and Anacreon, 600. The first Latin 
 writers were Cluatua, Ennius, and Terentius, 
 200 B. C. The first British writers, Gildas, 
 Xennius and Bede, 500 and 600 A. D. The 
 first German writers, Eginhard, Wallafrid, and 
 Rabanus, 800 A. D. The first French writers, 
 Fort, Gregory, and Maralfe, 500 A. D. The 
 first Spanish, Anian, Fulgentius, and Martin, 
 500 A. D. The first Polish, Yaraslof and Nes- 
 tor in 1000 A. D. The first Italian, Gracian, 
 Falcand and Campanus in 1100 A. D. 
 
 CHINESE LITERATURE. 
 
 The antiquity of Chinese literature is pro- 
 portionate to that of the language, and its 
 development has been greatly promoted by 
 the early invention of the art of printing, 
 which has been known in China for at least 
 nine hundred years. The Chinese language 
 presents a remarkable specimen of philological 
 structure, which for ingenuity of arrangement 
 and copiousness of expression, is not surpassed 
 
 in any written literature. It belongs to that 
 class of idioms which are called monosyllabic. 
 Every word consists of only one syllable. The 
 roots or original characters of the Chinese are 
 only 214 in number, and it is supposed that a 
 minute analysis would reduce them to a still 
 smaller amount. Each of these characters 
 represents one word, and each word an idea. 
 Their various combinations form the whole 
 language. Taken singly, they express the 
 principal objects or ideas that are suggested in 
 the common intercourse of life ; and combined, 
 according to obvious analogies, they are made 
 to comprehend the entire field of thought. 
 Thus the character, which originally repre- 
 sents the word " hand," is so modified and 
 combined with others, as to denote every vari- 
 ety of manual labor and occupation. The 
 Chinese characters are written from top to 
 bottom, and from right to left. The lines are 
 not horizontal, but perpendicular and parallel 
 to each other. Much importance is attached 
 by the Chinese to the graphic beauty of their 
 written characters, which in picturesque effect, 
 it must be owned, are superior to most forms 
 of alphabetic symbols. The grammar of the 
 language is very limited. The nouns and verbs 
 cannot be inflected, and hence the relation of 
 words to each other in a sentence can be un- 
 derstood only from the context, or marked by 
 their position. 
 
 The Chinese literature is rich in works in 
 every department of composition, both verse 
 and prose. Their scholars are fond of discus- 
 sions in moral philosophy, but they have also 
 numerous books of history, geography, voy- 
 ages, dramas, romances, tales, and fictions of 
 all kinds. The labors of various European 
 travelers and students have given us specimens 
 of almost every description of Chinese litera- 
 ture. In legislation, we have a translation of 
 the Penal Code of the Empire ; in politics and 
 morals, the sacred books of Confucius, and his 
 successor Meng-Tsew ; in philology and belles- 
 lettres, a well-executed dictionary of the lan- 
 guage ; several translations and abstracts of 
 history ; and selections from the drama, criti- 
 cism, and romance. Among the most success- 
 ful explorers of the field of Chinese literature, 
 we may mention Staunton, Davis, Morrison, 
 Klaproth, and Remusat, who have followed up 
 the earlier researches of the Jesuits at Pekin, 
 and elucidated a subject which had been sup- 
 posed to be inaccessible. 
 
 Chinese literature suffered a similar mis- 
 fortune to that of the West in the destruction 
 of the Alexandrian brary ; for their Emperor, 
 Chee-whang-tee, ordered all writings to be 
 destroyed, that everything might begin anew 
 from his reign ; consequently their books and
 
 144 
 
 TIIK CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 records were recovered with great, difficulty by 
 succeeding emperors. 
 
 GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 The language which we call Greek was not 
 the primitive language of Greece, for that 
 country was originally inhabited by the Pelasgi, 
 whose language had become extinct in the 
 time of Herodotus. With regard to its origin, 
 there is a diversity of opinion among the 
 learned, although it evidently forms a branch 
 of the extensive family of languages known 
 by the name of the Indo-Germanic. It has 
 existed as a spoken language for at least three 
 thousand years, and, with the exception of the 
 Arabic and the English, has been more widely 
 diffused than any other tongue. Out of Greece, 
 it was spoken in a great part of Asia Minor, of 
 the South of Italy and Sicily, and in other 
 regions which were settled by Grecian colonies. 
 The Greek language is divided into four lead- 
 ing dialects, the yEolic, Ionic, Doric, and Attic, 
 beside which there are several secondary dia- 
 lects. The four principal dialects may, how- 
 ever, be reduced to two, the Hellenic-Doric, 
 and the Ionic- Attic, the latter originally spoken 
 in the northern part of Peloponnesus and 
 Attica, the former in other parts of Greece. 
 In each of these dialects, there are celebrated 
 authors. To the Ionic dialect, belong in part 
 the works of the oldest poets, Homer, Hesiod, 
 Theognis ; of some prose, writers, especially 
 Herodotus and Hippocrates ; and the poems of 
 Pindar, Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus. The 
 Doric dialect was of the greatest antiquity. 
 We have few remains of Doric prose, which 
 consists chiefly of mathematical or philo- 
 sophical writings. After Athens became the 
 center of literary cultivation in Greece, the 
 works of yEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, 
 Aristophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, 
 Isocrates, Demosthenes, and so forth, were re- 
 garded as standards of style, and made the 
 Attic the common dialect of literature. Poetry, 
 however, was not written in the Attic dialect. 
 The peculiarities of Homer were imitated by 
 all subsequent poets except the dramatists, 
 and even they assumed the Doric to a certain 
 degree in their choruses, for the sake of the 
 solemnity of expression which belonged to the 
 oldest liturgies of the Greeks. According to 
 the general tradition, Cadmus the Phoenician 
 was the first who introduced the alphabet into 
 Greece. His alphabet consisted of but six- 
 teen letters ; four are said to have been in- 
 vented by Palamedes in the Trojan war, and 
 four more by Simonides of Ceos. It has been 
 maintained, however, by some persons, that 
 the art of writing was practiced by the Pe- 
 lasgi before the time of Cadmus. On the 
 
 other hand, many of the most sagacious critics 
 place the origin of writing in Greece at a much 
 later period. 
 
 The origin of Greek literature, or the in- 
 tellectual cultivation of the Greeks, by written 
 works, dates at a period of which we have 
 few historical memorials. The first period of 
 Grecian cultivation, which extends to eighty 
 years after the Trojan war, is called the ante- 
 Homeric period, and is destitute of any liter- 
 ary remains properly deserving the name. Of 
 the poets previous to Homer, nothing satisfac- 
 tory is known. The most ancient was Olen, 
 who is mentioned by Pausanias. He was fol- 
 lowed by Linus, Orpheus, Musaeus, and others, 
 but the poems which are circulated under their 
 names cannot be regarded as their genuine 
 productions. It was in the Greek colonies of 
 Asia Minor that the first great impulse was 
 given to the development of literature ; and 
 among them we find the earliest authentic 
 specimens of Greek poetry and historical com- 
 position. Situated on the borders of a noble 
 sea, enjoying a climate of delicious softness 
 and purity, abounding in the most nutritious 
 and tempting products of nature, whose fertil- 
 ity was not inferior to its beauty, these colo- 
 nies possessed a character of refined voluptuous- 
 ness which, if not favorable to the perform- 
 ance of great deeds, allured the dreamy spirit 
 to poetical contemplations, and was manifested 
 in noble creations of the fancy, which have 
 not been surpassed in the progress of cultiva- 
 tion. Living near the scene of the Trojan 
 war, the bards devoted their first poems to the 
 celebration of Grecian heroism. With them 
 commenced the second period of Greek litera- 
 ture, which we call the Epic age. Of these, 
 Homer alone has survived. We have from 
 him the two great poems, the Iliad and Odys- 
 sey, with several hymns and epigrams. He 
 gave his name to the Homeridse, an Ionian 
 school of minstrels, who preserved the old 
 Homeric and epic style, and who are probably 
 the authors of much that has been ascribed to 
 Horner himself. 
 
 Next to the Homeridse, come the Cyclic 
 poets, whose works embrace the whole circle 
 of mythology and tradition, describing the 
 origin of the gods and of the world, the ad- 
 ventures of the Heroic times, the Argonautic 
 expedition, the labors of Hercules and Theseus, 
 the principal events of the Theban and Trojan 
 wars, and the fortunes of the Greeks after the 
 fall of Troy. A transition between these his- 
 toric poets and the later school of Ionian min- 
 strelsy is formed by Hesiod, who conducted 
 poetry back from Asia Minor into Greece. Of 
 the sixteen works ascribed to him, we have the 
 Theogony, the Shield of Hercules, and Works
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 145 
 
 and Days, the last, an agricultural poem, 
 interspersed with moral reflections and pruden- 
 tial maxims. 
 
 The third period commences with the 
 growth of lyric poetry, of apologues and phi- 
 losophy, with which history gained a new 
 development and a -higher degree of certainty. 
 Lyric poetry sprung up on the decline of the 
 Epic school, and was much cultivated from the 
 beginning of the epoch of the Olympiads (77(3 
 B. C.) to the first Persian war. The poems of 
 this period are considered among the most 
 valuable productions of Grecian literature. 
 Many of them resembled the epic, and con- 
 tained the subjects of heroic song. They 
 were sung by bands of youths and maidens, 
 accompanied by instrumental music. Among 
 the most celebrated of the lyric poets were 
 Archilochus of Paros, the inventor of the 
 Iambus; Tyrtseus, Terpander, and Alcman, 
 whose martial strains enkindled the valor of 
 the Spartans ; Callimachus of Ephesus, in- 
 ventor of the elegaic measure ; Simonides and 
 Anacreon of Ceos ; the impassioned Sappho of 
 Mitylene ; Stesichorus, Hipponax, and Pindar. 
 Many didactic poems, fables, and proverbs 
 were written during this period, and served to 
 prepare the way for prose composition. 
 
 The philosophy of this age was marked by 
 its constant reference to practical affairs. 
 Among its expounders we may consider the 
 seven wise men of Greece, as they are called 
 (Periander, or according to some, Epimenides 
 of Crete, Pittacus, Thales, Solon, Bias, Chilo, 
 and Cleobulus), of whom six acquired their 
 fame, not by the teaching of speculative ab- 
 stractions, but by their admirable wisdom in 
 the affairs of life, and their skill in the offices 
 of state. Their celebrated sayings are the 
 maxims of experience, applied to the practical 
 relations of life. But with the progress of 
 intellectual culture, a taste for speculative 
 inquiries was unfolded. This resulted in the 
 establishment of the Ionic philosophy by 
 Thales, the Italian, by Pythagoras, and the 
 older and later Eleatic. With the develop- 
 ment of these schools, we are brought to the 
 scientific period of Greek literature. The 
 Ionic school ascribed a material origin to the 
 universe. Its principal followers were Phere- 
 cydes, Anaximander, Anaxamines, Anaxago- 
 ras, Diogenes of Apollonia, and Archilaus of 
 Miletus. Of the Pythagorean school, which 
 explained the organization of the world by 
 number and measure, were Ocellus Lucanus, 
 Timasusof Locris, Epicharmus,Theages, Archy- 
 tas, Philolaus, and Eudoxus. To the older 
 Eleatic school, which cherished a more sub- 
 lime, but less intelligible conception of the 
 origin of the world, assuming the fact of a 
 
 pure necessary existence, belonged Xenophanes 
 and Parmenides ; to the later Eleatic, Melissus 
 and Diagoras. Until about the commence- 
 ment of the 90th Olympiad, the philosophers 
 and their disciples were dispersed throughout 
 the various Grecian cities. Athens subse- 
 quently became their chief residence, where 
 the class of men called Sophists first rose into 
 importance as public teachers. Of these, the 
 most distinguished names that have been pre- 
 served to us are Gorgiasof Leontium, Protag- 
 oras of Abdera, Hippias of Elis, Prodicus of 
 Cos, Trasimteus, and Tisias. They were 
 especially devoted to the subjects of politics 
 and eloquence, but also made a study of the 
 natural sciences, mathematics, the theory of 
 the fine arts, and philosophy. Professing the 
 art of logic as a trade, they were less earnest 
 in the pursuit of truth than in the construc- 
 tion of plausible arguments. Their fallacious 
 pretenses awakened the honest indignation of 
 Socrates, who not only became their zealous 
 antagonist, but gave a vigorous and original 
 impulse to the progress of philosophy. This 
 shrewd and subtle reasoner opened a new 
 direction to philosophical research, turning it 
 to the study of human nature and of the laws 
 of psychology and ethics, instead of barren 
 speculations and theories. Without leaving 
 any written record of his genius, he is known 
 at the present day by the affectionate and 
 beautiful memorials which have been conse- 
 crated to his character in the productions of 
 his disciples. 
 
 Among these, Plato was pre-eminent by the 
 force and comprehensiveness of his reason, the 
 marvelous keenness of his insight in the region 
 of transcendental ideas, the vigor and acuteness 
 of his logical faculties, and the winning sweet- 
 ness and grace of expression, which lend a 
 charm to his writings that has never been 
 equaled in philosophical literature. The 
 masterly conversations of Socrates, in which 
 he expounded the principles of his philosophy 
 in the streets and market place of Athens, are 
 reproduced with 'admirable dramatic effect, in 
 the glowing pages of his eloquent disciple. 
 
 The progress of history kept- pace in Grecian 
 cultivation with the development of philosophy. 
 Among the oldest historical prose writers, are 
 Cadmus, Dionysius, and Hecataeus of Mile- 
 tus, Hellanicus of Mitylene, Pherecydes of 
 Scyros. After them appears Herodotus, who 
 has received the name of the Homer of history. 
 He was followed by Thucvdides, the grave, 
 condensed, arid philosophical historian of the 
 Pelopennesian war. Strongly contrasted with 
 his sternness and energy, is Xenophon, whose 
 limpid narrative flows on with the charming 
 facility of a graceful stream, presenting a de-
 
 146 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 lightful specimen of the tranquil beauty of 
 Greek prose in its most simple form. These 
 three historians distinguished the period from 
 450 to 400 B. C., during which time we have 
 to notice the introduction of a new class of 
 poetical creations. 
 
 The popular festivals which were celebrated 
 after the vintage, with rude songs and dances, 
 led to the gradual creation of the drama. A 
 more artistic form was given to the wild 
 choruses in honor of Bacchus ; the recitation 
 of fables by an intermediate speaker was intro- 
 duced into the performances ; and soon the 
 games of the vintage festival were repeated on 
 other occasions. The spirit of the drama was 
 thus cherished, until the appearance of ^Eschy- 
 lus, who may be deemed the author of the 
 dramatic art in Greece. He divided the story 
 into different portions, substituted the dialogue 
 for recitation by a single person, and assigned 
 the various parts to skillful actors. The three 
 great tragic writers are vEschylus, Sophocles, 
 and Euripides, while the most distinguished 
 rank in comedy is held by Cratinus, Eupolis, 
 Crates, and especially Aristophanes. 
 
 During this period we find several didactic 
 and lyric poets, while the sister art of elo- 
 quence was illustrated by the names of Lysias, 
 Demosthenes, .ZEschines, Antiphon, Gorgias, 
 and Isocrates. 
 
 The succeeding period, which is usually 
 called the Alexandrine, was characterized by 
 the prevalence of a critical spirit ; the luxuriant 
 bloom of the earlier Greek literature had passed 
 away ; and the fresh creative impulses of 
 genius were made to yield to the love of specu- 
 lation and the influence of erudition. The 
 glowing imaginative philosophy of Plato was 
 succeeded by the more rigid system of Aristotle, 
 who founded the Peripatetic school, and gave 
 order and precision to the principles of reason- 
 ing. With the passion for subtle analysis, 
 which was the characteristic of his mind, he 
 drew a sharp line of distinction between logic 
 and rhetoric, ethics and politics, physics and 
 metaphysics, thus enlarging the boundaries of 
 philosophy, and establishing a system which 
 exercised an undisputed supremacy for ages. 
 The dogmatic tendencies of Aristotle found 
 their counterpart in the skeptical principles of 
 which Pyrrho of Elis was the most dis- 
 tinguished advocate. The same principles 
 prevailed to a certain extent in the Middle and 
 New Academies founded by Arcesilaus and 
 Carneades, while the Socratic philosophy was 
 modified by the disciples of the Stoic school, 
 established by Zeno, and of the Epicurean, 
 which bears the name of its celebrated founder. 
 At length the intellectual scepter, which had 
 been so long wielded by the philosophers and 
 
 poets of Greece, passed from Athens to Alex- 
 andria ; the nation itself was absorbed in the 
 progress of Roman conquest ; Greek literature 
 ceased to give birth to original productions ; 
 and its brilliant career became the subject of 
 history. 
 
 HEBREW LITERATURE. 
 
 The literature of the ancient Hebrews, apart 
 from its religious character and claims, pre- 
 sents a curious and important subject of inves- 
 tigation. It is the oldest literature of which 
 any remains have come down to modern times. 
 With a rich poetical coloring, a profound 
 sentiment of humanity, and a lofty religious 
 faith, it sustains a most intimate relation to 
 the development of the intellect and the moral 
 and political history of the race. 
 
 The Hebrew language is one of the oldest 
 branches of the numerous family of languages 
 which have received the name of Semitic, on 
 account of the supposed descent of the nations 
 by which they were spoken, from Shem, the 
 son of Noah. These are the Chaldaic, the 
 Aramaic, the Hebrew, the Syriac, the Arabic, 
 the Phoenician, and the Ethiopian. The his- 
 tory of the language has been divided by many 
 critics into four periods. I. From Abraham 
 to Moses. II. From Moses to Solomon. III. 
 From Solomon to Ezra. IV. From Ezra to 
 the end of the age of the Maccabees, when it 
 was gradually lost in the modern Aramaic and 
 became a dead language. The differences, 
 however, which can be traced in the language 
 are so slight, that a sounder division would be 
 into only two periods, the first extending from 
 the time of Moses to the reign of Hezeluah, 
 and the second from the reign of Hezekiah to 
 its final extinction as a spoken language. The 
 written characters or letters, which date from 
 the time of Solomon, were the same as the 
 Phcenician. During the Babylonish captivity, 
 the Hebrews received from the Chaldees the 
 square character in common use, and, in the 
 time of Ezra, the old Hebrew manuscripts 
 were copied in these characters. The punctu- 
 ation of the language was not settled until after 
 the seventh century of the Christian era. The 
 accents, vowels, points, and divisions into 
 words were also introduced at a later period. 
 
 The poetical and religious sentiment was 
 the foundation of Hebrew literature. Lyric 
 poetry received a rich development under 
 David, to whom are ascribed several noble 
 specimens of song and elegy. The fragments 
 of didactic poetry which bear the name of 
 Solomon are stamped with a character of prac- 
 tical wisdom, and often exhihit an energy of 
 expression, which authorizes us to class them 
 among the most extraordinary productions of
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 147 
 
 ancient literature. After the division of the 
 kingdom, the prophets became the great 
 teachers of the people, and have left various 
 collections of their writings, none of which 
 have come down to us with completeness. 
 Upon the return of the exiled people from the 
 Babylonish captivity, the remains of Hebrew 
 literature were collected by a college of learned 
 men under the direction of Ezra, and from 
 their labors we have received the books of the 
 Old Testament in their present form. 
 
 ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 The language of the ancient Romans is 
 usually called Latin, for, though Rome and 
 Latium were originally separate communities, 
 they always appear to have spoken the same 
 language. The Latins, as far as we can de- 
 cide on such a question at the present day, 
 seemed to have formed a part of that great race 
 which overspread both Greece and Italy under 
 the name of Pelasgiaus. It is supposed that 
 the Pelasgians who settled in Italy originally 
 spoke the same language with the Pelasgians 
 who settled in Greece. The Greek and Latin 
 languages accordingly have many elements in 
 common, though each has its own distinctive 
 character. 
 
 The history of Roman literature may be 
 divided into four periods : I. From the earliest 
 times till Cicero. II. To the death of Augus- 
 tus, A. D. 14. III. To the death of Trajan. 
 IV. To the conquest of Rome by the Goths. 
 During the first five hundred years of the 
 Roman history, scarcely any attention was 
 paid to literature. Its earliest attempts were 
 translations and imitations of the Greek models. 
 The Odyssey was translated into Latin by 
 Livius Andronicus, a Greek .captive of Taren- 
 tum, and the earliest writer of whom we have 
 any account. His tragedies and comedies were 
 taken entirely from the Greek. He was fol- 
 lowed by Naevius, who wrote an historical 
 poem on the first Punic war, by the two tragic 
 writers Pacuvius and Attius, and by Ennius, 
 B. C. 239, the first epic poet, and who may be 
 regarded as the founder of Roman literature. 
 Being a Greek by birth he introduced the study 
 of his native language at Rome, and had among 
 his pupils, Cato, Scipio Africanus, and other 
 distinguished citizens of that day. At the 
 same time, he taught the Romans the art of 
 easy and graceful writing in their own lan- 
 guage, and helped to inspire them with a love 
 of literature by his refined taste and elegant 
 cultivation. Contemporary with Ennius was 
 Plautus, whose dramatic pieces, in imitation 
 of the later comedies of the Greeks, were 
 remarkable for their vivacity of expression and 
 their genuine comic humor. He was followed 
 
 by Cecilius and Terence, of whom the latter 
 has left several admirable comedies, fully im- 
 bued with the Grecian spirit. The first prose 
 writers were Quintus Fabius Pictor and Lucius 
 Cincius Alimentus, who lived in the time of 
 the second Punic war, and wrote a complete 
 history of Rome. Their style was meager and 
 insipid, aiming only at brevity, and entirely 
 destitute of ornament or grace. 
 
 With the age of Augustus, in which some 
 earlier writers are usually reckoned, a new 
 spirit is exhibited in Roman literature. In 
 didactic poetry, Lucretius surpassed his Gre- 
 cian masters, by the force of thought, and the 
 splendor of diction, which characterize his 
 great philosophical poem on the origin of the 
 universe. Catullus attempted various styles 
 of poetry, in all of which he obtained emi- 
 nent success. His lyric and elegiac poems, his 
 epigrams and satires, are marked by singular 
 versatility of feeling, frequent flashes of wit, 
 and rare felicity of expression. Among the 
 elegiac poets, of whose genius we still possess 
 the remains, the highest distinction was gained 
 by Tibullus, Propertius, and Ovid. The 
 former of these poets was pronounced by Quin- 
 tilian to be the greatest master of elegiac 
 verse ; Ovid possessed an uncommon fertility 
 of invention and ease of versification ; while 
 Propertius tempers the voluptuous cast of his 
 writings with a certain dignity of thought and 
 vigorous mode of expression. The great lyric 
 poet of the Augustan age is Horace, whose 
 graceful and sportive fancy, combined with I 
 his remarkable power of delicate and effective]/ 
 satire, continues to make him a favorite withr\ 
 all who have the slightest tincture of classical! 
 learning. 
 
 The noblest production of this period, how- 
 ever, is the JEneid of Virgil, which with his 
 elaborate poem on rural affairs, the Georgics, 
 and his sweet and tender pastorals, or Ec- 
 logues, fairly entitles him to the position which 
 has been given him by universal consent, of 
 the most gifted epic and didactic poet in 
 Roman literature. 
 
 The prose writings of the Latin authors, 
 taken as a whole, betray a higher order of 
 genius and cultivation than the works of the 
 poets. In this department, the preeminence 
 belongs to Cicero, whose various productions 
 in eloquence, philosophy, and criticism are 
 among the most valuable treasures of antiq- 
 uity. In history, Caesar, Sallust, and Livy 
 are the most prominent names, who, each in 
 his own peculiar style, have left models of 
 historical composition which have been the 
 admiration of every subsequent age. The lit- 
 erature of the Augustan period partook of the 
 general character of the Roman people. De-
 
 148 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 voted to the realization of practical objects, 
 with slight tendencies to the ideal aspect of 
 things, and absorbed in the exciting game of 
 politics and war, the Romans had little taste 
 either for abstract speculation or for the lofti- 
 est flights of poetical fancy. Hence no new 
 system of philosophy was produced in their 
 literature ; their best poets were essentially 
 imitative ; and of all branches of study, those 
 connected with popular eloquence were held in 
 the greatest esteem. 
 
 With the death of Augustus commenced the 
 decline of Roman literature. Among the 
 poets of this period are Phsedrus, an ingenious 
 fabulist, the satirists, Juvenal and Persius, 
 Jay hose works are more important for their 
 illustrations of the manners of the age than 
 for their poetical merit, and Lucan, who de- 
 scribes the wars of Caesar and Pompey in an 
 insipid historical epic. In prose, we have the 
 somber but condensed and powerful histories 
 of Tacitus, and the quaint and artificial trea- 
 tises on ethics and philosophy by Seneca. Sub- 
 sequent to the reign of Trajan, we meet with 
 no writers who have any claim upon our atten- 
 tion, and the literature of Rome, after a brief 
 interval of splendor, during the golden age 
 between Cicero and Augustus, passes into 
 unimportance and obscurity. 
 
 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. 
 
 Until the close of the last century, the Sans- 
 krit literature was almost wholly unknown to 
 the learned of Europe. The Roman Catholic 
 missionaries in India had, to a certain extent, 
 engaged in the study of the language at an 
 earlier period, but it is only since the year 
 1790 that it has attracted the attention of 
 eminent scholars. Among those who have 
 given an impulse to the study of Sanskrit, and 
 who have themselves pursued it with distin- 
 guished success, are Sir William Jones, Wil- 
 kins Forster, Colebrooke, Wilson, Haughton, 
 Rosen, Che'zy, Burnouf, A. W. Schlegel, 
 Oldenberg, Max Miiller, and Bopp. We are 
 indebted to their labors for a knowledge of 
 this rich and curious literature, which, on 
 many accounts, may be considered as one of 
 the most remarkable products in the history of 
 intellectual culture. 
 
 The Sanskrit language is a branch of the 
 Indo-Germanic family of languages, and is 
 supposed to bear the greatest resemblance to 
 the primitive type. In its construction, it is 
 in the highest degree ingenious and elaborate, 
 and the variety and beauty of its forms are 
 well adapted to illustrate the laws*'of the for- 
 mation of language. It is the sacred language 
 of the Brahmans, and contains the Vedas, the 
 oldest records of their religion. The last cen- 
 
 tury before the Christian era was the period of 
 its richest blossoming, although it extends 
 back to a far more remote antiquity. It ap- 
 pears in its most ancient form in the Vedas, 
 which date from the thirteenth century before 
 Christ, and in that state exhibits many strik- 
 ing analogies with the Zend, the ancient 
 language of Persia. These writings are the 
 foundation of Sanskrit literature, and diffuse 
 their influence through the whole course of its 
 development. 
 
 The Vedas are divided into four classes, the 
 first being in poetry, the second in prose, 
 the third consisting of lyrical prayers, and 
 the fourth of devotional pieces, intended to be 
 used in sacrifices and other religious offices. 
 Each Veda is composed of two parts, the 
 prayers and the commandments. The Sanskrit 
 possesses a variety of other works in sacred lit- 
 erature, which contain not only a copious ex- 
 position of religious doctrines, but numerous 
 discussions of philosophical and scientific sub- 
 jects, and an extensive collection of poetical 
 legends. 
 
 The two oldest and most interesting epic 
 poems are The Ramayana, describing the sev- 
 enth great incarnation of A'ishnu, and The 
 Mahabharata, devoted to the wars of two rival 
 lines descended from the ancient Indian mon- 
 arch, Bharata. An episode from this work 
 called Bhagavat Gita has been translated by 
 Wilkins, Herder, Schlegel, and others, and has 
 excited no small interest as an illustration of 
 the early oriental philosophy. 
 
 A new character was given to Sanskrit poe- 
 try about one hundred years before the Chris- 
 tian era, by the introduction of themes con- 
 nected with courts and princes. It lost the 
 popular and national tendency which appears 
 in the two great epics, alluded to above, and 
 assumed a more artificial form. With a man- 
 ifest improvement in the mere externals of 
 style, the new poetry shows a degeneracy in 
 point of thought, and an entire absence of 
 original invention. In the principal works of 
 this class we find labored descriptions of nat- 
 ural objects, and many curious artifices of 
 composition, but they are destitute both of 
 brilliancy of imagination and depth of reflec- 
 tion. The most fertile author of the new 
 school is undoubtedly Kalidasa, who attempted 
 almost every species of poetical composition, 
 and whose epic, lyric, and dramatic produc- 
 tions must be allowed to possess considerable 
 merit. His best descriptive poem, entitled 
 Meyhaduta, is a model of simplicity and ele- 
 gance. It exhibits a highly ideal character, 
 tracing out the spiritual significance of visible 
 phenomena, and striving to penetrate into the 
 hidden life of the universe. The drama called
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 149 
 
 Suxoantala or The Fatal Itiny, by this author, 
 has received the warmest commendation from 
 modern critics. " All its scenes," says the 
 genial Herder, " are connected by flowery 
 bands, each grows out of the subject as natu- 
 rally as a beautiful plant. A multitude of sub- 
 lime as well as tender ideas are found in it, 
 which we should look for in vain in a Greek 
 drama." A valuable translation of this poem 
 has been made by Sir William Jones. 
 
 The influence of religious speculation in 
 India early gave birth to numerous philosoph- 
 ical writings. With the love of contempla- 
 tion, to which the natives are so strongly in- 
 clined, and the progress of thought in opposi- 
 tion to the doctrines of the Yedas, a variety of 
 philosophical systems vras the natural conse- 
 quence. The oldest of these is called the San- 
 khya. It teaches the duality of matter and 
 spirit, which are essentially different in their 
 nature, though found in such intimate union. 
 The problem of life is the emancipation of the 
 soul from the dominion of the senses, and the 
 attainment of blessedness by the supremacy of 
 the intellect. Another system of transcenden- 
 tal speculation is named the Nyaya. This is 
 constructed from strict logical deductions, 
 which it applies to the interpretation of nature, 
 and arrives at a theory of materialism, the re- 
 verse of the Sankhya ideality. The Nyaya 
 school has produced a multitude of writings. 
 Opposed to each of these systems is the Mim- 
 ansa, which maintains the doctrines of the 
 Yedas in their original strictness, and strives 
 to reconcile them with the suggestions of phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 The Sanskrit literature, moreover, abounds 
 in works on various other branches of learning. 
 Its philological treatises, especially, are of 
 great value. The Indian grammarians sur- 
 pass those of any other ancient people. No 
 less important are the Sanskrit works on rhet- 
 oric, criticism, music, astronomy, and juris- 
 prudence. They well deserve the attention of 
 the scholar, not only on account of their in- 
 trinsic character, but as precious memorials of 
 the early development of the intellect, and 
 significant illustrations of the history of the 
 
 ARABIC LITERATURE. 
 
 Literature, after its decay and final extinc- 
 tion in the Eastern and Western Roman Em- 
 pires, revived first among the Arabic tribes in 
 the East. Even before the era of Mahomet, 
 there were renowned poets and story-tellers in 
 Arabia. In the fifth century, during the great 
 fairs of Mecca, poetical contests frequently 
 took place, the victorious productions being 
 lettered with gold and hung up in the Caaba. 
 
 Among the most renowned poets of this period 
 were Amralkeis, Tharafa, and Antar. Their 
 works are distinguished by imaginative power, 
 j richness of illustration, and great skill in de- 
 picting the passions of love and revenge. With 
 Mahomet commenced a memorable epoch in 
 Arabic literature. Through the Koran, which 
 was arranged from Mahomet's teachings, by 
 Abubekr, the first caliph, the method of writ- 
 ing and the literary style of the nation were 
 determined. The reigns of Haroun Al-Raschid 
 and Al-Mamun in the seventh and eighth cen- 
 turies were the most enlightened periods of 
 the Arabic dominion, though for two cen- 
 turies afterwards the nation produced many 
 eminent geographers, philosophers, jurists, and 
 historians. Under the government of Al- 
 Mamun, excellent universities were established 
 ' at Bagdad, Bussora, and Bokhara, and exten- 
 I sive libraries in Alexandria, Bagdad, and 
 I Cairo. The dynasty of the Abbassides in 
 ! Bagdad emulated that of the Ommanides in 
 I Spain ; during the tenth century the University 
 of Cordova was almost the only refuge of 
 literature in Europe. The labors of the Arr-bic 
 scholars and travelers contributed greatly to 
 the spread of geographical knowledge. Ibn 
 Batuta, who in the thirteenth century visited 
 Africa, India, China, and Russia, ranks with 
 Marco Polo and Rubruquis. 
 
 In the twelfth century Abu'l Kasein wrote 
 the history oi ine Arabs in Spain ; Bohaeddin, 
 a biography of Sultan Saladin ; Ibn Arabschah 
 described the exploits of Tamerlane, and 
 Hadji Khalfa, inhaler times, lias produced an j 
 encyclopedia of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish 
 literature. The style of the Arabian historians 
 is clear, concise, and unincumbered with 
 imagery. The most renowned philosopher was 
 Avicenna, who flourished in the eleventh cen- 
 tury. Averrhoes, whose name is also familiar 
 to scholars, was famous as an expounder of 
 the system of Aristotle. In the departments 
 of medicine, astronomy, geometry, and arith- 
 metic, there are many Arabic works which ex- 
 hibit great research and scientific knowledge. 
 The number and variety of the works pro- 
 duced by the Arabian poets is most remark- 
 able, and their influence on the modern litera- 
 ture of Europe was greater than is generally 
 suspected. In picturesque narration they 
 have rarely been excelled, and the Thousand 
 and One Nights, which first appeared in its 
 collected form during the reign of Caliph Man- 
 sur, in the ninth century, has been naturalized 
 in all modern languages. Only half of this, 
 however, is Arabic, the remainder having 
 been translated from the Sanskrit and Persian. 
 The Arabian poets left many poetic chronicles, 
 the most celebrated of which are : The Deeds
 
 150 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 of Antar, The Deeds of the Warriors, and The 
 Deeds of the Heroes. Of late years several 
 eminent French and German scholars hare 
 given their attention to the study of Arabic 
 literature, the best works of which are now ac- 
 cessible through their translations. 
 
 PERSIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 The modern literature of Persia succeeded 
 that of Arabia. After the conquests of the 
 country by the caliphs, about the middle of the 
 seventh century, the arts and sciences of the 
 Arabs, together with the religion of Mahomet, 
 were transplanted upon Persian soil, but the 
 fruits of this new culture did not appear for 
 several succeeding generations. The first Per- 
 sian books, both of poetry and history, were 
 written in the early part of the tenth century, 
 and for several centuries there was no inter- 
 ruption in the list of renowned authors. Lit- 
 erature was encouraged and rewarded, what- 
 ever might be the political convulsions that 
 affected the empire. Persian poetry consists 
 for the most part of small lyrics, arranged in 
 divans, or collections. There are also several 
 voluminous historical, romantic, and allegor- 
 ical poems, besides legends and narratives told 
 in a mixture of prose and verse. The first 
 Persian poet is Rudegi, who flourished about 
 the year 952. Firdausi, the great epic poet of 
 Persia, died in the year 1030, at the age of 
 seventy. He wrote the Shah Nameh, or King's 
 Book, describing the deeds of the Persian rul- 
 ers, from the creation of the world to the 
 downfall of the Sassanide dynasty in 632. He 
 was thirty years in the composition of this 
 work, which contains sixty thousand verses. 
 The most celebrated portion is that recounting 
 the adventures of the hero Rustem. Nisami, 
 at the close of the twelfth century, wrote ex- 
 tensive romantic poems, the most remarkable 
 of which were Medjnoun and Leila, and Iskan- 
 der- Nameh, an epic on Alexander the Great. 
 Chakani was a celebrated writer of odes in 
 the thirteenth century. Saadi, one of the most 
 celebrated Persian authors, was born in 1175, 
 and lived till 1263. His poems are principally 
 moral and didactic, but rich with the expe- 
 rience of a fruitful life, and written in a very 
 simple and graceful style. His best works are 
 the Gulistan, or Garden of Roses, and the Bos- 
 tan, or Garden of Trees. Hafiz, the oriental 
 poet of love, was born at Schiraz in the begin- 
 ning of the fourteenth century, where he lived 
 as a dervish in willing poverty, resisting the 
 invitations of the caliphs to reside in Bagdad. 
 In the year 1388 he had an interview with 
 Tamerlane, by whom he was treated with much 
 honor. His poems consisted of odes and ele- 
 gies which have been collected into a Divan. 
 
 His lyrics, devoted to the praise of love and 
 wine, are full of fire and melody. 
 
 Djami, who died in 1492, was one of the 
 most prolific of Persian writers. His life was 
 spent at Herat, where, in the hall of the great 
 mosque, he taught the people the precepts of 
 virtue and religion. He left behind him forty 
 works, theological, poetical, and mystical. 
 Seven of his principal poems were united un- 
 der the title of The Seven Stars of the Bear. 
 His history of mysticism, entitled The Breath 
 of Man, is his greatest prose work. Among 
 the later Persian poems are the Schehinscheh- 
 Nameh, a continuation of the Book of Kings, 
 and the George- Nameh, an account of the con- 
 quest of India by the British. The Persian 
 is the only Mahometan literature containing 
 dramatic poetry. Its dramas strikingly resem- 
 ble the old French mysteries. Of the collec- 
 tions of tales, legends, and fairy stories, the 
 most celebrated are the Anwari soheili, or Lights 
 of the Canopy, and the Bcharidanisch, or Spring 
 of Wisdom. The historical works in the Per- 
 sian language are very numerous and valuable. 
 They embrace the history of the Mahometan 
 races from Mongolia to Barbary. The princi- 
 pal works are the Chronicles of Wassaf, a his- 
 tory of the successors of Genghis Khan, which 
 appeared in 1333 ; the Marrow of the Chronicles, 
 by Khaswini, in 1370, and the Rauset Essafa, 
 a great universal history, of which modern his- 
 torians have made good use. It was written 
 by Mirchond, about the year 1450. In the 
 departments of ethics, rhetoric, theology, and 
 medicine, the Persian scholars are only second 
 to the Arabic. They also excelled in transla- 
 tion, and have reproduced, in Persian, nearly 
 the entire literature of India. 
 
 ITALIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 The Italian language assumed a regular and 
 finished character at the Court of Roger I., 
 King of Sicily, in the twelfth century. Sev- 
 eral poets arose, who, borrowing the forms of 
 verse from the provencal troubadours, gave 
 the people songs in their native language in 
 place of the melodies of the Moors and Ara- 
 bians. The Italian soon became the court 
 language of Italy, and Malespina's History of 
 Florence, which was written in the year 1280, 
 is scarcely inferior in elegance and purity of 
 style to any Italian prose works which have 
 since been produced. The first genuine poet 
 of Italy, however, was her greatest, and one 
 of the greatest of all time. Dante commenced 
 his great poem of the Divina Cammed ia in the 
 year 1304, just before his exile from Florence, 
 and completed it during his many years of 
 wandering from one court of Italy to another. 
 Out of the rude and imperfect materials within
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 151 
 
 his reach, he constructed an epic which 
 places his name beside that of him whom he 
 humbly called his master, Virgil. Taking the 
 religious faith of his time as the material, he 
 conducts the reader through the sad and ter- 
 rible circles of Hell, the twilight region of 
 Purgatory, and the fair mount of Paradise, 
 showing him all forms of torture and punish- 
 ment for the vile, all varieties of supreme hap- 
 piness for the pure and good. The poem takes 
 a fierce and gloomy character from the wrongs 
 and persecutions which the poet endured in his 
 life. Dante died in 1321, at which time Pe- 
 trarch, who was born in 1304, had commenced 
 those studies which led to the restoration of 
 classic literature to Italy. As an enthusiastic 
 admirer of antiquity he imparted to his con- 
 temporaries that passion for the study of the 
 Greek and Roman authors which preserved 
 many of their masterpieces at a moment when 
 they were about to be lost to the world. His 
 songs and sonnets, most of which were in- 
 spired by his unfortunate love for Laura de 
 Sade, gave him a worthy place after Dante in 
 Italian literature. He died in 1374. Con- 
 temporary with Petrarch was the great master 
 of Italian prose, Boccaccio, who was born in 
 1313. He early devoted his life to literature, 
 and in 1341 assisted at the celebrated examina- 
 tion of Petrarch, previous to his coronation in 
 the capitol. His principal work is the De- 
 cameron, a collection of one hundred tales, 
 which, notwithstanding the impurities with 
 which they are disfigured, are models of nar- 
 ration and exhibit the most varied powers of 
 imagination and invention. Boccaccio is con- 
 sidered as the inventor of romances of love 
 a branch of literature which was wholly un- 
 known to antiquity. 
 
 For a century following the death of Boc- 
 caccio, the literature of Italy shows no great 
 name, though several scholars distinguished 
 themselves by their attainments and the aid 
 which they rendered to the cause of classic 
 literature. The most noted of these were John 
 of Ravenna ; Leonardo Aretino, who wrote a 
 history of Florence in Latin ; Poggio Brac- 
 ciolini, a most voluminous writer, who enjoyed 
 the patronage of Cosmo de 'Medici, at Florence ; 
 Francesco Fileflo and Lorenzo Valla, both 
 men of great erudition, whose labors con- 
 tributed to bring on a new era of Italian litera- 
 ture. Lorenzo de 'Medici, called the Magnifi- 
 cent, towards the close of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, gave the first impulse to the cultivation 
 of the Italian tongue, which had been lost 
 sight of in the rage for imitating Latin poets. 
 Besides being the author of many elegant 
 songs and sonnets, his court was ttie home of 
 all the authors of that period. Among these 
 
 were Politiano, who wrote Orfeo, a fable 
 formed on the myth of Orpheus, which was 
 performed at the court of Mantua, in 1483 ; 
 Luigi Pulci, the author of Morgante Maggiore, 
 andBoiardo, author of the Orlando Tnnamorato. 
 Both the last named poems are chivalrous 
 romances, written in the ottava rima, and full 
 of a quaint humor which before that time had 
 only appeared in the prose of Boccaccio. But 
 the master of the gay and sparkling poetic 
 narrative was Ariosto, who was born in 1474, 
 and first appeared as an author about the year 
 1500. Five years later he commenced his 
 Orlando Furioso, which was not completed till 
 1516. This is a romantic poem in forty-six 
 cantos, celebrating the adventures of Roland, 
 the nephew of Charlemagne. It is one of the 
 classics of Italy, and has been translated into 
 all modern languages. After the death of 
 Ariosto in 1533, no literary work of any prom- 
 inence appeared until Torquato Tasso pub- 
 lished his Jerusalem Delivered in 1581. Ala- 
 manni, Trissino and Bernardo Tasso flourished 
 in the interval and produced labored poems, 
 which are no longer read. The subject of 
 Tasso 's poem is the rescue of the Holy Sepul- 
 cher from the Moslems, by the Crusaders under 
 Godfrey of Bouillon. The wrongs and per- 
 secutions heaped upon Tasso clouded his mind 
 and shortened his days ; he died in Rome in 
 1595, on the day before that appointed for his 
 coronation. Three other Italian authors of 
 the sixteenth century are worthy of mention : 
 Cardinal Bembo, the most finished scholar of 
 his day, and author of a history of Venice ; 
 Nicolo Machiavelli, whose name has become 
 synonymous with all that is sinister and un- 
 scrupulous in politics, from his treatise en- 
 titled The Prince, for which, after his death, 
 an anathema was pronounced against him ; 
 and Pietro Aretino, one of the most infamous 
 and dissolute men of his time. Machiavelli 
 wrote an admirable History of Florence, which 
 is still a standard work. 
 
 In the half -century following the death of 
 Tasso, there are but two poets who have at- 
 tained any renown : Guarini, the author of 
 Pastor Fido, and Tassoni, who wrote the 
 Secchia Rapita (Rape of the Bucket). Filicaja, 
 whose impassioned lyrics are still the revolu- 
 tionary inspiration of Italy, belongs to the 
 latter part of the seventeenth century ; he died 
 in 1707. After another long interval arose 
 Frugoni, a lyric poet of some celebrity, who 
 died in 1768, and Metastasio, the author of 
 plays, operas, and ballets innumerable. He is 
 remarkable for his wonderful command of the 
 language, and the free and spirited movement 
 of his dialogue. He died in Vienna in the 
 year 1782. During this same period, Italian
 
 152 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 dramatic literature received a new accession in 
 Goldoni, whose comedies are still the glory of 
 the Italian stage. He had a rival in Count 
 Gazzi, whose works, nevertheless, are far 
 inferior to Goldoni's in humor and brilliancy. 
 What Goldoni did for comedy, Alfieri accom- 
 plished* for Italian tragedy. This author justly 
 stands at the head of modern Italian litera- 
 ture. His tragedies, odes, and lyrics exhibit 
 an eloquence and fervor of thought which are 
 scarcely reached by any other author. His 
 principal works are Saul, Myrrha, Octavia, 
 Brutus the Second, and Philip II. Since the 
 commencement of this century, Italy has not 
 been barren of authors. Pindemonte, who 
 has published several volumes of dramatic 
 poetry ; Ugo Foscolo, author of a poem called 
 The Sepulchres; Manzoni, who wrote / Pro- 
 messi Sposi (The Betrothed), a charming 
 romance of life on the shores of Lake Como ; 
 Silvio Pellico, whose Le Mie Prigione is a nar- 
 rative of his sufferings in the prison at Spiel- 
 berg, and Niccolini, equally celebrated as a 
 poet and prose writer. Mazzini, Triumvir of 
 Rome during the brief period of the Republic, 
 and Gioberti distinguished themselves as 
 Italian authors, as did also Leopardi. 
 
 During the last half-century the rapid prog- 
 ress of political events in Italy seems to have 
 absorbed the energies of the people, who have 
 made little advance in literature. For the 
 first time since the fall of the Roman empire 
 the country has become^ a united kingdom, 
 and in the national adjustment to the new 
 conditions, and in the material and industrial 
 development which has followed, the new lit- 
 erature has not yet, to any great extent, found 
 voice. Yet this period of natural formation 
 and consolidation, however, has not been 
 without its poets, among whom a few may be 
 here named. Aleardo Aleardi (d. 1882) is 
 one of the finest poetical geniuses that Italy 
 has produced within the last century, but his 
 writings show the ill effects of a poet sacrific- 
 ing his art to a political cause, and when the 
 patriot has ceased to declaim, the poet ceases 
 to sing. Prati (1815-1884), on the other 
 hand, in his writings exemplifies the evil of a 
 poet refusing to take part in the grand move- 
 ment of his nation. He severs himself from 
 all present interests and finds his subjects in 
 sources which have no interest for his contem- 
 poraries. He has great metrical facility and 
 his lyrics are highly praised. Carducci, like 
 Aleardi, is a poet who has written on political 
 subjects ; he belongs to the class of closet 
 democrats. His poems display a remarkable 
 talent for the picturesque, forcible, and epi- 
 grammatic. The poems of Zanella are nearly 
 all on scientific subjects connected with human 
 
 feeling, and entitle him to a distinguished 
 place among the refined poets of His country. 
 A poet of greater promise than those already 
 spoken of is Arnaboldi, who has the endow- 
 ment requisite to become the first Italian poet 
 of a new school, but who endangers his posi- 
 tion by devoting his verse to utilitarian 
 purposes. 
 
 The tendency of the younger poets is to 
 realism and to representing its most material- 
 istic features as beautiful. Against this cui 1 - 
 rent of the new poetry Alessandro Rizzi, 
 Guerzoni, and others have uttered a strong 
 protest in poetry and prose. 
 
 Among historians, Capponi is the author of 
 a history of Florence ; Zini has continued 
 Farina's history of Italy; Bartoli, Settembrini, 
 and De Sanctis have written histories of Italian 
 literature ; Villari is the author of able works 
 on the life of Machiavelli and of Savonarola, 
 and Berti has written the life of Giordano 
 Bruno. In criticism philosophic, historical, 
 and literary, Florentine, De Sanctis, Massa- 
 rani, and Trezza are distinguished. Barili, 
 Farina, Bersezio, and Giovagnoli are writers 
 of fiction, and Cossa, Ferrari, and Giacosa are 
 the authors of many dramatic works. The 
 charming books of travel by De Amicis are 
 extensively translated and very popular. 
 
 SPANISH LITERATURE. 
 
 The earliest essay in Spanish literature is 
 the Chronicle of the Cid, which is supposed to 
 have been written about the middle of the 
 twelfth century. In form the poem is suffi- 
 ciently barbarous, though the language is 
 remarkably spirited and picturesque. It has 
 been the fount of numberless songs and legends 
 through the later centuries. It narrates the 
 adventures of Ruy Diaz de Bivar, the Cid 
 Campeador. 
 
 In the following century, Gonzales de Berceo, 
 a monk, wrote nine voluminous poems on the 
 lives of the saints. Alfonso X. of Castile, 
 whose reign terminated in 1284, was the 
 author of a poem entitled The Philosopher's 
 Stone, besides several prose works. The first 
 author of the fourteenth century was Prince 
 Don John Manuel, who wrote a prose work 
 entitled Count Lucanor, a collection of tales 
 embodying lessons of policy and morality. 
 He was followed by Pedro Lopez de Ayala and 
 Mendoza, Marquis de Santillana ; though the 
 latter belongs properly to the next century. 
 He produced a number of works, both prose 
 and poetry, all of which were remarkable for 
 the erudition they displayed. Some of his 
 lighter poems are very graceful and melodious. 
 
 Under the reign of Charles Y. Spanish liter- 
 ature first reached its full development. After
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 153 
 
 the union of Arragon and Castile, and the 
 transfer of the seat of the government to 
 Madrid, the Castilian became the court lan- 
 guage, and thus received a new polish and 
 elegance. The first author of this period was 
 Boscan, an imitator of Petrarch, in some re- 
 spects, but a poet of much native fervor and 
 passion. Garcilaso de la Vega, the friend of 
 Boscan, surpasses him in the sweetness of his 
 verses and in their susceptibility and imagina- 
 tion, lie was a master of pastoral poetry, and 
 his eclogues are considered models of that 
 species of writing. His life was actively 
 devoted to the profession of arms. He fought 
 under the banner of Charles XI. in Tunis, 
 Sicily, and Provence, and was finally killed 
 while storming the walls of Nice. Don 
 Diego de Mendoza, one of the most cele- 
 brated politicians and generals of that pe- 
 riod, is generally awarded a place next to 
 Garcilaso. He was a patron of classical liter- 
 ature, and the author of a history of the 
 Moorish Revolt in the Alpuxarra, and a His- 
 tory of the War of Granada, but a man of 
 cruel and tyrannical character. Montemayor, 
 who flourished at the same time, attained 
 much celebrity from his pastoral of Diana. 
 These authors during the reign of Charles V. 
 gave Spanish poetry its most graceful and cor- 
 rect form, and have sbice been regarded as 
 models of classic purity. The great masters 
 of Spanish literature, however, were reserved 
 for the succeeding generation. Herrera and 
 Ponce de Leon, lyrical poets, fill the interval 
 between the age of Garcilaso de la Vega and 
 Cervantes. Ilerrera is considered the first 
 purely lyrical poet of Spain. Ponce de Leon, 
 who was imprisoned five years by the Inquisi- 
 tion for having translated the Song of Solo- 
 mon, was the author of several volumes of 
 religious poetry. 
 
 Two of the brightest stars of Spanish litera- 
 ture, Cervantes and Lope de Vega, were con- 
 temporaries, and were followed in the next 
 generation by the third, Calderon. Cervantes 
 was born in 1549. He traveled throughout 
 Italy, lost a hand at the battle of Lepanto, 
 and was five years a slave in Barbary. He 
 commenced his literary career by the writing 
 of comedies and tragedies, the first of which, 
 Galatea, was published in 1584. Thirty of his 
 comedies have been entirely lost. His great 
 work, Don Quixote, was published in 1G05, and 
 was immediately translated into all the lan- 
 guages of Europe. From this time until his 
 death in 1616, he wrote many novels and 
 comedies. The tragedy of Xumantia and the 
 comedy of Life in Algiers are the only two of 
 his plays which have been preserved. To this 
 same period belongs Don Alonzo de Ercilla, 
 
 whose epic of La A racuana was written during 
 the hardships of a campaign against the Ara- 
 cuanian Indians in Chile. Lope de Vega was 
 born in 1562, and after a life of the most mar- 
 velous performances died in 1635. He was a 
 prodigy of learning, imagination, and lan- 
 guage. Out of eighteen hundred dramas 
 which he wrote, one hundred were each pro- 
 duced in the space of a single day. His 
 detached poems have been printed in twenty- 
 seven volumes in quarto. Very few of his 
 plays are now read or performed. The only 
 remaining authors of eminence during this 
 period are Quevedo, who wrote several moral 
 and ' religious works and three volumes of 
 lyrics, pastorals, and sonnets ; Villegas, an 
 Anacreonic poet ; and the Je>4t^_Mariana, 
 author of a History of Spain. The life of 
 Calderon de la Barca, the illustrious head of 
 the Spanish drama, extended from 1600 to 
 1687. His plays are of four kinds: sacred 
 dramas, from Scriptural sources ; historical 
 dramas ; classic dramas ; and pictures of 
 society and manners. The most celebrated 
 are, The Constant Prince, El Secreto a Voces 
 and El Magic o Prodigioso, A number of 
 small dramatists were contemporary with Cal- 
 deron, but with his death Spanish literature 
 declined, and has since producedjfew eminent 
 names. Luyando, councilor of state, pub- 
 lished two tragedies in 1750, and in 1758 
 appeared The Life of Friar Gerund, by Salazar 
 a work in the style of Don Quixote, but 
 directed against the clergy instead of the chiv- 
 alry. It abounds with wit and satire, and is 
 perhaps the best Spanish prose work of the last 
 century. Toward the close of the century 
 Iluerta achieved considerable reputation by 
 his attempts to revive the Spanish drama. 
 Tomas de Yriarte published in 1782 his Lit- 
 erary Fables, and a few years later Melendez 
 appeared as the author of two volumes of idyls 
 and pastorals. Both of these authors diplay 
 considerable lyric genius. 
 
 The new life and health infused into litera- 
 ture in the age of Charles III. was checked by 
 the French revolutionary wars in the reign of 
 Charles IV., and afterwards by the restoration 
 of civil despotism and the Inquisition, brought 
 again into the country by the return of the 
 Bourbon dynasty in 1814. Amidst the vio- 
 lence and confusion of the reign of Ferdinand 
 VII. (1814-1833), elegant letters could hardly 
 hope to find shelter or resting place. Nearly 
 every poet and prose writer, known as such at 
 the end of the reign of Charles IV., became 
 involved in the fierce political changes of the 
 time, changes so varied and so opposite, that 
 those who escaped from the consequences of 
 one, were often, on that very account, sure to
 
 154 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 suffer in the next that followed. Indeed, the 
 .reign of Ferdinand VII. was an interregnum 
 in all elegant culture, such as no modern 
 nation has yet seen, not even Spain herself 
 during the War of the Succession. This state 
 of things continued through the long civil war 
 which arose soon after the death of that king, 
 and indeed, it is not yet entirely abated. But 
 despite the troubled condition of the country, 
 even while Ferdinand was living, a movement 
 was begun, the first traces of which are to be 
 found among the emigrated Spaniards, who 
 cheered with letters their exile in England and 
 France, and whose subsequent progress, from 
 the time when the death of their unfaithful 
 monarch permitted them to return home, is 
 distinctly perceptible in their own country. 
 
 The two principal writers of the first half of 
 the century are the satirist Jose de Larra (d. 
 1837) and the poet Espronceda (d. 1842) ; 
 both were brilliant writers, and both died 
 young. Zorrilla (b. 1817) has great wealth of 
 imagination, and F^rnan Caballerois a gifted 
 woman whose stories have been often trans- 
 lated. Antonio de Trueba is a writer of 
 popular songs and short stories not without 
 merit. Campoamor (b. 1817) and Bequer 
 represent the poetry of twenty years ago. The 
 short lyrics of the first named are remarkable 
 for their delicacy and finesse. Bequer, who 
 died at the age of thirty, left behind him 
 poems which have already exercised a wide in- 
 fluence in his own country and in Spanish 
 America ; they tell a story of passionate love, 
 despair, and death. 
 
 Perez Gald6s, a writer of fiction, attacks the 
 problem of modern life and thought, and rep- 
 resents "with vivid and often bitter fidelity the 
 conflicting interests and passions of Spanish 
 life. Valera, a minister from Spain to the 
 United States, is the author of the most famous 
 Spanish novel of the day, Pepita Jimenez, a 
 work of great artistic perfection, and his skill 
 and grace are still more evident in his critical 
 essays. Castelar gained a European celebrity 
 as an orator and a political and miscellaneous 
 writer, and was as well preeminent in the field 
 of diplomacy. The works of these authors, and 
 of many others not named, show clearly that 
 Spain is making vigorous efforts to bring her- 
 self socially and intellectually into line with 
 the rest of Europe. 
 
 Of the Spanish colonies, Cuba has produced 
 some writers of enduring renown. The most 
 distinguished for poetic fame is Gertrude de 
 Ayelleneda ; Heredia and Placido may also Be 
 mentioned. Tn Venezuela, Baralt is known 
 as a historian, poet, and classical writer; 
 Olmedo as a poet of Bolivia, and Caro a 
 writer of the United States of Colombia. 
 
 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 
 
 Portugal first acquired its position as an in- 
 dependent kingdom after the battle of Ouri- 
 gue, in 1139. The date of the origin of its 
 literature is nearly coeval with that of the 
 monarchy, Hermiguez and Moniz, two knights 
 who flourished under Alfonso I., wrote the first 
 ballads. King Dionysius, who reigned from 
 1279 to 1325, and his son Alfonso IV., were 
 both renowned as poets ; but few vestiges of 
 their writings remain. It was not until the 
 fifteenth century, however, that Portuguese 
 literature attained any considerable merit. 
 Macias, a Portuguese knight engaged in the 
 wars with the Moors of Granada, was called 
 El Enamorado, on account of the tender and 
 glowing character of his amatory poems. The 
 first distinguished poet of the country was 
 Bernardin Ribeyrc. who flourished under the 
 reign of Emmanuel the Great, in the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century. His most celebrated 
 productions are his eclogues, the scenes of 
 which are laid on the banks of the Tagus and 
 the sea shores of Portugal. His lyrics of love, 
 the origin of which is attributed to an unholy 
 passion for the king's daughter, are wonder- 
 fully sweet and melodious. The first prose 
 work in Portuguese worthy of note is a romance 
 entitled The Innocent Gbi, which appeared 
 about this period. Saa de Miranda, who also 
 attained celebrity as a Spanish author, was 
 born in Coimbra in 1495, and wrote many 
 sonnets, lyrics, and eclogues in his native 
 tongue. He also wrote a series of poetical epis- 
 tles, after the manner of Horace. Antonio 
 Ferreira, who was born in 1528, followed the 
 example of Miranda in his sonnets and eclogues, 
 but surpassed him in entering the field of 
 dramatic literature. His Inez de Castro, 
 founded on the tragic story of that lady, dis- 
 plays much power and pathos in the delinea- 
 tion of the characters. The other poets of this 
 generation were Andrade Caminha, Diego 
 Bernardes, and Rodriguez de Castro, all of 
 whom wrote lyrics, sonnets, and pastorals, few 
 of which have survived them. 
 
 The sole star of Portuguese literature, who 
 is now almost its only representative to other 
 nations, was Luis de Camoens, who was born 
 in 1525. After studying at Coimbra, where 
 he was coldly treated by Ferreira, he embraced 
 the profession of arms, and lost an eye in the 
 siege of Ceuta. Sailing for India in 1533, he 
 reached Goa in safety, participated in an ex- 
 pedition against the king of Cochin-China, 
 spent a winter in the islands of Ormuz, and 
 afterwards, on account of a satire entitled 
 Follies in India, directed against the Portu- 
 guese governor, was banished to Macao, on the 
 coast of China. During his residence of five
 
 r 
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 155 
 
 years in that place, he wrote his jjfeat epic of 
 The Lusiad, devoted to celebrating the passage 
 of the Cape of Good Hope by V&co de Gaina, 
 and the triumph of PoivtugueseArms and com- 
 merce in the Orient. On his return to Por- 
 tugal he was shipwrecked on /he coast of Cam- 
 bodia, and escaped by swtfnming, with The 
 Lusiad in his hand, held abpve the waves. He 
 died in great poverty in l/f>9. He left behind 
 him many sonnets, songs, and pastorals, but 
 most of them are penetrated with a vein of 
 deep and settled melancholy. Among the suc- 
 cessors of Camoens, the most noted are Gil 
 Vicente, a dramatic writer, who is supposed 
 to have served as a model to Lope de Vega and 
 Calderon ; and Rodriguez Lobo, who was at 
 one time considered a rival of Camoens. He 
 wrote the Winter lights, a series of philo- 
 sophical conversations, Spring, a romance, and 
 numberless pastorals. Cortereal also described 
 in a ponderous epic the adventures of Manuel 
 de Sousa Sepulveda, a distinguished Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 The age of Camoens also gave rise to a new 
 branch of literature. John de Barros, born 
 in 1496, is esteemed by his countrymen as the 
 Livy of Portugal. He commenced his career 
 by a romance entitled, The. Emperor Clarimond, 
 but after his return from service on the coast 
 of Guinea, he devoted himself to the prepara- 
 tion of a grand historical work on the Portu- 
 guese empire. Only one-fourth of this, en- 
 titled Portuguese Asia, which was published 
 in 1552, appeared. This is one of the most 
 comprehensive, accurate, and interesting his- 
 torical works of that age. Alfonso d' Albuquer- 
 que, one of the most distinguished contem- 
 poraries of Barros, wrote a series of Commen- 
 taries, and Couto and Castanheda undertook to 
 complete the work which Barros had left un- 
 finished. Bernardo de Brito, born in 1570, 
 designed to give a universal history of Portugal, 
 but, commencing with the Creation, he died 
 by the time he reached the Christian Era. 
 Osorio, Bishop of Sylvez, who died in 1580, 
 wrote the History of King Emmanuel, de- 
 scribing the religious troubles of that time in a 
 most liberal and enlightened spirit. Manuel 
 de Faria, born in 1590, almost rivaled Lope de 
 Vega in the amount of his works ; his disserta- 
 tions on the art of poetry are held in most 
 value. He also wrote a History of Portugal 
 and a Commentary on Camoens. After the 
 subjugation of Portugal by Philip IT. of Spain, 
 the literature of the country declined, and 
 presents no distinguished name for nearly a 
 century following. The first author of the 
 last century is the Count of Ericeyra, born in 
 1673. He was a general in the army, and a 
 scholar of splendid attainments. His chief 
 
 work was the Henriqueide, an epic poem de- 
 scribing the adventures of Henry of Burgundy, 
 the founder of the Portuguese monarchy. To- 
 wards the close of the last century, Antonio 
 Garcao and the Countess de Vimieiro acquired 
 some celebrity by their dramatic productions. 
 The only Portuguese authors of note whom 
 the present century has brought forth are 
 Antonio da Cruz e Silva, who imitated Pope 
 and other English poets, and J. A. da Cunha, 
 an eminent mathematician and elegiac poet. 
 The Portuguese colonies have produced a few 
 writers, the most noted of whom are Vascen- 
 cellos and Claudio Manuel da Costa. 
 
 FRENCH LITERATURE. 
 
 The literature of France was later in its de- 
 velopment than that of the other nations of 
 Southern Europe. It was necessary to wait 
 the decline of the two romance-tongues of 
 Xormandy and Provence before the language 
 could take a settled form, and a still further 
 time elapsed before it was sufficiently matured 
 for the purpose of the scholar and the author. 
 During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries 
 the kingdom produced many romances, in 
 which the influence of the literature of the 
 Trouveres and Troubadours was manifest. 
 Gilbert de Montreuil, Castellan de Coucy, and 
 some others were noted for this species of 
 composition ; many sacred dramas and mys- 
 teries were written in the north of France, and 
 about the middle of the fifteenth century, sev- 
 eral romantic epics appeared. The only re- 
 markable name of this early period is the re- 
 nowned chronicler, Froissart, who was born in 
 1337, and in the course of his travels and so- 
 journ at all the courts of Europe, was witness 
 of many of the chivalrous events he describes 
 in his " Chronicles of France, Spain, Italy, 
 England, and Germany." Philip de Comines, 
 who died in 1509, passed his life in the service 
 of Louis IX., and left behind him the " Mem- 
 oirs " of his time. The latter part of the 
 fifteenth century produced many small writers 
 of satires, odes, songs, etc., among whom, 
 Charles, Duke of Orleans, takes the first rank. 
 The sacred mysteries, the first attempt at 
 theatrical representation, gradually gave place 
 to a rude form of drama and comedy, and a 
 very successful comedy of French life appeared 
 in 1475. 
 
 With the reign of Francis I. the study of 
 the classics became popular in France, and from 
 that time until the age of Louis XIV. the prog- 
 ress of French literature was rapid and un- 
 interrupted. The sixteenth century produced 
 a few great names. ScaJiger and Casaubon 
 were renowned for their scholastic acquire- 
 ments ; Clement Marot and Theodore Beza
 
 
 156 
 
 THE CMTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 cultivated poetrf 'under" Trancis 'I., whose 
 sister, Margaret of Yjllois, published a collec- 
 tion of novels, called the Heptameron ; Ron- 
 sard was the first Frenoh poet who showed 
 strong original genius, and, with Regnier, gave 
 the national poetry a freer and more character- 
 istic tone. The drama was improved by 
 Etienne Jodelle, who imitated the Greek 
 tragedians ; Claude de Seyssel wrote the His- 
 tory of Louis XII. ; and Brantome and Agrippa 
 (TAubigne" left behind them many memoirs 
 and historical essays. But the boast of lin- 
 age is the names of Malherbe, Rabelais, and 
 Montaigne. Malherbe, born in 1554, is con- 
 sidered the first French classic, in poetry ; his 
 language is most inflexibly pure and correct. 
 Rabelais was born in 1483, and his romance of 
 Gargantua and Pantagruel was first published 
 in 1533. Notwithstanding its grossness it is 
 one of the most lively, humorous, and brilliant 
 books in the language. It satirizes the clerical 
 and political characters of his time. Mon- 
 taigne, whose life extended from 1533 to 1592, 
 wrote three volumes of essays, on moral, polit- 
 ical, and religious subjects, which on account 
 of their elegant style no less than the treasures 
 of thought they contain, have always held their 
 place among French classics. 
 
 The seventeenth century is the glory of 
 French literature. Under the auspices of 
 Richelieu, Colbert, and Louis XIV. all de- 
 partments of letters, science, and art reached a 
 height unknown before. The French Academy 
 was founded by Richelieu in 1635, and the 
 language, at that time unrivaled in clearness, 
 perspicacity, and flexibility, gradually became 
 the polite tongue of Europe. Dramatic poetry, 
 especially, founded on the principles of the 
 Greek theater, attained a character it has never 
 since reached. Corneille, born in 1606, was 
 the father of the classic French drama. His 
 first play, The Cid, belongs rather to the 
 romantic drama, but through the influence of 
 the Academy his later works, the most eminent 
 of which are Les Horaces, Cinna, Polyeucte ,ar\d 
 Mort de Pompe'e, are strictly classical. His 
 dramatic works amount to thirty-three. Ra- 
 cine, who was born in 1639, brought the 
 classic drama to perfection. His language is 
 the most elegant and melodious of all French 
 dramatists, while he is inferior to none in his 
 knowledge of nature and his command of the 
 sentiments and passions. His plays, though 
 constructed on the classic model, are not con- 
 fined strictly to classic subjects. The most 
 celebrated are Andromaque, Bajazet, Mithri- 
 date, Phedre, Esther, and Athalie. After these 
 two authors ranks Moliere, the father and 
 master of French comedy. His Tnrtuffe has a 
 
 <rffoh<<~^ 
 
 Ion, sometimes called the French ^Eschylus, 
 was a writer of tragedies. Legrand, Regnard, 
 and Scarron distinguished themselves as drama- 
 tists of secondary note. To this age belong 
 Le Sage> the author of Gil Bias ; La Fontaine, 
 the greatest i'abulisfsillce vEsop ; and Boileau, 
 the satirist and didactic poet, whose Art Poe't- 
 ique and Lutrin or " Battle of the Books " have 
 been made classic. Mademoiselle de Scudery 
 wrote many chivalrous romances, and Perrault's 
 fairy tales soon became household words. The 
 Telemaque of F^nelon was also produced during 
 this period. This author, with Bourdaloue, 
 Bossuet, and Massillon, were celebrated as 
 theological writers and pulpit orators. Madame 
 de Sevign^'s letters are unsurpassed as speci- 
 mens of graceful and spirited epistolary writ- 
 ing. As historians^Rollin^ is the most dis- 
 tinguished, but Mezeray, author of the national 
 Chronicles, the Jesuit D'Orleans, author of 
 Histories of Revolutions in England and 
 Spain, and Bossuet's theological histories are 
 worthy of notice. 
 
 During the eighteenth century, when the lit- 
 erature of Spain, Italy, and Portugal were on 
 the decline, and England and Germany re- 
 mained stationary, France still maintained her 
 supremacy. In 1694 was born Voltaire, who 
 in the course of his life made himself master 
 of nearly every department of literature. His 
 first play, (Edipe. was successfully performed 
 in 1718, though his epic of the Henriade, writ- 
 ten at the same time, was not published till 
 1729. Many of his succeeding plays were un- 
 successful, and his satires and philosophical 
 essays produced only banishment. His prin- 
 cipal plays are Zaire, Alzire, Brutus, Oreste, 
 Mahomet, and Tancre.de. After his return from 
 Germany, he settled at Ferney on the Lake of 
 Geneva, where for twenty years he devoted 
 himself to literature. His principal works are 
 History of Charles XII, of Sweden ; History of 
 Russia under Peter The Great ; Pi/rrhonisme de 
 r Histoire , Droits de I'Homme and the Dictionnaire 
 Philosophique . Jean Jacques Rousseau, born in 
 1712, exercised scarcely less influence on French 
 literature, than Voltaire. His first work, a 
 dissertation on Modern Music, appeared in 
 Paris in 1743, about which time he wrote sev- 
 eral comedies and tragedies and composed an 
 opera. His romance entitled Nouvelle Heloise 
 was published in 1760, and his Contrat Social 
 and Emile in 1762. His most remarkable 
 work, the Confessions, was completed in 1770, 
 and he died in 1778. As bold and independ- 
 ent as Voltaire in his philosophical views, he 
 had nothing of his cynicism. His works, the 
 style of which is absolutely fascinating, express 
 a sincere sympathy with humanity. Montes- 
 
 universal celebrity. He died in 1673. Cr6bil- | quieu, whose Spirit of Laws is a standard work
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 157 
 
 _ _ 
 
 r*^ 
 
 on jurisprudence, belongs to the first half of 
 the eighteenth century. Among the historians 
 contemporary with Voltaire, were Condorcet, 
 author of a History of Civilization, and Barth6- 
 lemy, who also wrote the Voyaye de Jeune An- 
 acharsis. La Bruyere, La Harpe, and Madame 
 d'Epinay distinguished themselves by their 
 didactic and epistolary writings. The most 
 noted novelists were Marmontel, Bernardin de 
 St. Pierre, author of Paul and Virginia, and 
 Louvet. Marivaux attained distinction as a 
 writer of comedies, and Beaumarchais as a 
 dramatist and writer of operas. The well- 
 known Barber of Seville is from his pen. 
 France produced few lyric poets during the 
 last century. Lebrun, Delille, and Joseph 
 j Chenier are the most worthy of mention, but 
 \[ the Marseillaise of Rouget de Lisle is the finest 
 ; yric of the century, if not of all French litera- 
 ture. Mirabeau, Barnave, Sieves, and the lead- 
 ers of the Revolution gave a new and splendid 
 character to French oratory, toward the close 
 of the century. 
 
 Chateaubriand, De Stael, and Be>anger con- 
 nect the age of Rousseau and Voltaire with the 
 modern literature of France. Chateaubriand 
 was born in 1769, and published his first work, 
 the Essay on Revolutions, in London, in 1797, 
 while in exile. His Atala, the subject of which 
 was derived from his adventures among the 
 Natchez tribe of Indians, on the Mississippi, 
 appeared in 1801, and his Genie du Christian- 
 isme in 1802. He also published Les Martyrs in 
 1807, and an account of his travels in the East. 
 He filled many diplomatic stations under the 
 Bourbons, and was made peer of France. 
 After his death, which took place in 1848, his 
 autobiography was published, under the title 
 of Mc'moires d'outre Tombe. Madame de 
 Stael, the daughter of M. Xeckar, afterwards 
 minister under Louis XVI., was born in 1766, 
 and first appeared as an author in 1788, when 
 she published a series of letters on the life and 
 writings of Rousseau. During the French 
 Revolution she remained in Switzerland and 
 England, where she wrote several political 
 pamphlets, dramas, and essays on life and 
 literature. Her romance of Corinne was pub- 
 lished in 1807, and her De I'Allemagne. which 
 directed attention to the literature of Ger- 
 many, in 1810. Her work entitled Ten Years 
 of Exile, was written in Sweden ; she died in 
 Paris in 1817. Be>anger is the first song- 
 writer of France. Many of his lyrics and 
 ballads have become household words with the 
 common people. Casimir Delavigne. who 
 died in 1843, was among the first restorers of 
 that lyric school, which Lamartine. Victor 
 Hugo, and Alfred de Musset have since carried 
 to a high degree of perfection. The most re- 
 
 nowned names in recent French literature are, 
 as poets, Alphonse de Lamartine, author of 
 Meditations Poetiffues, Harmonies Poetiques and 
 La Chute d'un Ange : Victor Hugo, author of 
 three volumes of lyrical romances and ballads ; 
 Alfred de Musset ; Jean Reboul, a disciple of 
 Lamartine ; and Auguste Barbier, who mingles 
 j with his poems a vein of keen satire. Jasmin,) 
 ajiiarber of A gen, has obtained much celebritv 
 i by his poems in the Gascon dialect. The new 
 school of French romance has infected t)ie 
 modern literature of all countries. Balzac, 
 j who died in 1850, is unequaled as a painter 
 I of society and manners ; Eugene Sue, whose 
 i Mysteries of Paris and Wandering Jew have 
 ! been so widely read, delights in exciting sub- 
 I jects and the most intricate and improbable 
 ; plots ; Alexander Dumas, best known by his 
 i Count of Monte Cristo, and his romances of^. 
 trayeL^ is a master of picturesque narrative ; 
 Victor Hugo is best known as a novelist by his 
 Notre Dame de Paris, a brilliant historical 
 fiction, and Les Mise'rables: and Paul de Kock, 
 j as a lively though unscrupulous painter of 
 Parisian life, enjoys a remarkable popularity. 
 The most striking and original writer of 
 fiction is Madame Dudevant, better known as 
 i " George Sand," whose Andre, Lettres d'un 
 I Voyageur, and Consuelo, have placed her in the 
 ! first rank of French authors. It is somewhat 
 : remarkable that the excellence of this group of 
 i novelists has been maintained by a new gen- 
 eration of writers, Murger, About, Feuillet, 
 Flaubet, Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, 
 Cherbulliez, Gaboriau, Dumas, Jils, Zola, 
 Merim^e, and others. As dramatists, Scribe, 
 Leon Gozlan, Etienne Arago, Germain Dela- 
 vigne, Sardou, and Felix Pyat have distin- 
 guished themselves. The most prominent 
 historical and political writers are Lamartine, 
 Thiers, Michelet, Guizot, Louis Blanc, De 
 \ Tocqueville and Thibaudeau ; while Cousin 
 and Comte are the founders of the new schools 
 ! of philosophy. French oratory now occupies 
 a higher position than ever before ; its most 
 illustrious names are Guizot, Thiers, Berryer, 
 Lamartine, Odilon Barrot, Victor Hugo, La- 
 ! cordaire, Pere Hyacinthe, and Coquerel. 
 Renan is a prominent name in theological 
 writing, and Montalembert a historian with 
 strong religious tendencies. The great master 
 of criticism is Sainte-Beuve (1804-1869), who 
 possessed a rare combination of great and ac- 
 curate learning, compass and profundity of 
 thought, and, above all, sympathy in judgment. 
 Henri Taine, whose works on English litera- 
 ture are among the best we have, Theophile 
 Gautier, Arsene Houssaye, Jules Janin, Sarcy, 
 and others, are distinguished in this branch 
 of letters.
 
 158 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 GERMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 The first period of German literature com- 
 menced with the reign of Charlemagne in the 
 eighth century, and extends to the time of the 
 Suabian emperors, at the close of the twelfth 
 century. The first learned society was in- 
 stituted by Alcuin, the greatest scholar of 
 Charlemagne's time. In the succeeding period, 
 Einhard, Rithard, and Lambert von Aschaf- 
 fenburg distinguished themselves as historical 
 and theological writers. About this time also 
 originated those epic ballads and fragments 
 which were afterwards collected under the 
 title of the Nibelungen-Lied , or "Lay of the 
 Nibelungen," and the " Song of Hildebrand." 
 The Nibelungen-Lied, which has been called 
 the German Iliad, received its present form 
 about the year 1210. Its subject is the history 
 of Siegfried, son of the King of the Nether- 
 lands, his marriage with Chriemhild, sister of 
 Giinther, King of the Burgundians, and the 
 revenge of Brunhild, Queen of Ireland, who 
 married Gunther. 
 
 The second period terminates with the close 
 of the fifteenth century. It includes the Min- 
 nesingers, or German Troubadours, who were 
 the result of the intercourse of Germany with 
 Italy and France, which made German schol- 
 ars acquainted with the amatory literature of 
 Provence. The most renowned Minnesingers 
 were Wolfram von Eschenbach, who wrote 
 Percival ; Walter von der Vogelweide, the 
 most graceful and popular of all, and Hein- 
 rich von Ofterdingen. Otto von Friesingen 
 achieved renown for his histories, which were 
 written in Latin. 
 
 The third period, dating from the com- 
 mencement of the fifteenth century, at which 
 time the German language was fully developed 
 and subjected to rule, extends to the present 
 time. It has been sub-divided by German critics 
 into three parts, viz. : 1, to the commencement 
 of the Thirty Years' War ; 2, to Klopstock and 
 Lessing; 3, to our own day. The progress of 
 the Reformation in the fifteenth century 
 operated very favorably upon German litera- 
 ture. Melanchthon, Luther, Ulric von Hutten, 
 and the other leaders of the movement were 
 also distinguished scholars. The celebrated 
 Paracelsus ; the naturalist Gesner ; the painter 
 Albert Diirer, and the astronomers Kepler and 
 Copernicus, nourished also in the fifteenth 
 century. The most distinguished poet of this 
 period was Hans Sachs, the shoemaker poet of 
 Nuremberg. He was the master of a school 
 or guild of poetry, which was then considered 
 as an elegant profession. In the number of 
 his works he rivals Lope de Vega, as he is 
 said to have written 6048, 208 of which were 
 comedies and tragedies. He died in 1576. 
 
 Martin Opitz, who marks the commencement 
 of a new era in German poetry, was born in 
 1597. He first established a true rhythm in 
 poetry, by measuring the length of the sylla- 
 bles, instead of merely counting them, as for- 
 merly. His principal poems are 1't-anriux, 
 Judith, and a number of lyrics. He was fol- 
 lowed by Paul Flemming and Simon Dach, 
 who wrote in the low German dialect. As 
 prose writers of the seventeenth century, Puf- 
 fendorf, a writer on jurisprudence and inter- 
 national law, Leibnitz, the distinguished 
 philosopher, and the Brothers Baumgarten, 
 are most prominent. There is no great name 
 in German literature, however, from Opitz till 
 the middle of the last century, when Gellert, 
 Gessner, Klopstock, and Hagedorn were the 
 inauguration of a new life. Under these au- 
 thors, and others of less note, the language 
 attained a richness of expression, a flexibility 
 of style, and a harmony of modulation which 
 it never possessed before. Gellert, born in 
 1715, is distinguished for his " Spiritual Songs 
 and Odes," his letters, and his romance of 
 The Swedish Countess, which is the first domes- 
 tic novel written in the German language. 
 Gessner is best known through his idyls, in 
 which he followed the classic models. Hage- 
 dorn, who died in 1754, wrote many poems; 
 he is supposed to have exercised considerable 
 influence on Klopstock in his earlier years. 
 As prose writers, Forster, Mendelssohn the 
 philosopher, and Musaus, who made a collec- 
 tion of German legends and traditions, are 
 worthy of note. 
 
 With Klopstock commenced the golden age 
 of German literature, and the list of renowned 
 names continues unbroken until the present 
 time. Klopstock was born in 1724. In his 
 odes and lyrical poems he struck out a new 
 and bold path, casting aside the mechanical 
 rules of the older schools of German poetry. 
 His greatest work is the Hessian, a sacred epic, 
 which was commenced in 1745 and finished in 
 1771. Lessing, born in 1729, stands by the 
 side of Klopstock as a poet, while he is also 
 distinguished as a prose writer. He may be 
 considered as the first successful German 
 dramatist, his plays of Emilia G'alolti, Minn a 
 von BarnJiclm, Nathan Ike \Vixe, still keeping 
 their place on the stage. As a critical writer 
 on all the branches of the Fine Arts, he is also 
 distinguished. Wieland follows next in the 
 list of German classics. Born in 1733, he is 
 the link between the age of Gellert and Klop- 
 stock, and that of Schiller and Goethe. He 
 died in 1813. His principal works are The 
 New Amatlis, which illustrates the triumph of 
 spiritual over physical beauty, the heroic epic 
 of Oberon, a romance of the middle ages, the
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 159 
 
 drama of Alceste, the History of the Abderites, 
 a satirical romance, besides many letters, 
 satires, and criticisms on literature and art. 
 Herder, his contemporary, in addition to his 
 fame as a poet, is celebrated for his philosoph- 
 ical and theological writings, and his Spirit of 
 Hebrew Poetry. He died in 1803. At the com- 
 mencement of this century, Wieland, Herder, 
 Goethe. and Schiller \vere gathered together at 
 the court of Weimar the most illustrious 
 congregation of poets since Shakespeare, 
 Spenser, Ben Jonson, and Fletcher met to- 
 gether in London. Goethe was born in 1749, 
 and from his boyhood displayed a remarkable 
 talent for literature, science, and art. His 
 first romance, The Sorrows of Werfher, pro- 
 duced a great sensation throughout all Europe. 
 His tragedy of Gb'tz von Berlichingen, written 
 at the age of 22, established his fame as a 
 poet. After his settlement at Weimar in 
 1774, his works followed each other rapidly. 
 He produced the tragedies of Iphigenia, Eg- 
 rnont, Tasso, and Clarigo, the pastoral epic of 
 Hermann and Dorothea, the philosophical ro- 
 mances of Wilhelm Meister and Die Wahlcer- 
 wandsckqften, the West-Oestliche Dican, a col- 
 lection of poems founded in his studies of 
 Oriental literature, and the first part of his 
 greatest work, Faust. He also published nar- 
 ratives of travel in France and Italy, and 
 Wahrheit und Dichtung, an autobiography of 
 his life. His philosophic and scientific writ- 
 ings, especially his theory of color, are scarcely 
 less celebrated than his literary works. He is 
 equally a master in all departments of litera- 
 ture, and is generally acknowledged as the 
 greatest author since Shakespeare. He died 
 in 1832. Schiller, born in 1759, exercised 
 scarcely less influence on German literature 
 than Goethe. His tragedy of The Robbers pro- 
 duced nearly as great a revolution as The Sor- 
 rmr-t of Werlher. On account of this and 
 other works he was obliged to fly from his 
 native Wurtemberg, and after many vicissi- 
 tudes, settled in Weimar, with his great col- 
 leagues. After a brief but intense and 
 laborious life, he died in 1805. After The 
 Robbers, he wrote the following dramatic 
 works : Flesco, Cabal and Love, Don Carlos, \ 
 The Maid of Orleans, Marie Stuart, William 
 Tell, The Bride of Messina, and Wallenstein. 
 The last is the greatest drama in the German 
 language. His lyrical poems are unsurpassed. 
 His principal prose works are the History of 
 the Netherlands and History of the Thirty Yen/:*' 
 War. This period, so glorious for German 
 literature, produced also the poets, Burger, 
 author of Lenore and The Wild Huntsman : 
 Count Stolberg ; Voss, author of Lvise ; Salis 
 and Matthisson, elegiac poets ; Tiedge, author [ 
 
 of Urania ; and the hero Korner, the Tyrtseus 
 of the wars of 1812 and 1813. The depart- 
 ment of prose was filled by many distin- 
 guished writers of philosophy, history, and 
 romance. Kant, who lived from 1724 to 
 1804, is the father of modern German philoso- 
 phy, and exercised a great influence on all his 
 contemporaries. Schlegel, in the department 
 of literary criticism, and Winckelmann, in 
 that of art, are renowned names. Hegel and 
 Fichte succeeded Kant as philosophers, and 
 these in turn were followed by Ruge, Strauss, 
 Feuerbach, Ulrici, Schopenhauer, and Von 
 Hartmann ; while Alexander von Humboldt 
 became the leader of a new and splendid com- 
 pany of writers on cosmical science. The 
 name of Tieck heads the school of modern 
 German romance. He was born in 1773, and 
 early attracted attention by his Bluebeard and 
 Puss in Boots. In addition to a great number 
 of plays, romances, and poems, he produced, 
 in conjunction with Schlegel, a German trans- 
 lation of Shakespeare, which is the most 
 remarkable work of its kind in all literature. 
 Jean Paul Richter, the most original and 
 peculiar of all German authors, was born in 
 1763 and died in 1825. His first work was a 
 humorous and satirical production, entitled 
 The Greenlandic Lawsuit, followed by Selec- 
 tions from the Devil's Papers. His works are 
 distinguished by a great knowledge of human 
 nature, and a bewildering richness of imagina- 
 tion, and a style so quaint and involved as 
 almost to form a separate dialect. His best 
 works are Titan, Hesperus, Die Unsichtbare 
 Loge, and Flower, Fruit, and Thorn Pieces. 
 E. T. A. Hoffman is scarcely less original in 
 his romances, which have a wild, fantastic, 
 and supernatural character. Among other 
 German authors, the brothers Grimm are cele- 
 brated for their Kinder und Haus Mdhrchen, 
 the notorious Kotzebue for his plays, and 
 Wolfgang Menzel for his History of Germany 
 and German Literature. 
 
 Since the commencement of the present cen- 
 tury Germany has been prolific of authors, 
 but the limits of this sketch prohibit us from 
 much more than the mere mention of their 
 names. Baron de la Motte Fouque is known 
 as the author of Undine, one of the most purely 
 poetical creations of fiction, Sintram, and 
 Thiodolf, the Icelander. Borne attained celeb- 
 rity as a satirist, critic, and political writer. 
 Uhland stands at the head of the modern gen- 
 eration of poets. His ballads, romances, and 
 his epic of Ludtcig der Baier, are among the 
 best German poems of the day. After him 
 rank Ruckert, also renowned as an oriental 
 scholar ; Hauff, a lyric poet, and author of the 
 romance of Lichtenstein ; Gustav Schwab, Jus-
 
 160 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 tinus Kerner, author of the Seeres-s of Prevorst ; 
 Arndt, author of the German Fatherland, the 
 national lyric ; Anastasius Grim (Count Auer- 
 sperg), author of the Pfaff von KaJdenberg ; 
 Nicholas Lenau, author of Savonarola ; Ferdi- 
 nand Freiligrath, a vigorous political poet; 
 Heinrich Heine, author of many popular songs 
 and ballads ; Chamisso, who also wrote the 
 romance of Peter Schlemikl ; Gutzkow, distin- 
 guished as a dramatist ; Halm, also a drama- 
 tist, and author of Dcr fiohn der Wildniss ; and, 
 as lyric poets, Herwegh, Geibel, and Beck. 
 Among the distinguished prose writers are 
 Schlosser, author of a Universal History ; Ne- 
 a,nder, author of a History of the Church, 
 and a Life of Christ ; Prince Puckler-Muskau 
 and the Countess Hahn-Hahn, critics and 
 tourists; Zschokke (a Swiss), Auerbach and 
 Freytag distinguished as novelists, and Feu- 
 erbach ; Schelling as a philosopher ; Strauss, 
 author of a Life of Christ and head of the Ger- 
 man "Rationalists"; Mtiller, as a historian, 
 and Krummacher, a writer of fables and para- 
 bles. As historians Rotteck, Niebuhr, and 
 Ranke are among the most distinguished of 
 the present century. One of the most popular 
 prose writers is Adalbert Stifter, whose Stutlirn 
 ire unsurpassed for exquisite purity and pic- 
 turesqueness of style. In science the first 
 place belongs to Humboldt's Cosmos ; In chem- 
 istry Liebig is widely and popularly known ; 
 Du Bois-Raymond has made great researches 
 in animal electricity, physics, and physiology ; 
 Virchow in biology ; Helmholtz in physiologi- 
 cal optics and sound ; Haeckel has extended 
 the theories and investigations of Darwin. 
 Modern German literature is singularly rich in 
 history, theology, and criticism. 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Under this head we have grouped the litera- 
 ture of the three nations of Scandinavian ori- 
 gin, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The 
 old Scandinavian Eddas, or hymns of gods 
 and heroes, may be traced back to the seventh 
 or eighth century. The earlier Edda, which 
 was collected and arranged by Samund in the 
 year 1100, consists of legends of the gods, most 
 of which were probably written in the eighth 
 century. The latter Edda, collected by Snorre 
 Sturleson in the first half of the thirteenth 
 century, contains fragments of the songs of the 
 Skalds who flourished in the ninth and tenth 
 centuries, especially in the latter, when their 
 genius reached its culmination in Norway and 
 Iceland. Among the most renowned works of 
 the Skalds were the Eiriksmal, the apotheosis 
 of King Eric, who died in 952, and the HaTco- 
 narrnal, describing the fall of Jarl Haco. A 
 celebrated Skald was Egill Skalagrimsson, who 
 
 wrote three epic poems, and two drapas, or 
 elegiac poems. The power of the Skalds de- 
 clined through the eleventh and twelfth cen- 
 turies, and after the fourteenth, when the 
 Christian element first began to appear in Ice- 
 landic poetry, wholly disappeared. Many sagas 
 were written in prose, and the Heimskringla of 
 Snorre Sturleson, who died in Iceland in 1238, 
 contains the chronicles of Scandinavian history 
 from its mythic period to the year 1177. 
 
 Previous to the establishment of the Univer- 
 sity of Upsala, in 1476, the only literature of 
 Sweden was a few- rhymed historic legends. 
 The two centuries succeeding this period have 
 left no great names, and few distinguished 
 ones. Saxo-Grammaticus made a collection 
 of legends in the fifteenth century ; Olaus 
 Magni wrote a history of the North in Latin ; 
 Messenius,who died in 1 637, wrote comediesand 
 a historical work entitled Scandia Illustrata ; 
 Axel Oxenstierna, the celebrated minister, 
 was also a theologist and patron of literature ; 
 Olof Rudbeck, a distinguished scholar, pub- 
 lished in 1675 his Atlantica, wherein, from the 
 study of the old Sagas, he endeavored to show 
 that Sweden was the Atlantis of the ancients. 
 George Stjernhjelm, who died in 1672, was the 
 author of a poem called Hercules, whence he is 
 named the father of Swedish poetry. Sweden- 
 borg, the most striking character in Northern 
 literature, was born in 1688. After several 
 years of travel in England and on the conti- 
 nent, he established himself in Sweden, where 
 he devoted his attention to science, and pro- 
 duced a number of works on natural philoso- 
 phy, mineralogy, zoology, and other kindred 
 subjects. The close of his life was entirely 
 occupied with his religious studies, and the 
 production of his Arcana Ccelestia, which con- 
 tains his revelations of the future life, and his 
 theory of the spiritual universe. These writ- 
 ings gave rise to a new religious sect, the mem- 
 bers of which, in the United States, are sup- 
 posed to number about 6,000. He professed 
 to be visited by the Holy Spirit, and his works 
 are considered by his disciples as equally in- 
 spired with those of the Apostles. He died in 
 London in 1772. Dalin and Madame Norden- 
 flycht were the first noted poets of the last 
 century. They were succeeded by a multitude 
 of lyric and didactic poets ; but Swedish poe- 
 try did not attain a high character before the 
 commencement of the present century. Among 
 the authors rrost worthy of note are Lidner, 
 Bellman, rr.d Thorild. An important history 
 of Sweden has been written by Professors Gei- 
 jer, Fryxell, and Strum bolm. The present cen- 
 tury produced Atterbom and Dahlgren, poets 
 of considerable celebrity, and Tegner, the first 
 of Swedish poets, "whose Frithiof's Saga has
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 161 
 
 been translated into English, French, and Ger- 
 man. Longfellow has translated his Children 
 of the Lord's Supper. In the glow of his imag- 
 ination, his fine artistic feeling, and his won- 
 derful command of rhythm, Tegner ranks 
 among the first of modern poets. He died in 
 1850. As writers of fiction, Count Sparre, au- 
 thor of Adolf Findling, Frederika Bremer, 
 whose fame, as a painter of Swedish life, has 
 extended over both hemispheres, and Madame 
 Flygare-Carlen, author of the Rose of Thistle 
 Island, have attained an honorable place. The 
 most celebrated works of Miss Bremer are The 
 Neighbors, The Home, and Strife and Peace. 
 
 There are few names in Danish literature 
 before the last century. Ludwig von Holberg, 
 born in 1685, was the first who achieved a 
 permanent reputation as poet and historian. 
 Towards the close of the last century Denmark 
 produced many distinguished scholars and men 
 of science. Rafn and Finn Magnusen rescued 
 the old Icelandic sagas from oblivion, and es- 
 tablished the fact of the discovery of New 
 England by Bjorne in the tenth century ; Pe- 
 tersen became renowned as a classical scholar 
 and critic ; Oersted is a well known name in 
 science and philosophy ; and Miiller and Allen 
 successfully labored in the department of his- 
 tory. Nearly all these authors first became 
 known in the present century. At the head of 
 Denmark's poets is (Ehlenschlager, who died 
 in 1850. His national tragedies, epics, and 
 lyrics were written partly in German and partly 
 in Danish. He is considered the originator of 
 the artist-drama, of which his Coreggio is a 
 masterpiece. Baggesen, who commenced his 
 career in the last century, is one of the first 
 Danish lyric poets. Heiberg devoted himself 
 to vaudeville and the romantic drama, and 
 Hauch to tragedy, in which he is justly dis- 
 tinguished. Hertz is known through his King 
 Rene's Daughters, which has been successfully 
 produced on the English stage. One of the 
 most distinguished of modern Danish authors 
 is Hans Christian Andersen, known alike as 
 poet, novelist, and tourist. His romances of 
 Danish life are the most characteristic of his 
 works, though he is better known out of his 
 native country by his Improvisators and The 
 True Story of My Life. Norway cannot be 
 said to have had a literature distinct from the 
 Danish until after its union with Sweden in 
 1814. The period from that time to the present 
 has been one of great literary activity in all 
 departments, and many distinguished names 
 might be mentioned, among them that of 
 Bjornson whose tales have been extensively 
 translated. Jonas Lie, who enjoys a wide 
 popularity, Camilla Collett, and Magdalene 
 Thoresen are also favorite writers. Wergeland 
 
 and Welhaven were two distinguished poets of 
 the first half of the century. Kielland is an 
 able novelist of the realistic school, and Pro- 
 fessor Boyesen is well known in the United 
 States for his tales and poems in English. 
 Henrik Ibseri is the most distinguished dra- 
 matic writer of Norway and belongs to the real- 
 istic school. Among other recent writers are 
 Borjesson, whose Eric XI V. is a masterpiece of 
 Swedish drama ; Tekla Knos, a poetess whose 
 claims have been sanctioned by the Academy ; 
 and Claude Gerard (nom de plume') , very pop- 
 ular as a novelist. 
 
 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 The first fragments of Russian literature 
 belong to the tenth and eleventh centuries. 
 They consist principally of rude songs and 
 legends, the hero of which is Wladimir the 
 Great, who first introduced Christianity into 
 the country. Nestor, a monk in the monas- 
 tery of Kiev, who died in the year 1116, left 
 behind him a collection of annals, beginning 
 with 852, which threw much light on the early 
 history of Russia. After the empire was freed 
 from the Mongolian rule by Ivan I. in 1478, 
 the progress of literature and the arts were 
 more rapid. The first printing press was es- 
 tablished in Moscow in 1564, though the Acad- 
 emy in that city was not founded until a cea- 
 tury later. Peter the Great devoted much at- 
 tention to the Russian language and literature. 
 At his command, the characters used in print- 
 ing were greatly simplified and improved. The 
 first Russian newspaper was printed in 1705, 
 in this character. , 
 
 From 1650 to 1750, Russia produced several 
 
 I authors, but principally among the clergy, and 
 their works are dissertations on theology or 
 lives of the saints. Tatitschev wrote a His- 
 
 \ tory of Russia, which still retains some value. 
 The only poet of this period was Kantemir, son 
 
 ! of the Hospodar of Moldavia, who entered the 
 
 j Russian service, devoted himself to study, and 
 obtained much reputation from his satires. 
 Towards the close of the last century, and es- 
 pecially during the reigns of Elizabeth and 
 Catharine II., the establishment of universities 
 and academies of science and art, contributed 
 greatly to the development of the language 
 and the encouragement of literature. The 
 distinction between the old Slavic and mod- 
 ern Russian dialects is strongly exhibited 
 in the works of Lomonosow, and the pre- 
 
 I dominance of the latter was still further de- 
 termined by Sumarakow, the first Russian 
 
 ! dramatist, whose plays were performed on the 
 stage. Cheraskow, who belongs to the last 
 
 ! half of the eighteenth century, wrote a long 
 
 i epic poem on the Conquest of Kazan, and an-
 
 162 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 other on Wladimir the Great. He was con- 
 sidered the Homer of his time, but is now 
 never read. Among his contemporary poets 
 were Prince Dolgoruki, who wrote philosophic 
 odes and epistles, and Count Chvostow, the 
 author of some of the best lyric and didactic 
 poetry in the language. 
 
 The first Russian poet whose name was 
 known beyond the borders of the empire was 
 Derzhavin, who was born at Kazan in 1743, 
 and after filling important civil posts under the 
 Empress Catharine, died in 1816. Many of 
 his most inspired odes were addressed to his 
 imperial patroness. His ode To God has been 
 translated into nearly all languages, and a 
 Chinese copy, printed in letters of gold, hangs 
 upon the walls of the palace at Pekin. The 
 prose writers of this period were Platon, Lew- 
 anda, and Schtscherbatow, who wrote a His- 
 tory of Russia. Under Alexander I., in. the 
 commencement of the present century, Rus- 
 sian literature made rapid advances. Karam- 
 sin, who stood at the head of Russian authors 
 during this period, first freed the popular style 
 from the fetters of the classic school, and de- 
 veloped the native resources of the language. 
 Prince Alexander Schakowski wrote many 
 comedies and comic operas, and Zukowski, 
 following in the path of Karamsin, produced 
 some vigorous and glowing poetry. Count 
 Puschkin, one of the most celebrated Russian 
 authors, was born in 1799. His first poem, 
 published at the age of fourteen, attracted so 
 much attention that he resolved to devote him- 
 self to literature. An Ode to Freedom, how- 
 ever, procured him banishment to the south of 
 Russia, where his best poems were written. 
 His works are Russian and Ljudmilla, a ro- 
 mantic epic of the heroic age of Russia ; the 
 Mountain Prisoner, a story of life in the Cau- 
 casus ; the Fountains of Baktschissarai, and 
 Boris Godunoff, a dramatic poem. In his in- 
 vention, the elegance of his diction, and the 
 richness of his fancy, Puschkin excels all 
 other Russian authors. He was killed in a 
 duel in 1837. His contemporary, Baratynski, 
 who stood nearest him in talent, died in 1844. 
 Other poets of this period are Lermontow, 
 Podolinski, and Baron Delwig. Russian ro- 
 mance is not yet fairly developed. The first 
 names in this department are Bestuzew, who 
 suffered banishment in Siberia and met death 
 in theCaucusus, where his best work, Amaleth- 
 Bcg, was written, Bulgarin, author of Demetrius 
 and Mazepi>, Count Tolstoi, and Turgenieff. 
 The only histories written in Russia are his- 
 tories of Russia. The best of these which 
 have been produced by the present generation 
 of authors are those of Ustrialow, Pogodin, 
 Polewoi, and Michailowski-Danilewski. 
 
 POLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 The Polish language has received a more 
 thorough development and boasts a richer 
 literature than any other language of Slavic 
 origin. It first reached a finished and regular 
 form in the sixteenth century, though a frag- 
 ment of a hymn to the Virgin remains, which 
 was supposed to have been written by St. 
 Adalbert, in the fifteenth century. The first 
 bloom of Polish literature happened during 
 the reigns of Sigismund I. and Augustus, 
 from 1507 to 1572. Michael Rey, the father 
 of Polish poetry, was a bold, spirited satirist. 
 He died in 1586, and was followed by the 
 brothers Kochanowski, Miaskowski, and Szy- 
 monowicz, who, for his Latin odes, was called 
 the Latin Pindar. Bielski wrote the Kronika, 
 a collection of Polish legends, and Gornicki, 
 secretary to Sigismund, a History of the Crown 
 of Poland. Orzechowski, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished orators of his day, wrote in the 
 Latin language, the A nnales Polonice. 
 
 After the commencement of the seventeenth 
 century, Polish letters declined, and as the 
 kingdom came under the ascendency of the 
 Jesuits, a corresponding change came over the 
 character of the literature. Kochowski, who 
 died in 1700, was historiographer to King 
 John Sobieski, and accompanied him against 
 the Turks. Opalinski, the Woiwode of Posen, 
 published in 1652 his Satyres, a lively and 
 characteristic work, and a number of Jesuit 
 historians undertook histories of the country, 
 in which few of them were successful. 
 
 Through the influence of French authors, 
 Polish literature made another advance, at the 
 close of the first half of the last century. The 
 first poet who served to concentrate the scat- 
 tered elements of Polish poetry, was Krasicki, 
 who was born in 1734, and in 1767 was made 
 Bishop of Ermeland. He wrote a mock- 
 heroic poem, Myszeis (The Mousead), an epic 
 entitled Woyna Chochnska (The War of 
 Chocim), and many fables in verse. The 
 most prominent of the later poets are Godebski, 
 Wezyk, author of romances and dramas, Felin- 
 ski, author of Barbara Radziirill, and Gen. 
 Kropinski, who wrote Liidi/nnld Tropinski, 
 who died in 1825, was the author of many ad- 
 mirable lyrics and idyls, and a tragedy called 
 Judyta. Niemcewicz, his contemporary, wrote 
 the Historical Lires of Poland, a History of 
 the reign of Sigismund III., and a romance, 
 JoJiann v. Tenczyn. The university of \Vilna, 
 which in 1815 was the seat of Polish learning, 
 witnessed a revolution in the character of the 
 literature. Several young authors, with 
 Mickiewicz at their head, determined to free 
 themselves from the classic spirit of the lan- 
 guage, and imitate the later English and
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 163 
 
 German schools. From this time Polish fiction 
 took a freer, bolder, and more varied form. 
 Mickiewicz, born in 1798, published his first 
 volume of poetry in 1822. Banished to the 
 interior of Russia, on account of political 
 troubles, he wrote a series of sonnets which at- 
 tracted the attention of Prince Galizin, under 
 whose auspices his epic poem, Konrad Wallen- 
 rod, was published in 1828. His Polish epic 
 of Pan Tadeusz first' appeared in Paris in 1834. 
 Among his contemporary authors, the most 
 noted are Odyniec, author of the drama of 
 Izora ; Xorsac, a lyric and elegiac poet ; 
 Garczynski, who wrote many fiery battle- 
 songs ; and Czajkowski, a noted writer of 
 Slavic romances. The later prose writers of 
 Poland are the historical Lelewel, and Count 
 Plater, and Henry k Sienkiewicz, author of 
 With Fire and Sword and Quo Vadis, who is 
 the first of Polish novelists, and second to none 
 in this generation. 
 
 ENGLISH LITERATURE. 
 
 The English language, like other composite 
 modern tongues, such as the French and 
 Italian, passed through several phases before 
 reaching its present form and character. 
 During the prevalence of the Anglo-Saxon 
 tongue, from the fifth century to the Norman 
 conquest, England boasted several authors, 
 whose names and works have in part descended 
 to us. The venerable Bede, born in North- 
 umberland in 672, is distinguished for his 
 scholarship. He left an Ecclesiastical history 
 of the Angles, which forms the basis of early 
 English history. The monk Caedmon, who 
 flourished i:i the seventh century, wrote a par- 
 aphrase of Genesis and some fragments which 
 are supposed to have given Milton the first 
 idea of Paradise Lost. The song of Beowulf, 
 which belongs to the eighth century, is a 
 spirited and stirring heroic. King Alfred's 
 poems belong to the best specimens of Anglo- 
 Saxon literature. The Norman conquest in- 
 troduced the French language and the litera- 
 ture of the Trouveres, while the Anglo-Saxon 
 was left to the peasants and thralls. Out of 
 these elements, however, the English language 
 was gradually formed, and under the reign of 
 Edward III., in the fourteenth century, was 
 made the language of the court. It then as- 
 sumed a character which is intelligible to the 
 educated English of the present day, and that 
 period, therefore, may be considered as the 
 first age of English literature. 
 
 The earliest English author is Chaucer, 
 'the morning-star of English song," who 
 was born in 1323, and produced his first poem, 
 The Court of Love, in 1347. During his life 
 he enjoyed the favor of Edward III., and his 
 
 son, John of Gaunt. He filled various diplo- 
 matic stations, among others that of ambassa- 
 dor to Genoa. During his residence in Italy, 
 he became familiar with the works of Dante, 
 Boccaccio, and Petrarch, and is supposed to 
 have visited the latter. He also wrote Troilus 
 and Cressida, The House of Fame, and The 
 Canterbury Tales, his most famous work, an 
 imitation, in poetry, of the Decameron. He 
 died in 1400. The first prose works in the 
 English language were translations of the gos- 
 pels and of some of the classics. Wickliffe, 
 the Reformer, who first made an English 
 version of the Bible, was a contemporary of 
 Chaucer. Sir Thomas Wyatt, and Henry 
 Howard, Earl of Surrey, who flourished under 
 the reign of Henry VIII., in the beginning of 
 the sixteenth century, are the next English 
 poets of note. They wrote principally songs 
 and odes. Surrey was beheaded on charge of 
 treason in 1547. 
 
 The reign of Elizabeth, at the close of the 
 sixteenth century, was the golden age of 
 English literature. Shakespeare, Spenser, 
 Raleigh, Sidney, Ben Jonson, Beaumont, and 
 Fletcher formed a constellation of poets and 
 dramatists, such as no other age or country 
 ever produced. Spenser, born in 1553, became 
 early associated with Sir Philip Sidney, to 
 whom, in 1579, he dedicated his first work, 
 the Shepherd's Calendar, a pastoral. From 
 1586 to 1598, he was sheriff of the county of 
 Cork, in Ireland, and resided at Kilcolman 
 Castle, where his greatest work, The Faery 
 Queen, was composed. This is an allegory in 
 twelve books, written in stanza of his own in- 
 vention (modeled, however, on the Italian 
 ottava rima), and which now bears his name. 
 He died in 1599. Sidney, who was born in 
 1554, is best known as the author of Arcadia, 
 a pastoral romance, and the Defence of Poetry. 
 He is the first writer who gave an elegant and 
 correct form to English prose. Shakespeare, 
 the greatest dramatic poet of any age, was 
 born in 1564. He commenced his career by 
 preparing for the stage the plays of some of 
 his predecessors, and this fact has thrown 
 some doubt about the authenticity of two or 
 three of the plays included among his works. 
 The order in which his own plays appeared 
 has never been satisfactorily ascertained. The 
 following, however, are known to have been 
 written before 1598 : The Two Gentlemen of 
 Verona; Love's Labor Lost; The Comedy of 
 Errors ; Midsummer Night's Dream ; Rnmto and 
 Juliet ; Merchant of Venice ; Richard If. ; Rich- 
 ard III. ; Henry IV. ; and King Jlm. 
 
 The Tempest, which appeared in 1611, is 
 believed to be his last dramatic work. He 
 also wrote the poems of Venus and Adonis and
 
 164 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The Rape of Lucrece, a lyric called The Pas- 
 sionate Pilgrim, and a great number of son- 
 nets, some of which are the finest in the 
 language. He died in 1616. Ben Jorison 
 was born in 1574, and published his first 
 dramatic work, the comedy of Every Man in 
 His Humor, in 1596. In addition to other 
 comedies, the best of which are Volpone, the 
 Fox, and The Alchemist, he wrote many exquis- 
 ite songs and madrigals. Sir Walter Raleigh 
 is more distinguished as a gallant knight and 
 daring adventurer than as an author, yet his 
 lyrics and his History of the World, written 
 during twelve years' imprisonment in the 
 Tower, give him full claim to the latter title. 
 He was born in 1552, and was beheaded by 
 order of James I. in 1617. Beaumont and 
 Fletcher, contemporaries and in some degree 
 imitators of Shakespeare, deserve the next 
 place after him among the dramatists of that 
 period. Beaumont is supposed to have been 
 the inventive genius of their plays, and 
 Fletcher to have supplied the wit and fancy. 
 The Faithful Shepherdess is the work of 
 Fletcher alone. Many dramatists flourished 
 during this and the succeeding generation, 
 whose works are now but little read, but who 
 would have attained eminence but for the 
 greater lights with which they are eclipsed. 
 The most noted of them are Marlowe, Mars- 
 ton, Chapman 1 , Decker, Webster, Ford, and 
 Massinger. 
 
 Between Shakespeare and Milton, the only 
 name which appears in English literature is 
 Cowley, the author of the Davideis, a for- 
 gotten epic. Milton was born in 1608, and 
 in his early boyhood exhibited the genius 
 which afterwards made him the first Eng- 
 lish poet and one of the great masters of 
 English prose. His hymn on the Nativity 
 was written in his twenty-first, and his mask 
 of Comus in his twenty-third year. L' Allegro, 
 II Penseroso, and Lycidas soon afterward 
 appeared. After his return from Italy, he 
 devoted his attention to theology and poli- 
 tics. His treatise on Marriage was published 
 in 1643, his Areopagitica in 1644, and his 
 famous reply to Salmasius in 1651. In the 
 following year he lost his sight, and was 
 obliged to retire from public service. His 
 Paradise Lost appeared in 1665, and was fol- 
 lowed by Paradise Regained in 1671, and Sam- 
 son Agonistes. He died in 1674. Dryden, 
 who, born in 1631, was known as a poet dur- 
 ing Milton's life, introduced a new school of 
 poetry -the narrative and didactic. His first 
 noted poem, the Annus Mirabilis, was produced 
 in 1666, his satire of Absalom and Achitophel 
 in 1681, and shortly afterwards his Hind and 
 Panther, a religious satire. He also wrote sev- 
 
 eral rhymed tragedies and an essay on Dra- 
 matic Poesy. Defoe, born in. 1663, wrote the 
 world-renowned narrative of Robinson Crusoe, 
 which was first published in 1719. The seven- 
 teenth century was also an important epoch 
 for English philosophical literature. Lord 
 Bacon, born in 1561, published his De digni- 
 tate et augmentis Scientarum in 1605, and his 
 celebrated Novum Organum in 1620. These, 
 although written in Latin, are the most impor- 
 tant philosophical works which have ever 
 emanated from an English author. Hobbes, a 
 writer on politics, jurisprudence, and moral 
 philosophy, died in 1679. Locke, born in 
 1632, first published his Essay on the Human 
 Understanding in 1690. 
 
 The commencement of the last century 
 brings us to a group of authors of very differ- 
 ent character. The influence of French liter- 
 ature began to be felt, and the characteristics 
 of the English writers of this period are ele- 
 gance and grace. This is properly the age of 
 English prose, which was enriched successively 
 by Addison, Horace Walpole, Swift, Sterne, 
 Richardson, Smollett, Fielding, Hume, Gib- 
 bon, Chesterfield, and Robertson. The first 
 poet who rose to eminence in the last century 
 was Pope, who was born in 1688, and pub- 
 lished his Essay on Criticism in 1711. His 
 most celebrated poetical works are the Rape of 
 the Loci; the Essay on Man and The Dunciad. 
 Thomson, author of. The Seasons and the 
 Castle of Indolence, lived and died in the first 
 half of the century. Gay, a contemporary 
 poet, is distinguished for his Fables. Gray 
 ranks as one of the finest lyric poets of Eng- 
 land. The few odes he has left, and his Elegy 
 in a Country Churchyard, belong to the classics 
 of the language. Goldsmith was born in 1728 
 and died in 1774. His poems of The Traveller 
 and The Deserted Village, and his romance of 
 the Vicar of Wakejield, will live as long as his 
 native tongue. Cowper closes the list of the 
 poets of the last century. He died in 1800, 
 after a life darkened by religious melancholy. 
 His Task, Table-Talk, and ballad of John Gil- 
 pin, are his best poetical works. Returning 
 to the prose writers, Addison is first in point 
 of time, having been born in 1672. His best 
 works are his essays, contributed to The Spec- 
 tator, which he established in 1711, in con- 
 junction with his friend Steele. His English 
 has rarely been excelled for purity and ele- 
 gance. Chesterfield, Lady Montague, and 
 Horace Walpole are distinguished as episto- 
 lary writers. Dean Swift, born in 1667, was 
 a politician and satirist, but is now best known 
 by his Tale of a Tub, published in 1704, and 
 Gulliver's Travels, in 1726. Sterne in his 
 Tristram Shandy and The SfntimentalJourney,
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 165 
 
 displayed a droll mingling of wit and pathos, 
 in a style exceedingly lively and flexible. 
 Richardson, one of the first English romance 
 writers, was born in 1689. His principal 
 novels, which are of immense length, are 
 Pamela, Clarissa Harlowe, and Sir Charles 
 Grandison. Smollett, his successor, published 
 his Roderick Random in 1748, and Humphrey 
 ''linker, his last work, in 1771. Hume, in 
 addition to political and philosophical works, 
 wrote the History of England, from the inva- 
 sion of Caesar to the rebellion of 1688, which 
 was published in 1673-4. Smollett wrote four 
 volumes in continuation of the history. Gib- 
 bon, born in 1737, completed, after twenty 
 years' labor, his History of the Decline and Fall 
 of the Roman Empire, which appeared from 
 1782 to 1788. Robertson, the contemporary 
 of Gibbon, published his History of Scotland 
 in 1759, and his History of the Reign of Charles 
 V. in 1769. Dr. Johnson, whose Ras.--i-f<i.<. 
 Lires of the Poets, and contributions to The 
 Rambler exercised such a salutary influence on 
 the popular taste of his time, died in 1784. 
 His Diciiiinarii of the English Language was 
 first published in 1755. Edmund Burke, one 
 of the most finished and powerful of English 
 orators, published, in 1756, his Essay on the 
 Sublime and Beautiful, which is a model of 
 philosophical writing. He died in 1797. 
 
 With the present century commenced a new 
 era in English literature. The reign of the 
 drama and the epic was over ; the reign of 
 romance, in both prose and poetry, and the 
 expression of a higher and more subtle range 
 of imagination now commenced. The lan- 
 guage lost something, perhaps, of its classic 
 polish and massive strength, but became more 
 free and flowing, more varied in style, and 
 richer in epithet. The authors in whom this 
 change is first apparent are Coleridge and 
 Wordsworth in poetry, and Scott in prose. 
 Nearly coeval with the two former, but differ- 
 ent in character, were Byron and Moore ; the 
 latter are the poets of passion, the former of 
 imagination. Scott, in his Waverley novels, 
 first developed the neglected wealth of English 
 romance. Burns, although his best songs are 
 in the Scottish dialect, stands at the head of 
 all English song writers. Campbell, in the 
 true lyric inspiration of his poems, is classed 
 with Gray. Rogers and Southey can hardly 
 be ranked among those poets who assisted in 
 developing the later English literature. The 
 former imitates the old models ; the latter, 
 more daring in his forms of verse and more 
 splendid in his imagination, has never been 
 able to touch the popular heart. Coleridge's 
 prose works contain probably the most impor- 
 tant contributions to English philosophical 
 
 literature since the time of Bacon. The de- 
 partment of history has been amply filled by 
 Scott, Alison, author of a History of Europe, 
 Gillies and Grote, celebrated for their Histories 
 of Greece, Napier in his History of the Peninsu- 
 lar War, Ilallam in his History of the Middle 
 Ages, and Macaulay in his History of England. 
 Leigh Hunt wrote The Rimini. The field of 
 historical romance opened by Sir Walter Scott 
 has been successfully followed by Sir Edward 
 Bulwer-Lytton and G. P. R. James. 
 
 As novelists of English life and society, 
 under all its aspects, Dickens and Thackeray 
 and Miss Bronte\ author of Shirley and Jane 
 Eyre stand preeminent. As essayists and 
 critics, the names of Lords Jeffrey and 
 Brougham, Sidney Smith, Macaulay, Professor 
 Wilson, De Quincey, Carlyle, and Stevens 
 surpass even the group who produced The 
 Taller and The Spectator. Carlyle, in his 
 Sartor Resartus, Past and Present, and Heroes 
 and Hero Worship, has made use of an idiom 
 of his own a broken, involved, German- 
 esque diction, which resembles that of no 
 other English author. Some of the most 
 prominent English poets of this period are 
 Lord Byron, Shelley, Thomas Moore, Leigh 
 Hunt, Rogers, Alfre'd Tennyson, Milnes, 
 Barry Cornwall, Robert Browning, Elizabeth 
 Barrett Browning, probably the most impas- 
 sioned and imaginative of English female 
 authors, Walter Savage Landor, Mary How- 
 itt, R. H. Home, author of Orion, Croly, 
 Philip James Bailey, author of Festus, and 
 T. N. Talfourd, author of the tragedy of Ion. 
 Among later writers of poetry, Matthew 
 Arnold has Avritten some of the most refined 
 verse of our generation, and among critics 
 holds the first rank. Algernon Swinburne 
 excels all living poets in his marvelous gift of 
 rhythm and command over the resources of 
 the language. Dante Rossetti had great lyrical 
 power ; Edwin Arnold has extraordinary pop- 
 ularity in the United States for his remark- 
 able poem, The Light of Asia, and for other 
 poems on Oriental subjects. Among other 
 poets of the present generation whose wi'itings 
 are marked by excellences of various kinds 
 are Lord Lytton ("Owen Meredith"), Wil- 
 liam Morris, Edmund Gosse, Austin Dobson, 
 Andrew Lang, and Philip Marston. Among 
 female writers, the poems of Jean Ingelow 
 have a merited popularity ; those of Adelaide 
 Procter are pervaded by a beautiful spirit of 
 faith and hope ; while Christina Rossetti 
 shows great originality and deep feeling. 
 Chief in the field of fiction are the writings o2 
 " George Eliot," a woman of rare genius, 
 whose works are among the greatest Englar.d 
 has produced. Anthony Trollope has produced
 
 166 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 many works remarkable for their accurate pic- 
 tures of English life and character. George 
 Macdonald and Wilkie Collins are novelists of 
 great merit, as are Mrs. Humphry Ward, 
 liudyard Kipling, and Richard Blackmore. 
 Among others in popular favor are William 
 Black, Mrs. Oliphant, Conan Doyle, and J. 
 M. Barrie. Charles Darwin and Herbert 
 Spencer have been the most distinguished 
 authors identified with the scientific and phil- 
 osophical aspects of evolution, and have had 
 a wide influence on contemporary thought. 
 Tyndall has done more than any other writer 
 to popularize great scientific truths. Huxley 
 stands foremost among physiologists and nat- 
 uralists. Among numerous other writers dis- 
 tinguished in various branches of science, a 
 few only can be here named. Walter Bagehot 
 writes of Political Society ; Alexander Bain 
 on Mind and Body ; Henry Maudsley on Brain 
 and Mind ; Norman Lockyer on Spectrum 
 Analysis ; and Sir John Lubbock on Natural 
 History. The most distinguished historian of 
 the times is James Anthony Froude, who 
 shows great vigor of thought and power of 
 description. The histories of John Richard 
 Green and E. A. Freeman are valuable for 
 their original research, and have wide celeb- 
 rity. Max Miiller has rendered important 
 service to the sciences of Philology and Eth- 
 nology. Lecky is eminent for his Rationalism 
 in Europe and History of Morals. Leslie 
 Stephen, John Morley, and John Addington 
 Symonds are distinguished in various depart- 
 ments of criticism and history. Thomas Hill 
 Green and James Martineau are masters of 
 Ethical Philosophy. John Stuart Mill holds 
 a high place as a writer on Political Economy. 
 All English works of any merit are now imme- 
 diately reprinted in this country, and the 
 English literature of the present century is as 
 familiar to most Americans as their own. 
 
 AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
 
 The literature of the United States belongs 
 almost exclusively to the present century. The 
 language being that of England, and all the 
 treasures of English literature the common in- 
 heritance of our countrymen, whatever Ameri- 
 can authors produce is necessarily measured by 
 the English standard. The language comes to us 
 finished and matured, while the means of intel- 
 lectual cultivation until a comparatively recent 
 period have been limited, and our abundant 
 stores of legend and history are still too fresh 
 to be available for the purpose of poetry and 
 fiction. The present generation, however, has 
 witnessed the growth of a national literature, 
 which, if not peculiarly American in language, 
 is at least so in style and the materials chosen. 
 
 The seventeenth century boasted two or 
 three authors, but none we believe native to 
 the soil. Mrs. Anne Bradstreet, wife of a 
 governor of Massachusetts, published in 1640, 
 a poem on the Four Elements, smoothly versi- 
 fied, but of little poetical merit. Cotton 
 Mather, born in 1663, is almost the only prose 
 writer worthy of note. His Magnolia contains 
 some valuable historical matter. The last 
 century produced some distinguished prose 
 writers and some accomplished versifiers, 
 though no poet in the true sense of the title. 
 Franklin, born in 1706, was master of a sin- 
 gularly clear, compact, and vigorous style. 
 Jonathan Edwards, who flourished during the 
 last century, wrote a celebrated treatise on the 
 Will, which is one of the first metaphysical 
 works in the language. The Revolutionary 
 struggle arid the circumstances which pre- 
 ceded and succeeded it, produced a number of 
 bold and brilliant writers and speakers, among 
 whom were Jefferson, Hamilton, the Adamses, 
 Richard Henry Lee, and Patrick Henry. The 
 diplomatic correspondence of the Revolution 
 has rarely been surpassed. Philip Freneau, 
 who has been called the first American poet, 
 wrote many patriotic songs, which were sung 
 during the struggle, but none have retained 
 their original vitality. Trumbull was the 
 author of a Hudibrastic poem entitled Mc- 
 Fingal, in which "the Tories were held up to 
 ridicule ; the first part was published in 1775. 
 Joel Barlow, who aspired to the rank of an 
 epic poet, published, in 1787, his Vision of 
 Columbus, which, in 1808, was expanded into 
 the Columbiad, and printed in what was then 
 a style of unusual magnificence. 
 
 Dana, Bryant, Washington Irving, Cooper, 
 Paulding, and Everett, were all born towards 
 the close of the last century. Dana may be 
 considered as the first genuine poet the United 
 States has produced. His Buccaneer is a 
 picturesque and striking poem, founded on a 
 legend of the pirates who formerly frequented 
 the American coast. Irving's Knickerbocker's 
 History of New York appeared in 1809, and 
 instantly gave him a position as a writer of 
 the purest style and of exquisite humor and 
 fancy. A Biography of Goldsmith,io whom he 
 has been compared, was published in 1849. 
 Many of his works among them The Sketch 
 Book, Brctcebrirfge Hall, The Alhambra, and 
 the Life of Columbus were first published in 
 England, where he lived many years. Cooper's 
 first essay in literature was a novel of society 
 entitled Precaution, but he subsequently con- 
 fined himself to the two fields in which he has 
 earned his best fame the forest and the 
 ocean. His most successful novels are The 
 Spy, The Pioneers, The Deerslayer, The Pilot,
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 167 
 
 and The Pathfinder. Bryant first attracted 
 notice by his poem of Thanatopsis, written in 
 his nineteenth year. His first volume, The 
 Ages, was published in 1825. William Ellery 
 Channing's essays, criticisms, and moral, 
 religious, and political writings won him much 
 celebrity as a prose writer. William Wirt. 
 author of The British Sj>y, a collection of 
 letters written in a chaste and elegant style ; 
 Charles Brockden Brown, the earliest Ameri- 
 can novelist, author of Wieland ; Richard 
 Henry Wilde, author of a Life of Taxso: Chief 
 Justice Marshall, who compiled a voluminous 
 Life of Washington ; Henry Wheaton, author 
 of standard works on law and political econ- 
 omy ; Judge Story, author of several celebrated 
 legal works ; Edgar Allan Poe, a most original 
 and strongly marked character, who wrote the 
 poem of The Raven and a number of weird 
 and fantastic prose stories ; Margaret Fuller, a 
 woman of remarkable acquirements, who has 
 left behind her much admirable descriptive 
 and critical writing, are all entitled to distin- 
 guished mention. 
 
 The stories and poems of N. P. Willis, as 
 well as his records of travels in Europe and 
 the East, are unsurpassed in point of bril- 
 liancy. Hawthorne, author of The Scarlet 
 Letter, The House of Seven Gables, and The 
 Marble Faun, is remarkable for the delicacy of 
 his psychological insight, his power of intense 
 characterization, and for his mastery of the 
 spiritual and the supernatural. His style is 
 the pure colorless medium of his thought ; the 
 plain current of his language is always equable, 
 full, and unvarying, whether in the company 
 of playful children, among the ancestral asso- 
 ciations of family or history, or in grappling 
 with the mysteries and terrors of the super- 
 natural world. Harriet Beecher Stowe, author 
 of Uncle Tom's Cabin, and a crowd of other 
 writers of various and high degrees of merit 
 and reputation, followed in almost unbroken 
 succession down to the present. Among these, 
 as writers of fiction, may be mentioned Wil- 
 liam Ware, author of Probus and Palmyra; 
 William Gilmore Simms, Oliver Wendell 
 Holmes, author of the Autocrat of the Break- 
 fast Table ; George William Curtis, Donald G. 
 Mitchell, William Dean Howells, Henry 
 James, Helen Hunt Jackson, Frances Hodgson 
 Burnett, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, Louisa M. 
 Alcott, F. Marion Crawford, George W. Cable, 
 F. J. Stimson, Edward Everett Hale, Bret 
 Harte, and Lew Wallace. Prominently de- 
 voted to poetry and criticism are Richard H. 
 Dana. Emerson, Longfellow, Lowell, Whit- 
 tier, Bayard Taylor, Walt Whitman, R. II. 
 Stoddard, T. B. Aldrich, R. W. Gilder, Edgar 
 Faucett, Joaquin Miller, James Whitcomb 
 
 Riley, John Hay, and Edmund Clarence Sted- 
 man. 
 
 To the historical school belong the names of 
 Prescott, Motley, Parkman, Bancroft, Hil- 
 dreth, Winsor, Fiske, and McMaster. The 
 works of Prescott are among the finest models 
 of historical composition, and they breathe 
 freely the spirit of our liberal institutions. 
 His History of Ferdinand and Isabella, of the 
 Conquest of Mexico, and the Conquest of Peru, 
 unite all the fascination of romantic fiction 
 with the grave interests of authentic events. 
 Motley's History of the Rise of the Dutch Re- 
 public is a work distinguished for its historical 
 accuracy, philosophical breadth of treatment, 
 and clearness and vigor of style. Bancroft 
 has written the most accurate and philosophical 
 account that has been given of the United 
 States", which has been worthily supplemented 
 by the volumes of McMaster. In Hildreth's 
 History of the United States, rhetorical grace 
 and effect give way to a plain narrative con- 
 fined to facts gleaned with great care and con- 
 scientiousness. The writing of Winsor and 
 Fiske has been confined to certain important 
 epochs. 
 
 Of the statesmen of the present century 
 who have contributed to our literature of ora- 
 tory, the most eminent are Webster, Clay, and 
 Calhoun. The speeches and forensic argu- 
 ments of Webster are remarkable for clear- 
 ness and impressiveness, and rise occasionally 
 to grandeur. The speeches of Clay are dis- 
 tinguished by a sincerity and warmth which 
 were characteristic of the man, who united 
 the gentlest affections with the pride of the 
 haughtiest manhood. His eloquence reached 
 the heart of the whole nation. The style of 
 John C. Calhoun was terse and condensed, 
 and his eloquence, though sometimes impas- 
 sioned, was always severe. He had great skill 
 as a dialectician and remarkable power of 
 analysis, and his works will have a permanent 
 place in American literature. The writings 
 and speeches of John Quincy Adams are dis- 
 tinguished by universality of knowledge and 
 independence of judgment, and they are re- 
 positories of rich materials for the historian 
 and political philosopher. Edward Everett, 
 as an orator, had few equals, and his occasional 
 addresses and orations have become permanent 
 memorials of many important occasions of 
 public interest. Of the numerous other ora- 
 tors, eminent as rhetoricians or debaters, a few 
 only can be named ; among them are Legar6, 
 Randolph, Choate, Sumner, Phillips, Preston, 
 Prentiss, Lincoln, and Robert G. Ingersoll. 
 
 Philosophy assumed its first distinctive char- 
 acter under the influence of the Transcendental 
 School of New England. The first to plant
 
 168 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the seeds of this philosophy was George Rip- 
 ley, a philanthropist of high ideals. Theo- 
 dore Parker owed his great power as a preacher 
 to his faith in the Transcendental philosophy. 
 The Absolute God, the Moral Law, and the 
 Immortal Life he held to be the three cardinal 
 attestations of the universal consciousness. 
 The first place, however, belongs to Ralph 
 Waldo Emerson, who lighted up its doctrines 
 with the rays of ethical and poetical imagina- 
 tion. With many inconsistencies to be allowed 
 for, he still remains the highest mind that the 
 world of letters has produced in America. 
 His essays are marvels of keen insight and 
 profound wisdom. Other writers identified 
 with the Transcendental movement are O. B. 
 Frothingham, O. A. Brownson, James Free- 
 man Clarke, Henry D. Thoreau, A. Bronson 
 Alcott, C. P. Cranch, and Thomas Wentworth 
 Higginson, the latter one of the most delightful 
 prose writers of this generation. The most 
 distinguished philosophical writer of the pres- 
 ent day is Josiah Royce, a professor in Harvard 
 University, with whom must be mentioned John 
 Fiske, William James, Andrew D. White, 
 Joseph Le Conte, and George T. Ladd. 
 
 The physical sciences, from an early period, 
 have found able investigators in the United 
 States, and the fields of theology, economy, 
 and jurisprudence have furnished many hon- 
 orable names. Among scientists those most 
 prominent in chemistry and physics are Ben- 
 jamin Franklin, Morse, Hare, Silliman, 
 Henry, Edison, Remsen, and Rowland ; in 
 geology, Dana, Hitchcock, Hall, Hodge, Owen, 
 Whitney, Le Conte ; in botany, Torrey, Gray, 
 Bessey, ' Coulter, and Campbell ; in natural 
 history, Holbrook, Audubon, Agassiz, Henry, 
 and Jordan ; in political economy, Henry C. 
 Carey, Francis A. Walker, and Henry George ; 
 in psychology, William James and G. Stanley 
 Hall. 
 
 French Academy, The, was created by 
 Louis XIV. in 1635. Its original pursuits were 
 eloquence and poetry. In 1648 it was ex- 
 tended to the fine arts; and in 1666, by Col- 
 bert, to the arts and sciences. 
 
 Scandinavians anciently employed an 
 alphabet of letters formed principally of 
 straight lines, which has been called Runic, 
 from an Icelandic word runa, meaning a fur- 
 row or line. 
 
 Volapiik. This so-called universal lan- 
 guage was invented in 1879, by Johann Martin 
 Schleyer, a Swabian pastor and latterly a 
 teacher in Constance. Of the vocabulary, 
 about one third is of English origin, while the 
 Latin and Romance languages furnish a fourth. 
 The grammar is simplified to the utmost. 
 The most practical disciples limit their aims 
 
 to making Volapiik a convenience for com 
 mercial correspondence, a kind of extended 
 international code. 
 
 Sanskrit is one of the Indo-European 
 group of languages, intimately connected with 
 the Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Slavo- 
 nian, and Celtic languages. It is the classical 
 language of the Hindus, and the parent of all 
 the modern Aryan languages of India. It 
 ceased to be a spoken language about the sec- 
 ond century B. C. Sanskrit literature, which 
 extends back to at least 1500 B. C., and is 
 very voluminous, was introduced to the west- 
 ern world by Sir William Jones, who founded 
 the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1784. 
 
 Languages of the World. It has 
 j been estimated that there are over 3000 lan- 
 guages in the world. English is spoken by 
 above 130,000,000 of the human race ; Ger- 
 man by 100,000,000 ; Russian by 70,000,000 ; 
 ; French by 45,000,000; Spanish by 40,000,- 
 000 ; Italian by 30,000,000, and Portuguese by 
 13,000,000. 
 
 English is spoken by 4,000,000 Canadians ; 
 over 3, 500, 000 West Indians; 3,000,000 Aus- 
 tralians ; 1,000,000 East Indians ; 38,000,000 
 in the British Isles, and 65,000,000 in Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 German is spoken by 2,000,000 in the 
 United States and Canada ; 2,000,000 in 
 Switzerland ; 40,000 Belgians ; 46,000,000 in 
 the German Empire, and 10,000,000 in the 
 Austro-Hungarian Empire. 
 
 French is spoken by 2,250,000 Belgians ; 
 1,000,000 in the United States and Canada ; 
 1,000,000 in Algiers, India, and Africa: 
 600,000 Swiss ; 600,000 in Hayti ; 200,000 in 
 Alsace-Lorraine, and 38,000,000 in France. 
 
 Troubadours were minstrels of southern 
 France in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth 
 centuries. They were the first to discard Latin 
 and use the native tongue in their composi- 
 tions. Their poetry was either about love and 
 gallantry, or war and chivalry. In northern 
 France they were called Trouveres and the 
 language employed was the Walloon. 
 
 Grub Street, London, is thus described 
 in Dr. Johnson's Dictionary: "Originally 
 the name of a street near Moorfields, in Lon- 
 don, much inhabited by writers of small his- 
 tories, dictionaries, and temporary poems, 
 whence any production is called Grub Street." 
 Andrew Marvell used the name in its appro- 
 priate sense, which later was freely used by 
 Pope, Swift, and others. 
 
 Madrigal is a short lyric poem, generally 
 on the subject of love, and characterized by 
 some epigrammatic terseness or quaintness. It 
 was written as a rule in iambic meter, and 
 contained not less than six or more than thir-
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 169 
 
 teen lines, and ran chiefly upon three rhymes. 
 The name is also applied to the music for a 
 simple song sung in a rich, artistic style but 
 without musical accompaniment. 
 
 Minnesingers, The, were love poets, 
 contemporary in Germany with the House of 
 Honenstauffen. Though called love singers, 
 some of their poems were national ballads, 
 and some were extended romances. Walter of 
 Vogelweide was by far the best of the lyrists ; 
 Heinrich of Yeldig was the most naive and 
 ingenuous ; Hartman the most classical ; Wol- 
 fram the most sublime, and Gottfried the 
 most licentious. 
 
 Iliad, The, is the tale of the siege of Troy, 
 an epic poem in 24 books by Homer. Mene- 
 laus, King of Sparta, received as a guest, Paris, 
 a son of Priam, King of Troy. Paris eloped 
 with Helen, his host's wife, and Menelaus in- 
 duced the Greeks to lay siege to Troy to avenge 
 the perfidy. The siege lasted ten years, when 
 Troy was taken and burned to the ground. 
 Homer's poem is confined to the last year of 
 the siege. 
 
 Lorelei, famed in song and story, is a rock 
 which rises perpendicularly from the Rhine to 
 the height of 427 feet, near St. Goar. It was 
 formerly dangerous to boatmen, and has a 
 celebrated echo. The name is best known 
 from Heine's "Song of the Siren," who sits 
 on the rock, combing her long tresses, and 
 singing so ravishingly, that the boatmen, en- 
 chanted by the music of her voice, forget their 
 duty, and are drawn upon the rock and perish. 
 
 Beauty and the Beast. This venerable 
 story, from Les Contes Marines, of Mme. Ville- 
 neuve (1740), is, perhaps, the most beautiful 
 of all nursery tales. A young and lovely 
 woman saved her father by putting herself in 
 the power of a frightful but kind-hearted 
 monster, whose respectful affection and melan- 
 choly overcame her aversion to his ugliness, 
 and she consented to become his bride. Being 
 thus freed from enchantment the monster as- 
 sumed his proper form and became a young 
 and handsome prince. 
 
 .i^Eiieid, The, Virgil's epic poem, is con- 
 tained in twelve books. When Troy was taken 
 by the Greeks and set on fire, JEneas, with his 
 father, son, and wife, took flight, with the in- 
 tention of going to Italy, the original birth- 
 place of the family. The wife was lost, and 
 the old man died on the way ; but, after nu- 
 merous perils by sea and land, .Eneas and his 
 son Ascanius reached Italy. Here Latinus. 
 the reigning king, received the exiles hospita- 
 bly, and promised his daughter Lavinia in 
 marriage to ^Eneas ; but she had been already 
 betrothed by her mother to Prince Turnus, son 
 of Valmus, king of Rutuli, and Turnus would 
 
 not forego his claim. Latinus, in this dilemma, 
 said the rivals must settle the dispute by an 
 appeal to arms. Turnus being slain, JEneas 
 married Lavinia, and ere long succeeded his 
 father-in-law in the throne. 
 
 Gesta Romaiiorum, the deeds of the 
 Romans, is the title of a collection of short 
 stories and legends in the Latin tongue, widely 
 spread during the Middle Ages, but of the 
 authorship of which little is known save that 
 it took its present form most likely in England, 
 about the end of the thirteenth or the begin- 
 ning of the fourteenth century. The stories 
 are invariably moralized, and, indeed, this 
 edifying purpose throughout is the sole unify- 
 ing element of the collection. The title is 
 only so far descriptive as the nucleus of the 
 collection consists of stories from Roman his- 
 tory, or rather pieces from Roman writers, not 
 necessarily of any greater historical value than 
 that of Androcles -and the Lion from Allus 
 Gallius. Moralized, mystical, and religious 
 tales, as well as other pieces, many of ultimate 
 oriental origin, were afterwards added, and 
 upon them edifying conclusions hung, bring- 
 ing the whole up to about 180 chapters. 
 
 Bluebeard is the hero of the well-known 
 nursery tale, and is so named from the color 
 of his beard. The story is widely known in 
 Western Europe, but the form in which it has 
 become familiar is a free translation of that 
 given by Perrault in 1697. In this story 
 Bluebeard is a Signeur of great wealth, who 
 marries the daughter of a neighbor in the 
 country and a month after the wedding goes 
 from home on a journey leaving his wife the 
 keys of his castle, but forbidding her to enter 
 one room. She cannot resist her curiosity, 
 opens the door, to find the bodies of all Blue- 
 beard's former wives, and at once sees the fate 
 to which she herself is doomed. Bluebeard, 
 on his return, discovers from a spot of blood 
 upon the key w r hich could not be cleaned off, 
 that his wife had broken his command and 
 tells her that she must die. She begs for a 
 short respite to commend herself to God, sends 
 her sister Anne to the top of the tower to 
 seek for help and finally is just on the point of 
 having her head cut off, when her two brothers 
 burst in dnd dispatch Bluebeard. There are 
 many versions of the story, all agreeing in es- 
 sential details. It is found in the German, 
 French, Greek, Tuscan, Icelandic, Esthonian, 
 Gaelic, and Basque folklore. 
 
 Sagas, The, belong to the Xorse literature 
 and are generally books in the form of a tale, 
 like a Welch " mahinogi." " Edda " was the 
 name of the Bible of the ancient Scandinavi- 
 ans. In the Edda there are numerous Sagas. 
 As our Bible contains the history of the Jews,
 
 170 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 religious songs, moral proverbs, and religious 
 stories, so the Edda contains the history of 
 Xorway, religious songs, a book of proverbs, 
 and numerous stories. The original Edda was 
 compiled and edited by Saemun Sigfusson, an 
 Icelandic priest, in the eleventh century. It 
 contains twenty-eight parts or books, all of 
 which are in verse. 
 
 Two hundred years later, Snorro Sturles- 
 son, of Iceland, abridged, re-arranged, and 
 reduced the prose of the Edda, giving the vari- 
 ous parts a kind of dramatic form like the 
 Dialogues of Plato. It then became need- 
 ful to distinguish between the two works ; 
 so the old poetical compilation is called the 
 Elder or Rhythmical Edda, while the more 
 modern work is called the Younger or Prose 
 Edda, and sometimes the Snorro Edda. The 
 Younger Edda is, however, partly original, 
 containing the discourse of Bragi on the 
 Origin of Poetry ; here, too, we find the 
 famous story called by the Germans " Nibe- 
 lungen-Lied." Beside the Sagas contained in 
 the Eddas there are a number of productions 
 of various forms. 
 
 Miracle Plays, The, were founded on the 
 historical parts of the Old and New Testa- 
 ments and on the lives of the saints. They 
 were performed at first in churches, and after- 
 wards on platforms in the streets. Their de- 
 sign was to instruct the people in Bible his- 
 tory ; but long before the Reformation, they 
 had so far departed from their original charac- 
 ter as to bring contempt upon the church and 
 religion. The exhibition of a single play 
 often occupied several days. The earliest re- 
 corded Miracle Play took place in England in 
 the beginning of the twelfth century ; but they 
 soon became popular in France, Germany, 
 Spain, and Italy. 
 
 In Germany these plays, with one excep- 
 tion, were suppressed in the year 1779. The vil- 
 lages of Oberammergau in the Bavarian High- 
 lands, had, upon the cessation of a piny, in 
 1633, vowed to perform the "Passion, of Our 
 Saviour " every tenth year out of gratitude, 
 and also as a means of instruction to the peo- 
 ple. The pleading of a deputation of Oberam- 
 mergau peasants with Maximilian II. of Ba- 
 varia, saved their play from general Condemna- 
 tion. The play was remodeled and is per- 
 haps the only Miracle Play that survives to 
 the present day. The performance lasts for 
 eight hours with an intermission of one hour 
 at noon ; and though occurring only once in 
 a decade is repeated on several Sundays in 
 succession during the season. The characters 
 in the play number about 500. The person- 
 ator of the Saviour seems to regard the per- 
 formance of his part as an act of religious 
 
 worship ; and the other important actors are 
 said to be selected for their holy life and to be 
 consecrated to their work with prayer. Travel- 
 ers from all parts of the world flock to 
 Oberammergau during the time announced 
 for its representation. 
 
 Cid Campeatlor, historically Roderigo 
 Diaz, the noted Spanish warrior, is so inter- 
 mingled with fable that it is almost impossible 
 to get at the truth. His career is celebrated 
 in the Spanish Epic, " Poem of the Cid." 
 From this poem and other Spanish works 
 Southey translated and compiled his " Chroni- 
 cle of the Cid." 
 
 The Cid is supposed to have been born 
 about the year 1026, and to have died at 
 Valentia, 1099. He was such a terror to the 
 Moors, and seemed so superior to all others, 
 that he was called El Seid (Arabic for the 
 Lord) ; and finally Cid Campeador (Lord 
 Champion). 
 
 Rebecca, of Ivanhoe. Sir Walter Scott's 
 model for this character was a young woman, 
 Rebecca Gratz by name, of an honorable 
 Jewish family of Philadelphia. She was born 
 on the 4th of March, 1781, andin her younger 
 days, and even beyond middle life, possessed 
 singular beauty. She was noted for her be- 
 nevolent and charitable life and for her devo- 
 tion to the Jewish faith. One of the most 
 intimate friends of her family was Washing- 
 ton Irving, who in the fall of 1817 first 
 introduced the character to the notice of Scott 
 during his visit to Abbotsford. During one 
 of their many conversations, Irving spoke of 
 his friend Rebecca Gratz of Philadelphia, de- 
 scribed her wonderful beauty, and related the 
 story of her firm adherence to her religious 
 faith. Scott was deeply interested and con- 
 ceived the plan of embodying a character like 
 hers in one of his novels. Shortly after this 
 he wrote Ivanhoe, and named his heroine 
 Rebecca. 
 
 Romance of the Rose, the Iliad of 
 France, is a poetical allegory begun by Guil- 
 laume de Loris in the latter part of the thir- 
 teenth century and continued by Jean de Munge 
 in the fourteenth century. The poet dreams 
 that Dame Idleness conducts him to the palace 
 of pleasure, where he meets Love, whose at- 
 tendant maidens are Sweet Looks, Courtesy, 
 Youth, Joy, and Competence; by them he is 
 conducted to a bed of roses. He has just 
 singled out one rose when an arrow from 
 Love's bow stretches him fainting on the 
 ground and he is carried away. When he is 
 revived he resolves to find his rose, and Wel- 
 come promises to aid him. Shyness, Fear, and 
 Slander obstruct his way ; Reason advises him 
 to give up the quest ; Pity and Kindness show
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 171 
 
 Mm the object of his search ; but Jealousy 
 seizes Welcome and locks her in Fear Castle. 
 Here the original poem ends. The sequel 
 takes up the tale at this point, and is an ex- 
 traordinary mixture of erudition and satire. 
 The poem reached the height of its popularity 
 in the sixteenth century. 
 
 A Curious Book. A book belonging to 
 the family of Prince De Ligne of France is 
 said to be the most curious book in the world, 
 because it is neither written nor printed. The 
 letters of the text are cut out of each folio 
 upon the finest vellum; and, being interleaved 
 with blue paper, it is as easy to read as print. 
 The labor bestowed upon it was excessive. 
 Rudolph II. of Germany offered for it, in 
 1640, $60,000. 
 
 Koran, The, in the Arabic language sig- 
 nifies "The Reading." That Mohammed is 
 the real author of the Koran there is no doubt ; | 
 but the Mohammedans steadfastly deny it to 
 be the work of their prophet, the orthodox 
 among them believing it to be of divine origin. 
 Mohammed left his revelations written upon 
 palm leaves and skin, which were thrown 
 promiscuously into a chest, bearing no dates 
 but merely the places of revelation ; some are 
 marked Mecca and some Medina. Three years 
 after the death of the prophet, in 635, Aby- 
 Bekr collected and published these articles in 
 the form of what is now called the Koran. 
 
 Goethe, the acknowledged prince of Ger- 
 man literature, was born at Fraukfort-on-the- 
 Main, August 28, 1749, and died in Weimar 
 on March 22, 1832. His greatest work is 
 Faust, but it can never become popular, be- 
 cause its wisdom does not lie on the surface. 
 When he had finished it, he said the work of 
 his life was done. Hermann and Dorothea is 
 as immortal as the Virar of Wake field. The 
 Sorrows of Werther brought him equal fame. 
 It is said that the W T erther fever ran so high 
 that in some countries booksellers were for- 
 bidden by law to sell it. Young women cried 
 over it, and young men shot themselves with 
 a copy of Werther in their hand. 
 
 Classic and Romantic Literature. 
 The term classic has. ever since the second cen- 
 tury, been applied to writers of the highest 
 rank. Latterly it has come to designate the 
 best writers of ancient Greece and Rome. 
 Romantic literature was the term first used in 
 Germany, about the beginning of the present 
 century, by a number of young poets and 
 critics who wished to indicate that they sought 
 the essence of art and poetry in the wonderful 
 and fantastic. 
 
 Telemachus was written by Frangois Fen- 
 elon, Archbishop of Cambrey. It is a French 
 prose epic, in 24 books, and contains the 
 
 adventures of Telemachus, the only son of 
 Ulysses and Penelope, while in search pf his 
 father, who had been absent thirty years from 
 his home. Telemachus is accompanied by the 
 god of wisdom under the form of Mentor. 
 , There is perhaps no book in the French lan- 
 guage which has been more read, and it is a 
 class book in almost every European school. 
 
 Dante is called the father of Italian litera- 
 ture. Before his time the poets of northern 
 Italy wrote in the Provencal language, which 
 was the dialect spoken chiefly in southern 
 France. But Dante wrote in Italian, and from 
 his time the Italian became a real language. 
 
 His great work is the " Divine Comedy," 
 an epic poem consisting of three parts, viz. : 
 hell, purgatory, and paradise. This poem is 
 an allegory conceived in the form of a vision, 
 which was the most popular style of poetry in 
 that age. As a poem, it is of the highest 
 order, and ranks Dante with Homer and 
 Milton. 
 
 Songs of the Gondoliers. For more 
 than two hundred years the gondoliers of 
 Venice sang no other songs than strophes from 
 Tasso's immortal epic, "Jerusalem Delivered." 
 This poem commemorates the delivery of Jeru- . 
 salem from the Saracens ; and the hero of the 
 poem is Godfrey de Bouillon, the first Christian 
 king of Jerusalem. Tasso was born at Sorrento 
 in 1544. He became melancholy, and was for 
 seven years confined by the Duke Alfonso in 
 an insane asylum. When released he went to 
 Naples. Pope Clement VIII. invited him to 
 Rome to receive the laurel crown of poet ; but 
 he died before the ceremony took place, April, 
 1595, and was buried on the day on which he 
 was to have been crowned. 
 
 Writing, History of. The very first 
 origin of the art of writing has been a matter 
 of speculation from the earliest times. The 
 myths of antiquity ascribe it to Thoth, or to 
 Cadmus, which only denotes their belief in its 
 being brought from the Fast, or being, per- 
 haps, primeval. The Talmud ascribes it to a 
 special revelation. Unquestionably the first 
 step toward writing was rude pictorial repre- 
 sentations of objects, the next the application 
 of a symbolic meaning to some of these pic- 
 tures, and gradually all pictures became sym- 
 bolic, and for convenience were abbreviated-. 
 Later they became conventional signs, and in. 
 time they were made to stand for the sounds 
 of spoken language. The various systems of 
 writing of the ancient world had probably at 
 least three sources the Egyptian, the Assyr- 
 ian, and the Chinese systems all of which 
 were originally hieroglyphics, or made up of 
 pictures. The Egyptians had four distinct 
 styles of writing the hieroglyphics, hieratic,
 
 172 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 enchorial, and Coptic. The hieroglyphic was 
 probably in use before 4,000 B. C., and at 
 first was made up entirely of pictures ; but 
 about 2,000 B. C. the hieratic form was intro- 
 duced, in which the hieroglyphs were greatly 
 simplified, and developed into purely linear 
 forms. The enchorial form of writing was in 
 use from 700 B. C. to A. D. 200, and was a 
 still further simplification of the earlier forms, 
 finally developing into the alphabetic form 
 known as the Coptic. The cuneiform writing 
 of the Assyrian empire disputes the honors of 
 antiquity with the Egyptian early forms. This 
 was probably hieroglyphic in its origin, but 
 became modified by the different nations occu- 
 pying the Assyrian empire until it assumed the 
 form of the inscriptions as known to archaeol- 
 ogists. The name of this writing is from a 
 Latin word meaning a wedge, and it is so 
 called because all the characters used are made 
 up of different arrangements of a single pointed 
 figure resembling a wedge in form. There 
 were three classes of cuneiform characters used 
 in the period of development of this form of 
 writing; first, the Assyrian or Babylonian, 
 which was very complicated, containing from 
 six hundred to seven hundred symbols ; the 
 Scythian or Median, having about one hundred 
 characters only ; and the third, the Persian, 
 which is purely alphabetic. The Chinese 
 gives an example of a written language which 
 was arrested in an early period of its develop- 
 ment, before the alphabetic stage had been 
 reached. The people of China still use a writ- 
 ten character for a word, as they did thou- 
 sands of years ago. The Egyptian is the most 
 important of those early systems, as from it 
 was probably derived the Phoenician alphabet, 
 which became the parent of all the graphic 
 systems of the modern world. The Egyptians 
 never fully separated the hieroglyphic and 
 phonetic symbols, but the Phoenicians adopted 
 the latter only, and thus originated the first 
 purely alphabetic plan of writing. The Phoe- 
 nician alphabet was the parent of five principal 
 branches of graphic forms, the most important 
 of which is the Greek, which was the parent 
 of the Roman alphabet, from which sprung 
 the alphabets of all modern European nations, 
 and those taken from them by the people who 
 now inhabit the Western hemisphere. 
 
 Capital letters were first invented, and were 
 in use for many centuries before the invention 
 of small letters. The oldest manuscripts now 
 in use, dating as far back as the third century. 
 are written entirely in ca'pitals, and without 
 spacing between the words, or marks of punc- 
 tuation. The small letters were first introduced 
 about the seventh century. 
 
 Punctuation was unknown to the ancients. 
 
 Aristophanes of Alexandria, about two and a 
 half centuries before the Christian era, intro- 
 duced some of the marks now used. But it 
 was not until about the year 1500 A. D., that 
 Aldus Manutius, a learned printer of Venice, 
 reduced the art of punctuation to a system. 
 
 Surnames are so called from the early 
 practice of writing them over the Christian 
 names. In modern times they were first used 
 in France, particularly in Normandy, where 
 they can be traced to the latter part of the 
 tenth century. They were introduced into 
 England by the Normans after the conquest. 
 The ancient Hebrews, Egyptians, Syrians, Per- 
 sians, and others had but a single name which 
 was generally significant of some feature con- 
 nected with their birth. Thus, Rachel, dying, 
 had called her child Benoni, " the son of my 
 sorrow"; but Jacob gave him the name of 
 Benjamin, " the son of my strength." These 
 simple names, however, soon became so com- 
 mon to many owners, that they failed to con- 
 vey individuality ;. and this led to the addition 
 of other designations, now known to us as 
 surnames. Only about a thousand surnames 
 were taken up by the most noble families in 
 France and in England about the time of 
 Edward the Confessor. The lower nobility 
 did not follow this example before the twelf 1 h 
 century and the citizens and husbandmen had 
 no family names before the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. English names have recruits among 
 them from almost every race. 
 
 The three most numerous patronymics of 
 Celtic origin now in use among the English 
 are the O, the Mac, and the Ap. The Irish O 
 originally meant grandson, the Scotch Mac 
 and the Welch Ap meaning son. 
 
 The Jews were the last to adopt surnames, 
 and it is only within the past hundred years 
 that they were compelled by law to adopt them 
 in England. 
 
 Sacred Books of the Hindus are of 
 great antiquity. The oldest of their sacred 
 books, the Vedas (knowledge or science), con- 
 tain the revelation of Brahma, and were pre- 
 served by tradition until collected by Yyasa. 
 The Yedas are three in number : first, the 
 Rig- Veda containing hymns and mystic pray- 
 ers ; second, the Yajur-Veda containing the 
 religious rites; third, the Sama-Veda, with 
 prayers in the form of songs. The Vedas were 
 written in Sanskrit and were first translated 
 into English by Sir William Jones. The whole 
 life of Ancient India is found in the Vedas, 
 the Puranas, and the two great epics, called 
 the Ramayana nnd the Mahabharata. 
 
 The Ramayana contains about 50,000 lines 
 describing the youth of Rama who is an in- 
 carnation of their God Vishnu ; his banish-
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 173 
 
 ment and residence in central India. The 
 Mahabharata of later date consists of about 
 220,000 lines and is divided into eighteen 
 books. Five brothers, the descendants of Bhar- 
 ata are the heroes of the Mahabharata ; and 
 episodes in the lives of these heroes occupy 
 three fourths of the poem. The Puranas re- 
 late largely to mythological legends. The gods 
 Siva and Vishnu are the sole objects of wor- 
 ship in the Puranas. 
 
 Pilgrim's Progress, the chief work of 
 John Banyan, has gone through more editions 
 and been translated into more languages, than 
 any book, except the Bible. It is an allegory 
 of a Christian's life from the time of his con- 
 version to that of his death. The book was 
 written during the author's incarceration in 
 Bedford jail, where he passed twelve years of 
 his life. He was born near Bedford, in Eng- 
 land, in 1628, in 1655 became a Baptist minis- 
 ter and preached with great success until the 
 restoration of Charles II., when an act against 
 conventicles was passed, which put an end to 
 his labors. His trial, conviction, and sentence 
 followed. He was several times offered his 
 liberty on the condition that he would give up 
 preaching ; but his answer was always, ' ' If you 
 let me out to-day, I will preach again to-mor- 
 row." He died in London, 1688. 
 
 Latin language first appears in literature 
 as a written language as well as spoken, in the 
 plain of Latium in the third century B. C. 
 The conquering armies of Rome soon carried 
 a knowledge of the Latin tongue to the iitmost 
 boundaries of the known world. Hence its 
 presence is discernible in all European lan- 
 guages. Those languages which are the im- 
 mediate offspring of the Latin, as the Italian, 
 Spanish, Portuguese, and French, both Nor- 
 man and Provengal, are called the Romance 
 languages. Wallachian, the language of Ron- 
 mania, in which Latin predominates, has not 
 until lately been classified with the Latin lan- 
 guage. Latin ceased to be a spoken language 
 about 580 A. D. 
 
 Poet Laureate means " The Poet of the 
 Laurel Wreath." It was the custom in early 
 Greece to crown with a laurel wreath the suc- 
 cessful poet in a contest ; this custom was 
 adopted by the Romans during the Empire. 
 But the title of "Poet Laureate" originated 
 in Germany during the twelfth century, when 
 the ancient ceremony of crowning the poet par 
 excellence was revived. The early history of 
 the Laureateship in England is traditional. 
 The story goes that Edward III., following the 
 example of the coronation of Petrarch at Rome, 
 conferred a similar honor npon Geoffrey Chau- 
 cer with the yearly pension of 100 marks and 
 other perquisites. Although the Laureateship 
 
 was generally recognized, it did not become an 
 established office until 1619, with Ben Jonson. 
 
 Hungarian Literature is in the main 
 confined to the Magyar language, which bears 
 a resemblance to the Turkish. It is only of 
 late years that this literature has assumed a 
 popular character. The native language was 
 excluded from public and official documents 
 for eight centuries, but, notwithstanding this 
 fact, the Hungarians possess to-day a litera- 
 ture, which, both in regard to quantity and 
 quality, will sustain comparison with that of 
 the most civilized of western nations. The 
 Latin language was introduced about 1000 
 A. D. and became the tongue of both church and 
 state until the close of the fifteenth century. 
 The Hungarian language was revived in the 
 sixteenth century and became the sole vehicle 
 for sacred poetry. Translations of the Bible 
 were multiplied, chronicles, histories, gram- 
 mars, and dictionaries were published, and the 
 period from 1702 to 1780 probably marks the 
 Golden Age of literature in Hungary. But 
 the native language suffered a severe reverse 
 when the country came under the absolute do- 
 minion of Austria. 
 
 Renaissance, The, means simply a new 
 birth or revival ; but the word is always un- 
 derstood to mean a revival in learning. The 
 period known as the Renaissance dates from 
 the taking of Constantinople by the Turks 
 (145-3), but long before that epoch the love for 
 classical literature had been reviving. This 
 event, however, gave a decided impulse to the 
 revival of learning in western Europe ; the 
 learned men of the Greek or eastern empire 
 sought new homes in the Occident and estab- 
 lished schools throughout Europe. The revi- 
 val of learning, the invention of printing, the 
 discovery of the new world, the decline of feu- 
 dalism, the elevation of the middle classes, all 
 contributed to bring about the Renaissance. 
 It reached its climax about the beginning of 
 the present century. 
 
 Theatrical Performances have been 
 traced to the Grecian custom of celebrating 
 every spring, in Athens, a festival in honor of 
 Bacchus. Thespis originated the custom of 
 introducing a single speaker to amuse the 
 company with recitations. He also invented a 
 movable car on which his performances were 
 exhibited in various places. Theatrical per- 
 formers are still called thespians. The car of 
 Thespis w T as soon exchanged for a permanent 
 stage in the Temple of Bacchus. ^Bschylus 
 soon added a second speaker and a chorus, 
 masks, scenery, etc., and is therefore called 
 the " Father of Tragedy." At the festivals 
 of Bacchus new plays were brought out yearly 
 in competition. JEschylus won the prize every
 
 174 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 year until he was fifty-six years old, when he 
 was defeated by Sophocles. Greek comedy de- 
 rived its origin from the revels of the Comus 
 (God of revelry) during the Bacchic festivals. 
 Its great master was Aristophanes, 444 B. C. 
 
 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 A bas. Down with. 
 
 A capite ad calcein. From head to foot. 
 
 A fin. To the end. 
 
 Afortiori. With stronger reason. 
 
 A V abandon. At random. 
 
 A la bonne heure. Opportunely ; in good time. 
 
 A la, dtrob&e.Ry stealth. 
 
 A la mode. According to the fashion. 
 
 A main annde. With force of arms. 
 
 A mensa ct thoro. From bed and board. 
 
 A posteriori. From effect to cause ; from the latter. 
 
 A priori. From cause to effect ; from the former. 
 
 A tempo giusto. To sing or play in true time. (Music.) 
 
 A tempo rimo. To restore the original movement. 
 (Music.) 
 
 A vinculo matrimonii. From the tie of marriage. 
 
 A votre sante. To your health. 
 
 Ab extra. From without. 
 
 Ab initio. From the beginning. 
 
 Ab origine. From the beginning. 
 
 Ab ovo. From the beginning. 
 
 Ab urbe conditd. From the building of the city (Rome) ; 
 abridged A. U. C. 
 
 Abit invidia. All offense apart ; let there be no malice. 
 
 Absit omen. May it not prove ominous. 
 
 Absque hoc. Without this or that. 
 
 Ac etiam. And also. 
 
 Actum est de republica. It is all over with the com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 Ad absurdum. To show the absurdity. 
 
 Ad arbitrium. At pleasure. 
 
 Ad astro, per aspera.To the stars through difficulties. 
 
 Ad captandum vulgus. To catch the mob or the vulgar. 
 
 Ad eundcm.lo the same point or degree. 
 
 Adfinem.lo the end. 
 
 Ad Grcecas Calendas. An indefinite postponement. 
 (The Greeks had no calends.) 
 
 Ad hominem. To the man (that is, to the interests or 
 the passions of the man). 
 
 Ad infinitum. Without end. 
 
 Ad inqulrendum. For inquiry. 
 
 Ad interim. In the meanwhile. 
 
 Ad libitum. At pleasure. 
 
 Adlitem. For tlie action (at law). 
 
 Ad nauseam,. To a disgusting degree. 
 
 Ad referendum. For further consideration. 
 
 Adrem. To the purpose. 
 
 Ad unguem. To the nail ; exactly ; nicely. 
 
 Ad valorem. According to the value. 
 
 Addendum. An addition or appendix. 
 
 Adhuc sub judice Us est. The affair is not yet decided. 
 
 uEgrescit medendo. The remedy is worse than the dis- 
 ease. 
 
 JEquam servare mentem. To preserve an equable mind. 
 
 JEquo animo. With an equable mind. 
 
 JfcVe perennius. More lasting than brass; enduring 
 ever. 
 
 Affaire du cozur. A love affair ; an amour. 
 
 Afflatus. Inspiration. 
 
 Agenda. Things to be done. 
 
 Agitato. A broken style of performance, to awaken 
 surprise. (Music.) 
 
 Agnus Dei. Lamb of God. 
 
 Aide-de-camp. Assistant to a general. 
 
 Aide-toi, et le del t'aidera. Help thyself, and Heaven 
 will help thee. 
 
 Alereflammam. To feed the flame. 
 
 Alfresco. In the open air. 
 
 Alga. A kind of seaweed. 
 
 Alguazil. A Spanish constable. 
 
 Alias. Otherwise; elsewhere. 
 
 Alibi. Elsewhere ; not present. 
 
 Alis volat propriis. She flies with her own wings. 
 
 Aliunde. Vrom. some other quarter or person. 
 
 Allegretto. A movement quicker than andante, but not 
 so quick as allegro. (Miisir.) 
 
 Allemande. A kind of German dance. 
 
 Alma, mater. Benign mother (applied to a university). 
 
 Alter ego. A second self . 
 
 Alto octavo, An. octave higher. 
 
 Alto relievo. High relief. (Sculpture*) 
 
 .11 1<> rijiieno. The tenor of a great chorus. 
 
 Alto riolino. A small tenor violin. 
 
 A in I- tide. Compensation; apology. 
 
 Ami diipeuple. Friend of the people. 
 
 Am if us cunte. A friend of the court. 
 
 Amorpatrice. Love of country. 
 
 Amowr propre, Self-loi'e; Vanity. 
 
 Ancien regime. Former administration ; ancient order 
 of things. 
 
 Andante. Moderately slow movement, between largo 
 and allegro. (Mrisic.) 
 
 Anglico. In English. 
 
 Anguis in herba. A snake in the grass. 
 
 Animis opibusque parati. Ever ready with our lives 
 and property. 
 
 Animo ctftdc. By (or with) courage and faith. 
 
 Animo facto. Really and truly. 
 
 Ani m iifsf/irtindi. Felonious intent. 
 
 Anno Domini. In the year of our Lord. 
 
 Anno I lid*. In the year of light. 
 
 Anno muntli. In the year of the world. 
 
 Ann us m irabilis. Year of wonders. 
 
 Ante, bfllinn . Before the war. 
 
 A/ife Incem. Before light. 
 
 Ante meridiem. Before noon. 
 
 Aperc/ii. A brief sketch of any subject. 
 
 Appoggiclura. A note in a smaller character than the 
 regular notes of the piece. (Music.) 
 
 Apropos (Fr. apropos). To the purpose. 
 
 At/iiaritcf.. Water of life; brandy. 
 
 Arbiter elegantiarum. Master of ceremonies; an um- 
 pire in matters of taste. 
 
 Arcana imperil. State secrets. 
 
 Arcanum. A secret. 
 
 Argumentum ad crumenam. An argument to the 
 purse. 
 
 Argumentum adfidem. An appeal to faith. 
 
 Argumentum, adhominem. An argument to the person. 
 
 Argumentum ad ignorantiam. An argument founded 
 on an adversary's ignorance of facts. 
 
 Argument tun cidjiidlciinn. An appeal to the common 
 sense of mankind. 
 
 Argumentum adpopulum. An appeal to the people. 
 
 Argumentum, ad verecundiam. An argument to mod- 
 esty. 
 
 Argumentum baculinum. Club law. 
 
 Arioso. Light, airy. 
 
 Armiger. One bearing arms ; an esquire. 
 
 Arpeggio. The notes of a chord played in rapid suc- 
 cession, and not simultaneously. (Music.) 
 
 Arrierc-x>cns6e. Mental reservation. 
 
 Ars est celare artem. True art is to conceal art. 
 
 Assumpsit. It is assumed or taken for granted. 
 
 Astra castra, Nmnen lumen. The stars my camp, the 
 Deity my light. 
 
 At spes nonfracta. But hope is not broken. 
 
 Aiij'nif. Well instructed; master of it. 
 
 Anfonrl. To the bottom, or main point. 
 
 An pied de la lettre. Literally. 
 
 Aupis filler. At the worst. 
 
 An rei-oir. Farewell. 
 
 . tin/ i n/teram partem. Hear the other side. 
 
 Aurapopulans. The gale of popular favor. 
 
 Anri nficra fames. The accursed thirst for gold. 
 
 Autre droit. Another's right. 
 
 Aiitrefois. Another time. 
 
 Autre ine. Another's life. 
 
 Aii-t vincereant mori. Victory or death. 
 
 Aulo-da-ff, Auto-de-fe. An act of faith; burning of 
 heretics. 
 
 Attrilivm /> alto. Help from on high. 
 
 Avant-coureur. A forerunner. 
 
 Avc, Maria. Hail, Mary. 
 
 Badinage. Light or playful discourse. 
 
 IliigateHe. A trifle. 
 
 HII'X bleu. A bluestocking ; a literary woman. 
 
 Basso-contimuo. Thoroughbass. 
 
 nnsKfi-rr/irrtt. Figures in low relief. 
 
 Bateau. A long light boat. 
 
 Jirini-ifle(il.\ model of ideal perfection. 
 
 lien ti. w on tic. The fashionable world. 
 
 lii'l es/-if.\ brilliant mind. 
 
 licllfi-donna. The deadly nightshade; fair lady. 
 
 Belles-lettres. Polite lite'rature. 
 
 Helium internecinum. A war of extermination. 
 
 Brlltim lethale. A deadly war. 
 
 Bene placito. At pleasure. (Music.} 
 
 Benigno numine,~-By the favor of Providence.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 175 
 
 Brn trovato. Well found ; an ingenious solution. 
 Ji'iiht-iinii.r. A love letter. 
 
 /;;,s tint niil citddat. He gives twice who gives promptly. 
 BispeccareinbeUo non licet. To blunder twice is not 
 
 allowed in war. 
 Bis riiu-it, fftii sr. rincit in i 'n-tnrid. He conquers a 
 
 second time, who controls himself in victory. 
 Bi-iirre. Odd; fantastic. 
 ISii t at. Surfeited. 
 
 Bon (jr& mal gr. "Willing or unwilling. 
 -Bo/ijot/r. Good-day ; good-morning. 
 Bun mat. A witty saying; a jest; a quibble. 
 Bon soir. Good evening. 
 Bonton. High fashion; first-class society. 
 Bon ru-nnt. Ahigh liver. 
 JSniii'tjidc. In good faith. 
 Jinii-liiiii.\. sweetmeat; confectionery. 
 Jlniiliniii ir. Good-natured simplicity. ' 
 Bunift noci-t quisqiiis peperrerit maJis. He hurts the 
 
 good who spares the bad. 
 Bonncbouche. A delicious morsel. 
 JJiiitH.-i.An extra payment for a service rendered or a 
 
 thing received. 
 Boreas. The north wind. 
 Boudoir. A small private apartment. 
 Bourgeois. A citizen of the trading class; a printing 
 
 type. 
 
 Bourgeoisie. The bodv of citizens. 
 Bni I'ura. A song of difficult execution. 
 BI-I rcte. Patented. 
 Brut inn. fulmen. Aharmless thunderbolt; unreasoning 
 
 bluster. 
 Burletta. A musical farce. 
 
 Cachet. A. seal. 
 
 Cacoethes. A bad habit or custom. 
 
 Cacoethes carpendi. A rage for finding fault. 
 
 Cacoethes loquendi. An itch for speaking. 
 
 (.'Hi-Hi tin .-i fi'-i-l/n iii/L A passion for writing^ 
 
 ( 'mil ,i-ii. The fall or modulation of the voice, in music. 
 
 Caeca, eat in ri'lia.En\\ is blind. 
 
 Cceterd dcxunt. The remainder is wanting. 
 
 i 'n ti-ris juiribiift. Other things being equal. 
 
 Calibre. Capacity or compass; mental power; a term 
 in gunnery. 
 
 I'niiii raobscura. A dark chamber used by artists. 
 
 fun, jut.* Marti"*. The field of Mars; a place of mili- 
 tary exercise. 
 
 Ciniiiifle.lhe rabble. 
 
 Candida Pax. White-robed Peace. 
 
 ' '" iitata. A jjoem set to music. 
 
 Cniitiite Domino. Sing to the Lord. 
 
 Cap-<i-pif. From head to foot. 
 
 Cn t ,ins adsatisfacietiflum. You may take to satisfy. 
 
 Caprii'i'io. A fanciful irregular kind of musical com- 
 position. 
 
 Capriole. A leap without advancing : capers. 
 
 j.'i.ijmt itiurtiiiiiit. Dead head ; the worthless remains. 
 
 Caret. Is wanting or omitted. 
 
 Cui-i t iiiitioetfine. It wants beginning and end. 
 
 Carpe diem. Enjoy the present day. 
 
 Carte blanche. L nconditional terms. 
 
 Casus belli. An occasion for war. 
 
 Casus fcederis. A case of conspiracy; the end of the 
 league. 
 
 Catalogue raisonne. A catalogue of books arranged 
 according to their subjects. 
 
 Cause celcbre. A remarkable trial in a court of justice. 
 
 ( 'n i.- 1 at actor. Let the doer beware. 
 
 Careat emptor. Let the purchaser take heed or beware. 
 
 Carendo tut UK. Safe through caution. 
 
 Ce n'estquelc _/</< //< /'< / /<".s qui coute. It is only the first 
 step which is difficult. 
 
 Cedant anna toga. Let military power yield to the 
 civil. 
 
 ' ' de Deo. Submit to Providence. 
 
 Ci i-fltii-iiri. To be made more certain. 
 
 Cessio bonomm. Yielding uj) of goods. 
 
 Crest tine autre chose. That is quite a different thing. 
 
 (.'lun-un a, son gout. Every one to his taste. 
 
 Clmnxtjii. A song. 
 
 ( 'liiiH.-ionnette.A. little song. 
 
 Chapeau. A hat. 
 
 Cliajitlle ardente. The place where a dead person lies 
 in state. 
 
 Chaperon. An attendant on a lady, as a guide and pro- 
 tector. 
 
 Chnrnt d'affaires. An ambassador of second rank. 
 
 Ch&teau. A castle ; a country mansion. 
 
 Chef-d'ceuvre.~A. masterpiece. 
 
 fhf'ilierd'industrie. A knight of industry; one who 
 
 lives by persevering fraud. 
 Cld face confessa. Silence is confession. 
 (h ifi ro-oseuro or Chiaroscuro. Light and shadow in 
 
 painting. 
 Chose qui platt est A demi vendue.A. thing which 
 
 pleases is already half sold. 
 < "i'-i rune. A guide or conductor. 
 ( iri.-ihco. A dangler after a lady. 
 Ci-devant. Formerly ; former. 
 Circa. About. 
 
 Citbmaturum ettb putridum. Soon ripe, soon rotten. 
 Clarior e tenebris. More bright from obscurity. 
 (Tui i ic. A party; a gang. 
 Cognomen. A surname. 
 Commeilfaut. As it should be. 
 ( 'mil ID une bonum. A common good. 
 Communia proprie dicere. To express common things 
 
 with propriety. 
 
 Communibus annis. One year with another. 
 Compos mentis. Of sound mind. 
 ( 'mi, a more. With love or hearty inclination. 
 Concio ad clerum. A discourse "to the clergy. 
 Conge, d'elire. Permission to elect. 
 Connoisseur. A skillful judge. 
 Consensus facet legein. Consent makes the law. 
 Contour. The outline of a figure. 
 Contra. Against. 
 
 Contra bonos mores. Against good manners. 
 Contretemps. A mischance; disappointment. 
 Coram nobis. Before us. 
 Coram non yudice. Before one who is not the proper 
 
 judge. 
 
 Cornucopia. The horn of plenty. 
 Corpus delicti. The whole nature of the offense. 
 Corrigenda. Corrections to be made. 
 Coryphaeus. A leader, or chief. 
 Cotillon. A lively dance. 
 Couleur de rose. Rose-color ; an aspect of beauty and 
 
 attractiveness. 
 
 Coup de grace. The finishing stroke. 
 Coup de main. A bold and rapid enterprise. 
 Cfnif) (/e pied.. A kick. 
 Coup de soleil. A stroke of the sun. 
 Cmip d'etat. A master stroke of state policy. 
 Coup d'o3il. Rapid view or glance. 
 ('iiutf f/n'il co&te. Cost what it may. 
 Credat Judceus. A Jew may believe it. 
 Crescit amor nummi quantum ipsa pecunia crescit. 
 
 The love of money increases as rapidly as the money 
 
 itself increases. 
 
 Crescit eundo. It increases by going. 
 Crescite et midtiplicamini. increase and multiply. 
 Crimenfalsi. Falsehood ; perjury. 
 Crux criticorum. The cross or puzzle of critics. 
 Cut bono? To whose good? 
 ' 'in i/ntlo? To whose narm? 
 Cul de sac. The bottom of the bag ; a difficulty ; a street 
 
 or lane that has no outlet. 
 Cum grano salis. With a grain of salt; with some 
 
 allowance. 
 
 Cum multis aliis. With many others. 
 Cumprivilegio. Withprivilege. 
 Curia advisari rult. The court wishes to be advised. 
 Curiosa felidtas. A felicitous tact. 
 Currente calamo. With a running pen; written 'off- 
 hand. 
 Custos rotulorum. Keeper of the rolls. 
 
 Da capo. Over again. 
 
 Damnant quod non intelligunt. They condemn what 
 they do not comprehend. 
 
 Data^fttiuge granted (sing, datum). 
 
 De bonisnon. Of the goods not yet administered on. 
 
 De die in diem. From day to day. 
 
 De facto. In fact; in reality. 
 
 DeougtUws non est disputaiidum . There is no disput- 
 ing about tastes. 
 
 Dejure. By law or right. 
 
 ]>i- mortotl* nil /W bonum. Say nothing but what is 
 good of the dead. 
 
 De novo. Anew. 
 
 Deprofimdis. Out of the depths. 
 
 Dctrop. Outof place: not wanted. 
 
 DebttojvgtititB. By debt of justice. 
 
 /ir/iiif. Beginning" of an enterprise: first appearance. 
 
 Deceptio vistis. An illusion of the sight. 
 
 Dedimuspotestatem. We have given power. 
 
 Deficit. A want of deficiencv. 
 
 Dei ffratifL. By tfoe grace of God.
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Dejeuner A la fottrc/u'//i . \ breakfast or luncheon 
 
 with meats. 
 
 Dele. Blot out or erase. 
 
 Delenda est Carthago. Carthage must be blotted out. 
 Delta (The Greek letter A)- A triangular tract of land 
 
 toward the mouth of ;i river. 
 Denouement. An unraveling or winding up. 
 Deo adjuvante, non timendum. God helping, nothing 
 
 need be feared. 
 
 Deofavente. With God's favor. 
 Deo gratias. Thanks to God. 
 Dcojuvante. With God's help. 
 Deo nonfortund,. From God, not fortune. 
 Deo volente or D. V. God willing. 
 Depot. A store; the recruiting reserve of regiments. 
 Dernier ressort. The last resort. 
 Desideratum. Something desired or wanted. 
 Desunt ccetera. The other things are wanting. 
 Detinet. He detains ; he keeps. 
 Detour. A circuitous march. 
 
 Detur diyniori. Let it be given to the more worthy. 
 Deus ex machind. A god from the clouds ; unexpected 
 
 aid ia an emergency. 
 Devastavit. He wasted. 
 Devoir. Duty. 
 Dexter. The right hand. 
 Dictum. A positive assertion (pi. dicta). 
 Dictum de dicto. Report upon hearsay. 
 Diesfaustus. A lucky day. 
 Dies irai. Day of wrath. 
 Dies non. A day on which judges do not sit. 
 Dieu et mon droit. God and my right. 
 Dieu vous garde. God protect you. 
 Dii majorum gentium. The gods of the superior class ; 
 
 the twelve superior gods. 
 J>iipenates. Houshold gods. 
 Dilettanti. Persons who devote themselves to science 
 
 merely for amusement or relaxation (sing, dilet- 
 tante). 
 Diluvium. A deposit of superficial loam, sand, etc., 
 
 caused by a deluge. 
 Dirigo. I direct or guide. 
 
 Disjecta membra. Scattered parts, limbs, or writings. 
 Distrait. Absent in thought ; absent-minded. 
 Distringas. A writ for distraining. 
 Divide et impera. Divide and govern. 
 Doce ul discas. Teach, that you may learn. 
 Docendo dicimus. We learn 'by teaching. 
 Dolce. Soft and agreeable. (Music.) 
 Dolce far niente. Sweet idleness. 
 Doll tncapax. Incapable of mischief. 
 Doloroso. Soft and pathetic. (Music.) 
 Domicile (L. domicilium). An abode. 
 Dominediriftenos. O Lord, direct us. 
 Dominus vobiscum. The Lord be with you. 
 Double entendre. Double meaning (correctly written 
 
 double entente). 
 
 Douceur. A present or bribe ; sweetness. 
 Draco. A dragon ; a constellation. 
 Dramatis personce. The characters in a play. 
 Duet (Ital. duetto). A song for two performe'rs. 
 Dulce est desipere in loco. It is pleasant to jest or revel 
 
 at the proper time. 
 Dulce et decorum est propatria mori.lt is sweet and 
 
 pleasant to die for one s country. 
 Dulia.An inferior kind of worship. 
 Dum spiro spero. Whilst I breathe, I hope. 
 Dum vwimus, vivamus. While we live, let us live. 
 Duo. Two ; a two-part song. 
 
 Duodecimo. A book having twelve leaves to a sheet. 
 Durante placito or durante beneplaci to. During 
 
 pleasure. 
 
 Durante vitd. During life. 
 Duxfceminafacti.A woman was the leader to the deed. 
 
 E pluribus unum.One out of many ; one composed of 
 
 many ; the motto of the United States. 
 Eau de vie. Brandy ; water of life. 
 Ecce homo. Behold the man. 
 Ecce signum. Behold the sign. 
 Eclaircissement.'Flie clearing up of an affair. 
 Eclat. Splendor; applause. 
 Edltio princeps.The first edition. 
 Eheu!\\\, alas! 
 Elan. Buoyancy ; dash. 
 
 Eleait. He'hath elected ; a writ of execution. 
 Eleve.A pupil. 
 Elite. The best part. 
 
 Embonpoint. Roundness ; good condition. 
 Emeritus. One retired from active official duties. 
 
 Emeute. Insurrection ; uproar. 
 
 Km pi-casement. Eagerness ; ardor. 
 
 En ami. As a friend. 
 
 En a rant.' Forward ! 
 
 EnflUte. Carrying guns on the upper deck only, 
 
 En r/randc tcnue. In full dress. 
 
 En 'masse. In a mass ; in a body. 
 
 /.// ini^ii at. By the way; in passing. 
 
 l-'.n rapport. In communication. 
 
 En revanche. In return. 
 
 /;// route. On the way. 
 
 Enceinte. Pregnant. 
 
 Enfans perdus. Lost children ; the forlorn hope. 
 
 Ennui. Weariness ; lassitude. 
 
 Ense petit placidam sub liber/ntr </niet*m.H\ his 
 
 sword he seeks the calm repose of liberty. 
 Ensemble. The whole taken together. 
 Entente cordiale.The cordial understanding between 
 
 two countries. 
 
 Entre nous. Between ourselves. 
 Entree. Entra nee. 
 Entremets. Small and dainty dishes set between the 
 
 principal ones at table. 
 Eo nomine. By that name. 
 
 Equilibrium. Equality of weight; even balance. 
 Ergo. Therefore. 
 Eripuit coslo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis. He 
 
 snatched the thunderbolt from heaven, and the 
 
 scepter from tyrants. 
 
 Erratum. A mistake or error (pi. errata). 
 Escrmv. A deed or writing left with another, to be de- 
 livered on the performance of something specified. 
 Espicglerie. Waggish tricks. 
 Esprit de corps. The animating spirit of a collective 
 
 body. 
 
 Est modus in rebus. There is a medium in all things. 
 Estoppel. A stop, a preventive plea. 
 Esto perpetua. May it last forever. 
 Et ccetera. And the rest. 
 Eureka. I have found it. 
 Ex. Out of ; late (as ex-consul). 
 Ex animo. Heartily. 
 
 Ex cathedra. From the chair ; with high authority. 
 Ex concesso. From what has been granted. 
 Ex curia. Out of court. 
 
 Exfumo dare lucem. Out of smoke to bring light. 
 Ex nihilo nihilfit. Nothing can come of nothing. 
 Ex offlcio.'By virtue of his office. 
 Exparte. On one side only (before a noun, expnr/f). 
 Expede Herculem. We re'cognize a Hercules from the 
 
 size of the foot ; that is, we judge of the whole from 
 
 the specimen. 
 
 Ex post facto. After the deed is done. 
 Ex tempore. Without premeditation. 
 Ex uno disce omnes. From one learn all; from one 
 
 judge of the whole. 
 Excelsior. More elevated ; onward. 
 Excerpta. Extracts. 
 /;. n ,,,/,/; in-atia. As for example. 
 l-'.ri'iint omnes. All retire. 
 
 /:.!/>< 'i-hin iitiini cri'r-in.A decisive experiment. 
 Ex-perto credo. Believe one who has experience. 
 Expose. An exposition; recital. 
 
 Fbcr sutB fortunce. The architect of his own fortune. 
 facile primus, facile princep.By far the first or 
 
 chiefest. 
 
 Fticilis cut descensus. Descent is easy. 
 Facsimile. Make it like ; hence, an exact copy. 
 Factotum. Do all; a man of all work. 
 Facto, est lux. There was light. 
 Fas est ab hoste doceri. It is allowable to learn even 
 
 from an enemy. 
 
 Fata obfitant.lhe fates oppose it. 
 I-'inili'i/il. An easy chair. 
 Faux pas. A false step. 
 Fe/o desc. A self-murderer. 
 Femmo cotivertc. A married woman. 
 Femme sole. A woman unmarried. 
 Festina lente. Hasten slowly; advance steadily rather 
 
 than hurriedly. 
 Fete. A feast or celebration. 
 
 Fete champetre. A rural feast. * 
 
 Feu de.joie.A bonfire; a discharge of musketry on days 
 
 of rejoicing. 
 Feuilleton. A small leaf ; a supplement to a newspaper ; 
 
 a pamphlet. 
 Fiat. Let it be done. 
 Fiat justitia, ruat ccelum. Let justice be done, though 
 
 the heavens should fall.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 177 
 
 Pint 7jf.r. Let there be light. 
 
 F'ni> , n on armfe. By faith, not by arms. 
 
 Fid'-, .* il riiii-iili-. Trust, but see whom. 
 
 Fid'-* , t j.isiiti'i. Fidelity and justice. 
 
 Fidus Achates. Faithful Achates (that is, a true friend). 
 
 Fieri facing. Cause it to be done (a kind of writ). 
 
 Fit* u* inillius. A son of nobody. 
 
 Fille-de-chambre.\ chambermaid. 
 
 Finale. To close or end. 
 
 Finein respice. Look to the end. 
 
 Finis. The end. 
 
 Finis cftroiifit opus. The end crowns the work. 
 
 Flagrant? belli). While the war is raging. 
 
 Flfigni nti- diliftn. In the commission of the crime. 
 
 Flam ur. A lounger. 
 
 Flecti, nonfranffi.To be bent, not to be broken. 
 
 Fleiir -de-lis. The flower of the lily (p\. fleurs-de-lis,. 
 
 Forte. In music, a direction to sing or play with force 
 
 or spirit. 
 
 Fortes fort u nfi jurat. Fortune assists the brave. 
 Fort /'ss ( >n o. Very loud. 
 Furti/, r in re. Resolute in deed. 
 Fracas. Bustle ; a slight quarrel ; more ado about the 
 
 thing than it i3 worth. 
 Fruges ?'//<>'////</< miti. Born merely to consume the 
 
 fruits of the earth. 
 Fur/am fecit. He has taken to flight. 
 Fuit Ilium. Troy has been. 
 Finictus (((ficio.Oiit of office. 
 Furore. Excitement. 
 
 Gaiete de cceur. Oayety of heart. 
 
 GiiJlic'-. In French. 
 
 Gardez bicn. Take good care. 
 
 Gardez In /<>!. Keep the faith. 
 
 Gauche ri i . Awkwardness. 
 
 a, in,!, ii a, ,/s i'jit'ir.Solet us be joyful. 
 
 Gendarme. A. military policeman. 
 
 (;, -n ilarmerie. The body of the gendarmes. 
 
 Genius loci. The f<?nius of the place. 
 
 Cfin'.-i irrit'i/ii/e riitnm. Irritable tribe of poets. 
 
 Gloria in excelsis. Glory to God in the highest. 
 
 Gratis. -Free of cost. 
 
 Gratis dictum. Hen assertion. 
 
 Gravamen. The thing complained of. 
 
 Grisette. Dressed in gray (a term applied to French 
 
 shop girls, etc.). 
 linxto. Great relish. 
 
 Habeas corpus. You are to have the body; a writ of 
 right, by virtue of which every citize'n can, when 
 imprisoned, demand to be put oh his trial. 
 
 Iffttiititt. A frequenter. 
 
 Hcecoliin in ' in 'in ;>-si jni-iibit. It will be pleasant here- 
 after to remember these things. 
 
 Haricot. A kind of ragout: a kidney-bean. 
 
 IIn n't y ; .r,7,,/.s ii y/;.s. N<>t with equal steps. ( Wrongly 
 quoted: see AV>, etc.) 
 
 Ila nt gout. High flavor. 
 
 ll,i ui,' ur. Haughtiness. 
 
 Hf-11 no Hiirnrnin . A bookworm. 
 
 Ilif <-t ?/'/i'/r. Here, there, and everywhere. 
 
 //('/ iff. Here lies. 
 
 Hi IK- Hi a- j, a' rij in a . Hence proceed these tears. 
 
 Hoc age. Do this; attend to what you are doing. 
 
 Hommed J esftrit. \ man of talent, or of wit. 
 
 Horn o multn nun iitr-raruin. A man of much learning. 
 
 Honi soif fjni nail y pense. Evil be to him that evil 
 thinks. 
 
 Honores mutant mores. Honors change men's man- 
 ners. 
 
 Horafuffit.Tbe hour or time flies. 
 
 Horresc'o referens. I shudder to relate. 
 
 Hors de combat. - Disabled for fighting; vanquished. 
 
 Hortus siccits. A collection of dried plants. 
 
 Jfostis hvma.nl generis, An enemy of the human race. 
 
 Hot, 1 /I,- rill, . A town hall. 
 
 ffffel-Dieu.The chi;f hospital in French cities. 
 
 Humanum est errare. It is human to err. 
 
 Hum- tn ran to. Beware f him. 
 
 , contracted ibid, r id. In the same place. 
 li-li r/<v/i. I serve. 
 !,! ,.,/. That is; abridged /'. e. 
 Id genus omne. All of that sort. 
 Idem, contracted id. The same. (Id. ib., the same 
 
 author; in the same place.) 
 Ida i, i iis lioino. \ fit man. 
 Ignoram us. We are ignorant. 
 Ignorant in legix neminem excusat. Ignorance of the 
 
 law excuses no one. 
 
 77 a le cliable au corps. The devil is in him. 
 Imitatores, servum pecus. Imitators, a servile herd. 
 1 in in riinninimpeno. One government existing within 
 
 another. 
 
 . One who has not dined. 
 
 . Let it be printed. 
 Imprimis. In the first place. 
 Impromptu. A prompt remark without study. 
 In articulo mortis. At the point of death. 
 //; i-n/iite.ln the head. 
 In co2lo quies. There is rest in heaven. 
 Incommendam.In trust. 
 In coiispectu fort. In the eye of the law ; in the sight 
 
 of the court. 
 In curid. In the court. 
 In tinjilo. Twice as much. 
 In equilibria. Equally balanced. 
 In esse. In being. 
 In extenso.At full length. 
 In extremis. At tire point of death. 
 Inform^ pauperis. As a pauper. 
 
 Inforo conscientio}. Before the tribunal of conscience. 
 In hoc signo rinces. In this sign thou shalt conquer. 
 In limine. At the threshold. 
 In loco. In the place. 
 In medias res. Into the midst of things. 
 In memoriam. To the memory of. 
 In perpetuum. Forever 
 In petto. In reserve; in one's breast. 
 In posse. In possible existence. 
 In posterinn For the time to come. 
 In propri& persond. In his own person. 
 Inpuris natiirulibus. Quite naked. 
 In re. In the matter of. 
 In situ. In its original situation. 
 In statu quo. In the former state. 
 Inte, Domine, speravi. In thee, Lord, have I put my 
 
 trust. 
 
 In terrorem. By way of warning. 
 In totidem rerbis.in so many words. 
 7/i toto. Altogether. 
 In transitu. On the passage. 
 In iitrumque paratus. Prepared for either event. 
 In iwcuo. In empty space, or in a vacuum. 
 In vino veritas. Tliere is truth in wine. 
 Incognito. Disguised, unknown. 
 Index ei/nin/nforius. A list of prohibited books. 
 Infra dignitatem. Tieneath one's dignity. 
 Innuendo. Covert meaning; indirect hint. 
 Inops consilii. Without counsel. 
 Insouciance. Carelessness ; indifference. 
 Instar omnium. One will suffice for all ; an example to 
 
 others. 
 
 Inter alia. Among other things. 
 Inter arma leges silent. In the midst of arms the laws 
 
 are silent. 
 
 Inter nos. Between ourselves. 
 Inter se. A mong themselves. 
 
 Ipse dixit. He himself said it: dogmatic assertion. 
 rpsissima rerba. The very words. 
 fpso f act o. By the fact itself ; actually. 
 Fpsojure. By the law itself. 
 Ira furor brevis est. Anger is brief madness. 
 Ita lex scripta est. Thus the law is written. 
 Item. Also. 
 
 Jacta est alea. The die is cast. 
 
 Jamais nrrii-re. Never behind. 
 
 Je ne sai* quoi. I know not what. 
 
 Jet d'eau. A jet of water. 
 
 Jeu de mots. Play upon words ; a pun. 
 
 Jeu d'esprit. A witticism. 
 
 Judicium Dei. The judgment of God. 
 
 Juniorcs ad labores. Young men for labors. 
 
 Jure divino. Bv divine law. 
 
 Juregentium.^R\ the law of nations. 
 
 Jnri linmano. By human law. 
 
 Jus eiri/e. Civil law. 
 
 Jus gladii. Ritrht of the sword. 
 
 Juste m ilieu. The golden mean ; a just medium. 
 
 Justitice soror fides. Faith is the sister of justice. 
 
 La critique est aisee, et I'art est difficile. Criticism is 
 
 easy, and art is difficult. 
 
 Labor ipse voluptas. Labor itself is pleasure. 
 Labor on, n in i-i iirif. Labor conquers all things. 
 Laisscz-noiisfaire. Let us alone. 
 
 Lapsus calami. A s!ip of the pen : an error in writing. 
 Lapsus li input . A slip of the tongue. 
 Lapsus memorue.A. slip of memory.
 
 178 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Lares et penates. Household gods. 
 
 L'argent. Money, or silver. 
 
 Laudator temporis acti. A praiser of time past. 
 
 Laus Deo. Praise to God. 
 
 Laiis propria sordet. Praise of one's own self defiles. 
 
 Le beau monde. The fashionable world. 
 
 Le ban temps inendra. The good time will come. 
 
 Le grand ceuvre. The great work ; the philosopher's 
 stone. 
 
 Lepas. Precedence in place or rank. 
 
 Le savoir-faire. The knowledge how to act; address. 
 
 Le tout ensemble. All together. 
 
 Lege. Read. 
 
 Leges legum. The law of laws. 
 
 L&e majesti. High treason. 
 
 L'ctoile du nord. The north star. 
 
 Lettre de cachet. A sealed letter ; a royal warrant. 
 
 Levarifacias. That you cause to be levied; a writ of 
 execution. 
 
 Levee. A morning visit or reception. 
 
 Lex loci. The law of the place. 
 
 Lex magna est, et prcevalebit. The law is great, and 
 will prevail. 
 
 Lex non scripta. The unwritten or common law. 
 
 Lex scripta. Statute law. 
 
 Lextalionis. The law of retaliation. 
 
 Lex terrce, lexpatrice. The law of the land. 
 
 L'homme propose, et Dieu dispose. Man proposes and 
 God disposes. 
 
 Libretto. A little book or pamphlet. 
 
 Licentia vatttm. A poetical license. 
 
 Lingua Franca. The mixed language' spoken by Euro- 
 peans in the East. 
 
 Liqueur. A cordial. 
 
 Lis litem generat. Strife begets strife. 
 
 Lis subjudice. A case not yet decided. 
 
 Lite pendente. During the trial. 
 
 Litera scripta manct.The written letter remains. 
 
 Literati. Men of letters or learning. 
 
 Loco citato. In the place cited. 
 
 Loco parentis. In the place of the parent. 
 
 Locum tenens. One who holds a place for another. 
 
 Locus sigilli (L. S.).- -The place of the seal. 
 
 Longo intervallo. At a great distance. 
 
 Ludere cum sacris.To trifle with sacred things. 
 
 Lusus naturae. A sport or freak of nature. 
 
 Made virtute. Proceed in virtue. 
 
 Mademoiselle. A young unmarried lady. 
 
 Magna Charta.The great charter of England. 
 
 Magna civitas, magna solitudo. A great city is a great 
 desert. 
 
 Magna est veritas, et prcevalebit. The truth is great, 
 and will prevail. 
 
 Magni normnis umbra. The shadow of a great name. 
 
 Magnum opus. A great work. 
 
 Magnus Apollo. Great Apollo; one of high authority. 
 
 Maison de ville.The town house. 
 
 Maitred' hotel. An hotel keeper; a house steward. 
 
 Major-domo (Ital. maior-domo). One who has the man- 
 agement of a household. 
 
 Maid fide. In bad faith ; treacherously. 
 
 Mai apropos. Out of time ; unbecoming. 
 
 Malaria. Noxious exhalations. 
 
 Malgre. In spite of. 
 
 Malum inse. ISad in itself. 
 
 Mandamus. We command ; a peremptory writ to com- 
 pel obedience. 
 
 Manege. A riding school. 
 
 Mania a potu. Madness caused by drunkenness. 
 
 Manuforti. With a strong hand. 
 
 Mardi gras. Shrove Tuesday. 
 
 Mare clausum. A closed sea; a bay. 
 
 Materfamilias. The mother of a family. 
 
 Materia medica. Substances used in the healing art. 
 
 Matinee. A morning party. 
 
 Mauvais gottt. Bad taste. 
 
 Mauvais snjet. A worthless fellow. 
 
 Mauvaise honte. False modesty; bashfulness. 
 
 Maximum. The greatest. 
 
 Maximus in minimis. Very great in trifling things. 
 
 Mejudice. I being judge ; in my own opinion. 
 
 Media tutissimus ibis. A medium course will be safest. 
 
 Meditntionefityce. In contemplation of flight. 
 
 Memento mori. Remember death. 
 
 Memorabilia. Things to be remembered. 
 
 Memoriter. By rote. 
 
 Menage. Household . 
 
 Mens sana in corpore sano. A sound miud in a sound 
 body. 
 
 Menssibi conscia recti. A mind conscious of rectitude. 
 
 Mensa et thoro. From bed and board. 
 
 Memm sal. Pure salt ; genuine Attic wit. 
 
 Meum et tuttm.-M.ine and thine. 
 
 Minimum. The least. 
 
 Minutice. Minute concerns; trifles. 
 
 Mirabile dictu. Wonderful to be told. 
 
 Mirabilia. Wonders. 
 
 Mittimus. We send; a warrant for the commitment of 
 an offender. 
 
 Modus operandi. Manner of operation. 
 
 Montam semper liberi. Mountaineers are always free- 
 men. 
 
 Morceau. A morsel. 
 
 More suo.ln his own way. 
 
 Mot du guet. A watchword . 
 
 Multum in parvo. Much in a small space. 
 
 Mutanda. Things to be altered. 
 
 Mutatis mutandis. The necessary changes being made. 
 
 Mutato nomine. The name being changed. 
 
 Na'iveU. Ingenuousness ; simplicity. 
 
 Ne cede mails. Yield not to misfortune. 
 
 Ne exeat. -Let him not depart. 
 
 Ne plus ultra. Nothing further ; the uttermost point. 
 
 Ne quid nimis. Not too much of anything; do noth- 
 ing to excess. 
 
 Ne sutor ultra crepidam.'Let not the shoemaker go 
 beyond his last. 
 
 Ne tentes, aut perfice. Attempt not, or accomplish 
 thoroughly. 
 
 Nee pluribus impar. Not an unequal match for num- 
 bers. 
 
 Nee scirefas est omnia. It is not permitted to know all 
 things. 
 
 Necessitatis non habet legcm. Necessity has no law. 
 
 Nee. Born. 
 
 Nefasti dies. Days upon which no public business was 
 transacted ; also, unlucky days. 
 
 Nemine contradwente.No one contradicting. 
 
 Nemine dissentiente. Without opposition or dissent. 
 
 Nemo me impune lacessit. No one wounds me with im- 
 punity. 
 
 Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit. No one is wise 
 at all times. 
 
 Nemo repentefuit turpissimus. No man ever became a 
 villain at once. 
 
 Nemo solus sapit. No one is wise alone. 
 
 Nia-iserie. Silliness. 
 
 Nihil debet. He owes nothing ; a plea denying a debt.' 
 
 Nihil quod tetigit,non ornavit. Whatever he touched 
 he embellished. 
 
 Nil admirari.To wonder at nothing. 
 
 Nil desperandum. Never despair. 
 
 Nimium ne crede colori. Trust not too much to looks. 
 
 N'importe. It matters not. 
 
 Nisi Dominusfrustra. Unless the Lord be with us, all 
 efforts are in vain. 
 
 Noblesse oblige. Rank imposes obligation. 
 
 Nolens volens. Willing or unwilling. 
 
 Noli me tangere. Don t .touch me. 
 
 Nolleprosequi. Unwilling to proceed. 
 
 Nolo episcopari. I am not willing to be made a bishop 
 (an old former way of declining a bishopric). 
 
 Nom de guerre. An assumed name. 
 
 Nom de plume. A literary title. 
 
 Nomen et omen. Name and omen; a name that is 
 ominous. 
 
 Non compos mentis. Not of sound mind. 
 
 Aon. deflciente crumenft. If the money does not fail. 
 
 Non es't (lisjiuliintlinn - It is not to lie disputed. 
 
 Non est inventus. Not found. 
 
 Non libet.lt does not please me. 
 
 Aon. mi ricordo.I don't remember. 
 
 Ab noltis soliim. Not merely for ourselves. 
 
 Nonobstante. Notwithstanding. 
 
 Non omnis moriar.l shall not wholly die. 
 
 Nonpassibus crmiis. Not with equal steps. 
 
 Non sequitur. It does not follow ; an unwarranted con- 
 clusion. 
 
 Non sibi, sed omnibva.TSot for itself , but for all. 
 
 Nonchalance. Coolness; easy indifference. 
 
 Nonpareil. Peerless; a small printing type. 
 
 Nosce te ipsum. Know thyself. 
 
 Xoscitur ex sociis.He is known by his companions. 
 
 Nota bene. Mark well. 
 
 Nous verrons. We shall see. 
 
 Novus homo. A new man. 
 
 Nudum pactum. An invalid agreement. 
 
 Nulla crux, nulla corona. No cross, no crown.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 179 
 
 Ntilla nttova, bonn nuova. The best news is no news. 
 
 Nulliusfilius.The son of nobody. 
 
 jVMHe aut nunquam. Now or never. 
 
 O temj)ora ' o mores .'Oh, the times ! oh, the manners 
 
 Obiit. He (or she) died. 
 
 Obiter dictum A thing said by the way, or in passing 
 
 Obsta principiis. Resist the first beginnings. 
 
 Odi profanum.l loathe the profane. 
 
 Odium theoloaicum.'Tlie hatred of theologians. 
 
 Ohe .' jam satis. Oh, there is now enough. 
 
 Ollapodrida. An incongruous mixture. 
 
 Omne ignotum pro magnifico. Whatever is unknown 
 is thought to he magnificent. 
 
 Omnes. All. 
 
 Omnia, bona bonis.All things are good with the good 
 
 Omnia vincit amor. Love conquers all things. 
 
 On-dit.A. rumor ; a flying report. 
 
 Omts. Burden. 
 
 Onus probandi. The responsibility of producing proof 
 
 Ope etconsilio. With assistance and counsel. 
 
 Ora et labora. Pray and work. 
 
 Orator fit, poeta, nascitur. The orator is made by edu- 
 cation, but a poet must be born. 
 
 Ore rotundo.Witli full sounding voice. 
 
 Otium cum dianitate Dignified leisure. 
 
 Outre. Preposterous ; eccentric. 
 
 Oyer and Terminer. A criminal court. 
 
 Pallida mors. Pale death. 
 Par excellence. By way of eminence. 
 Par nobilefratrum.A. noble pair of brothers ; two just 
 alike. 
 
 Paripassu. With equal step ; in the same degree. 
 
 Parole d'honneur. Word of honor. 
 
 Pars pro toto.Part for the whole. 
 /'articeps criminis. An accomplice. 
 
 Partununt monies, nascetur ridiculus mus. The moun- 
 tains are in labor ; a ridiculous mouse will be brought 
 forth. 
 
 Parva componere maanis.To compare small things 
 with great. 
 
 Parvenu. A new comer ; an upstart. 
 
 Pas. A step ; precedence. 
 
 Passe-partout. A master key. 
 
 Passim. In many places; everywhere. 
 
 Paterfamilias. the father of a family. 
 
 Pater noster. Our Father ; the Lord's prayer. 
 
 Pater patrice. Father of his country. 
 
 Patois. A provincial dialect. 
 
 Pax in bello. Peace in war. 
 
 Peccavi. I have sinned. 
 
 /'enchant. An inclination ; a leaning toward. 
 
 Pendente lite. While the suit is pending. 
 
 Penetralia. Secret recesses. 
 
 Per aspera ad astra. Through trials to glory. 
 
 Per capita. By the head ; equal division. 
 
 Per cent, or per centum. By the hundred. 
 
 Per contra. Contrariwise. 
 
 Per curiam.B\ the court. 
 
 Per diem.'Ry the day. 
 
 Per fas et nefas. Through right and wrong. 
 
 Per saltum.Witli a leap ; at once. 
 
 Perse. By itself ; alone. 
 
 Perdu. Lost. 
 
 Pere de famille. The father of a family. 
 
 Petit. Small ; little. 
 
 Petitio principii.A. begging of the question. 
 
 Petitonaitre. A fop. 
 
 Pen a. pen. Gradually : a little by little. 
 
 Pinxit. Painted it ; placed after the artist's name on a 
 picture. 
 
 Ptii. More. 
 
 Plateau. A plain; a flat surface. 
 
 Pleb.i. Common people. 
 
 Pluries.Very often ; a third writ, after two writs have 
 issued. 
 
 Poco. A little. 
 
 Poeta nascitur, nonfit. A poet is born, not made. 
 
 Point d'appui. Point of support; prop. 
 
 Poisson (TAi-ril. April fool. 
 
 Populus I'ult decipi. People like to be deceived. 
 
 Posse comitatus. The power of the county. 
 
 Postea. Afterward; indorsement of the verdict upon 
 the record. 
 
 Post mortem. After death. 
 
 Postulata. Things assumed. 
 
 Prcecognita. Things previously known. 
 
 Prcemonitus prcemunitus. Forewarned, forearmed. 
 
 Preux chevafier. A brave knight. 
 
 Primdfacie. On the first view. 
 
 Pnmum mobile. The primary motive, or moving power. 
 1 'run us inter pares. Chief among equals. 
 Principle, non homines. Principles, not men 
 Prtnefpiia ohsta. Resist the first innovations. 
 Pro aris etfocis.For our altars and our hearths. 
 Pro bonopublico.Forthe public good. 
 Pro et con (for contra). For and against. 
 Pro form&. For form's sake ; according to form. 
 
 Pro h&c vice. For this turn or occasion. 
 
 Pro loco et tempore.For the place and time. 
 
 Pro patriot. For our country. 
 
 Pro rat&.ln proportion. 
 
 Pro re natd.For a special emergency. 
 
 Pro tanto.For so much. 
 
 Pro tempore.For the time being. 
 
 Probation est.It has been tried and proved. 
 
 Proces-verbal.A written statement. 
 
 Prochein ami. The next friend. 
 
 Procul, O procul este, prof ani! FAT, far hence, O ye 
 
 profane ! 
 
 Pronunciamento.A public declaration. 
 Propaganda fide. For extending the faith. 
 Protege. A person taken charge of, or patronized ; a 
 
 ward, etc. 
 
 Prudensfuturi. Thoughtful of the future. 
 Pugnis et calcibus. With fists and heels ; with all the 
 
 might. 
 Punica fides. Punic faith; treachery. 
 
 Quaere. Query ; inquiry. 
 
 Quamdiu se bene gesserit. So long as he shall conduct 
 
 himself properly. 
 Quantum. The due proportion. 
 Quantum libet. As much as you please. 
 Q nan turn mertiit. As much as he deserved. 
 Quantum suffldt.A sufficient quantity; enough. 
 Quare clausumfregit.An action for damages to real 
 
 estate. 
 
 'tare impedit.'Why he hinders. 
 tasi dicas. As if you should say. 
 'telque chose. A trifle. 
 id capit* ille facit.He who takes it makes it. ' 
 ui pense ? Who thinks ? 
 
 I tarn ? Who as well ? The title given to a certain 
 action at law. 
 Qui transtulit sustinet.He who brought us hither still 
 
 preserves us. 
 
 Qui va Id ? Who goes there ? 
 
 Qui vive ? Who goes there ? hence, on the qui-vive, on 
 the alert. 
 
 \id-nunc ? What now ? a newsmonger. 
 uid pro quo. One thing for another ; "tit for tat." 
 idd rides ? Why do you laugh ? 
 i'a separabit ? Who shall separate us ? 
 <uo animo ? With what intention ? 
 uojure?~By what right ? 
 
 HO warranto ? By what warrant or authority ? 
 uoad hoc. To this extent. 
 uod avertat Deus .'Which may God avert ! 
 nod ride. Which see. 
 lodlibet. A nice point ; a subtlety. 
 ondam. Former. 
 
 orum. Of whom; a term signifying a sufficient 
 number for a certain business. 
 Quos Deus vult perdere, prius dementat. Those whom 
 God wishes to destroy, he first deprives of under- 
 standing. 
 
 logout. A highly seasoned dish. 
 lara avis. A rare bird ; a prodigy. 
 fe infectd. The business being unfinished. 
 lecte et suaviter. Justly and mildly. 
 Rectus in curid. Upright in the court; with clean 
 
 hands. 
 Jtedolet lucernd. It smells of the lamp; it is a labored 
 
 production. 
 jReductio ad absurdum. A reducing a position to an 
 
 absurdity. 
 Regina. Queen. 
 Regium donum. A royal donation (a grant from the 
 
 British crown to the Irish Presbyterian clergy). 
 Regnant populi. The people rule. 
 Jfe'ncontre.An encounter. 
 Renaissance. New birth ; applied to the revival of the 
 
 classic arts in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 
 Requiescant in pace. May they rest in peace. 
 Reqidescat in pace. May 'he rest in peace. 
 Rerum primordia. The'first elements of things. 
 Res angusta domi, Narrow circumstances at home; 
 
 poverty.
 
 180 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Res integra.An entire matter. 
 
 Respicejfinem. Look to the end. 
 
 Respublica.The commonwealth. 
 
 Restaurateur. A tavern keeper who provides dinners, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Resume. An abstract or summary. 
 Resurgam. I shall rise again. 
 
 Revenons a nos moutons.Let us return to our subject. 
 Rex. King. 
 
 Rouge. Red coloring for the skin. 
 Rouge (t n.oir. Red and black (a kind of game). 
 Rus in iirbe. The country in town. 
 Ruse contre ruse. Diamond cut diamond; trick for 
 
 trick. 
 Ruse.de guerre. A stratagem of war. 
 
 Salle. Hall. 
 
 Salus pppuli supremo, lex est. The welfare of the peo- 
 ple is in the supreme law. 
 Salvo pudore. Without offense to modesty. 
 Sanctum sanctorum. Holy of Holies. 
 Sang-froid. Coolness ; self-possession. 
 Sans. W ithout. 
 
 Sans ceremonie. "Without ceremony. 
 Sans peur et sans reproche. Without fear and without 
 
 reproach. 
 
 Sans souci. Without care : free and easy. 
 Sans tdche. Stainless. 
 Sans-culottes. Without breeches; a term applied to 
 
 the rabble of the French Revolution. 
 Sartor resartus.The cobbler mended. 
 Satis, superque. Enough, and more than enough. 
 Satis verborum. Enough of words ; you need say no 
 
 more. 
 
 Sauve q d peut. Save himself who can. 
 Savant. A. learned man. 
 Savior-fair e. Ability ; skill. 
 Scandalum magnatum. Scandal of the great. 
 Scienter. Knowingly. 
 Scificet. That is to say ; to wit. 
 Scire facias. Cause it to be known. 
 Scripsit. Wrote it. 
 Scufpsit. Engraved it; placed after the engraver's 
 
 name in prints. 
 
 Secundum artem. According to rule. 
 Selon Ics regies. According to rule. 
 Semper fi delis .Always f ai thf ul . 
 Semper idem. Alwajs the same. 
 Semper paratus. Always ready. 
 Senatfts consultum. A decree of the senate. 
 Seriatim. In order ; successively. 
 Si quceris peninsulam amcenam eimimapire.If thou 
 
 seekest a beautiful peninsula, behold it here. 
 Sic in originali. So it stands in the original. 
 Sicitur ad &stra. Such is the way to immortality. 
 Sic passim. So everywhere. 
 Sic semper tt/rannis.So be it ever to tyrants. 
 Sic transit gloria mundi. Thus passes away the glory 
 
 of the world. 
 Sicut ante. As before. 
 SimiJia similibus curantur. Like things are cured bv 
 
 like. 
 
 Simplex munditiis.Of simple elegance. 
 Sine die. Without naming a day. 
 Sine invid.id. Without envy. 
 Sine qua non. An indispensable requisite. 
 Siste, viator. Stop, traveler. 
 Sobriquet. A nickname. 
 Soi-disant. Self-styled ; pretended. 
 Soiree. An evening party. 
 Souvenir. Remembrance ; a keepsake. 
 Spartam nactus es, hanc exorna. You have got some- 
 
 thing good ; make the most of it you can. 
 Spectas e&spcctaberis. You will see and be seen. 
 Spes mea, Cftristits. Christ is my hope. 
 Spolia, opima. The richest booty. 
 Stuns pede in uno. Standing on one foot. 
 Statu quo, or in statu quo. In the same state. 
 Stet. Let it stand. 
 Suavifer in moda, fortiter in re. Gentle in manner, 
 
 resolute in deed. 
 
 Sub judice. Under consideration. 
 Suh /vi.s<t. Under the rose; privately. 
 Sub fiilentio. In silence. 
 Subpcena. Under a penalty; a summons to attend :i 
 
 court as a witness. 
 Suocedaneum. A substitute. 
 Snl generis, Of its own kind; peculiar. 
 Summum bonum. The chief good. 
 Supersedeas. A writ to stay proceedings. 
 
 Super visum corporis. Upon a view of the body. 
 Suppressip veri suggestio falsi. A suppression of the 
 
 truth is the suggestion of a falsehood. 
 Supra. Above. 
 Suwin cuique. Let every one have his own. 
 
 Table d'hdte. An ordinary at which the master of the 
 hotel presides. 
 
 Tabula rasa. A. smooth or blank tablet. 
 
 Tcedium vitce. Weariness of life. 
 
 Tale quale. Such as it is. 
 
 Tant mieux.So much the better. 
 
 Tantpis.So much the worse. 
 
 Tapis. The carpet. 
 
 Tartuffe. A nickname for a hypocritical devotee, de- 
 rived from the principal character in Moliere's 
 comedy so called. 
 
 Te judice. You may judge". 
 
 Tempora mutantur, et nos mntamur in illis. The 
 times are changed, and we are changed with them. 
 
 Tempus edax rerum. Time the devourer of all things. 
 
 Trmptisfugit. Time flies. 
 
 Tempus omnia revelat. Time reveals all things. 
 
 Teres atque rotund'us. Smooth and round ; polished 
 and complete. 
 
 Terra, firma. Solid earth ; a safe footing. 
 
 Terra incognita. An unknown country. 
 
 Terre tenant. A person in actual possession of the 
 land. 
 
 Tertium quid. A third something; a nondescript. 
 
 Ttte-a-tete . A conversation between two parties. 
 
 Tirade. A tedious and bitter harangue. 
 
 Ton. The fashion. 
 
 Torso. The fragmentary trunk of a statue. 
 
 Tort. A wrong; an injury. 
 
 Tot homines, quot sententice. So many men, so many 
 minds. 
 
 Totidem verbis. In just so many words. 
 
 Toties qnoties. As often as. 
 
 Totocailo. By the whole heavens; diametrically op- 
 posite. 
 
 Toto corde. With the whole heart. 
 
 Ton/ours pret.Al-wstys ready. 
 
 Tour a tour. By turns. 
 
 Tout bien ou rien. The whole or nothing. 
 
 Tout ensemble. The whole. 
 
 Triajunrta in uno. Three united in one. 
 
 TII r/unque, Brute! And thou too, Brutus ! 
 
 Tuebor.l will defend. 
 
 Tutto e bvono chevienda l>io. All is good which comes 
 from God. 
 
 Tuum est. It is your own. 
 
 Ubijus incertum, ibijus nullum. Where the law is un- 
 certain, there is no law. 
 
 Ubilibertas,ibipatria. Where liberty dwells, there is 
 my country. 
 
 l'l>i *'n/ira.Vf\\ere above mentioned. 
 
 t'lliiiiii r/itiii frijuni. 'I'ht' lust argument of kings; mil- 
 itary weapons; war. 
 
 I'lti inn' Th ulc, The utmost boundary or limit. 
 
 Cl/inxitiitn. A final action or decision. 
 
 I'n bet esprit. \ wit; a virtuoso. 
 
 Unsot a triple etage.A.n egregious blockhead. 
 
 Una roce. With one voice ; unanimously. 
 
 Unique. Singular; the only one of its kind. 
 
 I'si/ni' ail innifteam. To disgust. 
 
 Units Inqufndi. Usage in speaking. 
 
 Ut infra. As below. 
 
 Utipossidctis.A.s you possess ; state of present posses- 
 sion. 
 
 Utile dulci. Utility with pleasure. 
 
 Vade-mecum. Go with me ; a constant companion. 
 
 Vce victis. woe to the vanquished ! 
 
 Vale. Farewell. 
 
 Valet-de-cliambre. A servant who assists his iiiaster in 
 
 dressing. 
 
 Va.rice lectiones. Various readings. 
 Veluti in speculum . A s i n a mirror. 
 Venditioniexponiits. That you expose to sale; writ of 
 
 execution. 
 
 Veiii, riili, rid. I came, I saw, I conquered. 
 Venire. To come; a writ to a sheriff directing him to 
 
 Himmon jurors. 
 
 Venue. 'the place from which the jury are drawn. 
 rcrlxttim et literatim. Word for word and letter for 
 
 letter. 
 
 Verlnim ant BdpientLA. word is enough for a wise man. 
 Verdad es verde. Truth is green.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 181 
 
 Veritas vinctt. Truth conquers. 
 
 Versus. Against ; toward. 
 
 I'irtii, Virtu. Virtue; taste; art; skill. 
 
 Veto. -I forbid. 
 
 Vi et armis. By force and arms. 
 
 l'i/i. By the way of. 
 
 Via media. A middle course. 
 
 Vice. In the room of. 
 
 Vice versa. The terms heing exchanged ; reversely. . 
 
 Viilf. See. 
 
 Vide et crede. See and believe. 
 
 Vide itt su2>ra. See as above. 
 t. To wit. namely. 
 ii. Sentinels on horseback. 
 
 ' . A name given to slight engravings with which 
 books, bank-notes, etc., are ornamented. 
 
 Vincit a/nor pad-ice. Love of country prevails. 
 
 Vini-iiliii/i in/if rhnoiiii. The bond of marriage. 
 
 VirtiKiHo. One skilled in matters of taste or art. 
 
 Virf'ifr nfficii. By virtue of ottice. 
 
 H;i EttcrtMB. Inert power; the tendency of every body 
 to remain at rest. 
 
 Vis incdicatrix naturae. The healing tendency of na- 
 ture. 
 
 Vis poet ica. Poetic genius. 
 
 n.s ritir. The vigor of life. 
 
 I'l-i-i-i-ls. Face to face. 
 
 Vila hreris, ars longa. Life is short, and art is long. 
 
 Vivd voce. By word of mouth ; by the living voice. 
 
 }"<i-<int rex et regina. Long live the king and queen. 
 
 V'u-iit regina. Long live the queen. 
 
 Vivat respublica.Li\e the republic. 
 
 Vive la, bagatelle. Success to trifling. 
 
 Vive la reine. Long live the queen. 
 
 Vivel'empereiir. Long live the emperor. 
 
 Vive le roi. Long live the king. 
 
 Vlrel' imperatrice. Long live the empress. 
 
 Vive, vale. Farewell, and be happy. 
 
 Voild tout. That's all. 
 
 Voildune autre cJiose. That's quite a different mat- 
 ter. 
 
 Voir dire. A preliminary examination to determine 
 the competency of a witness. 
 
 Volens et pot ens. Willing and able. 
 
 Volga gran bestia. The mob is a great beast. 
 
 Volere cpotere. To will is to do. 
 
 Volti sutjito. Turn over quickly. 
 
 Vox, etprceterea nihil. A voice, and nothing more. 
 
 Voxpopuli, vox Dei. The people's voice is God's voice. 
 
 Vox stellarum. The voice of the stars; applied to 
 almanacs. 
 
 Vulgo. Vulgarly ; commonly. 
 
 Vuella. Over, to next page, or (o). 
 
 Vulnus immedicaoile. An irreparable injury. 
 
 Vultus est index animi. The countenance is the index 
 of the in i in I . 
 
 Zonam solver e.-r-To loose the virgin zone. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS IN GENERAL USE. 
 
 A.B. Artium Baccalaureus, Bache- 
 lor of Arts. 
 
 Abp. Archbishop. 
 
 Abr. Abridgment. 
 
 A.C. Ante (%,ristum, before Christ; 
 Arch-Chancellor. 
 
 Acad. Academy. 
 
 Acct. Account: Accent. 
 
 A.D. Anno Domini, in the year of 
 
 our Lord. 
 1 A.D.C. Aide-de-camp. 
 
 Ad. Advertisement. 
 
 Adi. Adjective. 
 
 Adit. Adjutant. 
 
 Adjt.-Gen. Adjutant-General. 
 
 Ad lib. A<1 libitum, at pleasure. 
 
 A dm. Admiral: Admiralty. 
 
 Aduir. Administrator. 
 
 Admx. Administratrix. 
 
 Adv. Adverb ; Advent ; Advertise- 
 ment. 
 
 ..:. -A7rt(/3. of age; aged. 
 
 Agr. Agriculture. 
 
 Agt. Agent. 
 
 Ala. Alabama. 
 
 A.M. Anno mundi. In the year of 
 the world ; Artium ,\f(ir/ister. 
 Master of Arts; Ante meridiem, 
 Before noon, morning. 
 
 Ang. Sax. Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Anon. Anonymous. 
 
 Ans. Answer. 
 
 A.R.A. Associate of the Royal 
 Academy. 
 
 Arab. Arabic, or Arabia. 
 
 Ariz. Ter. Arizona Territory. 
 
 Ark. Arkansas. 
 
 Atty. Attorney. 
 
 Attv.-Gen. Attorney-General. 
 
 A.I*. A. American Unitarian A --'>- 
 ciation. 
 
 Aug. August. 
 
 B.A. Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 Bal. Balance. 
 
 Bart, or l?t. Baronet. 
 
 Bbl. Barrel. 
 
 B.C. Before Christ. 
 
 B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 
 B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. 
 
 B.E. Bachelor of the Elements. 
 
 B.M. Bachelor of Medicine. 
 
 B. Mus. Bachelor of Music. 
 
 Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General. 
 
 Bro., Bros. Brother, Brothers 
 
 B'.S. Bachelor of Science. 
 
 B.V. Blessed Virgin. 
 
 B.V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary. 
 
 C., Ch. or Chap. Chapter ; Consul. 
 
 C. or Cent. A hundred, Centum. 
 
 Cal. California; Calends; Calen- 
 dar. 
 
 Caps. Capitals. 
 
 Capt. Captain. 
 
 Capt.-Gen. Captain-General. 
 
 C.E. Civil Engineer; Canada East. 
 
 Cel.orCelt. Celtic. 
 
 C.H Court-house. 
 
 Chap. Chapter; Chaplain. 
 
 Chron. Chronicles. 
 
 Clk. Clerk. 
 
 C.M. Common Meter. 
 
 C.M.G. Companion of the Order of 
 St. Michael and St. George. 
 
 Co. Company; County. 
 
 C.O D. Cash (or collect) on delivery. 
 
 Col. Colonel : Colossians ; Colorado. 
 
 Colo. Colorado. 
 
 Con. Against ; In opposition ; Con- 
 tra. 
 
 Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. 
 
 Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretarv. 
 
 Cr. Creditor; Credit. 
 
 Ct., cts. Cent, Cents; Connecticut. 
 
 Cwt. Hundredweight. 
 
 d. Penny or Pence. 
 
 Dak. Ter' Dakota Territory. 
 
 D.C. District of Columbia. 
 
 D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. 
 
 D.D. Doctor of Divinity. 
 
 D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Surgery. 
 
 D.E. Dynamic Enuineer. 
 
 Dec. December; Declaration. 
 
 Deft, or Df t. Defendant. 
 
 Del. Delaware; Delegate. 
 
 Dept. Department. 
 
 Dent. Deuteronomy. 
 
 Disc. Discount. 
 
 Dist.-Atty. Distriet-Attomev. 
 
 D.M. Do'ctor of Music. 
 
 D.M.D. Doctor Dental Medicine. 
 
 Do. The Same, Ditto. 
 
 Dol., Dols., g. Dollars. 
 
 Doz. Dozen. 
 
 Dr. Debtor; Doctor. 
 
 Eecl. Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Ed. Editor: Edition. 
 
 e.g. For example, Kxempli yrafin. 
 
 Eng. England; English. 
 
 Ep. Epistle. 
 
 Eph. Ephesians; F.phraim. 
 
 Esq., Esqs. Esquire. Esquires. 
 
 et al. And others, Et alii. 
 
 etc. or &c. And other things ; And 
 so forth. 
 
 et. seq. And what follows, Et 
 seqiientia. 
 
 Ex. Example. 
 
 ex. g. For example, Exempli 
 gratia. 
 
 Fahr. Fahrenheit. 
 
 F.A.M. Free and Accepted Masons. 
 
 F.A.S. Fellow of the Antiquarian 
 Society. 
 
 fcap. or fcp. Foolscap. 
 
 Feb. February. 
 
 Fig. Figure ; figurative. 
 
 Fla. Florida. 
 
 F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal 
 Astronomical Society. . 
 
 F.R.C.S.L. Fellow of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons, London. 
 
 F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society. 
 
 Fri. Friday. 
 
 F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Societv. 
 
 F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety, Edinburgh. 
 
 F.S.A. Fellow of the Societv of 
 Arts. 
 
 Ga. Georgia. 
 
 Gal. Galations; Gallon. 
 
 Gen. Genesis; General. 
 
 Goth. Gothic. 
 
 Gov. Governor. 
 
 Gov.-Gen. Governor-General. 
 
 H.B.M. His or Her Britannic 
 Majesty. 
 
 Heb. Hebrews. 
 
 Hhd. Hogshead. 
 
 H.R. House of Representatives. 
 
 H.R.H. His or Her Royal Highness. 
 
 la. Iowa. 
 
 Ib. or ibid. In the same place. 
 
 Id. The same, Idem. 
 
 Id. Ter. Idaho Territory. 
 
 i.e. That is, Id est. 
 
 I.H.S. Jesus the Saviour of men. 
 
 111. Illinois. 
 
 incog. Unknown, Incognito. 
 
 Ind. Indiana; Index : Indian. 
 
 Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. 
 
 Indef. Indefinite. 
 
 in loc. In the place ; on the pas- 
 sage. In loco. 
 
 I. N.R.I. Jesus of Nazareth, King 
 of the Jews. 
 
 Inst. Instant, of this month; Insti- 
 tute.
 
 182 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Io. Iowa. 
 
 I.O.F. Independent Order of For- 
 esters. 
 
 I.O.O.F. Independent Order of Odd 
 Felk>ws. 
 
 I.S.M. Jesus Salvator mundi, Jesus 
 the Saviour of the world. 
 
 Ital. Italic; Italian. 
 
 Jan. January. 
 
 J.C.D. Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor 
 of Civil Law. 
 
 J.D. Jurum Doctor,Doctor of Laws. 
 
 J.P. Justice of the Peace. 
 
 Jr. or Jun. Junior. 
 
 J.U.D. or J.V.D. Juris utriusque 
 Doctor, Doctor of both Laws (of 
 the Canon and the Civil Law). 
 
 Jul. July ; Julius. 
 
 Kas. Kansas. 
 
 K.B. King's Bench ; Knight of the 
 Bath. 
 
 K.C. King's Counsel; Knight of 
 the Crescent, in Turkey. 
 
 K.C.B. Knight Commander of the 
 Bath. 
 
 K.G. Knight of the Garter. 
 
 K.G.C. Knight of the Grand Cross. 
 
 K.G.C.B. Knight of the Grand 
 Cross of the Bath. 
 
 Knt. Knight. 
 
 Ky. Kentucky. 
 
 Lev. Leviticus. 
 
 Lex. Lexicon. 
 
 L.I. Long Island. 
 
 Lib. Liber, book. 
 
 Lieut. Lieutenant. 
 
 LL.B. Legum Baccalaureus, Bache- 
 lor of Laws. 
 
 LL.D. Legum Doctor, Doctor of 
 Laws. 
 
 loc. cit. Loco citato, in the place 
 cited. 
 
 Lond. London. 
 
 L.S. Locus sigilU, Place of the seal. 
 
 Lt. Lieutenant. 
 
 M. Meridies, noon. 
 
 M. Mitte, a thousand. 
 
 M. or Mons. Monsieur, Sir. 
 
 M.A. Master of Arts. 
 
 Maj. Major. 
 
 Maj.-Gen. Major-General. 
 
 Mar. March. 
 
 Mass. Massachusetts. 
 
 Math. Mathematics ; Mathema- 
 tician. 
 
 Matt. Matthew. 
 
 M.B. Medicince Baccalaureus, 
 Bachelor of Medicine. 
 
 M.B. Musicce Baccalaureus, Bache- 
 lor of Music. 
 
 M.C. Member of Congress. 
 
 Mch. March. 
 
 M.D. Medicince Doctor, Doctor of 
 Medicine. 
 
 Md. Maryland. 
 
 Mdlle. or Mile. Mademoiselle. ' 
 
 Mdse. Merchandise. 
 
 M.E. Methodist Episcopal; Mili- 
 tary or Mechanical Engineer. 
 
 Me. Maine. 
 
 Mech. Mechanics, or Mechanical. 
 
 Med. Medicine. 
 
 Mem. Memorandum. Memento, 
 remember. 
 
 Messrs, or MM. Messieurs, Gentle- 
 men. 
 
 Mex. Mexico, or Mexican. 
 
 Mich. Michigan. 
 
 Minn. Minnesota. 
 
 Miss. Mississippi. 
 
 MM. Their Majesties; Messieurs, 
 Gentlemen ; Two thousand. 
 
 Mme. Madame. 
 
 M.M.S.S. Massachusettensis Medi- 
 cince Sodetatis Socius, Fellow of 
 the Massachusetts Medical So- 
 ciety. 
 
 Mo. Missouri ; Month. 
 
 Mon. Monday. 
 
 Mom. Monsieur, Sir. 
 
 Mont. Ter. Montana Territory. 
 
 M.P. Member of Parliament ; Met- 
 ropolitan Police. 
 
 M.P.P. Member of Provincial Par- 
 liament. 
 
 Mr. Mister. 
 
 M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal 
 Asiatic Society; Member of the 
 Royal Academy of Science. 
 
 M.R.C.C. Member of the Royal 
 College of Chemistry. 
 
 M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons. 
 
 M.R.G.S. Member of the Royal 
 Geographical Society. 
 
 M.R.I. Member of the Royal Insti- 
 tute. 
 
 Mrs. Mistress. 
 
 M.R.S.L. Member of the Royal 
 Society of Literature. 
 
 M.S. Memories sacrum, Sacred to 
 the memory; Master of the Sci- 
 ences. 
 
 MSS. Manuscripts. 
 
 Mus. B. Bachelor of Music. 
 
 Mils. D. Doctor of Music. 
 
 N. A. North America. 
 
 N.B. New Brunswick ; North 
 British; Nota bene, mark well, 
 take notice. 
 
 N.C. North Carolina ; New Church. 
 
 N.E. New England; Northeast. 
 
 Neb. Nebraska. 
 
 Nev. Nevada. 
 
 New Test, or N.T. New Testament. 
 
 N.F. Newfoundland. 
 
 N.H. New Hampshire ; New Haven. 
 
 N.J. New Jersey. 
 
 N.Mex. New Mexico. 
 
 No. Numero, number. 
 
 Nol.pros. Nolens prosequi, I am un- 
 willing to prosecute. 
 
 Non pros. Non prosequitur, He 
 does not prosecute. 
 
 Non seq. Non sequitur, It does not 
 follow. 
 
 Nov. November. 
 
 N.S. New Style (after 1752); Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 N.T. New Testament. 
 
 Num. Numbers; Numeral. 
 
 N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin 
 Mary. 
 
 N.Y. New -York. 
 
 O. Ohio. 
 
 O.K. A slang phrase for "All cor- 
 rect." 
 
 Oct. October. 
 
 Old Test, or O.T. Old Testament. 
 
 Or. Oregon. 
 
 O.S. Old Style (before 1752). 
 
 O.S.F. Order of St. Francis. 
 
 O.T. Old Testament. 
 
 Oxon. Oxoniensis, Oxonii, of Ox- 
 ford, at Oxford. 
 
 Oz. Ounce. 
 
 Pa. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Par. Paragraph. 
 
 Pd. Paid. 
 
 P.E. Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 Penn. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Per. or pr. By the. 
 
 Per cent. Per centum, by the hun- 
 dred. 
 
 Phar. Pharmacy. 
 
 Ph.B. Philosophic^ Baccalaureus, 
 Bachelor of Philosophy. 
 
 Ph.D. PhUosophice Doctor, Doctor 
 of Philosophy. 
 
 Pinx. Pinxit, He (or she) painted it. 
 
 PI. or plur. Plural. 
 
 Plff. Plaintiff. 
 
 P.M. Post meridiem, Afternoon, 
 Evening ; Postmaster ; Passed 
 Midshipman ; Paymaster. 
 
 P.O. Post office. 
 
 Pop. Population. 
 
 P.P.C. Pour prendre conge, to take 
 leave. 
 
 Pp. or pp. Pages. 
 
 Pro tern. Pro tempore, for the time 
 being. 
 
 Prov. Proverbs; Provost. 
 
 Prox. Proximo, next (month). 
 
 P.S. Post scriptum, Postscript. 
 
 P.S. Privy Seal. 
 
 Ps. Psalm or Psalms. 
 
 Pt. Part; Pint; Payment; Point; 
 Port; Post-town. 
 
 Pub. Publisher; Publication; Pub- 
 lished; Public. 
 
 Pwt. Pennyweight ; Pennyweights. 
 
 Pxt. Pinxit, He (or she) painted it. 
 
 q.e.d. Quod erat demonstrandum, 
 which was to be proved. 
 
 q.l. Quantum libet, as much as you 
 please. 
 
 Q.M. Quartermaster. 
 
 Qr. Quarter. 
 
 q.s. Quantum suffidt, a sufficient 
 quantity. 
 
 Qt. Quart. 
 
 Ques. Question. 
 
 q.v. Quod vide, which see; quan- 
 tum vis, as much as you will. 
 
 R. Recipe, Take; Regina, Queen; 
 Rex, King; River; Rod; Rood; 
 Rises. 
 
 R.A. Royal Academy ; Royal Acad- 
 emician ; Royal Arch ; Royal Arca- 
 num; Royal Artillery. 
 
 Reed. Received. 
 
 Ref. Reference; Reform. 
 
 Rev. Reverend; Revelation (Book 
 of); Review; Revenue; Revise. 
 
 R.I. Rhode Island. 
 
 R.M.S. Royal Mail Steamer. 
 
 R.N. Royal Navy. 
 
 Rom..Cath. Roman Catholic. 
 
 R.S.A. Royal Society of Antiqua- 
 ries ; Royal Scottish Academy. 
 
 R.S.D. Royal Society of Dublin. 
 
 R.S.E. Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
 
 R.S.L. Roval Society of London. 
 
 R.S.V.P. Responded 's'il vous plait, 
 Answer if you please. 
 
 Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. 
 
 S. A. South America ; South Africa ; 
 South Australia. 
 
 Sat. Saturday. 
 
 S.C. Senatus consultum, A decree 
 of the Senate; South Carolina. 
 
 Sc. He (or she) engraved it. 
 
 sc. or scil. Namely. 
 
 Scot. Scotland. 
 
 Sculp, or sculp. He (or she) en- 
 graved it, Sculpsit. 
 
 S.D. Doctor of Science. 
 
 Sec. Secretary; Second; Section. 
 
 Sept. September: Septuagint. 
 
 Seq. Following, Sequentia ; It fol- 
 lows, Sequitur. 
 
 Serg. Sergeant. 
 
 Serg. Maj. Sergeant Major. 
 
 S.J. Society of Jesus. 
 
 S.J.C. Supreme Judicial Court. 
 
 S.P. Without issue, Sine prole. 
 
 Sp. Spain. 
 
 Sq.ft. Square foot or square feet. 
 
 Sq.in. Square inch or inches. 
 
 Sq. m. Square mile or miles. 
 
 Sq. r. Square rood or roods. 
 
 Sq. yd. Square yard. 
 
 Sr. Sir or Senior; Sister. 
 
 SS. or ss. To wit, Scilicet. 
 
 St. Saint; Street; Strait. 
 
 Stat. Statute. 
 
 S.T.D. Doctor of Sacred Theology. 
 
 Ster. or Stg. Sterling. 
 
 S.T.P. Professor of Sacred The- 
 ology. 
 
 Subj. Subjective. 
 
 Subst. Substantive. 
 
 Sujit. Superintendent. 
 
 Surg. Surgeon; Surgery. 
 
 Surg.-Gen. Surgeon-General. 
 
 Surv. Surveyor. 
 
 Surv.-Gen. Surveyor-General. 
 
 Syn. Synonym; Synonymous.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 186 
 
 Term. Tennessee. 
 
 Ter. Territory. 
 
 XGX Tc x 3 s 
 
 Th. 'or Thurs. Thursday. 
 
 Tr. Transpose; Translator; Trans- 
 lation. 
 
 Trans. Translator ; Translation ; 
 Transactions. 
 
 Treas. Treasurer. 
 
 Tues. or Tu. Tuesday. 
 
 Typ. Typographer. 
 
 U.J.C. Doctor of both Laws (Civil 
 and Canon). 
 
 U.K. United Kingdom. 
 
 ult. Last; of the last month, Ul- 
 timo. 
 
 Unit. Unitarian. 
 
 Univ. University. 
 
 U.S. United States. 
 
 U.S.A. United States Army. 
 
 U.S.A. United States of America. 
 
 U.S.M. United States Mail. 
 
 U.S.M. United States Marine. 
 U.S.M.A. United States Military 
 
 Academy. 
 
 U.S.N. United States Navy. 
 U.S.N.A. United States Naval 
 
 Academy. 
 
 U.S.S. United States Senate. 
 U.T. Utah Territory, 
 v. or vs. Against ; In such a way ; 
 
 Versiis; Versiculo. 
 Va. Virginia. 
 Vat. Vatican. 
 Ven. Venerable. 
 Ver. Verse ; Version. 
 Vice-Pres. or V.P. Vice-President. 
 Vise. Viscount. 
 viz. or vi. To wit; Namely; That 
 
 is to say ; Videlicet. 
 Vo. Left hand page, Verso. 
 Vol. Volume. 
 V.R. Queen Victoria, Victoria Re- 
 
 ffina. 
 
 V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. 
 
 Vt. Vermont. 
 
 Vul. Vulgate (Latin version of the 
 Bible). 
 
 Wash. Washington. 
 
 W.Ter. Washington Territory. 
 
 Wed. Wednesday. 
 
 Wise. Wisconsin. 
 
 Wk. Week. 
 
 W.T. Wyoming Territory. 
 
 X. Ten or tenth. 
 
 Xmas or Xm. Christmas. 
 
 Xn or Xtian. Christian. 
 
 Yd. Yard. 
 
 Y.M.C.A. Young Men's Christian 
 Association. 
 
 Y. M. Cath. A. Young Men's Catho- 
 lic Association. 
 
 Yrs. Years; Yours. 
 
 &. And. 
 
 &c. And the rest; And so forth: 
 Et ccetera. 
 
 CELEBRATED CHARACTERS IN THE LITERATURE OF THE 
 
 WORLD. 
 
 The name of the character is given in. black letter ; the name of the author and of the 
 work from which the character is taken, in italic. 
 
 Argante. The Faery Queene, Spenser. A giantess. 
 
 Ariel. The Tempest, Shakespeare. A spirit of the 
 air, perhaps the daintiest creation of the myriad-minded 
 poet. 
 
 Artful Dodger. Oliver Twist, Dickens. A young 
 thief who understands his business. 
 
 Arthur, King. Idyls of the King, Tennyson. A 
 legendary British. King, who established an order of 
 chivalry known as the Round Table, and about whom 
 many popular legends are afloat in Wale3 and Western 
 France. 
 
 Ashton, Lucy. The Bride of Lammermoor, Scott. 
 A beautiful character, loved and lost by Ravenswood. 
 
 A t :i la nt si. Atalanta in Calydon, Swinburne. One of 
 Diana's maidens. 
 
 Autolycus. Winter's Tale, Shakespeare. An intel- 
 lectual sneak thief. 
 
 Abd id. Paradise Lost, Milton. The faithful angel 
 who opposed Satan in his revolt. 
 
 Abigail. The Bible. A waiting maid. 
 
 Ablewhite, Godfrey. Moonstone, Wttkie Collins. 
 A disreputable spy. 
 
 Abou Hassan. "Arabian lights. An Arab who was 
 made to believe himself Caliph. 
 
 Absalom. 1. The Bible. The son of David, King 
 of Israel. 2. Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. A 
 pseudonym for the Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate 
 son of King Charles II. 
 
 Absolute, Captain. The Rivals, Sheridan. The hero 
 of the comedy, the gallant and fortunate lover. 
 
 Absolute, Sir Anthony. The Rivals, Sheridan. 
 Father of Captain Absolute, a very irascible and abso- 
 lute old gentleman. 
 
 Achitophel. Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. The 
 pseudonym for the Earl of Shaf tesbury. 
 
 Acres, Bob. The Rivals, Sheridan. A cowardly 
 boaster, the butt of the comedy. 
 
 Acrasia. The faery Queene, Spenser. An old witch, 
 the personification of intemperance. 
 
 Adam, Bell. Reliqnes, Percy. A celebrated archer. 
 
 Adams, Parson. Joseph Andrews, Fielding. An 
 eccentric, good-natured clergyman. 
 
 Adriana. Comedy of Errors, Shakespeare. The wife 
 of Antipholus. 
 
 Aguecheek, Sir Andrew. Twelfth Night, Shakes- 
 peare. A coward and a fool. 
 
 Aladdin. Arabian Nights. The owner of a magic 
 lamp and ring, which gave the possessor every wish he 
 made. 
 
 Allworthy, Squire. Tom Jones, Fielding. A good- 
 natured old country gentleman. 
 
 Alp. The Siege of Corinth, -Byron. A brave and de- 
 voted man. 
 
 Amadis de Gaul. Amadis de Gaul. The hero of a 
 Portuguese chivalric romance, the authorship of which 
 is unknown. It was translated into every language in 
 Europe. 
 
 Amelia. Amelia, Fielding. A lovely woman, sup- 
 posed to be drawn from Fielding's own wife. 
 
 Amine. Arabian Nights. A wicked sorceress, who 
 changed her three sisters into hounds. 
 
 Amlet, Richard. The Confederacy, Vanburgh. A 
 gambler. 
 
 Amri. Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. Pseu- 
 donym for H. Finch. 
 
 Andrews, Joseph. Joseph Andrews, Fielding. A 
 hero ridiculously upright and pure. 
 
 Anerley, Mary. Mary Anerley, Blaekmore. A lovely 
 and beautiful girl. 
 
 Apemantns. Timon of Athens, Shakespeare. A 
 cynic. 
 
 Arden, Enoch. Enoch Arden, Tennyson. A sailor, 
 supposed drowned, who returns home to find his wife 
 married again. 
 
 Baba, Ali. Arabian Nights. The hero of the tale of 
 the forty thieves, who breaks into the robbers' cave 
 by means of the magical password " Sesame." 
 
 "Baba, Cassim. Arabian Nights. Brother of the 
 above, who forgets the password and is captured by the 
 robbers. 
 
 Backbite, Sir Benjamin. School for Scandal, 
 Sheridan. A scandal monger. 
 
 Bagstock, Joe. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A 
 pompous fellow. 
 
 Bailey, Young. Martin Chuzzlewit, Dickens. A 
 precocious youth. 
 
 Balderstone, Caleb. Bride of Lammermoor, Scott. 
 The butler of Ravenswood. 
 
 Balthazar. 1. Comedy of Errors, Shakespeare. A 
 merchant. 2. Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare. 
 A servant. 
 
 Banquo. Macbeth, Shakespeare. A chieftain mur- 
 dered by Macbeth ; later in the same play, a ghost. 
 
 Bardell, Mrs. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. Mr. 
 Pickwick's landlady, who sues him for breach of prom- 
 ise of marriage. 
 
 Bardolph. Henry IV., Shakespeare. A follower of 
 Sir John Falstaff . 
 
 Barkis. David Copperjield, Dickens. A marrying 
 man who eventually marries. 
 
 Bath, Major. Amelia, Fielding. A pompous officer. 
 
 Bayes. The Rehearsal, Duke of Buckingham. A 
 pseudonym for Dryden. 
 
 Baynes, Charlotte. Adventures of PhUip, Thack 
 eray. The hero's sweetheart. 
 
 Bede, Adam. Adam Bede, George Eliot. An ideal 
 workingman. 
 
 Belch, Sir Toby. Ticelth Night, Shakespeare. 
 Olivia's hard-drinking uncle. 
 
 Belf ord. Clarissa Harlowe, Richardson. The friend 
 of Lovelace. 
 
 Belinda. Rape of the Lock, Pope. The heroine, 
 whose hair is cut.
 
 184 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Bell, "Laura. Pendennis, Thackeray. One of the 
 sweetest heroines in English literature. 
 
 Bell, Peter. Peter Bell, Wordsworth. An extremely 
 prosaic man. 
 
 Bellaston, L,ady. Tom Jones, Fielding. One of Tom 
 Jones' sweethearts. 
 
 Bellenden, Lady, Old Mortality, Scott. A Tory 
 gentlewoman. 
 
 Belphcebe. The Faery Queene. Spenser. A pseu- 
 donym for Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Belvidera. Venice Preserved, Otivay. The heroine 
 of the poem. 
 
 Benedick. Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare. 
 A confirmed bachelor who was converted to matrimony 
 by the lovely Beatrice. From this gentleman comes the 
 name Beneilick or Benedict applied to married men 
 who were not going to marry. 
 
 Bennet, Mrs. Amelia, Fielding. An improper char- 
 acter. 
 
 Benvolio. Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare. One of 
 Romeo's friends. 
 
 Bertram. All's Well that Ends Well, Shakespeare. 
 The hero of the play, who marries Helena. 
 
 Bianca. Othello, Shakespeare. Cassio's sweetheart. 
 
 Birch, Harvey. TJie Spy, Cooper. The chief char- 
 acter of the novel. 
 
 IJil Ml. Tom Jones, Fielding. Allworthy's nephew, 
 a talebearer. 
 
 Blember, .Miss Cornelia. JJombeyand Son, Dickens. 
 A bluestocking governess. 
 
 Bubadil, Captain. Every Man in His Humor, Jon- 
 son. A boasting coward. 
 
 Boauf, Front de. Ivanhoe, Scott. One of King 
 John's followers. A ferocious scoundrel. 
 
 Boffin, Noddy. Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. The 
 good-natured occupant of Boffin's Bower. 
 
 Bois Guilbert, Brian de. Ivanhoe, Scott. The 
 master of the Knights Templars. 
 
 Boniface. The Beaux Stratagem, Farquhar. A 
 landlord. Hence applied to landlords generally. 
 
 Booby, Lady. Joseph Andrews, Fielding. One of 
 the minor characters. 
 
 Booth. Amelia, Fielding. The hero of the story. 
 
 Bottom, Nick. A Midsummer Night's Dream, 
 Shakespeare. A ridiculous weaver with 'whom Titania, 
 the queen of the fairies, is forced to fall in love by a 
 charm. 
 
 Bounderby, Jo'siah. Hard Times, Dickens. A pro- 
 saic, matter-of-fact manufacturer. 
 
 Bowles, Tom. Kenelm Chillingly, Bulwer. A black- 
 smith. 
 
 Bowline, Tom. Roderick Random, Smollett. A 
 sailor, whose name has been applied to mariners ever 
 since. 
 
 Box and Cox. Box and Cox, Morton. The heroes of 
 the farce. 
 
 Bradwardine, Baron. Waverley, Scott. The father 
 of Rose Bradwardine. 
 
 Bramble, Matthew. Humphrey Clinker, Smollett. 
 A walking epitome of dyspepsia. 
 
 Brangtons. Evelina, Miss JBumey. Very vulgar 
 people. 
 
 Brass, Sally and Sampson. Old Curiosity Shop, 
 Dickens. A shystering lawyer and bis sister. 
 
 Brick, Jefferson. Martin, Chuzzlewit, Dickens. A 
 ridiculous American editor. 
 
 Bridgenorth, Major Kalph. Peveril of the Peak, 
 Scott. A prominent officer in the Puritan Army. 
 
 Bridget, Mrs. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. Tristram's 
 nurse. 
 
 Brown, Tom. Tom Broutris School Days and Tom 
 Brown at Oxford, Thos. Hughes. The hero of one of 
 the best boys' books ever written in English. 
 
 Bucket, Inspector. Bleak House, Dickens. A de- 
 tective. 
 
 Bumble. Oliver Twist, Dickens. A beadle. 
 
 Caius, Doctor. Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakes- 
 peare. Ann Page's Welsh lover. 
 
 Caliban. The Tempest, Shakespeare. Prospero's mon- 
 strous servant. 
 
 Candor, Mrs. The Rivals, Sheridan. A scandal 
 monger. 
 
 Carker. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A scoundrelly 
 clerk. 
 
 < assi... Othello, Shakespeare. Othello's lieutenant. 
 
 Caudle, Mrs. Curtain Lectures, Douglas Jerrold. 
 An artistic scold. 
 
 Caustic, Col. The Lounger, Mackenzie. A satirical 
 gentleman. 
 
 Celia. As You Like It, Shakespeare. Rosalind's 
 cousin. 
 
 Chadband. Bleak House, Dickens. A hypocrite. 
 
 Chamoiit. The Orphans, Otway. The hero of the 
 play. 
 
 Chillingly, Kenelm. Kenelm Chillingly, Bulwer. 
 The hero of the novel. 
 
 Christabel. Christabel, Coleridge. The heroine of 
 the poem. 
 
 Christiana. Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan. The wife 
 of the hero Christian. 
 
 Chuzzlewit, Jonas and Martin. Martin Chuzzle- 
 wit, Dickens. The first a miser and murderer, the sec- 
 ond the hero of Dickens' story. 
 
 Clare, Ada. Bleak House, Dickens. The wife of 
 Carstone, and one of the most important characters in 
 the story. 
 
 Clifford, Paul. Paul Clifford, Buhver. A beautiful 
 highwayman hero. 
 
 Clinker, Humphrey. Humphrey Clinker, Smollett. 
 A philosophical young man who meets very singular 
 adventures. 
 
 Coelebs. Ccelebs in Search of a Wife, Hannah More. 
 A gentleman who has very precise ideas on the subjects 
 of matrimony and woman. 
 
 Coldstreain, Sir Charles. Used Up, Matthews. A 
 fatigued and weary man of the world. 
 
 Consuelo. Consvelo, George Sand. The heroine of 
 the novel, a rather inflammable young lady. 
 
 Copper Captain, The. Rule a Wife and Hare a 
 Wife, Beaumont tint/ Fletcher. A nickname applied to 
 Perez, the boastful coward of the play. 
 
 Copperfleld, David. David Copperfleld, Dickens. 
 The hero of the novel, supposed to be a picture of 
 Dickens' own life and character. 
 
 Cordelia. King Lear, Shakespeare. The faithful 
 daughter of the king in the play. 
 
 Corinne. Corinne, Mine, de Sta'61. The heroine of 
 de Stael's greatest work. 
 
 Costigan, Captain. Pendennis, Thackeray. The 
 father of Pendennis' first sweetheart, a hard drinking 
 but amusing old man. 
 
 Coverley, Sir Roger de. Spectator, Addison. A 
 model country gentleman of the olden time. 
 
 Crane, Ichabod. Sleepy Hollow, Irving. The school- 
 master in the si etch. 
 
 Crawley, Kawdon. Vanity Fair, Thackeray. The 
 hero of "the novel without a hero." The husband of 
 Becky Sharp. 
 
 Cressida. Troilus and f'rftiniiln. Shakespeare. The 
 heroine of the play, in love with Troilus. 
 
 Crummies, Vincent. Nicholas Nicklcby, Dickens. 
 A theatrical head of a theatrical family. 
 
 Crusoe, Robinson. Robinson Crusoe, De Foe. The 
 hero of the most remarkable novel ever written. It has 
 been translated into every civilized language on the 
 globe. The story relates Crusoe's adventures on a desert 
 isle upon which he was cast by the sea, and is one of 
 intense interest. 
 
 Cuttle, Captain. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A 
 nautical character who indulges in a number of queer 
 mannerisms. 
 
 Cynibeline. Cymbeline, Shakespeare. A heroic king 
 of Britain. 
 
 Dalgarno, Lord. The Fortunes of Nigel, Scott. A 
 Scottish nobleman of bad character. 
 
 Dalgetty.Dugald. Worrrley, brott. A famous and 
 well drawn soldier of fortune, whose name has become 
 proverbial. 
 
 Deans, Davie, Erne, and Jeanie. Heart of Midlo- 
 thian, Scott. Famous characters in the story. Jeanie 
 is the heroine. 
 
 Dedlock, Lady, and Sir Leicester. Bleak House, 
 Dickens. Husband and wife, proud and unfortunate, 
 but noble people. 
 
 Delainaiiie, Geoffrey. Man and Wife, Collins. A 
 man of muscle. 
 
 Delphine. Delphine, Mme. de Stael. The heroine of 
 the novel. 
 
 Deronda, Daniel. Daniel Deronda, George Eliot. 
 The hero of the novel, one of the best character sketches 
 which George Eliot has made. 
 
 Desdemona. Othello, Shakespeare. The unfortunate 
 heroine of the play, wife of the Moor Othello. 
 
 Diddler, Jeremy. Raising the Wind, Kinny. The 
 prototype of all modern deadbeats. 
 
 Dimmesdale, Rev. Arthur. Tlie Scarlet Letter, 
 Hawthorne. The seducer of Hester Prynne. 
 
 Dods, Meg. St. Ronan's Well, Scott. A landlady.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 185 
 
 Dodson & Fogg. Pickivick Papers, Dickens. Mrs. 
 Bardell's attorneys in her suit against Mr. Pickwick. 
 
 Dogberry, Much Ado About .\'o(/iui(/. Shakespeare. 
 A.n absurd character who travesties justice. 
 
 Dombey, Florence, Mr. and Paul. Domh'.-tj uml 
 Son, Dickens. Characters in the novel. 
 
 Dominie, Sampson. Guy Mannering, Scott. An 
 eccentric clergy man. 
 
 Don Quixote. Don Quixote, Cervantes. The hero of 
 the novel. This has been described by eminent critics 
 as the best work of fiction which the world has yet pr- 
 duced. It was written in Spanish by Miguel de Cer- 
 vantes, as a protest against the ridiculous extrava- 
 gances of what are known as Chivalric Romances. Don 
 Quixote is the type upon which thousands of later 
 novels have been "founded. Crazed by the reading of 
 knightly tales, he arms himself and goes out in search 
 of ad ventures, on his steed Rozinante,ancl accompanied 
 by his squire Saiicho Panzo. These adventures are told 
 so wittily, that the world has been laughing at them for 
 centuries, and the book has never lost its fresh, boyish 
 interest. The best English translation is Smollett's. 
 Gustave Dore, the famous French artist, some years 
 since .completed a set of illustrations for Don Quixote, 
 which have adiled greatly to its interest. 
 
 Dora. David Copper-field, Dickens. Copperfield's 
 child-wife. 
 
 Dorimant. The Man of Mode, Ethereye. A dandy. 
 
 Dorothea. Middle inarch, George E tot. The heroine 
 of the tale. 
 
 Dorrit, Edward, and " Little." Little Dorrit, 
 Dickt-iis. The father of the Marshalsea prison and his 
 interesting daughter. 
 
 Dravrcansir. The Rehearsal, The Duke of Bucking- 
 ham. A bully. 
 
 Dulcinea del Toboso. Don Quixote, Cervantes. A 
 country girl whom Don Quixote selects as his lady- 
 love. 
 
 Dundreary, Lord. Our American Cousin, Taylor. 
 A typical and absurd English lord. The character was 
 really created by the actor Sothern. 
 
 Edgar. King Le"ar, Shakespeare. The son of Glou- 
 cester. 
 
 Emilia. Othello, Shakespeare. "Wife of lago, the 
 villain of the play. 
 
 Esmond, Beatrix, and Henry. Henry Esmond, 
 Thackeray. Heroine and hero of the novel, which is of 
 the time of the English Revolution. 
 
 Eugenia. TJie llet urn of the Stitive, Hardy. A beau- 
 tiful and unfortunate girl. 
 
 Evangeline. Eranf/eline, Lonnfellow. Heroine of 
 the poem; her wanderings are told inverse that will 
 never die. 
 
 Etans, Sir Hugh. The Merry Wives of Windsor, 
 Shakespeare. A Welsh clergyman. 
 
 Evelina. E eel inn, Miss 'Burney. Heroine of the 
 novel. 
 
 Eyre, Jane. Jane Eyre, Bronte. Heroine of the novel. 
 
 Fag. Thi- nivals. Sherirtan. A servant. 
 
 Fagin. Oliver Tvrlgt, Dickeng. The preceptor in the 
 thieves' academy, where Oliver Twist is held a prisoner. 
 
 Faithful, Jacob. Jacob Faithful, Marryat. The 
 hero of the novel. 
 
 Falkland. The liicnls, Sheridan. A jealous lover of 
 Julia's, and friend to Captain Absolute. 
 
 Falstaff, Sir John. H> nni 1 1', and the Merry Wires 
 of Windsor, Shakespeare. This is Shakespeare's most 
 comic character ; Queen Elizabeth was so pleased with 
 Sir John in Henry IV. that, at her request, Shakespeare 
 composed- The Merry Wives of Windsor, in order to 
 give the fat knight a'wider field for fun. 
 
 Fanny. Under the Greemcood Tree, Hardy. A pretty 
 schoolmistress. 
 
 Fat Boy, The. Pickicick /'nptrf. Ilickrns. One of the 
 minor characters in the novel, given to sleep and pie. 
 
 Faust. Faust, Goethe. The hero of the great Ger- 
 man tragedy, who sells his soul to the Devil, and gets in 
 return youth, wealth, and an attendant devil, Mephis- 
 topheles. Goethe was to Germany what Shakespeare 
 was to England. 
 
 Felton, Septimius. Septimlus Felton, Hawthorne. 
 The mystical hero of the novel. 
 
 Ferdinand. The Tempest, Shakespeare. Son of the 
 king, falls in love with Prospero's daughter, Miranda. 
 
 Ferrers, Eiidymion. Endymion, Benjamin Dis- 
 raeli. Hero of the novel. 
 
 Figaro. The Marriage of Figaro, Beaumarchais. 
 An exceedingly comical and sharp-witted barber. 
 
 Firmin, Philip. The Adventures of Philip, Thack- 
 eray. The hero of the novel. 
 
 Florizel. A. Winter's Tale, Shakespeare. The prince 
 of Bohemia. 
 
 Fluellen. Henry V., .Shakespeare. A pedantic but 
 brave Welsh officer. 
 
 Foker, Harry. Pendenui.i, Thackeray. One of the 
 minor characters. 
 
 Foppington, Lord. The Relapse, Van Brugh. An 
 idiotic dandy. 
 
 Fosco, Count. Woman in White, Collins. A com- 
 plicated scoundrel. 
 
 Frankenstein. Frankenstein, Mrs. Southey. The 
 dreadful result of the labors of a German student, who 
 makes a man in the dissecting room out of corpses, and 
 brings him to life by galvanism. The hideous hero of 
 the novel has a series of most blood-curdling adven- 
 tures. 
 
 Friar Tuck. Reliques, Percy. The jolly companion 
 of Robin Hood, the outlaw of Sherwood Forest. 
 
 Friday. Robinson Crusoe, De Foe. Crusoe's savage 
 servant. 
 
 Gadgrind, Jeremiah. Hard Times, Dickens. A 
 tyrannical " practical " man. 
 
 Gamp, Sairy. Martin CJnizzlewit, Dickens. A comi- 
 cal and hard-drinking monthly nurse. 
 
 Gargantna. Gargantua, Jtahelais. Hero of the tale. 
 
 Gaunt, Griffith. Griffith Gaunt, lieade. Hero of 
 the novel. 
 
 Gay, AV alter. Dombey and Son, Dickens. Marries 
 Florence Dombey. 
 
 Gibbie, Goose. Old Mortality, Scott. A half-witted 
 boy. 
 
 Gil Bias. Gil Bias, Lc Sage. The hero of a very 
 famous novel. His adventures are of the most surpris- 
 ing character, and are told in a most interesting man- 
 ner. 
 
 Gilpin, John. John GUpin's Hide, Cou-per. The 
 absurd hero of the poem. 
 
 Ginevra. Ginevra, Rogers. The heroine of the poem, 
 accidentally locked in a trunk on her wedding day, and 
 not found for years and years. 
 
 G bbo, Laiincelot. The Merchant of Venice, Shakes- 
 peare. A merry servant. 
 
 Goneril. King Lear, Shakespeare. The eldest daugh- 
 ter of the king, a traitor and an ingrate. 
 
 Gonzalo. The Tempest, Shakespeare. An old coun- 
 cilor. 
 
 Gosling, Giles. Ken ilworth, Scott. A landlord. 
 
 Graiidisoii, Sir Charles. Sir Charles Grandison, 
 Richardson. Hero of the novel. 
 
 Gray, Vivian. Vivian Gray, Disraeli. Hero of the 
 novel. 
 
 Grundy, Mrs. Speed the Plow, Morton. A old lady 
 who represents worldly propriety and talebearing. 
 
 Gulliver, Lemuel. Gulliver's Travels, Su-ift. Hero 
 of the romance. 
 
 Hamlet. Hamlet, Shakespeare. The melancholy 
 Dane, hero of the play. 
 
 Harley. The Man of Feeling, Mackenzie. Hero of 
 the novel. 
 
 Harlowe, Clarissa. Clarissa Harloue, Richardson. 
 Heroine of the novel. 
 
 Harris, Mrs. Martin Chrtzzleirit, Dickens. A ficti- 
 tious person invented by Sairy Gamp, for the purpose 
 of enforcing her statements by quoting the opinions of 
 Mrs. Harris upon the subject under discussion. 
 
 Headstone, Bradley. Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. 
 A schoolmaster in love with Lizzie Hexam. 
 
 Heep, Uriah. David Copper-field, Dickens. A hyp- 
 ocrite and sneak. 
 
 Helena. All's Well that Ends Well, Shakespeare. 
 Heroine of the play. 
 
 Hero. Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare. 
 Daughter of Leonato. 
 
 Hexam, Lizzie. Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. Hero- 
 ine of the novel. 
 
 Holofernes. As You Like it, Shakespeare. A school- 
 master and pedant. 
 
 Holt, Felix. Felix Holt, George Eliot. Hero of the 
 novel. 
 
 Honeyman, Charles. The Xeu-com.es, Thackeray. 
 A fashionable preacher. 
 
 Honor, Mrs. Tom Jones, Fielding. Sophia Western's 
 waiting woman. 
 
 Hopeful. Pilgrim's Progress. Buni/an. Apilgrlm. 
 
 Horatio. Hamlet, Shakespeare. The friend of 
 Hamlet.
 
 186 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Howe, >Iis. Clarissa Harlowe, Richardson. Cla- 
 rissa's friend. 
 
 Hudibras. Hudibras, Sutler. Hero of the poem. 
 
 Hunter, Mr. and Mrs. Leo. Pickwick Papers, 
 Dickens. Minor characters in the novel. 
 
 lago. Othello, Shakespeare. The villain of the 
 tragedy. 
 
 Imogen. Cymbeline, Sfiakespeare. Heroine of the 
 play. 
 
 Isabella. Measure for Measure, Shakespeare. Her- 
 oine of the play. 
 
 Ivanboe. Ivanhoe, Scott. Hero of the novel. 
 
 Jack, Col. Col. Jack, DeFoe. The criminal hero of 
 the tale. 
 
 JafHer. Venice Preserved, Otway. Hero of the poem. 
 
 Jaques. As You Like II, Shakespeare. The melan- 
 choly philosopher. 
 
 Jarndyce, John. Bleak House, Dickens. A benevo- 
 lent old gentleman. 
 
 J avert. Les Miserables, Hugo. A detective. 
 
 Jessica. Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare. Shy- 
 lock's daughter. 
 
 Jingle, Alfred. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. An 
 amusing adventurer. 
 
 Kilmansegg, Miss. The Golden Legend, Hood. The 
 golden-legged neroine of the poem. 
 
 Kitely. Every Man in His Humor, Jonson. A jeal- 
 ous husband. 
 
 Lady Bountiful. The Beaux Stratagem, Far- 
 quhar. A generous lady. 
 
 Laertes. Hamlet, Shakespeare. The son of Polonius, 
 killed by his own sword. 
 
 I -:i 1 la Kookh. La//a Rookh, Moore. Heroine of the 
 poem, to whom Feramorz relates the stories told in the 
 romance. 
 
 Languish, Lydia. The Rivals, Sheridan. Heroine 
 of the play. 
 
 Lear, King. King Lear, Shakespeare. Hero of the 
 play. 
 
 Leatherstocking, Natty. Pathfinder, Deerslayer, 
 and other novels, Cooper. A huntsman and Indian 
 fighter. 
 
 Legree. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe. Slave master. 
 
 Leigh, Aurora. Aurora Leigh, Browning. Heroine 
 of the romance. 
 
 Leila. Giaour, Byron. Heroine of the poem. 
 
 Lightwood, Mortimer. Our Mutual Friend, Dick- 
 ens. Minor character in novel. 
 
 Liguiahago, Capt. Humphrey Clinker, Smollett. A 
 retired officer. 
 
 Little, Henry. Put Yourself in His Place, Reade. 
 Hero of the novel. 
 
 Little Nell. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. Heroine 
 of novel. 
 
 Locksley. Ivanhoe, Scott. One of Robin Hood's 
 pseudonyms. 
 
 Long Tom Coffin. Pilot, Cooper. A boatman. 
 
 Lothair. Lothair, Disraeli. Hero of novel, sup- 
 posed pseudonvm for the Marquis of Bute. 
 
 Lothario. The Fair Penitent, Ron-e. A rake. 
 
 Lovelace. Clarissa Harlowc, li ic/m rtlson.^ A rake. 
 
 Lnmpkin, Tony. She Stoops to Conquer, Goldsmith. 
 A country squire. 
 
 Macbeth. Macbeth, Shakespeare. Hero of the play. 
 
 MacdufT. Macbeth, Shukfsprnrf. Rival of Macbeth. 
 
 Maclvor, Flora. Rob Roy, Scotl. Heroine of novel. 
 
 Mackenzie, Mrs. Newcomes, Thackeray. A terma- 
 gant widow. 
 
 Malagrother, Sir Mingo. The Fortunes of Nigel, 
 Scott. An ill-natured courtier. 
 
 Malaprop, Mrs. The Rivals, Sheridan. A charac- 
 ter famed for verbal blunders. 
 
 Malvolio. Twelfth Night, Shakespeare. Olivia's 
 conceited steward. 
 
 Manfred. Manfred, Byron. Hero of the tragedy. 
 
 Mantalini. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. The absurd 
 husband of the milliner in the story. 
 
 Marchioness, The. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. 
 3fr. Dick Sw-veller's remarkable little nurse. 
 
 Margaret. Fausl, Goethe. The heroine of the 
 tragedy. 
 
 Marlow, Young. She Stoops to Conquer, Goldsmith. 
 Hero of the play. 
 
 Medora. The Corsair, Byron. Heroine of the poem. 
 
 Mrdl, Mr. Little Dorr it, Dickens. A speculator. 
 
 Meister, Wilhelm. Wtthelm Meister, Goethe. Hero 
 of the novel. 
 
 Mephistopheles. Faust, Goethe. The Devil. 
 
 Mercutio. Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare. A won- 
 derfully witty friend of .Romeo's. 
 
 Micawber, Wilkins. David Copperfield, Dickens. 
 A remarkable character, always waiting for something 
 to turn up. 
 
 Miller, Daisy. Jttiisi/ Miller, Henry James. An 
 alleged representative American girl. 
 
 Minna. The Pirate, Scott. One of the heroines of 
 the novel. 
 
 Miranda. The Tempest, Shakespeare. Daughter of 
 Prospero, beloved of Ferdinand ; heroine of the play. 
 
 Monimia. The Orphan, Otivay. Heroine of 'the 
 poem. 
 
 Mouldy. Henry IV., Shakespeare. One of Falstaff's 
 recruits. 
 
 Mucklewrath, Habakkuk. Old Mortality, Scott. 
 A fanatical preacher. 
 
 Neuchatel, Adrian a. Endymion, Disraeli. A 
 wealthy young lady. 
 
 Newcome, Clive, Colonel, Ethel. The Newcomes, 
 Thackeray. Characters in the best novel Thackeray 
 has written. 
 
 Nickleby, Mrs. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. The 
 exasperating mother of the hero, Nicholas. 
 
 Norna. The Pirate, Scott. An insane soothsayer. 
 
 Nydia. Last Days of Pompeii, Bulwer. A blind 
 flower girl. 
 
 Obadiah. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A servant. 
 
 Oberon. Midsummer Night's Dream. Shakespeare. 
 The King of Fairyland. 
 
 Ochiltree, Edie. The Antiquary, Scott. A beggar of 
 prominence. 
 
 Oldbuck, Jonathan. The Antiquary, Scott. Hero 
 of the novel. 
 
 Old Mortality. Old Mortality, Scott. A gravestone 
 cleaner. 
 
 Olif aunt, Nigel. The Fortunes of Nigel, Scott. Hero 
 of the novel. 
 
 Ophelia. Hamlet, Shakespeare. Heroine of the 
 tragedy. 
 
 Orville, Lord. Evelina, Miss Jiurney. Evelina's 
 lover. 
 
 Othello. Othello, Shakespeare. Hero of the play, a 
 Moor, husband-of Desdemona. 
 
 O'Trigger, Sir Lucius. The Rivals, Sheridan. A 
 fire-eating Irishman. 
 
 Overreach, Sir Giles. A New Way to Pay Old 
 Debts, Massinger. A usurer. 
 
 Page, Anne and Mrs. The Merry Wives of Windsor, 
 Shakespeare. Characters in the play. 
 
 Pamela. Pamela, Richardson. An intensely good 
 young lady. 
 
 Pangloss. The Heir-at-Law, Colman. A pedantic 
 teacher. 
 
 Pantagruel. Pantagruel, Rabelais. Hero of the 
 sketch. 
 
 Partridge. Tom Jones, Fielding. The hero's trusty 
 follower. 
 
 Pecksniff, Charity, Mercy, Mr. Martin Chuzzle- 
 wit, Dickens. Characters in the story. 
 
 Pendennis, Arthur, Helen, Major. Pendermis, 
 Thackeray. Well drawn and forcible characters in the 
 novel. 
 
 Perdita. Winter's Tale, Shakespeare. Florizel's 
 sweetheart. 
 
 Petruchio. T7ie Taming of the Shrew, Shakespeare. 
 The hero, and husband of Katherine. 
 , Pickle, Peregrine. Peregrine Pickle, Smollett. The 
 wandering and immoral hero of the novel. 
 
 Pickwick, Samuel. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. 
 Hero of the novel. 
 
 Pierre. Venice Preserved, Otway. A conspirator. 
 
 Pistol, Ancient. Merry Wives of Windsor and 
 Henry IV., Shakespeare. Falstaff's most characteristic 
 follower. 
 
 Pleydell, Paulus. Guy Mannering, Scott. A lawyer. 
 
 Poins, Ned. Henry IV., Shakespeare. A friend of 
 Prince Hal. 
 
 Portia. TheMerchant of Venice, Shakespeare. Hero- 
 ine of the play. 
 
 Poundliiit, Peter. Old Mortality, Scotl. A preacher. 
 
 Primrose. Dr. Vicar of Wakejield, Goldsmith. The 
 Vicar of Wakefield. 
 
 Primrose, Moses. Son of the preceding.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 187 
 
 Proliug. Tiro Gentlemen of Verona, Shakespeare. 
 One of the two gentlemen. 
 
 Proudfute. Fair Maid of Perth, Scott. A bonnet 
 maker. 
 
 Prynne, Hester. Scarlet Li-tti /, Ha n-thorne. Hero- 
 ine of novel. 
 
 Pumblechook, Uncle. Great Expectations, Dick- 
 i M. A bully anil fraud. 
 
 Pyiichon, Phoebe. House of the Seven Gables. 
 Hawtliorne. Heroine of the novel. 
 
 Quasimodo. Our Lady of .\otre Dame, Hugo. A 
 monster. 
 
 Quickly, Mrs. Henry II'.. Shakespeare. The famed 
 hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern, in Eastcheap. 
 
 Quilp. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A vicious 
 dwarf. 
 
 Quince, Peter. Miilxmn m< r S"ighVs Dream, Shakes- 
 peare. Character in the interlude. 
 
 Random, Roderick. Roderick Random, Smollett. 
 Hero of the novel. 
 
 Rashleigh. Rob Roy, Scott. The villain of the novel. 
 
 Rasselas. Rasselas, Dr. Johnson. Prince of Abys- 
 sinia, hero of the tale. 
 
 Rattler, Jack. Roderick Random, Smollett. A 
 nautical character. 
 
 Ravenswood. The Bride of Lammermoor, Scott. 
 Hero of the novel, lover of Lucy Ashton. 
 
 Rebecca. Ivanhoc, Scott. A lovelv Jewess. 
 
 Redgauntlet. Redgauntlet, Scott. Hero of the novel. 
 
 Rob Roy. Rob Roy, Scott. A Scottish chief, hero of 
 the novel. 
 
 Roderigo. Othello, Shakespeare. lago's dupe. 
 
 Romeo. Rtnnr-o ami Juliet, Shakespeare. The hero 
 of the play, lover of Juliet. 
 
 Sabrina. ( 'am </.<. Milton. River nymph. 
 
 Saripant. Orlando Furioso, Ariosto. King of Cir- 
 cassia, in love with Angelica. 
 
 .Saddletree, Bartoline. Heart of Midlothian, Scott. 
 A learned peddler. 
 
 Sancho Panza. .Don Quixote, Cervantes. Worthy 
 squire of a worthy master; the right man in the right 
 place. 
 
 Sandford, Harry. Sandfordand Merton, Day. Hero 
 of the story. 
 
 Sangrad'o, Doctor. Gil Bias, Le Sage. A confirmed 
 phlebotomist. 
 
 Scheherezade, Queen. Arabian Sights. The Sul- 
 taness who tells the tales. 
 
 Scrub. The Beaux Stratagem, Farquhar. A face- 
 tious valet. 
 
 Sedley, Amelia. Vanity Fair. Thackeray. An ami- 
 able woman, but of no great decision. 
 
 Sedley, Joseph. Vanity Fair, Thackeray. A fat, 
 bashful East Indian. 
 
 Seli 111. Bride of Abiidos, Byron. The hero. 
 
 Shafton, Sir Pitrcie. The Monastery, Scott. A 
 pedantic courtier. 
 
 Shandy, Tristram. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. Hero 
 of the story. 
 
 Sharp, Rebecca. Vanity Fair, Thackeray. The 
 designing: heroine. 
 
 Shy lock. MI: r chant of Venice, Shakespeare. A vin- 
 dictive Jew. 
 
 Silvia. Two Gentlemen of Verona, Shakespeare. In 
 love with Valentine. 
 
 Skimpole, Harold. Bleak House, Dickens. Always 
 out of money. 
 
 Slipslop, Sirs. Joufph Andrews, Fielding. A waiting 
 woman of doubtful character. 
 
 Slop, Doctor. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. An iras- 
 cible physician. 
 
 Sly, Christopher. Taming of the Shreu; Shakes- 
 pf a rr . A drunken tinker. 
 
 Slyme, Chevy. Martin Chuzzletrit, Dickens. A 
 " gent short of funds." 
 
 Smyke. Xicholc.* -A~/V/,7/"/<?/, Dickens. An ill-used, 
 poor, "half-witted pupil of Squeers. 
 
 Sneerwell, Lady. School for Scandal, si,/ ridan. A 
 gossip and backbiter. 
 
 Snodarrass, Augustus. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. 
 A poetical character. 
 
 Snow, Lucy. Villette, Charlotte Bronte. The heroine. 
 
 Sparkler, Edmond. Little Don-it. J>i'-/,' ns. Man 
 of fashion. 
 
 Squeers, Wackford. Nicholas Sickleby, Dickens. 
 The brutal master or Dotheboys Hall. 
 
 Squeers, Master Wackford. In same. A spoiled 
 child, the image of his father. 
 
 St. Leon. St. Leon, William Godwin. Hero of the 
 tale, has the secret of perpetual youth, and the transmu- 
 tation of metals. 
 
 Steerforth, James. David Copperfield, Dickens. 
 Talented and profligate. 
 
 Steggs, Miss Carolina tVilhelmina Amelia. Vicar 
 ' if ll'n/.tjit hi. f.'otdxinlth. A pretender to gentility. 
 
 Stiggins, Elder. Pickn-ii-k Papers, Dickens. Affects 
 pineapple rum and Mrs. Weller. 
 
 Strap, Hugh. Roderick Random, Smollett. Rod- 
 erick's follower. 
 
 Surface, Sir Charles and Joseph. School for Scan- 
 dal, Sheridan. The first a good-natured rake, the sec- 
 ond a hypocrite. 
 
 Swiveller, Dick. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A 
 gay rattlepate and a good fellow. 
 
 Tamora. Titus Andronicus, Shakespeare. A Gothic 
 queen. 
 
 Tapley, Mark. Martin Chuzzlew-it, Dickens. Hap- 
 piest when most miserable ; jolly when he ought to cry. 
 
 Tappertit, Simon. Barnaby Rudge, Dickens. A 
 ferocious little apprentice. 
 
 Tartuffe. Tartuffe, Moliere. A hypocritical charac- 
 ter. 
 
 Teazle, Lady. School for Scandal, Sheridan. The 
 heroine. 
 
 Teazle, Sir Peter. School for Scandal, Sheridan. 
 The old husband of Lady Teazle. 
 
 Thersites. Iliad, Homer, and Troilus and Cressida, 
 Shakespeare. Afoul-mouthed Greek. 
 
 Thwackum. Tom Jones, Fielding. A philosophical 
 pedagogue. 
 
 Tillemina. The Critic, Sheridan. A maiden very 
 much crossed in love. 
 
 Tiiiion. Timon of Athens, Shakespeare. A misan- 
 thrope, hero of the play. 
 
 Tinto, Dick. The Bride of Lammermoor and St. 
 Rattan's Well, Scott. An artist. 
 
 Tit an ia. Midsummer Eight's Dream, Shakespeare. 
 The queen of fairies. 
 
 Titmouse, Tittlebat. Ten Thousand a Year, Dr. 
 Warren. Astonished Parliament by an imitation of 
 Chanticleer. 
 
 Tito. Romola, George Eliot. The handsome, but 
 weak hero. 
 
 Todgers, Mrs. Martin Chuzzlewit, Dickens. The 
 keeper of a commercial boarding house. 
 
 Toots. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A simple, eccen- 
 tric fellow. 
 
 Topsy. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Mrs. Stowe. An igno- 
 rant young slave girl. 
 
 Touchstone. As You Like It, Shakespeare. A clown. 
 
 Touchwood, Peregrine. St. Ronan's Well, Scott 
 An irascible East Indian. 
 
 Tox, Miss. Dombey and. Son, Dickens. A spinster, 
 slightly curious. 
 
 Traddles, Tom. Da rid Copperfield, Dickens. A bar- 
 rister and friend of Copperfield. 
 
 Trapbois. The Fortunes of Xigel, Scott. A usurer. 
 
 Trim, Corporal, Tristram Shandy, Sterne. The fol- 
 lower of Uncle Toby. 
 
 Trinculo. Tempest, Shakespeare. A jester. 
 
 Triol, Marquis. The Pirate, Scott. A wealthy Zea- 
 lander. 
 
 Trotwood, Betsy. David Copperfield, Dickens. The 
 kindest of women, but with an aversion to trespassing 
 donkeys. 
 
 Trulliber, Parson. Joseph Andrews, Fielding. An 
 ignorant clergyman. 
 
 Trunnion, Commodore Hawser. Peregrine Pickle, 
 Smollett. An odd nautical character. 
 
 Tulkinghorn, Mr. Bleak House, Dickens. A wily 
 solicitor. 
 
 Tulliver, 3Iaggie. Mill on the Floss, George Eliot. 
 The heroine. 
 
 Tulliver, Tom. Mill on the Floss, George Eliot. The 
 selti.-h, conceited brother of Maggie Tulliver. 
 
 Tupman, Tracy. Picku-ick Papers, Dickens. An 
 obese admirer of lovely women. 
 
 Turveydrop. Bleak House, Dickens. Dancing mas- 
 ter and professor of deportment. 
 
 Tusher, Thomas. Henry Esmond, Thackeray. A 
 sycophantic clergyman. 
 
 Twemlow, Mr. Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. A. 
 diner-out and friend of the Veneerings. 
 
 Twist, Oliver. Oliver Twist, Dickens. Hero of the 
 novel.
 
 ]88 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Twysden, Talbott. Philip, Thackeray. A public 
 officer. 
 
 Tybalt. Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare. Nephew of 
 Lady Capulet, slain by Romeo. 
 
 Ulrica. Ivanhoe, Scott. An old witch. 
 
 Una. The Faery Queene,Spenser. The personification 
 of Truth. 
 
 1'iicas. The Last of the Mohican, Cooper. A Mohi- 
 can chief. 
 
 Uncle Toby. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A noble 
 veteran, the real hero Q the story. 
 
 Uncle Tom. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe. A pious 
 and unfortunate slave, the hero of the novel. This book 
 added more converts to the abolition party than any 
 other factor. It is the most remarkable and effective 
 American work printed. 
 
 Varden, Dolly. Barnaby Rudge, Dickens. The hei- 
 oine of the story. 
 
 Vathek. Vathek, Deckford. The hero of Beckford's 
 remarkable novel. 
 
 Vernon, Di. Rob Roy, Scott. The heroine of the 
 novel. 
 
 Vholes. Bleak House, Dickens. A crafty lawyer. 
 
 Viola. Twelfth Night, Shakespeare. A sweet little 
 lady in love with Orsino. 
 
 Virgilia. Coriolanus, Shakespeare. "Wife of Corio- 
 lanus. 
 
 Virginia. Paid and Virginia, St. Pierre. Heroine 
 of the novel. 
 
 Vivian. Idyls of the King, Tennyson. The mistress 
 of Merlin, the Enchanter. 
 
 Wadman, Widow. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. The 
 lady who seeks to decoy Uncle Toby into matrimony. 
 
 Wamba. Ivanhoe, Scott. A clown. 
 
 Wardle, Mr. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. A jolly 
 country gentleman, friend of Mr. Pickwick. 
 
 Wegg, Silas. Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. The vil- 
 lain ot the novel. 
 
 Weller, Tony and Samivel. Pickwick Papers, 
 Dickens. Father and son; the latter, Mr. Pickwick's 
 serving man, is iindoubtedly the most original and most 
 humorous creation of Dickens' exuberant fancy. 
 
 Werther. Sorrows of Werther, Goethe. Hero of the 
 tale. 
 
 "Western, Squire and Sophia. Tom Jones, Fielding. 
 Father and daughter, the latter the heroine of the 
 novel. 
 
 Whiskerandos, Don Ferolo. The Critic, Sheridan. 
 The lover of Tilburina. 
 
 Wickfield, Agnes. David Copperficld, Dickens. 
 Heroine of the novel. 
 
 "Wild, Jonathan. Jonathan Wild, Fielding. A 
 famous highwayman, and afterwards a noted thief- 
 taker of London. 
 
 "Wildair, Sir Harry. The Constant Couple, and Sir 
 Harry Wildair, Farauhar. The hero of both plays. 
 
 Wilfer, Bella, Lavinia, Reginald, and Mrs. Our 
 Mutual Friend, Dickens. One of the most entertaining 
 family groups in English fiction. The first is the 
 charming heroine of the novel. Lavinia is her abom- 
 inable sister; Reginald, her angelic papa; while the 
 somber background is made by the gloomy mamma, 
 whose other name in the family is The Tragic Muse. 
 
 Wilfrid. Rokeby, Scott. Hero of the poem. 
 
 "Williams, Caleb. Caleb Williams, Godwin. The 
 hero of a very remarkable novel. 
 
 Wimble, Will. Spectator, Addison. Pseudonym for 
 Thomas Morecraf t. 
 
 Winkle, Rip Van. Sketch Book, Jrring. The im- 
 mortal sleeper of the Catskills. 
 
 Wishfort, Lady. The Way of the World, Congreve. 
 Heroine of the play. . 
 
 Worldly Wiseman, Mr. Pilgrim's Progress, Bun- 
 yan. One of Christian's difficulties. 
 
 Wray, Enoch. The Village, Crabbe. A noble old 
 man. 
 
 Wren, Jenny. Our Mutual Friend, Dickons. The 
 dolls' dressmaker. 
 
 Wronghead, Sir Francis. The Provoked Husband, 
 Vanburgh. Hero of the play. 
 
 Yorick. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A jester de- 
 scended from the Yorick whose history is told by 
 Hamlet. 
 
 Yseult. Tristram and Yseult, Matthew Arnold. A 
 Cornish heroine of the olden time. 
 
 Zadoc. Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. Pseudo- 
 nym for Bancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Zanoni. Zanoni, Bulwer. The mystical hero of the 
 novel. 
 
 Zeluco. Zeluco, Dr. J. Moore. The prodigal hero of 
 the novel. 
 
 Zobeide. Arabian Wights. The wife of the great 
 Haroun al Raschid. 
 
 Zadig. Zadig, Voltaire. The Babylonian hero of the 
 novel. 
 
 Zophiel. Paradise Lost, Milton. A swift-winged 
 cherub. 
 
 Zuleika. The Bride of Abydos, Byron. Heroine of 
 the poem. 
 
 LITERARY PSEUDONYMS. 
 
 A. L. 0. E. ( = A Lady of 
 
 England) Charlotte Maria Tucker. 
 
 Adeler, Max Chas. Heber Clark. 
 
 Alexander, Mrs Mrs. A. F. Hector. 
 
 Anstey, F. F. Anstey Guthrie. 
 
 Atlas( >l World") Edmund Yates. 
 
 Bab W. S. Gilbert. 
 
 Bede, Cuthbert Rev. Edw. Bradley. 
 
 Bell, Acton Anne Bronte\ 
 
 Bell, Currer Charlotte Bronte 1 . 
 
 Bell, Ellis Emily Jane Bronte. 
 
 Bibliophile, Jacob Paul Lacroix. 
 
 Bickerstaff, Isaac Dean Swift and Steele in 
 
 Tatler. 
 
 Biglow, Hosea J. Russell Lowell. 
 
 Billings, Josh Henry W. Shaw. 
 
 Bon Gaultier Sir Theodore Martin and W. 
 
 E. Aytoun. 
 
 Boz Chas. Dickens. 
 
 Breitmann, Hans Chas. G. Leland. 
 
 Carmen, Sylva Queen of Koumania. 
 
 Conway, Hugh F. J. Fargus. 
 
 Cornwall, Barry .: B. W. Procter. 
 
 Crayon, Geoffrey Washington Irving. 
 
 Danbury Neivsman. J. M. Bailey. 
 
 Elia Charles Lamb. 
 
 Eliot, George Mrs. Mary Ann Cross (nit 
 
 Evans). 
 
 Ettrick Shepherd James Hogg. 
 
 Fern, Fanny Mrs. Sara V. Parton. 
 
 Graduate of Oxford John Ruskin. 
 
 Greenwood, Grace Mrs. Lippincott. 
 
 Greville, Henry Mme. Durand. 
 
 H. H. Mrs. Helen Hunt Jackson. 
 
 Hamilton, Gail Mary Abigail Dodge. 
 
 Harland, Marion Mrs. M. V. Terhune (ne 
 
 Hawes). 
 
 Historicus Sir W. Vernon Harcourt. 
 
 Jean Paul J. P. F. Richter. 
 
 Kerr, Orpheus C R. H. Newell. 
 
 Knickerbocker, Died rich Washington Irving. 
 
 L. E. L Letitia E. Landon. 
 
 Lee, Vernon Violet Pa get. 
 
 Loti, Pierre Julien Viaud. 
 
 Lyall, Edna Ada Ellen Bayly. 
 
 Maitland, Thomas R. Buchanan. 
 
 Malet, Lucas Mrs.Harrison(/n5eKingsley). 
 
 Mathers, Helen Mrs. Reeves' (>ie Matthews). 
 
 Meredith, Owen Earl of Ly tton. 
 
 Miller, Joaquin C. H. Miller. 
 
 Nasby, Petroleum, V D. R. Locke. 
 
 North, Christopher Prof. John Wilson. 
 
 O'Dowd, Cornelius Charles Lever. 
 
 Ot/il ri/, Gfirin J.M. Barrie. 
 
 did Humphrey G. Mogridge. 
 
 (tin H him, Jacob Matt. Jas. Higgins. 
 
 Opium Enter T. De Quincey. 
 
 o/itle, Oliirr Win. T. Adams. 
 
 O^Rell, Max Paul Blouet. 
 
 Ouida Louise de la Rame. 
 
 ( Douglas Jerrold. 
 ( A. T. Quiller Couch. 
 
 {Sam. G. Goodrich; 
 W.Martin; 
 G. Mogridge; 
 W. Tegg ; 
 J. Bennett. 
 
 Phiz HablotK. Browne. 
 
 Pindar, Peter John Wolcot. 
 
 Plymley, Peter Sydney Smith . 
 
 Prout, Father F. S. Mahony . 
 
 Qairinus Dr. Dollinger. 
 
 Rob Roy John Macgregor. 
 
 Q..
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 189 
 
 Sand, George Mine. Dudevant (nee Dupin). 
 
 ScrtbtenM, Martlnue Swift, Pope, and Arbuth- 
 
 not. 
 
 Shirley John Skelton. 
 
 Slick, Sam T. C. Haliburton. 
 
 Stepniak S. Kartchefi'sky. 
 
 Stretton, Hesba Sarah Smith. 
 
 Syntax, Dr Wm. Combe. 
 
 Titcomb, Timothy J. G. Holland. 
 
 TUmarsJt,M)c/iael Angela.. W. M. Thackeray. 
 
 Tu-ain, Murk Samuel L. Clemens. 
 
 Tytlcr, .SV/ra/t Miss 11. Keddie. 
 
 Uncle Kcmus Joel Chandler Harris. 
 
 Urban, Sylwtnua Editor of The Gentleman's 
 
 Magazine. 
 
 Vacuum, Viator Thomas Hughes. 
 
 Voltaire Franyois Marie Arouet. 
 
 Ward, Artemus Chas. F. Browne. 
 
 Warden, Florence Mrs. G. James. 
 
 Wetherell, Elizabeth Susan Warner. 
 
 Winter, John Strange Mrs. H. E. V. Stannard. 
 
 Zadkiel Capt. R. J. Morrison, R. N. 
 
 FIRST NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 In ancient Rome an official gazette, called 
 Ada Diurna, was issued under the manage- 
 ment and authority of the government, and 
 posted up daily in some prominent place in 
 the city. 
 
 In Venice a paper of public intelligence, 
 
 called Gazetta, was published in 1620 
 
 In England the first weekly newspaper 
 
 was published by Nathaniel Butler in 1622 
 
 In England the first daily newspaper in 1709 
 
 In France the first weekly newspaper was 
 
 published in 1631 
 
 In France the first daily in 1777 
 
 In America, at Boston, a newspaper was 
 
 published in 1690 
 
 In Ireland the first newspaper, called 
 
 P ue's Occurrences, appeared in 1700 
 
 In Ireland the oldest Dublin newspaper, 
 
 The Freeman's Journal, in 1755 
 
 In Germany the first newspaper was pub- 
 lished in 1715 
 
 In Holland the first newspaper was pub- 
 lished in 17:52 
 
 In Turkey the first newspaper was pub- 
 lished in 1795' 
 
 In Australia the first newspaper was pub- 
 lished in 1803 
 
 THE FORTY IMMORTALS OF THE FRENCH ACAI>EMY. 
 
 Year Elected. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Predecessor. 
 
 1855 
 1862 
 1870 
 1874 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 1880 
 1881 
 1882 
 1884 
 1884 
 1886 
 1886 
 188S 
 1888 
 1890 
 1891 
 1892 
 1893 
 1893 
 1893 
 1894 
 1894 
 1894 
 1894 
 1895 
 1896 
 18'J6 
 1896 
 1896 
 If- 96 
 1897 
 1897 
 1898 
 1899 
 1899 
 1900 
 1900 
 1900 
 
 Ernest Wilfred Gabriel Baptiste Legouve... 
 Jacques Victor Albe, Due de Broglie 
 
 Paris, 1807 
 
 Ancelot 
 
 Pans, 1821 . 
 
 
 Emile Ollivier 
 
 Marseilles, 1825 
 
 De Lamartine 
 
 Alfred Jean Franyois Mezieres 
 Marie Louis Antoine Gaston Boissier 
 
 Paris, 1826 
 Nimes 18''3. 
 
 ...St. Marc-Girardin 
 Patin 
 
 Victorien Sardou 
 
 Paris, 1831 
 
 
 Edmund Armand, Due d' Audiilrot Pasquier 
 Aime Joseph Edmund Rousse 
 
 Paris, 1823 
 
 .Dupanloup (Bishop) 
 Jules Fav re 
 
 Paris, 1817 
 
 Rene Francois Armand, Sully-Prudhomme. 
 Adolphe Louis Albert Perraud 
 
 Paris, 1839 
 
 DuvergierdeHauranne 
 Auguste Barbier 
 
 Lyons 1828 
 
 Francois Edouard Joachin Coppe'e 
 
 Paris, 1842 
 
 / De Laprade 
 
 Ludovic Halev v 
 
 Paris, 1834 
 
 Comte d'Haussonville 
 . . . .Comte de Falloux 
 
 
 Vire 1828 . . . 
 
 Othenm P. de Cleron Comte d' Haussonville 
 Jules Arnaud Arsene Cla'etie 
 
 Gurey, 1843 .... 
 
 Caro 
 
 Limoges, 1840 
 
 Cuvillier-Fleury 
 
 Eugene Marie Melchior, Vicomte de Vogue 
 
 Nice, 1848 
 
 Desire^ Nisard 
 
 Foix 1828 . . . 
 
 Emile Augier 
 
 Louis Marie Julien Viaud (Pierre Loti) 
 
 Rochefort, 1850.. .. 
 
 Octave Feuillet 
 
 Nouvien 1842 
 
 Jurien dela Graviere 
 Xavier Marmier 
 Rousset 
 Lemoinne 
 
 Vicomte Henri de Bornier 
 Paul Louis Thureau-Dangin 
 Marie Ferdinand Brunetiere 
 
 l.unel, 1825 
 Paris, 1837 
 Toulon, 1849 
 
 Albert Sorel 
 
 Honfleur, 1842 
 
 ; Taine 
 
 
 Santiago, Cuba, 1842 
 Amiens, 1852 
 
 De Mazade 
 
 
 ...Maxime Du Camp 
 
 Henri Houssave . 
 
 Paris, 1858 
 
 Leconte de Lisle 
 
 Jules Lemaitre 
 Jacques Anatole Thibault (Anatole France). 
 Marquis Marie C. A. Costa de Beauregard. 
 Gaston Bruno I'aulin Paris 
 
 Orleans, 1853 
 Paris, 1844 
 
 . Jean Victor Duruy 
 . . . Comte de Lesseps 
 
 Nyotte, Savoy, 1839.. 
 Avenay, 1839 
 
 ...Camille C. Doucet 
 Louis Pasteur 
 
 
 Marly-le-Roi, 1833... 
 Paris, 1861 
 Lumigny, 1841 
 
 ...Alexandra Dumas 
 . . Leon Say 
 Jules Simon 
 
 Louis Jules Albert Comte Vandal 
 Albert Comte de Mun 
 
 Gabriel Hanotaux 
 
 Beaure voir, 1853 
 Montbard, 1822 . ... 
 
 . . . Challemel-Lacour 
 Due d' Auruale 
 
 Claude Jean Baptiste Guillaume 
 
 Orleans, 185! 
 
 Henri Meilhac 
 
 Paul Deschanel 
 
 Brussels, 1856 
 
 Herve 
 
 
 Neuilly 1857 
 
 Pailleron 
 
 
 La Roche, 1847 
 
 Cherbuliez 
 
 
 Paris 1827 
 
 Bertrand 
 
 

 
 190 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 NIBELTJIfGEN LIED. 
 
 This famous historic poem, which is called 
 the Iliad of Germany, was produced about 
 1210, and is divided into two parts, and thirty- 
 two lieds or cantos. The first part ends with 
 the death of Siegfried, and the second part with 
 the death of Kriemhiid. 
 
 Siegfried, the youngest of the kings of the 
 Netherlands, went to Worms to crave the hand 
 of Kriemhiid in marriage. While he was 
 staying with Giinther, king of Burgundy (the 
 lady's brother), he assisted him to obtain in 
 marriage Brunhild, queen of Issland, who an- 
 nounced publicly that he only should be her 
 husband who could beat her in hurling a spear, 
 throwing a huge stone, and in leaping. Sieg- 
 fried, who possessed a cloak of invisibility, 
 aided Giinther in these three contests, and 
 Brunhild became his wife. In return for these 
 services Giinther gave Siegfried his sister 
 Kriemhiid in marriage. After a time the 
 bride and bridegroom went to visit Giinther, 
 when the two ladies disputed about the rela- 
 tive merits of their respective husbands, and 
 Kriemhiid, to exalt Siegfried, boasted that 
 Giinther owed to him his victories and his wife. 
 Brunhild, in great anger, now employed Hagan 
 to murder Siegfried, and this he did by stab- 
 bing him in the back while he was drinking 
 from a brook. 
 
 Thirteen years elapsed, and the widow mar- 
 
 ried Etzel, king of the Huns. After a time 
 she invited Brunhild and Hagan to a visit. 
 Ilagan, in this visit, killed Etzel's young son, 
 and Kriemhiid was like a fury. A battle 
 ensued in which Giinther and Ilagan were 
 made prisoners, and Kriemhiid cut off both 
 their heads with her own hand. Hildebrand, 
 horrified at this act of blood, slew Kriemhiid ; 
 and so the poem ends. Who was its author, 
 or rather the man who cast it in its present 
 form, is altogether unknown ; the attribution 
 of it to minnesingers of Kiirenberg in Upper 
 Austria now finds very little acceptance. 
 
 The Nibelungen Lied has been ascribed 
 to Heinrich von Ofterdingen, a minnesinger; 
 but it certainly existed before that epoch, if 
 not as a complete whole, in separate lays, and 
 all that Heinrich von Ofterdingen could have 
 done was to collect the floating lays, connect 
 them, and form them into a complete story. 
 
 The Volsunga Saga is the Icelandic ver- 
 sion of the Nibelungen Lied. This saga has 
 been translated into English by William Morris. 
 
 There is a continuation of the poem, called 
 Nibelungen Klage, or Lament for the Nibe- 
 lungs, a production much inferior to the 
 Nibelungen Lied. In spite of the uncouth 
 versification of this last, it exercises a strong 
 fascination upon the reader, owing to the gran- 
 deur of its conception, its strong characteriza- 
 tion, and tragic intensity. 
 
 THE MEANXN T G OF CHRISTIAN XAMES. 
 
 Aa*on, Hebrew, a mountain, a loft. 
 
 Abel,<Hebreiv, vanity. 
 
 Abraham, Hebrew, the father of 
 
 many. 
 Absalom, Hebrew, the father of 
 
 peace. 
 
 Adam, Hebrrn', red earth. 
 Adolphus, Saxon, happiness and 
 
 help. 
 
 Adrian, Latin, one who helps. 
 Alan, Celtic, harmony ; or Slavonic, 
 
 a hound. 
 
 Albert, Saxon, all bright. 
 Alexander, Greek, a helper of men. 
 Alfred, Saxon,-&\\ peace. 
 Alonzo, form of Alphonso, q. v. 
 Alphonso, German, ready or willing. 
 Ambrose, Greek, immortal. 
 Amos, Hebrew, a burden. 
 Andrew, Greek, courageous. 
 Anthony, Latin, flourishing. 
 Archibald, German, a bold observer. 
 Arnold, German, a maintainer of 
 
 honor. 
 Arthur, British, a strong man. 
 
 lufufun; } Latin < venerable, grand. 
 Baldwin, German, a bold winner. 
 Bardulph, German, a famous helper. 
 Barnaby, Hebrew, a prophet's son. 
 Bartholomew, Hebrew, the son of 
 
 him who made the waters to 
 
 rise. 
 
 Beaumont, French, a pretty mount. 
 Bede, Saxon, prayer. 
 Benjamin, Heorew, the son of a right 
 
 hand. 
 
 CHRISTIAN NAMSS OF MEN. 
 
 Bennet, Latin, blessed. 
 
 Bernard, German, bear's heart. 
 
 Bertram, German, fair, illustrious. 
 
 Bertrand, German, bright raven. 
 
 Boniface, Latin, a well doer. 
 
 Brian, French, having a thundering 
 voice. 
 
 Cad wallader,./Jr ///,<!/;, valiant in war. 
 
 Caesar, Latin, adorned with hair. 
 
 Caleb, Hebrew, a dog. 
 
 Cecil, Latin, dim-sighted. 
 
 Charles, German, noble spirited. 
 
 Christopher, Greek, bearing Christ. 
 
 Clement, Latin, mild tempered. 
 
 Conrad, German, able counsel. 
 
 Constantino, Latin, resolute. 
 
 Cornelius, Latin, meaning uncer- 
 tain. 
 
 Crispin, Latin, having curled locks. 
 
 Cuthbert, Saxon, known famously. 
 
 Dan, .Hebrew, judgment. 
 
 Daniel, Hebreiv, God is judge. 
 
 David, Hebrew, well-beloved. 
 
 Denis, Greek, belonging to the god 
 of wine. 
 
 Douglas, Gaelic, dark gray. 
 
 Duncan, Saxon, brown ch'ief. 
 
 Dunstan, Saxon, most high. 
 
 Edgar, Saxon, happy honor. 
 
 Edmund, Saxon, happy peace. 
 
 Edward, Saxon, happy keeper. 
 
 Edwin, Saxon, happy 'conqueror. 
 
 Egbert, Saxon, ever bright. 
 
 Elijah, Hebrew, God the Lord. 
 Elisha, Hebrew, the salvation 
 
 God. 
 RiniiianiiKl. Hebrew, God with us. 
 
 of 
 
 Enoch, Hebrew, dedicated. 
 
 Ephraim, Hebrew, fruitful. 
 
 Erasmus, Greek, lovely, worthy to 
 be loved. 
 
 Ernest, Greek, earnest, serious. 
 
 Esau, Ilfliri'i/-, hairy. 
 
 Eugene, Greek, nobly descended. 
 
 Eustace, Greek, standing; firm. 
 
 Evan or Ivan, British, the sunn- as 
 John. 
 
 Everard, German, well reported. 
 
 Ezekiel, Hebrew, the strength of 
 God. 
 
 Felix, Lfithi, happy. 
 
 Ferdinand, <lfrm<tn, pure peace. 
 
 Fergus, Srurrtti, manly strength. 
 
 Francis, German, free. 
 
 Frederic, Gt'riimn, rich peace. 
 
 Gabriel, Hebrew, the strength of 
 God. 
 
 Geoffrey, German, joyful. 
 
 George, Greek, a husbandman. 
 
 Gerard, Saxon, strong with a spear. 
 
 Gideon, Hebrew, a breaker. 
 
 Gilbert, Saxon, bright as gold. 
 
 Giles, Greek, a little goat. 
 
 Godard, German, a godly disposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Godfrey, German, God's peace. 
 
 Godwin, German, victorious in God. 
 
 Griffith, Jtrititih, having great faith. 
 
 Guy, French, a leader. 
 
 Hannibal. Punic, a gracious lord. 
 
 Harold, Saxon, a champion. 
 
 Hector, Greek, a stout defender. 
 
 Henry, German, a rich lord. 
 
 Herbert, German, a bright lord.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 191 
 
 Hercules, Greek, the glory of Hera 
 
 or Juno. 
 ITezekiah, Hebrew, cleaving to the 
 
 Lord. 
 
 Horace, Latin, meaning uncertain. 
 Horatio, Italian, worthy to be be- 
 held. 
 
 Howell, British, sound or whole. 
 Hubert, German, a bright color. 
 Hugh, Dutch, high, lofty. 
 Humphrey, German, domestic 
 
 pe_ace. 
 
 Ignatius, Latin, fiery. 
 Ingram, German, 01 angelic purity. 
 Isaac, Hebrew, laughter. 
 Jabez, Hebrew, one who causes pain. 
 Jacob, Hebrew, a supplanter. 
 James or Jacques, beguiling. 
 Joab, Hebrew, fatherhood. 
 Job, Hebrew, sorrowing. 
 Joel, Hebrew, acquiescing. 
 John, Hebrew, the grace of the Lord. 
 Jonah, Hebrew, a dove. 
 Jonathan, Hebrew, the gift of the 
 
 Lord. 
 
 Joscelin, German, just. 
 Joseph, Hebrew, addition. 
 Joshua, Hi-brrir, a Savior. 
 Josiah or Josias, Hebrew, the lire of 
 
 the Lord. 
 
 Julius, Latin, soft hair. 
 Lambert, Sft.ro n, a fair lamb. 
 Lancelot, Spanish, a little lance. 
 Laurence, Latin, crowned with 
 
 laurels. 
 
 Lazarus, Hebrew, destitute of help. 
 Leonard, German, like a lion. 
 Leopold, German, defending the 
 
 people. 
 Lewis or Louis, French, the defender 
 
 of the people. 
 Lionel, Latin, a little lion. 
 Llewellin, British, like a lion. 
 Llewellyn, Celtic, lightning. 
 Indus,' Latin, shining. 
 Luke, Greek, a wood or grove. 
 
 Ada, German, same as Edith, q. v. 
 Adela, German, same as Adeline, 
 
 q.v. 
 Adelaide, German, same as Adeline, 
 
 q. v. 
 
 Adeline, German, n princess. 
 
 Agatha, Greek, good. 
 
 Agnes, German, chaste. 
 
 Alethea, G nek, the truth. 
 
 Althea, Greek, hunting. 
 
 Alice, Alicia, Gentian, noble. 
 
 Alma, Latin, benignant. 
 
 Amabel, Latin, lovable. 
 
 Amy, Amelia, French, a beloved. 
 
 Angelina, Greek, lovely, angelic. 
 
 Anna, or Anne, Hebrew, gracious. 
 
 Arabella, Latin, a fair altar. 
 
 Aureola, Latin, like gold. 
 
 Aurora, Latin, morning brightness. 
 
 Barbara, Latin, foreign or strange. 
 
 Beatrice, Latin, making happy. 
 
 Bella, Italian, beautiful. 
 
 Benedicta, Latin, blessed. 
 
 Bernice, Greek, bringing victory. 
 
 Bertha, Greek, bright or famous. 
 
 Bessie, short form of Elizabeth, q. v. 
 
 Blanche, French, fair. 
 
 Bona, Latin, good. 
 
 Bridget, Irish, shining bright. 
 
 Camilla, Latin, attendant at a sacri- 
 fice. 
 
 Carlotta, Italian, same as Charlotte, 
 q.v. 
 
 Caroline, feminine of Carolus, the 
 Latin of Charles, noble spirited. 
 
 Cassandra, Greek, a reformer of 
 men. 
 
 Catherine, Greek, pure or clean. 
 
 Cecilia, Latin, from Cecil. 
 
 Cecily, a corruption of Cecilia, q. r. 
 
 Charity, Greek, love, bounty. 
 
 Manfred, German, great peace. 
 
 Mark, Latin, a hammer. 
 
 Martin, Latin, martial. 
 
 Matthew, Hebrew, a gift or present. 
 
 Maurice, Latin, sprung of a Moor. 
 
 Meredith, British, the roaring of the 
 sea. 
 
 Michael, Hebrew, Who is like God ? 
 
 Morgan, British, a mariner. 
 
 Moses, Hebrew, drawn out. 
 
 Nathaniel, Hebrew, the gift of God. 
 
 Neal, French, somewhat black. 
 
 Nicholas, Greek, victorious over the 
 people. 
 
 Noel, French, belonging to one's 
 nativity. 
 
 Norman, trench, one born in Nor- 
 mandy. 1 
 
 Obadiah, Hebrew, the servant of the 
 Lord. 
 
 Oliver, Latin, an olive. 
 
 Orlando, Italian, counsel for the 
 land. 
 
 Orson, Latin, a bear. 
 
 Osmund, Saxon, house peace. 
 
 Oswald, Saxon, ruler of a house. 
 
 Owen, British, well descended. 
 
 Patrick, Latin, a nobleman. 
 
 Paul, Latin, small, little. 
 
 Paulinus, Latin, little Paul. 
 
 Percival, French, a place in France. 
 
 Percy, English, adaptation of 
 "pierce eye." 
 
 Peregrine, Latin, outlandish. 
 
 Peter, Greek, a rock or stone. 
 
 Philip, Greek, a lover of horses. 
 
 Phineas, Hebrew, of bold coun- 
 tenance. 
 
 Ralph, contracted from Randolph, or 
 Randal, or Ranulph, Saxon, 
 pure help. 
 
 Raymond, German, quiet peace. 
 
 Reuben, Hebrew, the son of vision. 
 
 Reynold, German, a lover of purity. 
 
 Richard, Saxon, powerful. 
 
 Robert, German, famous in counsel. 
 
 CHRISTIAN NAMES OF WOMEN. 
 
 Charlotte, French, all noble. 
 Chloe, Greek, a green herb. 
 Christiana, Greek, belonging to 
 
 Christ. 
 
 Clara, Latin, clear or bright. 
 Clarissa, Latin, clear or bright. 
 Constance, Latin, constant. 
 Dagmar, German, joy of the Danes. 
 Deborah, Hebrew, a bee. 
 Diana, Greek, Jupiter's daughter. 
 Dorcas, Greek, a wild rose. 
 Dorothea or Dorothy, Greek, the 
 
 gift of God. 
 
 Edith, Saxon, happiness. 
 Eleanor, Saxon, all fruitful. 
 Eliza, Elizabeth, Hebrew, the oath of 
 
 God. 
 
 Ellen, another form of Helen, q. v. 
 Emily, corrupted, from Amelia. 
 Emma, German, a nurse. 
 Esther, Hesther, Hebrew, secret. 
 Eudoia, Greek, prospering in the 
 
 way. 
 
 Eudora, Greek, good gift. 
 Eudosia, Greek, good gift or well 
 
 given. 
 
 Eugenia, French, well-born. 
 Eunice, Greek, fair victory. 
 Eva, or Eve, Hebrew, causing life. 
 Fanny, diminutive of Frances, q, v. 
 Fenella, Greek, bright to look on. 
 Flora, Latin, flowers. 
 Florence, Latin, blooming, flourish- 
 ing. 
 
 Frances, German, free. 
 Gertrude, German, all truth. 
 Grace, Latin, favor. 
 Haj;ar, Hebrew, a stranger. 
 Hadassah, Hebrew, form of Esther, 
 
 q.v. 
 Hannah, Hebrew, gracious. 
 
 Roderick, German, rich in fame. 
 
 Roger, German, strong counsel. 
 
 Roland or Rowland, German, coun- 
 sel for the land. 
 
 Rollo, form of Roland, q. v. 
 
 Rufus, Latin, reddish. 
 
 Samson, Hebrew, a little son. 
 
 Samuel, Hebrew, heard by God. 
 
 Saul, Hebrew, desired. 
 
 Sebastian, Greek, to be reverenced. 
 
 Seth, Hebrew, appointed. 
 
 Silas, Latin, sylvan or living in the 
 woods. 
 
 Simeon, Hebrew, hearing. 
 
 Simon, Hebreiv, obedient. 
 
 Solomon, Hebrew, peaceable. 
 
 Stephen, Greek, a crown or garland. 
 
 S within, Saxon, very high. 
 
 Theobald, Saxon, bola over the 
 people. 
 
 Theodore, Greek, the gift of God. 
 
 Theodosius, Greek, given of God. 
 
 Theophilus, Greek, a lover of God. 
 
 Thomas, ^Hebrew, a twin. 
 
 Timothy, Greek, a f earer of God. 
 
 Titus, Greek, meaning uncertain. 
 
 Toby, or Tobias, Hebrew, the good- 
 ness of the Lord. 
 
 Valentine, Latin, powerful. 
 
 Victor, Latin, conqueror. 
 
 Vincent, Latin, conquering. 
 
 Vivian, Latin, living. 
 
 Walter, German, a conqueror. 
 
 Walwin, German, a conqueror. 
 
 Wilfred, Saxon, bold and peaceful. 
 
 William, German, defending many. 
 
 Zaccheus, Syriac, innocent. 
 
 Zachary, Hebrew, remembering the 
 Lord. 
 
 Zachariah, Hebrew, remembered of 
 the Lord. 
 
 Zebedee, Syriac, having an inheri- 
 tance. 
 
 Zedekiah, Hebrew, the justice of. 
 the Lord. 
 
 Harriet, German, head of the house. 
 Helen, or Helena, Greek, alluring. 
 Henrietta, fern, and dim. of Henry, 
 
 q.v. 
 Hephzibah, Hebrew, my delight is in 
 
 her. 
 
 Hilda, German, warrior maiden. _ 
 Honora, Latin, honorable. 
 Huldah, Hebrew, a weasel. 
 Isabella, Spanish, fair Eliza. 
 Jane, or Jeanne, fern, of John, q. v. 
 Janet, Jeanette, little Jane. 
 Jemima, Hebrew, a dove. 
 Joan, Hebrew, fern, of John, q. v. 
 Joanna, or Johanna, form of Joan, 
 
 q.v. 
 
 Joyce, French, pleasant. 
 Judith, Hebrew, praising. 
 Julia, Juliana, feminine of Julius, 
 
 q.v. 
 
 Katherine, form of Catherine, q. v. 
 Keturah, Hebrew, incense. 
 Keziali, Hebrew, cassia. 
 Laura. Latin, a laurel. 
 Lavinia, Latin, of Latram. 
 Letitia, Latin, joy or gladness. 
 Lilian, Lily, Latin, a lily. 
 Lois, Greek, better. 
 Louisa, German, fern, of Louis, q. v. 
 Lucretia, Latin, a chaste Roman 
 
 lady. 
 
 Lucy, Latin, feminine of Lucius. 
 Lyd'ia, Greek, descended from Lud. 
 Mabel, Latin, lovely or lovable. 
 Madeliiie,/o;m of Magdalen, q. v. 
 Magdalen, Kyraic, magnificent. 
 Margaret, Greek, a pearl. 
 Maria, Marie, forms of Mary, q. r. 
 Martha, Hebrew, bitterness. 
 Mary, Hebrew, bitter. 
 Matilda, German, a lady of honor.
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Maud, German, dim. form <>f Ma- 
 tilda, q. v. 
 
 May, Latin, month of May, or dim. of 
 Mary, q. v. 
 
 Mercy, English, compassion. 
 
 Mildred, fiaxon, speaking mild. 
 
 Minnie, dim. o/ Margaret, q. v. 
 
 Naomi, Hebrew, alluring:. 
 
 Nest, British, the same as Agnes. 
 
 Nicola, Greek, feminine of Nicholas. 
 
 Olive, Olivia, Latin, an olive. 
 
 Olympia, Greek, heavenly. 
 
 Ophelia, Greek, a serpent. 
 
 Parnell, or Petronilla, little Peter. 
 
 Patience, Latin, bearing patiently. 
 
 Paulina, Latin, feminine o/Taulinus. 
 
 Penelope, Greek, a weaver. 
 
 Persis, Greek, destroving. 
 
 Philadelphia, Greek, brotherly love. 
 
 Philippa, Greek, feminine of Philip. 
 
 Phoebe, Greek, the light of life. 
 Phyllis. Greek, a green bough. 
 Pour, variation of Molly, dim. of 
 
 Mary, q. v. 
 
 Priscilla, Latin, somewhat old. 
 Prudence, Latin, discretion. 
 Psyche, Greek, the soul. 
 Rachel, Hebrew, a lamb. 
 Rebecca, Hebrew, fat or plump. 
 Rhoda, Greek, a rose. 
 Rosa, or Rose. Latin, a rose. 
 Rosalie, or Rosaline, Latin, little 
 
 Rose. 
 
 Rosalind, Latin, beautiful as a rose. 
 Rosabella, Italian, a fair rose. 
 Rosamond, Saxon, Rose of peace. 
 Roxana, Persian, dawn of (lay. 
 Ruth, Hebrew, trembling, or beauty. 
 Sabina, Latin, sprung from the Sa- 
 
 bines. 
 
 Salome, IMircir, perfect. 
 Sapphira, Greek, like a sapphire 
 
 stone. 
 
 Sarah, Hebrew-, a princess. 
 Selina, Greek, the moon. 
 Sibylla, Greek, the counsel of God. 
 Sophia, Greek, wisdom. 
 Sophronia, Greek, of a sound mind. 
 Susan, Susanna, Hebrew, a lily. 
 Tabitha, Syriac, a roe. 
 Temperance, Latin, moderation. 
 Theodosia, Greek, .riven by God. 
 Tryphena, Greek, delicate. 
 Tryphqsa, Greek, delicious. 
 Victoria, Latin, victory. 
 Vida, Erse,f:minine of David. 
 Ursula, Latin, a she bear. 
 Walburga, Saxon, gracious. 
 Winifred, Saxon, winning peace. 
 Zenobia, Greek, life from Jupiter. 
 
 MISUSE OF WORDS. 
 
 A and An. A is used before all words beginning with 
 consonants except those beginning with silent H, or 
 when the word beginning with H is accented on some 
 other syllable than the first. An is to be used before all 
 vowel sounds, silent H, and when the words beginning 
 with H are accented on some other syllable than the 
 first. 
 
 Ability (for capacity). Capacity is the power of re- 
 ceiving and retaining knowledge with facility. Ability 
 is the power of applying knowledge to practical pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Abortive (for unsuccessful). A plan may be abortive, 
 but an act cannot. 
 
 Acceptance (for acceptation). " No word is more 
 vague in its general acceptance," should be " in its 
 acceptation." 
 
 Accident (for wound). " Witch hazel cures acci- 
 dents." 
 
 Accredit (for credit). Few, except very bad writers, 
 employ it as a robust substitute lor credit or believe. 
 
 .Administer (for deal). " The blows were adminis- 
 tered [dealt] by Policeman Johnson." 
 
 Admire (for desire). It is an error to follow this 
 verb with an infinitive, as " I admire to see a man con- 
 sistent." Doubly wrong, therefore, is the expression, 
 " I should admire to go with you." 
 
 Aggravate (for irritate, worry, annoy). " There 
 would be no danger in aggravating Violet by this ex- 
 pression of pity." Better " irritating." 
 
 Agriculturalist (for agriculturist). The first is 
 never correct. 
 
 Ain't. The only legitimate contraction of I am not 
 is I'm not. 
 
 Allow (for say, assert, express opinion). We may 
 allow or admit that which we have disputed, but 9f 
 which we have been convinced ; or we may allow certain 
 premises as the basis f argument; but we assert, not 
 allow, our own opinions. 
 
 Allude (for say or mention). Allude (from ludo, lu- 
 dere, to play) means to indicate jocosely, to hint at 
 playfully j and so to hint at in a slight, passing manner. 
 Allusion is the byplay of language. 
 
 Alone (for only). Alone means " quite by one's self," 
 and is always an adjective, differing herein from only, 
 which is both an adverb and an adjective. In some 
 cases the words may be used indifferently, but as a rule 
 there is a marked distinction between alone and onlv, 
 as " I did it alone," quite by myself; " an only daugh- 
 ter; " " they differ on one point only." 
 
 Alternately (for by turns). This word should be 
 used only in speaking of two objects or classes of ob- 
 jects. Whately rightly defines alternative as a choice 
 between two objects. 
 
 Amateur (for novice). A professional actor who is 
 new and unskilled in his art is a novice, and not an ama- 
 teur. An amateur may be an artist of great experience 
 and extraordinary skill. 
 
 Among (for between, when speaking of two). Gould 
 says it should not be written amongst, but Worcester 
 and Webster give both forms. 
 
 And. The commonest case in which it is violated is 
 where and introduces a relative clause, no relative hav- 
 ing occurred before, as "I have a book printed at 
 Antwerp, and which was once possessed hy Adam 
 
 Smith." And for to is a frequent misuse. "Try to do 
 it," not "try and do it." 
 
 Anyways (for anyway). This is a frequent misuse. 
 
 Anywheres (for anywhere). Belongs to the class of 
 words frequently misused. 
 
 Apprehend (for comprehend). Apprehend denotes 
 the laying hold of a thing mentally, so as to understand 
 it clearly, at least in part Comprehend denotes the 
 embracing or understanding it in all its compass and 
 extent. We may apprehend many truths which we do 
 not comprehend. 
 
 As (for that). " I don't know as [that] I can go." 
 
 Assurance (for fire insurance). Webster and Worces- 
 ter agree that this word is limited to life insurance. 
 
 At (for bv). " I bought it at auction " is correct Eng- 
 lish, but " It is to be sold at auction " is American only. 
 
 At all. A needless expletive, as "" I did not like the 
 play at all." 
 
 Avocation (for vocation). Vocation is one's pursuit, 
 employment, business; avocation refers to incidental 
 or pleasure pursuits. 
 
 Acoustics takes a singular verb. Names of sciences, 
 such as mathematics, economics, politics, physics, gym- 
 nastics, etc., are now regarded as singular in number. 
 
 Awful (for very or for ugly). " The -crowd present 
 was awfully boisterous." 
 
 Bad. " 1 feel bad," not "I feel badly." 
 
 Balance (for rest, remainder). Balance refers to the 
 ledger account, and does not properly convey the same 
 meaning as remainder. 
 
 Banquet (for dinner, supper). A banquet is a public, 
 sumptuous feast. 
 
 Beau, a word used by the uneducated .instead of 
 escort. 
 
 Been to (for been). " Where have you been to ? " 
 
 Between (for among). Between is only for two by 
 and twain. Carefully avoid such expressions as " Be- 
 tween every stitch." 
 
 Blame it on (for accuse). A common vulgarism. 
 
 Bountiful (for plentiful). Bountiful applies to per- 
 sons, not to things, and has no reference to quantity. 
 
 Bourn (for place, instead of boundary). Frequently 
 misused. 
 
 Bravery (for courage). Bravery is inborn, instinc- 
 tive. Courage is the product of reason, calculation. 
 Men who are simply brave are careless, while the cour- 
 ageous man is always cautious. 
 
 Bring (for fetch). Bring expresses motion toward, 
 not away. A boy is properly told to take his books to 
 school and to bring them home. A gardener may say to 
 his helper, " Go and bring me yonder rake," but' he 
 might better say, " Fetch me yonder rake." 
 
 Bound (for determined). " He is bound to go West." 
 
 Bursted (for burst). "The pipes bursted during the 
 cold weather." 
 
 But (for that or if). "I have no doubt but he will 
 come to-night." 
 
 But that (for that). " I should not wonder but that 
 was the case." 
 
 By (for upon). " By [upon] returning it to this office 
 Inder will be rewarded. 
 
 1 1 calculate [expect] to go 
 
 the fir 
 
 Calculate (for expect), 
 to-morrow. 
 
 Can (for may). The boy says, " Can I go down 
 street ?" when he means " May I ? " It is a question 
 not of possibility but of permis'sion.
 
 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 193 
 
 Caption (tor heading). Xot sanctioned by good 
 writers. 
 
 Casket (for coffin). A newspaper -writer facetiously 
 Intimated that a man in a casket is not quite so dead as 
 a man in a coffin. 
 
 Citizen (for person). A citizen is a person who has 
 certain political rights. To say "Several citizens car- 
 ried the victims of the accident into a shop," would be 
 as absurd as to say, " several church members." 
 
 Come (for go). " I am coming to pay you a visit." 
 Coming is right. 
 
 Comment'* to (for begin). Omit to. We begin to 
 write. We commence writing. 
 
 Compulsion (for obligation). The former is a phys- 
 ical, the latter a moral, necessity. 
 
 Confess to (for confess). " I confess to a little curios- 
 ity on this subject." The natural rejoinder was, " Well, 
 did the little curiosity absolve you ? " 
 
 Construe (for construct). Writers construct; read- 
 ers construe. 
 
 Consummate (for perform). ," The marriage was con- 
 summated [performed] at Paris, last April." 
 
 Contemptible (for contemptuous). "To a, gentle- 
 man who, at the close of a fierce dispute with Porson, 
 exclaimed, 'My opinion of you is most comtemptible, 
 sir,' he retorted, ' I never knew an opinion of yours that 
 was not contemptible.' " 
 
 Continual (for continuous). A continuous action is 
 one which is un interrupted ; continual is that which is 
 constantly renewed and recurring 1 , though it may be in- 
 terrupted as frequently as it is renewed. 
 
 Continue on is often erroneously used for continue. 
 
 Corporeal, frequently misused for corporal, espe- 
 cially of punishment. 
 
 Cortege (for procession). A cortege i.s a procession, 
 but every procession is not a cortege. 
 
 Credible (for credulous). " He is very credible [credu- 
 lous]." 
 
 Creditable (for credible). " I am creditably [credi- 
 bly] informed." 
 
 l>ead and buried, deadand gone, and similar expres- 
 sions are ta be deprecated. Those who have died have 
 usually been buried, and they are also gone. 
 
 Dearest. "A gentleman once began a letter to his 
 bride, thus : ' My dearest Maria.' The wife replied: 
 'My dear John, I beg that you will mend either your 
 morals or your grammar. You call me your " dearest 
 Maria " ; am I then to understand that you have other 
 Marias?' " 
 
 Deduction (for induction). Induction is the mental 
 process by which we ascend to the delivery of special 
 truths; deduction is the ^process by which the lav/ gov- 
 erning particulars is derived from a knowledge of the 
 law governing the class to which particulars belong. 
 
 Demoralized (for scared). "The horse, in addition 
 to losing all the hair on his tail, became considerably 
 demoralized." 
 
 Departure. To take one's departure is a corruption 
 of the accurate form, " to take one's leave." 
 
 Differ with, in opinion; differ from, in appear- 
 ance. 
 
 Die with (for die of). A man dies of smallpox, not 
 with smallpox. 
 
 Dock (for wharf or pier). A dock is an open place 
 without a roof, into which anything is received, and 
 where it is inclosed for safetv. The shipping around a 
 city lies at wharfs and piers, but goes into docks. 
 
 Done should be used only with has, had, or have; 
 frequently misused for did. 
 
 Don't (for doesn't). Don't is the contraction for do 
 not ; doesn't the contraction for does not. 
 
 Doubt but (for doubt). " I have no doubt but that it 
 is so." 
 
 Each and every (often followed by a plural verb). 
 " When I consider "how each of these professions are [is] 
 crowded." 
 
 Emblem (for motto, sentiment). The figure is the 
 emblem; not the accompanying motto. 
 
 Enthuse (for inspirit). This word is not sanctioned 
 by good usage. 
 
 "Epithet (as necessarily decrying). Is usually and j 
 erroneously applied. to derogative adjectives. 
 
 Equally as well (for equally well). " He plays 
 equally as well [equally well]." 
 
 Every once in a while is an absurd and meaningless 
 expression. 
 
 Every (for entire or all). " Rendered them every 
 assistance," is absurdly wrong. Every is separated, anil 
 can be applied only to a whole composed of many indi- 
 viduals. It is always singular in number. 
 
 Execute does not mean to put to death. The law is 
 executed when the criminal is nanged or imprisoned. 
 
 Expect (for suppose). Expect refers only to that 
 which is to come, and which, therefore, is looked for. 
 We cannot expect backward. 
 
 Female (for woman). A vulgar misuse of English. 
 
 From out (for from). " From out the castle. 
 
 Farther, further. Farther properly signifies dis- 
 tance, further degree or quantity. " As he walked far- 
 ther he saw they were further along with the work." 
 
 Future (for subsequent). " Her future life was vir- 
 tuous and fortunate." 
 
 First two. Often written and spoken, two first. 
 
 Gent and pants. "Let these words go together, like 
 the things they signify. The one always wears the 
 other." 
 
 Gentleman, lady (for man, woman). The most im- 
 portant rule to observe i3 that where adjectives are 
 used the nouns must be man, woman not a polite 
 gentleman, or a lovely lady ; but a polite man, a lovely 
 woman. 
 
 Girl (for daughter). A father, on being requested by 
 a rich and vulgar fellow for permission to marry " one 
 of his girls," gave this rather crushing reply : " Cer- 
 tainly. Which one would you prefer the waitress or 
 the cook ?" 
 
 Graduated (for was graduated). Students do not 
 graduate, but are graduated. " I graduated [was grad- 
 uated] in 1876." 
 
 Great, big. Frequently used for large. 
 
 Gums (for overshoes). "Emily is outside, cleaning 
 her gums upon the mat." 
 
 Get signifies possession obtained by exertion. " He 
 has [not has got] red hair." 
 
 Had ought (for ought). " You had ought to have 
 been with me." 
 
 Haven't no. Omit no. Do not use two words mean- 
 ing no in the same sentence. 
 
 Healthy, healthful, wholesome. Healthy refers 
 to living tilings. " The man is healthy." " The food is 
 wholesome." " The surroundings are "wholesome." 
 
 Is (for are). " Their general scope and tendency is [are] 
 not remembered at all." 
 
 It is I (not me). It is he (not him). It is she (not 
 her). 
 
 Jewelry (for particular jewels). Its use in the latter 
 sense is always to be preferred. Think of Cornelia 
 pointing to the Gracchi, " These are my jewelry." 
 
 Kids (for kid gloves). Colloquial and should not be 
 used. 
 
 Last (for latest). " I have received your latest [not 
 last] letter." 
 
 Lny (for lie). Remember that lay expresses transitive 
 action, and lie means rest. We lay the book on the table 
 and the book lies where we have placed it. 
 
 team (for teach). Learn means to acquire knowl- 
 edge ; teach, to impart it. This use of learn is found in 
 respectable writers, but is now deemed improper, as 
 well as inelegant. 
 
 Leave (without an object). "Anna Louise Carey will 
 leave the stage," announces an exchange. " Thanks, 
 Annie ; Ave were afraid you would take the stage with 
 you. So kind to leave it," rejoins the critic. 
 
 Leave (for let). " Leave [let] me be." 
 
 Let's (for let). " Well, farmer, let's you and I goby 
 ourselves." 
 
 Liable. Frequently misused for likely. 
 
 Lit (for lighted). Much censured as an Americanism. 
 
 Look (followed by an adverb). " Miss Marlowe looked 
 charmingly." Just as correct to say " Miss Marlowe 
 looked gladly, or madly, or sadly, or delightedly." 
 
 Loan (for lend). The former word is a noun, the 
 verbal form of which is to lend. 
 
 Mutual (for common). It should always convey a 
 sense of reciprocity. 
 
 Nice is now applied to a sermon, to a jam-tart, to a 
 young man, in short, to everything. The word should 
 be used with extreme caution. 
 
 Nor (for than, after comparative). " Better nor fifty 
 bushel." 
 
 Notion (for inclination). "I have a notion to go." 
 Of course incorrect. 
 
 None isetymplogically singular. " None but the brave 
 deserves the fair," wrote Dryden. 
 
 Off of (for off). "A yard oft" of the cloth." 
 
 Over his signature (for under his signature). A let- 
 ter is issued under or by the authority of the writer's 
 signature. 
 
 Particle (for at all). As " not a particle," for " not 
 at all."
 
 194 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Past two -weeks. Better, the last two weeks. 
 
 Patron (for customer) is wrong. 
 
 Pile (for amount). " He owed me quite a pile." 
 
 Party (for person). Avoid it. 
 
 Posted (for informed). A colloquialism in the United 
 States. Must be used with caution. 
 
 Previous (for previously). " Previous to my going." 
 
 Prolific (for frequent). " It was a prolific [frequent] 
 source of annoyance." 
 
 Promise (for assure). " I promise [assure] you I was 
 astonished." 
 
 Proof (for evidence). Proof is the result of evidence. 
 
 Quite is not to be used for nearly. Quite means 
 wholly, completely, or thoroughly. 
 
 Raise (for bring up, educate). A peculiarity of the 
 Southern states. 
 
 Real (for very). " Real [very] nice." 
 
 Reckon (for conjecture, conclude). Provincial and 
 vulgar. 
 
 Restive (for restless). Restive signifies stubborn, 
 unwilling to move, balky. 
 
 Remember (for recollect). We remember without 
 effort. Recollect with some exertion. 
 
 Retire (for to go to bed). A vulgar but unfortu- 
 nately very common euphemism. 
 
 Reverend (for the reverend). The article is abso- 
 lutely required. 
 
 Right (for obligation). " The cars have as good a 
 right to be stopped as the carriages." 
 
 Rise up (for rise). " He rose up and left the room." 
 
 Sabbath (for Sunday). Sunday is the name of the 
 day, while Sabbath is the name of an institution. 
 
 Shall and Will. Shall, in an affirmative sentence, 
 in the first person, and will in the second and third per- 
 sons, merely announce future action. Thus, " I shall go 
 to town to-morrow." "I shall wait for better weather." 
 " We shall be glad to see you." " I shall soon be twenty." 
 " We shall set out early, and shall try to arrive by noon." 
 "You will be pleased." "You will soon be twenty." 
 " You will find him honest." " He ivill go with us." 
 
 Shall, in an affirmative sentence, in the second and 
 third person, announces the speaker's intention to con- 
 trol. Thus, " You shall hear me out." " You shall go, 
 sick or well." " He shalllie my heir." " They shall go, 
 whether they want to go or not." 
 
 Will, in the first person, expresses a promise, an- 
 nounces the speaker's intention to control, proclaims a 
 determination. Thus, "I wttl [I promise to] assist you." 
 " I will [I am determined to] have my right." "We will 
 [we promise to] come to you in the morning." 
 
 Shall, in an interrogative sentence, i:i the first and 
 third person, consults the will or judgment of another; 
 in the second person, it inquires concerning the inten- 
 tion or future action of another. Thus, " Shall I go with 
 you?" "When shall we see you again?" "When 
 shall I receive it ?" " When shall I get well ?" "When 
 shall we get there?" "Shall he come with us?" 
 "Shall you demand indemnity?" "Shall you go to 
 town to-morrow ? " " What shall yon do about it ? " 
 
 Will, in an interrogative sentence, in the second per- 
 son, asks concerning the wish, and, in the third person, 
 concerning the purpose or future action of others. 
 Thus, " Will you have an apple ?" " Will you go with 
 me to my uncle's?" "Will he be of the party?" 
 " Will they be willing to receive us ? " " When willhe 
 be here ? " 
 
 Will cannot be used interrogatively in the first person 
 singular or plural. We cannot say, " Will I go ? " " Will 
 I help you ? " " Will I be late ? " " WUl we get there in 
 time ? " " Will we see you again soon ? " 
 
 Official courtesy, in order to avoid the semblance of 
 compulsion, conveys its commands in the you ivill form 
 instead of the strictly grammatical you shall form. It 
 says, for example, " You will proceed to Key West, 
 where you will find further instructions awaiting you." 
 
 A clever writer on the vise of shall and will says that 
 whatever concerns one's beliefs, hopes, fears, likes, or 
 dislikes, cannot be expressed in conjunction with I will. 
 Are there no exceptions to this rule ? If I say, " I 
 think I shall go to Philadelphia to-morrow," I convey 
 the impression that my going depends upon circum- 
 stances beyond my control ; but if I say, " I think I will 
 go to Philadelphia to-morrow," I convey the impression 
 that my going depends upon circumstances within my 
 control that my_ going or not depends on mere incli- 
 nation. We certainly must say, " I fear that I shall lose 
 
 it ; " "I hope that I shall be well ; " "I believe that 1 
 shall have the ague;" "I hope that I shall not be left 
 alone ; " "I fear that we shall have bad weather ; " "I 
 
 every young woman knows. Let us see : " Mary,* you 
 know you promised John to drive out with him to- 
 morrow; how shall you get out of it?" "Oh, I will 
 have the headache!" We request that people will do 
 thus or so, and not that they shall. Thus, " It is re- 
 quested that no one will leave the room." 
 
 Shall is rarely, if ever, used for will; it is will that is 
 used for shall. Expressions like the following are com- 
 mon : " Where will you be next Aveek ? " "I ivill be at 
 home." " We will have dinner at six o'clock." " How 
 uiill you go about it?" "When will you begin?" 
 " When will you set out?" " What will you do with 
 it ? " In all such expressions, when it is a question of 
 mere future action on the part of the person speaking 
 or spoken to, the auxiliary must be sli.all and not will. 
 
 Should and would, follow the regimen of shall and 
 will. Would is often used for should ; should rarely for 
 would. Correct speakers say, " 1 should go to town to- 
 morrow if I had a horse." " I should not ; I should wait 
 for better weather." " We should be glad to see you." 
 "We should have started earlier, if the weather had 
 been clear." " I should like to go to town, and would 
 go if I could." " I would assist you if I could." " I 
 should have been ill if I had gone." " I would I were 
 home again!" "I should go fishing to-day if I were 
 home." " I should so like to go to Europe ! " "I should 
 prefer to see it first." "I should be delighted." " I 
 should be glad to have you sup with me." "I knew 
 that I should be ill." "I feared that I should lose it." 
 " I hoped that I should see him." " I thought that I 
 should have the ague." " I hoped that I should not be 
 left alone." "I was afraid that we should have bad 
 weather." " I knew I should dislike the country." " I 
 should not like to do it, and will not [determination] 
 unless compelled." 
 
 Shut to (for shut). " Shut the door to." 
 
 Somewheres(f or somewhere). " The farmer had gone 
 out somewheres." 
 
 Sparrowgrass, a corruption of asparagus. 
 
 Spoonsful (for spoonfuls). " Two spoonsful [spoon- 
 fuls] at bedtime." 
 
 Stopping (for staying). "At what hotel are you stop- 
 ping ?* 
 
 Such (for so). "Such an extravagant young man," 
 for " So extravagant a young man." 
 
 Than (for when). "The admiral was hardly in the 
 channel than [when] he was driven to sea by the storm." 
 
 Think for (for think). " You will find that he knows 
 more than you think for." 
 
 Those sort of things. "I never approved of those 
 [that] sort of things." 
 
 Those who (for they that). That and those, as de- 
 monstrative adjectives, refer backward, and are not 
 therefore well suited for forward reference. 
 
 To (for at). " When I was to [at] home." 
 
 Try and (for try to). " I will try and [to] come to- 
 morrow." 
 
 Unique (for beautiful). A thing is unique when it is 
 the only one of Its kind, whether it is good or bad, ugly 
 or beautiful. 
 
 Vengeance (for revenge). Vengeance should never 
 be ascribed save to God or to men acting as the execu- 
 tors of his righteous doom. 
 
 Vulgar (for immodest). The word vulgarity was for- 
 merly thought to mean indecent; now it simply means 
 bad manners. Vulgar people are low, mean, coarse, 
 plebeian, no matter where the wheel of fortune has placed 
 them. 
 
 Warn't (for wasn't). Heard only as a vulgarism. 
 
 Was (for is, of general truths). " Truth 'is eternal." 
 In the expression of general and necessary truths the 
 present tense is to be preferred to the past tense. 
 
 Ways (for way). " He was a long ways [way] behind." 
 
 What (for that). "I don't know but what [that] I shall 
 go." 
 
 Which (for that). " She would be all which [that] the 
 emperor could desire." 
 
 Widow woman (for widow). Uselessly redundant. 
 
 Yovi was (for you were). You takes the plural form 
 of a verb.
 
 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.
 
 Book III. 
 
 History and Biography.
 
 History and Biography. 
 
 Chronological Eras. The year 1899 
 corresponds to the year 7407-8 of the Byzan- 
 tine era; to 5659-60 of the Jewish era, the 
 year 5650 beginning at sunset on September 
 4 ; to 2652 since the foundation of Rome ac- 
 cording to Varro ; to 2675 of the Olympiads 
 (the third year of the 669th Olympiad begin- 
 ning July 1, 1899); to 2559 of the Japanese 
 era, and to the 32d year of the Meiji ; to 1316- 
 17 of the Mohammedan era or the era of the 
 Hegira, the year 1317 beginning on May 12, 
 1899. The 125th year of the Independence 
 of the United States of America begins on 
 July 4, 1900. 
 
 Date of Beginning of Epochs, Eras, 
 and Periods. 
 
 BEGAN. 
 
 C. 5598, Sept. 1 
 1 5508, Sept. 1 
 ; 5502, Aug. 29 
 ' 5492. Sept. ' 
 
 1 4713, Jan. 
 
 ' 4008, Oct. 
 
 3761, Oct. 
 1 2015, Oct. 
 ; 776, July 
 
 1 753, Apr. 24 
 
 ; 747, Feb. 26 
 
 432, July 15 
 ; 312, Sept. 1 
 
 125, Oct. 1!) 
 110, Oct. 1 
 1 48, Sept. 1 
 45, Jan. 1 
 1 38, Jan. 1 
 30, Jan. 1 
 ; 27, Feb. 14 
 
 D. 1, Jan. 1 
 69, Sept. 1 
 
 166, Nov. 24 
 284, Sept. 17 
 295, Nov. 12 
 552, July 7 
 622, July 16 
 632, June 16 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Grecian Mundane Era u 
 
 Civil Era of Constantinople 
 
 Alexandrian Era 
 
 Ecclesiastical Era of Antioch 
 
 Julian Period 
 
 Mundane Era 
 
 Jewish Mundane Era 
 
 Era of Abraham 
 
 Era of the Olympiads 
 
 Roman Era (A. U. C.) 
 
 Era of Nabonassar 
 
 Metonic Cycle 
 
 Grecian or Syro-BiAt.etionian Era 
 
 Tyrian Era 
 
 Sidonian Era 
 
 Csesarean Era of Antioch 
 
 Julian Year 
 
 Spanish Era 
 
 Actian Era 
 
 Augustan Era 
 
 Vulgar Christian Era A 
 
 Destruction of Jerusalem 
 
 Era of Maccabees 
 
 Era of Diocletian 
 
 Era of Ascension 
 
 Era of the Armenians 
 
 Mohammedan Era 
 
 Persian Era of Yezdegird 
 
 Divisions of Time. The interval be- 
 tween two consecutive transits of a fixed star 
 over any meridian or the interval during which 
 the earth makes one absolute revolution on its 
 axis is called a Sidereal Day, and is invariable, 
 while the interval between two consecutive 
 transits of the, Sun over any meridian is called 
 an Apparent Solar Day, and its length varies 
 from day to day by reason of the variable 
 motion of the earth in its orbit, and the incli- 
 nation of this orbit to the equator, on which 
 time is measured. 
 
 A Mean Solar Day is the average or mean of 
 all the apparent solar days in a year. Mean 
 Solar Time is that shown by a well-regulated 
 clock or watch, while Apparent Solar Time is 
 that shown by a well-constructed sundial ; 
 the difference between the two at any time is 
 the Equation of Time, and may amount to 16 
 
 minutes and 21 seconds. The Astronomical 
 Day begins at noon and the Civil Day at the 
 preceding midnight. The Sidereal and Mean 
 Solar Days are both invariable, but one day of 
 the latter is equal to 1 day, 3 minutes, and 
 56.555 seconds of the former. 
 
 The interval during which the earth makes 
 one absolute revolution round the Sun is called 
 a Sidereal Year, and consists of 365 days, 6 
 hours, 9 minutes, and 9.6 seconds, which is 
 invariable. 
 
 The Tropical Year is the interval between 
 two consecutive returns of the Sun to the Ver- 
 nal Equinox. If this were a fixed point, the 
 Sidereal and Tropical Years would be identical ; 
 but in consequence of the disturbing influence 
 of the moon and planets on the spheroidal fig- 
 ure of the earth, the Equinox has a slow, ret- 
 rograde mean motion of 50.26 seconds annually, 
 and the Sun returns to the Equinox sooner 
 every year than he otherwise would by 20 min- 
 utes, 23.6 seconds; the Tropical Year, there- 
 fore, consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 
 and 46 seconds. The Tropical Year is not of 
 uniform length ; it is now slowly decreasing 
 at the rate of .595 second per century, but 
 this variation will not always continue. 
 
 Julius Caesar, in B. C. 45, was the first to re- 
 form the calendar by ordering that every year 
 whose date number is exactly divisible by 4 
 contain 366 days, and all other years 365 days. 
 The intercalary day was introduced by count- 
 ing the sixth day before the Kalends of March 
 twice ; hence the name bissextile, from bis, 
 twice, and sex, six. He also changed the be- 
 ginning of the year from first of March, to the 
 first of January, and also changed the name of 
 the fifth month (Quintilis) to July, after him- 
 self. The average length of the Julian year is 
 therefore 365 days, which, however, is too 
 long by 11 minutes and 14 seconds, and this 
 would accumulate in 400 years to about three 
 days. The Julian Calendar continued in use 
 until A. D. 1582, when the date of the begin- 
 ning of the seasons occurred 10 days later than 
 in B. C. 45, when this mode of reckoning time 
 was introduced. 
 
 The Gregorian Year was introduced by Pope 
 Gregory XIII. with the view of keeping the 
 Equinox to the same day of the month. It 
 consists of 365 days, but every year exactly di- 
 visible by 4 and the centurial years which are 
 exactly divisible by 400 contain 366 days ; and 
 if in addition to this arbitrary arrangement 
 the centurial years exactly divisible by 4,000 
 contain 366 days, the error in the Gregorian
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 197 
 
 system will amount to only one day in about 20 
 centuries. If, however, 31 leap years were in- 
 tercalated in 128 years, instead of 32 as at 
 present, the calendar would be practically ex- 
 act, and the error would not amount to more 
 than a day in 100,000 years. The length of 
 the mean Gregorian Year may therefore be set 
 down at 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 12 
 seconds. The Gregorian Calendar was intro- 
 duced into England and her colonies in 1752, 
 at which time the Equinox had retrograded 11 
 days since the Council of Nice in A. D. 325, 
 when the festival of Easter was established and 
 the Equinox occurred on March 21 ; hence Sep- 
 tember 3, 1752, was called September 14, and 
 at the same time the com mencement of the legal 
 year was changed from March 25 to January 
 1, so that the year 1751 lost the months of 
 January and February and the first 24 days of 
 March. The difference between the Julian and 
 Gregorian Calendars is now 12 days. Russia 
 and the Greek Church still employ the Julian 
 Calendar for civil and ecclesiastical purposes. 
 
 Standard Time. Primarily, for the con- 
 venience of the railroads, a standard of time 
 was established by mutual agreement in 1883, 
 by which trains are run and local time regu- 
 lated. According to this system, the United 
 States, extending from 65 to 125 west longi- 
 tude, is divided into four time sections, each 
 of 15 of longitude, exactly equivalent to one 
 hour, commencing with the 75th meridian. The 
 first (eastern) section includes all territory be- 
 tween the Atlantic coast and an irregular line 
 drawn from Detroit to Charleston, S. C., the 
 latter being its most southern point. The sec- 
 ond (central) section includes all the territory 
 between the last named line and an irregular 
 line from Bismarck, N. D., to the mouth of the 
 Rio Grande. The third (mountain) section 
 includes all territory between the last-named 
 line and nearly the western borders of Idaho, 
 Utah, and Arizona. The fourth (Pacific) sec- 
 tion covers the rest of the country to the Pa- 
 cific coast. Standard time is uniform inside 
 each of these sections, and the time of each sec- 
 tion differs from that next to it by exactly one 
 hour. Thus at 12 noon in New York city 
 (eastern time), the time at Chicago (central 
 time) is 11 o'clock A. M. ; at Denver (moun- 
 tain time), 10 o'clock A. M., and at San Fran- 
 cisco (Pacific time), 9 o'clock A. M. Stand- 
 ard time is 16 minutes slower at Boston than 
 true local time, 4 minutes slower at New York, 
 8 minutes faster at Washington, 19 minutes 
 faster at Charleston, 28 minutes slower at De- 
 troit, 18 minutes faster at Kansas City, 10 
 minutes slower at Chicago, one minute faster 
 at St. Louis, 28 minutes faster at Salt Lake 
 City, and 10 minutes faster at San Francisco. 
 
 Old English Holidays. These holidays, 
 with their names, had their origin in mediaeval 
 England when the State religion was that of 
 the Church of Rome, and they are still ob- 
 ! served generally or in some parts of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland. 
 
 JANUARY 6. TWELFTH DAY, or Twelfth- 
 tide, sometimes called Old Christmas Day, the 
 same as Epiphany. The previous evening is 
 Twelfth Night, with which many social rites 
 have long been connected. 
 
 FEBRUARY 2. CANDLEMAS : Festival of the 
 Purification of the Virgin. Consecration of 
 the lighted candles to be used in the church 
 during the year. 
 
 FEBRUARY 14. OLD CANDLEMAS : St. Val- 
 entine's Day. 
 
 MARCH 25. LADY DAY : Annunciation of 
 the Virgin. April 6 is old Lady Day. 
 
 JUNE 24. MIDSUMMER DAY : Feast of the 
 Nativity of John the Baptist. July 7 is old 
 Midsummer Day. 
 
 JULY 15. ST. SWITHIN'S DAY. There was 
 an old superstition that if rain fell on this 
 day it would continue forty days. 
 
 AUGUST 1. LAMMAS DAY: Originally in 
 England the festival of the wheat harvest. In 
 the Church the festival of St. Peter's miracu- 
 lous deliverance from prison. Old Lammas 
 Day is August 13. 
 
 SEPTEMBER 29. MICHAELMAS: Feast of St. 
 Michael, the Archangel. Old Michaelmas is 
 October 11. 
 
 NOVEMBER 1. ALLHALLOWMAS : Allhal- 
 lows or All Saints' Day. The previous even- 
 ing is Allhalloween, observed by home gath- 
 erings and old-time festive rites. 
 
 NOVEMBER 2. ALL SOULS' DAY: Day of 
 prayer for the souls of the dead. 
 
 NOVEMBER 11: MARTINMAS: Feast of St. 
 Martin. Old Martinmas is November 23. 
 
 DECEMBER 28. CHILDERMAS : Holy Inno- 
 cents Day. 
 
 Lady Day, Midsummer Day, Michaelmas, 
 and Christmas are quarter (rent) days in Eng- 
 land, and Whitsunday, Martinmas, Candle- 
 mas, and Lammas Day in Scotland. 
 
 Shrove Tuesday, the day before Ash Wednes- 
 day, and Maundy Thursday, the day before 
 Good Friday, are observed by the Church. 
 Mothering Sunday is Mid-Lent Sunday, in 
 which the old rural custom obtains of visiting 
 one's parents and making them presents. 
 
 Legal Holidays in the Various 
 States. JANUARY 1. NEW YEAR'S DAY: 
 In all the States (including the District of 
 Columbia) except Kentucky, Massachusetts, 
 Mississippi, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. 
 
 JANUARY 8. ANNIVERSARY OF THE BAT- 
 TLE OF NEW ORLEANS : In Louisiana.
 
 1US 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 JANUARY 19. LEE'S BIRTHDAY : In Flor- 
 ida, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 and Virginia. 
 
 FEBRUARY 12. LINCOLN'S BIRTHDAY: In 
 Connecticut, Illinois, Minnesota, New Jersey, 
 New York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, and 
 Washington (State). 
 
 FEBRUARY 14, 1899. SPRING ELECTION 
 DAY : In Pennsylvania (from 12 o'clock noon). 
 
 FEBRUARY 14, 1899. MARDI-GRAS : In 
 Alabama and the parish of Orleans, Louisiana. 
 
 FEBRUARY 22. WASHINGTON'S BIRTHDAY : 
 In all the States (including the District of Co- 
 lumbia) except Mississippi. 
 
 MARCH 2. ANNIVERSARY OF TEXAN INDE- 
 PENDENCE : In Texas. 
 
 MARCH 31, 1899. GOOD FRIDAY : In Ala- 
 bama, Louisiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, 
 Tennessee. 
 
 APRIL 5, 1899. STATE ELECTION DAY: 
 In Rhode Island. 
 
 APRIL 6. CONFEDERATE MEMORIAL DAY: 
 In Louisiana. 
 
 APRIL 19. PATRIOTS' DAY : In Massachu- 
 setts. 
 
 APRIL 21. ANNIVERSARY OF THE BATTLE 
 OF SAN JACINTO : In Texas. 
 
 APRIL 26. CONFEDERATE MEMORIAL DAY : 
 In Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. 
 
 MAY 10. CONFEDERATE MEMORIAL DAY : 
 In North Carolina and South Carolina. 
 
 MAY 20. ANNIVERSARY OF THE SIGNING 
 OF THE MECKLENBURG DECLARATION OF IN- 
 DEPENDENCE : In North Carolina. 
 
 MAY 30. DECORATION DAY : In Arizona, 
 California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, 
 District of Columbia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 
 Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Mas- 
 sachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, 
 Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, 
 New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, 
 Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Is- 
 land, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Ver- 
 mont, Wisconsin, Washington, and Wyoming. 
 
 JUNE 3. JEFFERSON DA vis's BIRTHDAY: 
 In Florida and Georgia. 
 
 JULY 4. INDEPENDENCE DAY: In all the 
 States and the District of Columbia. 
 
 JULY 24. PIONEERS' DAY : In Utah. 
 
 AUGUST 16. BENNINGTON BATTLE DAY: 
 In Vermont. 
 
 SEPTEMBER 4, 1899. LABOR DAY : In Ala- 
 bama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Del- 
 aware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, 
 Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, 
 Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne- 
 sota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New 
 Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, 
 Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South 
 Carolina. South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, 
 
 Utah, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and 
 Wyoming. 
 
 SEPTEMBER 9. ADMISSION DAY : In Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 NOVEMBER 1. ALL SAINTS' DAY: In 
 Louisiana. 
 
 NOVEMBER GENERAL ELECTION DAY : 
 In Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Indi- 
 ana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, 
 Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Ne- 
 vada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
 North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Is- 
 land, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennes- 
 see, Texas, West Virginia, Washington, Wis- 
 consin, and Wyoming, in the years when elec- 
 tions are held in these States. In 1900 the 
 date is November 6. 
 
 NOVEMBER 25. LABOR DAY : In Louis- 
 iana. 
 
 NOVEMBER 1900. THANKSGIVING DAY is 
 either the fourth or last Thursday in Novem- 
 ber iu 1900, as the President may determine. 
 It is observed in all the States, and in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, though in some States it is 
 not a statutory holiday. 
 
 DECEMBER 25. CHRISTMAS DAY : In all 
 the States, and in the District of Columbia. 
 
 Sundays and Fast Days are legal holidays in 
 all the States which designate them as such. 
 
 There are no statutory holidays in Missis- 
 sippi and Nevada, but by common consent the 
 Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, and Christinas 
 are observed as holidays in Mississippi. In 
 Kansas, Decoration Day, Labor Day, and 
 Washington's Birthday are the only legal hol- 
 idays by legislative enactment ; other legal hol- 
 idays are so only by common consent. In New 
 Mexico, Decoration Day, Labor Day, and Ar- 
 bor Day are holidays when so designated by 
 the Governor. 
 
 ARBOR DAY is a legal holiday in Arizona, 
 Colorado, Minnesota, North Dakota, Wiscon- 
 sin, and Wyoming, the day being set by the 
 Governor ; in Texas, February 22 ; in Ne- 
 braska, April 22 ; Montana, third Tuesday in 
 April; Utah, April 15; Rhode Island, first 
 Friday in May ; Idaho, on Friday after May 
 1 ; Florida, February 7 ; Georgia, first Friday 
 in December. 
 
 Every Saturday after 12 o'clock noon is a 
 legal holiday in Xew York, New Jersey, Penn- 
 sylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the District 
 of Columbia, the city of New Orleans, and in 
 Newcastle County, Del., except in St. George's 
 Hundred ; in Louisiana and Missouri in cities 
 of 100,000 or more inhabitants; in Ohio in 
 cities of 50,000 or more inhabitants ; and June 
 1 to August 31 in Denver, Col. In Connecti- 
 cut and Maine, banks close at 12 noon on Sat- 
 urdays.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 199 
 
 There is no national holiday, not even the 
 Fourth of July. Congress has at various 
 times appointed special holidays. In the sec- 
 ond session of the fifty-third Congress it passed 
 an act making Labor Day a public holiday in 
 the District of Columbia, and it has recognized 
 the existence of certain days as holidays, for 
 commercial purposes, but, with the exception 
 named, there is no general statute on the sub- 
 ject. The proclamation of the President des- 
 ignating a day of Thanksgiving only makes it 
 a legal holiday in those States which provide 
 by law for it. 
 
 The Months and their Names. Jan- 
 uary, the first month of the year, was among 
 the Romans held sacred to Janus, from whom 
 it derived its name, and was added to the calen- 
 dar along with February by Numa in 713 B. C. 
 It was not till the eighteenth century that Jan- 
 nary was universally adopted by European 
 nations as Hie first month of the year, although 
 the Roman's considered it as such as far back 
 as 251 B. C. 
 
 February is the name given to the second 
 month, in which were celebrated the Februa, 
 or feasts to the manes of deceased persons. 
 
 March, the first month of the Roman year, 
 and the third according to our present calen- ( 
 dar, consists of 31 days. It was considered as ! 
 the first month of the year in England until 
 the change of style in 1752, and the legal 
 year was reckoned from the 25th of March. Its 
 last three days (old style) were once popularly 
 supposed to have been borrowed by March from 
 April, and are proverbially stormy. 
 
 To the fourth month of our year the Romans 
 gave the name of Apr'dis, derived from aperire, 
 "to open," probably because it is the season 
 when the buds begin to open. By the Anglo- 
 Saxons it was called Eastermonth. 
 
 The name of the fifth month, May, is said 
 to be derived from Maia, the mother of Mer- 
 cury, to whom the Romans on the first day 
 offered sacrifices. It was the third month of 
 the Roman year. 
 
 June, the sixth month of the year in our 
 calendar, but the fourth among the Romans, 
 consisted originally of 26 days, to which four 
 were added by Romulus, one taken away by 
 Numa, and the month again lengthened to 30 
 days by Julius Ca?sar. 
 
 The seventh month of the year in our 
 calendar, and the fifth in the Roman calendar, i 
 was originally called Quintilis (the fifth). | 
 At first it contained 36 days, was reduced to 
 31, then to 30, but was restored to 31 days by i 
 Julius Caesar, in honor of whom it was named j 
 July. 
 
 August, the eighth month of the year, was 
 so named by the Emperor Augustus (B. C. 63 
 
 -A. D. 14), who commanded that his name 
 should be given to the month. August was 
 the sixth month of the Roman year and was 
 previously called Sextilis. 
 
 September (Lat. Septem, seven) was the 
 seventh month of the Roman calendar, but is 
 the ninth according to our reckoning. The 
 Anglo-Saxons called it gerst-monath, " barley- 
 month." 
 
 October (Lat. octo, eight) was the eighth 
 month of the so-called " year of Romulus," 
 but became the tenth when (according to tra- 
 dition) Numa changed the commencement of 
 the year to January 1st, though it retained its 
 original name. 
 
 November (Lat. novem nine) was among 
 the Romans the ninth month of the year (the 
 Ger. Wind month) at the time when the year 
 consisted of ten months, and then contained 
 30 days. It subsequently was made to contain 
 only 29, but Julius -Caesar gave it 31 ; and in 
 the reign of Augustus the number was restored 
 to 30, which number it has since retained. 
 
 December means the tenth month, and re- 
 ceived that name from the Romans when the 
 year began in March, and has retained its 
 name since January and February were put at 
 the beginning of the year. 
 
 The Origin of the Days of the 
 Week. The names of these are derived from 
 Saxon idolatry. The Saxons had seven deities 
 more particularly adored than the rest, 
 namely : The Sun, the Moon, Tuisco, Woden, 
 Thor, Friga, and Saeter. 
 
 Sunday being dedicated to the sun, was 
 called by them Sunandaeg ; his idol repre- 
 sented the bust of a man, with the face dart- 
 ing bright 'rays, holding a wheel before his 
 breast, indicative of the circuit of the golden 
 orb around our sphere. 
 
 Monday was dedicated to the moon, and was 
 represented by a female on a pedestal, with a 
 very singular dress and two long ears. 
 
 Tuesday was dedicated to Tuisco a German 
 hero, sire of the Germans, Scythians, and Sax- 
 ons. He was represented as a venerable old 
 man, with a long, white beard, a scepter in 
 his hand and the skin of a white bear thrown 
 over his shoulders. 
 
 Wednesday was consecrated to Woden, or 
 Odin, a supreme god of the northern nations, 
 father of the gods and god of war. He was 
 represented as a warrior in a bold martial atti- 
 tude, clad in armor, holding in his right hand 
 a broad, crooked sword and in his left a 
 shield. 
 
 Thursday was consecrated to Thor, eldest 
 son of Woden, who was the Roman Jupiter. 
 He was believed to govern the air, preside 
 over lightning and thunder, direct the wind,
 
 200 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 rain, and seasons. He was represented as sit- 
 ting on a splendid throne, with a crown of gold 
 adorned with twelve glittering stars, and a 
 scepter in his right hand. 
 
 Friday was sacred to Friga Ilertha or 
 Edith the mother of the gods and wife of 
 Woden. She was the goddess of love and 
 pleasure and was portrayed as a female with a 
 naked sword in her right hand and a bow in 
 her left hand, implying that in extreme cases 
 women should fight as well as men. 
 
 Saturday was named in honor of Saeter, 
 who is the Roman Saturnus. He was repre- 
 sented on a pedestal, standing on the back of 
 a prickly fish called a perch, his head bare, with 
 a thin, meager face. In his left hand he held 
 a wheel and in his right a pail of water with 
 fruits and flowers. The sharp fins of the fish 
 implied that the worshipers of Saeter should 
 pass safely through every difficulty. The 
 wheel was emblematic of their unity and 
 freedom, and the pail of water implied that 
 he could water the earth and make it more 
 beautiful. 
 
 Anniversaries. 
 
 DATES OF HISTORICAL EVENTS CUSTOMARILY 
 OR OCCASIONALLY OBSERVED. 
 
 Jan. 1. Emancipation Proclamation by Lincoln, 1863. 
 
 Jan. 8. Battle of New Orleans, 1815. 
 
 Jan. 17. Franklin born, 1706. 
 
 Jan. 17. Battle of the Cowpens, S. C., 1781. 
 
 Jan. 18. Daniel Webster born, 1782. 
 
 Jan. 19. Robert E. Lee born, 1807. 
 
 Jan. 27. German Emperor born, 1859. 
 
 Feb. 12. Abraham Lincoln born, 1809. 
 
 Feb. 15. Battle-ship Maine blown up, 1898. 
 
 Feb. 22. George Washington born, 1732. 
 
 Feb. 22-23. Battle of Buena Vista, 1847. 
 
 March 5. Boston Massacre, 1770. 
 
 March 15. Andrew Jackson born, 1767. 
 
 March 18. Grover Cleveland born, 1837. 
 
 April 1. Bismarck born, 1815. 
 
 April 9. Lee surrendered at Appomattox, 1865. 
 
 April 12. Fort Sumter fired upon, 1861. 
 
 April 12. Henry Clay born, 1777. 
 
 April 13. Thomas Jefferson born, 1743. 
 
 April 14. Lincoln assassinated, 1865. 
 
 April 19. Primrose Day in England, Lord Beaconsfield 
 died, 1881. 
 
 April 19. Battles of Lexington and Concord, 1T75. 
 
 April 23. Shakespeare born, 1564. 
 
 April 27. General Grant born, 1822. 
 
 April 30. Washington was inaugurated first President, 
 1789. 
 
 May 1. Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila, 
 1898. 
 
 May 13. First English settlement in America at James- 
 town, 1607. 
 
 May 13. The Society of the Cincinnati was organized 
 by officers of the Revolutionary Army, 1783. 
 
 May 20. Mecklenburg, N.C., Declaration of Independ- 
 ence, 1775. 
 
 May 24. Queen Victoria born, 1819. 
 
 June 6. General Nathaniel Greene born, 1742. 
 
 June 15. King John granted Magna Charta at Runny- 
 mede, 1215. 
 
 June 17. Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775. 
 
 June 1. Battle of Waterloo, 1815. 
 
 June 28. Battle of Fort Moultrie, Charleston, S.C., 1776. 
 
 July 1. Dominion Day in Canada. 
 
 July 1-2. General assault on Santiago de Cuba, 1898. 
 
 July 1-3. Battle of Gettysburg, 1863. 
 
 July 3. Cervera's fleet was destroyed off Santiago, 
 1898. 
 
 July 4. Declaration of Independence. 1776. 
 
 July 14. The Bastille was destroyed. 1789. 
 
 July 16. Santiago surrendered, 1898. 
 
 July 21. Battle of Bull Run, 1*61. 
 i Aug. 13. Manila surrendered to the Americans, 18?8. 
 
 Aug. 16. Battle of Bennington, Vt., 1777. 
 
 Sep. 1. Capitulation of Sedan, 1870. 
 
 Sep. 8. Battle of Eutaw Springs, S. C., 1781. 
 
 Sep. 10. Battle of Lake Erie, Perry's victory, 1813. 
 
 Sep. 11. Battle of Lake Chainplain, McDonough's vic- 
 tory, 1814. 
 
 Sep. 13. Battle of Chapultepec, 1847. 
 
 Sep. 14. City of Mexico taken by the U. S. troops, 1847. 
 
 Sep. 17. Battle of Antietam, 1862. 
 
 Sep. 19-20. Battle of Chickamauga, 18f>3. 
 
 Sep. 20. Italians occupied Rome, 1870. 
 
 Oct. 7. Battle of King's Mountain, N. C., 1780. 
 
 Oct. 8-11. Great fire of Chicago, 1871. 
 
 Oct. 12. Columbus discovered America, 1492. 
 
 Oct. 17. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga, 1777. 
 
 Oct. 19. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, 1781. 
 
 Nov. 5. Guy Fawkes Day in England. The Gunpow- 
 der Plot discovered, 1604. 
 
 Nov. 9. Great fire of Boston, 1872. 
 
 Nov. 10. Martin Luther born, 1483. 
 
 Nov. 25. British evacuated New York, 1783. 
 
 Dec. 2. Battle of Austerlitz, 1805. 
 
 Dec. 14. Washington died, 1799. 
 
 Dec. 16. Boston "Tea Party," 1773. 
 
 Dec. 16. The great fire in New York, 1835. 
 
 Dec. 22. Mayflower pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, 
 1620. 
 
 Dec.25-26. Battle of Trenton, N. J., 1776. 
 
 Dec. 29. William Ewart Gladstone born, 1809. 
 
 The First Day of the Year. 
 
 Readers of Parish Registers and other ancient docu- 
 ments are sometimes puzzled by the dates, and espe- 
 cially by the apparent discrepancies in the time when 
 the year commenced. It began : 
 
 7th to 14th Centuries, at Christmas. 
 12th Century, by the Church, on March 25. 
 14th Century, by Civilians, same time. 
 
 In 1752 the New Style was introduced, and 1753 com- 
 menced on the 1st of January. Previous to this two 
 dates were used, one for the "civil year, and the other 
 for the historical; the former commenced March 25, 
 and the latter January 1 ; thus we find the same event 
 with two dates, e. g., Feb. 20, 1681-2. Another change 
 was made in the calendar bv the same Act, 24 Geo. II. 
 c. 23; the day after September 2d was accounted the 
 fourteenth, hence the difference between Old and New 
 Michaelmas and other days. 
 
 General Councils. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Jerusalem Against Juclaizers 51 
 
 Aries Against the Donatists 314 
 
 *Nice First OScumenical Council 325 
 
 Constantinople . . Arian 337 
 
 Rome Athanasian 342 
 
 Sardis Against Arius 347 
 
 * Constantinople . . Second (Ecumenical 381 
 
 *Ephesus Third do 431 
 
 *Cnalcedon Fourth do 451 
 
 ^Constantinople. .Fifth do 553 
 
 * Constantinople. .Sixth do 681 
 
 Nice Seventh do 787 
 
 Constantinople. .Eighth do 870 
 
 Rome First Lateran 1123 
 
 Rome Second do 1139 
 
 Rome Third do 1197 
 
 Rome Fourth do 1215 
 
 Lyons Emperor Frederick deposed 1243 
 
 Lyons Temporary reunion of Greek and 
 
 Latin Churches 1274 
 
 Vienne Fifteenth OScumenical 1312 
 
 Pisa : Popes elected and deposed 1409 
 
 Constance Huss condemned to be burned... 1414 
 
 Basle Eighteenth (Ecumenical 1431 
 
 Rome Fifth Lateran 1512 to 1517 
 
 Trent Nineteenth OZcumenical. . .1545 to 1563 
 
 Rome Last (Ecumenical 1870 
 
 * Only the six thus marked were indisputably General 
 or (Ecumenical. Some other councils, such as those 
 summoned to Pavia and Siena, were designed to be 
 (Ecumenical, but led to no such result. Ihe Greek 
 Church recognizes seven.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 201 
 
 A READY REFERENCE CALEX1>AR. 
 
 For ascertaining any Day of the Week for any given Time within Two Hundred Years from the introduction of 
 
 the New Style, 1753 to 1952, inclusive. 
 
 
 
 YTL 
 
 MIS 1753 TO 
 
 1952. 
 
 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 .a 
 
 .- 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 "C 
 
 A 
 
 < 
 
 >, 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 -s 
 
 lA 
 
 5 
 
 -. 
 
 ii 
 
 < 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1753e 
 
 1754(1 
 
 1781g 
 1782d 
 
 1800e 
 ISOla 
 
 1828q 1856q 
 ,'1829a 1857a 
 
 1884q 
 1885a 
 
 1900g 
 1901d 
 
 1928h 
 1929d 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 1755e 
 1756p 
 
 17836 
 1784p 
 
 1802b 
 1803c 
 
 1830b 1858b 
 1831c 1*51)0 
 
 lR86b 
 1887C 
 
 1902e 
 1903a 
 
 i 1930e 
 ! 1931a 
 
 b 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1757c 
 1758f 
 
 1785C 
 17S6f 
 
 1S04h 
 1805d 
 
 1832h 1860h 
 1833d ISGld 
 
 isssh 
 1889d 
 
 1904k 
 1905f 
 
 1932k 
 1933f 
 
 c 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 ' 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1759g 
 1700q 
 
 1787g 
 
 1788(1 
 
 1806e 
 1807a 
 
 1834e 1862e 
 1835a 1863a 
 
 1890e 
 1891a 
 
 1906s 
 1907d 
 
 
 d 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 1761a 
 1762b 
 
 1789a 
 1790b 
 
 1808k 
 1809f 
 
 1836k I 1864k 
 1837f | 1865f 
 
 1892k 
 1893f 
 
 1908 1 
 1909b 
 
 19361 
 ! 1937b 
 
 e 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 17G3c 
 1764h 
 
 1791c 
 1792h 
 
 1810g 
 ISlld 
 
 1S38g 1866g 
 18J9d 1867d 
 
 1894g 
 1895U 
 
 1910C 
 1911f 
 
 1938C 
 1 1939f 
 
 f 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 i3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1765d 
 1766e 
 
 1793d 
 17943 
 
 18121 
 1813b 
 
 1840 1 1868 1 
 1841 b 1869b 
 
 18061 
 1897b 
 
 1912m 
 1913e 
 
 1940m 
 1941e 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 17C7a 
 
 170*k 
 
 1795a 
 1796k 
 
 l14i 
 1815f 
 
 18l2c ' 1870c 
 1843f 1871f 
 
 1898C 
 1899f 
 
 1914a 
 1915b 
 
 1942a 
 1943b 
 
 h 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 J 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1769f 
 1770g 
 
 17i>7f 
 1798g 
 
 1816m 
 1817e 
 
 1844m 1872m 
 1845e 1873e 
 
 
 1916n 
 1917g 
 
 1944n 
 1945g 
 
 k 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 J 
 
 4 
 
 1771d 
 17721 
 
 1799d 
 
 1818a 
 1819b 
 
 1846a 1874a 
 1847b 1875b 
 
 
 1918d 
 1919e 
 
 1946d 
 1947e 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 1773b 
 1774e 
 
 
 1820n 
 ,1821g 
 
 1848n 1876n 
 1849g 1877g 
 
 
 1920p 
 1921C 
 
 1948p 
 1949C 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 177of 
 1776m 
 
 
 1822d 
 
 isite 
 
 1850d 1878d 
 1851e 1879e 
 
 
 1922f 
 1923g 
 
 1950f 
 1951g 
 
 n 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1777e 
 
 1778a 
 
 
 1824p 
 1826C 
 
 1852p 1880p 
 1853C 1881c 
 
 
 1924q 
 1925a 
 
 1952q 
 
 P 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1779b 
 1780n 
 
 
 1826f 
 1827g 
 
 1854f 1882f 
 1855g 1883g 
 
 
 1926b 
 1927C 
 
 
 q 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 TABLE OF DAYS. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 Monday 
 
 1 Tuesday 
 
 1 Wednesday 
 
 1 Thursday 
 
 1 Friday 
 
 1 Saturday 
 
 1 SUNDAY 
 
 1 
 
 Tuesda'y 
 
 2 Wednesday 
 
 2 Thursday 
 
 2 Friday 
 
 2 Saturday 
 
 2 SUNDAY 
 
 2 Monday 
 
 2 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 3 Thursday 
 
 3 Friday 
 
 3 Saturday 
 
 3 SUNDAY 
 
 3 Monday 
 
 3 Tuesday 
 
 3 
 
 Thursday 
 
 4 Friday 
 
 4 Saturday 
 
 4 SUNDAY 
 
 4 Monday 
 
 4 Tuesday 
 
 4 Wednesday 
 
 4 
 
 Friday 
 
 5 Saturday 
 
 5 SUNDAY 
 
 5 Monday 
 
 5 Tuesday 
 
 5 Wednesday 
 
 5 Thursday 
 
 5 
 
 Saturday 
 
 6 SUNDAY 
 
 6 Monday 
 
 6 Tuesday 
 
 6 Wednesday 
 
 6 Thursday 
 
 6 Friday 
 
 6 
 
 SUXDAY 
 
 7 Monday 
 
 7 Tuesday 
 
 7 Wednesday 
 
 7 Thursday 
 
 7 Friday 
 
 7 Saturday 
 
 7 
 
 Monday 
 
 8 Tuesday 
 
 8 Wednesday 
 
 8 Thursday 
 
 8 Friday 
 
 8 Saturday 
 
 8 SUNDAY 
 
 8 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 9 Wednesday 
 
 9 Thursday 
 
 9 Friday 
 
 9 Saturday 
 
 9 SUNDAY 
 
 9 Monday 
 
 9 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 10 Thursday 
 
 10 Friday 
 
 10 Saturday 
 
 10 SUNDAY 
 
 10 Monday 
 
 10 Tuesday 
 
 in 
 
 Thursday 
 
 11 Friday 
 
 11 Saturday 
 
 11 SUNDAY 
 
 11 Monday 
 
 11 Tuesday 
 
 11 Wednesday 
 
 n 
 
 Friday 
 
 12 Saturday 
 
 12 SUNDAY 
 
 12 Monday 
 
 12 Tuesday 
 
 12 Wednesday 
 
 12 Thursday 
 
 12 
 
 Saturday 
 
 13 SUXDAY 
 
 13 Monday 
 
 13 Tuesday 
 
 13 Wednesday 
 
 13 Thursday 
 
 13 Friday 
 
 13 
 
 SUNDAY 
 
 14 Monday 
 
 14 Tuesday 
 
 14 Wednesday 
 
 14 Thursday 
 
 14 Friday 
 
 14 Saturday 
 
 14 
 
 Monday 
 
 15 Tuesday 
 
 15 Wednesday 
 
 15 Thursday * 
 
 15 Friday 
 
 15 Saturday 
 
 15 SUNDAY 
 
 15 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 16 Wednesday 
 
 16 Thursday 
 
 16 Friday 
 
 16 Saturday 
 
 16 SUNDAY 
 
 16 Monday 
 
 16 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 17 Thursday 
 
 17 Friday 
 
 17 Saturday 
 
 17 SUNDAY 
 
 17 Monday 
 
 17 Tuesday 
 
 17 
 
 Thursday " 
 
 18 Friday 
 
 18 Saturday 
 
 18 SUNDAY 
 
 18 Monday 
 
 18 Tuesday 
 
 18 Wednesday 
 
 IS 
 
 Friday 
 
 19 Saturday 
 
 1 'SUNDAY 
 
 19 Monday 
 
 19 Tuesday 
 
 19 Wednesday 
 
 19 Thursday 
 
 19 
 
 Saturday 
 
 20 SUNDAY 
 
 20 Monday 
 
 20 Tuesday 
 
 20 Wednesday 
 
 2 ) Thursday 
 
 20 Friday 
 
 20 
 
 SUXDAY 
 
 21 Monday 
 
 21 Tuesday 
 
 21 Wednesday 
 
 21 Thursday 
 
 21 Friday 
 
 21 Saturday 
 
 21 
 
 Monday 
 
 22 Tuesday 
 
 22 Wednesday 
 
 22 Thursday 
 
 22 Friday 
 
 22 Saturday 
 
 22 SUNDAY 
 
 _'J 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 23 Wednesday 
 
 23 Thursday 
 
 23 Friday 
 
 23 Saturday 
 
 23 SUNDAY 
 
 23 Monday 
 
 2:; 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 24 Thursday 
 
 24 Friday 
 
 24 Saturday 
 
 24 SUNDAY 
 
 24 Monday 
 
 24 Tuesday 
 
 24 
 
 Thursday 
 
 25 Friday 
 
 25 Saturday 
 
 25 SUNDAY 
 
 25 Monday 
 
 25 Tuesday 
 
 25 Wednesday 
 
 KB 
 
 Friday 
 
 26 Saturday 
 
 26 SUNDAY 
 
 26 Monday 
 
 26 Tuesday 
 
 26 Wednesday 
 
 26 Thursday 
 
 26 
 
 Saturday 
 
 27 SUNDAY 
 
 27 Monday 
 
 27 Tuesday 
 
 27 Wednesday 
 
 27 Thursday 
 
 27 Friday 
 
 2T 
 
 SUNDAY 
 
 28 Monday 
 
 28 Tuesday 
 
 28 Wednesday 
 
 28 Thursday 
 
 28 Friday 
 
 28 Saturday 
 
 28 
 
 Monday 
 
 29 Tuesday 
 
 29 Wednesday 
 
 29 Thursday ' 
 
 29 Friday 
 
 29 Saturday 
 
 29 SUNDAY 
 
 29 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 30 Wednesday 
 
 30 Thursday " 
 
 30 Friday 
 
 30 Saturday 
 
 3^i SUNDAY 
 
 30 Monday 
 
 M 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 31 Thursday 
 
 31 Friday 
 
 31 Saturday 
 
 31 SUNDAY 
 
 31 Monday 
 
 31 Tuesday 
 
 31 
 
 NOTE The letters in the list of " TEAKS Ironi 1753 101952 " refer to the table headed with the MONTHS, the figures in which 
 refer to tiie game figures at tbe head of the tableof DATS. For example : To know on what day July 4, 1900, will fall, look for 1900 
 in tlie ta- le "f YEAHS. The letter g is attached. Look for the same letter in the table of MONTHS, ana in a parallel line under 
 July ia the figure 7, which directs to column 7 in the table of DAYS below, in which it will be seen that July 4 falls on Wednesday.
 
 202 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Abeo'na. A goddess of voyages, etc. 
 
 Acha'tes. The trusty friend of ^Eneas. 
 
 Ach'eron. The son of Sol and Terra, changed by 
 Jupiter into a river of hell. Used also for hell itself. 
 
 Achil'les. A.Greek who signalized himself in the 
 war against Troy. Having been dipped by his mother 
 in the river Styx, he was invulnerable in every part 
 except his right heel, by which she held him, but was 
 at length killed by Paris with an arrow. 
 
 A'cis. A Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus 
 because he rivaled the latter in the affections of 
 Galatea. 
 
 Actao'on. A famous hunter, who, having surprised 
 Diana as she was bathing, was turned by her into a 
 stag, and killed by his own dogs. 
 
 Ado'nis. A beautiful youth beloved by Venus and 
 Proserpine. He was killed by a wild boar. When 
 wounded, Venus sprinkled nectar into his blood, from 
 which flowers sprang up. 
 
 jEge'ug. A king of Athens, giving name to the 
 Mge^n sea by drowning himself in it. 
 
 JE'gis. A shield given by Jupiter to Minerva. Also 
 the name of a Gorgon whom Pallas slew. 
 
 ^Ene'as. A Trojan prince, son of Anchises and Ve- 
 nus ; the hero of Virgil's poem, th 
 
 JE'olna. The god of the winds. 
 
 ^Eo'us. One of the four horses of the sun. 
 
 JEscula'pius. The god of medicine and the son of 
 Apollo. Killed by Jupiter with a thunderbolt for hav- 
 ing restored Hippolytus to life. 
 
 vE'thon. One of the four horses of the sun. 
 
 A VM iii.ciir'n .Hi. King of Mycenae and Argos, brother 
 to Menelaus, and chosen captain-general of the Greeks 
 at the siege of Trov. 
 
 Aganip'pe. A fountain at the foot of Mount Heli- 
 con, daughter of the river Permessus. 
 
 Ajjla'ia. One of the three Graces. 
 
 A'jax. Next to Achilles, the bravest of all the Greeks 
 in the Trojan war. 
 
 Al'bion. The son of Neptune ; went into Britain and 
 established a kingdom. 
 
 Alces'te, or Alcestis. The daughter of Pelias and 
 wife of Admctus, brought back from hell by Hercules. 
 
 Alci'des. A title of Hercules. 
 
 Alec'to. One of the three Furies. 
 
 Alo'a. A festival of Bacchus and Ceres. 
 
 Am'mon. A title of Jupiter. 
 
 Amphi'on. A famous musician, the son of Jupiter 
 and Antiope, who built the city of Thebes by the music 
 of his harp. He and his brother Zethus are said to have 
 invented music. . 
 
 Amphitri'te. Goddess of the sea and wife of Nep- 
 tune. 
 
 Androm'ache. Wife of Hector. 
 
 Androin'eda. The daughter of Cepheus and Cassio- 
 peia, who, contesting with Juno and the Nereides for 
 the prize of beauty, was bound to a rock by them and 
 exposed to a sea monster, but was rescued and married 
 by I'erseus. 
 
 Anjje'rona. The goddess of silence. 
 
 Antae'us. The giant son of Neptune and 
 squeezed to death by Hercules. 
 
 Antever'ta. Goddess of women in labor. 
 
 Antig/one. The daughter of (Edipusand Jocasta, 
 famous for her filial piety. 
 
 An'ubis. An Egyptian god with a dog's head. 
 
 A'pis. Son of Jupiter and Niobe; called alsoSerapis 
 and Osiris. Taught the Egyptians to sow corn and 
 plant vines, and was worshiped by them in the form of 
 an ox. 
 
 Apollo. The son of Jupiter and Latona, and the god 
 of music, poetry, eloquence, medicine, and the fine arts. 
 
 Arach/ne. A Lydiaii princess, turned into a spider 
 for contending with Minerva at spinning. 
 
 Aretliu'sa. One of Diana's nymphs, who was changed 
 into a fountain 
 
 Ar'gus. The son of Aristor said to have had a hun- 
 dred eyes; but being killed by Mercury when appointed 
 by Juno to guard lo, she pat his eves on the tail of a j 
 peacock. Also an architect, who built the ship Argo. i 
 
 Ariad'ne. The daughter of Minos, who, from love to 
 Theseus, gave him a clew of thread, to guide him out of | 
 the Cretan labyrinth ; being afterward deserted bv him, - 
 she was married to Bacchus, and made his priestess. 
 
 Ari'on. A lyric poet of Methymna, who, i:i hi* 
 voyage to Italy," saved his life from the cruelty rf the 
 mariners by means of dolphins, which the sweetness of 
 tm music brought together. 
 
 Terra ; 
 
 Aristje'us. A eon of Apollo and Gyrene. 
 
 Astrifi'a. The goddess of justice;' changed into the 
 constellation Virgo. 
 
 Atalan'ta. A princess of Scyros, who consented to 
 marry that one of her suitors who should outrun her, 
 Hippomenes being the successful competitor. 
 
 At'las. One of the Titans, and king of Mauretania ; 
 said to have supported the world on his shoulders ; he 
 was turned into a mountain by Perseus. 
 
 Auro'ra. The goddess of morning. 
 Autum'nus. The god of fruits. 
 
 Beller'ophon. The son of Glaucus, king of Ephyra. 
 e underwent numerous hardships for refusing an inti- 
 
 Thegi 
 
 Bacchan'tes. Priests of Bacchus. 
 Bac'chus. The son of Jupiter and Semele, and the 
 god of wine. 
 Bap'ta. The goddess of shame. 
 
 He 
 
 macywith Sthenoboea, wife of'Prnetus, theking of 
 Argos. AVith the aid of the horse Pegasus, he destroyed 
 the Chimera. 
 
 Bello'na. Goddess of war; sister of Mars. 
 
 Bereni'ce. A Grecian lady; the only person of her 
 sex permitted to see the Olympic games. 
 
 Bolt'iia. A nymph rendered immortal for her mod- 
 esty and resistance to Apollo. 
 
 Bo'reas. The son of Astraeus and Aurora ; the name 
 of the north wind. 
 
 Bria'reus. A giant who warred against heaven, and 
 was feigned to have had fifty heads and one hundred 
 arms. 
 
 Busi'ris. The son of Neptune ; a tyrant of Egypt, 
 and a monstrous giant, who fed his horses with human 
 flesh ; was killed by Hercules. 
 
 Byb'lis. The daughter of Miletus ; she wept herself 
 into a fountain through love of her brother Cauaus. 
 
 Ca'cus. A son of Vulcan and a most notorious rob- 
 ber; slain by Hercules for'stealing his oxen. 
 
 Cad'mus.' The sen of Agenor, king of Phoenicia; 
 founder of Thebes, and the reputed inventor of sixteen 
 letters of the Greek alphabet. 
 
 Cadii'ceus. Mercury's golden rod or wand. 
 
 Calli'ope. One of the Muses, presiding over elo- 
 quence and epic poetry. 
 
 Calyp'so. One of the Oceanides who reigned in the 
 island Ogygia, and entestained and became enamored 
 of Ulysses. 
 
 Cainee'na, or Carna. Goddess of infants. 
 
 Cassan'dra. A daughter of Priam and Hecuba, en- 
 dowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo. 
 
 Castal'ides. The Muses, so called from the fountain 
 Castalius, at the foot of Parnassus. 
 
 Cas'tor. A son of Jupiter and Leda. He and his 
 twin brother Pollux shared immortality alternately, 
 and wefe formed into the constellation Gemini. 
 
 Ce'crops. The first king of Athens, who instituted 
 marriage, altars, and sacrifices. 
 
 Cen'taurs. Children of Ixion, half men and half 
 horses, inhabiting Thessaly, and vanquished by 
 Theseus. 
 
 C'er'berus. The three-headed dog of Pluto, guarding 
 the gates of hell. 
 
 Ce'res. The daughter of Saturn and Cybele, and 
 goddess of agriculture. 
 
 Cha'ron. The son of Erebus and Nox, and ferryman 
 of hell, who conducted the souls of the dead over the 
 rivers Styx and Acheron. 
 
 Cbaryb'dis. A ravenous woman, turned by Jupiter 
 into a very dangerous gulf or whirlpool on the coast of 
 Sicily. 
 
 Chi'rnera. A strange monster of Lycia, killed by 
 Bellerophon. 
 
 Chi'ron. A Centaur, who was preceptor to Achilles, 
 taught ^Esculapius physic and Hercules astronomy, and 
 who became the constellation Sagittarius. 
 
 Chry'seis. The daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, 
 famed for beauty and for her skill in embroidery. 
 
 Cir'ce. A noted enchantress. 
 
 Cli'o. One of the Muses, presiding over history. 
 
 Clo'tho. One of the three Fates. 
 
 Clytemnes'tra. The faithless wife of Agamemnon, 
 killed by her son Orestes. 
 
 Co'mus. The god of merriment. 
 
 Cro'cus. A young man enamored of the nymph Sini- 
 lax, and changed into a flower. 
 
 Crce'sus. Kingof Lydia ; the richest man of his time. 
 
 Cu'pid. Son < f Mar's and Venus ; the god of love. 
 
 Cyb'ele. The daughter of Coalus and Terra; wife of 
 Saturn, and mother of the gods.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 203 
 
 Cy'clops. Vulcan's workmen, giants who had only 
 one eye, in the middle of their foreheads; slain by 
 Apollo in a pique against Jupiter. 
 
 Du'd'alu*. A most ingenious artificer of Athens, 
 who formed the Cretan labyrinth, and invented the 
 auger, axe, glue, plumb-line, 'saw, and masts and sails 
 for ships. 
 
 Da'mon. The friend of Pythias. 
 
 Daiia'ides, or Bel'ides. The fifty daughters of 
 Danaus, king of Argos, all of whom, except Hyperm- 
 nestra, killed their husbands on the first night of their 
 marriage, and were therefore doomed to draw water 
 out of a deep well, and eternally pour it into a cask full 
 of holes. 
 
 Daph/ne. A nymph beloved by Apollo ; the daughter 
 of the river Peneus ; changed into a laurel tree. 
 
 Daph'nis. A shepherd of Sicily and son of Mercury ; 
 educated by the nymphs, and inspired by the Muses 
 with the love of poetry. 
 
 Dar'danus. A son of Jupiter and founder of Troy. 
 
 Deida'mia. The daughter of Lycomedes, king of 
 Scyros; wife of Achilles, and mother of Pyrrhus. 
 
 Deiph'obus. A son of Priam and Hecuba ; married 
 Helena after the death of Paris, but betrayed by her to 
 the G reeks. 
 
 Dejani'ra. Wife of Hercules, who killed herself in 
 despair, because her husband burned himself to avoid 
 the torment occasioned by the poisoned shirt she had 
 given him to regain his love. 
 
 Del'phi. A city of Phocis, famous for a temple and 
 an oracle of Apollo. 
 
 Deucalion. The son of Prometheus, nnd king of 
 Thessaly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was preserved 
 from the general deluge, and repeopled the world by 
 throwing stones behind them, as directed by the oracle. 
 
 Dian'a. Daughter of Jupiter and Latoria, and god- 
 dess of hunting, chastity, and marriage. 
 
 Di'do. Founder and queen of Carthage ; daughter of 
 Belus, and wife of Siehfeus. According to Virgil, she 
 entertained yEneas on his voyage to Italy, and burned 
 herself in despair, because he left her. 
 
 Diome'des. Son of Tydeus, and king of ^Etolia; 
 gained great reputation at Troy, and, with Vlysses, 
 carried off the Palladium. 
 
 DIr'ce. Wife of Lycus, king of Thebes; dragged to 
 death by a mad bull. 
 
 Dry'ades. Nymphs of the woods. 
 
 Ech'o. The daughter of Aer, or Air, and Tellus, who 
 pined away for love of Narcissus. 
 
 Elec'tra. Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnes- 
 tra ; instigated her brother' Orestes to revenge their 
 father's death upon their mother and JEgisthus. 
 
 Elys'ium. The happy residence of the virtuous after 
 death. 
 
 Encel'adus. Son of Titan and Terra, and the strong- 
 est of the giants ; conspired against Jupiter, and at- 
 tempted to scale heaven. 
 
 Endym'ion. A shepherd and astronomer of Caria, 
 condemned to a sleep of thirty years. 
 
 Epe'us. The artist who made the Trojan horse, in- 
 ventor of the sword and buckler. 
 
 Er'ato. The Muse of lyric and amorous poetry. 
 
 Er'eane. A river whose waters inebriated. 
 
 Er'ebns. The son of Chaos and Nox; an infernal 
 deity. A river of hell, and often used by the poets for 
 hell itself. 
 
 Erin'nys. The Greek name for the Furies, or Eumen- 
 ides. 
 
 E'ros. A name of Cupid. 
 
 Eumen'ides. A name of the Furies. 
 
 Euphor'bus. The son of Panthous; slain by Mene- 
 laus in the Trojan war. 
 
 Euphros'yne. One of the three Graces. 
 
 Euro'pa. The daughter of Agenor ; carried by Jupi- 
 ter, in the form of a white bull, into Crete. 
 
 Eury'ale. A queen of the Amazons. Also one of the 
 three Gorgons. 
 
 Eury'alus. A Peloponnesian chief in the Trojan 
 war. Also, a Trojan and a friend of Nisus, for whose 
 loss tineas was inconsolable. 
 
 Enryd'ice. Wife of Orpheus ; killed by a serpent on 
 \er marriage day. 
 
 Euryl'ochtis.' One of the companions of Ulysses; 
 the only one who was not changed by Circe into a hog. 
 
 Euter'pe. One of the Muses, presiding over music. 
 
 ETad'ne. Daughter of Mars and Thebe : threw her- 
 self on the funeral pyre of her husband. Cataneus. 
 
 Fab'ula. Goddess of lies. 
 
 r a 'm a. Goddess of report, etc. 
 
 Fates. Powerful goddesses, who presided over the 
 birth and the life of mankind, were the three daughters 
 of Nox and Erebus, named Clotho, Lachesis, andAtro- 
 pos. Clotho was supposed to hold the distaff, Lachesis 
 to draw the thread of human life, and Atropos to cut 
 it off. 
 
 Fau'na, and I 'at u 'a. Names of Cybele. 
 
 Fau'ni. Rural gods, described as having the legs, 
 feet, and cars of goats. 
 
 Fau'nus. Son of Mercury and Nox, and father of the 
 Fauni. 
 
 Flo'ra. The goddess of flowers. 
 
 Fortu'na. The goddess of fortune ; said to be blind. 
 
 Fw'ries. The three daughters of Nox and Acheron, 
 named Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megsera, with hair com- 
 posed of snakes, and armed with whips, chains, etc. 
 
 Galate'a. A sea-nymph, daughter of Nereus and 
 Doris, passionately loved by Polyphemus. 
 
 Gan'ymede. The son of Tros, king of Troy, whom 
 Jupiter, in the form of an eagle, snatched up and made 
 his cupbearer. 
 
 Ge'ryon. A monster, having three bodies and three 
 heads, and who fed his oxen with human flesh, and was 
 therefore killed by Hercules. 
 
 Gor'dius. A husbandman, but afterward king of 
 Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords, on which 
 the empire of Asia depended, in so intricate a manner, 
 that Alexander, unable to unravel it, cut it asunder. 
 
 Gor'gons. The three daughters of Phorcus and Ceta, 
 named Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa. Their bodies were 
 covered with impenetrable scales, their hair entwined 
 with serpents; they had only one eye betwixt them, 
 and they could change into 'stones those whom they 
 looked on. 
 
 Gra'ces. Three goddesses, Aglaia, Thalia, and Eu- 
 phrosyne, represented as beautiful, modest virgins, and 
 constant attendants on Venus. 
 
 Ha'des. A title of Pluto. 
 
 Har'pies. Winged monsters, daughters of Neptune 
 and Terra, named Aello, Celaeno, and Ocypete, with the 
 faces of virgins, the bodies of vultures, and hands 
 armed with claws. 
 
 He'be. The daughter of Juno ; goddess of youth, and 
 Jupiter's cupbearer ; banished from heaven on account 
 of an unlucky fall. 
 
 Hec'tor. The son of Priam nnd Hecuba ; the most val- 
 iant of the Trojans, and slain by Achilles. 
 
 Hec'uba. The wife of Priam, who tore her eyes out 
 for the loss of her children. 
 
 Hel'ena, or Hel'en. The wife of Menelaus. and the 
 most beautiful woman of her age, who, running away 
 with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. 
 
 llel'enns. A son of Priam and Hecuba, spared by 
 the Greeks for his skill in divination. 
 
 Helle. The daughter of Athamas, who, flying from 
 her stepmother Ino, was drowned in the Pontic sea, and 
 1 gave it the name of Hellespont. 
 
 Her'cules. The son of Jupiter and Alcmena; the 
 i most famous hero of antiquity, remarkable for his great 
 | strength and numerous exploits. 
 
 Her'meB. A name of Mercury. 
 
 Hermi'one. The daughter of Mars and Venus, and 
 wife of Cadmus; was changed into a serpent. Also, a 
 daughter of Menelaus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus. 
 
 He'ro. A beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, and 
 priestess of Venus, whom Leander of Abydos loved so 
 tenderly that he swam over the Hellespont every night 
 to see her; but he, at length, being unfortunately 
 drowned, she threw herself in despair, into the sea. 
 
 Hesper'ides. Three nymphs, JEgle, Arethusa, and 
 Hesperethusa, daughters of Hesperus. They had a gar- 
 den bearing golden applet, watched by a dragon, which 
 Hercules slew, and bore awav the fruit. 
 
 Hes'perus. The son of Jnpettis, and brother to At- 
 las; changed into the evening star. 
 
 Hippol'ytus. The son of Theseus and Antiope, or 
 ! Hippolyte, who was restored to life by .Esculapius, at 
 the request of Diana. 
 
 Hippom'enes^ A Grecian prince, who, beating Ata- 
 lanta in the race by throwing golden apples before her, 
 married her. They were changed by Cybele into lions. 
 
 Hvacin'thus. A beautiful boy, beloved by Apollo 
 i and'Zephyrus. The latter killed him : but Apollochanged 
 1 the blood' that was spilled into a (lower called hyacinth. 
 
 Hy'ades. Seven daughters of Atlas aud ^-Ethra, 
 i changed by Jupiter into seven stars.
 
 204 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Hy'dra. A celebrated monster, or serpent, with 
 seven, or, according to some, fifty heads, which infested 
 the Lake Lerna. It was killed by Hercules. 
 
 Hy'rnen. Son of Bacchus and Venus, and god of 
 marriage. 
 
 Hyperi'on. Son of Coelus and Terra. 
 
 Jra'rius. Son of CEbalus ; haying received from Bac- 
 chus a bottle of wine, he went into Attica to show men 
 the use of it, but was thrown into a well by some shep- 
 herds whom he had made drunk, and who thought he 
 had given them poison. 
 
 Ic'arus. The son of Daedalus, who, flying with his 
 father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring too high, 
 melted the wax of his wings, and fell into the sea, thence 
 called the Icarian sea. 
 
 I'o. The daughter of Inachus, turned by Jupiter into 
 a white heifer, but afterward resumed her former shape ; 
 was worshiped after her death by the Egyptians, under 
 the name of Isis. 
 
 Iplilgeni'a. The daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
 temnestra, who, standing ready as a victim to be sac- 
 rificed to appease the ire of Diana, was by that goddess 
 transformed into a white hart and made a priestess. 
 
 I'ris. The daughter of Thaumas and Electra ; one of 
 the Oceanides, and messenger and companion of Juno, 
 who turned her into a rainbow. 
 
 Ixi'on. A king of Thessaly, and father of the Cen- 
 taurs. He killed his own sister, and was punished by 
 being fastened in hell to a wheel perpetually turning. 
 
 Ja'nus. The son of Apollo and Creusa, and first king 
 of Italy, who, receiving the banished Saturn, was re- 
 warded by him with the knowledge of husbandry, and 
 of things past and future. 
 
 Ja'son. The leader of the Argonauts, who, with 
 Medea's help, obtained the golden fleece from Colchis. 
 
 Jocas'ta. The daughter of Creon. She unwittingly 
 married her own son, CEdipus. 
 
 Ju'no. The daughter of Saturn and Ops ; sister and 
 wife of Jupiter, the great queen of heaven, and of all 
 the gods, and goddess of marriages and births. 
 
 Ju'piter. The son of Saturn and Ops ; the supreme 
 deity of the heathen world, the most powerful of the 
 gods, and governor of all things. 
 
 I.ach'esis. One of the three Fates. 
 
 ILaoc'oon. A son of Priam and Hecuba, and high 
 priest of Apollo, who opposed the reception of the 
 wooden horse into Troy, for which he and his two sons 
 were killed by serpents. 
 
 I .aoin fdoii. A king of Troy, killed by Hercules for 
 denying him his daughter Hesione after he had delivered 
 her from the sea-monster. 
 
 l.a'ros. Inferior gods at Rome, who presided over 
 houses and families ; sons of Mercury and Lara. 
 
 I.aver'na. A goddess of thieves. 
 
 I ,ra n'dr r. See Hero. 
 
 ILe'the. A river of hell, whose waters caused a total 
 forgetfulness of things past. 
 
 1 .11 ix- n t ia. Goddess of pleasure. 
 
 Liu'cifer. The name of the planet Venus, or morning 
 star ; said to be the son of Jupiter and Aurora. 
 
 i.nci'na. A daughter of Jupiter and Juno, and a 
 goddess who presided over childbirth. 
 
 i.u'iiii. The moon; the daughter of Hyperion and 
 Terra. 
 
 L,uper'calia. Feasts in honor of Pan. 
 
 Mars. The god of war. 
 
 Mede'a. The daughter of JEtes, and a wonderful 
 sorceress or magician ; she assisted Jason to obtain the 
 golden fleece. 
 
 Medu'sa. The chief of the three Gorgons ; killed by 
 Perseus. 
 
 Megse'ra. One of the Furies. 
 
 Meg'ara. Wife of Hercules. 
 
 Melpom'ene. One of the Muses, presiding over 
 tragedy. 
 
 Mem'non. The son of Tithonus and Aurora, and 
 king of Abydon ; killed by Achilles for assisting Priam, 
 and" changed into a bird at the request of his mother. 
 
 Menela'us. The son of Atreus, king of Sparta; 
 brother of Agamemnon, and husband of Helen. 
 
 Men'tor. The faithful friend of TTlysses, the gov- 
 ernor of Telemachus, and the wisest man of his time. 
 
 Mer'cury. The son of Jupiter and Maia: messenger 
 of the gods, inventor of letters, and god of eloquence, 
 commerce, and robbers. 
 
 Mi'das. A king of Phrygia, who had the power given 
 him of turning whatever he touched into gold. 
 
 Miner'va. The goddess of wisdom, the arts, and war ; 
 produced from Jupiter's brain. 
 
 Min'otaur. A celebrated monster, half man and half 
 bull. 
 
 Mnemos'yne. The goddess of memory, and mother 
 of the nine Muses. 
 
 Mo'inus. The son of Nox, and god.of folly and pleas- 
 antry. 
 
 Mor'pheus. The minister of Nox and Somnus, and 
 god of sleep and dreams. 
 
 Mors. Goddess of death. 
 
 Mu'ses. Nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, 
 named Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Melpomene, Poly- 
 hymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, and Urania. They were 
 mistresses of all the sciences, and governesses of the 
 feasts of the gods. 
 
 Mu'ta. Goddess of silence. 
 
 Na'iades. Nymphs of streams and fountains. 
 
 Narcis'sus. A beautiful youth, who, falling in love 
 with his own reflection in the water, pined awav into a 
 daffodil. 
 
 Nem'esis. One of the infernal deities, and goddess 
 of revenge. 
 
 Nep'tune. The son of Saturn and Ops; god of the 
 sea, and, next to Jupiter, the most powerful deity. 
 
 Ne'reids. Sea nymphs. 
 
 Nes'tor. The son of Neleus and Chloris, and king of 
 Pylos and Messenia. He fought against the Centaurs, 
 was distinguished in the Trojan war, and lived to a 
 great age. 
 
 Ni'obe. Daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Amphion, 
 who, preferring herself to Latona, had her fourteen 
 children killed oy Diana and Apollo, and wept herself 
 into a stone. 
 
 Nox. The most ancient of all the deities, and goddess 
 of night. 
 
 Ocean'ides. Sea nymphs, daughters of Oceanus; 
 three thousand in number. 
 
 Oce'anus. An ancient sea god. 
 
 CEd'ipus. King of Thebes, who solved the riddle of 
 the Sphinx, unwittingly killed his father, married his 
 mother, and at last ran mad and tore out his eyes. 
 
 Om'phale. A queen of Lydia, with whom Hercules 
 was so enamored that he submitted to spinning and 
 other unbecoming offices. 
 
 Ops. A name of Cybele. 
 
 Ores'tes. The son of Agamemnon. 
 
 Or'plieus. A celebrated Argonaut, whose skill in 
 music is said to have been so great that he could make 
 rocks, trees, etc., follow him. He was the son of Jupiter 
 and Calliope. 
 
 Osi'ris. See Apis. 
 
 Palla'diuin. A statue of Minerva, which the Trojans 
 imagined fell from heaven, and with which their city 
 was deemed unconquerable. 
 
 Pal'las and Py'lotis. Names of Minerva. 
 
 Pan. The son of Mercury, and the god of shepherds, 
 huntsmen, and the inhabitants of the country. 
 
 Paiido'ra. The first woman, made by Vulcan, and 
 endowed with gifts by all the deities. Jupiter gave her 
 a box which contained all the evils and miseries of life, 
 but with hope at the bottom. 
 
 Par'is, or Alexander. Son of Priam and Hecuba : 
 a most beautiful youth, who ran away with Helen, and 
 thus occasioned the Trojan war. 
 
 Parnas'aus. A mountain of Phocis, famous for a 
 temple of Apollo ; the favorite residence of the Muses. 
 
 Peg'asus. A winged horse belonging to Apollo and 
 the Muses, which sprung from the blood of Medusa 
 when Perseus cut off her head. 
 
 Pena'tes. Small statues or household gods. 
 
 Penel'ope. A celebrated princess of Greece, daugh- 
 ter of Icarus, and wife of TTlysses; celebrated for her 
 chastity and constancy in the' long absence of her hus- 
 band. 
 
 Per'seus. Son of Jupiter and Danae; performed 
 many extraordinary exploits by means of Medusa's 
 head. 
 
 Pha'eton. Son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene. He 
 asked the guidance of his father's chariot for one day 
 as a proof of his divine descent ; but, unable to manage 
 the horses, set the world on fire, and was therefore 
 struck by Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river Po.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 205 
 
 Philomela. The daughter of Pandion, king of 
 Athens ; changed into a nightingale. 
 
 Phin'eas. King of Papnlagonia; had his eyes torn 
 out by Boreas, but was recompensed with the knowl- 
 edge of futurity. Also a king of Thrace turned into a 
 stone by Perseus. 
 
 Phoe'bus. A title of Apollo. 
 
 Ple'iades. Seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione, 
 changed into stars. 
 
 Plu'to. The son of Saturn and Ops, brother of Jupi- 
 ter and Neptune, and the god of the infernal regions. 
 
 Plu'tus. The god of riches. 
 
 Pomo'na. The goddess of fruits and autumn. 
 
 Polyhym'nia. The Muse of rhetoric. 
 
 Pri'aiii. The last king of Troy, the son of Laomedon, 
 under whose reign Troy was taken by the Greeks. 
 
 Proine'theus. The son of Japetus; said to have 
 stolen fire from heaven to animate two bodies which he 
 had formed of clay, and was therefore chained by Jupi- 
 ter to Mount Ca'ucasus, with a vulture perpetually 
 gnawing his liver. 
 
 Pros'erpine. Wife of Pluto. 
 
 Pro'teus. The son of Oceanus and Tethys ; a sea god 
 and prophet, who possessed the power of changing him- 
 self into any shape. 
 
 Psy'che. A nymph beloved by Cupid and made im- 
 mortal by Jupiter. 
 
 Pyg'mies. A nation of dwarfs only a span long, car- 
 rieclaway by Hercules. 
 
 Pyl'ades. The constant friend of Orestes. 
 
 Pyr'amus and Thisbe. Two lovers o.f Babylon, who 
 killed themselves with the same sword, and th'us caused 
 the berries of the mulberry tree, under which they died, 
 to change from white to red. 
 
 Py'thon. A huge serpent, produced from the mud of 
 the deluge ; killed by Apollo, who, in memory thereof, 
 instituted the Pythian games. 
 
 Re'nms. The elder brother of Romulus, killed by 
 him for ridiculing the city walls. 
 
 Rhadaruan'thus. One of the three infernal judges. 
 
 Rom'ulus. The son of Mars and Ilia ; thrown into the 
 Tiber by his uncle, but saved, with his twin brother, 
 Remus, by a shepherd; became the founder and first 
 king of Rome. 
 
 Sa'lii. The twelve frantic priests of Mars. 
 
 Sa'lus. Goddess of health. 
 
 Sat urna'lia. Feasts of Saturn. 
 
 Sat'urn. A son of Ccelus and Terra : god of time. 
 
 Sat'yrs. Attendants of Bacchus ; horned monsters, 
 half goats, half men. 
 
 Sem'ele. The daughter of Cadmus and Thebe, and 
 mother of Bacchus. 
 
 Semir'aniis, A celebrated queen of Assyria, who 
 built the walls of Babylon ; was slain by her own son, 
 Nimyas, and turned in'to a pigeon. 
 
 Sera'pis. See Apis. 
 
 Sile'nus. The foster-father, master, and companion 
 of Bacchus. He lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, and 
 was drunk every day. 
 
 Si'rens. Sea 'nymphs, or sea monsters, the daughters 
 of Oceanus and Amphitrite. 
 
 Sis'yphus. The son of JEolus ; a most crafty prince, 
 killed" by Theseus, and condemned by Pluto to roll up 
 hill a large stone, which constantly fell back again. 
 
 Sol. A name of Apollo. 
 
 Som'nus. The son of Erebus and Nox, and the god 
 of sleep. 
 
 Sphinx. A monster, who destroyed herself because 
 CEdipus solved the enigma she proposed. 
 
 Sten'tor. A Grecian, whose voice is reported to have 
 been as strong and as loud as the voices of fifty men 
 together. 
 
 Sthe'no. One of the three Gorgons. 
 
 Styx. A river of hell. 
 
 Sylvanus. A god of woods and forests. 
 
 Ta'cita. A goddess of silence. 
 
 Tan'talus. The son of Jupiter, and king of Lydia, 
 who served up the limbs of his son, Pelops, to try the 
 divinity of the gods, for which he was plunged to the 
 chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to everlasting thirst 
 and hunger. 
 
 Tar' tarns. The part of the infernal regions in which 
 the wicked were punished. 
 
 Tau'roo. The bull under whose form Jupiter carried 
 away Europa. 
 
 Telem'achus. The only son of Ulysses. 
 
 Terpsich'ore. The Muse presiding over dancing. J 
 
 The'mls. The daughter of Coelus and Terra, and 
 goddess of justice. 
 
 Ti'phys. Pilot of the ship Argo. 
 
 Tisiph'one. One of the three Furies. 
 
 Ti'tan. The son of Ccelus and Terra, elder brother 
 of Saturn, and one of the giants who warred against 
 heaven. 
 
 Titho'nus. The son of Laomedon, loved by Aurora, 
 and turned by her, in his old age. into a grasshopper. 
 
 Tri'ton. The son of Neptune and Amphitrite, a 
 powerful sea god, and Neptune's trumpeter. 
 
 Tro'ilus. A son of Priam and Hecuba. 
 
 Troy. A city of 'Phrygia, famous for holding out a 
 siege of ten years against the Greeks, but finally cap- 
 tured and destroyed. 
 
 Ulys'ses. King of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and 
 eloquence, was eminently serviceable to the Greeks in 
 the Trojan War. 
 
 Ura'nia. The Muse of astronomy. 
 
 Venus. One of the most celebrated deities of the 
 ancients, the wife of Vulcan, the goddess of beauty, the 
 mother of love, and the mistress of the graces and of 
 pleasures. 
 
 Vertum'nns. A deity of the Romans, who presided 
 over spring and orchards, and who was the lover of 
 Pomona. 
 
 Ves'ta. The sister of Ceres and Juno, the goddess of 
 fire, and patroness of vestal virgins. 
 
 Viri'placa. An inferior nuptial goddess, who recon- 
 ciled husbands and wives. A temple at Rome was dedi- 
 cated to her, whither the married couple repaired after 
 a quarrel. 
 
 Vulcan. The god who presided over subterraneous 
 fire, patron of workers in metal. 
 
 Zeph'yrus. The west wind, son of .SJolus and Aurora, 
 and love'r of the goddess Flora. 
 Zeus. A title of Jupiter. 
 
 LEGEND AND FOLKLORE. 
 
 The eccentricities of traditional story and tradition- 
 ary practice have always been found a more or less in- 
 teresting and amusing study by the contemplative 
 observer of human nature ; and almost all travelers and 
 historians, from Herodotus downward, have occasion- 
 ally condescended to add something to the general col- 
 lection of curiosities in that department. But to make 
 a thorough investigation of the " vulgar antiquities" 
 of any country, and especially of one's own, was, until 
 very recently, regarded as childish and useless. An ex- 
 ception, indeed, has been made in favor of the folklores 
 of ancient Greece and Rome, as being intrinsically 
 beautiful and exceptionally instructive. But the very 
 fact that these had been beautified by artistic treat- 
 ment impaired their usefulness from the purely anti- 
 quarian point of view; and in any case the floating 
 traditions of Attica and Latium were too few, too frag- 
 mentary, and gathered from too narrow an area to fur- 
 nish adequate data for the anthropologist and the so- 
 ciologist. 
 
 It was in Germany that the study of folklore entered 
 upon its scientific stage, and indeed that country has 
 been most prolific in curious oral traditions and unwrit- 
 ten customs. Every custom has an instructive history 
 if we can but succeed in interpreting its lore. 
 
 Orion was a giant hunter, noted for his beauty. 
 
 Puck and Robin Goodfellpw are identical myths. 
 
 Ogri, The, were giants said to feed on human flesh. 
 
 Toadstool, The, is called in Ireland the fairy's mush- 
 room. 
 
 L.oki was the god of strife and evil in Scandinavian 
 mythology. 
 
 Jupiter chose the eagle as the best preservative 
 against lightning. 
 
 Apotheosis was the deification or raising of a mortal 
 to the rank of a god. 
 
 Oak, The, is sacred to Jupiter because he first taught 
 mankind to live upon acorns. 
 
 Goat, The, was the animal usually sacrificed to Bac- 
 chus, on account of its propensity to destroy the vine. 
 
 Gypsies, The, are said to be wanderers because they 
 refused shelter to the Virgin and Christ-child on the 
 flight into Egypt. 
 
 Valkyri, in" the northern mythology, are either nine 
 or three times three divine maidens, who cleave their 
 way through air and water to lead to Odin those who 
 have fallen in battle and who are worthy of Valhalla.
 
 206 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 i, tl>e national god of the Philistines, half man 
 and hall' tish, is mentioned in the Old Testament as 
 having temples at Gaza and Ashdod. Several names of 
 places prove that the worship of Dagon existed also in 
 other parts of Palestine. 
 
 Astral Spirits are the supposed spirits which per- 
 vade the stars, each star having its own spirit or soul. 
 Paracelsus thought that every human being had an 
 astral spirit ; hence the influence of one's particular 
 star on his life. 
 
 Wehr-wolf. According to the ancient German 
 superstition, the Wehr-wolf was a- man-wolf, who had 
 the form of a man by day and a wolf by iiiglit. Lyean- 
 thropv, or wolf-madness, was prevalent in Europe, and 
 especially in Germany, in the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries. 
 
 Cornucopia .thchorn or symbol of plenty, is placed in 
 the hands of emblematical figures of Plenty, Liberality, 
 and the like, who are represented as pouring from it an 
 abundance of fruits or corn. It is frequently used in 
 architecture, sciilpture, and heraldry. 
 
 Idris, a mythical figure in Welsh tradition, supposed 
 to have been at once a giant, a prince, and an astrono- 
 mer. On the summit of Cader Idris in Merionethshire, 
 may be seen his rock-hewn chair, and an ancient tradi- 
 tion told that any Welsh bard who could pass the night 
 upon it would be found the next morning, either dead, 
 mad, or endowed with supernatural poetic inspiration. 
 This tradition forms the subject of a fine poem by Mrs. 
 Hemans ; the gigantic size of the chair is alluded to in 
 Tennyson's " Geraint and Enid." 
 
 Griffin, The, is a chimerical creature, and first men- 
 tioned by Aristeas about 500 B. C. The griffin is vari- 
 ously described and represented, but the shape in which 
 it most frequently appears is that of a cross between a 
 lion and an eagle, having the body and legs of the for- 
 mer, with the beak and wings of the latter, and the. 
 addition of pointed ears. Sometimes the four legs.are 
 all like those of an eagle, and the head is that of a cock. 
 The figure seems to have originated in the East, as it is 
 found in ancient Persian sculptures. Among the Greeks 
 it appears on antique coins, and as an ornament in clas- 
 sical architecture. 
 
 Nectar is the name given by Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, 
 and the Greek poets generally, and by the Romans, to 
 the beverage of the gods, their food being called am- 
 brosia. But Sappho and Alcman make nectar the food 
 of the gods, and ambrosia their drink. Homer describes 
 nectar as resembling red wine, and represents its con- 
 tinued use as causing immortality. By the later poets, 
 nectar and ambrosia are represented as of most deli- 
 cious odor; and sprinkling with nectar, or anointing 
 with ambrosia, is spoken of as conferring; perpetual 
 youth, and they are assumed as the symbols of every- 
 thing most delicious to the taste. 
 
 Vishnu is the second god of the Hindu triad, now the 
 most worshiped of all Hindu gods. Originallv, in the 
 oldest Vedas, a sun-god, he gradually increased'in influ- 
 ence at the expense of other gods, and in the later 
 Purana, is the supreme god. Always a friendly god, he 
 became specially the friend and benefactor of man in 
 his avatars or incarnations. The Vishnuite doctrines 
 were gathered into one body in the eleventh century, as 
 the Vishnu-Purana. Of twenty principal sects, votaries 
 of Vishnu, and one hundred minor brotherhoods, some 
 are merely local, others are wealthy bodies and wide- 
 spread. 
 
 Damon and Pythias, two noble Pythagoreans of 
 Syracuse, are remembered as the models of faithful 
 friendship. Pythias, having been condemned to death 
 by the elder D'ionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, begged 
 to be allowed to go home for" the purpose of arranging 
 his domestic affairs, Damon pledging his own life for 
 the reappearance of his friend at the time appointed 
 for his doom. Dionysius consented, and Pythias re- 
 turned just in time to save Damon from death. Struck 
 by so noble an example of mutual affection, the tyrant 
 pardoned Pythias, and desired to be admitted into' their 
 sacred fellowship. 
 
 Brownie, a very engaging though mythical creature 
 of the Scottish rural districts, is believed to assist in 
 housework at night. The brownie is good tempered 
 and industrious, but has a great objection to slovenli- 
 ness, and marks his sense of neglect by pinching slat- 
 ternly maids. Good housewives leave" out a bowl of 
 milk for him. If the farm changed hands the brownie 
 usually left, which may explain why there are none 
 now. The resemblance of the Scotch brownie to the 
 Robin Goodfellow of the English and the Kobold of the 
 German folklore is obvious, but perhaps they may be 
 
 traced farther to the hires or hearth spirits of the an- 
 cients. The Russian Doinorni/ lives behind the stove, 
 and in some families n portion of the supper is always 
 set aside for him ; for if he is neglected he waxes wroth 
 and knocks the tallies and benches about at night. 
 Spirits with similar functions elsewhere, are the Lithu- 
 anian kunka, the Finnish jmnrfi . and the French lulin. 
 
 Star Leprends. In Galicia, the province northeast of 
 Hungary, the peasants believe that when a star falls to 
 earth, it is at once transformed into a rarely beautiful 
 woman with long hair, blonde and glittering. This 
 splendid creature, miraculously engendered, exercises 
 on all who come in contact with"her a magical influence. 
 Every handsome youth unfortunate enough to attract 
 her attention becomes her victim. Thus having allured 
 them to her, she encircles them with her arm in an em- 
 brace that becomes gradually tighter and tighter, until 
 the poor dupes are strangled" to death. If certain words 
 are murmured the moment the star starts to fall, they 
 cause her allurements to lose their power. From this 
 superstition springs the custom of wishing while a star is 
 seen hurrying through the air, a wish said surely to 
 come true if completely formulated before the light is 
 extinguished. The Spaniards saw in the falling stars 
 the souls of their dead friends, the thread of whose ex- 
 istence was cut short by destiny. The Arabs thought 
 these stars to be burning'stones thrown by angels at the 
 heads of devils who attempted to enter Paradise. 
 
 Valhalla is the place of residence for the fallen in 
 battle, in Scandinavian mythology. The name Valhalla 
 was given to a magnificent marble structure of nearly 
 the same proportions as the Parthenon, erected by Lud- 
 wig I., of Bavaria (1830-41), as a Temple of Fame for all 
 Germany, on an eminence two hundred and fifty feet 
 above the Danube, near Ratisbon. By means of statues, 
 busts, reliefs, and tablets, the mythology and history of 
 Germany are illustrated and her great names commemo- 
 rated. 
 
 Thule was the name given by ancient Greeks and 
 Romans to the most remote northern portion of the 
 world then known. Whether an island or part of a 
 continent, is not known. It is mentioned by Pytheas, 
 the Greek navigator, who says it is six days'" sail from 
 Britain, and that its climate is a mixture of earth, air, 
 and sea. Ptolemy, with more exactitude, tells us that 
 the sixty-three degrees of north latitude runs through 
 the middle of Thule, and adds that the days there are, at 
 the equinoctials, twenty-four hours long. 
 
 Amulet is any object worn as a charm. It is often a 
 stone or a piece of metal, with an inscription or some 
 figures engraved on it, and is generally suspended from 
 the neck, and worn as a preservative against sickness or 
 witchcraft. Its origin, like its name, seems to be ori- 
 ental. 
 
 Cockatrice, The, is a fabulous monster, often con- 
 founded with the basilisk, and regarded as possessing 
 similar deadly powers. To the charms of the basilisk is 
 added a dragon's tail armed with a sting; and it shared 
 also the power of destroying, by a glance, so often re- 
 ferred to in Shakespeare, and other early writers. 
 
 Cuneiform is a term descriptive of "a form of writ- 
 ingof which thecomponent parts resemble a wedge. It 
 was used by the peoples of Babylonia, Assyria, and other 
 ancient nations, and was inscribed upon "stone, bronze, 
 iron, glass, and clay. It was not until the seventeenth 
 century that the wedge-shaped characters were sus- 
 pected to be other than idle fancies of the architects. 
 
 Arthur's Round Table contained seats for one hun- 
 dred and fifty knights. Three were reserved ; two for 
 honor, and one (called the siege perilous) for Sir Gala- 
 had, destined to achieve the quest of the Sangreal. If 
 anyone else attempted to sit in it, his death was the cer- 
 tain penalty. 
 
 Undines, The, according to the fanciful system of 
 Paracelsis, were female water sprites. They intermarry 
 readily with human beings, and the Undine who gives 
 birth 'to a child under such a union receives, with her 
 babe, a human soul. But the man who takes an Undine 
 to wife must be careful not to go on the water with her, 
 or at least must not vex her while there, or she returns 
 to her native element. 
 
 Isis was an Egyptian goddess. The deities of ancient 
 Egypt might be male or female, but in neither case 
 could the Egyptian worshiper conceive a deity as ex- 
 isting in isolation; to every deity of either sex there 
 must be a counterpart of the othe'r sex. It was to this 
 notion that the goddess Isis owed her origin ; she was 
 the counterpart of Osiris, and this fact is expressed In 
 the statement that she was at once wife and sister of 
 Osiris.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 207 
 
 OUTLINES OF HISTORY. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL TABULATIONS DESIGNED FOR READY REFERENCE. 
 
 Prehistoric Ages. Sir J. Lubbock distinguishes four prehistoric ages, as follows : 
 1. The Paleolithic or Early Stone Age. 2. The Neolithic or Polished Stone Age. 3. The 
 Bronze Age. 4. The Iron Age. In the Stone Age man knew nothing of pottery or agri- 
 culture and had no domestic animals except the dog. In the Bronze Age arras and cutting 
 instruments were made of bronze. In the Iron Age bronze was superseded by iron. 
 
 2350 
 
 13OO 
 
 12OO 
 
 11OO 
 
 The Deluge. 2200 (circa). Hia dynasty founded in China. 
 
 1096. Birth of Abraham. 1921. Call of Abraham. 1896. Isaac born. 1837. Jacob and Esau born. 
 
 1822. Egyptian alphabet invented. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1706. Jacob removes into Egypt. 
 
 1700. Rameses, King of Egypt. 1618. Sesostris, King of Egypt. 
 1582. Beginning of the chronology of the Arundelian marbles, brought to England A.D. 1627. 
 
 1574. Moses born. 1571. Aaron born. 
 
 1491. The Exodus. The L.aw given from Sinai. 1451. Moses and Aaron die. 
 1451. Joshua leads the Israelites into Canaan. 
 
 The Hebrews 
 
 Egypt 
 
 900 
 
 45. Gideon conquers the Midian- 
 ites. 
 
 88. Jephthah. 
 
 56. Eli. 
 
 36. Samson slays the Philistines. 
 
 20. Samuel. 
 
 95. Saul, King. 
 
 55. David, King. 
 
 42. The Ark removed to Jerusalem, 
 
 23. Revolt of Absalom. 
 i 15. Solomon, King. 
 I 12. The Temple begun. 
 
 90. Queen of Sheba visits Solomon. 78 - Shishak. 
 75. Solomon dies. i 71 - Invades Judea 
 
 Revolt of the ten tribes two * nd plunders the 
 Kingdoms formed : emple. 
 
 Judah 
 
 Rehoboam, 
 
 King. 
 58. Abijah. 
 55. Asa. 
 
 4. Jehosha- 
 phat. 
 
 The Pharaohs. 
 
 8OO 
 
 89. Jehoram. 
 
 88. The Philis- 
 tines plunder 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 78. Joash. 
 
 Israel 
 
 Jeroboam, 
 
 King. 
 ."4. Nadab. 
 26. Samaria 
 
 built. 
 18. Ahab and 
 
 Jezebel. 
 
 97. Elijah trans- 
 lated. 
 
 02. Syrians be- 
 siege Samaria. 
 
 84. Jehu. 
 
 40. Jehoash de- 
 feats King: 
 Henhadad of 
 Svria. 
 
 Assyria Greece, etc. 
 
 
 
 73. Rise of the 
 
 Assyrian Empire. 63. Jason and the 
 Semiramis. Argonauts. 
 
 50. Nebuchad- 
 nezzar I. 
 
 94. The Trojan 
 War. 
 
 30. Tiglath Pileser. 84. Capture of 
 Troy. 
 
 Chow dynasty 
 founded in 
 China. 
 
 69. Codrus dies 
 for his people. 
 68. Archons chosen. 
 
 900. Erection of the 
 Northwest Palace 
 of Nimroud. 
 
 75. Sardanapalus. 
 70. The Assyrians 
 
 conquer 
 
 Phoenicia. 
 
 Homer. 
 
 84. Legislation ot 
 
 Lycurgus at 
 
 Sparta. 
 78. Carthage 
 
 founded by 
 
 Dido.
 
 208 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Judah 
 
 Israel Assyria 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Greece, Rome 
 
 
 Joel, prophet. 
 
 Jonah. 
 
 
 76. Commence- 
 
 
 59. Jotham. 
 42. Ahaz pavs trib- 
 ute to Tiglath 
 Piteser. 
 41. Pekah, King of 
 Israel, besieges 
 Jerusalem: 
 120,000 of his men 
 are slain in one 
 day. 
 
 47. Assyrians in- 47. Nabonassar. 
 vade Israel. 
 41. Tiglath Pileser. 
 
 30. Hosea pays 
 28. Shalmaneser. 
 21. The ten tribes 23. i nva( ies 
 carried into cap- Phoenicia, 
 tivity. 
 
 
 ment of Olym- 
 piadsfirst 
 authentic date 
 in Greek history 
 
 53. Rome founded 
 by Romulus. 
 
 50. Sabine war in 
 Rome. 
 
 
 26. Hezekiah. 
 
 17. Sennacherib. 
 
 
 
 
 Isaiah. 
 
 
 11. Sennacherib's 
 
 
 700 
 
 Nahum. 
 10 Sennacherib's 
 army destroyed. 
 
 9. Esarhadon, King of 
 
 Babylonia 
 
 invasion. 
 
 
 
 97. Manasseh. 
 
 
 
 
 
 42. Amon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. Josiah. 
 
 
 11. Necho 11. loses 
 
 24. Code of Draco, 
 
 
 Jeremiah. 
 Habakkuk. 
 
 
 200,000 men try- 
 ing to cut canal 
 to Red Sea. 
 
 Athens. 
 16. Tarquin the 
 Elder, King of 
 
 
 6. Jerusalem 
 
 6. Nebuchadnezzar the Great defeats 6. Nebuchadnez- 
 
 Rome. 
 
 GOO 
 
 taken by 
 Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 Necho of Egypt, invades Judea and 
 takes Jerusalem. 
 
 zar defeats 
 Necho. 
 
 
 
 98. Jehoiachin. 
 96. Zedekiah. 
 88. Jerusalem de- 
 
 89. Nebuchadnezzar invades Pho3nicia. 
 
 94. Apries, King. 
 
 94. S.olon gives 
 laws at Athens. 
 
 
 stroyed. 
 
 
 79-72. Conquered 
 
 
 
 
 79. Takes Tyre. 
 
 and devasted by 78. Servius Tul- 
 
 
 Ezekiel. Destroys Nineveh. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzaf. lius, Rome. 
 
 
 Jews carried captive to Babylon. 
 
 
 
 65. Belshazzar. 
 
 Amasis. 
 
 34. Tarquin the 
 
 
 38. Cyrus, the Mede, captures Babylon and establishes the 
 
 Psammenit. 
 
 Proud. 
 
 
 Persian Empire. 
 
 25. Conquest by 
 
 
 
 36. Cyrus ends captivity of the Jews. 
 
 Cambyses, son of 
 
 
 
 29. Death of Cyrus. 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 
 
 FROM CYRUS TO ALEXANDER 
 
 
 Persia 
 
 Greece 
 
 Macedonia 
 
 Rome 
 
 
 21. Darius I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zechariah, prophet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haggai. 
 
 
 
 
 
 15. Dedication of sec- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ond temple at Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 10. The Pisistratidae 
 
 
 10. The Tarquins van- 
 
 
 
 expelled from Athens. 
 
 8. Subdued bv Darius ! quished. 
 
 
 8-6. Conquest of 
 
 Republic. 
 
 of Persia. 
 
 Republic. 
 
 
 Thrace, Paeonia, and 
 
 4. Sardis burned by 
 
 
 Consuls. 
 
 50O 
 
 Macedonia. 
 
 the Greeks. 
 
 
 1. Dictators. 
 
 
 94. Darius invades 
 
 90. Miltiades defeats 
 
 
 93. Tribunes chosen. 
 
 
 Greece. 
 
 the Persians at 
 
 
 91. Coriolanus con- 
 
 
 90. Defeated at 
 
 Marathon. 
 
 
 quered. 
 
 
 Marathon. 
 
 81. Xerxes invades 
 Greece. 
 
 80. Leonidas at Ther- 
 mopylae. Themisto- 
 cles at Salamis. 
 Xerxes destroys Athens. 
 
 
 89. Besieges Rome. 
 88. Retires at his 
 mother's suit. 
 
 
 79. Returns defeated. 
 
 80-50. Anaxagoras 
 
 
 
 
 67. Ezra returns to 
 
 teaches philosophy. 
 
 
 
 
 Jerusalem. 
 65. Artaxerxes I. 
 
 79. Battles of Mycale 
 and Plataea ; Persians 
 
 
 58. Cincinnatus Dic- 
 tator. 
 
 
 60. Egypt revolts. 
 
 retreat. 
 
 
 51. First decemvirate. 
 
 
 56. Esther. 
 
 44. Pericles supreme. 
 
 
 49. Virginius kills his 
 
 
 55. Jerusalem rebuilt 
 by Nehemiah. 
 
 43. The Parthenon built 
 by Phidias. 
 
 
 (laughter to save her 
 honor. 
 
 
 
 31. Peloponnesian war. 
 
 
 40. Famine in Rome. 
 
 
 
 29. Death of Pericles. 
 
 
 
 
 Socrates. 
 
 
 
 
 1. Battle of Cunaxa ; 
 
 14. Battle of Syracuse. 
 
 
 
 4OO 
 
 Cyrus the Younger 
 
 13. Athenians invade 
 
 
 
 
 slain. 
 
 Sicily. 
 

 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 209 
 
 Persia 
 
 Greece 
 
 Macedonia 
 
 Artaxerxes Mnemon. 95. Corinthian war. 
 
 94. Persians and Athe- 
 nians in battle of 
 Cnidus. 
 
 36. Darius III. (Codo- 
 manus). 
 
 34. Persia invaded and 
 conquered by Alex- 
 ander the Great of 
 Macedon. 
 
 80. Olinthian war. 
 
 78. Theban war 
 Epaminondas,Theban 
 general. 
 
 39. War with Macedon. 
 
 35. Greeks conquered 
 by Alexander the 
 Great. 
 Thebes destroyed. 
 
 3. Amyntas. 
 
 58. Philip II. 
 
 38. Athenians and 
 Thebans defeated 
 at Chseronea. 
 
 36. Murder of Philip. 
 Accession of Alex- 
 ander the Great. 
 
 34. Battle of the 
 Granicus. 
 
 Rome 
 
 90. Rome burnt by the 
 Gauls. 
 
 76. Civil war between 
 patricians and ple- 
 beians. 
 
 69. Tribunes abolished. 
 
 40. Samnian war begins, 
 37. War with Latins. 
 
 35. Surrender of 
 Latium. 
 
 33. Battle of Issus. 
 33. Capture of Damascus. Siege of Tyre. 
 
 32. Alexander captures Tyre and conquers Egypt. Alexandria founded, 
 31. Battle of Arbela sub j ugation of Persia. 
 30. Darius assassinated. 
 
 28. Alexander invades India. 
 
 24. Alexander dies at Babylon. 
 
 32. Treaty with Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 FROM ALEXANDER TO AUGUSTUS 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Syria 
 
 Greece 
 
 Macedonia 
 
 22. Ptolemy I. 23. Seleucus I. 
 
 1. Battle o'f Issus. 
 Final division of 
 Alexander's do- 
 3OO minions. 
 
 Ptolemy Lagus. 
 84. Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus. 83. Antiochus I. 
 
 46. Ptolemy Ever- 46. Seleucus I. 
 getes. 
 
 99. Athens taken 
 by Demetrius. 
 
 97. Republic re- 
 established. 
 
 87. Birth of Ar- 
 chimedes (d. 212). 
 91. Achaean league. 
 
 79. Irruption of 
 the Gauls. 
 
 51. Achaean league 
 renewed. 
 
 98. Philip IV. 
 
 88. Lysimachus, 
 King of Thrace, 
 subjects Mace- 
 donia. 
 
 
 Egyptians conquer 
 
 
 
 
 41. 'Catullus 
 defeats 
 
 
 Syria. 
 
 
 
 
 Carthaginians. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18. Second Punic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 war. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hannibal 
 
 
 
 
 26. Reforms of 
 
 
 defeats Romans 
 
 
 
 
 Cleomenes. 
 
 
 at Ticinus. 
 
 
 _'l. Ptolemy Philo- 
 pater. 
 
 23. Antiochus 
 the Great. 
 
 
 
 17. Hannibal 
 passes the 
 
 
 
 
 
 20. Philip V. 
 
 Apennines. 
 16. Battle of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cannae. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11-5. First Mace- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 donian war. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7. Carthaginians 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. War with Rome 
 
 defeated at 
 Metaurus. 
 
 2OO 
 
 4. Ptolemy 
 Epiphane. 
 
 
 
 
 3. Scipio carries 
 war into Africa. 
 2. Hannibal 
 
 
 
 
 defeated. 
 
 Home 
 
 21. Romans de- 
 feated by Pon- 
 tius. 
 
 81. War with 
 Pyrrhus, King 
 of Epirus. 
 
 80. Pyrrhus 
 invades Italy. 
 
 74. Pyrrhus 
 defeated at Ben- 
 even turn. 
 
 f5. Rome supreme 
 over all Italy. 
 
 64. First Punic 
 war. 
 
 56. Defeat of 
 Carthaginians. 
 
 55. Regulus capt'd 
 by Carthaginians
 
 210 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Judea 
 
 Syria Greece Macedonia 
 
 Rome 
 
 100 
 
 80. Ptolemy 
 Philometer. 
 
 45. Ptolemy 
 Physcon. 
 
 17. Ptolemy 
 Lathyrus. 
 
 Egyptians 
 driven out 
 by Antiochus. 
 
 65. Antiochus 
 defeated by 
 Judas. 
 
 35. John Hyr- 
 canus. 
 
 6. Aristobulus. 
 5. Alexander 
 Jannaeus. 
 
 98. Independ- 91. Sparta joins 99. Second war 
 ent. the league. with Rome. 
 88. Laws of 78. Perseus. 
 
 75. Antiochus i abol'lshed bv ; 72 ' Thirtl war 
 IV. Philo, mmp with Rome - 
 70. Plunders Philopcemen. 6g Battle of 
 
 Jerusalem. Pydna. 
 Macedonia 
 made a Roman 
 province. 
 
 99. Second 
 war with 
 Mace- 
 donia. 
 
 72. Third 
 war with 
 Mace- 
 donia. 
 
 . 46. Corinth 
 taken bv 49- Third Punic war. 
 Mummius. 4G - Carthage destroyed. 
 34. First Servile war. 
 
 33. Conquest of Spain. 
 
 30. Antiochus 
 VII. 
 23. Antiochus 
 VIII. 
 12. Antiochus 
 IX. 2. Second Servile War. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Ptolemy 
 Alexander. 
 
 65. Berenice. 
 
 43. Murder of 
 Pompey. 
 45. Cleopatra. 
 
 30 Death of 
 Antony and 
 Cleopatra. 
 Egypt subdued 
 by Rome. 
 
 78. Alexandra, 
 Queen. 
 
 70. HyrcanusII. 
 
 C7. Aristobulus 
 II. 
 63. Jerusalem 
 taken by the 
 Romans. 
 
 90-88. The Social war in Italy. 
 
 88. War with Pontus. 
 C9. Antiochus Civil war Marius and Sulla. 
 
 64 X pampey 73 ~ 72 victories of Lucullus. 
 makes Syria 63. Second conspiracy of Catiline Cicero's 
 a Roman orations, 
 province. 60. First triumvirate : 
 Pompey, Julius Caesar, Crassus. 
 
 55. Caesar invades Britain. Crassus killed by the Parthians. 
 
 51. Gaul subjugated. 
 49. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Caesar dictator. 
 48. Battle of Pharsalia. 
 45. War in Spain. Pompeians defeated at Munda. Caesar dictator for life. 
 41. Caesar assassinated. Antony master of Rome. Corinth and Carthage rebuilt. 
 43. Second triumvirate Octavius, Antony, Lepidus. Cicero put to death. Ovid 
 born. 
 42. Battle of Philippi. Death of Brutus and Cassias. Triumvirs masters of 
 the Roman world. 
 40. Herod made King of the Jews. 32. War between Octavius and Antony. 
 31. Battle of Actium. 
 Establishment of the Roman Empire. 
 27. Caesar Octavius, Emperor, imder the title of Augustus. 
 17-7. Temple of Jerusalem rebuilt by Herod. 
 12. Drusus invades Germany. 
 4. The Advent of Christ (according to Usher). 
 
 
 
 FROM AUGUSTUS TO CHARLEMAGNE 
 
 A.D. 
 
 4-0. Tiberius in Germany. 9. Varus and his legions destroyed by the Germans under Hermann. 
 29. The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ. (Some authorities give A.D. 33 as the date.) 
 37. Caligula. 41. Claudius. 54. Nero. 61. Insurrection oi: the Britons under Boadicea. 
 64. Rome burned. Christians persecuted. 70. Jerusalem destroyed by Titus. 
 79. Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by eruption of Vesuvius. 
 
 100 
 
 17. Hadrian. 30. Birth of Galen. 63. Persecution of Christians. 
 96. Severus captures Byzantium. 
 
 200 
 30O~ 
 
 2. Persecution of Christians. 9. Severus invades Caledonia. 31. Persian war. 
 36. Persecution of Christians renewed. 52-G7. Dreadful pestilence. 
 C3. The Franks invade Gaul. 
 
 3. Diocletian persecutes Christians. 6. Constantino the Great. 11. Edict to stop persecutions. 
 23. Constantine sole emperor. '25. Council of Nice. 26. Arian controversy. 
 64. Valentinian and Valens joint emperors. Final division of the i-mpire.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 211 
 
 The Western Empire 
 
 300 
 
 40O 
 
 500 
 
 00 
 
 TOO 
 
 03. Honorius, Emperor. 
 
 94. Theodosms master of the whole Roman 
 
 world. 
 
 95. Death of Theodosius. 
 
 400. The Goths, under Alaric, overrun Italy. 
 9. Romans driven from Spain. 
 
 10. Alaric sacks Rome. 
 
 11. Roman legions recalled from Britain. 
 40. Leo I. (the Great) Bishop of Rome. 
 40. Landing of Anglo-Saxons in Britain. 
 
 52. Attila invades Italy. 
 
 53. Death of Attila. 
 
 55. Genseric sacks Rome. 
 57. Hengist founds the kingdom of Kent. 
 72. The Visigoths conquer Spain. 
 76. Odoacer, King of Italy. 
 End of Western Empire. 
 
 86. The Franks in Gaul. 
 
 89. The Ostrogoths in Italy. 
 
 7. Kingdom of the Franks founded by Clovis. 
 39. Belisarius in Italy. 
 52. Ostrogoths expelled from Italy. 
 
 96. The Lombards overrun Italy. 
 
 28. Dagobert, King of France. 
 
 56. Clovis II., King of France. 
 
 62. Lombards defeat Constans II. in Italy. 
 
 78. Cadwallader, last King of the Britons. 
 
 97. Anefesto, Doge of Venice. 
 
 11. Saracens invade Spain. 
 
 14. Charles Martel, Duke of France. 
 
 32. Itattle of Tours. Saracens defeated by 
 
 the Franks under Charles Martel. 
 52. Tepin the Short, King of France. 
 
 68. Succeeded by his sons, Charlemagne and 
 Carloman. 
 
 72-85. Charlemagne conquers the Saxons. 
 74. Charlemagne conquers the Lombards. 
 
 87. The Danes in England. 
 
 91-96. Charlemagne establishes the margravate 
 of Austria. 
 
 800 
 
 800. Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the 
 West by Pope Leo III. 
 
 The Eastern Empire 
 
 7C. Valens allows the Huns to settle in Thrace. 
 78. Constantinople threatened by the Goths. 
 95. Arcadius, Emperor of the East. 
 
 The Huns invade the Eastern provinces. 
 
 8. Theodosius II. 
 
 28. Nestor, Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 
 29. Vandals, under Genseric, invade Africa. 
 33. Attila, King of the Huns. 
 
 C9. The Vandals surprise Carthage. 
 
 47. Attila ravages the empire and exacts tribute 
 
 50. Marcian. 
 
 65. Great fire at Constantinople. 
 
 2. The empire ravaged by the Persians. 
 29. The Justinian code published. 
 
 81. The Slavonians in Thrace. 
 
 12. Mahomet spreads his doctrines. 
 
 14. Persians ravage Syria and Palestine. 
 
 22. The Hegira. 
 
 40. The Saracens invade Egypt. 
 
 73. Siege of Constantinople. 
 
 97. Saracens conquer Northern Africa. 
 
 20. The Saracens defeated at Constantinople. 
 30. Iconoclasts burn and destroy works of art. 
 
 Haroun al Raschid, Caliph of Arabia.
 
 212 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 
 FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO NAPOLEON 
 
 A.D. 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Eastern Empire 
 
 800 
 900 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons 
 
 28. Egbert, King. 
 71. Alfred the Great. 
 
 41. Charles the Bald. 
 
 61. Pillaged by North- 
 men. 
 
 House of France 
 
 14. Louis the Debon- 
 naire separates Ger- 
 many from France. 
 
 11. Bulgarians defeat 
 the Greek Emperor. 
 
 
 24. Athelstane. 
 37. Defeats Danes, 
 
 12. Robert, Duke of 
 Normandy. 
 
 House of Saxony 
 
 18. Henry I. (the 
 Fowler). 
 
 
 
 Scots, etc. 
 
 Capetian Dynasty 
 
 34. Conquers Huns, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Danes, VaHdals 
 
 
 100O 
 
 79. Edward the Martyr 
 assassinated. 
 
 88. Hugh Capet, King. 
 
 96. Robert II. 
 1'aris made capital. 
 
 Bohemians. 
 62. Otho I. crowned 
 Emperor by Pope. 
 83. Otho III. 
 
 69. John Zimisces. 
 
 
 Ethelred. 
 
 
 
 
 
 16. Edmund. 
 
 
 House of Bavaria 
 
 
 
 The Danes 
 
 
 2. Henry II. (Saint). 
 
 
 
 17. Canute sole ruler. 
 
 
 
 
 
 34. Canute II. 
 
 31. Henry I. 
 
 House of 1 'r:< ill-oil i:> 
 
 
 
 42. Saxons restored. 
 
 
 22. Conrad II. 
 
 54. Schism of Greek 
 
 
 Edward the Con- 
 fessor. 
 
 60. Philip I. 
 
 39. Henry III. 
 
 Church. 
 
 
 66. Battle of Hastings. 
 
 
 56. Henry IV. 
 
 81. Alexius Comnenus. 
 
 
 The Normans 
 
 
 73. War with Saracens. 
 
 
 11OO 
 
 William I. (the 
 Conqueror). 
 87. William II. 
 
 87. War with England. 
 
 77. Henry goes to 
 Canossa and submits 
 to Pope. 
 
 96. Suspicious recep- 
 tion of Crusaders. 
 
 
 Henry I. 
 
 8. Louis the Fat. 
 
 6. Henry V. 
 
 
 
 35. Stephen. 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Plantagenets 
 
 
 38. Conrad III. 
 
 
 
 54. Henry II. 
 
 37. Louis VII. 
 
 52. Frederick I. 
 
 43. Manuel Comnenus. 
 
 
 71. Invasion of Ireland. 
 89. Richard Coeur de 
 
 
 Barbarossa. 
 54. Invades Italy. 
 
 47. Treachery to Ger- 
 man Crusaders. 
 
 
 Lion. 
 
 80. Philip II. 
 
 62. Destroys Milan. 
 
 
 12OO 
 
 99. John Lackland. 
 
 
 67. Italian League. 
 
 
 
 
 
 9. Otto IV. 
 
 
 
 15. Magiia Charta 
 
 signeu. 
 
 14. Philip Augustus. 
 Battle of Bouvines. 
 
 18. Frederick II. 
 
 4. Baldwin I. 
 
 
 16. Henry III. 
 
 
 41. Hanseatic League 
 
 6. Peter de Courtenay. 
 
 
 62. War of the Barons. 
 
 26. Louis IX. 
 
 formed. 
 
 19. Robert de 
 
 
 65. Barons defeated. 
 
 48. Louis IX leads 
 
 House of Hapsfourg 
 
 Courtenay. 
 
 
 72 Edward I. 
 82. Conquest of Wales. 
 
 seventh crusade. 
 70. Dies before Tunis. 
 
 73. Rudolph I. 
 92. Adolph. 
 
 28. Baldwin II. 
 
 13OO 
 
 97. Sir William Wallace 
 in Scotland. 
 
 Philip III. 
 
 98. Albert I. 
 
 61. Michael Paleologtis. 
 
 
 7. Edward II. 
 
 1. Philip IV. quarrels 
 
 7. Swiss revolt. 
 
 
 
 14. Battle of Bannock- 
 
 with the Pope. 
 
 William Tell. 
 
 28. Andronic III. 
 
 
 burn. 
 27. Edward III. 
 46. Battle of Cressy. 
 
 14. Louis X. 
 House of Valois 
 
 15. Battle of Morgarten. 
 Swiss independence. 
 
 41. John Paleologus. 
 
 
 56. Battle of Poictiers. 
 
 28. Philip VI. 
 
 House of Luxemburg 
 
 60. The Turks in 
 
 
 77. Richard III. 
 
 50. John II. 
 
 49. Charles IV. 
 
 Adrianople. 
 
 14OO 
 
 House of Lancaster 
 
 99. Henry IV. 
 
 04. Charles V. 
 80. Charles VI. 
 
 78. Wenceslaus. 
 
 91. Manuel Paleologus. 
 
 
 13. Henry V. 
 War with France. 
 15. Battle of Agincourt. 
 22. Henry VI. 
 
 22. Charles VII. 
 
 29. Joan of Arc raises 
 siege of Orleans. 
 
 10. Sigismund. 
 15. John Huss burned. 
 
 25. John Paleologus II. 
 
 48. Constantine Pale- 
 ologus. 
 
 
 53. War of the Roses. 
 
 51. English expelled. 
 
 House of Austria 
 
 
 
 House of York 
 
 Gl. Louis XI. 
 
 38. Albert II. 
 
 53. Amurath captures 
 
 
 61. Edward IV. 
 
 
 40. Frederick III. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 
 83. Edward V. 
 House of Tudor 
 
 83. Charles VIII. 
 Valois-Orleans 
 
 
 Turkey 
 
 56. Turks defeated at 
 
 
 85. Henry VII. 
 
 98. Louis XII. 
 
 93. Maximilian I. 
 
 Belgrade.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 2l:J 
 
 
 FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO NAPOLEON 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia 
 
 Scandinavia Contemporary 
 
 800 
 
 73. Kingdom of 
 Navarre founded 
 by Sancho Inigo. 
 
 42. Invasion by the 
 Saracens. 
 
 2. Ruric, the Nor- 
 man, establishes 
 first regular 
 government at 
 
 800-1000. Viking 
 Period. 
 Norwegians 
 colonize Iceland. 
 
 9. Haroun al 
 Raschid, Caliph 
 of Arabia, dies. 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 Novgorod. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. Oleg invades 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Greek empire. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 88. Vladimir the 
 
 Eric. 
 
 
 
 
 90. Genoa becomes 
 
 Great embraces 
 
 93. Olaf, first 
 
 
 
 
 rich and power- 
 
 Christianity. 
 
 Christian King 
 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 ful. 
 
 
 of Sweden. 
 
 
 
 26. Sancho II. 
 King of Castile. 
 31. Ramirez I. 
 King of Aragon. 
 
 16-17. Saracens 
 expelled by the 
 Normans. 
 
 
 2. Massacre of 
 Danes by 
 Ethelred of Eng. 
 3. Avenged by 
 Svenn, King of 
 
 1. The Northmen 
 discover 
 America. 
 
 65. Turks take 
 
 
 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Jerusalem . 
 
 
 91. Moors seize 
 Saracen 
 possessions. 
 95. Henrv of 
 
 73-85. Gregory VI I. 
 establishes 
 universal sover- 
 eigntyof Papacy. 
 
 
 13. Svenn conquers 
 England. 
 
 96. First Crusade. 
 98. Crusaders take 
 
 Besanfon takes 
 Portugal from 
 UO0 Saracens. 
 
 
 
 80. Inge the Elder 
 King of Sweden. 
 
 Antioch. 
 99. Crusaders take 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 
 Exploits of the 
 Cid Ruy Diaz. 
 
 20. Rise of Lonv 
 bard cities. 
 25. The glory of 
 
 
 
 4. Crusaders take 
 Acre. 
 46. Second 
 
 
 Venice. 
 
 
 
 Crusade. 
 
 
 54. Barbarossa. 
 
 
 
 72. Saladin's con- 
 
 
 1094-1144. Dvnastv 61 x' V Y?. r J? f 5 h , e 
 
 
 
 quest in Asia. 
 
 of the Almora-" ''^l 1 "? 5 " 1 " 
 vi<ip nt rnr.invn Ghibellmes. 
 Cordo ' a 76. Barbarossa 
 
 
 55. Eric 
 Edwardson. 
 
 87. Third Crusade. 
 94. Fourth 
 (Tru Settle 
 
 44. Alphonso of defeated at 
 
 
 
 
 Leon defeats Lee-nano. 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Moors in 83. Peace of 
 
 
 
 
 12OO 
 
 several battles. Constance. 
 
 
 
 
 
 33-48. Ferdinand 
 III. takes Cordo- 
 
 
 23 Irruption of 4t Danes invade 
 lartars. i >,,..;.. . 
 
 1200. Fifth 
 
 
 va, Toledo, etc., 
 
 ""*""'* ' . , 
 
 Crusade. 
 
 
 from the Moors. t? r_ 5 o. Wars of 42. Tartars 'ilexamier^ 
 
 17. Sixth Crusade. 
 
 
 38. Moors found Frederick II. establish empire Xewski 
 Granada. IT. The Visconti of Kaptschak. 
 
 18. Genghis Khan, 
 the Mogul, 
 
 I at Milan. | 
 
 conquers Asia. 
 
 74. Crown of 
 Navarre passes 
 13OO ! to France. 
 
 82. The Sicilian 
 Vespers. 
 French expelled 
 from Sicily. 
 
 
 79. Magnus. 
 90. Birger. 
 
 68. Eighth and 
 last Crusade. 
 99. Osman I., 
 Turkish empire. 
 
 
 ^ Jnl n u^ f Gra " 8 - p P e Clement 
 nada brings v r i mo , to 
 200,000 MoSrs lv[|non 
 from Africa. 39 Fi | gt D ' OKe of 
 
 80. War with 
 
 89. Margaret 
 offered the 
 Swedish Crown. 
 
 11. Knights 
 Templars 
 suppressed. 
 
 
 40. Alphonso XI. 
 of Castile defeats 
 Moors at Tarifa. 
 
 Genoa appointed Tartars. 
 47. Rienzi frees : *? Moscow burned 
 R 0lne I 95. Invasion by 
 51. Death of Rienzi Tamerlane. 
 
 97. Union of 
 Calmar: Sweden, 
 Norway and 
 Denmark. 
 
 96. Battle of Nico- 
 polis. Christians 
 
 14OO 
 
 
 
 
 Eric King. 
 
 defeated. 
 
 
 74. Ferdinand II. 
 
 
 
 
 7. Battle of Angora 
 
 
 of Aragon 
 marries Isabella 
 of Leon and 
 
 
 
 Tamerlane 
 o Y, ar w - captures Baiazet 
 Schleswig. 22. Amurath 11. 
 
 
 Castile. 
 
 95. Charles VII. 62. Ivan the Great ! consolidates 
 
 
 80-84. Inquisition 
 established. 
 
 conquers Naples founds present 34. Revolt of 
 96. Charles loses monarchy. peasantry. 
 Naples. 
 
 Ottoman Empire 
 42. Hungarians 
 defeat Turks at 
 
 
 92-98. Jews perse- 
 cuted. 
 
 99. Louis XII., 79. Great Tartar 
 aided by Venice. invasion, 
 conquers Milan, 
 
 39. trie dethroned 
 70. Sten Sture. 
 
 Vasag. 
 92. Columbus dis- 
 
 
 92. Ferdinand 
 takes Granada. 
 
 but does not hold 01. Tartars 
 it long. defeated. 
 
 
 covers America. 
 97. Cabot discovers 
 Newfoundland.
 
 214 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 America 
 
 150O 
 
 9. Henry VIII. 
 
 
 
 12. Florida discovered 
 
 
 13. Battle of Flodden. 
 
 13. English Invasion. 
 
 17. Protestant Refor- 
 
 by Ponce De Leon. 
 
 
 15. Wolsey. 
 
 15. Francis I. 
 
 mation Luther. 13. Balboa discovers 
 
 
 20. Field of the Cloth of 
 Gold. 
 
 25. Battle of Pavia. 
 
 19. Charles V. the Pacific Ocean. 
 21. Diet of Worms. 
 
 
 36. Anne Boleyn 
 beheaded. 
 
 47. Henry II. 
 
 30. Augsburg Con- 
 fession. 
 
 21. Cortez conquers 
 Mexico. 
 
 
 47. Edward VI. 
 53. Mary. 
 54. Marries Philip of 
 Spain. 
 58. Elizabeth. 
 
 59. Francis II. 
 60. Huguenot War. 
 
 72. Massacre of 
 St. Bartholomew. 
 74. Henry III. 
 
 36. Death of John of 
 Ley den. 
 
 56. CharlesV. abdicates. 
 Ferdinand I. 
 
 44. De Soto discovers 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 
 87. Mary of Scots 
 
 House of Bourbon 
 
 64. Maximilian II. 
 
 85. First American 
 
 
 beheaded. 
 8S. Spanish Armada. 
 
 89 Henry IV. of 
 Navarre. 
 
 76. Rudolph II. 
 
 settlement founded 
 by Walter Raleigh. 
 
 16OO 
 
 House of Stuart 
 
 
 12. Mathias. 
 
 
 
 3. James I. 
 
 10. Louis XIII. 
 
 18. Thirty Years' War. 
 19. Ferdinand II. 
 
 7. Jamestown settle- 
 ment. 
 
 
 25. Charles I. 
 
 2i. Richelieu. 
 
 20. Bat tie of Prague. 
 
 
 
 49. Commonwealth 
 
 27. Siege of Rochelle. 
 
 30. Gustavus Adolphus 
 of Sweden invades 
 Germany. 
 
 14. New Amsterdam 
 settled. 
 
 
 Oliver Cromwell. 43 - lMuis XIV - 
 
 32. Battle of Lutzen. 
 
 20. Puritans land at 
 
 
 60. Stuarts restored. & Wars of the Fronde. 
 
 Death of Gustavus 
 Adolphus. 
 
 Plymouth Rock. 
 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 31. Death of Wallen- 
 
 
 
 66. Great London fire. 72 . Holland invaded. 
 
 stein. 
 
 
 
 79. Habeas Corpus Act. ^ Edict of Nantes 
 
 37. Ferdinand III. 
 48. Treaty of Westpha- 
 
 80. William Penn. 
 
 
 85. James II. revoked. lia closes war and 
 
 
 'William and Marv establishes religious 
 Mary - 89. War with England. toleration. 
 
 
 
 90. Battle of the Boyne. . 59. Leopold I. 
 7 - p eace of Ryswick. 99. Pea e of carlowitz. 
 
 
 t ~ j i j h 
 
 4. Defeated bv Marl- 
 
 
 17OO 
 
 2. Anne. 
 House of Hanover 
 
 borough at Blenheim. * T<vsir>h T 
 13. Peace of Utrecht. * * 
 15. Louis XV. 11- Charles VI. 
 
 33. Oglethorpe founds 
 Savannah . 
 
 
 14. George I. 
 
 16. Speculation era. 
 
 
 
 27. George II. 45^!^ Fontenov. & Carles VII, 59 Quebg ^ptaied 
 39. War with Spain. 46 Victories of Marshal War of Austrian sue- 
 63 Peace of Paris 
 
 
 46. Stuart troubles in 48. Peace of Aix-la- House of Lorraine France cedes Canada 
 
 
 Scotland. Chapelle. to Ene-land 
 Battle of Culloden. 74. Louis XVI. 45. Francis I. (husband 
 
 
 ! 78. Aids America. 
 56. War with France. g7. Assembly of 
 
 of Maria Theresa). 75 . Battle o f Lexington. 
 
 
 BO r>oro-p TTT Notables. 
 
 5663. Seven Years' War. 76 . Declaration of Inde- 
 
 
 88. States General. (;[ = To< , pnh TT pendence. 
 75. War with American 83. Revolution. 
 
 
 Colonies. 93. Reign of Terror. 
 Louis beheaded. 90. Leopold II. 
 
 89. George Washing- 
 ton, President. 
 
 
 97. Nelson destroys 
 French fleet near 
 Alexandria. 
 
 Republic 
 
 99. Napoleon, First 
 Consul. 
 
 92. Francis I. 
 Battle of Valrny. 
 
 97. John Adams, Presi- 
 dent. 
 
 isooT 
 
 1. Union with Irela id. 
 3. War with Fran.^i . 
 5. Napoleon defeatt d 
 
 4. Napoleon, Emperor. 
 5. Battle of Austerlitz. 
 
 4. Francis renounces 
 title Emperor of the 
 Romans and assumes 
 that of Emperor of 
 
 1. Thomas Jefferson, 
 President. 
 
 
 at Trafalgar. 
 
 6. Jena. 
 
 Austria 
 
 4-6. Lewis and Clarke 
 
 
 
 
 5. Napoleon estab- 
 lishes Kingdoms of 
 
 explore the Upper 
 Missouri. 
 
 
 8. Peninsular War. 
 
 Wurtemberg and 
 
 
 
 
 9. Wagram. 
 
 Bavaria. 
 6. Dissolution of Ger- 9 James Madison, 
 
 
 12. War with U. S. 
 
 12. Russian campaign. 
 
 manEmpire. President. 
 Confederation of the 
 
 
 
 13. AVar with all 
 
 Rhine formed. 
 
 
 
 Europe. 
 
 7. Kingdom of West- 
 
 
 
 14 Peace with U S u - Allles enter France. 
 Napoleon sent to Elba. 
 
 phalia. 
 8. Serfdom abolished 
 
 
 
 
 in Prussia. 
 
 
 
 Restoration 
 
 13. War of Liberation 
 
 
 
 Louis XVIII., King. 
 
 (against Najxileon). 
 IM. Battle of Leipzig. 
 
 
 
 15. Battle of Waterloo. 15 - N aP ol en returns. 
 Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 14. Prussians occupy 
 Paris. 
 
 15. Battle of New 
 
 
 Napoleon sent to 
 
 14-15. Congress of 
 
 
 St. Helena. 
 
 Vienna. German Con 
 
 
 federation formed. 

 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 215 
 
 A.I). Spain Italy 
 
 Russia Scandinavia 
 
 Contemporary 
 
 -, ~ fift 1530-22. Mohamme- 
 dans expelled. '.). Venice stripped 
 
 
 20. Christian II. 
 
 
 1-J. Ferdinand con- of Italian posses- 
 
 
 21. Sweden breaks 
 
 
 quers Navarre. sions. 
 
 
 loose from Union 
 
 
 1C. Accession 
 
 
 of Calmar. 
 
 
 House of Austria 13-22. Pope Leo X. 
 
 
 Gustavus Vasa. 
 
 35. Order of Jesu- 
 
 Charles J., 
 
 33. Ivan IV. 
 
 
 its founded. 
 
 King of Spain. 
 13. Charles be- 
 comes Emperor 
 of Germanv a-^ 
 Charles V. ' 
 
 
 53. Trade with 
 England begun. 
 54. Siberia discov- 
 ered. 
 
 59. Frederick II. 
 of Denmark. 
 60. Eric XIA'.King 
 of Sweden. 
 
 72. Holland, undei 
 William of 
 Orange, rebels 
 against Philip's 
 
 .")7. War with 
 
 
 
 War between tvrannv. 
 
 France. 
 
 
 Denmark and 1 . 
 
 01. Turks defeated 
 
 
 98. The race of Sweden. 
 
 81. Holland a re- 
 
 at Lepanto. 
 
 
 Ruric, which "O.Peaceof Stettin. 
 
 public. 
 
 80. Portugal con- 
 quered. 
 88. Armada de- 
 feated. 
 
 
 governed Russia 
 for 700 years, 
 becomes extinct. 
 
 93. Augsburg Con- 
 fession accepted 
 at Upsala. 
 
 82. Reformation 
 of calendar. 
 
 16OO 
 
 1600-10. 300,000 
 Moors banished. 
 
 
 6. Demetrius the 
 impostor. 
 
 10. Interregnum. 
 13. Michael 
 Fedorovitz,Czar. 
 
 1600. Charles IX. 
 11. Gustavus 
 Adolphus. 
 Axel Oxenstjerna. 
 17. Russia cedes 
 
 Finland to 
 
 35. Tulip mania. 
 
 52. Van Tromp 
 sweeps the 
 Channel. 
 
 
 
 27-31. War of establishes the ' gwedi 
 
 
 
 Mantuan succes- ' house of 69. Turks take 
 
 
 40. Portugal inde- 
 
 sion. 
 
 Romanoff. 30 Gustavus Candia. 
 
 
 pendent. 
 
 
 45. Alexis. defeats Tillv. 
 
 
 
 54. Victories in 32. Gustavus Adol- 83 - _ s ?.'?! e8J5 ?' *- ln 
 
 
 
 93. Battle of 
 Marsaglia. 
 
 Poland. 
 81. The Cossacks 
 subdued. 
 
 phus killed at 
 battle of Lutzen. 
 Christina. 
 
 01 foiand, de- 
 feats the Turks 
 at Vienna. 
 
 
 
 French defeat 
 
 82. Ivan and Peter 
 
 54. Charles X. 
 
 99. Peace of Car- 
 
 
 
 Duke of Savoy. 
 
 the Great OT Charles XII. 
 89. Peter sole ruler. 
 
 lowitz. 
 
 17OO 
 
 PhilipV. (Bour- 
 
 
 1700. War with 
 Sweden 170 - Swedes defeat 
 
 
 
 bon). 
 2. War of Su< <<>- 
 
 3. St. Petersburg Russians at 
 fnnnriorf Narva. 
 
 
 
 sion. <;. Battle of Turin. g^PeteTdefeats 
 
 
 
 4. English cap- t jj p g we( i es a t 9. Pultowa. 
 ture Gibraltar. pnK/nm Peter sends 14,000 
 
 
 
 13. Siege of Barce- 13. Peace of 
 lona. Utrecht. 
 
 11. AVarwith 
 Turkey. 
 
 Swedish prison- 
 ers to colonize 
 Siberia. 
 
 40. Maria Theresa, 
 Queen of Hun- 
 
 
 Italy divided 
 
 25. Catharine I. 
 
 
 gary. 
 
 
 35. Charles con- 
 
 30. Peter II. 
 
 
 
 
 quers Naples. 
 
 
 deposed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. Elizabeth. 
 
 
 
 
 59. Charles III. 
 
 
 62. Catharine the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great. 
 
 
 
 
 
 96-97. Bonaparte's 
 
 63-84. Conquest of 
 
 
 
 
 9T.. War with 
 
 first victories in tne Crimea. 
 
 
 
 
 England. Italv. 
 98. Pius VI. depos- ^ Partition of Po- 
 97. Battle of Cape ed by Bonaparte. ,,,, la d _ c . om P lete(l - 
 
 
 
 
 St. Vincent. 
 
 so. vv ar wiiu 
 Persia. 
 
 
 
 18OO 2. Italian Repub- 
 
 1. Alexander I. 
 
 
 3. Humboldt 
 
 lic, Bonaparte 
 
 
 traverses 
 
 
 5. Battle of president. 5. Russia joins 
 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 
 Trafalgar. .". Napoleon 
 crowneil King of 
 
 coalition against 
 France. 
 
 9. Finland ceded 
 to Russia. 
 
 5. Mungo Park 
 
 
 8. French take 
 
 Italy. 
 
 
 murdered in 
 
 
 Madrid. 
 
 
 7. Treaty of Tilsit. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 
 Charles IV. abdi- 
 
 
 Peace with 
 
 
 
 
 cates. Joseph 
 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 Bonaparte,King. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12. Napoleon 
 
 
 
 
 
 invades Russia. 14. Union of 
 
 
 * 
 
 12. Battle of Sala- 
 
 
 Burning of Sweden and 
 
 
 
 manca. 
 
 
 Moscow. Norway. 
 
 15. Treaty of 
 
 
 
 14. Fall of Napo- 
 
 
 
 Vienna. 
 
 
 13. Wellington oc- leon. Kingdom 
 
 
 
 
 
 cupies Madrid. overthrown. 15. Alexander 
 
 
 
 
 organizes the 
 
 
 
 
 14. Ferdinand VII. 15. Lombardo- "Holy Alliance." 
 
 
 
 
 restored. Venetian King- 
 
 
 
 
 dom established 
 
 
 
 by Austria. 
 

 
 216 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 
 FROM NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 A.D. 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Austria 
 
 America 
 
 18OO 
 
 
 
 18. Zollverein 
 
 
 17. James Monroe, 
 President. 
 
 
 20. George IV. 
 
 
 formed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19. Death of Mar- 
 
 
 
 
 24. Death of Lord 
 
 
 shal Blucher. 
 
 
 
 
 Byron. 
 
 24. Charles X. 
 
 
 
 
 1825~ 
 
 26. Great commer- 
 cial crisis. 
 
 27. War with 
 
 
 25. Hungarian 
 Diet meets. 
 
 25. John Quincy 
 Adams, Presi- 
 
 
 
 Algiers. 
 
 
 
 dent. 
 
 
 29. Catholic relief 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bill. 
 
 
 
 
 29. Andrew Jack- 
 
 
 30. William IV. 
 
 30. Louis Philippe. 
 
 
 
 son, President. 
 
 
 
 Conquest of 
 
 
 
 
 
 37. Victoria. 
 
 Algiers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hanover 
 separated from 
 
 31. Hereditary 
 peerage 
 
 34. Zollverein 
 
 
 3.3. Martin Van 
 Buren, President. 
 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 abolished. 
 
 includes most of 
 
 
 
 
 39. War with 
 
 
 the German 
 
 36. Ferdinand I. 
 
 41. Wm. H. Harri- 
 
 
 China. 
 
 
 States. 
 
 
 son, President. 
 
 
 40. Penny postage. 
 
 46. Repeal of the 
 Corn Laws. 
 
 48. Revolution. 
 Republic pro- 
 claimed. 
 Outbreak of 
 
 40. Frederick 
 William IV. 
 48. Revolution. 
 
 48. Insurrection at 
 Vienna. 
 Hungarian war. 
 Francis Joseph. 
 
 John Tyler, 
 President. 
 45. James K. Polk, 
 President. 
 
 
 48. Chartist riots. 
 49. Cholera. 
 
 Red Republicans 
 Louis Napoleon 
 President. 
 
 50. New Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 49. Hungarian 
 revolution put 
 down. 
 
 49. ZacharyTaylor, 
 President. 
 
 1850~ 
 
 51. First " Great 
 Exhibition." 
 
 51. Coup d'etat. 
 
 Louis Napoleon 
 re-elected. 
 
 53. Plot to over- 
 throw govern- 
 ment at Berlin. 
 
 56. Amnesty to 
 Hungarians. 
 59. War w. France 
 
 53. Franklin 
 Pierce, Presi- 
 dent. 
 
 
 64. Crimean War. 
 
 52. Empire re- 
 established by 
 
 
 and Sardinia. 
 Solferino. 
 
 57. James Buchan- 
 an, President 
 
 
 56. War with 
 
 popular vote and 
 the President de- 
 
 
 Death of Prince 
 Metternich. 
 
 58. Atlantic cable. 
 
 
 China. 
 War with 
 Persia. 
 57. Indian mutiny. 
 Great com- 
 mercial crisis. 
 58. Jewish disabil- 
 ities removed. 
 67. War with 
 Abyssinia. 
 Fenian trouble 
 
 clared Emperor 
 as Napoleon III. 
 59. War with 
 Austria. 
 Magenta and 
 Solferino. 
 
 70. War with 
 Prussia. Battle 
 
 61. William I. 
 62. Bismarck 
 appointed 
 premier. 
 64. War with 
 Denmark. 
 66. War with 
 Austria. Battle 
 of Sadowa. Han- 
 over annexed. 
 
 61. Disaffection in 
 Hungary. 
 63. Insurrection in 
 Poland. 
 64. War with Den- 
 mark. 
 66. Defeat at 
 Sadowa. 
 
 61. Abraham Lin- 
 coln, President. 
 Civil war. 
 
 65. Andrew John- 
 son, President. 
 
 Austria with- 
 
 
 69. Disestablish- 
 ment of Irish 
 
 of Sedan. Napo- 
 leon surrenders. 
 
 
 draws from 
 German confed- 
 
 
 
 Church. 
 
 71. The Commune. 
 Republic. 
 
 70. War with 
 France. 
 
 eration. 
 67. New constitu- 
 
 
 
 73. Ashantee war. 
 
 Thiers, Presi- 
 dent. 
 73. MacMahon, 
 President. 
 
 William made 
 Emperor of 
 
 , Germany 
 
 tion. 
 7.3. International 
 Exhibition. 
 Vienna. 
 
 69. Ulysses S. 
 Grant, President. 
 
 1875 
 
 76. Queen pro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 claimed Empress 
 of India. 
 78. Great commer- 
 cial depression. 
 War in 
 Afghanistan. 
 79. Zulu war. 
 80. Famine in 
 Ireland. 
 Land League. 
 82. War in Egypt. 
 88. Irish Home 
 
 79. Jules Grevy, 
 President. 
 
 87. Sadi-Carnot, 
 President. 
 89. Boulanger ex- 
 citement. 
 
 78. Attempt to 
 assassinate the 
 Emperor. 
 80. Trouble with 
 Socialists. 
 82. Imperial 
 rescript. 
 88. Accession and 
 death of 
 Frederick III. 
 William II. 
 
 78. Occupation of 
 Herzegovina and 
 Bosnia. 
 79. Count An- 
 drassy resigns. 
 80. Agreement 
 with Germany 
 on Eastern 
 question. 
 
 77. R. B. Hayes, 
 President. 
 
 81. James A. Gar- 
 field, President. 
 81. Chester A. 
 Arthur, Presi- 
 dent. 
 85. G rover Cleve- 
 land, President. 
 
 
 Rule discussion 
 93. Gladstone's 
 Home Rule bill 
 passed by the 
 Commons, but 
 defeated by the 
 Peers. 
 96. War with Ger- 
 many imminent. 
 98. Kichener's 
 
 94. Sadi-Carnot 
 assassinated. 
 Casimir-Perier, 
 President. 
 95. Casimir-Perier, 
 resigns. Felix 
 Faure, President 
 99. President 
 Faure died. 
 M. Loubet 
 
 89. Mining strikes. 
 93. Enormous 
 increase in 
 Socialist vote. 
 Passage of 
 Emperor's army 
 bill. 
 96. Trouble with 
 England over 
 
 93. Attempt to 
 assassinate the 
 Emperor. 
 
 89. Benjamin W. 
 Harrison, Presi- 
 dent. 
 93. G rover Cleve- 
 land, President. 
 97. Wm.McKinley, 
 President. 
 98. War with 
 Spain. 
 
 
 victory at President. 
 
 Transvaal. 
 
 98. Empress 
 
 99. Acquisition of 
 
 19OO 
 
 Omdurman. 
 Gladstone died 
 
 Dreyfus case 
 re-opened. 
 
 98. Death of 
 PrinceBismarck. 
 
 assassinated at 
 Geneva. 
 
 Cuba, Porto Rico 
 and Philippines.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 217 
 
 
 FROM NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME 
 
 A.I). 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia 
 
 Scandinavia 
 
 Contemporary 
 
 18OO 
 
 17. Slave trade 
 abolished . 
 
 
 
 18. Charles XIV. 
 
 18. Sir John Ross 
 
 
 20. Revolution. 
 
 
 
 (Bernadotte). 
 
 explores Baffin's 
 
 
 23. French invest 
 
 
 
 
 Bay. 
 
 
 Cadiz. Revolu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion crushed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1825~ 
 
 28. French evacu- 
 
 
 25. Death of Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 
 
 
 ate Cadiz. 
 
 
 Nicholas, Czar. 
 
 
 27. Greece inde- 
 
 
 29. Cadiz made a 
 
 
 26. War with 
 
 
 pendent. 
 
 
 free port. 
 
 
 Persia. 
 
 
 29-32. James Ross 
 
 
 30. Saliquelaw 
 abolished. 
 
 
 28. War with 
 Turkey. 
 
 
 discovers mag- 
 netic pole. 
 
 
 33. Isabella II. 
 
 
 30. Polish War of 
 
 
 
 
 Christina, 
 Regent. 
 34. CarlistWar. 
 39. Don Carlos de- 
 
 37. Charles Albert 
 of Sardinia pro- 
 mulgates new 
 code. 
 
 Independence. 
 31. Russians take 
 AVarsaw. 
 32. Poland made 
 
 
 31. Belgium 
 independent. 
 
 
 feated. 
 
 
 integral part of 
 
 
 
 
 41. Espartero, 
 Regent. 
 43. Driven out. 
 
 48-49. Sardinia 
 defeated by 
 Austria. 
 
 Russian empire. 
 
 44. Oscar I., King 
 of Sweden. 
 
 45. Franklin's exp. 
 to North Pole. 
 
 
 Queen 13 years 
 
 49. Victor 
 
 
 48. War between 
 
 47. Liberia found- 
 /j 
 
 
 old declared of 
 
 Emanuel II. 
 
 
 Denmark and 
 
 eci. 
 
 
 age. 
 47. Espartero 
 
 Roman 
 Republic. 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 
 restored. 
 
 Overthrown. 
 
 
 
 
 185O~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54. War with 
 
 
 
 
 56. Insurrection. 
 
 55. Sardinia joins 
 
 Turkey, France, 
 
 
 
 
 O'Donnell, 
 
 alliance against 
 
 and England. 
 
 
 
 
 dictator. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Siege of Sebas- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 topol. 
 
 
 
 
 59. War with 
 
 59. War with 
 
 Balaklava. 
 
 
 
 
 Morocco. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Inkerman. 
 
 
 
 
 60. Moors defeated 
 
 60. Garibaldi 
 invades Naples. 
 Sardinian 
 
 55. Alexander II. 
 56. Amnesty. 
 Treaty of Paris 
 
 59. Charles XV. 
 
 58. Livingstone's 
 Zambezi expedi- 
 
 
 66. Prim insurrec- 
 tion. 
 
 army defeats 
 Papal troops. 
 Sicily and 
 Naples annexed 
 
 61. Polish insur- 
 rection. 
 63. Serfs freed. 
 
 64. Christian IX. 
 
 tion. (Africa.) 
 
 
 63. Successful rev- 
 olution led by 
 Prim and Serano 
 70. Crown accept- 
 ed by Amadeus. 
 
 to Sardinia. 
 01. Victor Eman- 
 uel, King of Italy 
 06. War with 
 Germany. 
 
 
 of Denmark re- 
 nounces claim to 
 Schleswig and 
 Holstein. 
 
 
 
 72-76. Carlist war. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 73. Abdicates. 
 Republic. 
 Alfonso XII. 
 
 70. Rome annexed. 
 
 
 72. Oscar II., King 
 of Sweden. 
 
 71-7. Stanley in 
 Africa. 
 
 1875^ 
 
 
 
 76. Conquest of 
 
 
 78. Montenegro in- 
 
 
 79. Death of 
 
 
 Khiva. 
 
 
 dependent. 
 
 
 Queen Mercedes. 
 
 78. Death of Vic- 
 
 77. War with 
 
 
 Servia free 
 
 
 80. Slavery abol- 
 ished in Cuba. 
 
 tor Emanuel. 
 Humbert, 
 
 Turkey. 
 Russians take 
 
 
 state. 
 Roumania ind. 
 
 
 86. Posthumous 
 son born to 
 
 King. 
 Death of Pius 
 
 Plevna and 
 Osman Pasha. 
 
 
 81. Thessaly ceded 
 to Greece. 
 
 
 Queen Christina. 
 
 90. Senor de Cas- 
 tillo, premier. 
 
 IX. 
 Leo XIII., 
 Pope. 
 
 80. Republican 
 
 78. Occupy 
 Adrianople. 
 Treaty of Ber- 
 lin. 
 81. Alexander II. 
 
 
 81-5. Greely's 
 North Pole exp. 
 85. Congo Free 
 State constituted 
 
 
 
 agitation. 
 
 assassinated. 
 
 
 87-9. Stanley pen- 
 
 
 93. War with 
 
 
 Alexander III. 
 
 
 etrates to Lake 
 
 
 Moors. 
 
 
 
 
 Albert Nyanza. 
 
 
 
 
 94. Nicholas III. 
 
 
 90. Heligoland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 transferred to 
 
 
 95. Republican 
 uprisings. 
 
 96. Defeated in 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 96. Coronation of 
 Nicholas III. 
 
 
 Germany. 
 94. War between 
 
 
 95-97. Cuban revolt 
 
 
 
 
 China and Japan 
 
 
 97. Revolt in the 
 Philippines. - 
 93. War with 
 United States. 
 
 97. Attempted 
 assassination of 
 King Humbert. 
 
 98. Lease of Port 
 Arthur from 
 China. 
 
 98. Norwegian 
 Arctic expedi- 
 tion on the 
 
 95. Armenian 
 massacres. 
 96. X ray 
 discovery. 
 
 19OO 
 
 99. Death of Senor 
 
 
 99. Czar's universal 
 
 "Fram." 
 
 97. Turko-Grecian 
 
 
 Canovas. 
 
 
 peace proposal . 
 
 
 War.
 
 218 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 HISTORY OF AMERICA 
 
 14OO 
 
 isocT 
 
 985. The Icelandic discovery. Leif Erikson and the Northmen. 
 
 92. Columbus discovers the island of Guanahani, of the Bahamas, which he names Ran Salvador, 
 
 Oct. 12. He discovers Cuba, Oct. 28 ; Hayti, Dec. 6. 
 97. Cabot discovers Labrador. 99. Amerigo Vespucci's voyage. 
 
 1. Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola. 6. Death of Columbus. 
 
 13. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 21. Cortez conquers Mexico. 28. Narvaez visits Florida. 
 34. Cartier explores the St. Lawrence. 41. De Soto conquers Louisiana. 
 
 44. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 64. The Huguenots in Florida. 
 
 65. St. Augustine, in Florida, founded by the Spaniards. 
 85. First settlement, at Roanoke Island, founded by Walter Raleigh, a failure. 
 
 The Colonies 
 
 1700 
 
 1607. Settlement at Jamestown. 
 
 9. Hendrik Hudson discovers the 
 Hudson River. 
 
 20. The Puritans land at Plymouth 
 Rock. 
 
 27. Settlement bv Swedes and 
 Finns at Cape Henlopen. 
 
 34. Maryland granted to Lord 
 Baltimore. 
 
 357Settlement by English at Win- 
 drow, Hartford, and Wethers- 
 lield. 
 
 56. Settlements by English, under 
 Roger Williams, at Providence. 
 
 64. Elizabethtown settled. 
 
 65. Clarendon Colony settlement. 
 
 70. First settlement, English, 
 Ashley River. 
 
 82. First settlement in Pennsyl- 
 vania by English under William 
 Penn. 
 
 33. English settlement, under 
 Oglethorpe, at Savannah. 
 
 41. New Hampshire separated 
 from Massachusetts. 
 
 Virginia 
 
 New York 
 
 Massjichusetts 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 14. New Amsterdam (now New 
 York City), settled by the Dutch 
 
 20. Dutch vessel, with first negro 
 
 slaves, enters James River. 
 30^ Boston founded. 
 
 38. Peter Minuit at Christina. 
 
 34. Settlement by English 
 Catholics at St. Mary's. 
 
 (First settlement by Dutch, 
 at Bergen, 1620.) 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 80 - Charleston founded. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Georgia 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 86. Odious administration of Sir 
 
 Edmond Andros. 
 89._King William's War. 
 
 2. Queen Anne's War. 
 
 (First settlement in New Hamp- 
 shire, Eng., Little Harbor, 1623.) 
 44. King George's War. 
 
 51. French and Indian War. 
 55. Braddock's defeat. 
 
 Kentucky settled by Daniel Boone. 
 
 58. Fort Du Quesne taken by Washington. 
 63. France cedes Canada to England. 
 65. Colonial Congress at New York resists the stamp act. 66. Stamp act repealed. 
 
 67. Tax on tea. 63. General Gage sent to Boston. 
 
 70. Boston Massacre. Repeal of the duties on tea. 73. Destruction of tea in Boston harbor. 
 
 74. First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia, Sept. 5. Issues declaration of rights, Nov. 4 
 
 75. Revolutionary War begins with battle of Lexington. Battle of Bunker Hill. 
 
 76. Declaration of Independence. 
 
 77. Lafayette joins the Americans. Federal government adopted by Congress and recognized by 
 France. Battle of Princeton. Battle of Brandywine. Burgoyne'surrenders at Saratoga. 
 
 78. Battle of Monmouth. 
 
 81. Battle of Cowpens. Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown. 
 83. Treaty of peace. 86. Cotton introduced into Georgia. 
 
 87. The Constitution adopted. 
 88. The Constitution of the UNITED STATES ratified by eleven States.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 219 
 
 A.D. United States 
 
 Canada Spanish America 
 
 1789 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON, President. 
 
 
 
 
 John Adams, Vice-President. 
 
 
 
 
 90. Indian war in Ohio. 
 
 
 
 
 91. Vermont admitted. 
 
 91. Canada is given a 
 
 
 
 
 constitution and 
 
 
 
 92. Kentucky admitted. 
 
 divided into two 
 
 
 
 
 provinces. 
 
 
 
 94. Whisky insurrection. 
 
 94. Toronto capital of 
 
 
 
 
 Upper Canada. 
 
 
 
 96. Tennessee admitted. 
 
 
 
 
 1797 
 
 JOHN ADAMS, President. 
 
 
 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Vice-President. 
 
 
 
 
 99. Capital removed from Philadelphia to 
 
 
 
 
 Washington. 
 
 
 
 18O1 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON, President. 
 
 
 
 
 Aaron Burr, Vice-President. 
 
 
 
 
 3. Ohio admitted. 
 
 
 
 
 3. Louisiana purchase. 
 
 8. Slavery abolished. 
 
 3. Hayti republic. 
 
 
 War with Tripoli. 
 
 
 
 
 4. Burr-Hamilton duel. 
 
 
 
 
 5. George Clinton, Vice-President. 
 
 
 
 
 7. Trial of Aaron Burr. 
 
 
 8. King of Portugal 
 goes to Brazil. 
 
 18O9 
 
 JAMES MADISON, President. 
 
 
 9. War of Independ- 
 
 
 George Clinton, Vice-President. 
 
 
 ence in Buenos Ayres. 
 
 
 11. Battle of Tippecanoe. 
 
 
 11. Dr. Francia dic- 
 
 
 
 
 tator of Peru. 
 
 
 12. Louisiana admitted. 
 
 12. British capture 
 
 Venezuela inde- 
 
 
 War with England. Canada invaded. 
 Mackinaw surrenders. 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 pendent. 
 11-24. Simon Bolivar's 
 struggles for liberty. 
 
 
 13. Commander Perry captures English fleet. 
 Elbridge Gerry. Vice-President. 
 
 13. Americans capture 
 Toronto and Fort 
 
 
 
 Battle of the Thames. George. 
 
 
 
 Death of Tecumseh. 
 
 
 
 14. Battle of Lundy's Lane. 
 
 
 
 English capture Washington and burn 
 
 
 
 
 public buildings. 
 Bombardment of Fort McHenry. 
 
 
 15. Brazil made a 
 
 
 15. Battle of New Orleans. 
 
 16. Sir John Sherbroke, 
 
 kingdom. 
 16. Buenos Avres imle- 
 
 
 16. Indiana admitted. 
 
 Governor of Lower pendent. 
 
 
 
 Canada. 
 
 1817 
 
 JAMES MONROE, President. 
 Daniel Tompkins, Vice-President. 
 
 
 17. Chile independent. 
 
 
 Mississippi admitted. 
 
 
 
 
 18. Illinois admitted. Serninole war in 
 
 18. Duke of Richmond, 
 
 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Governor of Lower 
 
 
 
 19. Alabama admitted. Purchase of Florida. Canada. 
 
 
 20. Missouri Compromise. 
 
 17-25. Political agita- 21 : Central America 
 tion in Upper Canada. independent, 
 
 
 Maine admitted. 
 
 Robert Gourlay. ^ ^^ indepemlent 
 
 
 21. Missouri admitted. 
 
 Dom Pedro, Emperor. 
 J2. Antagonism be- Iturbide, Emperor of 
 
 
 22. South American republics acknowledged. tween French and Mexico. 
 
 
 23. Monroe doctrine declared. 
 
 SSto. _>4. Simon Bolivar 
 
 
 
 .4. Welland Canal in- 
 
 
 24. Visit of Lafayette. 
 
 corporated. 25. Bolivia independ't.
 
 220 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 United States 
 
 Canada 
 
 Spanish America 
 
 1825 
 
 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, President. 
 John C. Calhoun, Vice-President. 
 
 28. Protective tariff bill passed. 
 
 25. Agitation in Upper 
 Canada over alien bill. 
 
 26. Mob destroys Mac- 
 kenzie's printing 
 office. 
 
 28. Uruguay independ- 
 ent. 
 
 1829 
 
 ANDREW JACKSON, President. 
 John C. Calhoun, Vice-President. 
 
 32. United States Bank bill vetoed. 
 Black Hawk war. 
 
 33. Martin Van Buren, Vice-President. 
 Public funds withdrawn from United States 
 Bank. 
 35. Seminole war. 
 
 36. Arkansas admitted. 
 
 29. Agitation for re- 
 sponsible government 
 in Upper Canada. 
 30. Lord Aylmer Gover- 
 nor of Lower Canada. 
 
 32. Imperial duties sur- 
 rendered to assembly. 
 
 35. Pupinean party de- 
 mand total separation 
 from Great Britain. 
 
 29. Formation of 
 United States of 
 Colombia. 
 
 31. Dom Pedro abdi- 
 cates. His six-year- 
 old son, Dom Pedro 
 11., Emperor of 
 Brazil. 
 32. The Texans revolt. 
 33. Defeat of the Mex- 
 icans. 
 
 1837 
 
 MARTIN VAN BUREN, President. 
 Richard M. Johnson, Vice-President. 
 Michigan admitted. 
 Financial crisis. Banks suspend specie 
 payment. 
 Business failures and general distress. 
 
 40. Northeastern boundary line disputes. 
 
 37-38. Insurrection. 
 
 38. End of rebellion in 
 Upper Canada. 
 
 39. Union of Upper and 
 Lower C. Lord Syd- 
 enham, Governor.' 
 
 40. Responsible govern- 
 ment established. 
 
 
 1841 
 
 WILLIAM H. HARRISON, President. 
 John Tyler, Vice-President. 
 
 Harrison dies April 4. JOHN TYLER, 
 
 President. Veto of bask bill. 
 
 43. Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island. 
 44. Texas applies for annexation. 
 
 44. Government remov- 
 ed to Montreal. 
 
 
 1845 
 
 JAMES K. POLK, President. 
 George M. Dallas, Vice-President. 
 Texas annexed. Florida admitted. 
 War with. Mexico. 
 46. Iowa admitted. 
 
 48. Acquisition of New Mexico and California. 
 Wisconsin admitted. 
 
 45. Great lire at Quebec 
 
 47. Lord Elgin, Gover- 
 nor. Agitation over 
 rebellion losses bill. 
 
 45. Venezuela inde- 
 pendent. 
 War bet. Mexico 
 and U. S. 
 46. Battles of Palo Alto 
 and Resaca de la 
 I'alina. 
 47. Buena Vista, Cerro 
 Gordo, Contreras. 
 City of Mexico cap- 
 tured. 
 
 1849 
 
 ZACHARY TAYLOR, President. 
 Millard Fillmore, Vice-President. 
 
 50. MILLARD FILLMORE, President. 
 California admitted. Fugitive slave law 
 passed. 
 
 49. Annexation to U. S. 
 advocated. 
 Riots in Montreal. 
 50. Reciprocity with 
 U. S. urged/ 
 
 50. Lopez' attempt on 
 Cuba. 
 51. Lopez garroted. 
 
 1853 
 
 FRANKLIN PIERCE, President. 
 William Rufus King, Vice-President. 
 
 55. Kansas-Nebraska bill. Commotion in 
 Kansas. 
 
 52. Government remov- 
 ed to Quebec. 
 
 55. Sir Edmund W. 
 Head, Governor. 
 
 53. Santa Ana, dicta- 
 tor of Mexico. 
 
 5 ">. Walker's expedi- 
 tion to Nicaragua. 
 
 1857 
 
 JAMES BUCHANAN, President. 
 John C. Breckinridge, Vice-President. 
 Dred Scott decision. Mormon Insurrection. 
 Financial distress. 
 57. Oregon admitted. 
 58. Minnesota admitted. 
 59. John Brown's insurrection. 
 60. South Carolina secedes. 
 61. Kansas admitted. 
 
 
 58. Juarez, President 
 of Mexico. 
 60. Walker invades 
 Honduras.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 221 
 
 1861 
 
 1869 
 
 The United States 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN, President. 
 Hannibal Hamlin, Vice-President. 
 
 Attack on Fort 
 Sumter. 
 
 Harper's Ferry and 
 Norfolk seized. 
 
 62. Battle of Antietam. 
 
 63. Proclamation of 
 
 Emancipation. 
 
 West Virginia 
 admitted. 
 
 Battle of Gettys- 
 burg. 
 
 64. The Kearsarge sinks 
 
 the Alabama. 
 
 Andrew Johnson, 
 Vice-President. 
 
 Surrender of Gen. 
 Lee, April 9. 
 
 Lincoln assassi- 
 nated April 14. 
 
 ANDREW 
 JOHNSON, Pres. 
 
 The war ended. 
 
 Amnesty issued by 
 the President. 
 
 The Confederate 
 States 
 
 61. Mississippi, Florida 
 Alabama, Georgia, 
 Louisiana and Texas 
 secede. 
 
 Jefferson Davis 
 elected President. 
 
 Arkansas, North 
 Carolina, and Ten- 
 nessee secede. 
 
 Virginia secedes. 
 
 Battles of Bull Run, 
 
 Wilson's Creek. 
 
 C2. Ft. Donelson 
 captured. 
 
 Battles of Pea 
 Ridge, 
 
 Shiloh, Bull Run, 
 Wilson's Creek. 
 
 63. Chancellorsville. 
 Siege of Vicksburg. 
 
 64. Battle of the 
 Wilderness. 
 
 Siege of Petersburg 
 Sherman's march 
 to the sea. 
 
 65. Battle of Five Forks 
 
 Petersburg and 66. Reciprocity treaty 
 Richmond captured. ; with U.S. 
 
 Canada 
 
 61. Lord Monck, Gover- 
 nor. 
 
 65. ' G reat Fire at Quebec 
 
 Surrender of Gens. 
 Lee, Johnston, 
 Morgan, Taylor and 
 Kirby Smith. 
 
 Fenian invasion. 
 
 67. Nebraska admitted. Alaska purchased. 
 Southern States organized as military 
 
 districts. 
 
 68. Impeachment, trial, and acquittal of 
 
 President Johnson. 
 
 Spanish America 
 
 62. France at War with 
 Mexico. 
 
 63. The French enter 
 City of Mexico. 
 
 Archduke Maximil- 
 ian of Austria invited 
 to become Emperor. 
 
 64. He accepts. 
 
 65. Paraguay at war 
 with Uruguay, 
 Brazil, Argentine 
 Republic. 
 
 Chile and Spain at 
 war. 
 
 66. Juarists in Mexico 
 have great success. 
 
 ULYSSES S. GRANT, President. 
 Schuyler Colfax, Vice-President. 
 Pacific Railroad completed. 
 
 70. Fifteenth amendment ratified. 
 
 71. Great fire at Chicago. Tweed ring exposed. 
 Geneva award. 
 
 72. Great fire at Boston. 
 
 Political disabilities of Southern people 
 
 removed. 
 Modoc war. 
 
 73. Henry Wilson, Vice-President. 
 The Virginius troubles with Spain. 
 Financial panic. 
 
 75. Passage of act for specie resumption in 1879. 
 Colorado admitted. 
 
 76. Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia. 
 Custer massacre. 
 
 1877 
 
 RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, President. 
 William A. Wheeler, Vice-President. 
 Railroad riots. 
 
 78. Yellow fever epidemic along Lower 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 79. Resumption of specie payment. 
 
 67. Canada, New Bruns- 67. Maximilian surren- 
 wick and Nova Scotia ders and is shot, 
 form the Dominion of 
 Canada. 
 
 71. British Columbia 
 becomes part of the 
 Dominion. 
 
 72. Prince Edward 
 Island ^oins the 
 Dominion. 
 
 Lord Dufferin, 
 Governor-General. 
 
 69. Cuban revolt. 
 
 77. Great Fire at 
 St. John, N. B. 
 
 78. Marquis of Lome 
 appointed Viceroy. 
 
 79. War between Chile 
 and Peru.
 
 222 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 1881 
 
 1885 
 
 The United States 
 
 JAMES A. GARFIELD, President. 
 Chester A. Arthur, Vice-President. 
 President Garfield shot by Guiteau. 
 CHESTER A. ARTHUR, President. 
 Treaty with China. 
 
 83. Opening of Brooklyn Bridge. 
 
 Apaches captured by General Crook. 
 General strike of telegraph operators. 
 
 GROVER CLEyELAND, President. 
 Thomas A. Hendricks, Vice-President. 
 
 86. Labor agitations. Anarchist riot at 
 Chicago. 
 
 88. Lord Sackville, British Minister, dismissed. 
 
 Canada 
 
 1889 
 
 BENJAMIN HARRISON, President. 
 
 Levi P. Morton, Vice-President. 
 
 North Dakot, South Dakota, Wash- 
 ington, and Montana admitted to the 
 Union. 
 
 Opening of Oklahoma. Johnstown flood. 
 
 Pan- American Congress. 
 
 90. Idaho and Wyoming admitted. 
 
 Reciprocity treaty with South American 
 
 republics. 
 
 McKinley tariff law goes into effect. 
 Sioux war. Death of Sitting Bull. 
 Eleventh census population, 62,622,250. 
 
 92. Birth of the People's party at Omaha. 
 
 1893 
 
 1897 
 
 19OO 
 
 GROVER CLEVELAND, President. 
 
 Adlai E. Stevenson, Vice-President. 
 
 Sandwich Islands ask to be annexed. 
 
 World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. 
 
 Great financial depression. Cleveland calls 
 special session of Congress to repeal Sher- 
 man bill. 
 
 Congress of Religions, Chicago. 
 
 94. Great coal strike. Great railroad strike. 
 
 95. Free Silver movement. 
 
 Venezuela boundary dispute with Great 
 Britain. 
 
 96. Utah admitted to the Union. 
 
 WILLIAM McKINLEY, President. 
 Garret A. Hobart, Vice-President. 
 Arbitration Treaty with Great Britain 
 
 signed; rejected by the Senate. 
 Greater New York charter granted. 
 
 98. Annexation of Hawaii. 
 Battle-ship Maine blown up. 
 Spanish-American war. 
 Acquisition of Cuba, Porto Rico, and the 
 
 Philippines by treaty. 
 Commercial treaty with France. 
 
 99. Philippine war. 
 Many Trusts formed. 
 
 Gen. Alger, secretary of war, resigned ; 
 Elihu Koot appointed to succeed him. 
 
 84. Dynamite explo- 
 sions in Parliament 
 buildings, Quebec. 
 
 85. Rebellion of Louis 
 Kiel. Kiel captured 
 and hanged. 
 
 88. Lord Stanley, 
 Governor-General. 
 
 Fisheries treaty re- 
 jected by U. S. 
 
 89. Great Fire at Quebec 
 
 90. Reciprocity defea- 
 ted in House of Com- 
 mons. 
 
 Toronto University 
 burned. 
 
 Spanish America 
 
 93. The Earl of Aber- 
 deen, Governor-Gen. 
 
 Troubles with China. 
 ''. "hsodore Roosevelt, Vice-President. 
 
 98. Earl of Minto, 
 Governor-General . 
 
 Meeting of the U. S, 
 and Canadian High 
 Commission. 
 
 Parliamentary elec- 
 tions carried by Lib- 
 erals. 
 
 9. Civil war in Hayti. 
 Dotn Pedro of Bra- 
 zil deposed. 
 
 91. Balmaceda, Presi- 
 dent of Chile, 
 deposed. Commits 
 suicide. 
 
 93. Revolution in 
 Brazil. 
 
 Revolution in 
 Argentine. 
 
 95. War for Independ- 
 ence in Cuba. 
 
 96. Maceo assassinated 
 
 General Weyler re- 
 called from Cuba . 
 
 Attempted assassi- 
 nation of President 
 Moraes of Brazil. 
 
 8. United States inter- 
 venes in behalf of 
 Cuba. 
 
 Cuba under the 
 U. S. protectorate- 
 
 Campos Salles elec- 
 ted Pres. of Brazil. 
 
 U. S. of Central 
 America formed. 
 
 President Sande- 
 mente of Colombia 
 resigned.
 
 HISTORY AXD BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 223 
 
 CALEXDAR OF AMEBICAX BATTLES. 
 
 Naval engagements are indicated by Italics ; * means that it was a drawn battle ; t means a general estimate. 
 
 JANUARY. 
 
 NAME OF BATTLE. 
 
 X rt 
 
 ft 
 
 Opponent. Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. Opponents. 
 
 Killed. Wounded. Killed. Wounded. 
 
 1 1815 New Orleans 
 
 English .... * 
 
 11 
 17 
 
 1,533' 
 31 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 1 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 
 11 
 1 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 129 
 5 
 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 24 
 184 
 8 
 12 
 12 
 33 
 6 ' 
 1 
 20 
 357 
 400 
 40 
 3 
 1 
 17 
 
 2 
 12 
 2t 
 9 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 20 t 
 
 7J245 
 64 
 
 3 
 16 
 2 
 3 
 8 
 13 
 9 
 U5 
 3 
 25 
 69 
 8 
 6 
 831 
 20 
 2 
 
 "3 
 
 27 
 
 "27 
 56 
 749 
 32 
 CO 
 55 
 207 
 17 
 
 75 
 C4 
 
 (0 
 8 
 3 
 132 
 
 2 
 49 
 
 n 
 
 20 
 24 
 
 20 
 26 
 
 l',384 
 49 
 2 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 11 
 700 
 70 
 23 
 140 
 
 im 
 
 18 
 14 
 
 60 
 3 
 3 
 
 io 
 
 14 
 
 "ii 
 11 
 
 150 
 16 
 120 
 30t 
 192 
 30 
 
 220 t 
 10 
 
 200 i 
 6 
 
 37 
 1 
 8 
 224 
 22 
 6 
 
 
 sot 
 
 117 
 
 e'saa 
 
 151 
 4 
 
 22 
 7 
 8 
 32 
 1,400 
 150 
 164 
 3 
 
 sot 
 
 74 
 32 
 1 
 
 78 
 6 
 8 
 
 "l4 
 
 36 
 
 "36 
 14 
 249 
 49 
 199 
 50t 
 132 
 62 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 
 9 
 2 
 
 1 
 14t 
 8 
 28 
 32 
 
 
 1 18C3 Galveston 
 
 Confederates Conf . . . 
 Confederate s U. S 
 Confederates U.S 
 English U.S.... 
 Confederates * 
 English U.S.... 
 English U.S.... 
 English U.S.... 
 Confederates U.S 
 English U.S 
 
 1 18C3 Murf reesboro (continued) 
 
 2 1863 Murfreesboro (ended) 
 
 3 1T77 Princeton 
 4 1862 Huntersville, Va 
 
 5 1781 Pilgrim-Mary 
 51813 Ultor-boats 
 6 1813 Fox-Lapu'inf 
 
 7 1832 Middle Creek 
 
 8 1815 New Orleans 
 
 8 1847 San Gabriel 
 
 Mexican U.S.... 
 Confederates U.S ... 
 English U.S.... 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates Conf.. . 
 Confederates U. S 
 Confederates Conf.. . 
 Mexican :U.S 
 Confederates U.S 
 Portuguese.. U.S 
 Confederates U.S.... 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates U. S 
 English Eng.... 
 Confederates U.S . . 
 
 8 1363 Springfield 
 
 9 1779 Protector- At! in i ral l>uff 
 
 10 1863 Arkansas Post (continued) 
 
 10 1863 Hartsville 
 
 10 1865 Scottsboro 
 
 11 1863 Hatteras-Alabama 
 
 11 1863 Arkansas Post (ended) 
 
 11 1865 Beverlv, W. Va 
 
 121848 San Bias 
 13 1365 fort fisher (continued) 
 
 14 1813 Comet-friqate 
 
 14 1863 Carney's Bridge 
 
 14 1865 Fort Fisher (continued) 
 
 14 18G5 Red Hill 
 15 1815 President-Endymion 
 15 18G5 Fort fisher (ended) 
 
 16 1864 Gen. Sturgis 
 
 Confederates U.S 
 English U.S.... 
 English U.S.... 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates Conf.. . 
 Indians U.S 
 English Eng.... 
 Indians Ind 
 Indians iU.S.... 
 English U.S.... 
 English Eng.... 
 Indians U. S 
 English U.S 
 English U.S.... 
 Indians U.S 
 Confederatesi * 
 Confederates Conf.. . 
 Confederates Conf.. . 
 
 17 1781, Cowpens 
 18 1813 Frenchtown 
 19 1862 Mill Spring (Logan Cross Roads) 
 
 20 1864 Sturgis' Raid (January 16-28). . . 
 
 21 1863 Sabine Pass 
 22 1814 f^mucfau 
 
 22 1813 Frenchtown No. 2 
 
 231813 Stony Creek 
 
 24 1814 Enotachopco 
 
 251813 Dolphin-squadron 
 26 1813 Union-Iris 
 27 1814 Camp Defiance 
 
 28 1815 Surprise-Star 
 29 1814 Alligator 
 29 1863 Bear River 
 
 30 1862 Kellv's Stores 
 
 30 1864 Underwriter 
 
 31 1863 Off Charleston 
 
 FEBRUARY. 
 
 1 1864 Bachelor's Creek 
 
 Confederates Conf . . . 
 
 21 
 14 
 
 1C 
 
 18 
 2 
 
 "ii 
 
 '"2 
 
 2C2 
 47 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 5 
 6t 
 3 
 
 
 8 
 560 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 77 
 25 
 3t 
 60 
 
 70 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 ii 
 
 1,062 
 198 
 3 
 3 
 o 
 
 7 
 t 
 5 
 2 
 3 
 10 
 
 1 
 8 
 1 
 
 13 
 50 
 4 
 
 iro 
 
 8 
 20 
 
 5t 
 
 5 
 
 120t 
 /49 
 25 
 3 
 29 
 4 
 4 
 31 
 15 
 13 
 13 
 2 
 466 
 
 loot 
 
 13 
 4 
 
 22 
 110 
 5t 
 400 
 20 
 80 
 7t 
 
 "ii 
 
 200t 
 751 
 30 
 G 
 41 
 10 
 7 
 160 
 23t 
 26 
 22 
 4 
 1,534 
 
 30t 
 7 
 
 2 1800 Constellation- Vengeance 
 
 French !U.S 
 
 2 1864 Patterson Creek 
 
 'Confederates Conf 
 
 3 1863 Dover, Col. Harding 
 
 Confederates U.S 
 
 31863 Min^o Swamp 
 
 ! Conf ederates U. S 
 
 3 1865 Sakelhatchie 
 
 Confederates U S 
 
 4 1863 Batesville 
 
 Confederates U . S 
 
 5 l865JDabnev's Mills (continued > 
 
 Confederates U. S . 
 
 6 18S2 Fort Henry ... 
 
 . Confederates U.S 
 
 6 1865|Dabnev's Mills (continued) 
 
 Confederates'U.S 
 
 7 1832 Qualld liattoo 
 7 1835 Dabnev's Mills(ended) 
 
 Malays JU.S.... 
 . Confederates U S 
 
 8 1862 Roanoke Island 
 8 1835 Williston Station 
 
 9 1799 Cnfit( Hot ton-Insurgent 
 
 Confederates U.S.... 
 Confederates U.S 
 French U.S 
 
 10 1862 jKU-,(iltlt City 
 10 1863 Old River 
 
 Confederates U.P 
 Confederates U.S 
 
 11 1865 Aikeus 
 12 l864<Rock House 
 13 I8f>2 Blooming Gap 
 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates U. S 
 
 14 177C Moore's Creek 
 
 English U.f> ... 
 
 14 1813 Lottery-boats 
 
 .... English Eng 
 
 15 1862 Fort Donelson 
 
 Confederates U S 
 
 16 1804 Philadelphia (frigate) 
 16 1847 Sa n Jvtf. 
 17 1781 HoUcer-ffypocrUe 
 
 Tripolitans . . U.S.... 
 Mexican U.S 
 English iU.S....
 
 224 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 FEBRUARY Continued. 
 
 \ 
 
 p 
 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 23 
 2:; 
 24 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 88 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 NAME OF BATTLE. 
 
 Opponent. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Opponents. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 1813 
 1815 
 1802 
 1815 
 1864 
 1865 
 1865 
 1812 
 184; 
 1864 
 1813 
 1847 
 1813 
 1863 
 1815 
 1863 
 1847 
 1863 
 1812 
 
 Highflyer- Poictiers 
 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 ^Confederates 
 English 
 Mexican 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Mexican 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Mexican 
 Confederates 
 English 
 
 Eng.... 
 
 Eng.... 
 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S... 
 Eng 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 4 
 193 
 5f 
 1 
 
 
 'l50t 
 1 
 2C7 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 5t 
 8 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 1,175 
 
 8t 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 200t 
 3 
 456 
 4 
 1 
 8 
 8t 
 5 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 150 
 
 8t 
 2 
 2 
 
 "sot 
 
 1 
 508 
 5 
 2 
 15 
 6 
 33 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 42 
 350 
 18t 
 8 
 11 
 
 'l80 
 2 
 1,241 
 33 
 5 
 23 
 8 
 67 
 5 
 1 
 
 Winton, N.C 
 
 Constitution-Cyane and Levant 
 
 
 Town Creek 
 
 Cumberland , Md 
 
 Hazard-Caledonia 
 
 Buena Vista (continued) 
 
 Tunnel Hill 
 
 Cora-boats 
 Buena Vista (ended) 
 
 Hornet- Peacock 
 
 Chasseur-St. Lawrence 
 
 Falmouth 
 Chihuahua 
 
 Van Buren, Ark 
 Courier-Andromache 
 
 MARCH. 
 
 111813 
 21815 
 31863 
 41863 
 51863 
 51863 
 61862 
 71778 
 7; 1862 
 81862 
 81862 
 8 1865 
 91862 
 91865 
 10 1865 
 111863 
 121863 
 121864 
 131863 
 13 1863 
 141862 
 14 1863 
 15 1781 
 16 1779 
 161863 
 16 1865 
 171813 
 18 1865 
 18 1865 
 19 1776 
 201863 
 211864 
 221865 
 231815 
 231862 
 241847 
 25 1865 
 26 1865 
 27 1814 
 28 1814 
 29 1779 
 291813 
 301814 
 30 1863 
 31 1865 
 
 Canonnier- Warspite 
 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 
 Eng.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 Conf... 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 i4 
 
 301 
 
 "6 
 3oi 
 
 972 
 .... 
 
 '42! 
 
 "20 
 
 7 
 
 '432 
 
 '314 
 5 
 19 
 477 
 3 
 
 ijios 
 
 3 
 33 
 3 
 5C8 
 11 
 441 
 56 
 337 
 695 
 106 
 C6 
 8 
 3 
 GO 
 38 
 1,134 
 
 
 2 
 
 .... 
 
 152 
 '"5 
 
 "" 
 1,040 
 
 ""6 
 
 'l32 
 
 "ii 
 
 
 "50 
 
 231 
 13 
 3t 
 86 
 
 
 267 
 
 2 
 63 
 5 
 
 saa 
 
 10 
 80 
 981 
 134 
 
 wa 
 
 557 
 5 
 11 
 
 11 
 24 
 236 
 
 1 
 13 
 1 
 
 '"4 
 
 453 
 
 "l2 
 
 "ii 
 
 3,638 
 
 '"a 
 
 '643 
 
 "ij 
 
 
 'i52 
 
 318 
 20 
 8f 
 632 
 
 2 
 
 l',381 
 6 
 241 
 18 
 1,231 
 28 
 342 
 2,000t 
 698 
 401 
 
 10 
 22 
 1 
 47 
 73 
 998 
 
 America- Elizabeth 
 Fort McAllister 
 Thompson's Station (continued). 
 Spring Hill 
 
 Conf... 
 Conf... 
 
 U.S... 
 Eng.... 
 
 u.s 
 
 8 
 C9 
 
 's'ii 
 
 Thompson's Station (ended) 
 
 Pea Ridge, (continued) 
 Randolph- Yarmouth 
 
 Mcrrimac in Hampton lloads ... 
 
 Conf... 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf 
 
 2^0 
 203 
 
 '"6 
 
 Pea Ridge (ended) 
 
 Wilcox's Bridge (continued) 
 
 Monitor-Memmac 
 
 
 Wilcox's Bridge (ended) 
 
 Conf... 
 Conf... 
 
 80 
 
 Fort Pe.mberton (continued) 
 
 
 Conf 
 
 
 Fort De Russey 
 
 U.S.... 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf. 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 Port Hudson 
 
 Fort Pf.mberton (continued) 
 
 New Berne 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf. 
 
 102 
 
 
 Guilford Court-Housc 
 Hazard-Active 
 
 Eng.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng. . . . 
 U.S.... 
 
 123 
 3 
 
 7 
 77 
 1 
 
 fort Pemberton (ended) 
 
 Avervsboro 
 
 
 Bentonville (continued) 
 
 Bentonville (ended) 
 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 u s 
 
 llil 
 
 2:3 
 1 
 90 
 1 
 103 
 11 
 C8 
 90 
 26 
 58 
 
 
 8 
 11 
 177 
 
 Industry-brifj 
 
 Vaught's Hill 
 
 Henderson's Hill 
 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Mexican 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Indians 
 English 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 r.s.... 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 Wilson's Raid (to April 24) 
 
 Horneb- Penguin 
 
 Kernstown 
 
 Vera Cruz 
 
 Fort Stedman 
 
 Spanish Fort (to April 8) 
 
 Horseshoe Bend 
 
 Essfx-l'hii'lii' anil ( 'lii-riib 
 
 Tyranniciflc-Jicvcnge 
 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 
 Eng.'.'.'.' 
 Eng.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 Re/wnae Narcissus 
 
 La Co'lle Mill 
 
 Somerset 
 
 Boydton and White Oak Road 
 
 
 APRIL. 
 
 11865 
 21865 
 21865 
 21865 
 31780 
 41864 
 61779 
 61865 
 61862 
 71776 
 
 Five Forks 
 
 Confederate! 
 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 r.s.... 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 124 
 198 
 153 
 298 
 
 8 
 1 
 166 
 
 "io 
 
 706 
 304 
 347 
 
 2,5(15 
 2 
 2G 
 3 
 1,014 
 
 i4 
 
 450 
 24!t 
 198 
 341 
 3 
 18 
 3 
 268 
 
 '"i 
 
 750 
 353 
 409 
 3,092 
 5 
 39 
 9 
 2,032 
 
 3 
 
 Forts (ireggs and Alexander 
 
 Selina 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 lloatx- Itluck Snake 
 Col. Gooding 
 /lihrrnia-lirir/ of war 
 Sailor's Creek 
 
 Pittsburgh Landing (continued) 
 
 Glasgow
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 APRIL Continued. 
 
 NAME OF BATTLE. 
 
 Opponent. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 Opponents. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Confederates U.S. . 
 Confederates U.S.. 
 Confederates 
 
 Confederates 
 
 U.S.. 
 
 English U.S.. 
 
 Confederates | Conf . 
 ConfederateslU.S.. 
 
 19 
 
 1,735 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 190 
 
 7 1862 Island No. 10 
 
 7 1862 Pittsburg Landing (ended) 
 
 7 1863 Ironclads at Charleston 
 
 7 1864 Red River 
 
 8 1782 Hyder Ally-Gen. Monk 
 
 8 1864 Sabine Cross Roads 
 
 8 1864 Pleasant Hill (continued) 
 
 9 1777 TrumbvU-transports English U.S 7 
 
 91864 Pleasant Hill (ended) Confederates U.S.... TO 
 
 9 1865 Appomattox Confederates U.S 203 
 
 9 1865 Fort Blakely Confederates U.S.... 113 
 
 10 1863 Franklin Confederates U.S .... 17 
 
 10 1863 Prairie d'Anne Confederates U.S.... 8 
 
 11 1863 Fort Pulaski Confederates Conf... 1 
 
 12 1864 Fort Pillow Confederates Conf . . . 348 
 
 12 1864 Lexington, Red River [Confederates U.S 
 
 13 1813 Canonnter-MeOtua lEnglish Eng.. . . 1 
 
 14 1779 Hunter-armed ship English * 
 
 14 1780 Monk's Corner English Eng 26 
 
 15 1813 Diligent-squadron ." English Eng 1 
 
 16 1863 Vicksburg Confederates U.S. ... 
 
 16 1865 Columbus, Ala Confederates U.S.... 10 
 
 17 1776 Lexington-Edward English U. S 2 
 
 17 1864 Fort Wessels Confederates Conf .. . 20 
 
 181814 York-Lord Somers English * 
 
 181847 Tuspan Mexican U.S.... 3 
 
 18 1847 Cerro Gordo Mexican U.S 63 
 
 18 1863 Fayetteville Confederates U.S.... 4 
 
 1'.' 1775 Lexington English Eng 7 
 
 19 1864 SouthfieM-Albemarle Confederates Conf ... 2 
 
 20 1852 South Mills or Camden Confederates U.S 15 
 
 20 1863 McMinnville (Confederates U.S. ... 
 
 20 1864 Plymouth 'Confederates Conf.. . 41 
 
 L'l 1775 Co'ncord and retreat English Eng. . . 49 
 
 22 1847 Perote Mexican U.S 
 
 23 1862 New Orleans Confederates U. S. . . . 37 
 
 23 1864 Cane River Confederates U.S .... 98 
 
 241778 Ranger-Drake English U.S.... 2 
 
 25 1781 Hobkirk's Hill English Enjr. ... 52 
 
 25 1862 Fort M <<>,! ...! Confederates U.S 
 
 25 1864 Mark's Mills Confederates Conf... 98 
 
 26 1863 Cape Girardeau Confederates U.S 6 
 
 26 1864 Red River Confederates U.S 17 
 
 271805 Derne Turkish U.S 6 
 
 27 1813 York English U. S. . . . 66 
 
 28 1863 Streight's Raid (to May 3) Confederates U.S 12 
 
 291814 Peacock-Epervier English U.S 
 
 29 1862 Bridgeport, Ala Confederates U.S 3 
 
 291863 Grand Gulf Confederates Conf... 19 
 
 KO 114 Saucy Jark-Pelham English U.S.... 2 
 
 30 1863 Chancellorsville (continued) Confederates Conf 
 
 30 1864 Jenkins Ferry Confederates U.S.... 222 
 
 MAY. 
 
 TTL863 Port Gibson Confederates U.S 130" 
 
 1 1863 Chancellorsville (continued) Confederates Conf 
 
 11898 A/anifa Spanish U.S.... 
 
 2 1863 Chancellorsville (continued) -Confederates Conf 
 
 3 1883 Siege of Suffolk, N. C. (ended) 'Confederates U.S. . . . 15 
 
 3 1863i Chancellorsville (continued) Confederates Conf 
 
 4 1863 Chancellorsville(ended) Confederates Conf . . . 1,512 
 
 51813 F<>rr Mi-i-s English JU.S.... 64 
 
 5 1813 Rapids of Miami English ; U.S 80 
 
 5 1862 Williamsburg Confederates U.S 456 
 
 5 1864 Dunn's Bayou Confederates Conf.. . 38 
 
 s'lSMLti&emorie. Confederates U.S 4 
 
 5 1864 Wilderness (continued) Confederates U.S 
 
 6 1814 Oswego English lU.S. . . . 6 
 
 6 1864 Wilderness (continued) Confederates U. S 
 
 7 1779 I'roriihni-i-DHi'ii-iit English U.S 4 
 
 7 1862 West Point Confederates U.S 84 
 
 7 1864 Wilderness (ended) [Confederates U.S 2,309 
 
 8 1846 Palo Alto Mexican U.S 4 
 
 8 1862 McDowell's Confederates Conf... 80 
 
 8 1864 Spottsylvania (continued) Confederates U.S 
 
 9 1847 Resaca* dela Palma Mexican U.S 39 
 
 9 1864 Spottsvlvania (continued) : Confederates U.S 
 
 9 1864 Swift Creek (continued; I Confederates] Conf 
 
 32 
 
 7,882 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 II 
 
 893 
 
 688 
 
 297 
 
 516 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 73 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 68 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 147 
 
 152 
 
 6 
 
 141 
 3 
 
 142 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 203 
 
 69 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 57 
 
 9 
 
 '978 
 
 1 
 
 1,128 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 4*6 
 
 ""9 
 
 348 
 
 189 
 
 242 
 
 79 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 164 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 5t 
 29 
 6 
 25 
 lOOf 
 17 
 
 
 12 
 4 
 
 125 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 108 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 126 
 22 
 28 
 10t 
 
 loot 
 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 8 
 4 
 
 '842 
 
 718 
 
 94 
 
 124 
 101 
 1,400 
 64 
 25 
 
 "38 
 
 "io 
 
 110 
 
 12,188 
 
 42 
 
 176 
 
 "83 
 
 144 
 
 "sis 
 
 1,718 
 301 
 15 
 351 
 4 
 
 
 "70 
 
 8 
 3 
 
 1,056 
 102 
 71 
 
 ieo
 
 226 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 MAY Continued. 
 
 NAME OF BATTLE. 
 
 Opponent. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Killed. Wounded. Killed. Wounded 
 
 Opponents. 
 
 9 1864 Cloyd's Mountain and New River Bridge Confederates U. S 126 
 
 10 1775 Ticonderoga 'English U.S 
 
 101862 Fort Pillow Confederates U.S.... 
 
 10 1864 Swift Creek (ended) j Conf ederates, Conf .. 90 
 
 11 j 1864 Spottsylvania (ended) Confederates U.S.... 3,288 
 
 111777 Hancock-Fox English U.S.... 
 
 12 1780 Siege of Charleston (ended) English Eng 92 
 
 121863 Raymond Confederates U.S.... 69 
 
 13 1864 Resaca Confederates U.S.... 598 
 
 14 1863 Jackson Confederates U.S 
 
 15 1780' Waxhaws [English |Eng. ... 250 
 
 15 1847|Puebla Mexican JU.S. . . . 18 
 
 15 18u2 Drewry's Bluff Confederates Conf . . . ^422 
 
 15 1864 New Market, Pa Confederates Conf ... 120 
 
 16 1811 President-Little Belt English [U.S. . . . 
 
 16 1863 Champion Hills Conf ederates U. S . . . . 426 
 
 16 1864 Marksville Confederates U.S 9 
 
 17 1863 Black River Confederates U.S 29 
 
 18 1864 Spottsylvania (continued) Confederates U.S 2,031 
 
 19 1803 Vicksburg (continued May 22) Confederates Conf 
 
 19 1864 Yellow Bayou "Confederates U.S 42 
 
 20 1863 Fort Blunt Confederates U.S 12 
 
 21 1x63 Gum Swamp Confederates U.S 3 
 
 22 18631 Vicksburg (continued to May 25) Confederates Conf 
 
 23 1862 Front Royal Confederates Conf .. 
 
 23 1862 Lewisburg Confederates U.S... 
 
 24 1862 New Bridge Confederates U.S... 
 
 25 1862 Winchester Confederates Conf . 
 
 25 1863 Vicksburg (ended) Conf ederates, U.S. . . 
 
 26 1864 Bermuda Hundreds (continued) Confederates U. S. . . 
 
 26 1864iNorth Anna (continued) Confederates U. S. 
 
 27 1813|Fort George English U.S... 
 
 2-7 1862 Hanover Court-House Confederates U.S... 
 
 27 1863 Port Hudson Conf ederates Conf .. 
 
 27 1864 Bermuda Hundreds (continued) Confederates U. S. . . 
 
 27 1864 North Anna (ended) Confederates U.S... 
 
 28 1781 Alliance-squadron English U.S... 
 
 28 1864 Bermuda Hundreds (continued) ! Conf ederates U.S... 
 
 29 1813 Sackett's Harbor I English U.S... 
 
 29 1864 Bermuda H undreds (continued) Confederates U.S... 
 
 30 1814 Sandy Creek jEnglish U.S. . . 
 
 30 1804iBermuda Hundreds (ended) Confederates U.S... 
 
 31 1862; Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks Confederates * 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 3 
 ?,8 
 1,648 
 
 1 
 
 201 
 891 
 
 585 
 
 4 
 
 401 
 
 19,278 
 
 5 
 
 142 
 
 341 
 
 2.147 
 
 2.8 
 
 130 
 
 62 
 
 2,."80 
 
 563 
 
 
 
 1,842 
 
 18 
 
 242 
 
 7,956 
 
 'ios 
 
 122 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 154 
 2,378 
 
 121 
 
 344 
 
 1,549 
 
 1460 
 20 
 
 998 
 3,627 
 
 248 
 
 "*a 
 
 124 
 
 3,342 
 
 14 
 
 76 
 
 103 
 
 861 
 
 64 
 
 5 
 
 83 
 
 514 
 96 
 11 
 
 486 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 1,752 
 
 '74 
 25 
 4 
 
 6 
 49 
 
 4 
 
 68 
 
 1.420 
 
 108 
 1E8 
 110 
 
 304 
 11 
 
 "29 
 
 ?64 
 1,987 
 
 1 
 
 376 
 
 20,187 
 
 18 
 
 189 
 
 720 
 
 1.949 
 
 392 
 
 14 
 
 142 
 
 1,086 
 
 306 
 
 21 
 
 1.954 
 64 
 
 l58 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 "ia 
 
 76 
 
 15 
 
 3J9 
 
 2,151 
 
 1(3 
 732 
 173 
 
 1,5J3 
 30 
 
 JUNE. 
 
 1 1813 Chesapeake-Shannon 
 
 2| 17CO Trurnbull- Watt 
 
 2 1864 Cold Harbor (continued) 
 
 3 1776 Boats-tender to Nautilus 
 
 3| 17761 Lady Washington-barges 
 
 3 1864 Cold Harbor (ended) 
 
 4J1780 \Gen. Pickering- Achilles 
 
 4il782 {Charming Sally-Revenge 
 
 5 1862'Harrisonburg 
 
 511864 Columbia, Ark 
 
 5;1864 Piedmont 
 
 61813 Stony Creek , 
 
 6 1862 [Memphis , 
 
 7|1863 Milliken's Bend , 
 
 8 1862 Cross Keys 
 
 9 1862 Port Republic , 
 
 9 1863 Beverly Ford 
 
 10 1864 Brice's" Cross-Roads, Miss 
 
 10 1864 Kellar't Bridge 
 
 11 4864i Trevilian Station (continued) 
 
 11 18981 Camp McCalla (continued) 
 
 12 1863 Middletown 
 
 12 1 61 Trevilian Station (ended) 
 
 12 1898 Camp McCalla (continued) , 
 
 13 1770 Timninicide- Dispatch 
 
 l: 1898 (I'm i) MrCnlla (continued) 
 
 14 1863 Port Hudson 
 
 1 1 1863 Winchester (continued) 
 
 14 1898 Camp Me Call a (ended) 
 
 15 1847 ; Near Tabasco 
 
 15 1863 Winchester (ended) 
 
 16 1862 Secessionville 
 
 17 1775 Bunker Hill 
 
 English 
 
 English 
 
 English 
 
 English 
 
 English 
 
 Eng... 
 
 English 
 
 Confederates Conf.. 
 
 U.S... 
 
 U.S... 
 Confederates Conf.. 
 
 U.S... 
 
 U.S... 
 
 CohfederatesjU. S. . . 
 Confederates U.S. . . 
 Conf ederates U.S... 
 
 English Eng.. . 
 
 Conf ederates U.S... 
 Confederates U.S. . . 
 Confederates * 
 Confederates Conf.. 
 Confederates Conf.. 
 Confederates Conf .. 
 Confederates U. S . . . 
 Confederates U. S . . . 
 
 Spanish 
 
 U.S.. 
 
 Confederates U.S.. 
 Confederates U.S.. 
 
 U.S.. 
 U.S.. 
 
 Spanish 
 
 English 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Confederates 
 Confederates Conf. 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Mexican 
 
 Confederate* Conf. 
 Conf ederatesi Conf . 
 
 English Eng.. 
 
 IT 1770 Defenae-Jiremapnrt* English U.S.. 
 
 U.S.. 
 U.S. 
 
 47 
 13 
 
 "i 
 
 o 
 
 1,905 
 1 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 130 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 154 
 
 125 
 
 67 
 
 156 
 
 223 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 203 
 
 1.17 
 
 nr, 
 
 o 
 
 99 
 
 20 
 
 '"3 
 
 2 
 
 10,570 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 73 
 
 650 
 
 38 
 
 4 
 
 223 
 4:s 
 361 
 
 I'S'.I 
 
 3!4 
 54 
 
 4 
 490 
 
 "2 
 '680 
 
 11 
 
 397 
 438 
 
 24 
 3'J 
 
 '"i 
 3 
 
 364 
 8 
 3 
 
 20 
 22 
 633 
 20t 
 20t 
 148 
 96 
 104 
 253 
 124 
 
 
 18 
 124 
 
 188 
 
 20t 
 50 
 63 
 359 
 18 
 
 59 
 52 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 1,838 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 81 
 
 2,337 
 
 30 
 
 30t 
 
 2M 
 
 302 
 
 7:iO 
 
 354 
 
 H9 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Yiiii 
 
 301 
 
 81 
 141 
 605 
 
 30t
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 JUNE Continued. 
 
 NAME OF BATTLE. 
 
 Opponent. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Killed. "Wounded. 
 
 Opponents. 
 
 KiHed. "Wounded. 
 
 3 
 
 136 
 
 
 17 1815 Guerrirre-Mashouda Algerine U.S. 
 
 17 1863 St. Charles [Confederates U.S. 
 
 171863 Weehawken-Attanta, Confederates U. S . 
 
 17 1864 Lynchburg (continued) Confederates Conf . 
 
 18 1864 Lynchburg (ended) Confederates Conf . . . 99 
 
 181781 Ninety-six English Bug.... 48 
 
 19 1864 Kcarsarge-Alabama Confederates U.S 1 
 
 191864 Petersburg (from June 15) ! Confederates! * 1,298 
 
 201864 Petersburg (continued to June 30) Confederates U.S 
 
 21 1863 Upperville Confederates U.S.... 30 
 
 221813 Craney Island English U.S 
 
 22 1898 Santiagoforts bombarded Spanish * 1 
 
 23 1812 President- Belridere English U.S.. .. 3 
 
 231864 Weldon Railroad Confederates U.S.... 604 
 
 241813 Beaver Dam English Eng.... 25 
 
 241898 Las Guasimas Spanish U.S.... 16 
 
 251862 Oak Grove, near Richmond Confederates U.S.... 61 
 
 25 1876 Big Horn ! Indians Ind . . . . 261 
 
 26 1862 Mechanicsville Confederates U. S 149 
 
 21 1861 Mathias Point Confederates Conf.. . 1 
 
 27 1862 Gaines Mill Conf ederates ! Conf .. . 3,000 
 
 27 1863 Shelbyville Confederates U. S . . . . 143 
 
 27 1864 White River Confederates, U.S.. . . 62 
 
 28 1776 Tort Moultrie English U.S. ... 11 
 
 28 1778 Monmouth English U. S . . . . 72 
 
 28 1779 Stone Ferry English Eng.. . . 61 
 
 281814 Wasp-Reindeer English |U.S 11 
 
 28 1862 Farraffitt at ricksburg Conf ederates U. S 15 
 
 28 1863 Donaldsonville Confederates U. S 1 
 
 291862 White Oak Swamp Confederates U.S.... 34 
 
 30 1815 Peacock-yantilus iEnglish U.S.... 
 
 30 1^47 Tamultay : Mexican JU.S. . . . 6 
 
 30 1864 Petersburg (ended) Confederates U . S 112 
 
 30 1864 Wilson's Raid (June 22-30) Confederates U.S.... I 76 
 
 JULY. 
 
 1 1862 MalvernHill Confederates:U.S.... 2,860 
 
 1 1863 Gettysburg (continued) .Confederates U.S 
 
 1 1863 Cabin Creek Confederates U.S.... 8 
 
 1 1898 El fancy Spanish U.S. . . . 88 
 
 1 1898 i San Juan (continued) Spanish |U. S 
 
 2 1863|Gettysburg^continued> Confederates U.S 
 
 2 1898 Aguadores(including July 1) Spanish f U.S 
 
 2 1898; San Juan (continued) Spanish U.S 
 
 3 1778 Wyoming, or Fort Forty English Eng 225 
 
 31863,Gettvsburg (ended) ". Confederates U.S 2,834 
 
 3 ?898 San Juan (ended) Spanish U S 151 
 
 3 1838 ' S^fini .-7ij squadron destroyed off Santiago Spanish U.S 1 
 
 4 1863 Helena Confederates U. S. . . . 98 
 
 41863 Tibb's Bend Confederates U.S 6 
 
 41863 Vicksburg (ended) Confederates U.S.... 545 
 
 5 1814 Chippewa English U.S.... 60 
 
 6 1862 Lebanon Confederates Conf ... 4 
 
 61776 Sachem-],rirat>er English U.S.... 1 
 
 6 1781 Jamestown Island English Eng 37 
 
 C 1864 Chattahoochee (continued; ConfederatesjU.S 
 
 7 1777 Castletowro English Eng.... 211 
 
 7 1862 Cache Swamp Confederates: U.S 8 
 
 7 1864 Legareville Conf ederates | Conf ... 36 
 
 8 1864 Chattahoochee (continued) Conf ederates, U.S 
 
 9 1780 Hazard-Duff English |U.S. . . . 2 
 
 9 1864 Monocacy Conf ederates ; Conf .. . 90 
 
 10 1864 Chattahoochee (ended) Confederates U. S 80 
 
 10 1898 Santiago (continued) Spanish U.S 
 
 11 1812 Decatilr-Commerce English U.S 
 
 11 1898 Santiago (continued) Spanish U.S 
 
 12 1863 Jackson Confederates U. S 88 
 
 12 1863 Near Donaldsonville Confederates Conf... 151 
 
 12 1898 Santiago (ended) Spanish U.S.... 2 
 
 13 1862 Murfreesboro Conf ederates U. S 33 
 
 13 1863 Falling "Waters ConfederatesiU.S 25 
 
 141813 Asp, attack on the English |Eng 4 
 
 151862 Arkansas Confederates U.S.... 18 
 
 15 1863 Shepardstown Confederates | * 22 
 
 15 1864 Tupelo, Harrisonburg, and Old Town 
 
 I Creek Confederates U. S .... 85 
 
 16 1779 Stony Point English U.S.... 20 
 
 161863 Wyoming-Japanese batteries Japanese U.S 6 
 
 16 1*63 James Island Confederates U.'S 24 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 "563 
 
 107 
 
 2 
 
 7,474 
 
 "76 
 
 11 
 19 
 
 2,494 
 
 50f 
 
 50 
 
 401 
 
 
 
 224 
 
 . 4 
 
 4,500 
 
 361 
 
 148 
 
 26 
 
 160 
 
 99 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 506 
 
 265 
 
 12 
 6 
 
 
 "47 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 984 
 
 "SO 
 
 156 
 30f 
 28 
 60 
 81 
 
 156 
 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 164 
 
 162 
 68 
 
 294 
 
 31 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 801 
 48 
 
 3,500 
 
 15 
 
 356 
 
 12 
 
 '"6 
 
 13,709 
 
 1,007 
 
 1 
 
 152 
 23 
 
 3,688 
 
 244 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 81 
 
 '583 
 45 
 61 
 
 "4 
 579 
 450 
 
 765 
 
 349 
 
 13 
 
 62 
 
 80 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 78 
 
 (63 
 70 
 4 
 76 
 
 3,023 
 
 42 
 120 
 
 10 
 
 ""2 
 
 4,000 
 
 204 
 
 342 
 
 205 
 
 280 
 
 25 
 
 199 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 "35 
 110 
 
 12 
 
 "si 
 
 78 
 201 
 
 
 
 47 
 125 
 10 
 10 
 34 
 
 184 
 63 
 
 100 
 48
 
 228 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 JULY Continued. 
 
 *4 
 
 >> CS 
 eg 
 fl fH 
 
 171863 
 18 1863 
 181863 
 191863 
 201864 
 2l| 1861 
 22.1812 
 221864 
 23 1864 
 211863 
 24 1864 
 25 1779 
 251814 
 261863 
 261864 
 271864 
 281864 
 29^1863 
 3011779 
 31 : 1812 
 311864 
 
 NAME OF BATTLE. 
 
 Opponent. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Opponents. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 AVounded. 
 
 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Indians 
 English 
 English 
 
 Confederates 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 17 
 21 
 624 
 2 
 301 
 481 
 
 499 
 
 60 
 62 
 876 
 8 
 1.411 
 1,011 
 
 2,142 
 
 59 
 836 
 3 
 572 
 12 
 32 
 15 
 601 
 42 
 16 
 
 
 2,076 
 
 153 
 3 
 26 
 12 
 880 
 362 
 3 
 1,162 
 
 "4i 
 
 26 
 3 
 201 
 22 
 48 
 12 
 864 
 32 
 6 
 
 
 793 
 
 378 
 8 
 74 
 41 
 3,916 
 1,390 
 9 
 7,337 
 
 "79 
 152 
 6 
 559 
 43 
 102 
 19 
 3,778 
 98 
 20 
 3 
 
 4,023 
 
 Wvtlieville , 
 
 
 Near Pomeroy 
 
 Peacli Tree Creek 
 
 Bull Run 
 
 
 Atlanta, Hood's first sortie 
 
 
 Manassas Gap 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 U.S.... 
 
 30 
 342 
 1 
 171 
 1 
 18 
 10 
 99 
 12 
 6 
 
 
 419 
 
 Martinsburg (ended) 
 
 Jason-privateer 
 
 Niagara (Lundy's Lane) 
 
 New Lisbon 
 
 Big Creek 
 Fort Smith 
 
 Ezra Chapel 
 
 Stony Lake 
 Holker-briff 
 
 JuliaGloucester 
 
 Petersburg (from July 1, exclusive of 
 losses at the Crater and Deep Bottom) 
 
 AUGUST. 
 
 11801 
 1 1812 
 11863 
 21813 
 31804 
 31812 
 31814 
 41812 
 41862 
 51813 
 6 1862 
 51864 
 61777 
 61862 
 71781 
 71804 
 81862 
 91812 
 91862 
 101861 
 11 1814 
 12 1776 
 121898 
 13 1812 
 131863 
 13 1898 
 141813 
 151814 
 161777 
 16 1780 
 171862 
 18 1779 
 181864 
 181804 
 19 1780 
 191812 
 191847 
 19 1864 
 201779 
 201847 
 20 1804 
 21 1863 
 21 1864 
 22 1814 
 23 1864 
 241814 
 251864 
 26163 
 27 1776 
 27 18(52 
 271863 
 28 1861 
 291779 
 29162 
 30 1814 
 30 1862 
 
 Enterprise- Tripoli 
 Yankee-Roi/al Bounty 
 Culpepper Court-House 
 
 Tripolitan . . . 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Tripolitan . . . 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Tripolitan . . . 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 Spanish 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Spanish 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 Mexican 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Mexican 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Indians 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 Eng..-. . 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 U.I.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 uis!!". 
 
 Eng.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 u!s!" 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 
 
 16 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 17 
 6 
 4 
 99 
 145 
 120 
 28 
 5 
 22 
 
 "is 
 
 450 
 223 
 1 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 8 
 6 
 17 
 30 
 94 
 12 
 2 
 
 401 
 
 'l62 
 
 7 
 20 
 
 "6 
 
 131 
 
 
 2 
 98 
 7 
 13 
 5 
 8 
 30 
 8 
 16 
 203 
 170 
 268 
 60 
 11 
 6 
 
 "58 
 660 
 721 
 5 
 8 
 
 
 18 
 40 
 17 
 56 
 41 
 281 
 18 
 3 
 1,754 
 
 '281 
 
 7 
 40 
 
 876 
 
 "22 
 1,155 
 
 42 
 42 
 516 
 144 
 188 
 28 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 -3 
 4,023 
 
 20 
 2 
 22 
 50 
 60 
 2 
 10 
 
 10 
 18 
 125 
 12 
 86 
 180 
 
 50t 
 
 "50 
 223 
 331 
 21 
 6 
 10t 
 
 28 
 
 '"2 
 222 
 59 
 80 
 3 
 5 
 338 
 
 '"2 
 
 15 
 700 
 
 ""a 
 
 i,noot 
 
 3 
 
 862 
 1 
 6 
 183 
 289 
 42 
 61 
 11 
 11 
 4 
 12 
 
 "is 
 
 1,0!)0 
 
 30 
 7 
 104 
 101 
 70 
 4 
 20 
 
 18 
 45 
 234 
 20 
 204 
 498 
 3 
 80t 
 
 "75 
 1,060 
 764 
 55 
 3 
 (?) 
 3 
 92 
 
 '"5 
 309 
 81 
 245 
 8 
 12 
 762 
 
 "21 
 C3 
 
 2.200 
 
 '"7 
 
 3,000f 
 
 "l4 
 
 3,138 
 2 
 33 
 297 
 1,211 
 75 
 257 
 16 
 31 
 25 
 34 
 
 20 
 6,154 
 
 Fort Stephenson 
 Attack on Tripoli 
 
 Atlas-Planter and Pursuit 
 Comoeta Creek 
 
 Browns town 
 
 Malvern No. 2 
 
 Decatur- Dominica 
 
 Baton Rouge 
 
 Farragiit in Mobile 
 
 Fort Schuyler 
 
 Kirksville 
 
 TrumbiiH-Iris 
 
 Attack on Tripoli 
 
 Cedar Mountain (continued) 
 
 Maguaga 
 
 Ce(lar Mountain (ended) 
 
 Wilson Creek 
 
 jStonington 
 
 Andrea Uoria-Iiacehorse 
 ManzaniUo 
 
 Essex Alert 
 
 Pineville 
 
 Manila 
 
 Argus Pelican 
 
 Fort Erie 
 
 Bennington 
 
 Camden 
 London-Ky 
 
 Paulus Hook 
 Strawberry Plains, etc 
 
 Six-Mile House (continued) 
 
 Catawba Fords 
 
 Constitution-Guerriere 
 
 Contreras 
 
 Six-Mile House (continued) 
 
 Mars-Active 
 Churubusco . 
 
 Six-Mile House (continued) 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 Conf... 
 Eng.... 
 
 * 
 
 Conf... 
 Eng 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf 
 
 110 
 212 
 
 13 
 30 
 127 
 63 
 62 
 14 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Six-Mile House (ended) 
 Diomede- Upton 
 Duvall's Bluff 
 
 Bladensburg 
 
 Ream's Station 
 
 White Sulphur Springs 
 
 Long Island 
 Manassas Junction 
 
 Bavou Metea 
 
 
 Newtown 
 Bull Rim No. 2 (continued) 
 
 Moornelds 
 Bull Run No. 2 (ended) 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 
 
 
 798
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 229 
 
 AUGUST Continued. 
 
 ^ 
 
 NAME OF BATTLE. 
 
 Opponent. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Opponents. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 1862 
 1SC4 
 1864 
 
 Richmond, Kv 
 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 199 
 
 87 
 
 689 
 
 484 
 
 153 
 101 
 
 248 
 605 
 
 Petersburg (Anguflt 1 to August 31) - ... 
 
 Jonesboro, Ga. (continued) 
 
 SEPTEMBER. 
 
 1 1814 Wasp-Avon 
 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Indians 
 Tripolitan... 
 Indians 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Mexican 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Mexican 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Trip . . . 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 uis!!! 
 
 Conf... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng 
 U.S.... 
 U.S... 
 * 
 
 Eng.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 1 
 8 
 13 
 2 
 2 
 11 
 88 
 
 130 
 23 
 17 
 8 
 27 
 22 
 289 
 37 
 52 
 42 
 24 
 116 
 80 
 312 
 115 
 15 
 4 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 1,149 
 7 
 2 
 23 
 
 2 
 10 
 19 
 34 
 1 
 349 
 57 
 19 
 31 
 96 
 59 
 568 
 62 
 58 
 108 
 139 
 671 
 120 
 1,234 
 418 
 22 
 5 
 8 
 8 
 
 2ie 
 
 9,416 
 3 
 
 '252 
 598 
 
 10 
 408 
 3 
 6 
 194 
 20 
 8 
 4 
 25 
 86 
 10 
 85 
 
 
 46 
 41 
 31 
 98 
 50 
 84 
 33 
 80 
 l.OOOt 
 
 224 
 98 
 29 
 32 
 2 
 3 
 
 iio 
 
 1,812 
 3 
 
 161 
 385 
 
 32 
 
 1,502 
 
 26 
 42 
 30 
 20 
 17 
 31 
 142 
 19 
 402 
 2 
 
 89 
 94 
 45 
 398 
 98 
 110 
 65 
 301 
 2,0001 
 
 860 
 342 
 31 
 40 
 20 
 
 
 '256 
 9,399 
 8 
 
 "328 
 692 
 
 1 1864 Jonesboro (ended) 
 
 2 1812 L>olph \ii-t >C(, *1, ij,s 
 3 1777.' llali-i'/l, - l>r;<l 
 3 1863 Whitestone Hill 
 4 1804 Intrepid 
 
 5 1812 Fort Harrison ... ... 
 
 5 1813 E nt erprine- Boxer 
 
 6 1781 Congri*x-*"r<it/<\. 
 C 1781 New London 
 
 71813 Gen Arm strong Queen 
 
 8 1781 Phitaw Springs 
 8 1862 Boat attack on Charleston 
 
 8 1863 Sabine Pass 
 
 9 1847 Del Rev 
 
 10 1813 Lake Erie 
 10 1863 Little Rock 
 
 11 1777 Brandvwine 
 11 1M4 Plattsburg 
 
 11 1814 Lake Ch<nn plain 
 12 1862 Lexington. Mo 
 
 13 1814 Near Baltimore 
 13 1847 Chapultepec 
 
 13 1863 Harper's Ferrv 
 
 14 1862 South Mounta'in 
 
 14 186- Crampton Gap 
 
 14 isi;-' Mumlordsville 
 
 15 1814 Fort Bowver 
 
 16 1776 Harlem Plains 
 
 16 1812 Itossie-Priin-i** Aim I'M 
 10 I*-''*- Antietam (continued; 
 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Indians 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Mexican 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 
 17 1--14 Fort Erie (sortie) 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf. . . 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 Conf... 
 Eng.... 
 
 U.S..'. 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 u s 
 
 79 
 2,010 
 1 
 
 "98 
 144 
 
 '653 
 3 
 1,644 
 94 
 8 
 49 
 
 142 
 2 
 2 
 47 
 3 
 10 
 
 17 lsc.2 \ntietam (ended) 
 
 18 1778 1'engea nce-Ha rriet 
 18 1863 Chickamauga (continued). 
 
 19 1777 Still water 
 
 19 1862 luka 
 
 19 1863 Chickamauga (continued). 
 
 Ill 1SG4 Opefpuan 
 
 3,719 
 10 
 9,262 
 162 
 24 
 67 
 
 364 
 j 
 
 7 
 151 
 
 8 
 17 
 
 1,632 
 2 
 6,000 
 2 
 84 
 49 
 12 
 2001 
 4 
 137 
 245 
 7 
 12 
 
 3,868 
 3 
 10,000 
 5 
 138 
 68 
 18 
 450t 
 4 
 107 
 756 
 16 
 20 
 
 20 1777 7 ' 1'iiiffton Alert 
 
 1>*<>3 ('hickain;ui' T a (ended) 
 
 '1 1777 Gen Wa vne 
 
 22 1862 Wood Lake 
 
 23 1779 lionhomme Hicliard-Serapis 
 
 23 1864 Athens Ala 
 
 24 1*4<> Monterev 
 
 L>5 ! ^\'2 Globe-Sir Simon Clark 
 26 1814 Gen. Armstrong-British boats 
 27 1864 Fort Davidson 
 
 
 2818137"/.' Ontario 
 
 23 1864 New M'irket Heights (continued). 
 
 29 1864 Xew Alarket Heights (continued). ... 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 
 T-.S.... 
 
 U.S.... 
 
 "ii 
 
 398 
 
 40 
 
 2,031 
 
 ""6 
 399 
 
 '"2 
 1,601 
 
 30 1863 Major Montgomery 1 
 30 1864 Xew Market Heights (ended) 
 
 30 1864 Preble's Farm (continued) 
 
 OCTOBER. 
 
 1 1864 1'relne's Farm Bended) 
 
 Confederates U. S 
 
 141 
 
 7" 
 
 214 
 
 686 
 
 1 1861 Harrison 
 
 Confederates U. S 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 2 1863 Anderson's Cross-Roads 
 
 Confederates L'.S 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 41 
 
 3 Isl4 SVf iif// Jtif/c-tronp ah ip 
 
 English T'.S 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 1862 Corinth (continued) 
 
 Confederates U. S 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 1777 Germantown 
 
 English Eng 
 
 189 
 
 542 
 
 98 
 
 402 
 
 4 181" Ogdensburg 
 
 English U.S 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 1862 Corinth (ended) 
 
 Confederates U.S 
 
 315 
 
 1,812 
 
 1,423 
 
 5,692 
 
 4 1 <63 Baxter's Springs 
 
 Confederates Conf.. . 
 
 80 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 32 
 
 5 1813 Moravian towns 
 5 1864 Allatoona 
 (51777 Fort* Montgomery and Clinton 
 
 English U.S.... 
 Confederates I.s 
 English Eng 
 
 7 
 142 
 84 
 
 22 
 352 
 166 
 
 80 
 338 
 62 
 
 101 
 704 
 141 
 
 6 1782 Wasp-packet 
 7 1777 Saratoga 
 7 1780 King's Mountain 
 7 1812 Caledonia an<1 Def roit-ftoats 
 
 English U.S.... 
 English U.S.... 
 English T'.S.... 
 English U.S 
 
 3 
 32 
 28 
 1 
 
 10 
 61 
 60 
 4 
 
 4 
 98 
 168 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 156 
 284 
 10
 
 230 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 OCTOBER Continued. 
 
 i 
 
 o >< 
 
 71863 
 8 1780 
 81862 
 8 1770 
 91779 
 91814 
 101863 
 111776 
 12 1800 
 121863 
 13 1812 
 13:1863 
 141863 
 15 1779 
 16 1776 
 171862 
 181812 
 19 1781 
 19 1814 
 191863 
 191864 
 20 '1863 
 21 1861 
 221777 
 22 1862 
 231862 
 24 1864 
 251776 
 25 1812 
 251863 
 251864 
 261846 
 271863 
 27 1861 
 27 1864 
 27 i 1864 
 281863 
 281864 
 291863 
 301864 
 3111799 
 
 NAME OF BATTLE. 
 
 Opponent. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Opponents. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded. 
 
 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 English 
 French 
 
 U.S... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 Eng.... 
 
 v'.s'.'.'.'. 
 
 Eng 
 
 U.S.... 
 
 8 
 2 
 916 
 
 9s 
 08 
 
 33 
 30 
 4 
 
 16 
 4 
 2,943 
 136 
 173 
 23 
 62 
 50 
 11 
 
 160 
 
 162 
 150 
 5 
 
 u 
 
 6 
 5 
 16 
 54 
 23 
 3,516 
 73 
 226 
 21 
 
 'l52 
 
 "GG 
 
 7 
 40 
 C2 
 
 
 6 
 1.017 
 
 "783 
 339 
 822 
 
 
 22 
 ~6 
 980 
 20 
 18 
 33 
 48 
 15 
 4 
 
 "56 
 84 
 150 
 4 
 16 
 44 
 15 
 199 
 20 
 4 
 961 
 34 
 58 
 142 
 
 "ii 
 
 89 
 38 
 39 
 78 
 4 
 
 '"o 
 
 247 
 
 ']50 
 153 
 240 
 OS 
 
 37 
 10 
 
 1.5-'0 
 35 
 37 
 
 37 
 94 
 26 
 17 
 
 'ioi 
 
 205 
 250 
 11 
 24 
 108 
 47 
 353 
 60 
 31 
 3,239 
 62 
 242 
 258 
 
 '162 
 ii4 
 
 68 
 111 
 135 
 10 
 
 '"6 
 763 
 
 301 
 206 
 
 761 
 70 
 
 Saratoya-Molly 
 Perry ville 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Assault on Savannah 
 Prince de NeuchatelEndymion 
 
 
 
 
 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 English 
 Indians 
 English 
 English 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 Confederates 
 English 
 
 Conf . . . 
 
 Queenstown 
 Arrow Rock (ended) 
 
 Eng... 
 U..S ... 
 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf.. 
 
 00 
 45 
 50 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 588 
 26 
 223 
 11 
 
 Bristow Station 
 
 
 Ranger-privateer 
 
 Fort Ridgeley 
 Wasp-Frolic 
 Yorktown (ended) 
 
 Cook's Mills 
 Buckland's Mills 
 
 Cedar Creek 
 
 Philadelphia, Tenn 
 
 Ball's Bluff 
 
 Red Bank 
 
 Pocotaligo (ended) 
 
 Conf... 
 U.S .. 
 
 81 
 
 Big Blue (continued) 
 
 White Plains 
 
 * 
 
 24 
 5 
 17 
 41 
 
 
 ""2 
 
 5G 
 
 '{}<) 
 
 76 
 170 
 
 
 United Slates-Macedonian 
 Pine Bluff ... 
 
 English U.S 
 Confederates U. S 
 Confederates U.S 
 Mexican U.S 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates * 
 Confederates * 
 Confederates U.S.... 
 Confederates! * 
 Confederates U.S 
 Confederates U.S.... 
 Picaroons ...|U.S 
 
 Big Blue (ended) 
 
 Tabasco 
 Wauhatchie (continued) 
 
 Albemarle 
 
 Hatcher's Run ... 
 
 Fair Oaks (continued) 
 
 Wauhatchie (con tinned) 
 Fair Oaks (ended) 
 
 Wauhatchie (ended) 
 
 Petersburg (September 1-October 3 >) . ... 
 Norfolk-Picaroons 
 
 NOVEMBER. 
 
 1 1779 Jason-Perseus English 
 
 2 1813 Governor Tompkins-M<iry Ann .* 
 
 3 1813 Talluschatches 
 
 3 1863 Near Opelousas 
 
 4 1812 Mar en/io- Leonidas 
 
 5 1812 Paul Jones- Hassan. 
 
 English 
 
 Indians 
 
 Confederates 
 English 
 
 Eng... 
 U.S... 
 
 U.S... 
 
 * 
 
 U.S... 
 
 English :U.S.. 
 
 t (continued) jConfederatesjConf . 
 
 6,1863 Droop Mountain Confederates U.S.. 
 
 Confederates Conf. 
 Confederates Conf. 
 Indians U.S.. 
 
 6 1863 Rogersville 
 
 6 1863 Campbell Station 
 
 7 ISlljTippecanoe 
 
 71861 Port Royal Confederates U. S . 
 
 7 1861 Belmont (ended) [Confederates U. S . 
 
 7 1863 Rappahannock Station Confederates U.S. 
 
 8 1813 Globe-packets :English.. 
 
 9 1813 Talladega | Indians 
 
 10 1813 \Saucy Jack-Sherltroke 'English 
 
 11 1813 Chrysler's Fields English 
 
 121813 Tom-Townsend English... 
 
 13 1776 Alfred-transports English.. , 
 
 14 1813 Wile Renard~8hip English . . , 
 
 15 1779 J insert inpnt-Harlem English... 
 
 16 1776 Industry-trig 'English.. , 
 
 16 1776 Mount Washington [English.. . 
 
 U.S.. 
 
 U.S.. 
 
 U.S.. 
 
 * 
 
 U.S.. 
 
 U.S.. 
 U.S.. 
 U.S.. 
 
 * 
 
 Eng. . . 
 
 17 1847, Guaymas Mexican I ' . S . . . 
 
 17 1863 Knoxville Confederates * 
 
 18 I813J Hillabee towns ! Indians . 
 
 19 1847 Urias 'Mexican U.S.... 
 
 20J1780 Ennoree Ford ~ 
 
 20 lS.~y6 Canton Forts (continued) 
 
 21 1847 San Jose' 
 
 21 1*56 Canton Forts (continued). 
 
 Mexican 
 
 Chinese^. 
 
 22 1776 Lee-ship English 
 
 22 1856 Canton Forts (ended) Chinese I'. S 
 
 j:: 1*63 Chattanooga, including Orchard Knob, 
 
 Lookout Mountain, and Missionary 
 
 Ridge (continued) '. Confederates U.S... 
 
 U.S. 
 
 41 
 5 
 
 112 
 
 37 
 
 8 
 
 90 
 
 119 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 L'4 
 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 
 n 
 
 124 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 71) 
 12 
 
 1*6 
 
 151 
 
 23 
 
 173 
 
 250 
 
 18 
 
 86 
 
 3 
 
 237 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 101 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 1*6 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 "82 
 3 
 
 136 
 
 120 
 
 11 
 
 231 
 
 80 
 
 9 
 
 299 
 2 
 22 
 8 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 263 
 
 12 
 18 
 61 
 
 a 
 
 400
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 231 
 
 NOVEMBER Continued. 
 
 - - 
 
 NA MK <>f BATTLK. 
 
 Opponent. 
 
 Victor. 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Killed. Wounded. 
 
 Opponents. 
 
 Killed. ; Wounded. 
 
 24 1863 Chattanooga, etc. (continued) 
 
 25 18(53 Chattanooga, etc. (ended) 
 
 26 1863 Operations at Mine Run (continued). 
 
 27 l>-63 Operations at Mine Run (continued).. 
 
 28 1812 Niagara batteries 
 
 28 1863 Mine Run (ended) 
 
 29 1813 Autosse 
 
 29 18C3 Knoxville 
 
 30 1864 Franklin, Tenn 
 
 30 1864 Honey Hill, S. C 
 
 Confederates U. S . 
 .S. 
 
 .S. 
 
 . ; Confederates U 
 . 'Confederates U 
 Confederates IT.S 
 
 757 
 
 4 .-.".I 
 
 850 
 
 English 
 
 U.S. 
 
 Confederates U.S. 
 
 Indians... 
 
 U.S. 
 
 . Confederates U. S. 
 . i Confederates: U.S. 
 . Confederates' Conf 
 
 99 
 11 
 24 
 189 
 66 
 
 11' 
 3'> 
 
 M 
 
 1,033 
 645 
 
 14 
 
 121 
 
 204 
 
 259 
 
 1,141 
 
 18 
 
 2,150 
 
 30 
 
 432 
 
 
 
 432 
 
 5,113 
 
 114 
 
 DECEMBER. 
 
 2 1777 -Wassach usftt* L n-n*ifale English 
 3 1815 Kemp-merchantmen (armed) English 
 4 1T81 Prospfriti/-prii'ateer English 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 U.S.... 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 
 Conf... 
 
 U S.... 
 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 
 Conf... 
 Conf 
 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 38 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 167 
 
 48 
 
 "is 
 
 39 
 3 
 
 5 
 4 
 8 
 6'3 
 13 
 
 "36 
 
 798 
 102 
 
 "22 
 390 
 
 7 
 
 gjioi 
 
 35 
 
 478 
 
 
 1,741 
 26 
 
 478 
 3 
 4 
 12 
 9 
 6 
 113 
 
 "4 
 63 
 4 
 
 " 8 
 990 
 69 
 25 
 
 "42 
 139 
 
 6 
 3 
 4 
 
 21 
 6 
 
 "42 
 161 
 35 
 
 "32 
 112 
 
 2 
 
 'SOS 
 17 
 71 
 24 
 
 "584 
 39 
 201 
 23 
 2 
 6 
 5 
 30 
 99 
 
 17 
 3 
 3 
 
 '126 
 63 
 7 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 48 
 
 13 
 8 
 9 
 32 
 21 
 
 64 
 817 
 115 
 
 "68 
 
 228 
 5 
 
 4,061 
 
 77 
 268 
 81 
 
 3,62! 
 
 
 538 
 
 21 
 11 
 13 
 
 230 
 
 "78 
 55 
 8 
 
 "149 
 134 
 19 
 101 
 
 "'s 
 
 152 
 
 5 1863 Coff eeville Confederates 
 
 6 1812 Montgomery-armed ship English 
 
 7 1777 Chestnut Hill. . English . 
 
 7 18ii2 Prairie Grove Confederates 
 
 7 18 Y> Hartsville Confederates 
 
 s 1M51 Deveraux's Neck (continued) Confederates 
 
 186 > Col. Matthews Confederates 
 
 <\ lM>i Deveraux's Neck(ended) Confederates 
 
 10 1812 Saratoga-M<ir(>iiiii<i English 
 11 1862 Fredericksburg (continued) Confederates 
 
 1 1*62 Fredericksburg (continued) Confederates 
 
 13 1862 Fredericksburg (ended) Confederates 
 14 1814 Lake Borgnt English 
 14 1862 Kinston Confederates 
 
 Conf... 
 Eng.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 U S 
 
 1,152 
 6 
 90 
 
 
 '399 
 11 
 90 
 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 4 
 1 
 24 
 
 15 1775 Great Bridge.. . . English . .. 
 
 15 1864 Nashville (continued) Confederates 
 
 16 1864 Nashville (ended) Confederates 
 17 1812 Massasinewa Indians 
 
 \~ 1*6 Foster's expedition (ended) Confederates 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 Conf... 
 
 * 
 
 U.S.... 
 U.S.... 
 Eng.... 
 Conf 
 
 19 1776 Rover-Africa English. 
 
 20 186 9 Holly Springs Confederates 
 
 ''1 1 779 SaUii-transports English" 
 
 22 1778 S<ifi/f<i'.i<i-<-'liance English 
 23 1813 Econochaca Indians 
 3 1*14 Xear New Orleans English.. 
 
 9 4 1864 Port -Ki.s/iT(continued) Confederates 
 
 25 1776 Trenton English 
 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 
 * 
 
 Conf. . . 
 U.S.... 
 Conf... 
 Eng.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 r.s.... 
 
 Eng.... 
 U.S.... 
 
 r.s.... 
 
 2 
 20 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 724 
 28 
 9 
 
 is 
 
 23 
 
 25 1864 Fort Fisher (continued) Confederates 
 26 1"81 Ht James ship (armed) English. . 
 
 
 8 1H14 Near New"Orleans.* English 
 
 28 1862 Vicksburg assault (ended) Confederates 
 "'> 177 s Savannah English 
 
 29 1812 Constitution-Java English 
 30 1862 Murfreesboro( continued) Confederates 
 
 31 1775 Quebec English 
 31 1862 Parker's Cross-Roads Confederates 
 
 31 1862 Murfreesboro (continued) : Confederates 
 
 THE RUTGERS OF FRANCE FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1792. 
 
 The First Republic. 
 
 The National Convention first sat Sept. 21, 1792 
 
 The Directory nominated Nov. 1, 1795 
 
 The Consulate. 
 
 Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun Dec. 24, 1799 
 
 Bonaparte, Consul for ten years May 6, 1802 
 
 Bonapart*, Consul for life . Aug. 2, 1802 
 
 The Empire. 
 
 Napoleon I. decreed Emperor May 18, 18^4 
 
 Napoleon II. (never reigned) died July 22, 132 
 
 The Restoration. 
 
 Louis XVIII. re-entered Paris May 3, 1814 
 
 Charles X. (dep. July 30, 1830, d. Nov. G, 18^6) 1824 
 
 The House of Orleans. 
 
 Louis Philippe, King ol the French 1830 
 
 (Abdicated Feb. 24, 1848, died Aug. 2o, 1850.) 
 
 The Second Republic. 
 
 Provisional Government formed Feb. 22. 1848 
 
 Louis Napoleon elected President Dec. 19, 1848 
 
 The Second Empire. 
 
 Napoleon III . elected Emperor Nov. 22, 1852 
 
 (Deposed Sept. 4, 1870, died Jan. 9, 1873.) 
 The Third Republic. 
 
 Committee of Public Defense Sept. 4,1870 
 
 L. A. Thiers Elected President Aug. 31, 1871 
 
 Marshal MacMahon elected President May 24, 1873 
 
 Jules Grevy elected President Jan. 30, 1879 
 
 Marie F. S. Carnpt elected President Dec. 3,1887 
 
 (Assassinated at Lyons, June 24, 1894.) 
 
 Jean Casimir Perier elected President June 27, 1894 
 
 Felix Franyois Faure elected President Jan. 17, 1895 
 
 (Assassinated, in Paris, Feb. 16, 1899.) 
 M. Emile Loubet elected President Feb. 18, 1899
 
 232 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 A TABLE OF THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 SAXONS AND DANES. 
 First King of all England . .. 
 
 Accession. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Age. I Reigned. 
 
 Egbert 
 
 827 
 837 
 8581 
 858 f 
 8f6 
 871 
 901 
 925 
 940 
 946 
 955 
 958 
 975 
 979 
 1016 
 1017 
 1035 
 1040 
 1042 
 1066 
 
 1066 
 1087 
 1100 
 1135 
 
 1154 
 1189 
 1199 
 121G 
 1272 
 1307 
 1327 
 1377 
 
 1399 
 1413 
 1422 
 
 1461 
 1483 
 1483 
 
 1485 
 1509 
 1547 
 1553 
 1558 
 
 1603 
 1625 
 
 1649 
 1653 
 1658 
 
 1660 
 1685 
 
 1689 
 1702 
 
 1714 
 17.'7 
 1760 
 1820 
 1830 
 1837 
 1901 
 
 839 
 858 
 860 
 866 
 871 
 901 
 925 
 940 
 946 
 955 
 958 
 975 
 979 
 1016 
 1(116 
 1035 
 1040 
 1042 
 1066 
 1066 
 
 1087 
 
 lino 
 
 1135 
 1154 
 
 1189 
 1199 
 1216 
 1272 
 1307 
 1327 
 1377 
 Dep. 1399 
 
 1413 
 1422 
 Dep. 1461 
 
 1483 
 1483 
 1485 
 
 1509 
 1547 
 1553 
 1558 
 1603 
 
 1625 
 1649 
 
 1658 
 Res. 1669 
 
 1C85 
 Dep. 1688 
 Dec. 1701 
 1 17(12 
 
 (1R94 
 1714 
 
 1727 
 1760 
 1820 
 1830 
 1837 
 1901 
 
 52 
 46 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 31 
 
 17 
 
 28 
 40 
 
 64 
 
 60 
 43 
 67 
 
 49 
 
 5C 
 42 
 51 
 65 
 67 
 43 
 65 
 33 
 
 46 
 34 
 49 
 
 41 
 12 
 
 as 
 
 52 
 55 
 16 
 42 
 69 
 
 58 
 48 
 
 59 
 
 54 
 
 68 
 
 51 
 
 32 
 49 
 
 67 
 77 
 82 
 68 
 72 
 81 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 2 
 8 
 5 
 30 
 24 
 15 
 6 
 9 
 3 
 17 
 4 
 37 
 1 
 18 
 5 
 2 ' 
 24 
 
 
 21 
 13 
 35 
 19 
 
 35 
 10 
 17 
 56 
 35 
 20 
 50 
 22 
 
 14 
 9 
 39 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 38 
 6 
 5 
 45 
 
 22 
 24 
 
 25 
 3 
 
 is 
 
 5 
 12 
 
 13 
 33 
 60 
 10 
 7 
 63 
 
 Ethelwulf 
 (Ethelbald 
 
 Son of Egbert 
 
 Snn of F.fllplwnlf . 
 
 Ethelbert Second son of Ethelwulf 
 
 Ethelred Third son of Ethelwulf . . 
 
 Alfred. Fourth son of Ethelwulf , 
 
 Edward the Elder Son of Alfred 
 
 Athelstan Eldest son of Edward 
 
 Edmund. Brother of Athelstan . . .... 
 
 Edred . . . Brother of Edmund 
 
 Edwy ! Son of Edmund 
 
 Edgar ISecond son of Edmund 
 
 Edward the Martyr 
 Ethelred 11 .'... ... 
 
 ' Son of Edgar 
 
 1 Half-brother of Edward 
 
 Edmund Ironside 
 Canute 
 
 Eldest son of Ethelred 
 
 By conquest and election 
 
 Harold I. 
 
 
 Hardicanute 
 
 Another son of Canute 
 
 Edward the Confessor. . 
 Harold II 
 
 Son of Ethelred II 
 
 Brother-in-law of Edward 
 
 William I ... 
 
 THE HOUSE OF NORMANDY. 
 
 William II 
 
 Third son of William I 
 
 Henry I 
 
 
 Stephen . 
 
 Third son of Stephen Count of Blois 
 
 Henry II 
 
 THE HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET. 
 Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet 
 
 Richard I 
 
 Eldest surviving son of Henry II 
 
 John . ... 
 
 Sixth and youngest son of Henry II 
 
 Henry III 
 
 ElflnRt son "of. John . 
 
 Edward I Eldest son of Henry ill 
 
 Edward II Eldest surviving son of Edward I 
 Edward III Eldest son of Edward TT . 
 
 Richard 11 
 
 Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III. 
 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 
 Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III. 
 
 F.ldpst son of TTpnrv TV 
 
 Henry IV... 
 
 Henry V 
 
 Henry VI Onlv son of Henrv V. lA\ct\ WT\\ 
 
 Edward IV 
 
 THE HOUSE OF YORK. 
 
 His grandfather was Richard, son of Edmund, 
 fifth son of Edward III. ; and his grandmother, 
 Anne, was great-granddaughter of Lionel, third 
 son of Edward III 
 
 Edward V 
 
 Eldest son of Edward IV 
 
 Riehard III 
 
 Younger brother of Edward IV 
 
 Henry VII 
 
 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 
 Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor, by 
 Katharine, widow of Henry V.; his mother, 
 Margaret Beaufort, was great-granddaughter 
 of John of Gaunt 
 
 Henry VIII 
 
 Only surviving son of Henry VII 
 
 Edward VI 
 
 Son of Henrv VIII , by Jane Sevmour 
 
 Mary I 
 
 Daughterof'Henry VIII.,bvKatherine of Aragon 
 Daughter of Henry VIII by Anne Boleyn 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 James I 
 
 THE HOUSE OF STUART. 
 Son of Mary Queen of Scots, granddaughter of 
 James IV. and Margaret, daughter of HenrvVII. 
 Only surviving son of James I 
 
 Charles I 
 
 Commonwealth . . . 
 
 
 Commonwealth declared May 19 
 
 Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector 
 
 \ 
 Charles II 
 
 Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector 
 
 THE HOUSE OF STUART RESTORED. 
 Eldest son of Charles I 
 
 James II 
 
 Second son of Charles I. (died Sept. 1C, 1701). . 
 (Interregnum, Dec. 11, 1688 Feb. 13, 1C89.) 
 Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Marv, ) 
 daughter of Charles 1 7. .... { 
 
 William III ( 
 
 and 
 
 M..I-, TT / 
 
 Anne 
 
 Secoud daughter of James II 
 
 George I 
 
 THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 
 Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter 
 of Elizabeth, daughter of James I 
 Only son of George I 
 
 George II 
 
 George III 
 George IV 
 William IV 
 
 Grandson of George II .... 
 Eldest son of George III 
 Third son of George III 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III... 
 Son ot Victoria 
 
 Edward VII
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 233 
 
 DICTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 ABBREVIATION*: Am., American. Br., British. Dan., "Danish. Eng., English. Fl., 
 jinn risked. Fr., French. Ger., German. Gr., Greek. Ir., Irish. It., Italian. Nor., Nor- 
 irii/iun. Port.. Portuguese. l } rus., Prussian. Rom., Roman. Scot., Scottish. Sp., SJKIHI*/I. 
 .">".. Swedish. 
 
 The numbers after each name indicate the years of birth and death. An interrogation 
 mark denotes that the date is doubtful. After the names of the Popes the first date indicates 
 time of accession unless otherwise stated. 
 
 ABBAS I. (the Great), 1557-1628, shah of 
 Persia. 
 
 ABBASSIDES, fl. within 749-1258, famous 
 dynasty of Caliphs at Bagdad and Damascus. 
 
 ABBOTT, John Stevens Cabot, 1805-77, Am. 
 historian. 
 
 ABD-EL-KADER, 1807-83, emir of Algeria. 
 
 ABELARD, Pierre, 1079-1142, Fr. orator and 
 philosopher. 
 
 ABERCKOMBIE, James, 1706-81. Br. gen- 
 eral in America. 
 
 ABEKCKOMBIE, John, 1781-1844, Scot, met- 
 aphysician. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sir Ralph, 1734-1801, Br. 
 general. 
 
 ABERNETHV, John, 1764-1831, Eng. anato- 
 mist. 
 
 ABOUT, Edmond, 1828-85, Fr. author. 
 
 ABRAHAM (or ABRAM), born about 2000 B. 
 C., and died at the age of 175, Hebrew prince 
 and patriarch. 
 
 ADAMS. Charles Francis, 1807-88, Am. 
 statesman, son of J. Q. A. ; negotiated treaty 
 of Geneva. 
 
 ADAMS, John, first vice-president and sec- 
 ond president of the United States ; one of the 
 negotiators of the treaty of peace with Great 
 Britain, 1782 ; defeated by Jefferson for the 
 presidency in 1800, he retired to private life. 
 
 ADAMS. John Quincy, 1768-1848, son of 
 J. A., sixth president of the United States; 
 being elected by the House ; defeated by Jack- 
 son in 1828 ; elected to the House in 1830, his 
 oratory gained for him the title "Old Man 
 Eloquent " ; member of the House until 1848, 
 in which year, while in his seat at the Capitol, 
 he received a stroke of paralysis, which caused 
 his death. 
 
 ADAMS, Samuel, 1722-1803, Governor of 
 Massachusetts ; one of the popular leaders of 
 the Revolution ; signer of the Declaration of In- 
 dependence. 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, 1672-1719, Eng. poet, 
 moralist, and dramatist. 
 
 ADRIAN I., pope from 772-95 : II., 867-72 : 
 III., 884-5 ; IV., 1154-9 : V., 1276, died same 
 year; VI., 1521-3. 
 
 JESCHINES, 389-14 B.C., Athenian orator. 
 
 JESCHYLUS, 525-450 B.C., first great tragic 
 poet and founder of the drama. 
 
 jEsop, 619?-564 B.C., Gr. fabulist; a slave, 
 but liberated by his master on account of his 
 talents. 
 
 AFFRE, Denis Auguste, 1793-1848, arch- 
 bishop of Paris ; killed during the insurrection 
 of June, 1848. 
 
 AGASSIZ, Louis, 1807-73, Swiss naturalist; 
 professor at Harvard ; founded museum of 
 I comparative zoology, Cambridge. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Cnaeus Julius, -37-93, Rom. geu- 
 , eral. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius, 63-12 B.C., 
 Rom. soldier and statesman. 
 
 AINSWORTH, William Harrison, 1805-82, 
 Eng. novelist. 
 
 AKBAR, 1542-1605, most illustrious of the 
 Mogul emperors. 
 
 AKENSIDE, Mark, 1721-70, Eng. physician, 
 poet, and scholar. 
 
 ALADDIN, fl. 1375, son of Osman and organ- 
 izer of the Janissaries. 
 
 ALARIC, 350V-410, king of the Visigoths. 
 
 ALBERT, or ALBERT FRANCIS, Augustus 
 Charles Emmanuel, prince of Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha, 1819-61, consort of Queen Victoria. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Alfonso, Marquis de, 1453- 
 : 1515, Portuguese conqueror. 
 
 ALCIBIADES, 450-404 B.C., Athenian gen- 
 1 eral. 
 
 ALCOTT, Amos Bronson, 1799-1888, Am. 
 philosopher and teacher. 
 
 ALCOTT, Louisa May, 1833-88, Am. au- 
 ' thoress. 
 
 ALEMBERT, Jean le Rond d', 1717-83, Fr. 
 geometer. 
 
 ALEXANDER (the Great), 356-323 B.C., 
 king of Macedon ; taught by Aristotle ; as- 
 cended the throne of Macedon 336, destroyed 
 Thebes and was chosen commander of the 
 Greeks against Persia ; invaded Asia Minor in 
 334, defeating Darius on the banks of the 
 Granicus ; in 333 he almost annihilated the 
 Persian army at the battle of Issus ; cut the 
 Gordian knot and caused the Ammonian oracle 
 to declare him the son of Jupiter Amnion ; 
 captured Tyre in 332, and, having invaded 
 Egypt, founded Alexandria; iu 331 he de- 
 feated Darius at Arbela ; elated by his success, 
 he claimed the homage due to a god, stabbing 
 , his foster-brother Clitus for refusal to pay such
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 homage ; invaded India in 327. advancing as 
 far as the Hyphasis : his death is said to have 
 been caused by excessive drinking. 
 
 ALFIERI, Yittorio, 1749-1803, It. poet. 
 
 ALFRED (the Great), 8497-901, king of the 
 West Saxons ; one of the greatest and noblest 
 of Englishmen ; established schools and a sys- 
 tem of police, and founded a navy. 
 
 ALLEN, Ethan, 1737-89, Am. Revolutionary 
 commander ; captured Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point in 1775 with only eighty-three men. 
 
 ALLIBONE, Samuel Austin, 1816-89, Am. 
 writer. 
 
 ALLSTON, Washington, 1779-1843, Am. 
 painter. 
 
 ALVA, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke 
 of, 1508-82, Spanish commander in Nether- 
 lands ; infamous for cruelty. 
 
 AMBROSE, Saint, 340?-97, one of the fathers 
 of the Church. 
 
 AMERICUS, see Vespucci. 
 
 AMES, Fisher, 1758-1808, Am. orator and 
 statesman. 
 
 AMHERST, Jeffrey (Lord A mherst), 1717-97, 
 Br. general and field-marshal and governor of 
 Virginia. 
 
 AMPERE, Andre Marie, 1775-1836, Fr. elec- 
 trician and natural philosopher. 
 
 ANACREON, B. C. 560?-478, Gr. lyric poet. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, B. C. 500-428, Gr. philos- 
 opher ; " the father of modern science." 
 
 ANAXIMANDER, B. C. 610-547, Gr. philos- 
 opher. 
 
 ANDERSEN, Hans Christian, 1805-75, Dan. 
 author. 
 
 ANDRASSY, Julian, Count, 1823-90, Hun- 
 garian statesman. 
 
 ANDRE, John, 1751-80, Eng. spy; hanged 
 for connection with the Arnold treason. 
 
 ANDROS, Sir Edmund, 1637-1714, Br. col- 
 onial governor of New England. 
 
 ANXE, 1664-1714, queen of England; last 
 of the Stuarts. 
 
 ANTHONY, St., 251-356?, Egyptian founder 
 of monachism. 
 
 ANTISTHENES, fl. 400 B. C., Gr. philosopher ; 
 founder of the Cynic school. 
 
 ANTOINETTE, Marie, 1755-93, queen of Louis 
 XVI. of France ; guillotined. 
 
 ANTONIUS, Marcus (Mark Antony), B. C. 
 937-30, Rom. general and statesman. 
 
 AQUINAS, Thomas, Saint (the Angelic Doc- 
 tor), 1224-74, theologian, teacher, and writer; 
 member of the order of St. Dominic ; the great- 
 est of the schoolmen of the middle ages. 
 
 ARAM, Eugene, 1704-59, Eng. scholar; ex- 1 
 ecuted for the murder of one Daniel Clark, 
 whom he is said to have killed to procure means 
 for prosecuting his studies ; chief character m 
 one of Bulwer's novels. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, B. C'. 2877-12, Gr. mathema- 
 tician and natural philosopher ; founder of 
 physics. 
 
 ARGYLL (or ARGYLE), Archibald Campbell, 
 eighth earl, 1598-1661, Scot. Covenanter; de- 
 feated by Montrose ; executed for treason . 
 ARIOSTO, Ludovico, 1474-1533, It. poet. 
 ARISTIDES, B. C -4687, Athenian gen- 
 eral and statesman. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES, B. C. 4447-3807, Gr. comic 
 poet ; his genius and audacity in burlesque 
 have never been equaled. 
 
 ARISTOTLE (the Stagirite), B. C. 384-22, Gr. 
 founder of analytic philosophy. 
 
 ARIUS, 2557-3367, patriarch of Alexandria 
 and founder of the Arian schism. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, 1732-92, Eng. 
 
 manufacturer; inventor of the spinning-jenny. 
 
 ARMINIUS, Hermann, B. C. 16-21, A. D., 
 
 Ger. hero ; defeated the Romans A. D. 9, near 
 
 the Lippe. 
 
 ARNAUD, Henri, 1641-1721, leader of the 
 Waldenses. 
 
 ARNOLD, Benedict, 1740-1801, Am. general 
 and traitor ; his plot to deliver West Point into 
 the hands of the British was foiled by the cap- 
 ture of Major Andre, and he barely escaped ; 
 he became a colonel in the British army. 
 
 ARNOLD OF BRESCIA (or Arnaldo), .... 
 -1155, It. reformer and orator. 
 
 ARNOLD, Matthew, 1822-88, Eng. author, 
 poet, and critic. 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas, 1795-1842, Eng. historian. 
 
 ARNOLD VON WINKELRIED, .... -1386, 
 
 Swiss patriot, who broke the Austrian phalanx 
 
 at the battle of Sempach by throwing himself 
 
 against the points of their spears. 
 
 ARTEMISIA, fl. 350 B. C., consort of Mau- 
 solus, prince of Caria, in whose memory she 
 erected a tomb numbered among the seven 
 wonders of the world. 
 
 ARTEVELDE, Jacob van, 13007-45, leader of 
 people of Ghent. 
 
 ARTEVELDE, Philip van, son of J. v. A., 
 1340-82, leader of insurrection in Flanders. 
 
 ARTHUR, Chester Alan, 1831-86, twenty- 
 first president of the United States ; born at 
 St. Albans, Vermont ; read law, was admitted 
 to the bar, and began practice in New York 
 city; 1860, quartermaster general on the staff 
 of Governor Morgan; 1871, collector of the 
 port of New York, but superseded, 1878, by 
 General Merritt ; 1880, nominated for vice- 
 president by the Republicans and elected ; suc- 
 ceeded to the presidency on the death of Gar- 
 field. 
 
 ASCHAM, Roger, 1515-68, Eng. scholar and 
 author. 
 
 ASHBURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, 1774- 
 1848, Eng. diplomatist.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 235 
 
 ASPASIA of Miletus, B. C 432 ?, mia- 
 
 tress of Pericles, the Athenian law not permit- 
 ing a citizen to marry a foreigner ; Socrates 
 called himself one of her disciples. 
 
 ASTOR, John Jacob, 1763-1848, Am. mer- 
 chant, native of Germany ; settled in New 
 York city and entered the fur trade, establish- 
 ing trading posts in the northwest as far as 
 the Pacific and founding Astoria in 1811 ; he 
 made extensive investments in real estate, and 
 when he died his property was estimated at 
 twenty millions. 
 
 ATTILA (the Scourge of God), . . . .-453, 
 king of the Huns. 
 
 AUBER, Daniel Francois Esprit, 1784-1871, 
 Fr. composer. 
 
 AUDUBON, John James, 1780-1851, Am. 
 ornithologist ; spent many years in studying 
 and illustrating from life the birds of America. 
 
 AUERBACH, Berthold, 1812-82, Ger. Jewish 
 author and poet. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, Saint, 354-430, Latin father 
 of the Church and founder of Roman Catholic 
 theology. 
 
 AUGUSTUS C^F.SAR, B. C. 63-A. D. 14, first 
 emperor of Rome. 
 
 AURELIUS ANTONINUS, Marcus (Marcus 
 Aurelius), 121-80, Rom. emperor and philoso- 
 pher. 
 
 AUSTEN, Jane, 1775-1817, Eng. author. 
 
 AVICEXNA, 980-1037, Arabian physician. 
 
 BABER, Mohammed, 1483 ?-l 530, founder of 
 the Mogul empire in India. 
 
 BACH, Johann Sebastian, 1685-1750, Ger. 
 composer and director ; founder of modern 
 music. 
 
 BACON, Francis, Baron Yerulam, Yiscount 
 St. Albans (Lord Bacon), 1561-1626, Eng. 
 statesman, jurist, and philosopher, and father 
 of experimental philosophy ; from him dates 
 the origin of all industrial science. Son 
 of Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper of the 
 great seal under Elizabeth ; studied at Trinity 
 College, and at 15 began to oppose the phi- 
 losophy of Aristotle ; called to the bar, and 
 made queen's counsel at 28 ; solicitor-general, 
 1607; judge of the marshal's court, 1611 ; 
 attorney-general, 1613 ; lord keeper, 1617; 
 lord high chancellor, 1619 : charged with 
 bribery and corruption in Parliament, 1621, 
 he pleaded guilty (some say to save the king), 
 and was sentenced to pay a fine of 40,000, 
 and to be imprisoned during the royal pleas- 
 ure ; he regained his liberty after two days' 
 imprisonment, his fine, too, being remitted by 
 King James, who also allowed him a pension ; 
 he spent the rest of his life in retirement, 
 diligently pursuing the study of literature and 
 science. 
 
 BAFFIN, William, 1580-1622, Eng. naviga- 
 tor. 
 
 BAILLY, Jean Sylvain, 1736-93, Fr. astron- 
 omer and philosopher ; first president of the 
 States-General ; executed by the Jacobins. 
 
 BAKER, Sir Samuel White, 1821- 
 
 Eng. explorer and author ; in 1847 he estab- 
 lished a sanitarium and prosperous agricul- 
 tural settlement in the mountains of Ceylon, 
 6.200 feet above the sea level ; in 1861-4 ex- 
 plored the region lying around the sources of 
 the White Nile ; discovered and named Lake 
 Albert Nyanza, and found the exit of the Nile ; 
 in 1869 another expedition was made to the 
 great African lakes. 
 
 BALBOA, Vasco Nunez de, 1475 7-1517, Sp. 
 discoverer ; discovered the Pacific Ocean, 
 1513 ; the jealousy of his superior officers 
 caused his conviction and execution on a 
 charge of treason. 
 
 BALFE, Michael William, 1808-70, Ir. com- 
 poser ; " Bohemian Girl." 
 
 BALIOL, John de, 12597-1314, king of 
 Scotland ; rival of Bruce. 
 
 BALLOU, Hosea, 1771-1852, Am. theologian ; 
 founder of Universalist denomination. 
 
 BALMACEDA, Jose Manuel, 1840-91, presi- 
 dent of Chile. 
 
 BALZAC, Honore" de, 1799-1850, Fr. novel- 
 ist. 
 
 BANCROFT, George, 1800-91, Am. historian 
 and diplomat; his "History of the United 
 States" has been translated into all the prin- 
 cipal languages of Europe. 
 
 BARBAROSSA, Hadher, 1476 7-1546, Corsair 
 king of Algiers. 
 
 BARBAULD, Anna Letitia, 1743-1825, Eng. 
 authoress. 
 
 BARCLAY DE TOLLY, Michael, Prince, 1755- 
 1818, Russian field-marshal. 
 
 BARHAM, Richard Harris, 1788-1845, Eng. 
 divine and humorist ; " Ingoldsby Legends." 
 
 BARMECIDES, Persian family, noted for 
 tragic fate. 
 
 BARNEVELDT, Johanvan Olden, 1549-1619, 
 Dutch statesman. 
 
 BARRAS, Paul Francois Jean Nicola, Count 
 j de, 1755-1829, Fr. statesman. 
 
 BARRETT. Lawrence (real name, Branni- 
 gan), 1838-92, Am. actor. 
 
 BARTHELEMY SAINT.HILAIRE, Jules, 1805- 
 ...... Fr. statesman and writer. 
 
 BAXTER, Richard, 1615-91, Eng. Dis. 
 minister and writer. 
 
 BAYLE, Pierre, 1647-1706, Fr. philosopher 
 and critic. 
 
 BAZAINE, Francois Achille, 1811-88, Fr. 
 
 general ; in the Franco-German war he sur- 
 
 1 rendered the fortress of Metz, with 173,000 
 
 j men, 6,000 officers, 50 generals and 3 mar-
 
 23G 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 shals, and fled to England ; court-martialed 
 and sentenced to degradation and death, but 
 sentence was commuted to twenty years' im- 
 prisonment ; confined at the isle Sainte Mar- 
 guerite, he escaped and settled in Madrid. 
 
 BEACONSFIELD, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, 
 1804-80, Eng. statesman and novelist. 
 
 BEATTIE, James, 1735-1803, Scot, poet and 
 philosopher. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Francis, 1586-1615, Eng. 
 dramatic writer ; associate of John Fletcher. 
 
 BEAUREGARD, Peter Gustavus Toutant, 
 1816 V-1893, Am. Confederate general, born 
 in Louisiana ; graduate of West Point ; served 
 in Mexico ; commanded at Fort Sumter and 
 at the first battle of Bull Run ; defeated at 
 Shiloh by Grant, 1862 ; defended Charleston, 
 1863. 
 
 BECKET, Thomas a, 1117-70, archbishop of 
 Canterbury ; high chancellor of England ; hav- 
 ing excommunicated two bishops for comply- 
 ing with the king's will, he was assassinated 
 by four barons of the royal household ; canon- 
 ized in 1172. 
 
 BEDE (the Venerable), 673-735, Eng. monk 
 and ecclesiastical writer. 
 
 BEDFORD, John Plantageriet, duke of, 1390- 
 1435, Eng. general; defeated by Joan of Arc. 
 
 BEECHER, Henry Ward, 1813-87, Am. 
 divine and lecturer. 
 
 BEETHOVEN, Ludwig von, 1770-1827, Ger. 
 composer and considered the greatest of musi- 
 cians. 
 
 BEHRING, Vitus, 1680-1748 ?, Dan. navi- 
 gator. 
 
 BENNETT, James Gordon, 1800-72, Scot.- 
 Am. journalist. 
 
 BENTHAM, Jeremy, 1748-1832, Eng. jurist 
 and utilitarian philosopher. 
 
 BEXTON, Thomas Hart, 1782-1858, Am. 
 statesman; born at Hillsboro, N. C. ; re- 
 moved to Tennessee, where he studied law ; 
 commanded a regiment under General Jack- 
 son ; removed to St. Louis, where he published a 
 political paper ; elected to the U. S. Senate in 
 1820, he continued a member of that body for 
 30 years ; defeated in 1850 by a division in 
 Democratic party on slavery question ; advo- 
 cacy of a gold and silver currency during his 
 second term in Senate earned for him sobri- 
 quet " Old Bullion" ; elected in 1852 to the 
 House, he opposed the repeal of the Missouri 
 Compromise ; defeated for governorship of 
 Missouri in 1856; favored Buchanan for the 
 presidency in opposition to his son-in-law, 
 Fremont. 
 
 BERANGKR, Pierre Jean de, 1780-1857, FT. 
 lyric poet. 
 
 BERG, Christen Paulsen, 1829- . . . ., Dan. 
 statesman. 
 
 BKRIOT, Charles Augnste de, 1802-70, Bel- 
 gian violinist and composer. 
 
 BERKELEY, George, 1684-1753, Ir. Protes- 
 tant prelate and metaphysician ; founder of the 
 philosophy of idealism. 
 
 BERLIOZ, Louis Hector, 1803-69, Fr. com- 
 poser. 
 
 BERNADOTTE, Jean Baptiste Jules, 1764- 
 1844, marshal of France ; king of Sweden and 
 Norway as Carl XIV. Johan. 
 
 BERNARD. Saint, 1091-1153, Fr. ecclesiastic, 
 canonized 1174; " the greatest of the monks ; ' ' 
 abbot at Clairvaux, refusing ecclesiastical pre- 
 ferment, but exerting great power over Europe ; 
 preacher of the second Crusade. 
 
 BERNARDO DEL CARI-IO, fl. ninth century ; 
 Sp. soldier. 
 
 BICHAT, Marie Frangois Xavier, 1771-1802, 
 Fr. physiologist ; the greatest physician of 
 modern times and founder of general anatomy. 
 
 BIDDLE, John, 1615-62, Eng. theologian; 
 father of English Unitarians. 
 
 BIERSTADT, Albert, 1829-82, Ger.-Arn. land- 
 scape painter. 
 
 BINNEY, Horace, 1780-1875, Am. lawyer. 
 
 BiSMARCK-ScHONHAUSEN, Karl Otto, Prince, 
 1815-1898, Ger. statesman; chancellor of the 
 German empire ; within ten years he ' ' humbled 
 the Austrian empire, destroyed the French 
 empire, and established the German empire " ; 
 retired 1890. 
 
 BLACK, Jeremiah Sullivan, 1810-83, Am. 
 jurist. 
 
 BLACKSTONE, Sir William, 1723-80, Eng. 
 jurist. 
 
 BLACKWOOD, William, 1776-1817, Scot, pub- 
 lisher. 
 
 ELAINE, James Gillespie, 1830-93 ("the 
 Plumed Knight"); born in Pennsylvania; 
 removed to Maine, where he edited the Port- 
 land Advertiser ; served four terms in the leg- 
 islature ; in Congress from 1862 to 1876, and 
 speaker for three years ; prominent candidate 
 for the Republican nomination for the presi- 
 dency in 1876, 1880, 1892; chosen United 
 States senator in 1877, but resigned to accept 
 the secretaryship of state under Garfield ; sec- 
 retary of state under Harrison, but resigned 
 just before the Republican convention of 1892. 
 
 BLAIR, Hugh, 1718-1800, Scot, divine and 
 rhetorician. 
 
 BLAKE, Robert, 1599-1657, Br. admiral; 
 founder of England's naval supremacy. 
 
 BLANC, Jean Joseph Louis, 1813-83, Fr. 
 journalist, historian, and politician. 
 
 BLATCHKORD, Samuel, 1820-1893, justice 
 United States Supreme Court. 
 
 BLAVATSKY, Helena, 1831-91, theosophist. 
 
 BLENNERHASSET, Harmon, 1770-1831, friend 
 and accomplice of Aaron Burr,
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 237 
 
 BLESSIXGTOX, Margaret, Countess of (ne'e 
 Power), 1789-1849, beautiful and accomplished 
 Irish lady. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD, Robert, 1766-1823, Eng. poet. 
 
 BLTCHER, Gebhard Lebrecht von (Marschall 
 Vorwiirts), 1742-1819, Prussian field-marshal; 
 decided battle of Waterloo. 
 
 BOABDIL, . . . . -1536?, last Moorish king of 
 Granada. 
 
 BOCCACCIO, Giovanni, 1313-75, It. novelist. 
 
 BOERHAAVE, Herman, 1688-1738, Dutch 
 physician and philosopher. 
 
 BOGARDTS, James, 1800-74, Am. inventor. 
 
 BOLEYX, Anne, 15077-36, second queen of 
 Henry V1TI. of England ; beheaded. 
 
 BOLINGBROKE, Henry St. John, Viscount, 
 1678-1751, Eng. author, orator, and politician. 
 
 BOLIVAR, Simon, 1783-1830, liberator of the 
 South American colonies. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Charles Louis Napoleon (Napo- 
 leon III.), 1808-73, son of Louis Bonaparte; 
 emperor of the French ; as claimant to the 
 throne of France, attempted in 1836 to take 
 Strasburg, but was banished ; imprisoned in 
 Havre, 1840, for an attempted insurrection at 
 Boulogne, but escaped to England, 1846 ; re- 
 turning to France after revolution of 1848, he 
 was elected president, gained support of the 
 army, and, abolishing popular representation 
 by the coup d'etat of 1851, was declared em- 
 peror; in 1853 he married Eugenie, Countess 
 de Teba. Having surrendered at Sedan, after 
 the decisive battle of the Franco-German war, 
 he was deposed and retired to Chiselhurst, in 
 England. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Joseph, 1768-1844, king of 
 Spain, eldest brother of Napoleon I. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Louis, 1778-1846, king of Hol- 
 land, brother of Napoleon I. 
 
 BONAPARTE, Napoleon (Napoleon I.), 1769- 
 1821, emperor of the French and greatest of 
 modern generals. Born, at Ajaccio, Corsica. 
 Attended military school, 1779 to 1784. En- 
 tered army as sub-lieutenant in 1785, and in 
 1792 had risen to the rank of captain of artil- 
 lery. In 1793 he submitted a plan for the re- 
 duction of Toulon, held by the English and 
 Spaniards, and was intrusted with its execu- 
 tion. His success won for him a commission 
 as brigadier-general. In the spring of 1795, 
 on the remodeling of the army, he was sus- 
 pended and placed upon half-pay, the reason 
 given by the authorities being that he was too 
 young to command the artillery of an army. 
 In the fall, on the breaking out of an insurrec- 
 tion led by the National Guard, the convention 
 recalled Napoleon, who gained a brilliant vic- 
 tory after a brief but bloody engagement. 
 This virtually made him Commander-in-chief 
 of the army of the interior. In 1796 he was ap- 
 
 pointed to the command-in-chief of the army of 
 Italy, and in the same year he married Josephine 
 de Beauharnais. In his very first campaign 
 Napoleon appeared a consummate general. In 
 a few weeks he gained four victories, conquered 
 Lombardy and captured Mantua, almost annihi- 
 lating three Austrian armies. He then turned 
 his arms against the Pope, compelling him to 
 pay 30,000,000 lire and surrender many valu- 
 able works of art. After defeating another 
 Austrian army sent to Italy, Napoleon concluded 
 a treaty securing his success. In 1798 he was 
 given command of a powerful expedition into 
 Egypt, the intention being to strike at the power 
 of Great Britain, and gained decisive victories 
 over the Mamelukes and Turkish auxiliaries. 
 Returning to France he overthrew the Directory 
 and was elected first consul. In 1800 he gained 
 the great victory of Marengo, Made peace with 
 England, 1802, granted general amnesty, es- 
 tablished public order, reestablished the Cath- 
 olic faith, and produced his Civil Code. Napo- 
 leon became emperor in 1804, and engaged in 
 war with England, Russia, Sweden, and Prus- 
 sia. Divorced from Josephine in 1809, he mar- 
 ried Maria Louise, daughter of the emperor of 
 Austria, in 1810. In 1812 occurred the ill- 
 fated Russian campaign, Napoleon's loss be- 
 ing estimated at 450,000 men. Beaten at 
 Leipzig, 1813, he made a disastrous retreat. 
 In 1814 the allies entered Paris, compelled 
 Napoleon to abdicate, and sent him to Elba, 
 granting him the sovereignty of that island, 
 with a yearly pension of 6,000,000 francs. 
 Returning again to France, he was eBthusias- 
 tically received and raised an army of about 
 125,000, but was completely defeated at Water- 
 loo, 1815. He abdicated again, and, unable 
 to carry out his intention of embarking for 
 America, surrendered to the captain of a 
 British man-of-war. Carried to the island of 
 St. Helena, he died there in 1821. 
 
 BONA VENTURA, Saint, 1221-74, It. theolo- 
 gian. 
 
 BONHEUR, Rosa (or Rosalie), 1822-1899, Fr. 
 painter of animals. 
 
 BONIFACE I., pope, ruling 419-22; IT., 
 530-2 ; III., elected 607 and died same year; 
 IV-., 608-15 ; V., 619-24, distinguished for his 
 efforts to convert the Britons. 
 
 BONIFACE, Winifred, Saint, apostle of Ger- 
 many, 680-755? 
 
 BONXER, Edmund (Bloody Bonner), 1490?- 
 1569, bishop of London, noted for persecution 
 of Protestants. 
 
 BONNIVARD, Francois de, 1496-1570, hero 
 of Byron's " Prisoner of Chillon." 
 
 BOONE, Daniel, 1735-1820?, Am. pioneer; 
 born in Pennsylvania, but removed in boyhood 
 to North Carolina ; visited Kentucky, hitherto
 
 '238 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 unexplored, in 1769, and emigrated to' that 
 state with his owa and five other families in 
 1773, constructing a fort at Boonsborough in 
 1775 ; captured by the Indians, he was adopted 
 by them, but escaped and returned to the fort, 
 which was shortly after attacked by Indians 
 under the British flag ; the fort was ably de- 
 fended, two of Boone's sons, however, being 
 killed. Boone lost his lands in Kentucky in 
 consequence of a defective title, and, removing 
 to Missouri, pursued the occupation of a hunter 
 and trapper. 
 
 BOOTH, Edwin, 1833-93. son of Junius Brutus 
 Booth ; Am. tragedian. 
 
 BOOTH, John Wilkes, 1 835-65, son of Junius 
 Brutus Booth ; Am. actor ; assassin of Abra- 
 ham Lincoln ; effected his escape, but was 
 traced into Virginia, where, refusing to sur- 
 render, he was shot. 
 
 BOOTH, Junius Brutus, 1796-1852, Eng. tra- 
 gedian. 
 
 BORGIA, Cesare, Due de Valentinois, 1457- 
 1507, natural son of Alexander VI., It. mili- 
 tary leader ; made cardinal in 1492, but after- 
 wards secularized ; notorious for cunning, per- 
 fidy, and cruelty. 
 
 BORGIA, Francisco ; see Francis, Saint. 
 
 BORGIA, Lucrezia, Duchess of Ferrara, . . . . 
 -1523, sister of Cesare ; distinguished for beau- 
 ty and talents, and a patron of learning, but 
 contemporaneous writers differ in their estima- 
 tion of her character. 
 
 BORROMEO, Carlo, Saint, 1538-84, It. 
 cardinal. 
 
 BOSSUET, Jacques Benigne, 1627-1704, Fr. 
 prelate and controversialist, and considered 
 the greatest of Christian orators ; first advo- 
 cate of papal infallibility. 
 
 BOSWELL, James, 1740-95, Scot, lawyer; 
 biographer of Dr. Johnson. 
 
 BOTTCHER, Johann Friedrich, 1682-1719, 
 inventor of Dresden china. 
 
 BOUCICAULT, Dion, 1822-90, Ir.-Am. 
 dramatist. 
 
 BOULANGER, Georges Ernest Jean Marie, 
 1837-91, Fr. general. 
 
 BOUILLON, Godfrey de, 10607-1100, leader 
 of first Crusade. 
 
 BOURDALOUE, Louis, 1632-1704, Fr. Jesuit 
 orator. 
 
 BOURNE, Hugh, 1772-1852, Eng. founder of 
 Primitive Methodism. 
 
 HOWDITCH, Nathaniel, 1773-1838, Am. 
 mathematician. 
 
 BOWLES, Samuel, 1826-78, Am. journalist. 
 
 BOWLES, William Lisle, 1762-1850, Eng. 
 poet. 
 
 BOYESEN, Hjalmar Hjorth, 1848-1895, Nor. 
 author in America. 
 
 BOZZARIS, Marcos, 1790-1823, patriotic 
 leader in Greek war for independence. 
 
 BRADDOCK, Edward, 1715 V-55, Eng. gen- 
 eral in America ; killed by Indians. 
 
 BRADFORD, William, 1590-1657, governor 
 of Plymouth colony. 
 
 BRAGG, Braxton, 1815-76, Confederate 
 general. 
 
 BRANDT, Joseph (Thayendanega), 1742- 
 1807, half-breed chief of the Mohawks. 
 
 BRECKINRIDGK, John CabelL, 1821-75, Am. 
 statesman and Confederate general ; born in 
 Kentucky ; vice-president, 1857-61 ; Demo- 
 cratic candidate for presidency in 1860 : 
 elected to U. S. Senate in 1861, but resigned 
 to enter the Confederate army ; Confederate 
 secretary of war, 1865. 
 
 BREMER, Fredrika, 1802-65, Sw. novelist. 
 
 BRENGHEL, Jan, 1569-1825, Flemish painter. 
 
 BREWSTER, Sir David, 1781-1868, Eng. 
 optician and physicist. 
 
 BRIAN BORU (or Boroihme), 926-1014, 
 king of Ireland. 
 
 BRIDGET, Saint, 1302-73, patron saint of 
 Ireland. 
 
 BRIDGMAN, Laura, 1829-89, Am. blind 
 deaf-mute, noted for mental acquirements. 
 
 BRIGHT, John, 1811-89, Eng. statesman 
 and orator. 
 
 BRONTE, Charlotte (Currer Bell), 1816-55, 
 Eng. novelist. 
 
 BROOKS, Phillips, 1835-93, Am. clergyman. 
 
 BROUGHAM, Henry, Lord, 1779-1868, Br. 
 author, statesman, and orator. 
 
 BROWN, John, Captain, 1800-59, born in 
 Connecticut ; a tanner by trade ; removed to 
 Kansas and became prominent as an abolition- 
 ist ; gained the title of ' ' Ossawatomie " by a 
 victory, in 1856, over a company of Missou- 
 rians vastly exceeding his own force in number ; 
 in pursuance of a plan for the invasion of 
 Virginia, he surprised Harper's Ferry in 1859, 
 and took the arsenal and armory and forty 
 prisoners ; attacked the next day by U. S. 
 marines and the Virginia militia, two of his 
 sons and most of his company of twenty men 
 were killed, and he himself wounded and taken 
 prisoner ; he was tried and hanged at Charles- 
 town, Virginia. 
 
 BROWNE, Charles F. (Artemus Ward), 
 1835-67, Am. humorist. 
 
 BROWNE, Sir Thomas, 1605-82, Eng. phy- 
 sician, philosopher, and author. 
 
 BROWNING, Elizabeth Barrett, 1809-61, 
 wife of Robert Browning ; Eng. poetess. 
 
 BROWNING, Robert, 1812-89, Eng. poet : 
 "The Ring and the Book," "Strafford," 
 "Men and Women," " Fifine at the Fair," 
 " A Soul's Errand. " 
 
 BRUCE, Robert, 1247-1329, the greatest of
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 239 
 
 the kings of Scotland ; defeated Edward II. 
 at Bannockburn, in 1314. 
 
 BKUMMEL, George Bryan (Beau Brummel) , 
 1778-1840, Eng. man of fashion. 
 
 BRUNO, Saint, 1040V-1191, Ger. founder of 
 the Carthusians. 
 
 BRUTUS, Lucius Junius, fl. 500 B.C., Rom. 
 patriot. 
 
 BRUTUS, Marcus Junius, 80-30 B. C., one 
 of Caesar's assassins. 
 
 BRYANT, William Cullen, 1794-1878, Am. 
 poet and journalist ; born in Mass. ; entered 
 Williams College, read law, admitted to the bar 
 in 1816; published Thanatopsis " in 1810 ; 
 became editor of the Neic York Evening Post 
 in 1826. 
 
 BUCHANAN, James, 1791-1868, fifteenth 
 president of the United States ; born in Penn- 
 sylvania ; admitted to the bar, 1812 ; member 
 of Congress, 1821-31 ; minister to Russia, 1832- 
 4 ; U. S. senator, 1834-5 ; sscretary of state, 
 1845-9 ; minister to England, 1853-G ; signed 
 Ostend Manifesto, 1354 ; president, 1857-61 ; 
 in his last message, President Buchanan cen- 
 sured the Northern people for the imminent 
 disruption of the Union, holding that neither 
 the executive nor Congress had power to coerce 
 a state. 
 
 BUCKLE, Henry Thomas, 1822-62, Eng. his- 
 torian. 
 
 BUDDHA (or Boodha), Gautama, 624-523, 
 B. C., Hindoo reformer ; founder of Buddhism. 
 
 BUFFON, Georges Louis Leclerc de, Comte, 
 1707-88, Fr. naturalist and philosopher. 
 
 BULL, Ole Bornemann, 1810-80, Norwegian 
 pianist and violinist. 
 
 BULWER-LYTTON, Edward George Earle Lyt- 
 fcon, Baron Lytton, 1805-73, Eng. novelist. 
 
 BUNSEN, Christian Karl Josias von, Baron, 
 1791-1860, Ger. philologist and diplomatist. 
 
 BUNYAN, John, 1028-88, Eng. author ; the 
 son of a tinker, he followed that vocation and 
 led for many years a wandering life ; served 
 in the Parliamentary army ; joined the Ana- 
 baptists in 1654, and i:i 1055 became a Bap- 
 tist minister ; sentenced to transportation on a 
 charge of promoting seditious assemblies, but 
 sentence not enforced ; was, however, impris- 
 oned for more than twelve years, and during 
 that time wrote his " Pilgrim's Progress." 
 
 BURGOYNE, John, 1730-92, Brit, general and 
 dramatist ; surrendered at Saratoga. 
 
 BURKE, Edmund, 1730-97, Tr. orator, states- j 
 man, and writer; prominent as the ablest mem- 
 ber of the Commons to oppose the ministry's 
 American policy ; impeached Warren Hastings 
 in 1788. 
 
 BURNS, Robert, 1759-96, Scot, lyric poet; 
 born at Ayr ; the son of a poor farmer ; 
 worked hard on his father's farm and had lit- 
 
 tle opportunity for education ; began rhym- 
 ing at 16, and studied mensuration and sur- 
 veying ; his poems brought him into society, 
 where he acquired dissipated habits ; formed 
 a liaison in 1785 with Jean Armour, whom he 
 married in 1788 ; intended to emigrate, but 
 the popularity of his poems, published in full, 
 1787, induced him to remain in Scotland ; he 
 afterward became an officer of the excise. 
 
 BURNSIDE, Ambrose Everett, 1824-81, Am. 
 general. 
 
 BURR, Aaron, 1756-1836, Am. states- 
 man and lawyer. In 1800 Burr and Jeffer- 
 son were the Democratic candidates for 
 president and vice-president ; receiving the 
 same number of votes, the House gave the 
 higher office to Jefferson. Burr's course in 
 endeavoring to supplant Jefferson cost him the 
 regard of his party. Unsuccessful as candi- 
 date for governor of New York in 1804, Burr 
 attributed his defeat to Alexander Hamilton, 
 whom he killed in a duel. After the expira- 
 tion of his term as vice-president, Burr was 
 tried for treason, charged with the subversion 
 of federal authority, and with raising an ex- 
 pedition for the conquest of Mexico, but acquit- 
 ted. 
 
 BURRITT, Elihu (the Learned Blacksmith), 
 1810-79, Am. scholar, journalist, lecturer, and 
 reformer ; the son of a shoemaker, and appren- 
 ticed to a blacksmith, he devoted all of his 
 spare time to study, and eventually mastered 
 eighteen languages. 
 
 BUSHNELL, Horace, 1802-76, Am. divine. 
 
 BUTLER, Benjamin Franklin, 1818-93, Am. 
 politician, lawyer, and general ; born in New 
 Hampshire ; military governor of New Or- 
 leans in 1862, ruling with vigor and efficiency 
 and preserving the city from the yellow fever ; 
 went to Congress as a Republican in 1866, and 
 was re-elected for several terms ; elected gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts in 1882 by the Demo- 
 crats, but defeated for the same office a year 
 later. 
 
 BYRON, George Gordon Noel, Lord, 1788- 
 1824, Eng. poet. In 1815 he married Anne 
 Isabel Millbank, but separated from her and 
 left England in 1816; in Italy he formed a 
 liaison with the beautiful Countess Guiccioli ; 
 espousing the cause of the Greeks in their 
 struggle for liberty, he left for Greece in 1823, 
 and died the following year at Missolonghi 
 from the effects of exposure while preparing 
 for the siege of Lepanto. 
 
 CABOT, John, .... -1498?, Venetian navi- 
 gator in service of England ; discovered 
 North American continent 1497. 
 
 CABOT, Sebastian, 1477?-1557, son of pre- 
 ceding : Eng. navigator.
 
 240 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 C^EDMON, . . . .-680?, Anglo-Saxon poet. 
 
 CVESAR, Cains Julius, 100-44 B. C., the great- 
 est of Roman generals. Elected consul 60 
 B. C. ; formed a secret alliance with Pompey 
 and Crassus known as the first triumvirate. 
 It is said that during his Gallic wars a million 
 ;>f men were slain, eight hundred cities and 
 towns captured and three hundred tribes sub- 
 dued. Pompey having become his enemy 
 through jealousy, Caesar crossed the Rubicon 
 49 B.C., and in a short time became master 
 of Italy ; having conquered all his enemies, 
 and subdued Spain and Africa, he was made 
 perpetual dictator, and received from the sen- 
 ate the title of Imperator. Although beloved 
 by the masses, tile patricians feared and hated 
 him, and the result of a conspiracy of Cassius, 
 Brutus, and others was his assassination. 
 
 CAGLIARI, Paolo (Paul Veronese), 1530?- 
 88, It. painter. 
 
 CALDERON DE LA BARCO, Don Pedro, 
 1600-83, Sp. poet and dramatist. 
 
 CALIIOUN, John Caldwell, 1783-1850, Am. 
 statesman ; born in South Carolina ; elected 
 to Congress, 1810; secretary of war, 1817; 
 vice-president, 1825-32, resigning to enter the 
 Senate ; secretary of state, 1844 ; returned to 
 the Senate 1845 ; Calhoun was an avowed 
 champion of slavery and States' rights. 
 
 CALIGULA, Caius Caesar, 12-41, emperor of 
 Rome ; cruel and sensual ; built a temple to 
 himself ; assassinated. 
 
 CALVIN, John, 1509-64, Fr. theologian ; 
 established Presbyterian form of church gov- 
 ernment ; the fundamental principle of his 
 theology is that of predestination to eternal 
 happiness or misery by the absolute decree of 
 God. 
 
 CAMBYSES, .... -522 B. C., king of Persia ; 
 conqueror of Egypt. 
 
 CAMOENS, Luis, 1517-79, Portuguese poet. 
 
 CAMPBELL, Alexander, 1788-1866, Ir. 
 founder of the denomination of " Christians," 
 or " Disciples of Christ." 
 
 CANOVA, Antonio, 1757-1822, It. sculptor. 
 
 CANUTE II., 990-1035, king of Denmark ; 
 conqueror of England. 
 
 CAPET, Hugh, 940?-996, founder of the 
 Capetian dynasty. 
 
 CAREY, Henry Charles, 1793-1879, Am. 
 political economist. 
 
 CARLYLE, Thomas, 1795-1881, Scot, essay- 
 ist, biographer, and historian. 
 
 CARROLL, Charles, 1737-1832, Am. patriot. 
 
 CARTIER, Jacques, 1494-1555?, Fr. naviga- 
 tor. 
 
 CARTWKIGHT, Edmund, 1743-1823, Eng. 
 inventor. 
 
 CASTLEREAGH, Robert Stewart, Viscount, 
 1769-1822, second marquis of Londonderry ; 
 
 Br. statesman, prominent in suppressing the 
 Irish rebellion of 1798; committed suicide. 
 
 CASTRO, Joan de, 1500-48, Portuguese gen- 
 eral and navigator. 
 
 CATHERINE, Saint, 1347-80, It. nun at 
 Siena ; mediator between the rival popes in 
 the great schism. 
 
 CATHERINE I., 1682-1727, empress of Rus- 
 sia ; succeeded to the throne on death of her 
 husband, Peter the Great. 
 
 CATHERINE OF ARAGON, 1486-1536, queen 
 of Henry VIII. of England; divorced. 
 
 CATHERINE DE MEDICI, 1510-89, queen of 
 Henry II. of France; opponent of the Hugue- 
 nots. 
 
 CATILINE, Lucius Sergius, 108?-62 B. C., 
 Rom. conspirator. 
 
 CATO, Dionysius, fl. 3d century, Latin poet. 
 
 CATO, Marcus Portius (the Elder), 234-149 
 B. C., Rom. statesman and author. 
 
 CATO, Marcus Portius (the Younger), 95- 
 40 B. C., opponent of Caesar; famed for pur- 
 ity and nobility ; committed suicide. 
 
 "CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, 77?-45?, B. C., 
 Latin poet. 
 
 CAVOUR, Camillo Benso di, 1818-61, first 
 prime minister of the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 CAXTON, William, 1412 ?-92, Eng. scholar 
 and merchant ; introduced printing into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 CECILIA, Saint, fl. second century, Rom. 
 martyr ; patroness of music. 
 
 CENCI, Beatrice, 1583?-99, "the beautiful 
 parricide " ; Rom. lady famous for beauty and 
 tragic fate. 
 
 CERVANTES SAAVEDRA, Miguel de, 1547- 
 1616, Sp. novelist. 
 
 CESNOLA, Louis Palma di, 1832- . . . ., 
 born in Italy ; colonel in United States army 
 during the civil war ; appointed 1865 consul to 
 Cyprus, and became famous for his excava- 
 tions in that island. 
 
 CHALMERS, Thomas, 1780-1847, Scot, di- 
 vine. 
 
 CHAMLSSO, Adelbert von, 1781-1838, Ger. 
 traveler. 
 
 CHAMPOLLION, Jean Frangois, 1791-1832, 
 Fr. Egyptologist. 
 
 CHANNING, William Ellery, 1780-1842, Am. 
 divine. 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE (Charles the Great, or 
 Charles I.), 742-814, emperor of Germany and 
 founder of the kingdom of the Franks (now 
 France) ; crowned emperor of the west, with 
 the title of Caesar Augustus, by Pope Leo III., 
 800 ; the most powerful and enlightened mon- 
 arch of his time ; his empire extended from 
 the Elbe to the Ebro, and from Calabria to 
 Hungary ; first of the Carlovingian dynasty. 
 
 CHARLES II. (the Bald Charles II. of
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 241 
 
 France), 823-77, emperor of Germany; in- 
 vaded Italy and was crowned emperor; III. 
 (the Fat), 832?-88; IV., 1316-78, emperor of 
 Germany and king of Bohemia ; V., 1500-58, 
 emperor of Germany ; king of Spain as 
 Charles I. ; in 1521, summoned the Diet of 
 Worms to check the progress of Luther's doc- 
 trines ; in 1527, warring with Francis I. of 
 France and Pope Clement VII., Rome was 
 sacked and the pope made prisoner ; convened 
 the Diet of Augsburg to suppress the reforma- 
 tion, but, the Protestants having united, liberal 
 terms were granted them ; in 1535, defeated 
 Barbarossa and captured Tunis, liberating 
 thousands of Christian slaves ; defeated in 1552 
 by the Protestant forces under Maurice of 
 Saxony, he signed the treaty of Passau, es- 
 tablishing the Protestant church on a firm 
 basis ; three years later he retired to the mon- 
 astery of St. Yuste. 
 
 CHARLES I. (Charles Stuart), 1600-49, king 
 of England ; beheaded, after attempting to sub- 
 due his rebellious subjects; II., 1630-85, witty, 
 but cai'eless and voluptuous ; the habeas cor- 
 pus act was passed during liis reign. 
 
 CHARLES XII., 1682-1718, king of Sweden, 
 ascended the throne in 1697 ; a league being 
 formed against him by Russia, Denmark, and 
 Poland in 1700, he besieged Copenhagen, forced | 
 Denmark to make peace, and beat the Russians ; j 
 he then invaded Poland, compelling King Au- I 
 gustus to resign ; invading Russia, he was badly 
 defeated at Pultowa ; he fled to Turkey, but 
 soon returned ; marching into Norway, he was 
 killed at the siege of Frederickshall. 
 
 CHARLES MARTEL, 694?-741, king of the 
 Franks. 
 
 CHASE, Salmon Portland, 1808-73, Am. 
 statesman and jurist. 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND, Francois Auguste de, Vis- 
 count, 1768-1848, Fr. author. 
 
 CHATHAM, William Pitt, Earl of (the Great 
 Commoner), 1708-78, Eng. statesman and 
 orator; opposed taxation of American colo- 
 nies. 
 
 CHATTERTON, Thomas, 1752-70, Eng. liter- 
 ary impostor. 
 
 CHAUCER, Geoffrey, 1340?-1400, Eng. poet; 
 " Father of English poetry." 
 
 CHERUBINI, Maria Luigi, 1760-1842, It. 
 composer. 
 
 CHESTERFIELD, Philip Dormer Stanhope, 
 Earl of, 1694-1773, Eng. orator and wit; dis- i 
 tinguished as a man of fashion. 
 
 CHITTY, Joseph, 1776-1841, Eng. jurist. 
 
 CHOATE, Rufus, 1799-1859, Am. lawyer and 
 statesman. 
 
 CHORIS, Louis, 1795- 1828, Russian painter 
 and traveler. 
 
 CHRISTINA, 1626-89, queen of Sweden ; 
 
 daughter of Gustavus Adolphus ; learned and 
 eccentric; abdicated, 1654. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM, John, Saint, 3507-407, Gr. 
 father of the Church. 
 
 CHURCHILL, Randolph Spencer, Lord, 1849- 
 1895, Eng. statesman. 
 
 CIBBER, Colley (James Rees), 1671-1757, 
 Eng. actor and dramatist. 
 
 CICERO, Marcus Tullius, 106-43 B. C., Rom. 
 author, statesman, and orator; the greatest 
 critic of antiquity ; while consul, suppressed 
 the conspiracy of Catiline; exiled 58 B. C., 
 but recalled ; was an adherent of Pompey, but 
 enjoyed the favor of Julius Caesar ; killed by 
 the soldiers of Antony ; as an orator, Cicero is 
 regarded second only to Demosthenes. 
 
 CID CAMPEADOR (Ruy Diaz de Bivar), 
 1040?-99, Castilian hero. 
 
 CINCINNATUS, Lucius Quintus, 520-438 B. 
 C., Rom. patriot and dictator; elected consul 
 while cultivating a farm, having lost his prop- 
 erty ; conquered the ^Equi ; twice chosen dic- 
 tator, and at the expiration of each term of 
 office, he returned to the plow. 
 
 CLARKE, Adam, 1762-1832, Irish Methodist 
 Bible commentator. 
 
 CLAUDIUS (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero), 
 B. C. 10-54 A. D., Rom. emperor ; invaded 
 Britain. 
 
 CLAY, Henry, 1777-1852, Am. statesman 
 and orator ; "The Great Pacificator." Born 
 in Virginia; removed to Kentucky, 1797; 
 practiced law ; elected to Kentucky legislature 
 in 1804, and two years later chosen to fill a 
 short term in the U. S. Senate ; re-elected to 
 the Senate 1809, and to the House of Repre- 
 sentatives 1811, of which body he was made 
 speaker; re-elected speaker 1813 ; signed treaty 
 of Ghent 1815 ; re-elected speaker four times ; 
 in 1824, he was one of four candidates for 
 the presidency ; when the election devolved on 
 the House, his influence decided the contest in 
 favor of Jackson ; a bloodless duel between 
 Clay and Randolph, in 1826, was the result of 
 charges against Clay growing out of this elec- 
 tion ; re-elected to the Senate in 1831 for six 
 years; in 1832, defeated for the presidency as 
 the candidate of the anti-Jackson party ; again 
 elected to the Senate 1836, but resigned 1842 ; 
 Whig candidate for the presidency in 1844; 
 re-elected senator 1848. To Clay is due the 
 credit for the " Missouri Compromise," be- 
 lieved to have postponed for ten years the civil 
 war. 
 
 CLEOPATRA, 69-30 B. C., queen of Egypt; 
 noted for beauty and accomplishments. 
 
 CLINTON, Sir Henry, 1733-95, Eng. general 
 in America. 
 
 CLIVE, Robert, Lord, 1725-74, Eng. general 
 and founder of British empire in India.
 
 242 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 CLOOTZ. Jean Baptiste, Baron (Anacharsis 
 Clootz), 1753-94, Prussian traveler and Fr. rev- 
 olutionist ; guillotined. 
 
 CLOUGH, Arthur Hugh, 1820-61, Eng. poet. 
 
 CLOVIS (or Chlodwig), 465-511, king of the 
 Franks ; conqueror of Gaul. 
 
 COBDEX, Richard, 1804-65, Eng. statesman 
 and economist. 
 
 COKE (or Cook), Sir Edward, 1552-1633, 
 Eng. jurist. 
 
 COLE, Thomas, 1801-48, Eng. landscape 
 painter. 
 
 COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor, 1772-18,34, 
 Eng. poet. 
 
 COLIGNY, Gaspard de, 1517-72, Fr. admi- 
 ral ; leader of the Huguenots ; killed in mas- 
 sacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 COLLIER, Jeremy, 1650-1726, Eng. theolo- 
 gian. 
 
 COLUMBA, Saint, 521-97, the apostle of Cal- 
 edonia. 
 
 COLUMBUS, Christopher (Tt. : Cristoforo Co- 
 lombo ; Sp. : Cristoval Colon), 1436-1506, 
 Genoese navigator; became a sailor at 14; 
 studied mathematics at the University of 
 Pavia ; removed to Lisbon at the age of thirty ; 
 was employed in several expeditions to the 
 west coast of Africa ; meditated reaching India 
 by a western route, and unsuccessfully solic- 
 ited the aid of John II. of Portugal ; but 
 finally Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain fur- 
 nished him two small vessels, and another was 
 added by the efforts of friends ; with one hun- 
 dred and twenty men he set sail from Palos, 
 August 3, 1492, and discovered the island of 
 San Salvador, October 12 of same year ; sup- 
 posing that he had reached India, he called 
 the natives Indians ; after visiting Cuba and 
 Hayti, he returned to Spain, where he was re- 
 ceived triumphantly; in 1493 he again sailed 
 across the Atlantic, this time with seventeen 
 ships, and discovered Jamaica and Porto Rico ; 
 in 1498 he made his third voyage, with six 
 vessels, discovering the mainland at the mouth 
 of the Orinoco ; in 1499, complaints having 
 been made to the court of the conduct of Co- 
 lumbus at Hispaniola, he was carried to Spain 
 in chains by Francisco de Bobadilla ; Colum- 
 bus' last voyage to America was made in 1502, 
 to Honduras ; he died neglected. 
 
 COMTE, Auguste, 1798-1857, Fr. philoso- 
 pher. 
 
 CONDE, Louis II., Prince de, 1621-86, Fr. 
 general ; victorious over the Spaniards at 
 Rocroi, 1643, and over the Germans at Nord- 
 lingen, 1645 ; again defeated the Spanish at 
 Lens in 1618, almost annihilating their infan- 
 try, previously regarded invincible ; seeking 
 revenge for having been imprisoned by the 
 orders of Mazarin or the queen, he warred 
 
 against the government, and next entered the 
 service of Spain ; returned to France in 1659, 
 and defeated William of Orange in 1674. 
 
 CONFUCIUS, or KONG-FOO-TSE, 551-478 B. 
 C., Chinese philosopher; the son of a soldier, 
 he was raised to the rank of mandarin at 19 ; 
 commenced public teaching at 22 ; became, 
 in 499 B. C., minister of crime, and soon after 
 retired from public life, devoting his time to 
 study, travel, and the dissemination of his 
 doctrines. The philosophy of Confucius re- 
 lates to the present life only ; he placed great 
 importance upon the outward forms of polite- 
 ness, being the first to enunciate, in substance, 
 the golden rule ; his influence has been enor- 
 mous, his teachings affecting two thirds of 
 humanity for twenty-three centuries. 
 
 COXGREVE, William, 1670-1729, Eng. 
 dramatist. 
 
 CONKLING, Roscoe, 1829-88, Am. states- 
 man, lawyer, and orator. 
 
 CONSTAXTIXE I. (the Great), 272-337, em- 
 peror of Rome ; embraced Christianity, and 
 transferred his court from Rome to Byzantium, 
 thenceforth called Constantinople. 
 
 COOPER, Sir Astley Paston, 1768-1841, Eng. 
 physician. 
 
 COOPER, James Fenimore, 1779-1851, Am. 
 novelist. 
 
 COPERNICUS (Kopernik), Nicholas, 1473- 
 1543, Ger. astronomer ; father of modern 
 astronomy ; disproved the Ptolemaic theory ; 
 in his great work, "The Revolution of the 
 Celestial Orbs," the first copy of which was 
 handed to him on the day of his death, he 
 demonstrated that the sun is the center of the 
 system. 
 
 CORDAY, Charlotte, 1768-93, Fr. heroine; 
 assassinated Marat. 
 
 CORIOLANUS, Cneius Marcus, fl. 490 B. C., 
 Roman hero. 
 
 CORNEILLK, Pierre, 1606-84, founder of the 
 French drama. 
 
 CORNELL, Ezra, 1807-74, Am. philanthro- 
 pist. 
 
 COROT, Jean Baptiste Camille, 1796-1875, 
 Fr. painter. 
 
 CORREGGIO, Antonio Allegri da, 1494-1534, 
 It. painter ; known as " the divine " ; his work 
 excels in harmony, grace, and sweetness of 
 color and form. 
 
 CORTF.Z. Hernando, 1485-1547, Sp. con- 
 queror of Mexico. 
 
 COWPER, William, 1731-1800, Eng. poet. 
 
 CRAIK, Dinah Maria (Mulock), 1826-87, 
 Eng. authoress. 
 
 CRAXMER, Thomas, 1489-1556, Eng. re- 
 former ; archbishop of Canterbury ; burned to 
 death.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 243 
 
 CREASY, Sir Edward Shepherd, 1812-78, 
 Eng. historian. 
 
 CRICHTON, James (the Admirable Crichton), 
 1560-83, Scot, prodigy ; stabbed by his pupil, 
 a son of the Duke of Mantua. 
 
 CRITTENDEN, John Jordan, 1787-1863, Am. 
 statesman. 
 
 CROCKETT, David, 1786-1836, Am. back- 
 woodsman. 
 
 CRCESUS, 590-46 B. C., king of Lydia ; fa- 
 mous for wealth. 
 
 CROMW-ELL, Oliver, 1599-1659, Eng. gen- 
 eral and leader of the political and religious 
 revolution in England ; entered the Parlia- 
 mentary army, in 1642, as captain of cavalry ; 
 rapidly promoted, and led left wing at Marston 
 Moor, 1644 ; commanded right wing at Xaseby, 
 1645, and became leader of the independents ; 
 transferred the custody of the king from Par- 
 liament to the army, 1647 ; won the battle of 
 Preston, L648 ; signed the death warrant of 
 Charles I., 1649; made commander-in-chief. 
 1650, and defeated the Scotch at Dunbar and 
 Charles at Worcester; dissolved Parliament in 
 1653, and was, in 1654, proclaimed by the 
 army lord protector of the commonwealth. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, William Augustus, Duke of, 
 1721-65, conqueror at Culloden. 
 
 CURTIS, George William, 1824-92, Am. 
 author and editor. 
 
 GUSHING, Caleb, 1800-79, Am. lawyer and 
 statesman. 
 
 CUSHMAN, Charlotte Sanders, 1816-76, 
 Am. actress. 
 
 CUSTER, George A., 1839-76, Am. general; 
 killed by the Sioux. 
 
 CUVIER, Georges C. L. F., Baron, 1769- 
 1832, Fr. naturalist ; the greatest of zoologists 
 and founder of comparative anatomy. 
 
 CYRUS (the Great, or the Elder), . . . . 
 -529 B. C., king of Persia ; conquered Babylon. 
 
 CYRUS (the Younger), . . . .-401 B. C., 
 hero of Xenophon's "Anabasis." 
 
 DAGUERRE.Louis Jacques Mamie 1 , 1789-1851, 
 Fr. artist ; inventor of the daguerreotype. 
 
 DALTON, John, 1766-1844, Eng. chemical 
 philosopher. 
 
 DANA, Charles Anderson, 1819-1898, Am. 
 journalist. 
 
 DANDOLO, Enrico, 1105-1205, blind doge of 
 Venice. 
 
 DANE, Xathan, 1752-1835, Am. lawyer and 
 statesman. 
 
 DANIEL, fl. sixth century B. C., Hebrew 
 prince and prophet. 
 
 DANTE ALLIGHIERI, 1265-1321, the great- 
 est poet of Italy ; " the Christian Homer." 
 
 DANTON, George Jacques, 1759-94, a leader 
 of the French revolution ; guillotined. 
 
 D'ARBLAY, Mine. Frances (Burney), 1752- 
 1840, Eng. novelist. 
 
 DARIUS I. (Darius Hystaspis), . . . .-435 B. 
 C., king of Persia; II., . . . .-405 B. C. ; III. 
 (Codomanus), . . . .-330 B. C., defeated by 
 Alexander. 
 
 DARLEY, Felix O. C., 1822-88, Am. artist. 
 
 DARWIN, Charles Robert, 1809-82, Eng. 
 naturalist ; originator of the theory of evolu- 
 tion ; in his " Origin of Species by Means of 
 Natural Selection," published 1859, he pro- 
 pounds the theory that all forms of life have 
 been produced by a series of gradual changes 
 in natural descent ; in his " Descent of Man," 
 he infers that "man is descended from a 
 hairy quadruped furnished with a tail and 
 pointed ears, probably arboreal in its habits." 
 
 DARWIN, Erasmus, 1731-1802, Eng. physi- 
 cian and poet. 
 
 D'AUBIGNE, Jean Henri Merle, 1794-1872, 
 Swiss historian. 
 
 DAVID, 1090-15 B. C., king of Israel. 
 
 DAVIS, Jefferson, 1808-89, Am. statesman 
 and president of the Confederacy ; born in 
 Kentucky ; graduate of West Point ; served in 
 Black Hawk and Mexican wars ; elected to 
 U. S. Senate from Mississippi, 1847 ; secretary 
 of war, 1853-7 ; re-elected senator, 1857 ; 
 inaugurated provisional president of the Con- 
 federate States, 1861, and elected for six years, 
 1862 ; imprisoned in Fortress Monroe for two 
 years after the fall of Richmond. 
 
 DAVY, Sir Humphrey, 1778-1829, Eng. 
 chemist, inventor of the safety lamp. 
 
 DECATUR, Stephen, 1779-1820, Am. naval 
 commander ; defeated the Algerines ; killed in 
 a duel. 
 
 DE FOE (or DEFOE), Daniel, 1661-1731, 
 Eng. novelist. 
 
 DE KALB, John, Baron, 1732-80, Ger. 
 general ; accompanied Lafayette to America, 
 and served under Washington ; killed at bat- 
 tle of Camden. 
 
 DE HAAS, Maurice F. H., 1830?-1895, 
 Dutch marine painter. 
 
 DEL SARTO, Andrea Vanucchi, 1486-1531, 
 Florentine painter. 
 
 DEMOCRITUS, 460-361 B. C., " the laugh- 
 ing philosopher of Greece." 
 
 DEMOSTHENES, 385?-332 B. C., Athenian 
 orator ; conquered an impediment in his 
 speech, and by perseverance and determination 
 ; became the greatest of orators ; opposed Philip 
 of Macedon, against whom he delivered his 
 Philippics : condemned to death by Antipater. 
 he committed suicide by poison. 
 
 DE QUINCEY, Thomas, 1785-1859, Eng. 
 author ; his " Confessions of an Opium-Eater, " 
 an autobiography, published in 1821, created 
 a great sensation.
 
 244 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 DERBY, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 
 Earl of, 1799-1869, Eng. statesman and orator; 
 translated Homer's Iliad. 
 
 DESCARTES, Rene', 1596-1650, Fr. philos- 
 opher and mathematician ; represented the 
 revolt against scholasticism, re-examining all 
 questions and discarding the authority of 
 great names ; "I think, therefore I am." 
 
 DE SOTO, Ferdinand, 1460-1542, Sp. ex- 
 plorer ; discovered the Mississippi. 
 
 DESSALINES, Jean Jacques, 1760-1806, negro 
 emperor of Hayti. 
 
 DICKENS, Charles, 1812-70, Eng. novelist. 
 
 DIDEROT, Denis, 1712-84, Fr. philosopher 
 and novelist ; chief editor of "The Encyclo- 
 paedia," and librarian of Catherine of Russia. 
 
 DIOGENES, died 323 B. C., Gr. cynic philos- 
 opher ; lived in a tub, affecting contempt for 
 the comforts of life. 
 
 DODGE, Mary Abigail (Gail Hamilton), 
 1839-96, Am. authoress; cousin of James G. 
 Blaine. 
 
 DOELLINGER, John Joseph Ignatius, 1799- 
 1890, Ger. theologian and historian ; leader of 
 the " Old Catholic" movement. 
 
 DOMINIC, Saint, 1170-1221, Sp. preacher ; 
 founder of order of Dominicans. 
 
 DOMITIAN, 51?-96, Rom. emperor. 
 
 DONATUS, ft. 300, founder of the Donatists. 
 
 DONIZETTI, Gaetano, 1798-1848, It. com- 
 poser. 
 
 DORE", Paul Gustave, 1832-83, Fr. artist. 
 
 DORIA, Andrea, 1468-1560, Genoese patriot 
 and commander. 
 
 DORR, Thomas Wilson, 1805-54, Am. poll- 
 tician. 
 
 DORSET, Charles Sackville, Earl of, 1637- 
 1706, Eng. poet and wit. 
 
 DORSET, Thomas Sackville, Earl of, 1536- 
 1608, Eng. poet and statesman. 
 
 DORSET, John Syng, 1783-1818, Am. sur- 
 geon. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Archibald (Bell-the-Cat), . . . .- 
 1514?, "the great earl of Angus"; lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 DOUGLAS, James, Earl of, ... .-1330, Scot, 
 patriot. 
 
 DOUGLAS, Stephen Arnold (the Little Giant), 
 1817?-1861, Am. statesman; native of Ver- 
 mont ; admitted to the bar in New York ; re- 
 moved to Illinois and gained distinction as an 
 orator; judge of Illinois Supreme Court, 1841 ; 
 elected to Congress, 1843; senator, 1847; 
 supported the compromise measures of Henry 
 Clay, and advocated the doctrine known as 
 "squatter sovereignty" ; re-elected to Senate, 
 1853, and reported bill repealing Missouri 
 Compromise ; candidate for Democratic nomi- 
 nation for presidency in 1856 ; defeated Lincoln 
 for U. S. Senate in 1858, they canvassing the 
 
 State together ; candidate of one wing of the 
 Democratic party for president in 1860; sup- 
 ported the Union party in 1861. 
 
 DOUGLASS, Frederick, 1817 ?-95, Arn. ora- 
 tor ; formerly a slave. 
 
 Dow, Lorenzo, 1777-1834, Am. preacher. 
 
 DRACO (or Dracon), fl. 624 B. C., Athe- 
 nian lawgiver. 
 
 DRAKE, Sir Francis, 1540-95, Eng. naval 
 hero ; first English circumnavigator of the 
 globe. 
 
 DRAKE, Joseph Rodman, 1795-1820, Am. 
 poet. 
 
 DRAPER, John William, 1811-82, Am. 
 scientist. 
 
 DREYSE, Johann Nikolaus von, 1787-1867, 
 Prussian inventor of the needle gun. 
 
 DRYDEN, John, 1631-1700, Eng. poet, 
 critic, and dramatist. 
 
 DUDEVANT, Mme. Amantine Lucile Aurore 
 (ne'e Dupin) (George Sand), 1804-76, Fr. 
 novelist. 
 
 DUDLEY, Robert, Earl of Leicester, 1531?- 
 88, favorite of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 DUFAURE, Jules Armand Stanislas, 1798- 
 1881, Fr. statesman. 
 
 DUMAS, Alexandre, 1802-70, Fr. novelist. 
 
 DUMAS, Alexandre, 1824-1895, son of A. D., 
 Fr. novelist. 
 
 DUMOURIEZ, Charles Francois, 1739-1823, 
 Fr. general. 
 
 DUNCAN I., ... .- 1040, Scot, king; killed 
 by Macbeth. 
 
 DUNGLISON, Robley, 1798-1869, Am. phy- 
 sician. 
 
 DUNOIS, Jean de (Bastard of Orleans), Fr. 
 national hero ; natural son of the Duke of Or- 
 leans ; defeated the English at Montargis in 
 1427, and assisted at the siege of Orleans 
 in 1429 ; expelled the English from Nor- 
 mandy and Guienne, and was created Count 
 d 'Orleans. 
 
 DUNS SCOTUS (the Subtle Doctor), 1265 ?- 
 1308, Scot, theologian. 
 
 DUPONT, Samuel Francis, 1803-65, Am. rear- 
 admiral. 
 
 DURER, Albrecht, 1471-1528, Ger. painter 
 and engraver. 
 
 DWIGHT, Timothy, 1752-1817, Am. author 
 and divine. 
 
 DYCK, VAN, Philip, 1680-1752, Dutch 
 painter. 
 
 EADS, James Buchanan, 1820-87. Am. en- 
 gineer. 
 
 EASTLAKE, Sir Charles "Lock, 1793-1865, 
 Eng. painter. 
 
 EDWARD I. (Longshanks), 1239-1307, king 
 of England ; conquered Wales and Scotland ; 
 II., 1284-1327, defeated by Bruce at Bannock-
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 245 
 
 burn ; dethroned by the queen and her favo- 
 rite, Roger de Mortimer, 1326 ; murdered the 
 following year; III., 1312-77, son of Edward 
 II. ; proclaimed king in 1327 ; executed Mor- 
 timer, and imprisoned the queen-mother ; car- 
 ried on war with France and won the great 
 victory of Crecy ; IV., 1441-83; V., 1470-83, 
 ascended the throne at the age of 13, assassi- 
 nated two months later ; VI., 15S7-53. 
 
 EDWARD, Prince of Wales (the Black 
 Prince), 1330-76, son of Edward II. ; partici- 
 pated in invasion of France, commanding the 
 main body of the English at Crecy ; won the 
 battle of Poictiers. 
 
 EDWARDS, Amelia Blandford, 1831-92, 
 Eng. novelist. 
 
 EDWARDS, Jonathan, 1703-58, Am. theo- 
 logian and metaphysician. 
 
 EDWIN, 586? -633, king of Northumbria. 
 
 EGMONT, Lamoral, Count, 1522-68, Flem- 
 ish statesman and soldier. 
 
 ELIOT, John, "Apostle of the Indians," 
 1604-90, Eng. clergyman. 
 
 ELIOT, Sir John, 1590-1632, Eng. orator 
 and statesman. 
 
 ELIZABETH, 1533-1603, queen of England; 
 daughter of Henry VIII. 
 
 ELIZABETH PETROVNA, 1709-62, empress of 
 Russia ; daughter of Peter the Great. 
 
 ELIZABETH, Saint, 1207-31, queen of Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 ELLENBOROUGH, Edward Law, Lord, 1748- 
 1818, Eng. chief justice. 
 
 ELLSWORTH, Oliver, 1745-1807, Am. jurist 
 and statesman. 
 
 ELLWOOD, Thomas, 1639-1713, Eng. Quaker 
 author. 
 
 ELZEVIR, a celebrated family of printers 
 and publishers at Leyden, 1570-1680. 
 
 EMERSON, Ralph Waldo, 1803-82, Am. es- 
 sayist, philosopher, and poet, and founder of 
 the " Transcendental " school of philosophy. 
 
 EMMANUEL (the Great), 1469-1521, king of 
 Portugal. 
 
 EMMET, Robert, 1780-1803, Ir. patriot and 
 orator ; became a leader of the " United Irish- 
 men," and was implicated in the killing of 
 Lord Kil warden, chief justice of Ireland, and 
 others ; although defending himself with great 
 eloquence, he was sentenced to death and paid 
 the penalty of his complicity. 
 
 EMMET, Thomas Addis, 1764-1827, brother 
 of R. E. ; a leader of the " United Irishmen," 
 and imprisoned from 1798 till 1801 ; removed 
 to America in 1804, and was in 1812 elected 
 attorney-general of New York. 
 
 ENCKE, Johann Franz, 1791-1865, Ger. as- 
 tronomer. 
 
 ENDICOTT, John, 1589-1665, colonial gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts. 
 
 ENGHIEN, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, 
 Due d', 1772-1804, Fr. prince; executed by 
 order of Napoleon. 
 
 ENOCH (or Henoch), 3378- . . . . B. C., 
 father of Methuselah ; translated at the age of 
 365. 
 
 EPICTETUS, 60- , Gr. Stoic philos- 
 opher. 
 
 EPICURUS, 3407-270 B. C., Gr. philoso- 
 pher ; founder of the Epicurean school. 
 
 ERASMUS, Desiderius, 1466-1536, Dutch 
 scholar and printer of the first Greek New 
 Testament. 
 
 ERASTUS, Thomas, 1524-83, Ger. physician 
 and writer. 
 
 ERATOSTHENES, 276-196? B. C., Gr. ge- 
 ometer ; considered the founder of the science 
 of astronomy. 
 
 ERIC THE RED, fl. 1000, Scandinavian nav- 
 igator ; discovered Greenland. 
 
 ERICSSON, John, 1803-89, Sw. engineer and 
 inventor; constructed the first "Monitor," 
 with revolving turrets for guns, which de- 
 stroyed the Confederate iron-clad Merrimac. 
 
 ERIGENA, Joannes Scotus, fl. 850, Ir. phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 ERSKINE, Henry, 1746-1817, Scot, lawyer 
 and orator. 
 
 ERSKINE, Thomas, Baron, 1750-1823, Scot, 
 lawyer and orator. 
 
 ESCOBAR Y MENDOSA, Antonio, 1580-1669, 
 Sp. Jesuit and casuist. 
 
 ESPARTERO, Joaquin Baldamero, Duke de 
 la Vittoria, 1792-1879, Sp. statesman and gen- 
 eral ; defeated the Carlists. 
 
 ESSEX, Robert Devereux, second Earl of, 
 1567-1601, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth ; be- 
 headed for high treason. 
 
 ESTAING, Charles Hector, Count d', 1729- 
 94, Fr. admiral ; beheaded. 
 
 ESTERHAZY DE GALANTHA, Paul, 1635- 
 
 1713, Hungarian governor-general. 
 
 EUCLID OF ALEXANDRIA, fl. 300 B. C., Gr. 
 mathematician. 
 
 EUGENE OF SAVOY (Prince Francois Eu- 
 gene de Savoie-Carignan), 1663-1736, Austrian 
 general ; defeated the Turks at Peterwardein 
 in 1716, and at Belgrade in 1717. 
 
 EULER, Leonard, 1707-83, Swiss mathema- 
 tician. 
 
 EURIPIDES, 480-406 B. C., Gr. tragic poet ; 
 mediator between ancient and modern drama. 
 
 EUSEBIUS PAMPHILI, 266-340?, ecclesiastical 
 historian, and bishop of Caesarea. 
 
 EVANS, Marian C. (George Eliot), 1820- 
 81, Eng. novelist; the daughter of a clergy- 
 man ; lived with George II. Lewes, as his wife, 
 for several years, and after his death married 
 J. W. Cross.
 
 246 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 EUSTACHI, Bartolommeo, 1510-74, It. anat- 
 omist. 
 
 EVERETT, Edward, 1794-1865, Am. scholar, 
 orator, and statesman ; elected to Congress in 
 1824, remaining in that body for ten years; 
 in 1835 became governor of Massachusetts ; 
 minister to England, 1841-5 ; secretary of 
 state, 1852 ; elected to the United States Sen- 
 ate, 1853, but resigned on account of illness; 
 defeated for the vice-presidency in 1860. 
 
 EYCK, VAN, Hubert, 1366-1426, Flemish 
 painter. 
 
 EYCK, VAN, Jan (John of Bruges), 1390?- 
 1440 ?, brother of H. E., Flemish painte 
 
 EZEKIEL, fl. seventh century B. C., Heorew 
 prophet. 
 
 EZRA, fl. fifth century B. C., Hebrew law- 
 maker. 
 
 FABIUSMAXIMUS, Quintus (Cunctator), 203 
 B. C., Roman consul and general; inaugu- 
 rated the " Fabian " policy, carrying on only 
 a defensive war against Hannibal. 
 
 FAHRENHEIT, Gabriel Daniel, 1686-1740, 
 Ger. inventor of the thermometer. 
 
 FAIRFAX, Thomas, Lord, 1611-71, parlia- 
 mentary general ; won the battle of Naseby. 
 
 FARADAY, Michael, 1791-1867, Eng. chem- 
 ist and natural philosopher ; founder of sci- 
 ence of magneto-electricity. 
 
 FARRAGUT, David Glascoe, 1801-70, Am. 
 admiral ; passed the New Orleans forts and 
 captured New Orleans in 1862. 
 
 FAUST, Dr. Johann, fl. 1500, Ger. necro- 
 mancer. 
 
 FAUST, Johann, . . . .-1466? one of the 
 inventors of printing. 
 
 FAWKES, Guy, . . . .-1606, Eng. conspira- 
 tor. 
 
 FENELON, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe, 
 1651-1715, Fr. prelate and author; " Telema- 
 chus." 
 
 FERDINAND V., 1452-1516, founded the 
 Spanish monarchy. 
 
 FERGUSSON, James, 1808-86, Scot, architect. 
 
 FERRY, Jules Francois Canaille, 1832-93, 
 Fr. statesman. 
 
 FESSENDEN, William Pitt, 1806-69, Am. 
 statesman. 
 
 FEUERBACH, Paul Johann Ansehn, 1775- 
 1833, Ger. jurist. 
 
 FEUILLET, Octave, 1821-90, Fr. author. 
 
 FICHTE, Irnmanuel Hermann, 1797-1879, 
 Ger. philosopher. 
 
 FICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, 1762-1814, Ger. 
 metaphysician. 
 
 FIELD, Cyrus West, 1819-92, Am. merchant 
 and financier ; established first, telegraph cable 
 between America and Europe. 
 
 FIELD, Eugene, 1850-95, Am. poet. 
 
 FIELDING, Henry, 1707-54, Eng. novelist 
 and dramatist. 
 
 FIESOLE, Giovanni da (Fra Angelico), 1387- 
 1455, It. painter. 
 
 FILLMORE, Millard, 1800-74, Am. states- 
 man ; thirteenth president of the United States ; 
 born in New York ; learned fuller's trade ; 
 read law and acquired lucrative practice in 
 Buffalo ; elected to Congress, 1832, and con- 
 tinued a member till 1842 ; elected vice- 
 president, 1848; became president on the 
 death of Taylor, 1850 ; approved the Fugitive 
 Slave Law and the compromise measures of 
 Henry Clay, and made Daniel Webster sec- 
 retary of state. 
 
 FISH, Hamilton, 1808-1893, Am. states- 
 man. 
 
 FITCH, John, 1743-98, Am. inventor (steam- 
 boat) . 
 
 FITZGERALD, Edward, Lord, 1763-98, Ir. 
 revolutionist. 
 
 FLAMINIUS, Caius, . . . ,-217 B. C., Rom. 
 general and consul, 
 
 FLAMINIUS, Titus Quintius, 230-174 B.C., 
 Rom. general and consul. 
 
 FLAXMAN, John, 1755-1826, Eng. sculptor. 
 
 FLETCHER, John, 1576-1625, Eng. poet and 
 dramatist ; associate of Beaumont. 
 
 FLOTOW, Frederick Ferdinand Adolphus 
 von, 1812-83, Ger. composer ; "Martha." 
 
 FONTENELLE, Barnard de Bovier de, 1657- 
 1757, Fr. author. 
 
 FORREST, Edwin, 1806-72, Am. tragedian. 
 
 FOHTUNY, Mariano, 1839-74, Sp. painter. 
 
 FOSTER, Stephen Collins, 1826-64, Am. 
 song-writer. 
 
 FOURIER, Francois Charles Marie, 1772- 
 1837, Fr. socialist. 
 
 FOWLER. Orson Squire, 1809-87, Am. phre- 
 nologist. 
 
 Fox, Charles James, 1749-1806, Eng. ora- 
 ator and statesman ; entered Parliament 1768 
 as a Tory, but joined the opposition in 1773, 
 and became leader of the Whigs, opposing the 
 policy of Pitt. 
 
 Fox, George, 1624-90, Eng. founder of the 
 society of Friends, or Quakers. 
 
 Fox, John, 1517-87, Eng. Protestant clergy- 
 man and author ; " Book of Martyrs." 
 
 FRA DIAVOLO (Michael Rozzo), 1769-1806, 
 Neapolitan brigand. 
 
 FRANCIS I., 1494-1547, king of France ; de- 
 feated at Pavia; IT., 1543-60. 
 
 FRANCIS BORGIA, Saint, 1510-72, duke of 
 Gandia and viceroy of Catalonia; joined the 
 Society of Jesus and became general of the 
 order. 
 
 FRANCIS DE PAULA, Saint, 1416-1507, It. 
 Franciscan monk; founded the order Fratres 
 Minimi.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 247 
 
 FRANCIS DE SALES, Saint, 1567-1622, Fr. 
 Jesuit writer and orator ; bishop of Geneva. 
 
 FRANCIS OF Assisi, Saint, 1182-1226, It. 
 founder of the Franciscan order, whose labors 
 gave new life and power to the Church of 
 Rome. 
 
 FRANCIS, Sir Philip, 1740-1818, Br. states- 
 man and writer; supposed author of "Let- 
 ters of Junius." 
 
 FRANKLIN, Benjamin, 1706-90, Am. states- 
 man and philosopher ; born in Boston ; the 
 youngest of a family of seventeen children; 
 his father was a tallow chandler ; learned the 
 trade of a printer and studied diligently, re- 
 moved to Philadelphia, where he established 
 the Pennsylvania Gazette ; began the publica- 
 tion of Poor Richard's Almanac in 1735 ; dis- 
 covered the identity of lightning and elec- 
 tricity in 1752, by means of a kite ; Franklin 
 occupied many positions of public trust and 
 was the recipient of many honors. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Sir John, 1786-1847, Eng. Arc- 
 tic explorer. 
 
 FREDERICK I. (Barbarossa), 1121-90, em- 
 peror of Germany ; crowned by Pope Adrian 
 IV. ; reduced Milan in 1158, but was defeated 
 by the Lombards near Legnano ; joined the 
 third crusade in 1189 with 150,000 men, and 
 defeated the Turks at Iconium ; died in the 
 Holy Land; II., 1194-1250, opposed by the 
 Guelphs and the pope in his project to unite 
 Italy and Germany in one empire ; began a 
 crusade against the Moslems in 1227, but 
 turned back, and was excommunicated by Pope 
 Gregory IX. ; resumed the crusade in 1228, 
 captured Jerusalem and made peace with the 
 pope ; defeated the Guelphs at Cortenuova, 
 1237, and renewed war with the pope. 
 
 FREDERICK WILLIAM (the Great Elector), 
 1620-68, elector of Brandenburg; founder of 
 the Prussian monarchy. 
 
 FREDERICK I., 1657-1713, first king of Prus- 
 sia ; II. (Frederick the Great), 1712-88, sub- 
 jected to inhuman treatment in youth by his 
 father, lie gave but little promise of his future 
 greatness ; ascended the Prussian throne in 
 1740, and invaded Silesia, which was ceded to 
 him by Maria Theresa in 1742 ; an alliance 
 having been formed against him by Austria, 
 Russia, and France, he began the Seven Years' 
 War in 1756 by invading Saxony ; gained a 
 great victory at Prague in 1757 : but was de- 
 feated at Kolin soon afterward ; in the same 
 year he defeated a French army twice as large 
 as his own at Rossbach, and won a brilliant 
 and decisive victory over the Austrians at 
 Leuthen ; in 1759 he was defeated at Kunners- 
 dorf, and Berlin was captured by the allies, 
 but in 1760 he gained the victories of Liegnitz 
 and Torgau, and peace was made in 1763, 
 
 Prussian Poland being added to Frederick's 
 dominions. Frederick was a voluminous writer, 
 and a friend of \ o.taire, who spent several 
 years at his court. 
 
 FREILIGRATH, Ferdinand, 1810-76, Ger. 
 lyric poet. 
 
 FREMONT, John Charles, 1830-90, Am. pol- 
 itician, explorer, and general; Republican 
 candidate for the presidency, 1856. 
 
 FROEBEL, Frederick, 1782-1852, Ger. edu- 
 cator ; founder of the " kindergarten. " 
 
 FROISSART, Jean, 1337-1410 V, Fr. histo- 
 rian ; "Chronicles." 
 
 FROUDE, James Anthony, 1818-1895, Eng. 
 historian. 
 
 FULLER, Sarah Margaret, Countess d'Os- 
 soli, 1810-50, Am. authoress. 
 
 FULTON, Robert, 1765-1815, Am. engineer 
 and inventor, born in Pennsylvania ; after 
 spending some years in London as an artist, 
 he turned his attention to civil engineering and 
 inland navigation ; went to Paris, and there 
 he invented a submarine torpedo ; returned to 
 New York, 1801, and, with the assistance of 
 Robert Livingston, discovered steam naviga- 
 tion ; in 1806 he built the steamer Clermont, 
 which made regular trips between Albany and 
 New York at a speed of five miles an hour ; 
 although he spent a large amount of money on 
 his invention, the patent did not prove of pe- 
 cuniary value to him. 
 
 FUSELI, John H., 1742-1825, Swiss histor- 
 ical painter. 
 
 GADSDEN, Christopher, 1724-1805, Am. 
 statesman. 
 
 "GADSDEN, James, 1788-1858, Am. statesman. 
 
 GAINSBOROUGH, Thomas, 1727-88, Eng. 
 painter. 
 
 GALBA, Servius Sulpicius, B. C. 4 ?-A. D. 
 69, Rom. emperor. 
 
 GALEN, 131-205 ?, Gr. physician, medical 
 writer and philosopher, living at Rome ; his 
 works remained authority until the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 GALILEI, Galileo (Galileo), 1564-1642, It. 
 astronomer ; discovered, about 1584, the isoch- 
 ronism of the vibrations of a pendulum, and 
 the law by which the velocity of falling bodies 
 is accelerated ; adopted in astronomy the sys- 
 tem of Copernicus ; constructed his wonder- 
 ful telescope, 1609 ; through it he discovered 
 the satellites of Jupiter, and was enabled to ex- 
 plore the surface of the moon and view the 
 phases of Venus ; he also ascertained that the 
 "Milky Way " was composed of myriads of 
 stars ; in 1632 he produced his " Dialogues on 
 the Ptolemaic and Copernican Systems," but 
 was compelled by the Inquisition to abjure the 
 theory of the motion of the earth ; he was
 
 248 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 detained in prison for several years, but it 
 does not appear that he was severely treated, 
 as he was allowed to pursue his studies until 
 prevented by blindness. 
 
 GALL, Franz Joseph, 1758-1828, Ger. phy- 
 sician ; founder of phrenology. 
 
 GALLATIN, Albert, 1761-1849, Am. states- 
 man ; native of Switzerland. 
 
 GALVANI, Aloisio, 1737-89, It. discoverer 
 of galvanism. 
 
 GAMA, Vasco da, 1450?-1524, Port, naviga- 
 tor. 
 
 GAMBETTA, Leon, 1838-82, Fr. statesman. 
 
 GAMBIER, James, Baron, 1756-1833, Br. 
 admiral. 
 
 GARFIELD, James Abram, 1831-81, twen- 
 tieth president of the United States ; born in 
 Ohio ; worked on a farm in boyhood, and 
 learned the trade of a carpenter ; afterward 
 became driver and helmsman of a canal-boat ; 
 graduated at Williams College in 1856 ; ap- 
 pointed professor of Latin and Greek at Hiram 
 College, Ohio, and chosen president of that in- 
 stitution in 1858 ; married Miss Lucretia Ran- 
 dolph, and occasionally acted as a Campbellite 
 minister; elected to the State Senate, 1859, 
 and in 1861 was chosen colonel of an Ohio 
 regiment ; promoted to the rank of brigadier- 
 general ; elected to Congress, 1862, and re- 
 mained in that body until 1880, when he was 
 made senator ; nominated for the presidency 
 by the Republican party in 1880, and elected ; 
 shot by Charles J. Guiteau, in Washington, 
 July 2, 1881, and died on September 19 of 
 same year. 
 
 GARIBALDI, Giuseppe, 1807-82, It. patriot 
 and general. 
 
 GARRICK, David, 1716-79, Eng. actor. 
 
 GARRISOX, William Lloyd, 1804-79, Am. 
 abolitionist. 
 
 GATES, Horatio, 1728-1806, Am. Revolu- 
 tionary general ; born in England ; captured 
 Burgoyne's army at Saratoga. 
 
 GAUSS, Carl Friedrich, 1777-1855, Ger. 
 mathematician. 
 
 GAY, John, 1688-1732, Eng. poet. 
 
 GENGHIS KHAN, 1163-1227, Mogul con- 
 queror ; subdued China and Persia. 
 
 GENSERIC, 406 ?-477, king of the Vandals ; 
 invaded Africa, 429 ; defeated the Romans in 
 numerous battles ; captured Carthage, 439 ; 
 captured and sacked Rome, 455 ; defeated the 
 navy of the Emperor Marjorian, 457. 
 
 GEOFFROY of Monmouth, 1100?-54, Eng. 
 chronicler. 
 
 GEORGE I. (Lewis), 1660-1727, king of Great 
 Britain; II. (Augustus), 1683-1760, defeated 
 the French at Dettingen in 1743 ; Charles Ed- 
 ward Stuart was defeated at Culloden, 1746,' 
 by the duke of Cumberland, and the latter 
 
 part of the reign of George II. was marked by 
 victories over the French in Canada, iu India, 
 and on the ocean ; III. (William Frederick), 
 1738-1820, arbitrary and ignorant and through 
 his obstinacy lost the American colonies ; be- 
 came insane in 1810; IV. (Augustus Freder- 
 ick), 1762-1830, "the first gentleman of Eu- 
 rope"; led a dissipated life and incurred an 
 immense debt; married, in 1786, Mrs. Fitz- 
 herbert ; she being a Roman Catholic, the 
 marriage was illegal ; his father refusing to 
 pay his debts unless he contracted a regular 
 marriage, he was induced, 1795, to marry his 
 cousin, whom he regarded with great dislike, 
 a separation being the result ; became regent, 
 1811 ; took little interest in public affairs ; one 
 year before his death an act was passed reliev- 
 ing Roman Catholics from political disabil- 
 ities. 
 
 GEORGE, Saint, fl. third century, bishop of 
 Alexandria ; patron saint of England ; to him is 
 attributed the destruction of a terrible dragon. 
 
 GEORGE, Henry, 1839-1898, Am. author 
 and economist, and advocate of the single tax. 
 
 GERRY, Elbridge, 1744-1812, Am. revolu- 
 tionary statesman ; signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence ; governor of Massachusetts, 
 1810; vice-president, 1812. 
 
 GIIIBERTI, Lorenzo, 1378-1455, Florentine 
 sculptor. 
 
 GIBBON, Edward, 1737-94, Eng. historian. 
 
 GIBSON, John, 1791-1866, Eng. sculptor. 
 
 GIFFORD, Sanford Robinson, 1823-80, Am. 
 painter. 
 
 GIFFORD, William, 1757-1826, Eng. writer 
 and critic. 
 
 GILBERT, Sir Humphrey, 1539-83, Eng. 
 navigator. 
 
 GIRARD, Stephen, 1750-1831, Am. merchant 
 and banker ; born in France; founded Girard 
 College. 
 
 GIULIO ROMANO, 1492-1546, It. painter and 
 architect. 
 
 GLADSTONE, William Ewart, 1809-1898, 
 Eng. premier. 
 
 GLUCK, Christoph Wilibald von, 1714-87, 
 Ger. composer. 
 
 GODFREY OF BOUILLON, 1058 7-1100, lead- 
 er of first crusade, 
 
 GODIVA (Lady Godiva), fl. llth century, 
 Eng. heroine ; wife of Leofric, earl of Leices- 
 ter. 
 
 GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von, 1749-1832, 
 Ger. poet and author, dramatist, scientist and 
 statesman. 
 
 GOLDSMITH, Oliver, 1728-74, Ir. poet and 
 writer. 
 
 GOMEZ, Sebastiano, 1616-90, Sp. painter; a 
 slave of Murillo, who liberated him and took 
 him into his studio
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 249 
 
 GOXSALVOPE CORDOVA, Hernandez, 1443?- 
 1515, Sp. commander. 
 
 GOODYEAR, Charles, 1800-60, Am. inventor. 
 
 GORDOX, Charles George (Chinese Gordon), 
 1833-85, Eng. soldier. 
 
 GORTSCHAKOKF, Alexander Michaelovitch, 
 Prince, 1798-1883, Russian statesman and 
 diplomatist. 
 
 GOTTSCHALK, Louis Moreau, tS29-69, Am. 
 composer. 
 
 GOUGH, John B., 1822-86, Am. temperance 
 lecturer ; born in England. 
 
 GOULD, Jay, 1836-92, Am. railway financier. 
 
 GOUNOD, Charles Francois, 1818-93, Fr. 
 composer. 
 
 GRACCHUS, Caius Sempronius, 159-126 B. 
 C., Rom. statesman. 
 
 GRACCHUS. Tiberius Sempronius, brother of 
 C. T. G., B. C. 1687-33?, Rom. statesman. 
 
 GRAHAM, John, Viscount Dundee (Claver- 
 house), 16507-89, Scot, officer noted for merci- 
 less severity toward the Covenanters. 
 
 GRANT, Ulysses Simpson, 1822-85, eight- 
 eenth president of the United States ; born in 
 Ohio ; graduated at West Point, 1843 ; served 
 in Mexico ; became a captain in 1853 ; re- 
 signed in 1854, and after passing some time at 
 St. Louis removed to Galena, 111., in 1859, 
 and engaged in business; in 1861 he was made 
 aide-de-camp to the governor of Illinois, but 
 soon after was chosen colonel of the Twenty- 
 first Illinois Volunteers, and in July of same 
 year was made brigadier-general ; made com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Union armies in March, 
 1864 ; elected to the presidency in 1868, and 
 again in 1872, and after the expiration of his 
 second term he traveled extensively in Europe 
 and Asia. 
 
 GRATTAX, Henry, 1746-1820, Ir. orator and 
 statesman. 
 
 GRAY, Asa, 1810-88, Am. botanist. 
 
 GRAY, Thomas, 1716-71, Eng. poet. 
 
 GREKLEY, Horace, 1811-72, Am. journal- 
 ist ; born in New Hampshire ; learned the 
 printer's trade and worked as a journeyman 
 printer in New l r ork for one year ; founded 
 the New York Tribune, 1841 ; a stanch Whig 
 and Republican, he favored Fremont for the 
 presidency in 1856, and Lincoln in 1860; ac- 
 cepted the Democratic nomination in 1872, 
 but was defeated by Grant. 
 
 GREEN, John Richard, 1874-83, Eng. his- 
 torian. 
 
 GREENE, Nathaniel, 1742-86, Am. Revolu- 
 tionary general. 
 
 GREEXLEAF, Benjamin, 1786-1864, Am. 
 mathematician. 
 
 GREEXLEAF, Simon, 1783-1854, Am. jurist. 
 
 GREEXOUGH, Horatio, 1805-52, Am. sculp- 
 tor. 
 
 GREGORY XIII., 1572-85, reformed the Ju- 
 lian calendar. 
 
 GREGORY OF NYSSA, Saint, 332-94, Gr. 
 father of the Church. 
 
 GREGORY OF TOURS, Saint, 540-95, Fr. prel- 
 ate and historian. 
 
 GRESHAM, Walter Q., 1832-1895, Am. 
 jurist and secretary of state. 
 
 GREVY, Frangois Paul Jules, 1807-91, Fr. 
 president. 
 
 GREY, Lady Jane, 1537-54, gifted Eng. 
 lady ; beheaded. 
 
 GRIMM, Friedrich Melchior, Baron, 1723- 
 1807, Ger. writer. 
 
 GRIMM, Jakob Ludwig (1785-1863), and 
 Wilhelm Karl (1786-1859), Ger. philologists; 
 brothers. 
 
 GROTIUS (De Groot), Hugo, 1583-1645, 
 Dutch jurist and theologian. 
 
 GROUCHY, Emmanuel de, Marquis, 1766- 
 1847, Fr. general. 
 
 GUATEMOZIN, 1497-1525, last Aztec emperor 
 of Mexico. 
 
 GUELPH (or Welf), noble German family, 
 originally Italian. 
 
 GUIZOT, Frangois Pierre Guillaume, 1787- 
 1874, Fr. statesman and historian. 
 
 GUSTAVUS I. (Gustavus Vasa), 1496-1559, 
 king of Sweden ; II. (Gustavus Adolphus), 1594 
 1632, defeated the Polish and Russian armies 
 invading Sweden ; became the head of the 
 Protestant league in Germany and defeated 
 Tilly at Leipsic in 1631, and on the banks of 
 the Lech in 1632 ; at the great battle of Liitzen, 
 Wallenstein now commanding the imperial 
 army, Gustavus was killed, his troops neverthe- 
 less gained a complete victory; III., 1746-92, 
 assassinated; IV., 1778-1837, ascended the 
 throne in 1792, but was deposed in 1809. 
 
 GUTEXBERG, Johann (Gansfleisch), 1400-68, 
 Ger. inventor of movable type and the print- 
 ing press ; first books printed about 1457 ; 
 died in poverty. 
 
 GUZMAN, Alfonso Perez de, 1258-1309, Sp. 
 commander. 
 
 HAHXEMAXX, Samuel Christian Friedrich, 
 1755-1843, Ger. founder of homoeopathy. 
 
 HALE, Sir Matthew, 1609-76, Eng. jurist. 
 
 HALE, Nathan, Captain, 1755-76, Am. pa- 
 triot. 
 
 HALEVY, Jacques F. F. E., 1799-1862, Fr. 
 composer. 
 
 HALLAM, Arthur Henry, 1811-33, Eng. 
 critic and essayist. 
 
 HALLAM, Henry, 1777-1859, father of pre- 
 ceding ; Eng. historian and critic. 
 
 HALLECK, Fitz Greene, 1790-1867, Am. poet, 
 
 HALLECK, Henry Wager, 1814-72, Am. gen- 
 eral and writer.
 
 250 
 
 THE GENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 HALPINE, Charles Graham (Miles O'Reilly), 
 1829-68, Ir.-Am. journalist and poet. 
 
 HAMILTON, Alexander, 1757-1804, Am. 
 orator, statesman, financier, and general ; born 
 in the West Indies ; secretary and aide-de- 
 camp to Washington in Revolutionary war ; 
 chosen to the Continental Congress, 1782, but 
 resigned in order to practice law ; leading 
 member of the convention of 1787 : secretary 
 of the treasury, 1789-95 ; became recognized 
 leader of the Federal party. Hamilton died 
 from a wound received in a duel with Aaron 
 Burr, and his death was deeply deplored. 
 
 HAMILTON, Sir William, 1788-1856, Scot, 
 metaphysician. 
 
 HAMLIN, Hannibal, 1809-91, Am. states- 
 man. 
 
 HAMPDEN, John, 1594-1643, Eng. statesman 
 and reformer; entered Parliament in 1620; 
 denied the authority of the crown to levy ton- 
 nage without the consent of Parliament, and 
 refused to contribute to the force loan ordered 
 by King Charles, for which he was imprisoned ; 
 regaining his liberty and reentering Parlia- 
 ment, he ably and firmly resisted the arbitrary 
 measures of the crown ; intending, with his 
 cousin, Oliver Cromwell, to emigrate in 1638, 
 they were detained by order of council ; in 
 1640 he led the opposition in the Long Parlia- 
 ment, and was the most popular public man 
 in England ; impeached for high treason in 
 1642, together with four other members, the 
 Commons refused to surrender them, although 
 the king personally led his guard in an attempt 
 to arrest them in their seats ; Hampden after- 
 ward raised a regiment for the Parliamentary 
 army, and, after displaying great courage in 
 numerous engagements, was slain in a skir- 
 mish. 
 
 HANCOCK, John, 1737-93, Am. statesman ; 
 president of the Continental Congress. 
 
 HANCOCK, Winfield Scott, 1824-86, Am. 
 general ; second in command at Gettysburg ; 
 Democratic candidate for president in 1880. 
 
 HANDEL, George Frederick, 1684-1759, 
 Ger. composer; settled in England in 1712; 
 " The Messiah, "the greatest of oratorios, was 
 produced, 1741 ; Handel was stricken with 
 blindness. 1751, but continued to conduct his 
 oratorios ; buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 HANNIBAL, 247-183 B. C., Carthaginian 
 general ; considered the greatest general of the 
 world ; sworn by his father, Hamilcar Barca, 
 to eternal enmity toward Rome ; became com- 
 mander of the Carthaginian forces, 221 B. C. ; 
 subdued several powerful Spanish tribes, and 
 in 219 captured Saguntum ; crossed the Alps, 
 218; defeated the Romans near the Ticinus 
 and on the banks of the Trebia ; routed Fla- 
 minius at Lake Thrasymene, 217 ; almost de- 
 
 stroyed a superior Roman army near Cannso, 
 216 ; captured Capua ; recalled to Carthage to 
 repel a Roman invasion under Scipio Africa- 
 nus, he was defeated at Zama in 202 ; ban- 
 ished from Carthage about 194, through the 
 enmity of the aristocracy ; finally ended his 
 life by taking poison, to escape falling into 
 the hands of the Romans. 
 
 HAROUN AL RASCHID, 766?-809, caliph of 
 Bagdad. 
 
 HARRISON, William Henry, 1773-1841, Am. 
 general and ninth president. 
 
 HARVARD, John, 1608 ?-88, founder of Har- 
 vard College. 
 
 HARVEY, William, 1578-1657, Eng. physi- 
 cian and anatomist, and the greatest of physi- 
 ologists ; discovered the circulation of the 
 blood. 
 
 HASDRUBAL, 207 B. C., Punic 
 
 general ; brother of Hannibal ; defeated the 
 Scipios ; slain at the Metaurus. 
 
 HASTINGS, Warren, 1732-1818, Br. general 
 and statesman ; president of the Council of 
 Bengal, and governor-general of India ; de- 
 feated Hyder Ali, king of Mysore ; after per- 
 petrating great outrages in order to replenish 
 the treasury, he resigned in 1775 and returned 
 to England ; impeached soon afterward, and 
 opposed in his trial by Burke, Sheridan, and 
 Fox, but acquitted. 
 
 HAVELOCK, Sir Henry, 1795-1857, Br. gen- 
 eral ; defeated the Sepoys in India, and re- 
 lieved Lucknow. 
 
 HAWTHORNE, Nathaniel, 1804-64, Am. au- 
 thor. 
 
 HAYDN, Joseph, 1732-1809, Ger. musical 
 composer ; his masterpiece, the oratorio of 
 " The Creation," was produced in 1798. 
 
 HAYDON, Benjamin Robert, 1786-1848, Eng. 
 painter. 
 
 HAYES, Isaac Israel, 1832-81, Am. Arctic 
 explorer. 
 
 HAYES, Rutherford Birchard, 1822-93, nine- 
 teenth president of the United States ; born in 
 Connecticut ; admitted to the bar, 1845 ; brig- 
 adier general in civil war ; Congress, 1865-8 ; 
 governor of Ohio, 1868-76 ; Republican can- 
 didate for the presidency, 1876 ; inaugurated 
 president, 1877, the electoral commission to 
 determine the result of the election of 1876 
 having decided, by a vote of eight to seven, 
 that Hayes had received 185 electoral votes as 
 against 184 for Samuel J. Tilden, the Demo- 
 cratic candidate. 
 
 HAYNE, Robert Young, 1791-1840, Am. 
 orator and statesman ; opponent of Webster in 
 discussing the Constitution ; governor of South 
 Carolina. 
 
 HAZLITT, William, 1778-1830, Eng. critic 
 and writer.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 251 
 
 HEBER, Reginald, 1783-1826, Eng. prelate 
 and author. 
 
 HEGEL, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 1770- 
 1831, Ger. philosopher, metaphysician, and 
 pantheist. 
 
 HKIXE, Ileinrich, 1799-1856, Ger. lyric 
 poet and author. 
 
 HELOISE, 1101-64, Fr. nun; pupil and 
 friend of Abelard. 
 
 HELVETICS, Claude Adrian, 1715-71, Fr. 
 philosopher. 
 
 HEMAXS. Felicia Dorothea (ne'e Brown), 
 1794-1835, Eng. poetess. 
 
 HEXDRICKS, Thomas Andrews, 1819-86, 
 Am. statesman. 
 
 HKXGIST, -488 Jutish chief ; founded 
 
 kingdom of Kent. 
 
 HKXXEPIX, Louis, 1640-1702?, Fr. Catho- 
 lic missionary and explorer of the Mississippi. 
 
 HEXRY I. (Beauclerc), 1068-1135, king of 
 England ; defeated his brother Robert and 
 usurped the throne; II., 1133-89; first of the 
 Plantagenets ; issued constitutions of Claren- 
 don, which were, however, repealed about ten 
 years later ; conquered Ireland ; during his 
 reign Thomas a Becket was killed. 
 
 HEXRY VI., 1421-71 ; his reign was made 
 memorable by the War of the Roses. 
 
 HEXRY VII., 1456-1509 ; founded the Tudor 
 dynasty. 
 
 'HEXRY VIII., 1491-1547; defeated the 
 French at Guinegaste and the Scotch at Flod- 
 den, 1513 : made Thomas Wolsey prime min- 
 ister ; applied unsuccessfully to the pope for 
 a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, his wife ; 
 favored the Reformation ; deposed Wolsey and 
 elevated Thomas Cranmer ; had himself de- 
 clared head of the church ; married Anne 
 Boleyn after the convocations of York and 
 Canterbury had declared his marriage with 
 Catherine invalid ; declared the English church 
 independent of the papal see and abolished 
 the monasteries ; had Anne Boleyn executed j 
 in 1536, and married Jane Seymour the day j 
 after the execution ; excommunicated by the j 
 pope, 1538; his third wife having died in 
 1537, he married Anne of Cleves in 1540 ; was 
 divorced from her the same year and married 
 Catherine Howard, who was executed on a 
 charge of adultery in 1542: married Catherine 
 Parr in 1543. she surviving him. 
 
 HEXRY, Patrick. 1736-99, Am. patriot and 
 orator ; member of the Continental Congress ; 
 governor of Virginia. 
 
 HERACLITUS, fl. 500 B.C., Gr. philosopher. 
 
 HERBERT, George, 1593-1632, Br. poet and 
 divine. 
 
 HERDER, Johann Gottfried von, 1744-1803, 
 Ger. author. 
 
 HEROD (the Great), B. C. 73-A. D. l,king 
 of Judea. 
 
 HERODOTUS, 4849-408 B. C., Gr. historian ; 
 " the father of history;" his work covers the 
 period of 240 years preceding his own time. 
 
 HERSCHEL, Sir John Frederick William, 
 1790-1871, Eng. astronomer and philosopher. 
 
 HERSCHEL, Sir William, 1738-1822, father 
 of preceding ; Ger. astronomer ; born in Han- 
 over, but moved to England at 21 ; discovered 
 Uranus. 
 
 HESIOD, fl. 800 B. C., Gr. poet. 
 HEZEKIAH, 750-698 B. C., king of Judah. 
 HICKS, Elias, 1748-1830, Am. Quaker 
 preacher. 
 
 HILDRETH, Richard, 1807-65, Am. journal- 
 ist and historian. 
 
 HILL, Sir Rowland, 1795-1879, authorof the 
 Eng. penny post system. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES, 460-360? B. C., Gr. physi- 
 cian; " the father of medicine"; many dis- 
 eases still bear the names he gave them. 
 
 HORBES, Thomas, 1588-1679, Eng. philos- 
 opher. 
 
 HOE, Richard March, 1812-87, Am. inven- 
 tor of printing presses. 
 
 HOFER, Andreas, 1767-1810, Tyrolese pa- 
 triot ; executed. 
 
 HOGARTH, William, 1697-1764, Eng. paint- 
 er and engraver. 
 
 HOLBEIX, Hans (the Younger), 1497-1554, 
 Ger. painter. 
 
 HOLLAND, Josiah Gilbert, 1819-81, Am. 
 author. 
 
 HOLMES, Oliver Wendell, 1809-94, Am. 
 physician, author, and poet. 
 
 HOMER, fl. 1000 B. C., Gr. poet ; " the father 
 of poets " ; about his life scarcely anything is 
 known ; supposed to have been blind and poor ; 
 some maintain that the " Iliad" and " Odys- 
 sey," the two great epics ascribed to him, are 
 collections of songs from various poets, and 
 that Homer never existed. 
 
 HOPKIXSOX, Francis, 1738-91, Am. author; 
 signed the Declaration of Independence. 
 
 HORACE (Quintus Horatius Flaccus), 65-8 
 B. C., Latin poet. 
 
 HOUSTON, Sam, 1793-1863. Am. general 
 and statesman : governor of Tennessee, 1827- 
 9 ; passed a number of years with the Chero- 
 kee Indians ; Commander-in-chief of the Texan 
 forces in revolt against Mexico, and defeated 
 and captured Santa Ana in 1836 ; elected 
 president of Texas same year, and re-elected 
 1841 ; elected senator from Texas after it* ad- 
 mission to the Union, in 1845, and governor 
 in 1859. 
 
 HOWE, Elias, 1819-67, Am. inventor. 
 HUDSON, Henry (or Hendrik), . . . .-1611, 
 Eng. navigator.
 
 252 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 HUGHES, Thomas, 1823-1896, Eng. author 
 and barrister. 
 
 HUGO, Victor Marie, Vicomte, J 802-85, Fr. 
 poet, novelist, and dramatist. 
 
 HUMBOLDT, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander 
 von, Baron, 1769-1859, Ger. scientist. 
 
 HUME, David, 1711-76, Scot, historian and 
 skeptic philosopher. 
 
 HUNT, James Henry Leigh, 1784-1859, 
 Eng. poet and author. 
 
 HUNT, AVilliam Henry, 1790-1864, Eng. 
 painter in water colors. 
 
 Huss, John, 1373-1415, Bohemian re- 
 former ; burned at the stake. 
 
 HUXLEY, Thomas Henry, 1825-95, Eng. 
 scientist. 
 
 HYPATIA, fl. 500, female philosopher at 
 Alexandria. 
 
 IBERVILLE, Pierre le Moyne d', Sieur, 1661- 
 1706, Canadian military and naval commander. 
 
 INGRES, Jean A. D. /1 781-1867, Fr. painter. 
 
 INMAN, Henry, 1801-46, Am. portrait 
 painter. 
 
 INNOCENT I., pope, ruling 402-17 ; during 
 his reign Rome was sacked by Alaric. 
 
 INNOCENT III., (Lotharius), born in 1161, 
 and chosen pope 1198 ; put France under the 
 ban, 1190, because Philip Augustus repudiated 
 his wife ; promoted the fourth crusade, the 
 result of which was the capture of Constanti- 
 nople ; deposed Otho, emperor of Germany, 
 transferring the crown to Frederick of Sicily ; 
 subjected John of England to the papal see, 
 compelling him to pay an annual tribute ; 
 crushed the Albigenses in 1214, and died two 
 years later. 
 
 IREN^SUS, Saint, 140?-'J02?, bishop of 
 Lyons, martyr. 
 
 IRVING, Washington, 1783-1859, Am. au- 
 thor ; the purest prose writer and humorist of 
 America; born in New York city. 
 
 ISABELLA I. (the Catholic), 1451-1504, 
 queen of Castile ; wife of Ferdinand of Ara- 
 gon : patroness of Columbus. 
 
 ISABKLLE OF FRA,NCE, 1292-1358, queen of 
 England, wife of Edward II., whom her ad- 
 herents deposed, and with whose assassination 
 she is charged ; her son Edward III., ascended 
 the throne and ordered her arrest, and she died 
 after twenty years' incarceration. 
 
 ISAIAH, fl. 740 B. C., Hebrew prophet. 
 
 ITURBIDE, Don Augustin de, 1790-1824, 
 emperor of Mexico. 
 
 IVAN III. (Vasilievitch), 1438-1505, czar of 
 Russia; IV. (Vasilievitch, the Terrible), 
 1529-84. 
 
 JACKSON, Andrew, 1767-1845, seventh pres- 
 ident ; born in South Carolina ; son of an 
 
 Irishman ; received but little education ; served 
 against the British in 1781 ; began the prac- 
 tice of law at Nashville, 1788 ; Congress, 179G ; 
 U. S. Senate 1797 ; judge Tennessee Supreme 
 Court, 1798-1804 ; fought several duels, killing 
 Chas. Dickinson in 1806 ; defeated the Creek 
 Indians, 1814, and was commissioned briga- 
 dier-general ; defeated the British at New Or- 
 leans, 1815 ; successfully carried on war against 
 the Seminoles, 1817-18 ; Senate, 1823, and 
 nominated for the presidency, the opposing 
 candidates being Clay, J. Q. Adams, and \V. H. 
 Crawford ; Jackson had the highest number of 
 votes, but not a majority, and Adams was 
 elected by the House of llepresentives ; Jack- 
 son was elected to the presidency, however, 
 in 1828 ; he was the first president to remove 
 public officers on account of their politics ; re- 
 elected in 1832 ; in that year, the convention 
 of South Carolina having declared the tariff 
 laws of 1828 null and void, Jackson issued a 
 proclamation declaring his intention to check 
 by force of arms all movements tending to 
 disunion. 
 
 JACKSON, Thomas Jonathan (Stonewall), 
 1824-6-3, Confederate general, native of Vir- 
 ginia; defeated General Banks at Cedar Moun- 
 tain, and captured Harper's Ferry with 10,000 
 prisoners, 1862 ; killed by a company of his 
 own men, mistaking him and his staff for 
 Federal cavalry. 
 
 JACQUARD, Joseph Marie, 1752-1834, Fr. 
 inventor. 
 
 JAMBLICHUS, fl. 320, Syrian Neo-Platonic 
 philosopher. 
 
 JAMES I., 1566-1625, king of England 
 (VI. of Scotland) ; executed Raleigh ; a trans- 
 lation of the Bible was made under his direc- 
 tion. 
 
 JAMES IV., 1473-1513, defeated and slain 
 at Flodden. 
 
 JANSEN, Cornelis, 1585-1638. Dutch theo- 
 logian ; founder of the Jansenists. 
 
 JANUARIUS, Saint, 272-305, patron saint of 
 Naples. 
 
 JAY, John, 1745-1829, Am. statesman ; first 
 chief justice. 
 
 JEANNE r>' ALBRET, 1528-72, queen of 
 Navarre. 
 
 JEFFKRSON, Thomas, 1743-1826, Am. states- 
 man ; third president ; born in Virginia ; ad- 
 mitted to the bar, 1767 ; elected to Virginia 
 House of Burgesses. 1769; Continental Con- 
 gress, 1775 ; drafted the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence ; governor of Virginia, 1779-81; 
 minister plenipotentiary, 1784, to negotiate 
 treaties with European powers : minister at 
 Paris, 1785-9; secretary of state, 1789-93; 
 elected vice-president, 1796, and president in 
 1800, holding that office from 1801 to 1809.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 253 
 
 JEFFREY, Francis, 1773-1850, Scot, critic 
 and judge. 
 
 JEFFREYS, George, Lord, 1650-89, infamous 
 Br. judge ; lord high chancellor under James 
 II. ; died in the Tower. 
 
 JEXXER, Edward, 1749-1823, Eng. physi- 
 cian ; introduced vaccination. 
 
 JEROME, Saint, 340?-420, Latin father of 
 the Church. 
 
 JEROME OF PRAGUE, 1378-1416, Bohemian 
 religious reformer ; follower of Huss ; burned 
 at the stake. 
 
 JERROLD, Douglas William, 1803-57, Eng. 
 humorist and satirical writer. 
 
 JOAN OF ARC (Jeanne d'Arc), 1411 ?-31, Fr. 
 heroine (-'the Maid of Orleans"); born in 
 Lorraine of an humble peasant family ; be- 
 lieving herself commissioned by heaven to lib- 
 erate France, and convincing Charles VII. of 
 her divine authority, she was given command 
 of a considerable force, and by the victories she 
 gained enabled Charles to be crowned at 
 Rheims ; although she wished to return home 
 and resume her former humble life, she was in- 
 duced to retain her command in the army ; 
 she was captured in 1430 by the Burgundians, 
 delivered to the English, and burned at the 
 stake after a mock trial. 
 
 JOHX, 1166-1216, king of England ; granted 
 Magna Charta. 
 
 Jonx OF GAUXT (Ghent), 1340-99, duke of 
 Lancaster ; son of Edward III. 
 
 JOHX THE BAPTIST, B. C. 5-A. D. 28, 
 prophet. 
 
 JOHX THE EVAXGELIST (St. John), . . . .- 
 100?, apostle. 
 
 JOHXSOX, Andrew, 1808-75, Am. statesman ; 
 seventeenth president ; born in North Caro- 
 lina ; learned the trade of a tailor in Ten- 
 nessee ; Congress, 1843-53 ; governor. 1853-7; 
 senator, 1857 ; military governor, 1802 : elected 
 vice-president, 1864, and succeeded to the 
 presidency on the death of Lincoln, 1865; 
 became involved in a bitter quarrel with the 
 leaders of the Republican party, and was im- 
 peached in 1868, but acquitted, although 
 thirty-five senators voted for conviction to only 
 nineteen against, a two-thirds majority being 
 necessary ; he was subsequently elected to the 
 Senate from Tennessee as a Democrat. 
 
 JOHXSOX, Reverdy, 1796-1876, Am. states- 
 man. 
 
 JOHXSOX, Samuel, 1709-84, Eng. writer and 
 lexicographer. 
 
 JOHXSTOX, Albert Sydney, 1803-62, Con- 
 federate general. 
 
 JOHXSTOX, Joseph Eccleston, 1809-91, Con- 
 federate general. 
 
 JOLIET, Louis, 1645-1700?, Fr. explorer of 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 JOMINI, Antoine Henri, Baron, 1779-1869, 
 Swiss military writer. 
 
 JOXES, John Paul, 1747-92, Am. revolu- 
 tionary naval commander; born in Scotland; 
 captured the Serapis. 
 
 JOXES. Sir AVilliam,l746-94, Eng. orientalist. 
 
 JOXSON, Ben, 1574-1637, Eng. poet and 
 dramatist. 
 
 JOSEPH I., 1676-1711, emperor of Germany; 
 II., 1741-90 ; abolished feudal serfdom. 
 
 JOSEPHIXE, 1763-1814, empress of France ; 
 wife of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 JOSEPHUS, Flavius, 37?-95?, Jewish his- 
 torian. 
 
 JOSHUA, 1537-1427 B. C., Hebrew leader. 
 
 JUAREZ, Benito Pablo, 1806-72, Mexican 
 Aztec statesman. 
 
 JUDAS MACCABEUS, . . . .-160 B. C., He- 
 brew leader. 
 
 JUSTIX (the Martyr), 103-65?, church father 
 in Palestine. 
 
 JUSTIXIAX I. (the Great), 482?-565, By- 
 zantine emperor. 
 
 JUVENALIS, Decimus Junius, 40?-125?, 
 Latin poet. 
 
 KAXE, Elisha Kent, 1820-57, Am. Arctic 
 explorer. 
 
 KAXT, Immanuel, 1724-1804, Ger. meta- 
 physician and philosopher. 
 
 KEAX, Edmund, 1787-1833, Eng. tragedian. 
 
 KEARNEY, Philip, 1815-62, Am. general. 
 
 KEATS, John, 1795-1821, Eng. poet. 
 
 KEBLE, John, 1792-1866, Eng. divine and 
 writer. 
 
 KEMBLE, Charles, 1775-1854, brother of 
 J. P. K., Eng. actor. 
 
 KEMBLE, Frances Anne, 1809-93, Eng. ac- 
 tress. 
 
 KEMBLE, John Philip, 1757-1823, Eng. 
 tragedian. 
 
 KEMPIS, Thomas a, 1380-1471, Ger. ascetic 
 writer; " Imitation of Christ." 
 
 KEXT, James, 1763-1847, Am. jurist. 
 
 KEPLER, Johann, 1571-1630, Ger. astron- 
 omer ; discovered the laws and orbits of mo- 
 tion of the planets. 
 
 KEY, Francis Scot, 1776-1843, Am. poet; 
 author of " The Star- Spangled Banner." 
 
 KIDD, William, 1650-1701, Am. pirate; 
 executed. 
 
 KILPATRICK, Hugh Judson, 1836-81, Am. 
 general. 
 
 KIXG, Rufus, 1755-1827, Am. statesman. 
 
 KIXG, William Rufus, 1786-1853, Am. 
 statesman. 
 
 KIXGSLEY, Charles, 1819-75, Eng. divine 
 and author. 
 
 KLOPSTOCK, Friedrich Gottlieb, 1724-1803, 
 Ger. poet.
 
 254 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 KNOWI.KS, James Sheridan, 17* l-l'S(i2, Eng. 
 dramatist and actor ; subsequently became a 
 Baptist minister. 
 
 KNOX, John, 1505-72, leader of the Scot, 
 reformation. 
 
 KOSCIUSKO, Thaddeus, 17467-1817, Polish 
 patriot and general ; commanded the Polish 
 insurgent army ; bravely defended Warsaw, 
 but was defeated. 
 
 KOSSUTH, Louis, 1802-93, Hungarian pa- 
 triot, orator, and statesman ; leading spirit in 
 the insurrection of 1848-49. 
 
 KRUPP, Alfred, 1810-87, Ger. manufacturer 
 of steel guns. 
 
 KULLAI-KHAN, . . . .-1296, founder of Mon- 
 gol dynasty in China. 
 
 LACTANTIUS, 260V-325, Latin father of the 
 Church. 
 
 LA FAYKTTE, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves 
 Gilbert Motier de, Marquis, 1757-1834, Fr. 
 general and patriot; came to America in 1777 
 to aid the Americans in their struggle for in- 
 dependence, and was commissioned major- 
 general; fought at Brandywine, where he was 
 wounded, and in numerous other engagements ; 
 visited France and obtained supplies and muni- 
 tions, returning 1779 ; commanded the ad- 
 vance guard at Yorktown, 1781 ; returned 
 again to France ; chosen commandant of the 
 French National Guard, 1 789 ; visited America, 
 1824, and was enthusiastically received ; took 
 a prominent part in the revolution of 1830. 
 
 LA FONTAINE, Jean de, 1621-94, Fr. poet 
 and fabulist. 
 
 LAGRANGE, Joseph Louis, 1736-1813, Fr. 
 mathematician. 
 
 LAMARTINE, Alphonse de, 1792-1869, Fr. 
 poet and statesman. 
 
 LAMB, Charles (Elia), 1775-1834, Eng. es- 
 sayist. 
 
 LAMOTTE-FOUQUE", Friedrich Heinrich Karl 
 de, Baron, 1777-1843, Ger. novelist and poet. 
 
 LANDOR, Walter Savage, 1775-1864, Eng. 
 author. 
 
 LANDSEER, Sir Edwin, 1802-73, Eng. ani- 
 mal painter. 
 
 LANGLANDK (or Longland), Robert, fl. 1360, 
 Eng. monk and poet. 
 
 LANIER, Sidney, 1843-81, Am. poet. 
 
 LANSDOWNE, William Petty, Marquis of, 
 1737-1805, Eng. statesman. 
 
 LAPLACE, Pierre Simon, Marquis, 1749- 
 1827, Fr. astronomer and mathematician. 
 
 LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, Frangois de, Duke, 
 1613-80, Fr. moralist and statesman. 
 
 LA SALLE, Jean Baptiste, 1651-1719, founder 
 of the Christian Brothers. 
 
 LA SALLE, Robert Cavelier de, 1635?-87, 
 Fr. explorer. 
 
 LASKKK, Eduard, 1S29-S-1, G<>r. statesman. 
 
 LASSALLE, Ferdinand, 1825-04, Ger. social- 
 ist. 
 
 LATIMER, Hugh, 14SO-1555, Eng. reformer; 
 burned. 
 
 LATOUU D'AUVKRGNK, Theophile Male 
 Corret de, 1743-1800, Fr. officer; called, by 
 Napoleon, " The First Grenadier of France." 
 
 LAVATER, Johann Caspar, 1741-1801, 
 Swiss physiognomist. 
 
 LAVOISIER, Antoine Laurent, 1743-94, Fr. 
 chemist ; founder of modern chemistry ; guil- 
 lotined by revolutionary tribunal. 
 
 LAW, John, 1671-1729, Scot, financier in 
 France; promoted the "South Sea Bubble." 
 
 LAWRENCE, Amos, 1786-1852, Am. philan- 
 thropist. 
 
 LAWRENCE, James, 1781-1813, Am. naval 
 hero; as commander of the Chesapeake, he 
 engaged the British frigate Shannon off Bos- 
 ton and was killed in the action ; his last 
 words were : " Don't give up the ship." 
 
 LEDRU-ROLLIN, Alexandre Auguste, 1808- 
 74, Fr. socialist. 
 
 LEDYARD, John, 1751-88. Am. traveler. 
 
 LEE, Henry (Light-Horse Harry), 1756- 
 1818, Am. general and statesman ; governor 
 of Virginia. 
 
 LEE, Richard Henry, 1732-!)!, Am. orator 
 and patriot. 
 
 LEE, Robert Edmund, 1806-70, Am. gen- 
 eral ; commander-in-chief of the Confederate 
 army ; son of Henry Lee ; born in Virginia ; 
 graduate of West Point ; chief engineer of Gen . 
 Scott's army in Mexico ; Confederate briga- 
 dier-general, 1861, and appointed to the chief 
 command, 1862; surrendered at Appomattox, 
 April 9, 1865 ; subsequently chosen president 
 of Washington College, at Lexington, Va., 
 where he died. 
 
 LEIBNITZ, Gottfried Wilhelin von, Baron, 
 1646-1716, Ger. philosopher and mathemati- 
 cian. 
 
 LEICESTER, Robert Dudley, Earl of, 1532 ? 
 -88, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 LEONIDAS, .... -480 B. C., king of 
 Sparta ; leader of the brave three hundred at 
 Thermopylae. 
 
 LEOPOLD I. (the Great), 1640-1705, em- 
 peror of Germany. 
 
 LE SAGE, Alain Rene, 1668-1747, Fr. nov- 
 elist. 
 
 LESSEPS, Ferdinand de, Viscount, 1805-94, 
 Fr. engineer and diplomatist ; planned the 
 Suez Canal and the interoceanic canal across 
 Panama. 
 
 LESSING, Gotthold Ephraim, 1729-81, Ger. 
 author and critic ; ' ' the Luther of German 
 literature, drama and art."
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 255 
 
 LEUTZE, Emanuel, 1816-68, Ger. historical 
 painter. 
 
 LEVER, Charles James, 1806-72, Ir. novel- 
 ist. 
 
 LEWES, George Henry, 1817-78, Eng. au- 
 thor; husband of " George Eliot." 
 
 LEYDEX, Lucas van, 1494-1533, Dutch 
 painter. 
 
 LIEBIG, Justus von, Baron, 1803-73, Ger. 
 chemist. 
 
 LINCOLX, Abraham, 1809-65, sixteenth 
 president of the United States ; " with malice 
 toward none, with charity to all;" born in 
 Kentucky ; removed to Indiana when eight 
 years old ; captain in the Black Hawk war, 
 1832 ; elected to the Illinois legislature, 1834 ; 
 admitted to the bar, 1836, and removed to 
 Springfield, 111. ; elected to Congress in 1846 ; 
 Republican candidate for U. S. senator in 
 1854, his opponent being Stephen A. Douglas ; 
 nominated for the presidency and elected, 
 1860; re-elected, 1864, but assassinated April 
 14, 1865, by John Wilkes Booth ; his death 
 was universally deplored, for his wise admin- 
 istration of affairs during the civil war had 
 won for him the regard of both factions of the 
 bloody controversy. 
 
 LIND, Jenny (Mrs. Goldschmidt), 1821-87, 
 Sw. vocalist. 
 
 LIXX.EUS, Charles, 1707-78, Sw. botanist, 
 and greatest naturalist of modern times. 
 
 LIPPI, Filippo, 1412-69, It. painter. 
 
 LISZT, Franz, Abbe, 1811-85, Hungarian 
 pianist. 
 
 LITTLETON (or Lyttleton), Sir Thomas, 
 1420 ?-81, Eng. jurist. 
 
 LIVINGSTON, Edward, 1764-1836, Am. ju- 
 rist. 
 
 LIVINGSTONE, David, 1817-73, Scot, ex- 
 plorer in Africa. 
 
 LIVY (Titus Livius), 59 B. C.-17 A. D., ' 
 Rom. historian. 
 
 LOCKE, John, 1632-1704, Eng. philosopher, 
 founded the sensational school of philosophy, 
 claiming that all knowledge comes through 
 the senses. 
 
 LOGAN, John Alexander, 1826-87, Am. 
 general and statesman. 
 
 LONGFELLOW, Henry Wadsworth, 1807-82, 
 Am. poet. 
 
 LONGIXUS, fl. third century, Gr. philosopher. 
 
 Louis I. (le Debonnair), 778-840, emperor 
 of the West and king of France ; divided the 
 empire among his sons ; VI. (the Fat), 1078 ?- 
 1137, king of France; IX. (Saint), 1215-70, 
 led a large army against the Saracens in 1248 ; 
 defeated and taken prisoner in Egypt, but 
 effected his ransom ; led another crusade in 
 1270, but died the same year near Tunis ; a 
 wise ruler, and noted for many virtues. 
 
 Louis PHILIPPE, 1773-1850, "the citizen 
 king " of France ; abdicated, 1848. 
 
 Louvois, Frangois Michel Letellierde, Mar- 
 quis, 1641-91, Fr. statesman; caused revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nantes. 
 
 LOVER, Samuel, 1797-1868, Ir. novelist. 
 
 LOWELL, James Russell, 1810-91, Am. poet 
 and critic. 
 
 LOYOLA, Ignatius de (Saint Ignatius) , 1491- 
 1566, Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus, 
 or Jesuits ; entered the army at an early age ; 
 crippled by a wound in 1520, he turned his 
 attention to religion ; made a pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem in 1523, and subsequently studied 
 at the University of Paris, where he met Fran- 
 cis Xavier and James Lainez, in conjunction 
 with whom, in 1543, he formed the society 
 which has since become so celebrated. 
 
 LUCAXUS, Marcus Annaeus, 38-65, Rom. 
 epic poet. 
 
 LUCIAX. 120 ?-...., Gr. satirist. 
 
 Lrcinus, Caius, 148 ?-100? B. C., Rom. 
 satiric poet. 
 
 LUCRETIUS (Titus Lucretius Carus), 95- 
 . . . . B. C., Latin poet ; greatest didactic 
 poet and most profound of Latin authors. 
 
 LUTHER, Martin, 1483-1546, leader of the 
 Protestant Reformation; born at Eisleben, 
 Germany, the son of a miner ; educated at 
 the University of Erfurt, and in 1505 entered 
 the Augustine convent at that place ; ordained 
 a priest, 1507 ; became professor of philoso- 
 phy at Wittenberg, 1508 ; visited Rome, 1510 ; 
 denounced the sale of indulgences, 1517 ; and 
 became involved in numerous controversies ; 
 cited to appear before Leo X., he refused to 
 comply ; burned the papal bull containing an 
 order to destroy certain of his works, and de- 
 nied the authority of the pope ; excommuni- 
 cated ; enjoyed the support of the elector of 
 Saxony ; attended the Diet of Worms, con- 
 vened for his trial, in 1521 ; laid aside his 
 monastic dress in 1524, and married Cathe- 
 rine von Bora, an ex-nun, in 1525 ; enjoyed, 
 during the latter part of his life, the greatest 
 distinction from the princes of Germany. 
 Luther completed, in 1522, his translation of 
 the New Testament, and in 1534 that of the 
 Old Testament ; the central point of his theol- 
 ogy is justification by faith. 
 
 LUXEMBOURG. Francois Henri de Montmo- 
 renci de, 16i8-95, marshal of France. 
 
 LYCURGUS, fl. 850 B. C., Spartan law- 
 giver. 
 
 LYELL, Sir George, 1797-1875, Scot, geolo- 
 gist. 
 
 MACAULAY, Thomas Babington, Baron, 
 1800-59, Eng. critic, poet, and essayist. 
 
 MACBETH, . . . .-1056 ?, king of Scotland.
 
 256 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 MACCIIIAVELLI, Nicolo di Bernardo del, 
 1409-1527, It. statesman and author ; among 
 liis numerous writings are his " History of 
 Florence" and "The Prince," the latter of 
 which (not intended for publication, but for 
 the private perusal of the Medici) has rendered 
 the name Macchiavelli the synonym of perfidy. 
 MCCLELLAN, George Brinton, 1826-85, Am. 
 general; born in Philadelphia ; graduate of 
 West Point ; served in the Mexican war, and 
 in 1855 served on a commission sent by the 
 government to make observations on the Cri- 
 mean war ; became chief engineer of the 
 Illinois Central railroad in 1857 ; re-entered 
 the army, 1861, taking command of the Fed- 
 eral troops in Western Virginia, and gained 
 the victories of RichMountain and Cheat River ; 
 November, 1861, became commander of the 
 armies of the United States ; gained a victory 
 at Fair Oaks, 1862, but was forced to relin- 
 quish the plan of reducing Richmond ; super- 
 seded by Gen. Pope, but recalled, and defeated 
 the Confederates under Lee at Antietam ; 
 relieved of command about six weeks later ; 
 Democratic candidate for the presidency in 
 1864, and afterward elected governor of New 
 Jersey. 
 
 McCoRMiCK, Cyrus Hall, 1809-84, Am. 
 inventor of reaping machine. 
 
 McCosn, James, 1811-1894, Scot, theolo- 
 gian in America. 
 
 MACDONALD, Sir John A., 1814-91, Cana- 
 dian premier. 
 
 McDowELL, Irvin, 1818-85, Am. general. 
 
 MACKENZIE, Morrell, Sir, 1837-92, Eng. 
 physician. 
 
 MACMAHON, Marie Edme Patrice Maurice 
 de, Due de Magenta, 1808-93, marshal of 
 France and president of the Fr. republic. 
 
 MACREADY, William Charles, 1793-1873, 
 Eng. tragedian. 
 
 MADISON, James, 1751-1836, fourth presi- 
 dent of the United States ; born in Virginia ; 
 member of the Virginia legislature and dele- 
 gate to the convention of 1787; joint author 
 with Jay and Hamilton of the Federalist; 
 Congress, 1789-97 ; secretary of state, 1801-9 ; 
 president, 1809-17. 
 
 MAGELLAN, Fernando, 1470-1521, Port, 
 navigator. 
 
 MAHMOOD, Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dow- 
 lah, 967-1030, Mohammedan conqueror. 
 
 MAINTENON, Franchise d'Aubigne' de, Mar- 
 quise, 1635-171 9, consort of Louis XIV. 
 
 MALIBRAN, Marie Felicita (ne'e Garcia), 
 1808-36, Fr. vocalist and actress. 
 
 MALTIIUS, Thomas Robert, 1766-1834, 
 Eng. writer on political economy. 
 
 MANDEVILLE, Sir John, 1300-72, E-ng. 
 traveler. 
 
 MANNING, Henry Edward, 1808-92, Eng. 
 Catholic prelate and author ; united with the 
 Roman Catholic church in 1851 ; archbishop 
 of Westminster, 1865; cardinal, 1877. 
 
 MANTEUFFEL, Edwin Hans Carl von, 
 Baron, 1800-83, Prussian field-marshal. 
 
 MAUAT, Jean Paul, 1744-93, Fr. Jacobin 
 demagogue, assassinated by Charlotte Corday. 
 
 MARCELLUS, Marcus Claudius, 268V-208 
 B. C., Rom. consul. 
 
 MARGARET (Semiramis of the North), 
 1353-1412, queen of Norway, Sweden, and 
 Denmark. 
 
 MARGARET OF ANJOU, 1429-82, queen of 
 Henry VI. of England. 
 
 MARGARET OK ANGOULEME, 1492-1549, 
 queen of Navarre and author. | 
 
 MARGARET OF AUSTRIA, 1480-1530, re- 
 gent of the Netherlands. 
 
 MARGARET OF VALOIS, 1553-1615, queen 
 of France. 
 
 MARIA DE' MEDICI, 1573-1642, queen of 
 France. 
 
 MARIA LOUISA, 1791-1847, empress of 
 France. 
 
 MARIA THERESA, 1717-80, empress of 
 Austria and queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 
 
 MARIE ANTOINETTE, 1755-93, wife of Louis 
 XVI. of France ; guillotined. 
 
 MARION, Francis, 1732-95, Am. Revolution- 
 ary general. 
 
 MARIUS, Caius, 157-86 B. C.,Rom. general 
 and consul. 
 
 MARLBOROUGH, John Churchill, Duke of, 
 1650-1722, Eng. commander; commanded the 
 English forces in the Netherlands, 1689 ; com- 
 manded in Ireland, 1690 ; accused of treason, 
 deposed and confined in the Tower, 1692 ; re- 
 instated, 1696 ; commanded the allied armies 
 in Holland, 1702 ; won the battle of Blenheim, 
 1704 ; Ramilles, 1706 ; Oudenarde, 1708 ; 
 Malplaquet, 1709. 
 
 MARLOWE, Christopher, 1564-93, Eng. 
 dramatist. 
 
 MARQUETTE, Jacques, 1637-75, Fr. mis- 
 sionary and discoverer ; explored the Missis- 
 sippi. 
 
 MARSHALL, John, 1755-1835, Am. jurist 
 and statesman ; chief justice of the United 
 States. 
 
 MARTEL, Charles, Duke of Austrasia (the 
 Hammer), 694-741, conquered the Saracens in 
 the great battle of Tours, or Poictiers, 732. 
 
 MARTINKAU, Harriet, 1802-76, Eng. writer. 
 MARX, Karl, 1818-83, Ger. socialist. 
 
 MARY 1. (bloody Mary), 1516-58, queen of 
 England; married Philip II. of Spain; per- 
 secuted the Protestants. 
 
 MARY STUART, 1542-87, queen of Scots ; 
 daughter of James V. and Mary of Guise ;
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 257 
 
 educated in France, where she was married to 
 the Dauphin in 1558, who the following year 
 ascended the French throne as Francis II., but 
 died childless, 1560 ; invited to the throne of 
 Scotland, and married her cousin, Lord Darn- 
 ley ; suppressed, 1565, a revolt of the Protest- 
 ants instigated by Queen Elizabeth ; joined, 
 1566, a league to extirpate heresy, and, weary- 
 ing of the arrogance and dissoluteness of Lord 
 Darnley, bestowed her confidence on David Riz- 
 zio, an Italian musician, whose murder was 
 instigated the same year by Mary's jealous 
 husband ; Lord Darnley was killed in 1567, and 
 Queen Mary married the Earl of Bothwell the 
 same year ; public sentiment in Scotland 
 against her became so intense that she was com- 
 pelled to fly to England, where she was finally 
 beheaded on an unproved charge of conspiracy. 
 
 MASAXIELLO, 1620-47, Neapolitan insur- 
 gent leader. 
 
 MASSINGER, Philip, 1584-1640, Eng. drama- 
 tist, 
 
 MATHER, Cotton, 1663-1728, Am. divine 
 and writer, notorious for his persecution of 
 witchcraft. 
 
 MATIIEW, Theobald (Father Mathew), 1790- 
 1856, Ir. Catholic priest, called "the Apostle 
 of Temperance. ' ' 
 
 MAUPASSANT, de, Henri R. A. G., 1850-93, 
 Fr. novelist. 
 
 MAUKICE, 1521-53, elector of Saxony ; Ger. 
 general and Protestant leader. 
 
 MAURICE OF NASSAU, 1567-1625, Dutch 
 warrior ; prince of Orange. 
 
 MAXIMILIAN (Ferdinand Maximilian Jo- 
 seph), 1832-67, archduke of Austria and em- 
 peror of Mexico ; executed by the Mexicans. 
 
 MAZARIN, Giulio, Cardinal, 1602-61, Fr. 
 prime minister. 
 
 MAZEPPA, Ivan Stepanovitch, 1644-1709, 
 Polish nobleman and hetman of the Cossacks ; 
 hero of Byron's poem. 
 
 MA/ZIXI, Giuseppe, 1807-72, It. patriot. 
 
 MKADE, George Gordon, 1815-72, Am. gen- 
 eral ; won the battle of Gettysburg. 
 
 MEDICI, Alessandro de', 1510-37, first duke 
 of Florence ; assassinated. 
 
 MEDICI, Cosimo de' (the Great), 1519-74, 
 first grand duke of Tuscany. 
 
 MEDICI, Lorenzo de' (the Magnificent), 
 1448-92, prince of Florence ; scholar and pa- 
 tron of literature and art. 
 
 MKISSONIER, Jean Louis Ernest, 1812-91, 
 Fr. painter. 
 
 MKLANCHTHON, Philipp. 1497-1560, Ger. 
 reformer ; leader of the Reformation after 
 Luther's death. 
 
 MELIKOFF, Louis, 1824-88, Russian general. 
 
 MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY. Felix, 1809-47, 
 Ger. composer. 
 
 MENELEK, emperor (or negus) of Abys- 
 sinia ; proclaimed March 12, 1889. 
 
 MENNO SYMONS (Menno Sirnonis), 1496- 
 1561, Frieslandic founder of the Mennonites. 
 
 MERIME'E, Prosper, 1803-70, Fr. novelist. 
 
 MESMER, Friedrich Anton, 1733-1815, Ger. 
 discoverer of "mesmerism." 
 
 METELLUS, Qniutus Csecilius, fl. 100 B. C., 
 Rom. general. 
 
 METTERNICH, Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk 
 Lot bar von, 1775-1859, Austrian statesman. 
 
 MEYERBEER, Giacomo (Jakob Meyer-Beer), 
 1794-1864, Ger. composer. 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO (Michelangelo Buona- 
 rotti), 1475-1564, It. painter, sculptor, archi- 
 tect, and poet; "the Dante of the arts ;" 
 patronized by Lorenzo the Magnificent ; in- 
 vited to Rome by Pope Julius II., where he 
 designed the church of St. Peter ; became 
 architect of that magnificent structure in 1546, 
 and devoted the rest of his life almost ex- 
 clusively to its completion. 
 
 MIFFLIN, Thomas, 1744-1800, Am. patriot ; 
 president of Continental Congress. 
 
 MILL, James, 1773-1830, Scot, historian and 
 writer. 
 
 MILL, John Stuart, 1806-73, Eng. philos- 
 opher and political economist. 
 
 MILLAIS, John Everett, 1829-1896, Eng. 
 painter. 
 
 MILTIADES, fl. 500 B. C., Athenian com- 
 mander ; gained the great victory of Marathon . 
 
 MILTON, John, 1608-74, poet of the Puri- 
 tans ; educated at Cambridge ; passed several 
 years in travel ; advocated the popular party, 
 opposing prelacy and the established church ; 
 wrote many political and controversial works 
 in prose; was appointed in 1648 Latin secre- 
 tary of the Council of State; in 1654 he had 
 become entirely blind ; his ' ' Paradise Lost ' ' 
 was completed in 1655, and sold for 10, half 
 of which was not to be paid until after the 
 sale of 1,300 copies. 
 
 MINIE, Claude Etienne, 1810-79, Fr. inventor 
 (Minie rifle). 
 
 MIRABEAU, Honore" Gabriel de Riquetti de, 
 Comte, 1749-91, Fr. orator and statesman; 
 entered the army in 1776 ; exiled and im- 
 prisoned for debt ; separating from his wife, he 
 eloped with a young woman in 1776, for which 
 offense he was condemned to death ; escaped, 
 however, with four years' imprisonment ; led 
 a wandering life for several years, engaging 
 in numerous intrigues; sent to Berlin on a 
 secret mission in 1786, and elected to the 
 States-General in 1789, and later to the 
 National Assembly, of which he became pres- 
 ident in 1791. 
 
 MITCHEL, Ormsby Macknight, 1810-62, 
 Am. general and astronomer.
 
 258 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OE FACTS. 
 
 MITFORD, Mary Russell, 1786-1855, Am. 
 authoress. 
 
 MITHRIDATKS VI. (the Great), 132-63 B.C., 
 king of Pontus. 
 
 MOHAMMED (or Mahomet), 569-632, con- 
 queror and prophet, and founder of the Mos- 
 lem religion, which threatened to subdue the 
 Christian world ; pretended, at the age of forty, 
 to have received a revelation from Allah, and 
 thenceforth devoted himself to the propaga- 
 tion of his new religion ; previous to this time 
 he had been an idolater ; his new faith, which 
 included the unity of God, was rejected at 
 Mecca, where a conspiracy was formed against 
 him, but was warmly embraced in Medina, to 
 which place the prophet fled in 622 ; from this 
 flight called the Hegira, the Mussulmans com- 
 pute their time ; after this event, Mohammed 
 propagated the faith of Islam by the sword, 
 gaining numerous victories, and spreading his 
 religion over a large portion of Western Asia. 
 
 MOLIERE (Jean Baptiste Poquelin), 1622-73, 
 Fr. dramatist and actor ; the French Shakes- 
 peare. 
 
 MOLTKE, Carl Bernhard Hellmuth von, 
 Count, 1800-91, commander of the German 
 armies in the Franco-German war ; he planned 
 the entire campaign. 
 
 MONK, George, Duke of Albemarle, 1608-70, 
 Eng. general ; restored the monarchy. 
 
 MONMOUTH, James Scott, Duke of , 1649?- 
 85, natural son of Charles II. ; rebelled, but 
 was defeated and executed. 
 
 MONROE, James, 1758-1831, fifth president ; 
 born in Virginia ; captain in the war of 1812 ; 
 studied law under Jefferson ; Congress, 1783 ; 
 opposed the Constitution ; governor of Vir- 
 ginia, 1799 ; envoy extraordinary to France, 
 1802; re-elected governor, 1811; appointed 
 secretary of state same year by Madison ; 
 elected president, 1816, and re-elected 1820. 
 
 MONTAGU, Lady Mary Wortley, 1690-1762, 
 Eng. authoress. 
 
 MONTAIGNE, Michel Eyquem de, 1533-92, 
 Fr. philosopher and essayist ; originator of 
 the modern essay; his " Essays " have been 
 called "the breviary of freethinkers." It is 
 claimed by some scholars that Montaigne's 
 name on the title page of the " Essays " was 
 but a cover for Francis Bacon or his brother. 
 
 MONTALEMBERT, Charles Forbes de, Comte, 
 1810-70, Fr. publicist. 
 
 MONTCALM, Louis J. de St. VeYan, Marquis 
 of, 1712-59, Fr. commander in Canada. 
 
 MONTEFIORE,. Moses, Sir, 1786-1885, Eng. 
 Jewish philanthropist. 
 
 MONTESQUIEU, Charles de Secondat, Baron 
 de, 1689-1755, Fr. jurist and philosopher ; his 
 "Esprit des Lois" is the first philosophy of 
 history. 
 
 MONTEZUMA II., 14807-1520, last Aztec 
 emperor of Mexico. 
 
 MONTFORT, Simon de, 1150?-1218, Norman 
 crusader. 
 
 MONTFORT, Simon de, Earl of Leicester, 
 1200?-65, son of preceding; led the barons 
 against Henry 111. 
 
 MONTROSE, James Graham, Marquis of, 
 1612-50, Scot, general; executed. 
 
 MOORE, Sir John, 1761-1809, Br. general; 
 fell at Corunna. 
 
 MOORE, Thomas, 1779-1852, Ir. poet. 
 
 MORALES, Luis, 1509-86, Sp. painter. 
 
 MOKE, Sir Thomas, 1480-1535, Eng. states- 
 man and philosopher ; educated at Oxford ; 
 entered Parliament, 1504 ; produced " History 
 of Richard III.," 1513; "Utopia," 1516; 
 became a great favorite of Henry VIII., who 
 made him lord chancellor in 1530; being an 
 ardent Catholic, he refused to sanction the 
 divorce of Queen Catherine and resigned his 
 office in 1532 ; imprisoned in 1534 for declin- 
 ing to take an oath acknowledging the validity 
 of the king's marriage to Anne Boleyn, and 
 executed the following year for denying the 
 king's supremacy as head of the church. 
 
 MORRIS, George P., 1802-64, Am. journal- 
 ist and poet. 
 
 MORRIS, Gouverneur, 1752-1816, Am. states- 
 man. 
 
 MORRIS, Robert, 1734-1806, Am. statesman 
 and financier. 
 
 MORRIS, William, 1834-96, Eng. poet. 
 
 MORSE, Samuel Finley Breese, 1791-1872, 
 Am. inventor of the magnetic telegraph ; grad- 
 uate of Yale College ; studied painting in 
 England, returning to America in 1832 ; con- 
 structed small recording electric telegraph in 
 1835; finally obtained aid from Congress in 
 1843, and constructed a line between Wash- 
 ington and Baltimore in 1844. 
 
 MORTIMER, Roger, Earl of March, 1287?- 
 1330, favorite of Isabella of England ; exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 MORTON, James Douglas, Earl of, 1530-81, 
 regent of Scotland ; executed as accessory to 
 Darnley's murder. 
 
 MOSCHELES, Ignaz, 1794-1870, Ger. pianist 
 and composer. 
 
 MOSES, 1570-1450 B. C., Hebrew lawgiver ; 
 led the Israelites out of Egypt. 
 
 MOTLEY, John Lothrop, 1814-77, Am. di- 
 plomatist and historian. 
 
 MOTT, Lucretia (ne'e Coffin), 1793-1880, Am. 
 social reformer. 
 
 MOULTRIE, William, 1731-1805, Am. Rev- 
 olutionary general. 
 
 MOZART, Johann Chrysostomus Wolfgang 
 Amadeus, 1756-1791, Ger. composer; com- 
 posed short pieces at the age of six, and at
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 259 
 
 seven gave concerts in Paris and London ; dis- 
 tinguished for the universality of his genius; 
 lie gave artistic form to opera. 
 
 Mrin.KXBEiMJ, Henry Melchior, 1711-87, 
 founder of the German Lutheran church in 
 America. 
 
 Mrm.Exi!Ei:<;. John Peter Gabriel, 1746- 
 1807, Am. general. 
 
 MrxciiAUSEx, Ilieronymus Karl Friedrich 
 von, Baron, 1720-97, Ger. soldier and roman- 
 cist. 
 
 MTKAT, Joachim, 1771-1815, Fr. marshal 
 and Icing of Italy. 
 
 MIRILLO, Bartolome' Esteban, 1018-82, Sp. 
 painter ; excelled as a colorist, and regarded 
 as the greatest of the Spanish school. 
 
 MURRAY (or Moray), James Stuart, Earl of , 
 1533-70, regent of Scotland ; opponent of Mary 
 Stuart ; assassinated. 
 
 XAPIER, Sir Charles James, 1782-1853, Eng. 
 general in India. 
 
 XAPIER, John, 1550-1614, Scot, mathe- 
 matician. 
 
 XAPIKK. Sir William Francis Patrick, 1785- 
 1860, Br. general and writer. 
 
 XAPIF.R OF MAGDALA, Robert Cornells 
 Xapier, Baron, 1810-76, Br. general. 
 
 XKBUCHAOXKZZAR, .... -561 B. C., Chal- 
 dean king of Babylon ; conquered Jerusalem, 
 Tyre, and Egypt. 
 
 XKCKER, Jacques, 1732-1804, Fr. states- 
 man and financier ; father of Mme. de Stael. 
 
 XELSOX, Horatio, Viscount, 1758-1805, the 
 greatest of Britain's admirals; entered the 
 navy at 13 ; post-captain, 1779 ; rear-admiral, 
 1797, his promotion having been earned by 
 his share in the victory of St. Vincent ; lost 
 his right arm in an unsuccessful attack on 
 Teneriffe ; won the battle of the Xile in 1798, 
 for which he was raised to the peerage as Baron 
 Xelson of the Xile ; became separated from his 
 wife, owing to an infatuation with Lady Ham- 
 ilton, which lasted until his death ; created a 
 viscount for the victory of the Baltic, where, 
 being second in command, he disobeyed the 
 orders directing him to retreat ; fell at Trafal- 
 gar, where his fleet gained a decisive victory 
 over the French and Spanish ; his last words, 
 ' Thank God, I have done my duty." 
 
 XEPOS, Cornelius, fl. 5 B. C., Rom. histo- 
 rian . 
 
 XERI, Filippo de, Saint (St. Philip Xeri), 
 1515-95, It. founder of the " Priests of the 
 Oratory." 
 
 XESSELRODF.. Charles Robert von, Count, 
 1780-1862, Russian diplomatist. 
 
 XESTORIUS -440?, Syrian prelate; 
 
 founder of the Xestorian schism. 
 
 NEWMAN, John Henry, Cardinal, 1801-90, 
 
 Eng. theologian : recognized leader of the 
 High Church party until 1845, when he be- 
 came a Catholic ; appointed rector of Catholic 
 University at Dublin, 1854, and made a cardi- 
 nal by Pope Leo XIII. in 1879. 
 
 NEWTON, Sir Isaac, 1642-1727, Eng. phi- 
 losopher ; the son of a farmer ; graduated at 
 Cambridge, 1665, about which time he in- 
 vented the "method of fluxions," and dis- 
 covered the laws of gravitation ; discovered, 
 1668, that light is not homogeneous, but con- 
 sists of rays of different refrangibility. 
 
 XEY, Michel, Duke of Echlingen and Prince 
 of the Moskwa, 1796-1815, Fr. marshal; the 
 son of a cooper ; entered the army at 18 as a 
 private, and was gradually promoted ; Xapo- 
 leon called him "the bravest of the brave," 
 and his titles were conferred upon him for his 
 services at Echlingen, in 1805, and his victory 
 at the battle of Borodino ; commanded the 
 rear guard in the retreat from Moscow ; de- 
 feated by Bernadotte at Dennewitz, 1813 ; 
 submitted to Louis XVIII. upon the abdica- 
 tion of Napoleon, against whom he was sent 
 with an army in 1815, but united his army 
 with that of his old commander ; had five horses 
 shot under him at Waterloo, where he fought 
 with his usual valor ; was captured soon after, 
 and shot on a charge of treason. 
 
 NIEBUHR, Barthold Georg, 1776-1831. Ger. 
 historian. 
 
 NICOT, Jean, 1530-1600, Fr. scholar; in- 
 troduced tobacco. 
 
 NORTH, Frederick, Lord, .1732-92, Eng. 
 statesman. 
 
 XORTIICOTE, Sir Stafford Henry, 1818-87, 
 Eng. statesman. 
 
 NOTES, George Rapall, 1798-1868, Am. 
 theologian. 
 
 GATES, Titus, 1620-1705, Eng. informer; 
 contriver of the " Popish Plot." 
 
 OBERLIX, Jean Fre'deric, 1740-1816, Fr.- 
 Ger. reformer and philanthropist. 
 
 O'CONXELL, Daniel, 1775-1847, Ir. patriot 
 and orator ; advocated Catholic emancipation, 
 but opposed resort to arms ; elected to Parlia- 
 ment, 1828, but not allowed to take his seat 
 until 1829, when the bill for Catholic emanci- 
 pation w r as passed ; gave up his law practice 
 and gave his entire attention to public duties ; 
 began advocating the repeal of the union in 
 1840; was convicted in 1844 on a charge of' 
 treason, but sentence was reversed by the 
 House of Lords. 
 
 OCCAM, William of (the Invincible Doctor), 
 12807-1347, Eng. theologian. 
 
 ODOACER -493, Gothic king of Italy ; 
 
 executed. 
 
 OERSTED, Hans Christian, 1777-1851, Dan-
 
 260 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 ish natural philosopher ; founder of the science 
 of electro-magnetism. 
 
 OGLETHORPE, James Edward, 1698-1785, 
 Eng. general ; colonized Georgia. 
 
 OLLENDORF, Henri Godefroy, 1803-65, Ger. 
 educator. 
 
 OMAR I., 581-644, Arabian caliph; con- 
 quered Jerusalem. 
 
 OMAR KHAYYAM, .... -1123, Persian poet. 
 
 OMAR PASHA (Michael Lattas), 1806-71, 
 Turkish commander in the Crimean war. 
 
 ORANGE, William, Prince of (the Silent), 
 1553-84, founder of the Dutch republic ; leader 
 of the insurrection which broke out when it 
 was attempted to introduce the Inquisition into 
 the Netherlands ; assassinated. 
 
 O'REILLY, John Boyle, 1844-91, Ir.-Am. 
 poet and journalist. 
 
 ORIGEN, 1867-253, Gr. theologian and 
 preacher ; endeavored to harmonize the teach- 
 ings of Christ and Plato. 
 
 ORLEANS, Louis Philippe Joseph, Due* d', 
 1747-93, took the popular side on the assem- 
 bling of the States-General, renounced his ti- 
 tles and assumed the name of Egalite (Equal- 
 ity) ; voted for the death of his cousin, Louis 
 XVI. ; condemned by the revolutionary tribu- 
 nal and executed ; his son, Louis Philippe, af- 
 terward became king of France. 
 
 ORLOFF, Alexis, Count, 1787-1861, Russian 
 general. 
 
 ORSINI, Felice, 1819-58, It. conspirator; 
 leader in the attempted assassination of Napo- 
 leon III. in 1858 ; executed. 
 
 OSMAN I., 1259-1326, founder of Ottoman 
 dynasty. 
 
 OSSOLI, Margaret Fuller, Marchioness, 1810- 
 50, Am. authoress. 
 
 OTIIO I. (the Great), 912-73, emperor of 
 Germany, Christianized the Danes, deposed 
 Pope John II. 
 
 OTIS, James, 1725-83, Am. lawyer, orator, 
 and patriot. 
 
 OVID (Publius Ovidius Naso), B. C. 43-18 
 A. D., Rom. poet. 
 
 OWEN, Robert, 1771-1858, Eug. socialist. 
 
 PAINE, Robert Treat, 1731-1814, Am. law- 
 yer and statesman. 
 
 PAINE, Thomas, 1737-1809, Am. political 
 writer and freethinker ; born in England. 
 
 PAKENHAM, Sir Edward Michael, 1778- 
 1815, Br. general ; fell at New Orleans. 
 
 PALEY, William, 1743-1805, Eng. theolo- 
 gian. 
 
 PALISSY, Bernard, 1506-89, Fr. potter and 
 inventor of pottery enamel ; died in the Bas- 
 tille. 
 
 PALMERSTON Henry John Temple, Vis- 
 count, 1784-1865, Eng. statesman. 
 
 PAOLI, Pasquale di, 1726-1807, Corsican gen- 
 eral. 
 
 PAPINEAU, Louis Joseph, 1789-1871, Cana- 
 dian politician. 
 
 PARACELSUS, Philippus Aureolus Theo- 
 phrastus Bombastus (Von Ilohenheim), 1493- 
 1541, Swiss alchemist. 
 
 PAREPA-ROSA, Euphrosyne, 1836-74, Scot, 
 vocalist. 
 
 PARKER, Theodore, 1810-60, Am. rational- 
 istic theologian. 
 
 PARKMAN, Francis, 1823-93, Am. historian. 
 
 PARNELL, Charles Stewart, 1846-91, Ir. 
 statesman. 
 
 PARTON, James, 1822-91, Am. historian. 
 
 PASCAL, Blaise, 1623-62, Fr. philosopher 
 and mathematician. 
 
 PASTEUR, Louis, 1822-1895, Fr. chemist and 
 pathologist. 
 
 PATRICK, Saint, 3727-460?, apostle of Ire- 
 land. 
 
 PAUL, Saint, .' Tarsus (Saul), 10?-66, 
 apostle and fouiu of .the Christian church, 
 making Christianity a world-religion in place 
 of a Jewish religion. 
 
 PAUL VERONESE (Paolo Cagliari), 15307-88, 
 It. painter. 
 
 PAUSANIAS, fl. 479 B. C., Spartan general. 
 
 PAYNE, John Howard, 1792-1852, Am. 
 dramatist and poet, 
 
 PEABODY, Gen ^j, 1795-1869, Am. philan- 
 thropist in England ; acquired great wealth as 
 a banker ; expended over five millions in be- 
 nevolent enterprises. 
 
 PEALE, Rembrandt, 1778-1860, Am. painter. 
 
 PEEL, Sir Robert (Orange Peel), 1788-1850, 
 Eng. statesman ; repealed the corn laws. 
 
 PENN, William, 1644-1718, Eng. Quaker, 
 statesman, courtier, author, and philanthropist ; 
 founder of Pennsylvania. 
 
 PEPIN (the Short), 7147-68, king of France ; 
 son of Charles Martel and father of Charle- 
 magne. 
 
 PEPYS, Samuel, 1632-1703, Eng. author and 
 scholar. 
 
 PERCIVAL, James Gates, 1795-1856, Am- 
 poet. 
 
 PERICLES, 4957-429 B. C., Athenian orator, 
 statesman, and general ; became the leader of 
 the democratic party and the first man in 
 Athens ; erected many noble public works, in- 
 cluding the Parthenon ; his age is called " the 
 golden age of Athens." 
 
 PERRAULT, Claude, 1613-88, Fr. architect. 
 
 PERRY, Oliver Hazard, 1785-1819, Am. 
 commodore ; defeated the British on Lake 
 Erie. 
 
 PKRSIUS FLACCUS, Aulus, 34-62, Rom. sat- 
 irist.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 261 
 
 PESTALOZZI, Johann Heinrich, 1745-1827, 
 Swiss educationist. 
 
 PETER, Saint, . . . .-66, apostle. 
 
 PETER I. (the Great), 1672-1725, czar of 
 Russia and founder of the Russian monarch} 7 ; 
 organized an army and entered it as a private : 
 studied practical seamanship, and formed a 
 navy ; traveled incognito in Western Europe ; 
 worked as a ship carpenter in Holland ; 
 founded schools and effected a number of re- 
 forms ; defeated Charles XII. of Sweden, at 
 Pultowa, 1709 ; founded St. Petersburg ; his 
 second wife, Catherine, was a prisoner of war, 
 of obscure parentage ; the crown prince, 
 Alexis, opposing the czar's policy, was forced 
 to renounce the succession, and is said to have 
 been poisoned by his father. 
 
 PETER THE HERMIT, 1050?-1115, preacher 
 of the first Crusade. 
 
 PETRARCH (Francesco Petrarca), 1304-74, 
 It. poet and scholar ; enamored of Laura de 
 Sade, whose name he made immortal. 
 
 PHIDIAS, 490-432 B. C., the greatest of 
 Greek sculptors, and architect of the Parthe- 
 non ; he was never excelled in expressing the 
 ideal majesty of the human form, and his 
 Zeus, at Olympia, is counted among the won- 
 ders of the world. 
 
 PHILIP II., 382-336 B. C., king of Macedo- 
 nia ; father of Alexander the Great. 
 
 PHILIP II. (Augustus), 1165-1223, king of 
 France ; annexed Normandy, Anjou and Lor- 
 raine : won the battle of Bouvines. 
 
 PHILIP IV. (the Fair), 1268-1314, reduced 
 the power of the feudal nobles ; imprisoned 
 Pope Boniface III. and caused him to remove 
 his seat to Avignon ; suppressed the order of 
 Knights Templars ; VI. (of Valois), 1293-1350. 
 
 PHILIP II.. 1527-98, king of Spain ; son of 
 Charles V.; provoked insurrection in the 
 Netherlands by his attempt to introduce the 
 Spanish Inquisition ; married, on the death of 
 Mary Tudor, his second wife, Isabella of 
 France, the betrothed of his son, Don Carlos ; 
 equipped the "Invincible Armada" for the 
 conquest of England. 
 
 PHILLIPS, Wendell, 1811-84, Am. orator 
 and abolitionist. 
 
 PHIPS (or Phipps), Sir William, 1651-95, 
 colonial governor of Massachusetts. 
 
 PIIOCION, 4027-317 B. C., Athenian general 
 and statesman. 
 
 Pi< < OI.OMINI, Ottavio, 1599-1656, Austrian 
 general ; conspirator against Wallenstein ; 
 gained great distinction in the Thirty Years' 
 War ; led Spanish army in Flanders. 
 
 PICKERING, Timothy, 1745-1829, Am. states- 
 man. 
 
 PIERCE, Franklin, 1804-69, fourteenth pres- 
 ident of the United States ; born in New 
 
 Hampshire ; Congress, 1832-7 ; senator, 1837- 
 42; brigadier-general in Mexican war ; elected 
 president on the Democratic ticket in 1852, 
 holding that office from 1853-7 ; opposed coer- 
 cion of the South in 1863. 
 
 PIEHREPONT, Edward, 1800-92, Am. lawyer. 
 
 PILATE, Pontius, .... -38, Roman governor 
 of Palestine. 
 
 PINCKXEY, Charles Cotesworth, 1746-1825, 
 Am. statesman and soldier; leader of the 
 Federalists. 
 
 PINDAR, 520? -440? B. C., greatest of 
 Greek lyric poets. 
 
 PINKNEY, William, 1764-1822, Am. lawyer 
 and orator. 
 
 PITT, William, 1759-1806, Eng. statesman 
 and orator ; son of the earl of Chatham ; head 
 of the great coalition against Bonaparte. 
 
 Pius IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti), 
 born, 1792 ; chosen to the pontificate, 1846 ; 
 died, 1878 ; during his incumbency the 
 dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and of 
 Papal Infallibility were promulgated, temporal 
 power overthrown, 1870, and the Papal States 
 annexed to Italy. 
 
 PIZARRO, Francisco, 1496-1541, Sp. con- 
 queror of Peru. 
 
 PLATO, 428-347 B. C., Gr. philosopher ; 
 disciple of Socrates ; held that the human soul 
 has always existed, and that an idea is an eter- 
 nal thought of the divine mind ; Emerson says, 
 " Plato is philosophy, and philosophy is 
 Plato." 
 
 PLINY (the Elder), 23-79, Rom. naturalist ; 
 perished at an eruption of Vesuvius. 
 
 PLINY (the Younger), 62?-116, Rom. orator 
 and author. 
 
 PLOTINUS, 205-70, Gr. Neo-Platonic philos- 
 opher. 
 
 PLUTARCH, 50?-120?, Gr. biographer and 
 philosopher ; " father of biography." 
 
 POCAIIONTAS, 1595?-1617, daughter of 
 Powhatan ; saved the life of Capt. John Smith, 
 an Eng. explorer; was converted to Christian- 
 ity, and married an Englishman i.amed Rolfe. 
 *PoE, Edgar Allan, 1809-49, Am. author. 
 
 POLK, James Kcox, 1795-1849, Am. states- 
 man ; eleventh president ; bora in North Car- 
 olina ; removed to Tennessee ; admitted to the 
 bar ; Congress, 1825 ; speaker for two terms ; 
 governor of Tennessee, 1839-41; elected pres- 
 ident on the Democratic ticket, holding that 
 office from 1845-9. 
 
 POLK, Leonidas, 1806-64, episcopal bishop 
 and Confederate general ; prominent at Shiloh 
 and Stone River. 
 
 POLLOK, Robert, 1798?-1827, Scot. poet. 
 
 POLO, Marco, 1252?-1324?, Venetian trav- 
 eler. 
 
 POLYBIUS, 206?-124 B. C., Gr. historian.
 
 262 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 POLYCARP, Saint, 80?-169?, bishop of 
 Smyrna ; martyr. 
 
 POMPEY (the Great), 106-48 B. C., Rom. 
 general and triumvir ; conquered Suetonius 
 and Mithridates ; became leader of the aristoc- 
 racy and opponent of Caesar ; defeated at 
 Pharsalia. 
 
 PONCE DE LEON, Juan, 1460-1521, Sp. dis- 
 coverer of Florida. 
 
 PONTIAC, 17127-69, chief of the Ottawas ; 
 formed coalition of Indians against the whites, 
 and attempted to capture Detroit. 
 
 POPE, Alexander, 1688-1744, Eng. poet. 
 
 POWERS, Hiram, 1805-73, greatest of Ameri- 
 can sculptors. 
 
 POWHATAN, 1550-1618, Indian chieftain in 
 Virginia. 
 
 PRAXITELES, fl. 360 B. C., Gr. sculptor, who 
 expressed the perfect ideal grace of the female 
 figure. 
 
 PRENTICE, George Denison, 1802-70, Am. 
 poet and journalist. 
 
 PRESCOTT, William Hickling, 1796-1859, 
 Am. historian. 
 
 PRIM, Juan, Count de Reus and Marquis de 
 los Castillejos, 1814-70, Sp. general and states- 
 man ; assassinated. 
 
 PRIOR, Matthew, 1664-1721, Eng. poet and 
 diplomatist. 
 
 PROCTER, Bryan Waller (Barry Cornwall), 
 1790-1874, Eng. poet. 
 
 PTOLEMY I. (Soter), 397?-283 B. C., king of 
 Egypt; II. (Philadelphus), 309-247 B. C. 
 
 PTOLEMY (Claudius Ptolemseus), fl. second 
 century, Gr. astronomer and geographer ; be- 
 lieved the earth to be at rest in the center 
 of the universe, the heavenly bodies moving 
 around it. 
 
 PULASKI, Casimir, Count, 1747-79, Polish 
 patriot; general in the American Revolution- 
 ary army ; fell at the siege of Savannah. 
 
 PUTXAM, Israel, 1718-90, Arn. Revolution- 
 ary general ; conspicuous at the battle of 
 Bunker Hill. 
 
 PYM, John, 1584-1643, Eng. republican 
 statesman and orator. 
 
 PYRRHO, 376-288 B. C., Gr. skeptic and 
 philosopher. 
 
 PYURHUS, 3187-272 B. C., king of Epirus 
 and one of the greatest of ancient generals ; 
 defeated the Romans and conquered Mace- 
 donia. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS, 6007-510? B. C., first Gr. 
 philosopher ; taught the doctrine of transmi- 
 gration of souls ; basis of his philosophy, 
 number and harmony ; soul distinct from 
 body. 
 
 RABELAIS, Frangois, 14957-1553, Fr. scholar ; 
 and satiriat ; joined the Franciscans, but left '. 
 
 the prder ; afterward studied medicine ; his 
 great work, " The Pleasant Story of the Giant 
 Gargantua," is a satire upon the different 
 branches of society of his age, more particu- 
 larly the monastic orders. 
 
 RACINE, Jean, 1630-99, Fr. dramatist. 
 RALEIGH, Sir Walter, 1552-1618, Eng. 
 courtier, statesman, navigator, and author; a 
 favorite of Queen Elizabeth ; executed by 
 James I. 
 
 RAMEAU, Jean Philippe, 1683-1764, Fr. 
 composer. 
 
 RANDOLPH, John (of Roanoke), 1773-1835, 
 Am. politician and orator. 
 
 RANDOLPH, Peyton, 1723-75, president of 
 first Am. Congress. 
 
 RAPHAEL (Raffaelle Sanzio, or Santi d' 
 Urbino), 1483-1520, It. painter; "the prince 
 of painters." 
 
 READ, Thomas Buchanan, 1822-72, Am. 
 poet and artist. 
 
 READE, Charles, 1814-84, Eng. novelist. 
 RECAMIER, Jeanne, F. J. A. B., 1777-1849, 
 Fr. lady noted for her beauty and accomplish- 
 ments. 
 
 RED JACKET, 1760-1830, Seneca Indian 
 chief. 
 
 REGULUS, Marcus Atillius, .... -250 B. C., 
 Rom. general and statesman. 
 
 REMBRANDT VAN RYN, Paul, 1607-69, Dutch 
 painter ; chief of the Dutch school ; the great- 
 est master of colors, and unrivaled as an etcher. 
 REMUSAT, Charles Francois Marie, Count, 
 1797-1875, Fr. statesman and philosopher. 
 
 REX AN, Joseph Ernest, 1823-92, Fr. philol- 
 ogist and writer. 
 
 REVERE, Paul, 1735-1818, Am. engraver 
 and Revolutionary patriot ; carried the news 
 of Gage's impending attack to Concord. 
 
 REYNOLDS, John Fulton, 1820-63, Am. gen- 
 eral. 
 
 REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, 1723-92, Eng. por- 
 trait painter. 
 
 RICARDO, David, 1772-1823, Eng. political 
 economist. 
 
 RICHARD I. (Coeur cle Lion), 1157-99, king 
 of England ; led a large army into Palestine ; 
 conquered Acre and defeated Saladin ; II., 
 1366-1400; III., 1452-85, last of the Plan- 
 tagenets. 
 
 RICHARDSOX, Samuel, 1689-1761, Eng. nov- 
 elist. 
 
 RICHELIEU, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardi- 
 nal, 1585-1642, Fr. prelate and statesman ; 
 minister to Louis VIII., but real ruler of 
 France for thirteen years. 
 
 RICHTER, Johann Paul Friedrich (Jean 
 Paul), 1763-1825, Ger. author. 
 
 RIEN/I, Nicola Gabrini, 13137-54, Rom. 
 orator ; attempted to restore the republic.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. ' 
 
 263 
 
 RITTKXMOCM.. David. 1732-96, Am. astron- 
 omer. 
 
 RIZZIO, David, 1540-66, It. musician ; fa- 
 vorite of Mary Stuart ; assassinated. 
 
 ROBERT II., 1310-90, first of the Stuarts. 
 
 ROBERTSON, Frederick William, 1816-53, 
 Eng. divine. 
 
 ROBESPIERRE, Maximilien Joseph Marie 
 Isidore, 1758-94, Fr. Jacobin revolutionist ; 
 ruler during the Reign of Terror ; guillotined. 
 
 ROBIN HOOD, fl. twelfth century, Eng. outlaw. 
 
 ROCHAMBEAU, Jean Baptiste Donatien de 
 Vimeur de, Count, 1725-1807, Fr. marshal; 
 general in America in 1781. 
 
 ROCHEFOUCAULD, Francois Due de la, 1613- 
 80, Fr. wit and author. 
 
 ROCIIE.JAQUELIX, Henri de la, Comte, 1772- 
 94, Fr. royalist. 
 
 ROEBLIXG, John Augustus, 1806-69, Am. 
 engineer. 
 
 ROGERS, John, 15007-55, Eng. divine; 
 burned at Smithfield. 
 
 ROLAND, Marie Jeanne Philipon, Mme., 
 1 754-93, Fr. Girondist and writer ; guillotined. 
 
 ROLLIN, Charles, 1661-1741, Fr. historian. 
 
 ROLLO (or Hro'lf), 860?-930?, Norwegian 
 viking ; first duke of Normandy. 
 
 ROMANOFF, Michael Feodorovitch, 1598?- 
 1645, founder of the Russian dynasty. 
 
 ROMULUS, fl. 750 B. C., founder of Rome. 
 
 ROSA, Salvator, 1615-73, It. painter. 
 
 Ross, Sir John, 1777-1856, Br. admiral and 
 Arctic navigator. 
 
 Ross, Sir Ja'mes Clark, 1800-62, nephew of 
 preceding ; Br. Arctic navigator. 
 
 ROSSETTI, Dante Gabriel, 1828-82, Eng. 
 painter and poet. 
 
 ROSSINI, Gioacchimo, 1792-1868, It. com- 
 poser. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD, Mayer Anselm, 1743-1812, 
 Jewish banker at Frankfort ; founder of the 
 house of Rothschild. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, 1712-78, Fr. phi- 
 losopher and writer. 
 
 RUBENS, Peter Paul, 1587-1640, Flemish 
 painter ; chief of the Flemish school. 
 
 RUBINSTEIN, Anton Gregor, 1829-94, Rus. 
 composer and pianist. 
 
 RUDOLPH I. OF HAPSBURG, 1218-91, em- 
 peror of Germany ; founder of the Austrian 
 empire: II., 1552-1612. 
 
 RUMFORD, Benjamin Thompson, Count, 
 1753-1814, Am. natural philosopher in France. 
 
 RUPERT, Prince (Prince Robert of Bavaria), 
 1619-82, Ger. warrior. 
 
 SAINT CLAIR, Arthur, 1734-1818, Am. gen- 
 eral. 
 
 SAINTE-BEUVE, Charles Augustin, 1804-69, 
 Fr. poet and critic. 
 
 SAINT-PIERRE, Jacques Henri Bernardin de, 
 1737-1814, Fr. author. 
 
 SALA, George Augustus Henri, 1828-95, 
 Eng. litterateur. 
 
 SALADIN, 1137-93, sultan of Egypt and 
 Syria ; opposed the Crusaders ; defeated the 
 Christians at Tiberias. 
 
 SALE, George, 1680-1736, Eng. orientalist. 
 
 SALLUST (Caius Sallustius Crispus), 86-34 
 B. C., Rom. historian. 
 
 SALVINI, Tommaso, 1829V -1896, It. tra- 
 gedian. 
 
 SANTA ANNA (or Ana), Antonio Lopez de, 
 1798-1876, Mexican general and statesman. 
 
 SAPPHO, fl. 600 B. C., Gr. lyric poetess. 
 
 SAUL, .... - 1055 B. C., first king of Is- 
 rael. 
 
 SAVONAROLA, Girolamo, 1452-1598, It. re- 
 ligious reformer. 
 
 SAY, Jean Baptiste Leon, 1816-1896, Fr. 
 statesman. 
 
 SCHELLING, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von, 
 1775-1854, Ger. philosopher. 
 
 SCHILLER, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, 
 1759-1805, the most popular of German poets. 
 
 SCHLEGEL, August Wilhelm von, 1767- 
 1845, Ger. poet, critic, and philologist. 
 
 SCHLEGEL, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von, 
 brother of A. W., 1772-1829, Ger. philoso- 
 pher and scholar. 
 
 ScHLiEMANN,Heinrich, 1822-90, Ger. archae- 
 ologist. 
 
 SCHOF.FFER, Peter, 1430-1500, one of the 
 inventors of printing ; partner of Johann 
 Faust. 
 
 SCHOPENHAUER, Arthur, 1788-1860, Ger. 
 pessimist philosopher. 
 
 SCHUBERT, Franz, 1797-1828, Ger. com- 
 poser. 
 
 SCHUMANN, Robert, 1810-56, Ger. composer. 
 
 SCHUYLER, Philip, 1733-1804, Am. general. 
 
 SCHWARZ, Berthold, fl. fourteenth century, 
 Ger. monk and alchemist ; reputed inventor of 
 gunpowder. 
 
 SCHVVATKA, Frederick, 1849-92, Am. 
 explorer. 
 
 SCIPIO AFRICANUS MAJOR, Publius Corne- 
 lius, 235-184? B. C., Rom. general; invaded 
 Africa and defeated Hannibal. 
 
 SCIPIO JEMILIANUS AFRICANUS MLNOR, 
 Publius Cornelius, 185?-29 B. C., Rom. gen- 
 eral ; destroyed Carthage. 
 
 SCOTT, Sir Walter, 1771-1832, Scot, nov- 
 elist and poet. 
 
 SCOTT, Winfield, 1786-1866, Am. general. 
 
 SEBASTIAN, Saint, 255?-88, Rom. soldier 
 and martyr. 
 
 SELKIRK, Alexander, 1676?-1723, Scot, 
 sailor whose adventures suggested the story of 
 "Robinson Crusoe."
 
 2G4 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 SEMIRAMIS, fl. 1250 B. C., Assyrian queen ; 
 built Babylon and greatly increased her do- 
 minions ; invaded India, but was defeated. 
 
 SENECA, Lucius Annseus, 5?-65, Rom. 
 statesman, moralist, and Stoic philosopher. 
 
 SENNACHERIB, fl. 700 B. C., Assyrian king. 
 
 SERVETUS, Michael, 1509-53, Sp. theolo- 
 gian. 
 
 SESOSTRIS (Rameses), fl. 1400 B. C., king 
 of Egypt. 
 
 SEVIGNE, Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Mar- 
 quise de, 1627-96, Fr. lady celebrated for her 
 beauty and accomplishments. 
 
 SEWARD, William Henry, 1801-72, Am. 
 statesman. 
 
 SEYMOUR, Horatio, 1811-86, Am. states- 
 man ; Democratic nominee for the presidency 
 in 1868. 
 
 SHAFTESBURY, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 
 third Earl of, 1671-1713, Eng. philanthropist, 
 author, and freethinker. 
 
 SHAKSPERE (Shakspeare, or Shakespeare), 
 William, 1564-1616, reputed author of the 
 world's greatest dramas ; born at Stratford-on- 
 Avon ; married Anne Hathaway, 1582 ; went 
 to London about 1586, and became an actor 
 and owner of a playhouse ; acquired a compe- 
 tence and retired to his native town about 
 1610 ; " Venus and Adonis," and " The Rape 
 of Lucrece," the only works published under 
 his own hand, appeared in 1593-4; the first 
 collective edition of the Shakespeare plays 
 appeared in 1623. 
 
 SHELLEY, Percy Bysshe, 1792-1822, Eng- 
 lish poet. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Philip Henry, 1831-88, Am. 
 general ; victorious at Winchester, Cedar 
 Creek, and Five Forks ; made lieutenant-gen- 
 eral, 1869, and promoted to the chief com- 
 mand on retirement of General Sherman, 1883. 
 
 SHERIDAN, Richard Brinsley, 1751-1816 ; 
 Ir. orator and dramatist. 
 
 SHERMAN, William Tecumseh, 1820-91, 
 brother of J. S. ; Am. general ; made the cel- 
 ebrated ' < March to the Sea ' ' ; became general 
 of the army in 1869, retiring in 1883. 
 
 SIDDONS, Sarah (ne'e Kemble), 1755-1831, 
 Eng. actress. 
 
 SIDNEY, Algernon, 1622-83 ; Eng. republi- 
 can ; executed on false charge of complicity in 
 " Rye House Plot." 
 
 SIDNEY, Sir Philip, 1554-86, Eng. soldier 
 and poet. 
 
 SIGOURNEY, Mrs. Lydia Howard Huntley, 
 1791-1865, Am. poetess. 
 
 SILLIMAN, Benjamin, 1789-1864, Am. nat- 
 uralist. 
 
 SIMON, Jules, 1814-1896, Fr. statesman. 
 
 SMITH, Adam, 1723-90, Scot, political econ- 
 omist. 
 
 SMITH, John, Captain, 1579-1631, Eng. 
 explorer ; founder of Virginia. 
 
 SMITH, Joseph, 1805-44, founder of the 
 Mormon church. 
 
 SMITH, Sydney, 1771-1845, English divine 
 and essayist. 
 
 SMOLLETT, Tobias George, 1721-71, Scot, 
 novelist. 
 
 SOBIESKI, John, 1629-96, king of Poland 
 and patriot ; defeated the Turks and raised the 
 siege of Vienna. 
 
 SOCRATES, 4707-399 B. C., Gr. philosopher 
 of ethics ; teacher of Plato. 
 
 SOLIMAN II. (the Magnificent), 1494-1566, 
 sultan of Turkey ; conquered Persia and part 
 of Hungary. 
 
 SOLOMON (the Wise), 10337-975? B. C., 
 king of Israel. 
 
 SOLON, 638-558? B. C., Athenian lawgiver 
 and poet. 
 
 SOPHOCLES, 495-405 B. C., Gr. tragic poet. 
 
 SOUTHEY, Robert, 1774-1843, Eng. poet- 
 laureate. 
 
 SPARKS, Jared, 1789-1866, Am. historian. 
 
 SPARTACUS, .... -71 B. C., Thracianglad- 
 iator in Rome ; inaugurated Servile war. 
 
 SPEKE, John Hanning, 1827-64, Eng. ex- 
 plorer in Africa. 
 
 SPENSER, Edmund, 1553-99, Eng. poet. 
 
 SPINOZA, Benedict, 1632-77, Dutch-Jewish 
 philosopher and pantheist. 
 
 SPURGEON, Charles Iladdon, 1834-92, Eng. 
 pulpit-orator. 
 
 SPURZHEIM, Johann Caspar, 1776-1832, Ger. 
 phrenologist. 
 
 STAEL-HOLSTEIN, Anne Louise Germaine, 
 Baronne de (Mine, de Stael), 1766-1817, Fr. 
 authoress. 
 
 STANDISH, Miles, 1584-1656, captain of 
 Plymouth colony. 
 
 STANFORD, Leland, 1824-93, Am. lawyer 
 and philanthropist. 
 
 STARK, John, 1728-1822, Am. Revolution- 
 ary general. 
 
 STEIN, Heinrich Friedrich Karl von, Baron, 
 1757-1831, Prussian statesman. 
 
 STEPHEN, Saint, stoned 367, first Christian 
 martyr. 
 
 STEPHENS, Alexander Hamilton, 1812-83, 
 Am. statesman and writer; the "Nestor of 
 the Confederacy " ; born in Georgia ; admitted 
 to the bar, 1835 ; Congress, 1843 ; opposed 
 the secession of his State ; vice-president of 
 the Confederate States ; elected to the U. S. 
 Senate from Georgia, but not permitted to 
 take his seat ; member of the House of Rep- 
 resentatives, however, from 1874 until his 
 death. 
 
 STEPHENSON, George, 1781-1848, Eng. en- 
 gineer ; inventor of the locomotive engine.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 265 
 
 STEPIIEXSOX, Robert, 1803-59, son of G. S., 
 Eng. engineer ; inventor of tubular bridge. 
 
 STERXE, Laurence, Rev., 1713-68, Ir. hu- 
 morous writer. 
 
 STEUBEN, Frederick AVilliam Augustus von, 
 Baron, 1730-94, Ger.-Am. general in the Rev- 
 olutionary war. 
 
 STEVENS, Thaddeus, 1793-1868, Am. aboli- 
 tionist. 
 
 STORY, Joseph, 1779-1845, Am. jurist. 
 
 STOWE, Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth Beecher, 
 1812-96, Am. authoress. 
 
 STRABO, 54 B. C.-24 A. D., Gr. geographer. 
 
 STRADELIA, Alessandro, 1645-78, It. com- 
 poser. 
 
 STRAFFORD, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of, 
 1593-1641, Eng. statesman; beheaded. 
 
 STRAUSS, Johanii, 1804-49, Ger. composer. 
 
 STUART, Gilbert C., 1756-1828, Am. por- 
 trait painter. 
 
 STUYVESANT, Peter, 1602-82, last Dutch 
 governor of New Netherland (New York). 
 
 SUE, Marie Joseph Eugene, 1804-57, Fr. 
 novelist. 
 
 SULLA (or Sylla), Lucius Cornelius, 138-78 
 B. C., Rom. statesman and general. 
 
 SUMNER, Charles, 1811-74, Am. statesman. 
 
 SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, 1688-1772, Sw. 
 theosophist ; in histheosophy the central point 
 is the correspondence of the natural and the 
 supernatural. 
 
 SWIFT, Jonathan, 1667-1745, Ir. divine and 
 satirist. 
 
 TACITX;S, Caius Cornelius, 557-118?, Rom. 
 historian ; to him we owe nearly all our knowl- 
 edge of the early Britons and the Germans. 
 
 TAINE, Hippolyte Adolphe, 1828-93, Fr. 
 author. 
 
 TALBOT, William Henry Fox, 1800-77, Eng. 
 author and discoverer of photography. 
 
 TALFOURD, Sir Thomas Noon, 1795-1854, 
 Eng. author. 
 
 TALLEYRAXD-PERIGORD, Charles Maurice 
 de, Prince of Benevento, 1754-1838, Fr. di- 
 plomatist. 
 
 TAMERLANE (or Timour), 1336-1405, Asiatic 
 conqueror. 
 
 TANCRED, 1078-1112, Norman leader in the 
 first Crusade. 
 
 TANEY, Roger Brooke, 1777-1864, Am. jurist. 
 
 TASMAN, Abel Janssen, 1600?-45, Dutch 
 navigator. 
 
 TASSO, Torquato, 1544-95, It. poet. 
 
 TAUCHNITZ, Christian Bernhard, Baron, 
 1816-95, Ger. publisher. 
 
 TAYLOR, Bayard, 1825-78, Am. traveler, 
 novelist, poet, and journalist. 
 
 TAYLOR, Jeremy, 1613-67, Eng. bishop and 
 author. 
 
 TAYLOR, Zachary, 1784-1850, Am. general 
 and statesman ; twelfth president ; born in 
 Virginia; entered the army in 1808; served 
 in Seminole and Black Hawk wars ; major- 
 general in Mexican war, and won the battles of 
 Resaca de la Palma and Buena Vista ; elected 
 president by the Whigs in 1848. 
 
 TECUMSEH, 1770-1813, chief of theShawnee 
 Indians ; defeated by Harrison at Tippecanoe ; 
 killed in the battle of the Thames. 
 
 TELL, Wilhelm, fl. 1305, legendary Swiss 
 hero. 
 
 TENNYSON, Alfred, .Baron, 1809-92, Eng. 
 poet-laureate. 
 
 TERENCE (P. Tereutius Afer), 1957-160? 
 B. C., Rom. comic poet. 
 
 TERTULLIAN, 1 50 ?-230?, Latin father of the 
 Church. 
 
 TETZEL, Johann, 14607-1519, Ger. monk ; 
 vender of indulgences. 
 
 THACKERAY, William Makepeace, 1811-63, 
 Eng. novelist. 
 
 THALES, 635?-546 B. C., Gr. sage and 
 philosopher. 
 
 THEMISTOCLES, 514?-449? B. C., Athenian 
 general and statesman. 
 
 THEOCRITUS, fl. 275?, Gr. pastoral poet. 
 
 THEODORA, . . . .-548, empress of the East ; 
 wife of Justinian. 
 
 THEODORIC (the Great), 455-526, king of 
 the Ostrogoths. 
 
 THEODOSIUS, Flavius (the Great), 346 ?-395, 
 Rom. emperor. 
 
 THEOPHRASTUS, 372?-287? B. C., Gr. phi- 
 losopher and moralist. 
 
 THIERRY, Jacques N. Augustin, 1795-1836, 
 Fr. historian. 
 
 THIERS, Louis Adolphe, 1797-1877, Fr. 
 statesman and historian. 
 
 THOMAS, George H., 1816-70, Am. Federal 
 general ; won the battles of Chickamauga and 
 Nashville. 
 
 THOREAU, Henry D., 1817-62, Am. author. 
 
 THORWALDSEN, Albert D., 1770-1844, Dan- 
 ish sculptor. 
 
 THUCYDIDES, 470-400 B. C., greatest of 
 Greek historians. 
 
 TIBERIUS, 42 B. C.-37 A. D., Rom. emperor. 
 
 TILDEN, Samuel Jones, 1814-86, Am. 
 statesman ; governor of New York ; Demo- 
 cratic candidate for presidency, 1876. 
 
 TILLY, Johann Tzerklas von, Count, 1559- 
 1632, Ger. general in Thirty Years' war ; fell 
 at the battle of the Lech. 
 
 TINTORETTO, II (Giacomo Robusti), 1512- 
 94, It. painter. 
 
 TITIAN (Tiziano Vecellio), 1477-1576, the 
 greatest of Venetian painters. 
 
 TOCQUEVILLE, Alexis Charles Henri Clerel 
 de, 1805-59, Fr. statesman and author.
 
 266 
 
 THE CENTURY BOQK OF FACTS. 
 
 TODLEBEN, Franz Eduard, 181 8-8-i, Russian 
 general. 
 
 TONE, Theobald Wolfe, 1763-98, Ir. patriot ; 
 founder of the United Irishmen. 
 
 TORQUEMADA, Tomas de, 1420-98, Sp. Do- 
 minican monk ; inquisitor-general. 
 
 TORRICELLI, Evangelista, 1608-47, It. 
 physicist. 
 
 TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE, Francois Domi- 
 nique, 1743-1803, negro leader of the Haytian 
 rebellion. 
 
 TIIA.JAN, 52-117, Rom. emperor. 
 
 TROLLOPS, Anthony, 1815-83, Eng. nov- 
 elist. 
 
 TUPPER, Martin Farquhar, 1810-89, Eng. 
 poet and author. 
 
 TURENNE, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, 
 Vicomte de, 1611-75, Fr. general. 
 
 TURGENEK, Ivan Sergyevich, 1818-83, Rus- 
 sian novelist. 
 
 TURNER, Joseph Mallord William, 1775- 
 1851, Eng. landscape painter. 
 
 TYLER, John, 1790-1862, tenth president 
 of the United States ; born in Va. ; practiced 
 law ; Congress, 1816-21 ; governor of Virginia, 
 1825 ; senator, 1827 ; sympathized with the 
 milliners and opposed Jackson ; resigned, 
 1836 ; elected vice-president on Whig ticket, 
 1840; succeeded Harrison in 1841. 
 
 TYNDALL, John, 1820-93, Ir. scientist. 
 
 UHLAND, Johann Ludwig, 1787-1862, Ger. 
 lyric poet. 
 
 ULLOA, Antonio de, 1716-95, Sp. mathema- 
 tician and naval officer ; governor of Louisiana. 
 
 ULPHILAS (or Ulfilas), 313-83, ihe apostle 
 of the Goths ; translated the Scriptures into 
 Gothic. 
 
 UNGER, Johann Friedrich, 1750-1813, Ger. 
 printer and engraver. 
 
 URQUHART, David, 1805-77, Scot, writer 
 and politician. 
 
 USSHER, James, 1580-1656,- Ir. prelate and 
 scholar. 
 
 VALENS, Flavius, 328V-78, emperor of the 
 East. 
 
 VAN BUREN, Martin, 1782-1862, eighth 
 president of the United States ; enrolled at the 
 bar in New York in 1803, and elected to the 
 State Senate ; state attorney- general, 1815 ; 
 leader of the " Albany Regency " ; U. S. sen- 
 ator, 1821 ; governor, 1828 ; secretary of state, 
 1829-31; vice-president, 1833-7; president, 
 1837-41. 
 
 VANCOUVER, George, 1758?-98, Eng. navi- 
 gator. 
 
 VANDERBILT, Cornelius, 1794-1877, Am. 
 capitalist. 
 
 VANDYKE (or Van Dyck), Sir Anthony, 
 
 1599-1641, Flemish painter; resided in Eng- 
 land for several years before his death, where 
 he became the most popular artist of his time. 
 
 VANE, Sir Henry, 1612-02, Eng. republican 
 statesman. 
 
 VAN RENSSELAER, Stephen (the Patroon), 
 1764-1839, Am. statesman and landholder. 
 
 VARUS, Publius Quintilius, fl. 7, Rom. gen- 
 eral ; defeated by Arrninius. 
 
 VELASQUEZ, Don Diego Rodriguez de Silva 
 y, 1599-1660, Sp. painter. 
 
 VELDE, Willem van der (the Elder), 1610- 
 93, Dutch marine painter. 
 
 VELDE, Willem van der (the Younger), 
 1633-1707, Dutch marine painter. 
 
 VERBOECKHOVEN, Eugene Joseph, 17 99-1 881, 
 Belgian painter. 
 
 VERDI, Giuseppe, 1814-98, It. composer. 
 
 VERNET, Antoine Charles Horace, 1758- 
 1836, Fr. painter. 
 
 VESP-ASIANUS, Titus Flavius, 9-79, Rom. 
 emperor. 
 
 VESPUCCI, Amerigo (Americus Vespucius), 
 1451-1512, It. navigator and astronomer. 
 
 VICTOR EMMANUEL I., 1759-1824, king of 
 Sardinia; II., 1820-78, first king of Italy; 
 restored Italian unity. 
 
 VINCENT DE PAUL, Saint, 1576-1660, Fr. 
 priest and reformer. 
 
 VINCI, Leonardo da, 1452-1519, Florentine 
 painter. 
 
 VIRGIL (or Vergil) (Publius Virgilius Maro), 
 70-19 B. C., Latin poet. 
 
 VOLTA, Alessandro, 1745-1827, It. inventor 
 of voltaic pile. 
 
 VOLTAIRE, Frangois Marie Arouet de, 1694- 
 1778, Fr. author, poet, wit, dramatist, histo- 
 rian, philosopher, and skeptic, and the great- 
 est critic of modern times ; the son of a notary ; 
 imprisoned in the Bastille in 1716 on an un- 
 founded suspicion of being the author of a 
 libel on the regent, and there produced 
 " CEdipe," and wrote part of the " Ilen- 
 riade " ; in England, 1726-9, passing much 
 time in the society of Bolingbroke ; passed the 
 years 1750-3 with Frederick the Great. 
 
 WAGNER, Richard, 1813-83, Ger. composer, 
 poet, and critic. 
 
 WAITE, Morrison Remich, 1816-88, Am. 
 chief justice. 
 
 WALLACE, Sir William, 1270?-1305, Scot, 
 general and patriot ; defeated by Edward I. of 
 England ; betrayed and executed. 
 
 WALLENSTEIN, Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius 
 von, Count, 1583-1634, Austrian general ; hero 
 of one of Schiller's dramas ; entered the im- 
 perial army at the beginning of the Thirty 
 Years' war ; raised an army at his own ex- 
 pense in 1625, invading Denmark; banished
 
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 267 
 
 from court byt-Emperor Ferdinand, but recalled 
 on the death of Marshal Tilly ; defeated by 
 Gustavus Adolphus at Lutzen in 1632, but 
 gained several victories in Silesia ; again lost 
 the emperor's favor, being charged with aspi- 
 rations to the throne of Bohemia, was deprived 
 of his command and assassinated. 
 
 WALPOLE, Horace, Earl of Oxford, 1717-97, 
 Eng. author and wit. 
 
 WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE, 1170?- 
 1230?, greatest of Ger. minnesingers. 
 
 WALTON, Izaak, 1593-1683, Eng. writer ; 
 " The Complete Angler." 
 
 WARREN, Joseph, 1741-75, Am. physician ; 
 Revolutionary general and patriot ; fell at 
 Bunker Hill. 
 
 WARREN, Samuel, 1807-77, Eng. author. 
 
 WARWICK, Richard Neville, Earl of (the 
 king maker), 14207-71, Eng. warrior; setup 
 and deposed Edward IV. 
 
 WASHINGTON, George, 1732-99, commander- 
 in-chief in the American Revolution, and first 
 president of the United States; "the father 
 of his country;" born in Virginia; aide-de- 
 camp to Braddock in the Indian campaign of 
 1755 ; married Martha Custis, 1759 ; chosen 
 to Congress, 1774 ; appointed commander-ir.- 
 chief, 1775; president, 1789-97. 
 
 WATT, James, 1736-1819, Scot, engineer 
 and inventor ; improved and completed the 
 steam engine ; also credited with the discovery 
 of the composition of water. 
 
 WATTEAU, Jean Antoine, 1684-1721, Fr. 
 painter. 
 
 WATTS, Isaac, 1674-1748, Eng. Dissenting 
 minister and sacred poet. 
 
 WAYNE, Anthony, 1745-96, Am. Revolu- 
 tionary general. 
 
 WKBEK, Karl Maria Friedrich Ernst von, 
 Baron, 1786-1826, Ger. composer. 
 
 WKBSTER, Daniel, 1782-1852, Am. lawyer, 
 orator, and statesman; "the expounder of 
 the Constitution ; " born in New Hampshire ; 
 Congress, 1812-10, 1822-8; Senate, 1828-41 ; 
 secretary of state ; re-entered Senate in 1844 ; 
 again became secretary of state in 1850 ; nomi- 
 nated for the presidency in 1834, but defeated ; 
 candidate for the Whig nomination in 1848, 
 but defeated by Taylor, whom he supported ; 
 Webster's reply to Hayne, of South Carolina, 
 is considered the greatest speech ever made in 
 Congress. 
 
 WKUSTER, Noah, 1758-1843, Am. lexicog- 
 rapher. 
 
 WEDGWOOI>, Josiah, 1730-95, Eng. potter. 
 
 WEED, Tliurlow, 1797-1883, Am. journalist. 
 
 WELLINGTON, Arthur Wellesley, first Duke 
 of, 1769-1852, greatest of Br. generals ; gained 
 great distinction in India, in the war against 
 the Mahrattas ; major-general, 1802 ; Parlia- 
 
 ment, 1805 ; secretary for Ireland, 1807 ; de- 
 feated the Danes at Kioge, and was given 
 command of an army sent to Spain against the 
 French, 1808; triumphantly entered Madrid, 
 1812; defeated Jourdan and Soult, 1813; in- 
 vaded France and gained numerous victories ; 
 defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, 1815 ; was 
 afterward prime minister and minister of for- 
 eign affairs. 
 
 WENCESLAUS (or Wenzel), 1361-1419, em- 
 peror of Germany and king of Bohemia. 
 
 WESLEY, Charles, 1708-88, Eng. Methodist 
 divine and hymn-writer. 
 
 WESLEY, John, 1703-91, brother of C. W. ; 
 Eng. founder of Methodism, ' ' the religion of 
 feeling." 
 
 WEST. Benjamin, 1738-1820, Am. painter 
 in England. 
 
 WHAHTON, Francis, 1820-89, Am. jurist 
 and theologian. 
 
 WHATELY, Richard, 1787-1863, Ir. prelate 
 and author. 
 
 WHEELER, William Almon, 1819-87, Am. 
 statesman ; vice-president. 
 
 WHITE, Henry Kirke, 1785-1806, Eng. 
 religious poet. 
 
 WHITE, Richard Grant, 1822-85, Arn. 
 author. 
 
 WHITEFIELD, George, 1714-70, Eng. 
 preacher, founder of Calvinistic Methodists. 
 
 WHITMAN, Walt, 1819-92, Am. poet. 
 
 WHITNEY, Eli, 1765-1825, Am. inventor of 
 the cotton-gin. 
 
 WHITTIER, John Greenleaf, 1807-92, Am. 
 poet ; member of the Society of Friends. 
 
 AViLBEitFORCE. William, 1759-1833, Eng. 
 philanthropist and statesman ; secured the 
 abolition of the slave trade. 
 
 WILLIAM I. (the Conqueror), 1027-87, king 
 of England ; duke of Normandy ; conquered 
 England. 
 
 WILLIAM III. (William Henry of Nassau, 
 prince of Orange), 1650-1702, won battle of 
 the Boyne. 
 
 WILLIAM I., 1772-1843, king of the Neth- 
 erlands. 
 
 WILLIAM I., 1797-1888, king of Prussia 
 and emperor of Germany. 
 
 WILLIAMS, Roger, 1599-1683, Eng. Puritan 
 minister ; founder of Rhode Island colony ; 
 born in Wales. 
 
 WILLIS, Nathaniel Parker, 1806-67, Am. 
 journalist and poet. 
 
 WILMOT, David, 18.14-68, Am. statesman. 
 (Wilmot Proviso.) 
 
 WILSON, Henry (original name Jeremiah 
 Jones Colbath), 1812-75, Am. politician; 
 eighteenth vice-president. 
 
 WISEMAN, Nicholas, 1802-65, Eng. cardi- 
 nal.
 
 268 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 WITTEKIND, . . . .-807, Saxon warrior ; con- 
 quered by Charlemagne. 
 
 WOLFE, James, 1726-59, Eng. general ; fell 
 at Quebec. 
 
 WOLSEY, Thomas, 1471-1530, Eng. cardi- 
 nal and statesman ; prime minister of Henry 
 VIII. ; deposed 1529. 
 
 WOOD, Mrs. Henry, 1820-87, Eng. novelist. 
 
 WOODWORTH, Samuel, 1785-1842, Am. 
 poet. 
 
 WORCESTER, Edward Somerset, Marquis of, 
 16017-67, Eng. nobleman ; one of the invent- 
 ors of the steam engine. 
 
 WORCESTER, Joseph Emerson, 1734-1866, 
 Am. lexicographer. 
 
 WORDSWORTH, William, 1770-1850, Eng. 
 poet. 
 
 WRANGELL, Ferdinand Petrovitch von, 
 Baron, 1795?-1870, Russian explorer. 
 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, 1632-1723, Eng ar- 
 chitect. (St. Paul's Cathedral, London.) 
 
 WYCLIFFE (or Wickliffe) John de, 1324?- 
 84, Eng. reformer. 
 
 XANTIPPE, the wife of Socrates, notorious 
 for bad temper, but credited by her husband 
 with many domestic virtues. 
 
 XAVIER, Francis, Saint, 1506-52, Sp. Jes- 
 uit missionary to India and Japan. 
 
 XENOPHON, 445V-355? B. C., Athenian his- 
 torian and general. 
 
 XERES, Francisco de, 1504V-70, Sp. histo- 
 rian with Pizarro. 
 
 XERXES (the Great), . . . .-465 B. C., king 
 of Persia ; invaded Greece, but defeated at 
 Salamis. 
 
 XIMENES DE CISNEROS, Francisco (Cardinal 
 Ximenes), 1436-1517, Sp. prelate and states- 
 man ; published Polyglot Bible. 
 
 YALE, Elihu, 1648-1721, patron of Yale 
 College. 
 
 YORK, Edmund Plantagenet, first Duke of, 
 1341-1402, founder of the house of York. 
 
 ZALEucus,fl. seventh century B. C.,Gr. leg- 
 islator and reformer ; first to make a written 
 code of laws. 
 
 ZAMOJSKI, John Sarius, 1541-1605, Polish 
 general, statesman, and scholar. 
 
 ZECHARIAH, fl. sixth century B. C., Hebrew 
 prophet. 
 
 ZENO (or Zenon), 355?-307? B. C., Gr. 
 philosopher ; founder of Stoic school. 
 
 ZENOBIA, Septima, . . . .-275, queen of 
 Palmyra. 
 
 ZEPHANIAH, Hebrew prophet ; flourished in 
 the reign of Josiali . 
 
 ZIMMKRMANN, Johann Georg von, 1728-95, 
 Swiss physician and philosopher. 
 
 ZINZENDORF, Nikolaus Ludwig von, Count. 
 1700-60, Ger. theologian. 
 
 ZISKA, John, of Trocznow, 1360-1424, Bo- 
 hemian general and leader of the Hussites. 
 
 ZOEGA, Georg, 1755-1809, Danish archaeol- 
 ogist. 
 
 ZOROASTER, fl. 500 B. C., Persian philoso- 
 pher and founder of the Magian religion. 
 
 ZSCHOKKE, Johann Heinrich Daniel, 1771- 
 1848, Ger. author. 
 
 ZWINGLI, Ulrich, 1484-1531, Swiss re- 
 former ; killed in battle. 
 
 DERIVATIONS AND FICTITIOUS 
 
 NAMES OF STATES AND 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 ALABAMA (Ala.). The name is of Indian 
 origin, signifying " Here we rest." 
 
 ARIZONA (Ariz.). An Indian word, mean- 
 ing " sand hills." 
 
 ARKANSAS (Ark.). French and Indian 
 words, signifying " Bow of Smoky Waters." 
 The fictitious name of the state is " Bear 
 State," from the number of these animals 
 formerly found there. 
 
 CALIFORNIA (Cal.). From Spanish words, 
 meaning " hot furnace."^, The fictitious name ^ 
 is "The Golden State. "^ 
 
 COLORADO (Colo.) Spanish word, mean- 
 ing " colored." 
 
 CONNECTICUT (Conn.) An Indian name, 
 signifying ' ' The long river. " The nicknames 
 are, ' Freestone State," "Nutmeg State," 
 and " Land of Steady Habits." 
 
 DAKOTA (Dak.) Indian word, meaning 
 " allied." 
 
 DELAWARE (Del.). Named in honor of 
 Lord De La War. It is called " The Diamond 
 State," from its small size and its intrinsic 
 worth; also "Blue Hen State." 
 
 FLORIDA (Fla.). From the Spanish, mean- 
 ing " flowery " ; so called from the abundance of 
 flowers, and the day (Easter Sunday) upon 
 which it was discovered. From its shape it is 
 sometimes called " The Peninsular State." 
 
 GEORGIA (Ga.). Named in honor of King 
 George II. of England. The nickname is the 
 "Empire State of the South." 
 
 ILLINOIS (111.). An Indian word, signify- 
 ing " Tribe of men." The sobriquet is " Prai- 
 rie State " ; also, " Sucker State." 
 
 INDIANA (Ind.). So called from the In- 
 dians. The original meaning of the word In- 
 dia is " river." The nickname is " The Hoo- 
 sier State." 
 
 IOWA (la.). An Indian word, meaning 
 " The Sleepy Ones." The fictitious name is 
 " The Hawkeye State."
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 269 
 
 KANSAS (Kan.). Indian word, signifying 
 " Smoky Water." The sobriquet is " Gar- 
 den of the West." 
 
 KENTUCKY (Ky.). Indian name signifying 
 " The Dark and Bloody Ground. " The nick- 
 name is " The Corn-Cracker State." 
 
 LOUISIANA (La.) Named in honor of King 
 Louis XIV. of France. " The Creole State." 
 
 MAINE (Me.). So called from Maine in 
 France. " The Pine Tree State." 
 
 MARYLAND (Md.). Named in honor of 
 Queen Henrietta Maria of England. 
 
 MAssAcnusETTs(Mass.) An Indian name, 
 signifying " Blue Hills." The fanciful name 
 is "The Bay State." 
 
 MICHIGAN (Mich.). Indian word, mean- 
 ing "The Lake Country." It is nicknamed 
 "The Lake State"; also "The Wolverine 
 State." 
 
 MINNESOTA (Minn.). From Indian words 
 meaning " Cloudy Water." It is called " The 
 Gopher State." 
 
 MISSISSIPPI (Miss.). Indian word for 
 " Father of Waters." It is nicknamed " The 
 Bayou State." 
 
 MISSOURI (Mo.). Indian word, meaning 
 'Muddy Water." 
 
 MONTANA (Mont.) From the Spanish, 
 meaning " Mountain Land." 
 
 NEBRASKA (Neb.). An Indian word, mean- 
 ing " Shallow River." 
 
 NEVADA (Nev.) Spanish word, signify- 
 ing "Snow-clad." The fictitious name is 
 " The Sage Hen State." 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE (X. H.). Named from 
 Hampshire county, Eng. The sobriquet is ! 
 "The Granite State." 
 
 NEW JERSEY (N. J.). Named for the Isle 
 of Jersey. The sobriquet is " The Jersey 
 Blue." 
 
 NE\V MEXICO (N. M.). Spanish. Named 
 from the country of Mexico, meaning " The 
 Place of Aztec, God of War." 
 
 NEW YORK (N. Y.). Named in honor of 
 the Duke of York and Albany. It is called 
 1 ; The Excelsior State ' ' and ' ; The Empire 
 State." 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA (N. C.) Named, with 
 South Carolina, in honor of Charles II. of 
 England. " The Old North State," " The Tar 
 State," and " The Turpentine State." 
 
 Omo. An Indian word, signifying " Beau- 
 tiful." Called " The Buckeye State." 
 
 OKLAHOMA (Okl.). Signifies in Cherokee 
 " Home of the Red Man." 
 
 OREGON (Ore.). Signifies "River of the 
 West." 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA (Pa.). " Pen n's Woodland" 
 is the signification. The sobriquet is "The 
 Keystone State." 
 
 RHODE ISLAND (R. I.). Named from the 
 Isle of Rhodes, in the Mediterranean. Rhodes 
 signifies a "rose." It is nicknamed " Little 
 Rhody." 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA (S. C.). Named in the 
 same manner as North Carolina, which see. 
 The sobriquet is " The Palmetto State." 
 
 TENNESSEE (Tenn.) Derived from Indian 
 words signifying " River of the Big Bend." 
 It is nicknamed " The Big Bend State." 
 
 TEXAS (Tex.). Spanish ; said to signify 
 "Friends." It is nicknamed "The Lone 
 Star State." 
 
 UTAH. Named from the Utes, or Utah 
 Indians. 
 
 VERMONT (Vt.). From the French, signi- 
 fying "Green Mountain." It is called the 
 " Green Mountain State." 
 
 VIRGINIA (Va.). Named for Elizabeth, 
 Queen of England the "Virgin Queen." 
 It is nicknamed " The Mother of States," also 
 "The Old Dominion." 
 
 WASHINGTON (W.). Named for President 
 Washington. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA (W. Va.). It is nick- 
 named the " Panhandle State." 
 
 WISCONSIN (Wis.). Named from its prin- 
 cipal river, and that from the French, mean- 
 ing ' ' flowing westward. ' ' The fictitious name 
 is " The Badger State." 
 
 WYOMING (Wyo.) An Indian term, mean- 
 ing " large plains." 
 
 THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 War began Thursday, April 21, 1898,7.00 
 A. M. 
 
 Peace Protocol signed Friday, August 12, 
 1898, 4.23 P. M. 
 
 Treaty of Peace signed December 10, 1898. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD. 
 
 January 1-12. The North Atlantic Squad- 
 ron assembled in the neighborhood of Dry 
 Tortugas, Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 January 15-20. Hostile demonstrations at 
 Havana by Spanish volunteers against Ameri- 
 cans caused the Governor- General to place a 
 guard around the United States Consulate. 
 
 January 25. The battle-ship Maine arrived 
 at Havana on a friendly visit. 
 
 February 8. A letter by Minister De Lome, 
 in which he wrote disparagingly of President 
 McKinley, was published. On learning of the 
 exposure" the Minister requested his govern- 
 ment to accept his resignation. 
 
 February 9. The United States Senate dis- 
 cussed intervention in Cuba. 
 
 February 14. Resolutions requesting the 
 President to transmit information relative to
 
 L>70 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the situation in Cuba were adopted by Con- 
 gress. 
 
 February 14. Sefior Luis Polo y Bernabe 
 was appointed Spanish Minister to the United 
 States to succeed Senor De Lome. 
 
 February 15. The battle-ship Maine was 
 blown up in the harbor of Havana by a float- 
 ing mine ; 260 American lives were destroyed. 
 
 February 16. Spain officially expressed re- 
 gret for the Maine " incident." 
 
 February 17. A naval court of inquiry into 
 the cause of the destruction of the Maine was 
 appointed by the United States Government. 
 
 February 18-25. The Spanish cruiser Viz- 
 caya visited New York harbor. On the last 
 date she sailed for Havana. 
 
 February 20. The Court of Inquiry began 
 its session in Havana. 
 
 February 22. The cruiser Montgomery pro- 
 ceeded to Havana. 
 
 March 5. Spain asked for the recall of 
 Consul-General Lee, which was promptly re- 
 fused by the United States Government. 
 
 March 7. A bill appropriating $50,000,000 
 for the national defense was introduced in the 
 House of Representatives. It passed the 
 House March 8 and the Senate March 9, and 
 was signed by the President. 
 
 March 11. The War Department began 
 the mobilization of the army. 
 
 March 12. The battle-ship Oregon sailed 
 from San Francisco to join the Atlantic squad- 
 ron. 
 
 March 12. Armistice was offered by Spain 
 to the Cuban insurgents. 
 
 March 14. The Spanish fleet sailed from 
 Cadiz for the Canary Islands. 
 
 March 1 4 . Senator Proctor's report on Span- 
 ish atrocities in Cuba was published. 
 
 March 19. The. Maine Court of Inquiry 
 completed its labors. Its report was deliv- 
 ered to the President March 25, and trans- 
 mitted by him to Congress March 28. 
 
 March 25. Commodore Schley took com- 
 mand of the Flying Squadron in Hampton 
 Roads. 
 
 March 30. The President, requested per- 
 mission of Spain to relieve the reconcentrados, 
 which was granted. 
 
 April 2. The Spanish fleet arrived at the 
 Cape de Verde Islands. 
 
 April 4. The pope appealed to Spain in the 
 interests of peace. 
 
 April 5. United States consuls in Cuba 
 were recalled. 
 
 April 7. The diplomatic representatives of 
 the great powers of Europe waited on the Pres- 
 ident with a plea for peace. 
 
 April 9. Consul-General Lee with many 
 Americans departed from Havana. 
 
 April 1 1 . The President sent a message to 
 
 Congress outlining the situation, declaring that 
 
 intervention was necessary, advising against 
 
 I the recognition of the Cuban Government, 
 
 and requesting Congress to take action. 
 
 April 19. Congress adopted resolutions de- 
 claring Cuba independent and directing the 
 President to use the forces of the United States 
 to put an end to Spanish authority in Cuba. 
 
 April 20. The president signed the resolu- 
 tions of Congress. An ultimatum to Spain 
 was cabled to Minister Woodford. 
 
 April 20. The Spanish Cortes met and re- 
 ceived a warlike message from the Quoen- 
 Regent. 
 
 April 21. The Spanish Government s mt 
 Minister Woodford his passports, thus beg .li- 
 ning the war. 
 
 April 21. Congress passed an act for in- 
 creasing the military establishment. 
 
 April 21 . Great Britain notified Spain that 
 coal was contraband of war. 
 
 April 22. Proclamation to the neutral pow- 
 ers announcing war was issued by the President. 
 
 April 22. Admiral Sampson's fleet sailed 
 from Key West. The blockade of Cuban ports 
 began . 
 
 April 22. The gunboat Nashville captured 
 the Spanish ship Buena Ventura, the first prize 
 of the war. 
 
 April 23. The President issued a call for 
 125,000 volunteers. 
 
 April 24. Great Britain issued a procla- 
 mation of neutrality and was followed subse- 
 quently by the other powers, except Germany. 
 
 April 24. Spain formally declared that war 
 existed with the United States. 
 
 April 25. Congress passed an act declaring 
 that war had existed since April 21. 
 
 April 25. Commodore Dewey's fleet sailed 
 from Hong Kong for the Philippines. 
 
 April 26. Congress passed an act for the 
 increase of the regular army. 
 
 April 27. Batteries at Matanzas were bom- 
 barded. 
 
 April 30. Admiral Cervera's fleet left the 
 Cape de Verde Islands for the West Indies. 
 
 May 1 . Commodore Dewey destroyed the 
 Spanish fleet at Manila. American loss, six 
 men slightly wounded. 
 
 May 5-7. Riots in Spain. 
 
 May 11. Commodore Dewey was made a 
 rear-admiral. 
 
 May 11. Attack on Cienfuegos and Carde- 
 nas. Ensign Bagleyand four men on the tor- 
 pedo-boat Winslow were killed. 
 
 May 11. Admiral Cervera's fleet appeared 
 off Martinique. 
 
 May 12. Admiral Sampson bombarded San 
 Juau de Porto Rico.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 271 
 
 May 13. The Flying Squadron left Hamp- 
 ton Roads for Eastern Cuba, via Key West. 
 
 May 18. A new Spanish Ministry under 
 Senor Sagasta came into office. 
 
 May 19. Admiral Cervera's fleet arrived in 
 the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. 
 
 M ay 22. The cruiser Charleston sailed from 
 San Francisco for Manila. 
 
 May 24. The battle-ship Oregon reached 
 Jupiter Inlet, Florida. 
 
 May 25. The President issued a second call 
 for volunteers, the number being 75,000. 
 
 May 25. The first Manila expedition from 
 San Francisco started. 
 
 May 30. Admiral Sampson's fleet arrived 
 at Santiago from Porto Rico. 
 
 May 31. Forts at the entrance of Santiago 
 Harbor were bombarded. 
 
 June 3. Lieutenant Hobson sank the Mer- 
 rimac in the entrance to Santiago Harbor. 
 
 June 1. Captain Gridley, of the Olympia, 
 died at Kobe, Japan. 
 
 June 6. Spanish cruiser Reina Mercedes 
 was sunk by American navy at Santiago. 
 
 June 10. War Revenue bill was finally 
 passed by Congress. It was signed by the 
 President, June 13. 
 
 June 11. Marines landed at Guantanamo, 
 and skirmished with the Spaniards the follow- 
 ing day. 
 
 June 12-14. General Shafter's army of 
 invasion. 16,000 strong, embarked at Key 
 West for Santiago. 
 
 June 14-15. There was fighting between 
 marines and Spaniards at Guantanamo Bay 
 and a bombardment of the fort at Caimanera 
 by warships. 
 
 June 15. Admiral Camara's fleet sailed 
 from Cadiz for the Suez Canal. 
 
 June 20-22. General Shafter's army landed 
 at Daiquiri ; one killed, four wounded. 
 
 June 2 1 . The Ladrone Islands were captured. 
 
 June 22. The auxiliary cruiser, St. Paul, 
 repulsed a Spanish torpedo-boat attack off San 
 Juan, Porto Rico. 
 
 June 24. Juragua was captured. The Span- 
 iards were defeated at Las Guasimas. Capron 
 and Fish were killed. 
 
 June 20. Admiral Camara's fleet reached 
 Port Said. 
 
 June 28. General Merritt departed for 
 Manila. 
 
 July 1-2. The Spanish earthworks at El 
 Cauey and San Juan, Santiago, were carried 
 by assault, with heavy loss, in which the 
 Rough Riders and the Seventy-first Xew York 
 participated. 
 
 July 3. Admiral Cervera's fleet, attempting 
 to escape from Santiago, was destroyed by the 
 American war vessels. 
 
 July 3. The surrender of Santiago was de- 
 manded. 
 
 July 6. Hobson and his comrades were ex- 
 changed. 
 
 July 8. Admiral Dewey's vessels took 
 possession of Isla Grande in Subig Bay, near 
 Manila, and the German gunboat Irene, which 
 had been interfering, withdrew. 
 
 July 8. Admiral Camara started to return 
 through the Suez Canal to Spain. He reached 
 Cadiz, July 29. 
 
 July 10. Bombardment of Santiago was re- 
 sumed. 
 
 July 1 1 . General Miles arrived at American 
 headquarters in Cuba. 
 
 July 13. Admiral Cervera and captured 
 Spanish prisoners arrived at Portsmouth, N. H. 
 
 July 17. Santiago surrendered. 
 
 July 20. General Leonard Wood was ap- 
 pointed Military Governor of Santiago. 
 
 July 21. Last naval engagement on the 
 coast of Cuba. Four United States warships 
 entered the harbor of Nipe, and after a furious 
 bombardment took possession of that port. 
 
 July 25. United States Army under Gen- 
 eral Miles landed at Guanica, Porto Rico. 
 The town surrendered, and Ponce followed, 
 July 28. 
 
 July 26. The Spanish government, through 
 French Ambassador Cambon, asked for terms 
 of peace. 
 
 July 29. General Merritt landed at Cavit6, 
 Manila Harbor. 
 
 July 30. The President, through the French 
 Ambassador, stated the American terms. 
 
 July 31 . The Americans repulsed the Span- 
 iards, with loss on both sides, at Malate, near 
 Manila. 
 
 August 7. The Rough Riders left Santiago 
 for Montauk Point, L. I. 
 
 August 9. General Ernst defeated a Span- 
 ish force at Coamo. Porto Rico. 
 
 August 9. Spain formally accepted the 
 President's terms of peace. 
 
 August 12. The peace protocol was signed 
 and an armistice was proclaimed. The block- 
 ade of Cuba was raised. 
 
 August 13. Manila surrendered to the Amer- 
 ican forces after a short land fight and bonv- 
 bardment by the fleet. 
 
 August 20. Imposing naval demonstration 
 in the harbor of Xew York. The battleships 
 Iowa, Indiana, Massachusetts, Oregon, and 
 Texas, and cruisers Xew York and Brooklyn, 
 amid a great popular ovation, steamed up the 
 Hudson river to Grant's Tomb and saluted. 
 
 August 30. General Merritt sailed from 
 Manila for Paris to attend the Peace Confer- 
 ence. 
 
 September -9. United States Peace Com-
 
 272 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 missioners were appointed. They sailed for 
 France, September 17. 
 
 September 10. The United States Cuban 
 Evacuation Commissioners arrived at Havana. 
 
 September 13. Admiral Cervera and other 
 Spanish naval officers sailed for Spain. 
 
 September 18. Spanish Peace Commission- 
 ers were announced. 
 
 September 20. The evacuation of Porto 
 Rico by the Spaniards began. 
 
 September 24. A commission appointed by 
 the President to investigate the conduct of the 
 War Department, began its sessions at Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 October 1. The conferences of the Peace 
 Commissioners began in Paris. 
 
 October 12. The battleships Oregon and 
 Iowa sailed from New York for Manila. 
 
 October 18. Peace Jubilee celebration at 
 Chicago. 
 
 October 18. The American army and navy 
 took formal possession of the island of Porto 
 Rico at San Juan. 
 
 October 24. Time limit for the evacuation 
 of Cuba by the Spaniards was extended to 
 January 1, 1899. 
 
 October 27. After a long and earnest con- 
 tention the Spanish Peace Commissioners ac- 
 cepted the American ultimatum not to assume 
 the Spanish Cuban debt. 
 
 October 31. The United States Peace Com- 
 missioners presented the demand of the United 
 States for the Philippines'. 
 
 November 1. The captured cruiser Infanta 
 Maria Teresa was abandoned in a gale off San 
 Salvador. 
 
 November 7. The Cuban Assembly was 
 organized at Santa Cruz del Sur. Domingo 
 Mendez Capote was elected president. 
 
 December 10. The Treaty of Peace was 
 signed at Paris at 8.45 o'clock P. M. 
 
 Casualties in the Navy During the 
 War. Lost on the Maine preceding the war, 
 2 officers and 257 men. Manila, May 1, 7 
 wounded. Cienfuegos, May 11, 1 killed, 11 
 wounded. Cardenas, May 11, 5 killed, 3 
 wounded. San Juan, May 12, 1 killed, 7 
 wounded. Guantanamo, June 11-20, 6 killed, 
 16 wounded. Santiago, June 22, 1 killed, 9 
 wounded. Santiago, July 3,1 killed, 1 wounded. 
 On the Yankee, June 13, 1 wounded. On the 
 the Eagle, July 12, 1 wounded. On the Ban- 
 croft, July 2, 1 killed. On the Amphitrite, 
 August 7, 1 killed. Total for the war, 19 
 killed and 48 wounded, exclusive of the loss on 
 the Maine. In addition to the above, 1 man 
 diod of disease, and 6 were invalided. Only 
 18 were killed in battle. The average strength 
 of the navy and marine corps together was 26,- 
 102 for the 114 days of hostilities. The total 
 
 deaths from disease were 56, while 29 died 
 from injuries received in battle. 
 
 Casualties in the Army During the 
 War. Losses of Santiago Campaign Killed : 
 Officers, 23 ; men, 237. Wounded : Officers, 
 99; men, 1,332. 
 
 Losses of Porto Rico Campaign Killed : 
 Officers, 0; men, 3. Wounded: Officers, 4 ; 
 men, 36. 
 
 Losses of Manila Campaign Killed : Offi- 
 cers, 0; men, 17. Wounded: Officers 10; 
 men, 96. 
 
 Total losses from all causes up to October 
 1, 1898 Killed: Officers, 33; men, 257. 
 Wounded : Officers, 4 ; men, 61. Died of dis- 
 ease : Officers, 80 ; men, 2,485. Total of 107 
 officers and 2,803 men ; or a percentage of 
 159-1,000, being an aggregate of 2,910 out of 
 a total of 274,717 officers and men, the total 
 of the war. 
 
 Died in Camps in the United States 
 and Cuba, and at Sea. Camp Thomas, 
 245; Camp Cuba Libre, 246 ; Tampa, Fla., 
 56 ; Cuba (of disease only), 427 ; at sea, 87 ; 
 Camp Wikoff, 257 ; Manila, 63 ; Porto Rico, 
 137; Camp Wheeler, 35; Camp Hamilton, 
 29; Camp Alger, 107; Camp Meade, 64; 
 Camp Merritt, 139 ; Camp Poland, 23 ; Camp 
 Shipp, 12 ; other camps, 378. 
 
 Arms Captured at Santiago. Mauser 
 rifles, 16,902; Argent rifles, 872; Remington 
 rifles, 6,118; Mauser carbines, 833; Argent 
 carbines, 84 ; Remington carbines, 330 ; re- 
 volvers, 75. Rifled cannon Bronze, 30 ; cast 
 iron, 10; steel, 8; smooth bore and obsolete, 
 44; mortars, 5. Projectiles 3,551 solid shot, 
 437 shrapnel, 2,577 shells. Small-arm am- 
 munition Mauser, 1,471 ,200 rounds ; Argent, 
 1,500,000 rounds; others, 1,680,000 rounds. 
 
 Spanish Vessels Captured or De- 
 stroyed hy the Navy. By Admiral Samp- 
 son's Squadron, July 3 Cristobal Colon, 
 Vizcaya, Maria Teresa, Admiral Oquendo, all 
 armored cruisers ; torpedo-boat destroyers 
 Furor and Pluton. 
 
 Destroyed July 18 Gunboats Maria Pon- 
 ton, Delgado Perado, Jos6 Garcia, Cuba, and 
 Espanola, all burned at Manzar/illo ; transport 
 Gloria sunk. 
 
 By Admiral Dewey's Squadron, May 1 and 
 subsequently Cruisers Reina Cristina, Oas- 
 tilla, Ulloa, Isla de Cuba, General Lozo ; gun- 
 boats Duero, Correo, Velasco, Mindano, and 
 one transport on May 1. Subsequently cap- 
 tured Torpedo boat Harcelow; gunboats Cal- 
 lao, Leyte, Manila, and Mindanao. 
 
 Vessels captured in Cuban waters all gun- 
 boats of about 300 tons, Hernan Cortez, Pi- 
 zarro, Vasco Xiiilez, Diego Valasquez, Alerta, 
 Ardilla, Tradera, Flecha, Ligera, Satellite,
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 273 
 
 Margarit, Vigia, General Blanco, Intrepida, 
 and Cauto. The Alvarado was captured at 
 Santiago. The Saudoval was sunk in Guan- 
 tanamo Harbor, but was raised by Commander 
 MoCalla. 
 
 DECISIVE RATgHLES OF HIS- 
 TORY. fr\, x/> 
 
 ACTIUM, B. C. 31. The combined fleets of 
 Antony and Cleopatra defeated by Octavius, 
 and imperialism established in the person of 
 Octavius. 
 
 PIIILIPPI, B. C. 42. Brutus and Cassius 
 defeated by Octavius and Antony. The fate of 
 the Republic decided. 
 
 METAURUS, B. C. 207. The Carthaginians 
 under Hasdrubul were defeated by the Romans 
 under Caius and Marcus Livius. 
 
 ARBELA, B. C. 331. The Persians defeated 
 by the Macedonians and Greeks under Alexan- 
 der the Great. End of the Persian empire. 
 
 SYRACUSE, B. C. 414.- The Athenians de- 
 feated by the Syracusans and their allies, the 
 Spartans, under Gylippus. 
 
 MARATHON, B. C. 490. The Athenians 
 under Miltiades defeated the Persians under 
 Datis. Free government preserved. 
 
 WINFELD-LIPPE, A. D. 9. Teutonic inde- 
 pendence established by the defeat of the Ro- 
 man legions under Yarus at the hands of the 
 Germans under Arminius (Hermann.) 
 
 CHALONS, A. D. 451. The Huns under At- 
 tila, called the "Scourge of God," defeated 
 by the confederate armies of Romans and Yis- 
 igoths. 
 
 TOURS, A. D. 732. The Saracens defeated 
 by Charles Martel and Christendom rescued 
 from Islam. 
 
 HASTINGS, A. D. 1066. Harold, command- 
 ing the English army, defeated by William 
 the Conqueror, and a new regime established 
 in England by the Normans. 
 
 SIEGE OF ORL*ANS, A. D. 1429. The Eng- 
 lish defeated by the French under Joan of Arc. 
 
 DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA, A. D. 
 1588. England saved from Spanish invasion. 
 
 LUTZEN, A. D. 1632. Decided the relig- 
 ious liberties of Germany. Gustavus Adolphus 
 killed. 
 
 BLENHEIM, A. D. 1704. The French and 
 Bavarians under Marshal Tallard defeated by 
 the English and their allies under Marlborough. 
 
 PULTOWA, A. D. 1709. Charles XII. of 
 Sweden defeated by the Russians under Peter 
 the Great. 
 
 SARATOGA. A. D. 1777. Critical battle of 
 the American War of Independence. The 
 English defeated by the Americans under Gen- 
 eral Gates. 
 
 VALMY, A. D. 1792. An invading army of 
 
 Prussians, Austrians, and Hessians under the 
 Duke of Brunswick, defeated by the French 
 under Kellermann. The first success of the 
 Republic against foreigners. 
 
 TRAFALGAR. On the 21st of October, A. 
 D. 1805, the great naval battle of Trafalgar 
 was fought. The English defeated the French 
 and destroyed Napoleon's hopes to successfully 
 invade England. 
 
 WATERLOO, A. D. 1815. The French un- 
 der Napoleon defeated by the allied armies 
 of Russia, Austria, Prussia, and England un- 
 der Wellington. 
 
 SIEGE OF SEBASTOPOL, A. D. 1854-5. The 
 Russians succumbed to the beleaguering armies 
 of England, France, and Turkey, and the re- 
 sult was delay in the expansion of the Russian 
 Empire. 
 
 GETTYSBURG, July, A. D. 1863. The de- 
 ciding battle of the war for the Union. The 
 Confederates under General Lee defeated by 
 the Union forces under Meade. 
 
 SEDAN, A. D. 1870. The decisive battle of 
 the Franco-German war. 
 
 RECENT DESPERATE WARS. 
 
 Indian Mutiny. General disaffection 
 from a variety of real or supposed grievances 
 had been for a long time smoldering amongst 
 the Sepoys, who were the flower of the British 
 East India Company's forces, but when a re- 
 port spread that cartridges smeared with cow 
 and pork fat were to be used by the native 
 soldiers, open mutiny, attended with great 
 cruelty, broke out. The war, which may be 
 said to have commenced in March, 1857, raged 
 until June, 1858. It was marked by a suc- 
 cession of romantic, pathetic, and heroic inci- 
 dents the siege of Delhi, the massacre of 
 Cawnpore, the relief and capture of Lucknow 
 but was suppressed in the latter year, when 
 the East India Company ceased to exist, and 
 the government of India was assumed by the 
 British crown. A cruel vengeance was taken 
 on the mutineers, hundreds of whom were 
 strung together and blown to pieces at ths 
 mouths of cannon. 
 
 The Abyssinian War arose out of the 
 imprisonment of Consul Capt. C. Cameron, 
 Rev. H. Stern, a missionary, and others by 
 King Theodore, in consequence of a supposed 
 slight by the British government, 1864. Mr. 
 Rassam was sent on a mission to Abyssinia 
 for their release. On the refusal of the king 
 to surrender the prisoners, an English army, 
 some 12,000 strong, under Sir Robert (after- 
 wards Lord) Napier, defeated the Abyssinian 
 forces at Arogee, April 10, 1868, and three 
 days later stormed the fortress of r.Iagrlala. 
 In consequence of this King Theodore com-
 
 274 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 mitted suicide. The prisoners were released, 
 and the war terminated. 
 
 American Civil War. This began April 
 13, 1861, with the capture of Fort Sumter, 
 Charleston, by the Confederate forces. The 
 North prepared for the contest with energy, 
 and blockaded the Southern ports. Through- 
 out the war the Confederates chiefly acted up- 
 on the defensive, the Federals or Northern 
 forces, being the attacking party, and possess- 
 ing the advantage of superior forces, money, 
 and war material. The principal generals of 
 the South were Lee, " Stonewall " Jackson, 
 Hood, Albert Sidney Johnston, Longstreet, 
 Bragg, Beauregard, Stuart, Joseph E. Johns- 
 ton ; and of the North, Grant, Sherman, Sher- 
 idan, McClellan, Thomas, Rosecrans, Pope, 
 Butler, Halleck, Baker, Burnside, Fre'mont, 
 Meade, Banks, and McDowell. In the com- 
 paignof 1861 the advantage was chiefly on the 
 side of the Confederates, who were victorious 
 at Bull Run (Manassas, Va.) and Ball's Bluff, 
 Va. (October 21), but suffered a reverse at 
 Springfield, Mo. (Aug. 10), and lost Fort Hat- 
 teras, N. C., captured by Butler (August 29). 
 During 1862 the Confederates were successful 
 at Bull Run (August 20) and in Virginia 
 (June) at Fredericksburg, Va. (Dec. 10-15), 
 but sustained severe defeats at Mill Springs, 
 Ky. (January 19), Pea Ridge, Ark. (March 
 6-8), Winchester, Va. (March 23), Williams- 
 burgh, Va. Great battles were fought at Shi- 
 loh, Term. (April 7), Fair Oaks, Va. (May 
 31, June 1), on the Chickahominy (June 25- 
 July 1) and Antietam Creek, Md. (September 
 17), in none of which either party could claim 
 a victory ; but the battle of Antietam Creek 
 obliged Lee to abandon his invasion of the 
 North. During this year the naval operations 
 of the Federals were generally successful, Ad- 
 miral Farragut running past the forts of the 
 Mississippi and seizing New Orleans (May). 
 The memorable conflict between the " Merri- 
 mac " (Confederate) and the Federal " Moni- 
 tor " resulted (March 9) in the repulse of the 
 former, the " Merrimac" being burned by the 
 Confederates on the capture of their arsenal at 
 Norfolk, Va. (May 11). The war duringltffo 
 was decidedly in favor of the Federal>fl6rces, 
 f although the Confederates, under Sldnewall " 
 v - Jackson, defeated Hooker at Chancellorsville 
 (May 2-4), Jackson subsequently dying from 
 his wounds (May 10), and Lee invaded Mary- 
 land and Pennsylvania. At Gettysburg, Pa. 
 (July 1-3), Lee was defeated, and retreated 
 into Virginia, while at Chattanooga, Tenn. 
 (Nov. 24, 25), the Confederates, under Bragg, 
 sustained a severe repulse. Grant made a suc- 
 cessful campaign in Tennessee, gaining sev- 
 eral battles and capturing Vicksburg, Miss., 
 
 which, after a gallant defense, surrendered 
 (July 4). In August, the siege of Charleston 
 began, and Fort Sumter was destroyed (Au- 
 gust 21, 22), but the city was not taken until 
 1865 (February 18). With the appointment 
 of Grant as commander-in-chief, in the early 
 | part of 1864 (March 3), and his vigorous reor- 
 ganization of the army, the power of the North 
 was greatly strengthened. Taking the com- 
 mand of the army of the Potomac, Grant op- 
 posed the Confederates under Lee, while Sher- 
 man opei'ated against Joseph E. Johnston. In 
 the Virginian campaign, after two days' severe 
 fighting (May 3-6) at the Wilderness, the re- 
 sult was indecisive, and Grant's attempt to cut 
 off Lee's army from Richmond was unsuccess- 
 ful. At Atlanta, Ga., Sherman, in three bat- 
 tles (July 20, 22, 28), defeated the Confeder- 
 ates under Hood. In the Shenandoah valley 
 the Federals were victorious in several engage- 
 ments (August), and under Sheridan at Win- 
 chester (September 9), and Cedar Creek (Oc- 
 | tober 19). In November General Sherman 
 i marched through Georgia to Savannah, which 
 was entered December 21, while at Nashville, 
 j Tenn., the Confederates under Hood were de- 
 ; feated (December 14-16) by the Federals un- 
 der Thomas. Among the incidents of this 
 year were the sinking (June 19) by the Fed- 
 eral corvette " Kearsarge " of the Confederate 
 steamer " Alabama," commanded by Captain 
 Semmes, which, had caused great devastation 
 among the Federal shipping, and the destruc- 
 tion (August 5), by Admiral Farragut, of the 
 Confederate flotilla at Mobile. The war closed 
 in 1865 by the defeat of Lee at Five Forks, 
 Va. (March 31-April 2), by Sheridan, who 
 again defeated Lee at Sailor's Creek (April 6). 
 Lee subsequently surrendered (April 9) his 
 army to Grant, who had occupied Richmond, 
 the capital of the Confederate States (April 2) 
 on its evacuation by the Southern forces. The 
 other Confederate armies sqoji afterwards sur- 
 rendered. An amnesty, wiiTi certain limita- 
 tions, was proclaimed (May 29) by President 
 Andrew Johnson (1865-69), who, as vice- 
 president, succeeded Abraham Lincoln, assas- 
 sinated in Ford's Theater, Washington, by J. 
 Wilkes Booth (April 14), Lincoln having but 
 newly entered on his second term of office. 
 
 Russo-Turkish Wars. Of the many 
 wars between the Muscovite and Mohamme- 
 dan powers, we cite the two latest: (1) The 
 first arose from a demand on the part of Nich- 
 olas, the Czar of Russia, of a protectorate 
 over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The 
 Sultan refused the demand, and appealed to 
 his allies. Russia declared war against Tur- 
 key, November 1, 1853.. England and France 
 declared war against Russia, March 27, 2S.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 275 
 
 1854. Sardinia joined the allies, January 26, 
 
 1855. Among the great battles of this war 
 were Alma (September 20, 1854), Balaklava 
 (October 25. 1854), during which occurred the 
 memorable "Charge of the Six Hundred." 
 Inkernian (Xovember 5, 1854), Tchernaya 
 (August 16, 1855), in all of which the Russians 
 were defeated. The great event of the war 
 was the siege of Sebastopol (commenced Octo- 
 ber 17, 1854), which fell September 8, 1855. 
 The war which is usually termed the Crimean 
 war. was ended by the treaty of peace con- 
 cluded at Paris, .March 30, 1856. One of the 
 articles of this treaty was that the Christians 
 of Turkey, without any preference to Russia, 
 should have the protection of all the Powers 
 concerned in the treaty. (2) The second 
 war arose (1877-8) from substantially the same 
 cause as the war of 1853-6, viz., the desire of 
 Russia to protect the Greek Christians of Tur- 
 key. By a protocol of March 31, 1877, the 
 Great Powers agreed to see the promised re- j 
 forms of Turkey carried out. This protocol 
 was repudiated by Turkey, and war was de- 
 clared by Russia against Turkey, April 24. 
 Among the more prominent events of this war 
 were General Gourko's march through the Bal- 
 kans (July 13), his defeat by Suleiman Pasha 
 at Eski Sagra (July 30), and Suleiman Pasha's 
 desperate, but fruitless, attempt to gain the 
 Schipka Pass, held by General Gourko ; the 
 fall of Kars (Xovember 18), and of Plevna 
 (December 10), and Suleiman Pasha's defeat I 
 by Skobeloff and Radetsky at Senova (Janu- 
 ary 9, 1878), the battle which virtually ended 
 the war. Treaty of San Stefano (March 3), 
 modified by treaty of Berlin (July 13), by 
 which Bulgaria was created an automatic and 
 tributary principality, Servia and Roumania 
 were declared independent, and Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina were ordered to be occupied and 
 administered by Austria. 
 
 Zulu 'War (1879). Cetewayo, king of \ 
 Zululand, became embroiled with the British, 
 on the annexation by the latter of the Trans- 
 vaal and the British, under Lord Chelmsford, 
 crossed the Tugela. and entered Zululand 
 (January 12). They suffered a terrible re- 
 verse at Tsandhlwana (January 22), with a loss " 
 of eight hundred men, and, in spite of the 
 heroic defense of Rorke's Drift (January 22), 
 had to retreat. Eventually reinforcements ar- 
 rived, and the Zulus were defeated at Ging- 
 hilouo (April 2), and Ulundi (July 4). Cete- 
 wayo was captured (August 28), and a dis- 
 patch from Sir Garnet Wolseley (September 
 3) announced the end of the war. Cetewayo 
 died (February 8, 1884), the New Repub- 
 lic' \vas formed by a party of Transvaal Boers 
 (1886-87), and the annexation of the remain- 
 
 der of Zululand as a British possession was 
 proclaimed (June 21, 1887). Trouble subse- 
 quently arose, and several Zulu chiefs were 
 convicted of high treason and sentenced to 
 various terms of imprisonment (1888-9). To- 
 wards the end of 1891, the resolution of the 
 colonial authorities to impose Zibebu as chief 
 upon the northern tribes, was protested against 
 by Miss Colenso as likely to lead to further 
 troubles in Zululand. ^ 
 
 Franco-German War. The friction 
 between France and Prussia, arising from the 
 proposed cession of Luxembourg, becaine ac- 
 centuated by the demand of France that the 
 C'rovvii of Spain, offered (1870) to Prince Leo- 
 pold of Hohenzollern, should not be accepted 
 by that Prince. On the refusal of Prussia to 
 accede to this request, war was declared by 
 France (July 19, 1870). The Prussian forces, 
 ! about 640,000 strong, in which were associated 
 the states of the North and South German Con- 
 federation, were divided into four armies, the 
 first, that of the North, commanded by General 
 Yogel von Falkenstein ; the second, that of the 
 Center, commanded by General Steinmetz ; the 
 third, that of the Right, under Prince Fred- 
 erick Charles, and the fourth, that of the Left, 
 led by the Crown Prince, the King (William) 
 of Prussia being commander-in-chief, with 
 General Yon Moltke as head of the staff. The 
 whole army was in the highest state of prepa- 
 ration and efficiency. 
 
 The French army, about 300,000 strong, on 
 the other hand, badly organized and practically 
 unprepared for the contest, was formed into 
 six army corps, respectively commanded by 
 Generals Frossard, De Failly, Bazaine, Mac- 
 Mahon, Ladni6rault and Marshal Canrobert. 
 The Emperor, nominally commander-in-chief, 
 had as his second in command, General Le 
 Boeuf, to whom, later, Marshal Bazaine suc- 
 ceeded. The war resulted in an almost un- 
 broken series of successes for the Germans. 
 After victories at \Yoerth and Forbach (both 
 on August 6), the Germans invested the for- 
 tress of Strasburg (August 10 capitulated 
 September 28). and sat down before Metz, 
 which capitulated (October 27), after the bat- 
 tles of Longueville (August 14), Mars La Tour 
 (August 16), Gravelotte or Rzonville (August 
 18), and unsuccessful attempts at a sortie by 
 Marshal Bazaine (August 26 and October 6). 
 At Sedan the French under Marshal MacMa- 
 hon were hopelessly beaten (September 1), 
 and the Emperor surrendered to the Prussian 
 king (September 2), and was deported as pris- 
 oner to Wilhelmshohe (Cassel). At Paris 
 (September 4) the deposition of the Inrperial 
 dynasty was declared, and the establishment 
 of a Republic proclaimed by M. Gambetta and
 
 276 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 other members of the Left in the Legislative 
 Assembly. A government of defense was pro- 
 claimed, with General Trochu as President, 
 M. Gambetta as Minister of the Interior, M. 
 Jules Favre (Foreign), General Le Flo (War). 
 The Empress Eugenie fled from Paris (Septem- 
 ber 4), and settled at Chiselhurst. Negotia- 
 tions for peace between M. Favre and Count 
 Bismarck ended in failure (September 24), and 
 a proclamation from the Government at Tours 
 was issued calling upon the people ' ' to fight 
 to the bitter end." 
 
 The siege of Paris was commenced by the 
 Germans (September 15), and five days later 
 the troops at Versailles surrendered, and the 
 Crown Prince of Prussia occupied the place. 
 A levee en masse of all under twenty-five years 
 of age was ordered by the Government (Sep- 
 tember 23), and all Frenchmen between twenty 
 and twenty-five years were prohibited (Septem- 
 ber 26) leaving France, those between twenty- 
 one and forty years being organized as a na- 
 tional garde mobile. M. Gambetta, escaping 
 by means of a balloon from the beleaguered city 
 (October 7), was appointed by the government 
 at Tours, Minister of War. 
 
 An attempt on the part of the Red Repub- 
 licans at Paris, headed by Blanqui, L6dru-Rol- 
 lin, and others to establish a Commune in that 
 city, was successfully defeated (October 14). 
 The news of the capitulation of Metz caused 
 riots at Paris (October 31). As the result of 
 a plebiscite to confirm the powers of the Gov- 
 ernment of Defense, the votes recorded were 
 557,976 for, 62,638 against. The successes of 
 the German arms continued, the army of the 
 Loire was defeated by the Grand Duke of 
 Mecklenburg (November 17), the fortresses of 
 Verdun (November 8) and Thionville (Novem- 
 ber 27) capitulated. The army of the Loire un- 
 der General Chanzy was again attacked and de- 
 feated at Beaugency (December 8). After 
 various battles, the army of the Loire, fighting 
 and retreating, was defeated by Prince Fred- 
 erick Charles at Le Mans (January 11, 1871), 
 and near Vosges (January 15, 16). 
 
 The army under General de Paladines, in- 
 trenched at Orleans, suffered defeat by Prince 
 Frederick Charles (December 4), and Orleans 
 surrendered, Rouen being two days later oc- 
 cupied by General Manteuffel, who engaged 
 the army of the North under General Faid-, 
 herbe atPointe a Noyelles (December 23), and 
 at Bapaume (January 2, 3, 1871), the French 
 retreating in each case. General Bourbaki 
 was also defeated by the German general Von 
 Werder, near Belfort (January 15-17), and 
 General Von Goeben gained a victory over the 
 French under Faidherbe at St. Quentin (Janu- 
 ary 19) . After gallant but unsuccessful sorties 
 
 from Paris by Generals Trochu and Ducrot 
 (November 20 and January 21), the city, 
 which had been bombarded, capitulated (Jan- 
 uary 28) . Following the fall of Paris, General 
 Bourbaki's army was defeated (January 30- 
 February 1) by the Germans under Genera, 
 Manteuffel, and driven across the frontier into 
 Switzerland. The fortress of Belfort capitu- 
 lated (February 16) with military honors after 
 a long defense. An armistice took place pre- 
 paratory to negotiations for peace. On the res- 
 ignation of M. Gambetta a National Assembly 
 was elected (February 8) of which M. GreVy 
 was chosen president, M. Thiers becoming head 
 of the executive power. The French Govern- 
 ment was recognized by the chief European 
 powers (February 18), and (February 26) 
 preliminaries of peace were signed by MM. 
 Thiers and Favre and fifteen delegates of the 
 National Assembly on the part of France, and 
 Count Bismarck on the part of Germany. By 
 this France was to cede certain parts of Lor- 
 raine, including Metz and Thionville -and 
 Alsace, excluding Belfort. In addition, five 
 milliards of francs ($1,000,000,000) were to 
 be paid as war indemnity to Germany ; certain 
 departments to be occupied by German troops 
 until this was fully discharged. The treaty, 
 signed February 26, was accepted by the 
 National Assembly sitting at Bordeaux (March 
 1), by 546 votes to 107, at the same time 
 unanimously confirming the fall of the Em- 
 pire. The Germans, after occupying Paris for 
 forty-eight hours (March 1-3), withdrew from 
 Versailles (March 12). A Peace Conference 
 met at Brussels (March 28), and at Frankfort 
 a definite treaty of peace was signed (May 10), 
 and ratified by the French Assembly (May 21). 
 The last installment of the indemnity was paid 
 September 5, 1873, and the last of the German 
 troops quitted French soil (September 16). 
 The Red Republicans under the lead of Blan- 
 qui, Gustav Flourens, and Felix Pyat rose 
 in revolt (March 18, 1871) against the Gov- 
 ernment, held Paris and established the Com- 
 mune, which was not suppressed until the insur- 
 gents had committed many outrages and de- 
 stroyed much property, after holding possession 
 of Paris until May 28, when the troops under 
 Marshal MacMahon captured the city ; some 
 eight hundred troops were killed, the Com- 
 munist forces losing fifty thousand. One 
 fourth of Paris was destroyed, the loss to prop- 
 erty being estimated at $160,000,000. Great 
 numbers of the Communists were subsequently 
 tried, some executed, and the remainder trans- 
 ported. Since this period France has enjoyed 
 a respite from martial dissensions, though the 
 temper of the people is a continual menace to 
 stability of rule.
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 277 
 
 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 PRESIDENTS. 
 
 BORN. 
 
 PARENTS. 
 
 TERM OF OFFICE. 
 
 Date. Birthplace. 
 
 Father. 
 
 Mother. 
 
 From To 
 
 Washington. 
 Adams, John 
 Jefferson 
 Madison 
 Monroe 
 
 Feb. J, 1732 Bridges Creek, Va. . . . 
 Oct. J;5, 1735 Braintree, Mass. . . 
 
 Augustine 
 John. 
 
 Mary Ball 
 Susanna Boylston 
 Jane Randolph 
 
 Apr. 30, 1789 Mar. 4, 1797 
 Mar. 4, 171*7 Mar. 4,1801 
 Mar. 4, 1801 Mar. 4,1809 
 Mar. 4, 1809 Mar. 4, 1817 
 Mar. 4, 1817 Mar. 4, 1825 
 Mar. 4, 1825 Mar. 4, 1829 
 Mar. 4, 1829 Mar. 4, 1837 
 Mar. 4, 1837 Mar. 4, 1841 
 Mar. 4, 1841:Apr. 4,1841 
 Apr. 6, 1811 Mar. 4, 1845 
 Mar. 4, 1845 Mar. 4, 1849 
 Mar. 4, 1849 Julv 10, 1850 
 July 10, 1850 Mar. 4, 1853 
 Mar. 4, 1853 Mar. 4, 1857 
 Mar. 4, 1857 Mar. 4,1861 
 Mar. 4, 1861 Apr. 15, 1865 
 Apr. 15, 1865 Mar. 4, 1869 
 Mar. 4, 1869 Mar. 4, 1877 
 Mar. 4, 1877 Mar. 4,1881 
 Mar. 4, 1831 Sep. 19, 1881 
 Sep. 20, 1881 Mar. 4, 1885 
 Mar. 4, 1885 Mar. 4, 1889 
 Mar. 4, 1889 Mar. 4, 1893 
 Mar. 4, 1893 Mar. 4, 1897 
 Mar. 4, 1897 
 
 Apr. , 2 3) 1743 Sha dwell, Va 
 Mar. , 6 8 , 1751 Port Conwav, Va 
 
 Peter 
 James 
 
 Nellie Conway 
 
 Apr. 28, 1758 Westmoreland Co., Va. 
 July'll, 1767 Quincv, Mass 
 
 Spence 
 John 
 
 Elizabeth Jones 
 Abigail Smith 
 
 Adams, J. Q. 
 Jackson 
 Van Huren . . 
 Harrison, W. 
 Tvler 
 
 Mar. 15, 1767 Mecklenburg Co., N.C. 
 Dec. 5, 1782 Kinderhook, N. Y 
 Feb. 9, 1773 Berkeley, Va 
 
 Andrew 
 Abraham. 
 
 Elizabeth Hutchinson 
 
 Benjamin 
 John 
 Samuel 
 
 Elizabeth Bassett 
 Mary Armistead 
 Jane Knox 
 
 Mar. 29, 1790 Charles City Co., Va. 
 Nov. 2,1795 Mecklenburg Co., N.C. 
 Nov. 24, 1784 Orange Co., Va 
 Jan. 7, 1800 Summer Hill, N. Y.... 
 Nov. 23, 1804 Hillshorough, N. H. . . 
 Apr. 23, 1791 Stony Batter, Pa 
 Feb 12 1809 Nolin Creek, Kv. 
 
 Polk 
 
 Tavlor 
 
 Richard . . 
 
 Sarah Strother .... 
 
 Fillmore 
 Pierce 
 Buchanan . . . 
 Lincoln 
 
 Nathaniel 
 Benjamin 
 
 PhebeMillard 
 
 Anna Kendrick 
 
 James 
 Thomas 
 Jacob 
 Jesse Root 
 Rutherford.. . 
 Abram.. 
 
 Elizabeth Speer 
 Nancy Hanks 
 Mary MeDonnough . . . 
 Harriet Simpson 
 Sophia Birchard 
 Eliza Ballou 
 
 Johnson 
 Grant 
 
 Dec. 29, 1808 Raleigh, N. C 
 Apr. 27, 1822 Point Pleasant, Ohio.. 
 Oct. 4, 1822 Delaware, Ohio 
 Nov 19 1831 Bedford, Ohio 
 
 Hayes 
 Garfield . 
 
 Arthur 
 
 Oct. 5, 1830 Fairneld, Vt 
 Mar 18 1837 Caldwell N J 
 
 William 
 Rich'dFalley. 
 John Scott... 
 Richard F.... 
 William 
 
 Malvina Stone 
 
 Cleveland 
 Harrison, 15.. 
 Cleveland.. .. 
 McKinley... . 
 
 Aug. 20,' 1S.33 North Bend, Ohio 
 Mar. 1 8, 1837 Caldwell, N. J 
 Jan 29 1843 Niles, Ohio 
 
 Elizabeth F. Irwin 
 Anne Neale 
 
 Nancy C Allison. 
 
 
 
 
 Biographical Statistics. 
 
 Washington.. '57 Dec. 14, 1799 Mt. Vernon, Va. 
 Adams, John. 61 July 4, 1826 Quincy, Mass 
 
 Jefferson 57 July 
 
 Madison 57 Ju ' 
 
 Monroe. 
 
 4, 1826 Monticello, Va 
 
 rie28. 1836 Montpelier, Va 
 
 58 July 4, 1831 New York City, N. Y. 
 
 Adams, J. Q.. 57 
 
 Polk. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 When. 
 
 Where. 
 
 Cause. 
 
 Membraneous croup. 
 Natural decline 
 
 Feb. 23, 1848 Halls of Congress,Wash- 
 
 ington, D. C. 
 
 Jackson 61 June 8, 1845 Hermitage, near Nash- 
 ville, Tenn 
 
 Van Bureii. . . 54 July 24, 1862 Kinderhook, N. Y 
 
 Harrison 68 Apr. 4, 1841 White House, Washing- 
 
 i ton, D. C 
 
 Tyler 51 Jan. 17, 1862 Ballard House, Rich- 
 mond, Va 
 
 Chronic diarrhoea. 
 Natural decline. . . 
 Natural decline. . . 
 
 WHERE BURIED. 
 
 Paralysis . 
 Dropsy . . . 
 
 Asthma.. . 
 
 Pleurisy fever. 
 
 67 Mt. Vernon, Va. 
 
 '.10 Unitarian Church, Quincy, 
 Mass. 
 
 83 Monticello, AlbemarleCo.,Va. 
 J85 Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va. 
 
 73 Originally 2d Ave. Cemetery, 
 N. Y., transferred, Jf58, to 
 Hollywood Cemetery, Rich- 
 mond, Va. 
 
 80 Unitarian Church, Quincy, 
 Mass. 
 
 78 Hermitage, near NashvUle, 
 
 Tean. 
 
 79 Village Cemetery, Kinder- 
 I hook, N. Y. 
 
 68 North Bend, Ohio. 
 
 49 June 15, 1849 Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Taylor 64 July 9, 1850 White House, Washing- 
 ton, D. C 
 
 Bilious attacks, with bron- 
 chitis 
 
 Chronic diarrhoea 
 
 Cholera morbus and ty- 
 phoid fever 
 
 Fillmore 50 Mar. 9, 1874 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Pierce 48 Oct. 8, 1869 Concord, N. H. . . 
 
 Paralysis 
 
 Dropsy and inflammation 
 of the stomach 
 
 Buchanan 05 June 1, 1868 Lancaster, Pa 
 
 Lincoln 52 Apr. 15, 1865 Washington, D. C 
 
 Johnson 56 July 31 , 1875 Greeneville, Tenn 
 
 G rant 40 July 23, 1885 Mt. McGregor, N. Y 
 
 Hayes 54 Jan. 17, 1893 Fremont, Ohio , 
 
 Garfield... ,.. 49 Sep. 19, 1881 Ell>eron, Long Branch 
 N.J 
 
 Arthur 50 Nov. 18, 1886 New York, N. Y 
 
 Rheumatic gout 
 
 Assassinated by Booth.. . . 
 
 Paralysis 
 
 Cancer of the tongue 
 
 Neuralgia of the heart... 
 
 71 Hollywood, Richmond, Va. 
 53 Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 65 Near Louisville, Ky. (Spring- 
 
 field). 
 74 Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 64 Minot Cemetery, Concord, 
 
 ! N.H. 
 77 Woodward Hill Cemetery, 
 
 I Wheatland, Pa. 
 56 Oak Ridge Cemeterv, Spring- 
 
 i field, 111. 
 
 66 Greeneville, Tenn. 
 
 63 Riverside, New York City. 
 Fremont, Ohio. 
 
 Cleveland 47 
 
 Harrison 55 
 
 McKinley .... 53 
 
 Assassinated by Guiteau.. 49 Lake View Cemetery, Cleve- 
 land, Ohio. 
 
 Bright's disease, culmi- 
 nating in paralysis and 
 apoplexy 
 
 56 Rural Cemetery, Albany, N.Y. 
 
 * Upon accession to office. 
 
 At death.
 
 278 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Biographical Statistics (Continued). 
 
 
 Educational Advantages. 
 
 Profession. 
 
 vSSL. Ancestr r- 
 
 Father's 
 Business. 
 
 Religious 
 Connection.* 
 
 Washington . . . 
 
 Common school 
 Harvard College, 1755 
 
 Planter.... 
 Lawyer 
 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 
 Politician.. 
 
 Surveyor... 
 Teacher . . . 
 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 
 Lawver 
 
 English 
 English.. 
 
 Planter 
 Farmer. . . 
 
 Episcopalian. 
 
 Jefferson.... . 
 Madison 
 
 College William and Mary, 
 1762 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Planter . 
 
 T -1 1 
 
 Princeton College, 1771 
 
 English 
 
 Scotch 
 English 
 Scotch-Irish . 
 Dutch 
 
 Planter 
 
 Episcopalian. 
 
 Monroe 
 
 Entered College William 
 and Mary 
 
 Planter 
 Lawyer 
 Farmer 
 
 Episcopalian. 
 rnitarian. 
 Presbyterian 
 
 A'dams, J.Q... 
 Jackson 
 Van Buren 
 Harrison, W... 
 
 Tyler 
 
 Harvard College, 1787 
 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 
 Army 
 Lawyer 
 
 Lawyer 
 Army 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawver 
 Politician.. 
 
 Army 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer .... 
 Lawyer 
 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 
 Medicine. . 
 Lawyer 
 
 Lawyer 
 Soldier 
 Tailor 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Farmer 
 Tailor. . . . 
 
 Self-taught 
 Academy 
 
 Farmer. . 
 
 .Dutch Reformed. 
 Episcopalian. 
 
 Entered Hampden - Sydney 
 College 
 College William and Mary, 
 1806 
 
 English 
 English 
 
 Scotch-Irish. 
 English 
 
 Statesman. . 
 
 Jurist 
 Farmer. 
 
 Episcopalian. 
 Presbvterian 
 
 Polk 
 
 University of North Caro- 
 lina 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Common school 
 Public school. 
 Bowdoin College, 1S?4 
 Dickinson College, 1809 
 Self-taught 
 
 
 
 Fillmore 
 pierce 
 
 English 
 Knglish 
 Scotch-Irish. 
 English 
 English 
 
 Farmer 
 Farmer 
 Merchant.. . 
 Farmer 
 Sexton 
 
 Episcopalian. 
 Episcopalian. 
 Presbyterian. 
 Liberal. 
 . . Liberal 
 
 Buchanan 
 Lincoln 
 
 Johnson 
 
 Self-taught 
 
 Grant 
 
 West Point Militarv Acad- 
 emy, 1843 
 Kenyon College, O., 1842. . . . 
 Williams College, 1850 
 
 Tanner 
 Lawyer 
 Teacher . . . 
 Teacher . . . 
 Teacher . . . 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Tanner 
 
 .Methodist 
 
 Haves 
 
 Scotch. , 
 English 
 Scotch-Irish. 
 English 
 English 
 
 Men-hunt.. . 
 Farmer. . . . 
 Clergyman.. 
 Clergyman.. 
 
 Methodist. 
 Disciples. 
 Episcopalian. 
 Presbyterian. 
 
 Garfield 
 
 
 Union College, 1848 
 Common school 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Harrison, B... 
 McKinley 
 
 Miami University, O., 1851.. 
 Entered Allegheny College. . 
 
 Scotch-Irish. 
 
 IronMfr 
 
 .. Methodist. 
 
 
 
 * Washington, Garfleld, and Harrison were the only Presidents who were church members, but all, with one 
 exception, were men who revered Christianity. Adams married a minister's daughter, and was inclined to 
 Unitarianism. Jefferson was not a believer, at least while he was Chief Magistrate. Madison's early connections 
 were Presbyterian. Monroe is said to have favored the Episcopal Church. John (juim-y Adairis was like his 
 father. Jackson was a Presbyterian and died in the communion of that church. Van Bufen was brought up in 
 the Reformed Dutch Church, but afterward inclined to the Episcopal Church. Harrison leaned toward the 
 Methodist Church, and Tyler was an Episcopalian. Polk was baptized by a Methodist preacher after his term of 
 office expired. Taylor was inclined to the Episcopal communion. Fillmore attended the Unitarian Church, and 
 Franklin Pierce was a member, but not a communicant, of a Congregationalist Church at Concord. Buchanan 
 was a Presbyterian, as is also Benjamin Harrison. General Grant attended the Methodist Church, and President 
 Garfleld the Church of the Disciples. President McKinley attends the Methodist Church. 
 
 Biographical Statistics (Continued). 
 
 MARRIED. 
 
 CHIL- 
 DREN. 
 
 Win:. 
 
 
 Date. To Whom. 
 
 Where. 
 
 
 
 >, 
 
 I 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 6- 
 3 
 4 
 ii 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 sa 
 
 "u 
 
 5_ 
 
 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 Birthplace. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Washington.. 
 Adams, John. 
 Jefferson 
 Madison 
 Monroe. 
 
 Jan. 17, 1759 Mrs. Martha Custis. .. 
 Oct. 25, 1764 Abigail Smith 
 Jan. 1, 1772 Mrs. Martha Skelton 
 Oct. 1794 Mrs. Dorothy Todd 
 Feb. 23, 1786 Eliza Kortwright 
 
 Williamsburg. Ya . . . 
 Wevmouth, Mass 
 The Forest, Va 
 Harewood, Va. 
 
 New Kent Co.. Va.. . 
 Wevmouth, Ma.-s . . . 
 Charles C. Co., Va... 
 North Carolina 
 New York, N. Y 
 London, Eng 
 
 May, I7:w 
 Nov. y, 1744 
 Oct. ,".,, 1748 
 Mav lit), K72 
 1788 
 Feb. 11, 1775 
 17ii7 
 Mar. 8, 1783 
 July 2.-. '77:> 
 Nov. 12, 1790 
 182(1 
 Sept. 4. 1803 
 171)0 
 Mar. 13, 1798 
 Oct. 21, 1813 
 Mar. 12, 1OG 
 I'nmarried. 
 Dec. 12, 1818 
 Oct. 4, 1810 
 Jan. 26, 1826 
 Aug. 28, 1831 
 Apr. 19 1832 
 Aug. 30 1837 
 .lulv -21 1864 
 Oct. 1 1832 
 .tune 8 1847 
 
 New York, N . Y 
 
 Adams, J. Q. . 
 
 July 26, 17i>7 Louisa C. Johnson 
 
 Jackion 
 Van Buren . . . 
 Harrison 
 Tyler 
 
 Jan. 1791 Mrs. Rachel Kobards . . . 
 Feb. 1807 Hannah Hoes (Goes) .... 
 Nov. 22, 17i)5 Anna Svmmes 
 
 Natchez, Miss 
 Kinderhook, N. Y. . . 
 North Bend, Ohio... 
 Cedar Grove, Va. . . . 
 New York City, N. Y. 
 Murfreesboro, Tenn. 
 Near Louisville, Ky. 
 Moravia, N. Y 
 Albany, N. Y 
 
 Kinderhook. X. V. . . 
 Morristown, N. J. . . . 
 Cedar Grove, Va 
 East Hampton.X.V 
 Murfreesboro, Tenn. 
 Calvert Co., Md 
 Stillwater, N. Y 
 
 Mar. 29, 1813 Letitia "Christian 
 June 26, 18 W Julia Gardiner 
 
 Polk 
 Taylor ... 
 
 Jan. 1, 1824 Sarah Childress 
 1810 Margaret Smith 
 
 Fillmore 
 Pierce ... . 
 
 Feb. 5, 1826 Abigail Power 
 Feb. 18, 185* Mrs. Caroline Mclntosh 
 Nov. 19, 1834 Jane Means Appleton... 
 
 Amherst, N. H 
 
 Hampton, N. H 
 
 
 Lincoln. 
 
 Nov. 4, 1842 Marv Todd 
 May 17, 1827 Eliza McCardle 
 
 Lexington, Ky 
 Greenville, Tenn 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 j 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Lexington, Ky 
 Leesburg, Tenn 
 St Louis Mo 
 
 Johnson 
 Grant 
 
 Aug. 22, 1818 Julia Dent 
 Dec. 30, 1&52 Lucy Ware Webb 
 Nov. 11, 1858 Lucretia Rudolph 
 Oct. 29, 1859 Ellen Lewis Herndon . . . 
 June 2, 1886 Frances Folsom 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 Hiram, Ohio 
 New York, X. Y . 
 Washington, I>. C. . . 
 Oxford, Ohio. . . 
 
 Hayes 
 
 Garfleld 
 Arthur 
 
 Chillicothp.Ohio 
 Hiram. ( >hio 
 
 dilpt'per C. H., Va . . 
 Hull'alo, X. Y . 
 
 Cleveland 
 Harrison 
 McKinley... 
 
 Oct. 20, 1853 Caroline La vinia Scott.. 
 Jan. 25, 1871 Ida Sax ton. . . 
 
 Oxford, Ohio 
 
 Canton. Ohio... 
 
 Canton. Ohio. .
 
 HISTORY AXI) BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 279 
 
 VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 KAJCB. 
 
 Birthplace. 
 
 t.' 
 
 1 
 
 Paternal 
 Ancestry. 
 
 J, O 
 
 | 
 
 w 
 
 ? J> ! 
 
 *" 
 
 Place of Death. 
 
 I 
 
 A^oat.l 
 Death. I 
 
 \ John Adams Qninoy, Mass 
 
 1 Thomas Jellerson Shadwell, Va 
 
 :; Aaron Burr Newark, X. J 
 
 4 George Clinton 1'lster Co., X. Y 
 
 5 Elb ridge Gerry Marblehead. Mass 
 
 fi Daniel D. Tompkins.. Srarsdale, X. Y 
 
 7 John C. Calhoun Abbeville, S. C 
 
 - Martin Van Kuren. . . Kinderhook. X. Y 
 
 9 Richard M.Johnson. Louisville, Ky 
 
 10 John Tyler Green way , Va 
 
 _1 George M. Dallas Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Ii' Millard Fillmore Suinmerhill. X.Y 
 
 1 i William K. King Sampson C'o.,N. C 
 
 14 John C. Breckinridge Lexington, Ky 
 
 15 Hannibal Hamlin.... I'aris. Me 
 
 1>; Andrew Johnson Raleigh, N.C 
 
 17 Sehuyler Coif ax Now York city, X. Y"... 
 
 18 Henry AVilson Farmington, X. It 
 
 19 William A. Wheeler. . Malone. N. Y 
 
 20 Chester A . Arthur. . . . Fairneld. Vt 
 
 21 Thos. A. Hendricks.. Muskingum Co., Ohio. 
 
 22 Levi P. Morton Shoreham. Vt 
 
 23 AdlaiE. Stfvenson... Christian Co.,Ky 
 
 24 Garret A. Hobart . . . Long Branch, N. J 
 
 1733 English 
 
 1743 Welsh 
 
 1750 English 
 
 1739 English 
 
 1741 English 
 
 1774 English 
 
 1782 Scotch-Irish. 
 
 1782 Dutch 
 
 1780 English 
 
 1799 English 
 
 1792 English 
 
 1800 English 
 
 17sO English 
 
 1*21 Scotch 
 
 1809 English 
 
 1808 English 
 
 1*23 English 
 
 1*1-.' English 
 
 1819 English 
 
 1830 Scotch-Irish. 
 1819 Scotch-Irish. 
 
 1824 Scotch 
 
 1835 Scotch-Irish. 
 1844 English 
 
 Mass. 
 Va... 
 X. Y. 
 X. Y. 
 
 Mass. 
 X. Y. 
 S.C.. 
 
 1780 Fed.. Quiney, Mass 
 
 i7:-7 Kep.. Monticello, Va 
 
 1801 Rep.. Staten Island, N. Y. 
 1805 Rep.. Washington, D. C. . . 
 1813 Rep.. Washington, D.C... 
 
 X. Y. 
 Kv. . . 
 Va... 
 Pa... 
 X. Y. 
 Ala.. 
 Kv... 
 Me... 
 Tenn. 
 Ind.. 
 Mass. 
 X. Y'. 
 X. Y. 
 Ind. . 
 
 x. Y. 
 
 111.... 
 X.J.. 
 
 1817 Rep.. 
 1825 Rep.. 
 
 Staten island, X. Y". . 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 1826 
 18-6 
 1836 
 1812 
 1814 
 1825 
 1850 
 
 1833 Dein. Kinderhook, X. Y' 1862 
 
 1837 Dem. Frankfort, Ky 1850 
 
 1841 Dem. Richmond, Va 182 
 
 1845 Dem. Philadelphia, Pa 1864 
 
 1849 Whig Buffalo, X. Y 1874 
 
 1853 Dem. Dallas Co., Ala 1853 
 
 1857 Dem. Lexington, Ky -. . 1875 
 
 1861 Rep.. Bangor, Me.. ." 1891 
 
 1865 Rep.. Carter Co., Tenn 1875 
 
 186:) Rep.. Mankato, Minn 1885 
 
 187:! Rep.. Washington, D. C. . .. 1875 
 
 1877 Rep.. Malone, N. Y. 1887 
 
 i!8-l Rep.. Xew York city, N. Y .. 188(i 
 
 11885 Dem. Indianapolis, Ind Is85 
 
 11889 Rep.. 1 .... 
 
 11893 Dem. I .... 
 
 11897 Rep.. 1 L... 
 
 SPEAKERS OF THE U. S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 
 
 es7. * 
 
 Xame. State. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died Con " 
 
 ' e(l - gress. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Name. 
 
 State. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died. 
 
 1848 
 1850 
 1894 
 1868 
 1859 
 1894 
 1873 
 1862 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 4, 5 
 6 
 7-9 
 10. 11 
 1-J. i:; 
 13 
 14-16 
 16 
 17 
 
 IK 
 
 19 
 20-23 
 23 
 24, 25 
 
 20 
 27 
 
 1789-01 
 17-.U-93 
 1793-95 
 17 6-89 
 1790-1;- O: 
 18'll-07 
 1807-11 
 1811-14 
 1x14-15 
 1815-20 
 1820--21 
 1821-23 
 1823-25 
 1825-27 
 1827-34 
 1834-35 
 1835-39 
 1839-41 
 1841-43 
 
 F. A. Muhlenburg.. . Pa. . . . 
 Jonathan Trumbull. Ct 
 F. A. Muhlenburg.. . Pa. . . . 
 Jonathan Dayton ... X. J. . . 
 Then. Sedgwiek Mass.. 
 Nathaniel Macon.. . . X. ('.. 
 Joseph B. Varnum. . Mass.. 
 Henrv Clav Kv. .. 
 
 1750 
 1740 
 1750 
 1760 
 174(5 
 1757 
 1750 
 Iu7 
 1776 
 1777 
 1784 
 1783 
 1777 
 1784 
 1784 
 17b7 
 1786 
 18n9 
 1805 
 
 1801 
 180:) 
 1801 
 1824 
 1813 
 1837 
 1821 
 1852 
 1857 
 1852 
 1854 
 1841 
 18.-.2 
 1854 
 1857 
 1869 
 1849 
 1887 
 1845 
 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32, 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 38-40 
 41-13 
 i 44 
 44-46 
 47 
 48-50 
 61 
 52, 53 
 54, 55 
 5t> 
 
 1843-45 
 1845-47 
 1847-19 
 1849-51 
 1851-55 
 18-.5-57 
 1857-59 
 1859-61 
 1861-63 
 1863-69 
 1869-75 
 1875 76 
 187C-81 
 1881-83 
 1883-89 
 1889-91 
 1891-95 
 1895-99 
 J8j^- 
 
 John W. Jones 
 John W r . Davis 
 Robert C. Winthrop. 
 Howell Cobb 
 
 Va . . . 
 Ind... 
 Mass. . 
 Ga.... 
 
 1805 
 1799 
 1809 
 1815 
 1800 
 1816 
 1822 
 1796 
 1823 
 
 LinnBovd 
 
 Kv.... 
 
 Xathaniel P. Banks. 
 James L. Orr 
 
 Mass. . 
 S. C... 
 
 Wm. Pennington 
 Galusha \ Grow 
 
 N.J... 
 Pa 
 
 Langdon Cheves S. C. . . 
 Henrv Clav Kv.... 
 
 Schuyler Coif ax 
 James G. Blaine 
 Michael C. Kerr 
 Samuel J. Randall. . 
 John W. Keifer 
 John G. Carlisle 
 Thomas B. Reed 
 Charles F. Crisp 
 Thomas B. Reed 
 Davia B. Henderson 
 
 Ind... 
 Me.... 
 Ind... 
 Pa.... 
 Ohio.. 
 Kv.... 
 Me.... 
 Ga . . . . 
 Me. ... 
 la 
 
 1823 
 1830 
 1827 
 1828 
 1836 
 18:35 
 1839 
 1845 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 1885 
 1893 
 1876 
 1890 
 
 1896 
 
 John W. Taylor X. Y . . 
 Philip P. Harbour. . . Va 
 Henrv Clav Kv 
 John' W. Taylor X. Y . . 
 Andrew Stevenson. . Va 
 John Bell Tenn.. 
 
 lames K. Polk Tenn.. 
 K. M. T. Hunter Va 
 John White Kv 
 
 PRESIDENTIAL CABINET OFFICERS. 
 
 SECRETARIES OF STATE. 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 i 
 Cabinet Officers. 
 
 Resi- 
 dence. 
 
 ! Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ! ment. 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 Cabinet Officers. 
 
 Resi- 
 dence. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Washington 
 
 Adams 
 
 Jefferson . . . 
 Madison 
 
 Monroe 
 .!.( \dams 
 
 Thomas Jefferson 
 
 Va .... 
 
 1789 
 1794 
 1795 
 1797 
 1800 
 1801 
 1809 
 1811 
 1817 
 1825 
 1829 
 1831 
 1833 
 1834 
 18;57 
 
 Taylor 
 Fillmore 
 
 Pierce 
 
 John M. Clavton 
 Daniel Webster 
 Edward Everett. 
 
 Del 
 Mass. . . 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 1852 
 1853 
 1857 
 1860 
 1861 
 1865 
 1869 
 1869 
 1877 
 1881 
 1881 
 1885 
 1889 
 1892 
 1893 
 1895 
 1897 
 1897 
 1898 
 
 Edmund Randolph 
 Timothy Pickering 
 
 John Marshall 
 James Madison.. 
 
 M n. 
 Va..!! 
 
 William L. Marcy, 
 Lewis Cass 
 Jeremiah S. Black 
 William H. Seward 
 
 X. Y'... 
 Mich... 
 Pa 
 N. Y... 
 
 Buchanan . . . 
 Lincoln 
 
 Robert Smith 
 James Monroe 
 John Quiney Adams .... 
 Henrv Clav 
 
 Md... 
 Ya .... 
 Mass.. 
 Kv 
 
 Grant 
 
 Elihu B. Washburne. . . . 
 Hamilton Fish 
 William M. Evarts 
 James G. Blaine 
 F. T. Frelinghuysen 
 Thomas F. Bayard 
 James G. Blaine 
 John W Foster . ... 
 
 111... 
 N. Y... 
 
 Me..!! 
 N. J.. . 
 Del 
 Me 
 Ind 
 
 Haves 
 
 Jackson .... 
 
 Van Buren.. 
 Harrison ... 
 Tyler 
 
 Martin Van Buren 
 Edward Livingston 
 Louis McLane . 
 
 X. Y.. 
 La. ... 
 Del 
 
 Garrield 
 Arthur 
 Cleveland . . . 
 Harrison 
 
 Cleveland . . . 
 McKinley.V.! 
 
 John Forsyth 
 
 Ga ... 
 
 
 
 1841 
 
 
 
 1841 
 1843 
 1S43 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 Walter Q. Gresham 
 
 111 
 
 Hugh S. Legare' 
 \bel I' I "pshur 
 
 S. C... 
 Va 
 
 Richard Olney 
 John Sherman 
 William R. Day 
 John Hav 
 
 Mass... 
 Ohio... 
 Ohio .. 
 Ohio... 
 
 Folk.!!!!!!! 
 
 John C. Calhoun 
 James Buchanan 
 
 B.C... 
 
 Pa
 
 280 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Presidential Cabinet Officers Continued. 
 
 SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY. 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 Cabinet Officers. 
 
 Resi- 
 dence. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 Cabinet Officers. 
 
 Resi- 
 dence. 
 
 Date of 
 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Washington. 
 Adams 
 
 Alexander Hamilton. . 
 Oliver Wolcott 
 
 N.Y... 
 Ct 
 
 1789 
 1795 
 1797 
 1801 
 1801 
 1801 
 1809 
 1814 
 1814 
 1816 
 1817 
 1825 
 1829 
 1831 
 1833 
 1833 
 1834 
 1837 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 1849 
 
 Fillmore 
 Pierce 
 
 Thomas Corwin 
 
 Ohio .. 
 
 1850 
 1853 
 1857 
 1860 
 1861 
 1861 
 1864 
 1865 
 1865 
 1869 
 1873 
 1874 
 1876 
 1877 
 1881 
 1881 
 1884 
 1884 
 1885 
 1887 
 1889 
 1891 
 189? 
 1897 
 
 James Guthrie 
 Howell Cobb 
 
 Ky .... 
 Ga.... 
 
 Buchanan . . . 
 Lincoln 
 
 
 Mass . . 
 
 Philip F. Thomas . ... 
 
 Md .... 
 
 Jefferson 
 Madison 
 
 Monroe 
 
 
 
 John A Dix 
 
 N. Y.. 
 
 Albert Gallatin 
 
 Pa 
 
 Salmon P. Chase 
 
 Ohio .. 
 
 
 
 
 William P. Fessenden . 
 Hugh McCulloch 
 
 Me .... 
 Ind .... 
 
 George W. Campbell... 
 Alexander J. Dallas 
 William H. Crawford. . . 
 
 Richard Rush 
 
 Tenn .. 
 Pa 
 Ga 
 
 Pa ; ; ; ; ; 
 
 Johnson 
 Grant 
 
 George S. Boutwell 
 William A. Richardson. 
 Benjamin H. BristO'v. .. 
 LotM. Morrill 
 John Sherman 
 
 Mass .. 
 
 Ky ..;; 
 
 Me .... 
 
 Ohio .. 
 
 
 J. Q. Adams. 
 Jackson 
 
 Van Buren.. 
 Harrison 
 Tyler 
 
 Hayes 
 
 Samuel D. Ingham 
 Louis McLane 
 
 Dei ; ; ; 
 
 William J. Duane 
 Roger B. Taney 
 
 Pa 
 Md . . 
 
 Garfleld 
 
 William Windom 
 Charles J. Folger 
 Walter Q. Gresham 
 Hugh McCulloch 
 
 Minn . . 
 
 N.Y... 
 Ind.... 
 
 Arthur 
 
 Levi Woodbury . . 
 
 N.H ... 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 Thomas Ewing 
 
 Ohio .. 
 
 Cleveland 
 Harrison 
 
 Cleveland 
 McKinley 
 
 Daniel Manning . . . 
 
 N. Y.. 
 
 
 
 Charles S. Fairchild 
 William Windom 
 Charles Foster 
 John G. Carlisle 
 Lyman J. Gage 
 
 Minn. . 
 Ohio .. 
 Ky .... 
 Ill 
 
 
 Walter Forward 
 
 Pa... 
 
 ii 
 
 John C. Spencer 
 George M. Bibb 
 
 N.Y... 
 Kv ... 
 
 ii 
 
 Polk 
 
 Robert J. Walker iMiss. . . 
 William M. Meredith. . . Pa 
 
 Taylor 
 
 
 
 SECRETARIES OF WAR. 
 
 II 
 
 Timothy Pickering 
 
 ii 
 
 1795 
 
 11 
 
 Edward Bates 
 
 Mo .. 
 
 1850 
 
 Adams 
 
 James McHenry 
 
 Md.... 
 
 1796 
 1797 
 
 Fillmore 
 Pierce 
 
 Charles M. Conrad 
 Jefferson Davis 
 
 La 
 Miss... 
 
 1850 
 1853 
 
 
 John Marshall 
 
 Va 
 
 1800 
 
 
 John B Floyd 
 
 Va 
 
 1857 
 
 ii 
 
 Samuel Dexter 
 
 Mass . . 
 
 1800 
 
 
 Joseph Holt 
 
 Ky 
 
 1861 
 
 ii 
 
 Roger Griswold 
 
 Ct . 
 
 1801 
 
 
 
 Pa 
 
 1861 
 
 Jefferson 
 Madison 
 
 Henry Dearborn 
 William Eustis 
 John Armstrong 
 James Monroe 
 
 Mass . . 
 
 N.Y.;; 
 
 Va 
 
 1801 
 1809 
 1813 
 1814 
 
 Johnson 
 
 Edwin M. Stanton 
 
 U. S. Grant (ad. in) 
 Lor. Thomas (<l. in ) . 
 
 Ohio... 
 
 111 . . ; ; ; 
 
 1862 
 1865 
 J867 
 1868 
 
 Monroe 
 
 William H. Crawford. . . 
 Isaac Shelby 
 
 Ga 
 Ky 
 
 1815 
 1817 
 
 Grant . . . 
 
 JohnM. Schotield 
 John A Rawlins 
 
 N.Y... 
 Ill . . 
 
 1868 
 1869 
 
 
 Geo. Graham (ad. in.)... 
 
 Va 
 
 1817 
 
 
 William T. Sherman 
 
 Ohio . . 
 
 1869 
 
 ii 
 
 John C. Calhoun 
 
 S.C 
 
 1817 
 
 ii 
 
 William W Belknap 
 
 la 
 
 1869 
 
 J. Q. Adams 
 
 James Barbour 
 
 Va 
 
 1825 
 
 ii 
 
 Alphonso Taft 
 
 Ohio . . 
 
 1876 
 
 Jackson 
 
 Peter B. Porter 
 John H. Eaton 
 
 N.Y... 
 Tenn . . 
 
 1828 
 1829 
 
 Hayes . 
 
 James Don Cameron 
 George W. McCrary . 
 
 Pa 
 la . ... 
 
 1876 
 1877 
 
 
 Lewis Cass 
 
 Ohio .. 
 
 1831 
 
 
 Alexander Ramsey 
 
 Minn . . 
 
 1879 
 
 it 
 
 Benjamin F. Butler 
 
 N. Y... 
 
 1837 
 
 Garfield 
 
 Robert T Lincoln. . .. 
 
 Ill ... 
 
 1881 
 
 Van Buren . . 
 
 Joel R. Poinsett 
 
 S.C.... 
 
 1837 
 
 Arthur 
 
 
 
 1881 
 
 Harrison .... 
 
 John Bell 
 
 Tenn . . 
 
 1841 
 
 
 William C Endicott 
 
 Mass 
 
 1885 
 
 Tyler . . 
 
 
 
 1841 
 
 
 
 Vt 
 
 1889 
 
 
 John McLean 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1841 
 
 
 Stephen B Elkins 
 
 W. Va 
 
 1891 
 
 ii 
 
 John C. Spencer 
 
 N.Y... 
 
 1841 
 
 Cleveland . . 
 
 Daniel S. Lament 
 
 N. Y... 
 
 1893 
 
 ii 
 
 James M Porter 
 
 Pa 
 
 1843 
 
 
 Russell A Alger 
 
 Mich 
 
 1897 
 
 ii 
 
 William Wilkins 
 
 it 
 
 1844 
 
 
 Elihu Root 
 
 N. Y... 
 
 1899 
 
 Polk 
 
 William L. Marcy 
 
 N.Y... 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 
 
 SECRETARIES OF THE NAVY. 
 
 Adams 
 
 George Cabot 
 
 Mass . . 
 
 1708 
 
 Tyler . . . 
 
 Thomas W. Gilmer . 
 
 Va 
 
 1844 
 
 
 Benjamin Stoddert 
 
 Md .... 
 
 1798 
 
 
 John Y . Mason 
 
 
 1844 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 Polk 
 
 George Bancroft 
 
 Mass . 
 
 1845 
 
 
 Robert Smith 
 
 ii 
 
 1801 
 
 
 
 Va 
 
 1846 
 
 U 
 
 Jacob Crowninshield . . . 
 
 Mass . . 
 
 1805 
 
 Tavlor 
 
 William B. Preston 
 
 
 1849 
 
 Madison 
 
 Paul Hamilton 
 
 S. C . . . 
 
 1809 
 
 Fillmore . 
 
 William A. Graham . 
 
 N. C... 
 
 1850 
 
 
 William Jones 
 
 Pa 
 
 1813 
 
 
 
 Md 
 
 1852 
 
 ii 
 
 B. W. Crowninshield . . . 
 
 Mass . . 
 
 1814 
 
 Pierce . 
 
 James C. Dobbin 
 
 N. C . 
 
 1853 
 
 Monroe 
 
 
 
 1817 
 
 Buchanan . . 
 
 Isaac Toucev 
 
 Ct 
 
 1857 
 
 ii 
 
 Smith Thompson 
 
 N.Y... 
 
 1818 
 
 
 Gideon Welles .... 
 
 
 1861 
 
 ii 
 
 Samuel L. Southard 
 
 N. J . . . 
 
 1823 
 
 Johnson 
 
 
 ii 
 
 1865 
 
 J. Q. Adams 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 
 Adolph E. Borie . 
 
 Pa 
 
 1869 
 
 Jackson 
 
 John Branch 
 
 N. C . . . 
 
 1829 
 
 
 (icorge M. Robeson 
 
 N. J ... 
 
 1869 
 
 
 Levi Woodbury 
 
 N.H .. 
 
 1831 
 
 Haves 
 
 Richard W. Thompson. . 
 
 Ind .... 
 
 1877 
 
 
 
 Mahlon Dickerson 
 
 N. J . . . 
 
 1834 
 
 
 Nathan Goff, Jr 
 
 W. Va. 
 
 1881 
 
 Van Buren.. 
 
 
 
 1837 
 
 Garfleld 
 
 William H Hunt 
 
 La 
 
 1881 
 
 Harrison 
 Tyler 
 
 James K. Paulding 
 George E. Badger 
 
 N.Y... 
 
 N.C... 
 
 1838 
 1841 
 1841 
 
 Arthur 
 Cleveland . . . 
 
 William E. Chandler. . . . 
 William C.Whitney.... 
 
 N. H .. 
 N.Y. . 
 
 1882 
 1885 
 1889 
 
 
 Abel P. Upshur . 
 
 Va 
 
 1841 
 
 p.* ,' i 
 
 Hilary A Herbert 
 
 Ala 
 
 1893 
 
 " 
 
 David Henshaw 
 
 Mass .. 
 
 1843 
 
 McKinley... 
 
 John D. Long 
 
 Mass .. 
 
 1897
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 281 
 
 Presidential Cabinet Officers. Continued. 
 
 POSTMASTERS-GENERAL.* 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 Cabinet Officers. 
 
 Resi- 
 dence. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Presidents. 
 
 Cabinet Officers. 
 
 Resi- 
 dence. 
 
 Date of 
 Appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Washington 
 Adams 
 
 Samuel Osgood 
 Timothy Pickering 
 Joseph 'Habershani . ... 
 
 Gideon Granger 
 
 Mass . . 
 Ga...'.i 
 
 Ct ..... 
 
 1789 
 1791 
 1795 
 
 1797 
 1801 
 1801 
 1809 
 1814 
 1817 
 1823 
 1825 
 1829 
 1835 
 1837 
 1840 
 1811 
 1841 
 1841 
 1845 
 1849 
 1850 
 1852 
 1853 
 1857 
 
 Buchanan . . . 
 
 Joseph Holt 
 Horatio King. 
 
 Ky .... 
 Me .... 
 
 1859 
 1861 
 1861 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1869 
 1HV4 
 1874 
 1876 
 1877 
 1880 
 1881 
 1881 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 1888 
 1889 
 1893 
 1895 
 1897 
 1898 
 
 Lincoln 
 Johnson 
 Grant 
 
 Montgomery Blair 
 William Dennison 
 
 Alexander W. Randall . . 
 John A. J. Cresswell . . . 
 James W. Marshall 
 Marshall Jewell 
 
 Md.... 
 Ohio .. 
 
 Wis .'. 
 Md . . . . 
 Va .... 
 
 Ct ... 
 
 Jefferson 
 Madison 
 Monroe 
 
 J. Q. Adams 
 Jackson . . 
 
 
 
 Return J. Meigs, Jr 
 John McLean 
 
 Ohio .. 
 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 James N. Tyner 
 David McK. Key 
 Horace Maynard 
 Thomas L. James 
 Timothy O. Howe 
 Walter Q. Gresham 
 Frank Hatton 
 
 Ind.... 
 Tenn . . 
 
 N. Y.;; 
 
 Wis . . . 
 Ind.... 
 Iowa . . 
 
 Hayes 
 
 William T. Barrv . 
 
 Kv 
 
 
 Van Buren . . 
 
 Harrison 
 Tyler 
 
 Amos Kendall 
 
 
 Garfleld 
 Arthur 
 
 
 11 
 
 John M. Niles 
 
 Ct 
 
 Francis Granger 
 
 N. V... 
 
 ii 
 
 Cleveland . . . 
 
 Harrison 
 Cleveland . . . 
 
 McKinley . . . 
 
 William F. Vilas 
 
 Wis ... 
 
 
 Charles A. Wickliffe... 
 Cave Johnson 
 Jacob Collamer 
 
 Ky .... 
 Tenn . . 
 
 "Vt 
 
 Don M. Dickinson 
 John Wanamaker 
 
 Mich . . 
 Pa .... 
 
 Polk 
 
 Tavlor 
 
 Wilson S. Bissell 
 
 N. Y. .. 
 
 Fillmore 
 
 Pierce 
 Buchanan . . . 
 
 Nathan K. Hall 
 
 N. Y... 
 
 William L. Wilson 
 James A. Gary 
 Charles Emory Smith. . . 
 
 W. Va. 
 Md . . . . 
 Pa 
 
 Samuel D. Hubbard 
 James Campbell 
 Aaron V. Brown 
 
 Ct 
 Pa 
 Tenn . . 
 
 SECRETARIES OF THE INTERIOR. 
 
 Taylor 
 Fillmore 
 
 Thomas Ewing 
 James A. Pearce 
 
 Ohio .. 
 Md .... 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 1850 
 IS.iO 
 1853 
 1857 
 1861 
 1863 
 1805 
 1865 
 1866 
 1869 
 
 Grant 
 
 Columbus Delano 
 Zachariah Chandler . . . 
 Carl Schurz 
 
 Ohio . . 
 Mich . . 
 Mo 
 
 1870 
 1875 
 
 1877 
 1881 
 1882 
 1885 
 1888 
 1889 
 1893 
 1896 
 - 1897 
 1899 
 
 
 Thos M T McKernon 
 
 Pa 
 
 
 pierce 
 
 Alexander H. H. Stuart 
 Robert McClelland 
 Jacob Thompson 
 Caleb B. Smith 
 
 Va 
 Mich . . 
 Miss.. . 
 Ind 
 
 i Garfleld 
 
 Samuel J. Kirkwood . . . 
 Henry M. Teller 
 Lucius Q. C. Lamar 
 William F. Vilas 
 John W. Noble 
 Hoke Smith 
 
 Iowa . . 
 Colo . . . 
 Miss. . . 
 Wis ... 
 Mo .... 
 Ga 
 
 1 Arthur 
 
 Buchanan. .. 
 Lincoln 
 
 Johnson 
 Grant 
 
 Cleveland . . . 
 
 Harrison 
 Cleveland . . . 
 
 McKinley . . . 
 
 John P. Usher 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 James Harlan 
 
 Towa. . 
 
 David R. Francis . . . 
 
 Mo 
 
 Orville H. Browning Jill 
 Jacob D. Cox lOhio.. 
 
 Cornelius N. Bliss 
 Ethan A. Hitchcock 
 
 N. Y... 
 
 Mo .... 
 
 SECRETARIES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Cleveland . . . Norman J Colman Mo . 
 
 Harrison Jeremiah M. Rusk Wis 
 
 1889 
 1889 
 
 Cleveland . . . J. Sterling Morton. . . 
 McKinley . . . James Wilson 
 
 . . . Neb . . . 1893 
 . . . Iowa . . 1897 
 
 ATTORNEYS-GENERAL. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 Adams 
 Jefferson .... 
 
 Edmund Randolph 
 
 Va. . 
 
 ITsi) 
 1794 
 1795 
 1797 
 1801 
 1801 
 1805 
 1805 
 1807 
 1809 
 1811 
 1814 
 1817 
 1817 
 1825 
 1829 
 1831 
 1833 
 1837 
 1838 
 1840 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1843 
 1845 
 1841! 
 
 (Polk 
 Tavlor 
 
 Isaac Toucey 
 Reverdy Johnson 
 
 Ct 
 Md 
 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1853 
 1857 
 1860 
 1861 
 1863 
 1864 
 1865 
 1866 
 1868 
 1869 
 1870 
 1871 
 1875 
 1876 
 1877 
 1881 
 1881 
 1885 
 1889 
 1893 
 1895 
 1897 
 1897 
 
 William Bradford 
 Charles Lee.. . . 
 
 Pa 
 
 Va 
 
 Fillmore 
 Pierce 
 
 John J. Crittenden 
 Caleb Cushing 
 Jeremiah S. Black 
 Edwin M. Stan ton 
 Edward Bates 
 
 Ky 
 
 Mass.. . 
 Pa 
 Ohio... 
 Mo 
 
 
 
 Theophilus Parsons 
 Le vi Lincoln 
 
 Mass... 
 
 Buchanan . . . 
 Lincoln 
 
 Johnson 
 Grant 
 
 Madison 
 
 Monroe 
 
 J. Q. Adams. 
 Jackson 
 
 Van Buren . . 
 
 Harrison 
 Tyler 
 
 Robert Smith 
 
 Md .. 
 
 John Breckinvidge 
 Caesar A. Rodney 
 
 Kv 
 Del .... 
 
 Titian J. Coffey (ad. in.) 
 James Speed 
 
 Pa 
 Ky 
 
 William Pinkney 
 Richard Rush . .' 
 
 Md . . 
 Pa 
 
 Henry Stanberv 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 William M. Evarts 
 Ebenezer R. Hoar 
 Amos T. Acker man 
 George H. Williams 
 Edwards Pierrepont 
 Alphonso Taf t 
 Charles Devens 
 Wayne MacVeagh 
 Benjamin H. Brewster.. 
 
 N. Y... 
 Mass. . . 
 Ga 
 Ore .... 
 N. Y... 
 Ohio... 
 Mass.. . 
 Pa 
 
 William Wirt 
 
 Va 
 
 Hayes 
 
 
 
 John McP. Berrien 
 Roger B. Tanev 
 
 Ga... 
 Md 
 
 Benjamin F. Butler 
 Felix Grundv 
 
 N. Y... 
 
 Tenn 
 
 Garfleld 
 Arthur 
 
 Henrv D. Gilpin 
 
 Pa 
 
 Cleveland . . . 
 Harrison 
 Cleveland . . . 
 u 
 
 McKinley . . . 
 
 Augustus H. Garland.. . 
 Will iamH.H. Miller ... 
 Richard Olney 
 Judson Harmon 
 
 Ark. . . 
 Ind .... 
 
 Mass.. . 
 Ohio.. . 
 
 John J. Crittenden 
 
 Hugh S. Legare 
 John Nelson 
 
 Ky 
 
 S. C." 
 Md .... 
 
 Polk 
 
 Joseph McKenna 
 John W. Griggs 
 
 Cal .... 
 N. J . . . 
 
 John Y. Mason 
 Nathan Clifford 
 
 Va 
 Me 
 
 
 NOTE. Since the foundation of the Government, the individual States have been represented the following 
 number of times in Cabinet positions: Massachusetts, 30 ; New York, 29: Pennsylvania, 26; Virginia, 22; Ohio, 
 22; Maryland, 16; Kentucky, 15; Connecticut, 9: Indiana, 9; Georgia,8; Tennessee, 8; Illinois, 7;. Maine, 6; South 
 Carolina, 6; Missouri, 6; Delaware, 5^ Wisconsin, 5; Michigan, 5;" New Jersey, 5; Mississippi, 4; North Carolina, 
 
 Vermont, 2 ; Alabama, 1 ; Arkansas, 
 lot been represented in the Cabinet 
 
 , , , , , South Dakota, Texas, Washington, 
 
 Wyoming. * The Postmaster-General was not considered a Cabinet officer until 1829.
 
 282 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 JUSTICES OF THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT. 
 
 (Names of the Chief Justices in Italics.) 
 
 NAME. 
 
 SERVICE. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 SERVICE. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Died. 
 
 Term. 
 
 Yrs 
 
 6 
 2 
 21. 
 9 
 7 
 1 
 9 
 2 
 13 
 
 15 
 4 
 31 
 5 
 34 
 30 
 17 
 19 
 34 
 25 
 20 
 2 
 32 
 14 
 32 
 28 
 5 
 28 
 15 
 19 
 
 Term. 
 
 Yrs 
 
 27 
 G 
 23 
 6 
 8 
 23 
 20 
 28 
 15 
 34 
 9 
 10 
 22 
 10 
 14 
 
 '7 
 8 
 
 ii 
 
 5 
 
 
 1789-1795 
 1789-1791 
 1789-1810 
 1789-1798 
 1789-1796 
 1789-1790 
 1790-1799 
 1791-1793 
 1793-1806 
 1795-1795 
 1796-1811 
 1796-1800 
 1798-1829 
 1799-1804 
 1801-1835 
 1804-1834 
 1806-1823 
 1807-1826 
 1811-1845 
 1811-1836 
 1823-1843 
 1826-1828 
 1829-1861 
 1830-1844 
 1835 1867 
 1836-1864 
 1836-1841 
 1837-1865 
 1837-1852 
 1841-1860 
 
 1745 
 1739 
 1733 
 1742 
 1732 
 1745 
 1751 
 1732 
 1745 
 1739 
 1741 
 1745 
 1762 
 1755 
 1755 
 1771 
 1757 
 1765 
 17'9 
 1752 
 1767 
 1777 
 1785 
 1779 
 1790 
 1777 
 1783 
 1786 
 1780 
 1785 
 
 1829 
 1800 
 1810 
 1798 
 1800 
 1790 
 1799 
 1819 
 1806 
 1800 
 1811 
 1807 
 1829 
 1810 
 1835 
 1834 
 1823 
 1826 
 1845 
 1844 
 1843 
 1828 
 1861 
 1844 
 1867 
 1864 
 1841 
 1865 
 1852 
 18(10 
 
 Samuel Nelson, N. Y 
 
 1845-1872 
 1845-1851 
 1846-1870 
 1851-1857 
 1853-1861 
 1858-1881 
 1861-1881 
 1802-1890 
 18(12-1877 
 1863-1897 
 1WJ4-1873 
 1870-1880 
 1870-1892 
 1872-1882 
 1874-1888 
 1877-.... 
 188V1887 
 18S1 lt<89 
 
 1792 
 
 1789 
 1794 
 1809 
 1811 
 1803 
 1804 
 1816 
 1815 
 1816 
 1808 
 1S-08 
 1813 
 1811 
 1816 
 1833 
 1824 
 1824 
 1828 
 1820 
 1825 
 1833 
 1837 
 1836 
 1832 
 1832 
 1845 
 1837 
 1843 
 
 1873 
 1851 
 1870 
 1874 
 
 ISS'J 
 
 1881 
 1884 
 1890 
 1885 
 
 i873 
 
 1895 
 1892 
 1886 
 1888 
 
 1887 
 1889 
 
 1893 
 1893 
 
 i895 
 
 John Rutledge S C 
 
 Levi Woodburv, N. H 
 
 
 Robert C. GrieV, Pa 
 
 
 Benjamin R. Curtis, Mass 
 John A. Campbell, Ala 
 
 John Blair Va 
 
 
 Nathan Clifford, Me 
 
 
 Noah H. Swayne, Ohio 
 
 
 Samuel F. Miller, Iowa 
 
 
 David Davis, 111 
 
 
 Stephen J. Field, Cal 
 
 
 Salmon P. Chase, Ohio 
 
 
 William Strong, Pa 
 
 Bushrod Washington, Va 
 Alfred Moore N C 
 
 Joseph P. Bradlev, N. J 
 
 Ward Hunt, N. Y 
 
 John Marshall, Va 
 
 Morrison R. Watte, Ohio 
 John M. Harlan.Ky 
 
 William Johnson, S. C. 
 
 Brock. Livingstone, N. Y ... 
 Thomas Tod d, Ky. 
 
 William B. Woods, Ga 
 
 Stanley Matthews, Ohio 
 
 Joseph Story, Mass 
 
 Horace Gray, Mass 
 Samuel Blatchford, N. Y 
 Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Miss 
 Melville W. Fuller, 111 
 David J. Brewer, Kan 
 
 1881-.... 
 1*82-1893 
 1888-1893 
 
 1888-.... 
 1889- 
 
 Gabriel Duval, Md 
 
 Smith Thompson, N. Y. . 
 
 Robert Trimble, Ky 
 
 John McLean, Ohio 
 
 Henry Baldwin, Pa. 
 
 Henry B. Brown, Mich 
 George Shiras, Jr., Pa 
 
 1890-.... 
 18<>2- 
 
 
 James M. Wayne, Ga 
 
 Howell E. Jackson, Tenn 
 Edward D. White, La 
 Rufus W. Peckham, N. Y 
 Joseph McKenna, Cal 
 
 1893-1895 
 1893- 
 189ft-.... 
 
 1897 
 
 2 
 
 Philip P. Barbour, Va 
 
 
 
 Peter V. Daniel, Va 
 
 
 
 
 SOME FAMOUS NAVAL BATTLES. 
 
 From the naval battle of Salamis to the great sea fight 
 at Manila is a "far cry," B. C. 480 to A. I). 1898, more 
 than 2,000 years. Salamis was the first great recorded 
 battle of the world. Salamis drove the Persians from 
 Greek soil; Manila drives Spain from Asiatic waters. 
 The loss of life at Salamis has been variously estimated 
 at from 5,000 to 50,000 ; at Manila from 400 to 2,000. Tri- 
 remes were at Salamis, and shield and sword and brute 
 numbers ; at Manila the hell of monster guns and iron- 
 clads, the scream of shell, and the carnage of high ex- 
 plosives. Salamis was fought in the youth of nations; 
 Manila in the dawn of the greatness of the American 
 people, the night of Spain. One notable parallel to 
 Manila is found in the battle of the Nile, fought August 
 1,1798 Lord Nelson and the English fleet against Ad- 
 miral Brueys and the French fleet. Nine French line- 
 of-battle snips were taken, two burned, and two 
 escaped. The French L'Orient, with Brueys and 1,000 
 men on board, blew up, and only seventy or eighty 
 escaped. Nelson's cry for this engagement was: 
 " Victory or Westminster Abbey!" Other famous sea 
 contests of the world are : 
 
 Winchelsea English defeat 40 Spanish vessels and 
 capture 36, August 29, 1350. 
 
 Harfleur English capture or destroy 500 French ves- 
 sels, August 15, 1416. 
 
 Gibraltar Bay Dutch defeat the Spanish, April 25, 
 1607. 
 
 Dover Strait Dutch destroy the English fleet, Novem- 
 ber 29, 1652. 
 
 Portsmouth English defeat the Dutch and destroy 
 11 men-of-war and 36 merchantmen, February 18, 1653. 
 
 North Foreland 100 English and Dutch men-of-war 
 engaged ; 11 Dutch taken and 6 sunk, June 2, 1683. 
 
 Coast of Holland English sink 30 Dutch men-of-war, 
 July 31, 1653. 
 
 Santa Cruz Spanish fleet burned by the English, 
 April 20, 1627. 
 
 Harwich Dutch lose 18 ships to the English, June 3, 
 1605. 
 
 Thames Dutch lose to English 24 men-of-war, 4 ad- 
 mirals killed, and 4,000 seamen, July 25, l(;i>i;. 
 
 Messina Spanish fleet, 29 vessels, destroyed by Eng- 
 lish, July 11, 1718. 
 
 Gibraltar English defeated combined fleets of Spain 
 and France, September 13, 1782. 
 
 Trafalgar Nelson sunk 10 French and Spanish vessels 
 after fighting with 27 ships, 33 of the combined fleet ; 
 Nelson killed, October 21, 1805. 
 
 Navarino The fleets of England, France, and Russia 
 destroy 30 Turkish men-of-war, October 20, 182V. 
 
 Most notable of American naval battles preceding 
 Manila are the following : 
 
 Coast of Scotland Paul Jones captures the Serapis 
 and Scarborough, 70 guns, September 23, 1779. 
 
 Off St. Kitts The Constellation, 2<i guns, captures the 
 French L'lnsurgent, 40 guns, February 9, 1799. 
 
 Coast of United States Constitution, 44 guns, sinks 
 the Guerriere, 38 guns, in 30 minutes, August 19, 1812. 
 
 Madeira United States, 44 guns, captures the Mace- 
 donian, 40 guns, October 25, 1812. 
 
 Brazil Constitution captures the Java, Dec. 29, 1812. 
 
 Demerara River Hornet captures the Peacock, Feb- 
 ruary 24. 1813. 
 
 Lake Erie Perry, with 54 guns, defeats English fleet 
 with C3 guns, September 10, 1813. 
 
 Lake Champlain McDonough, with 86 guns, defeats 
 English fleet with 96 guns, September 11, 1814. 
 
 Manila Bay Rear Admiral Dewey, with six ships : 
 the Olympia (flagship), Boston, Baltimore, Petrel, Ra- 
 leigh, and Concord, destroyed Spain's Asiatic Squad- 
 ron, 13 vessels, under Admiral Montejo: Isla de Cuba, 
 Isla de Luzon, Castilla, Don Antonio de Ulloa, Don Juan 
 de Austria, Reina Cristina, Callao, El Cano, El Correo, 
 General Lezo, Hercules, Marques del Duero, Rapido; 
 also the navy yard and nine batteries. American loss, 
 eight wounded and about $5, 000 damage to ships. Span- 
 ish loss, about 1,200 killed or wounded and some $6,000,- 
 000 in vessels destroyed or captured. May 1, 1898. 
 
 Santiago de Cuba Cervera's squadron of six vessels: 
 the Vizcaya, Almirante Oquendo, Maria Teresa, Cristo- 
 bal Colori, Furor, and Pluton, made a bold dash to 
 escape from the harbor, and was destroyed by Samp- 
 son's fleet: The Oregon, Iowa, Indiana, 'Texas, Brook- 
 lyn, Gloucester, and Vixen. American loss: 1 killed, 2 
 wounded. Spanish loss: 3TO killed, 165 wounded, 1,650 
 taken prisoners. July 3. 1898. 
 
 At Santiago de Cuba the armies and navies were both 
 engaged. Army losses: United States, 800 killed, 1,0 
 wounded ; Spain, 2,000 killed, 1.500 wounded, 1.650 taken 
 prisoners. Total army and navy losses : United States, 
 801 killed, 1,002 wounded. Spain, 2,3CO killed, 1,665 
 wounded, 3,300 taken prisoners. 
 
 In all her naval conflicts with England, France, Spain, 
 and the Tripoli pirates, the United States has never sus- 
 tained what would be considered a crushing defeat. 
 She has lost individual vessels, but only after the most 
 desperate resistance, giving proof of the saying that 
 " Americans do not fight to save their skins.'^
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 283 
 
 DICTIONARY OF HISTORY. 
 
 Abbeys and Monasteries robbed of their plate and 
 jewels by William the Conqueror, 1069; entirely dis- 
 solved by Henry the VIII., 1540. This ruler suppressed 
 in England and Wales 643 monasteries, 90 colleges, 2374 
 churches and chapels, and 110 hospitals; and had the 
 abbots of Reading 1 , Glastonbury, and St. John's, Col- 
 chester, hanged and quartered 'for refusing to surren- 
 der their abbeys, and denying his supremacy. 
 
 Aberdeen, University 'of , founded 1477; King's Col- 
 lege founded 1500; Marechal College founded 1593; the 
 town of Aberdeen and its vicinity was visited by a 
 destructive inundation Augusts, 1829. 
 
 Aboukir, in Egypt, surrendered to the English forces 
 March 18, 1801. 
 
 Abydos is a town of Asia Minor, situated on the 
 Hellespont. Tradition places here the story of Hero 
 andLeander; history tells that this was where Xerxes 
 led his vast army over the Hellespont on a bridge of 
 boats ; and Bvron here swam the Hellespont, and ren- 
 dered it ever famous by his " Bride of Abydos." 
 
 Acre, taken by Richard I. and other Crusaders July 
 12, 1191, after a siege of two years and the loss of 300,000 
 men; attacked by the French under Bonaparte, who, 
 failing in the twelfth assault, retired with great loss of 
 men, May 21, 1799. 
 
 Actium, in Epirus, naval battle of, which rendered 
 Augustus master of the Roman Empire, September 2, 
 31 B. C. 
 
 Adrianople, taken by the Ottomans, 1360; taken 
 from the Turks by the Russians, 1829. 
 
 Agincourt, Battle of, between the French and Eng- 
 lish, gained by Henry V., October 25, 1415 ; 10,000 of the 
 French killed and 14,000 taken prisoners, the English 
 losing only 40. In the French army were four times as 
 many men as in the English. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, taken by the French, 1793; and 
 again, September L'l, 1794; Congress at, September 29, 
 1818. 
 
 Albans, St., the first battle between the Houses of 
 York and Lancaster, in which the former was victori- 
 ous, Ma v 22, 1455; another battle was fought, February 
 2, 1461, between the Yorkists, under the Earl of War- 
 wick, and the Lancastrians, under Queen Margaret; 
 the latter were the victors. 
 
 Alderton Moor, Yorkshire, Battle of, where the Roy- 
 alists routed the Parliamentarians, June 29, 1643. 
 
 Alessandria, Italy, taken by the French, 1798; sur- 
 rendered to the Austrians and Russians, Julv 24, 1799. 
 
 Alexandria, Egypt, built by Alexander in 17 clays, 
 the walls whereof' were six miles in circuit, B.C. 333; 
 taken by Cspsar, B. C. 46; by Dioclesian, 296 A. D.-, by 
 the Persians, 615 A. I). ; by the Saracens, 640 A. D; by 
 the French, 1798. Battle of, between the French and 
 English, in which the former were defeated, but the 
 English general, Abercromby, was killed, 1801, 
 
 Alhambra, The, is a pa'lace and fortress of the 
 Moors, founded about 1253, by Mohammed I. Cele- 
 brated as the palace of the kings of Granada. Its two 
 courts, that of the Myrtles and that of the Lions, arc 
 beautiful examples of Arabian art in Spain. The Al- 
 hambra was surrendered to the Christians by the Moors 
 about 1491. 
 
 Albinos, called also Leucoethiopes, or white negroes, 
 and by the Dutch and Germans Kakerlaken, were at 
 one time considered a distinct race, but closer observa- 
 tion has shown that the same phenomenon occurs in 
 individuals of all races, and that the peculiar -white 
 appen ranee rises from an irregularity of the skin. The 
 iris of the eye is red in the Albino. Albinoism occurs 
 also in other mammalia, birds, and insects. 
 
 Alabama, first settlement was made by the French, 
 at Mobile, in 1711. The commerce of the state is consid- 
 erable, and its manufacturing interests are increasing 
 rapidly; chielly cotton and cotton goods, yarn, thread, 
 iron, leather, and lumber. Its mining interests are being 
 rapidly developed; but the principal industry is agri- 
 culture, cotton and corn being the leading productions. 
 Various cereals, sugar cane, rice, and tobacco are also 
 produced. 
 
 Alaska was purchased by the United States from 
 Russia in 1867, for $7,200,000' in gold, and was formally 
 taken possession of October 9th of the same year by 
 General Rousseau on behalf of the United States, at 
 New Archangel, on the Island of Sitka. With the 
 islands, it comprise* 580. 107 square miles, or nearly one 
 sixth of the entire area of the United States previous to 
 this purchase. The land abounds in fur-bearing ani- 
 mals ; the seas yield fur-bearing seals and others, and 
 
 fish in immense quantities. Among other important 
 resources of the Territory are lumber and minerals of 
 all kinds. The southwestern part is covered for thou- 
 sands of miles with dense forests of yellow cedar, white 
 spruce, and balsam fir. Among the valuable minerals, 
 coal has been found at different places along the coast : 
 petroleum, lead, iron, and graphite at various points; 
 copper, marble, and sulphur in great abundance ; also 
 gold and silver and valuable stones, such as amethysts, 
 garnets, agates, and carnelians. The climate of the 
 Territory is very severe in the inland districts, but mild 
 along the coast. At Fort Yukon the thermometer sinks 
 as low as seventy degrees below zero in the winter; the 
 summers are short and hot, the winters long and cold. 
 In Southern Alaska the winter climate is the average 
 winter climate of Kentucky, and the summer climate 
 about that of Minnesota. The capital of Alaska is 
 Sitka, and the Territory is governed by a Governor and 
 other necessary officers appointed by the authorities at 
 Washington. The trade of seal hunting is entirely in 
 the hands of the Alaska Commercial Company, who in 
 1870 secured, by Act of Congress, a monopoly of this 
 business for twenty years. They are not allowed, how- 
 ever, to kill the animals except during certain months 
 in the year, nor more than a specified number annually. 
 
 Alexandrian Library, consisting of 4nO,000 manu- 
 scripts, destroyed by fire B. C. 47. The second library, 
 consisting of 700,000 volumes, was destroyed by the Sar- 
 acens, under Caliph Omar, at whose command they for 
 six months burned books instead of wood, for the pur- 
 pose of heating water for their baths, C40 A. D. 
 
 Algiers, formerly the country called Numidia, as 
 united under Massinissa and Jugurtha. It became a Ro- 
 manprovince44B.C. ; afterwards it was independent, till 
 the inhabitants invited Barbarossa the pirate to assist 
 them against the Spaniards, who, however, seized it, 
 1516. Sometime afterward it became the property of 
 the Turks ; reduced by Admiral Blake, 1655 : liombarded 
 by the French, 1761 ; bombarded by the British fleet, 
 and the Christian captives set free, August 27, 1816. 
 The French army, under the command of General Bour- 
 mont, landed in the J?ay.of Sidi Feraeh, June 14, 1830; 
 the city was taken July 5th ; and the whole of the terri- 
 tory of Algiers was subsequently reduced, and became 
 a province of France. 
 
 Altars, instituted by Pope Sixtus I., 117 A. D.; first 
 Christian altar erected'in Britain, 634; first consecrated 
 by Pope Sylvester, 1334. 
 
 Amazons, The, made an irruption into Attica about 
 1209 B.C.; a queen of , visited Alexander the Great and 
 cohabited with him, in the hopes of having issue, but 
 died soon after her return home, 330 B. C. 
 
 America, first discovered by Columbus, 1492 ; South 
 America, completely, by AmericusVespucius, a Floren- 
 tine, and North America by John Cabot, a Venetian, 
 1497 ; thirteen colonies declared themselves independent 
 of the British crown, July 4, 1776, and recognized as 
 such by England, 1783. South American independence 
 was established and recognized by the United States 
 and England, who sent consuls to "the new state, 1824. 
 American Congress, first met at Philadelphia Septem- 
 bers, 1775; removed to Washington, 1801. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci was a naval astronomer, from 
 whom America accidentally received its name. He was 
 born at Florence, March 9, 1451, and was at the head of 
 a large Florentine firm in Seville in 1496. He fitted out 
 Columbus' third fleet, and in 1499 himself sailed for the 
 New World with Ojeda, and explored the coast of Ven- 
 ezuela. The accident which fastened his name on two 
 continents may be traced to an inaccurate account of 
 his travels published at St. Die in Lorraine in 1507. in 
 which he is represented to have reached the mainland 
 in 1497 which would have been before either Cabot or 
 Columbus and in which the suggestion is made that 
 he should give his name to the world he had discovered. 
 
 Anglesey, the Mona of the Romans, reduced by 
 Julius Agricola, 76 A . 1). ; by the English, 1295. 
 
 Anjou, Battle of, where the Duke of Clarence and 
 1,500 English were slain, 1421. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, first landed in Britain 449. 
 
 Anointing, first used at the coronation of Alfred, 
 872. 
 
 Antioch, in Syria, built by Seleucus after the battle 
 of Ipsus, B. C. 300 ; 100,000 of its inhabitants killed by the 
 Jews in one day, B. C. 145. 
 
 Antonio, Battle of, in Mexico, between the Royalists 
 and Independents, August 18, 1813; the latter were 
 defeated. 
 
 Appian Way, aqueducts- etc., constructed at Rome, 
 B. cTsil.
 
 284 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Arkansas (Bear State) First settlement, by the 
 French, at Arkansas Post, 1C85. Admitted to the Union 
 in 1836. Ranks lif th in cotton, ninth in mules, twenty- 
 second in miles of railway, twenty-fifth in population 
 and in square miles, thirty-first in wealth. The mineral 
 resources of the State are very large, and receiving 
 much attention. Stock raising is extensive. Agricul- 
 ture is the chief industry; corn, cotton, and wheat 
 being the leading productions. Oats, tobacco, sweet 
 potatoes, and fine fruits are also produced to a con- 
 siderable extent. 
 
 Arbela, Battle of, when Alexander conquered Persia, 
 B.C. 331. 
 
 Arcadians, Colony of, conducted by Evander into 
 Italy, B. C. 1243. 
 
 Areopagus, The famous senate of, established at 
 Athens in the reign of Cecrops, B. C. 1509. 
 
 Argentria, in Alsace, Battle of, where the German 
 tribe, the Alemanni, were defeated by the Romans, 
 with a loss of 35,000 out of 40,000 men, May, 378 A. I). 
 
 Arizona was first explored by the Spaniards in 
 1526, and missions were established in this region before 
 1600. It ranks fifth in silver, eighth in sheep, ninth in 
 gold. Mining and cattle raising are the chief in- 
 dustries. 
 
 Armada, The Spanish, consisting of 130 ships, with 
 50,000 men, arrived in the English channel July, 1583, 
 but was dispersed by a storm. 
 
 Arms, Coats of, became hereditary in families in the 
 latter end of the twelfth century. They took the:r rise 
 from the knights painting their banners with different 
 figures, to distinguish them in the Crusades. The arms 
 of England and France were first quartered by Edward 
 the III., 1358; the French arms discontinued by the 
 English kings, January 1, 1801. 
 
 Army, first standing one in modern times, established 
 by Charles VII. of France, 1445 ; introduced into England 
 by Charles I., 1638; declared illegal, together with the 
 Royal Guards, 1679. 
 
 Ascalon, Judea, Battle of, where Richard I. defeated 
 Saladin's army of three hundred thousand men, 1191. 
 
 Assyria, Kingdom of, began under Ninus, called As- 
 sur, B. C. 2084 ; lasted about one thousand two hundred 
 and sixty-fours years, ending with Sardanapalus. 
 
 Athens, founded by Cecrops, B. C. 1571 ; kingdom 
 ended in Codrus, 1070 ; governed by annual archons, C84 ; 
 city taken by Xerxes, 480; by the Romans, 87; by the 
 Venetians, A. D. 1204 ; by the Turks, 1687 ; by the Greeks, 
 1826. 
 
 Austerlitz, Battle of, December 2, 1805. 
 
 Austria, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans, 
 taken from Hungary and annexed to German}', when it 
 received its present name, 1040; erected into a duchv, 
 1156; made an empire, August 11, 1804; Francis II., 
 emperor of, made a formal resignation of the high office 
 of Emperor of Germany, August 7, 1806. Austria and 
 Russia united against France, August, 1805. The Aus- 
 trian army, under Mack, surrendered at Ulm to Napo- 
 leon, Octo'ber 20, 1805. 
 
 Avignon, taken from the Pope by the French, 1769; 
 restored, 1773; declared to belong to France by the Na- 
 tional Assembly, 1791 ; and confirmed by the congress of 
 allied sovereigns, 1815. 
 
 Aztecs The, were the early inhabitants of Mexico, who 
 became highly civilized, and adopted a monarchical 
 form of government in 1352. Theirmostcelebratedking 
 was Montezuma-Illumicamina, whoerected several mag- 
 nificent buildings, the remains of which are still to be 
 seen. They believed in a Supreme Being, whom they 
 never represented bv sculpture or painting, as they be- 
 lieved him to be invisible. The Aztecs were conquered 
 by the Spaniards under Cortez, 1521. 
 
 Babylon, founded by Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, 
 B. C. 2640; city walled, 1243; taken by Cyrus, 588: by 
 Darius, 511. According to Herodotus, the ancient city 
 of Babylon stood on a broad plain, and was an exact 
 square, 120 stadia (equal to fourteen miles) each way, so 
 that the entire circuit of the city was 480 stadia. 1 1 was 
 surrounded by a broad and deep moat, full of water, be- 
 hind which rosea wall 50 royal cubits(equal to :>::i., |,.,-t t 
 in width, and 200 in height. On the top, along the edges 
 of the wall, were constructed buildings of a single 
 chamber, facing one another, leaving between them 
 room for a four-horse chariot to turn. In the circuit of 
 the walls were a hundred gates, all of brass, with brazen 
 lintels, and side-posts. Subsequent writers reduce the 
 circuit of the city to 360 stadia, and the height of the 
 wall to from 60 to"70feet. The other walls ran along the 
 banks of the Euphrates, and the quays with which it 
 
 was lined, each contained twenty-five gates, which an- 
 swered to the number of the streets they led into. The 
 most remarkable edifice in the city was the Temple of 
 Bel, a pyramid of 8 square stadia, the basement stage 
 being over 200 yards each way. On the summit were a 
 golden image of Bel, 40 feet high, two other statues of 
 gold, a golden table 40 feet long and 15 broad, anil many 
 other colossal objects of the same precious metal. At ttie 
 base was a second shrine, with a table and images, and 
 altars. A similar temple stood at Borsippa, the suburb 
 of Babylon ; and it is believed that the ancient Jiabel of 
 the Bible was also at Borsippa, a little below the later 
 Babylon. The city came prominently into notice about 
 747B. C., but its great importance dates from the fall of 
 Nineveh, when Nabopolassar made it the capital of the 
 Chaldean empire, and began the series of fortifications 
 and public works, completed by his son, Nebuchadnez- 
 zar. It was several times dismantled, and, when Alex- 
 ander the Greattook possession of it, was a comparative 
 ruin. Muchof the material from which it was built was 
 used by his successors to build Seleucia. That city, in 
 its turn, fell into decay, and from its material several 
 other cities were built, among them Bagdad. Since 
 1847 it has been established beyond reasonable doubt 
 that the village Hilleh is located on the site of ancient 
 Babylon. 
 
 Baltimore, Battle of, in which 9,000 British, under 
 General Ross were repulsed by the Americans, and Gen- 
 eral Ross killed, September 12", 1814. 
 
 Bannockburii, Battle of, between 33,000 Scotch and 
 200,000 English, when the latter were routed with a loss 
 of 50,000 slain, and 30,000 prisoners, June 25, 1314. 
 
 Barbers, the profession first brought to Rome from 
 Sicily, B. C. 209; barbers and surgeons in London made 
 one company, 1540; separated, 1744. They formerly ex- 
 hibited ahead or poll at their doors, ami the barber's 
 pole now used by them is a burlesque imitation <>i it . 
 
 Barcelona, said to be built by Hamilcar, the Car- 
 thaginian general, who subdued Spain ; reduced by Louis 
 XIV. of France, 1714. 
 
 Baron, Title of, first used in England. 13*8. The bar- 
 ons attended Parliament in complete armor, in the reign 
 of Henry III. 
 
 Baronets, English, first created, 1611 ; Scotch, 1625;- 
 thirteen new ones created, December it, 18i'7. 
 
 Bastille, at Paris, taken, and the governor killed, July 
 14, 1789. 
 
 Bastille.this famous French stronghold was originally 
 built by Charles V., asa chateau, in !:>!. The high wail 
 around it wassubsequently erected by riiilippe-Augu.-te. 
 Louis XI. first used it asa state prison, and it was even- 
 tually demolished by the people during the Revolution, 
 July 14, 1789. The "Man in the Iron Mask" was im- . 
 prisoned there, and died in 170'!. 
 
 l!:ittle of Tal<i- Kri<>, between the l!riti>h squadron. -' 
 commanded by Captain Barclay, and the I'nited States, 
 commanded by Captain Perry ,'in which the whole Brit- / 
 ish force was captured, September 10, 1813. 
 
 Belgium, incorporated with the French republic<iy\ 
 September 30,1794; incorporated with Holland by the' II 
 Congressof Vienna, islo: declared itself independent, 
 October 4, 1830, and has since chosen a king as its ruler. 
 
 Belgrade, Battle of, between the Germans ami Turks, 
 when the latter were beaten an dlost 40,000 men, 1456; the 
 city taken by the Turks, 1690; battle of, between the 
 1 1 lingarians under Prince Eugene, and the Turks, when 
 the latter were defeated, July 16, 1717. 
 
 Bermuda Islands, discovered 1609; settled 1612; set- 
 tlements destroyed by a hurricane, October 11, 17sn. 
 
 Bedouins, The, are that class of Arabs who lead a 
 nomadic life. Living in the desert of Arabia, they have 
 evolved characteristics as robbers and herdsmen in- 
 timately connected with their mode of life. Keen of 
 physical sense, with active imagination, yet destitute 
 of "solid knowledge, the Bedouin unites independence 
 and love of liberty, with a violent passion, an infamous 
 love of plunder, and an entire disregard of the rights of 
 property. They are professedly Mohammedan. Big- 
 amy is rare; polygamy scarcely known. 
 
 Bible Societies, first commenced under the auspices 
 of (Jranville Sharp, March 7,1804; the pope issued a 
 bull against them, March 20, 1807. 
 
 Bithynia, a kingdom of Asia, conquered by Croesus, 
 king of Lydia, B. C. 560; by Alexander, 332. From its 
 ruins rose the Ottoman Turks, who made Prusa their 
 capital before they possessed Constantinople, 1327. 
 
 Blenheim, Battle of, between the English and 
 French, when the latter were defeated, with a loss of 
 27,000 killed and 13,000 prisoners ; while the total loss of
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 285 
 
 the English amounted to no more than 13,000 in killed, 
 wounded, and ]>risoners, August 3, 1704. 
 
 Boadic-ea, queen of Iceni, at the head of the Britons, 
 attacked the Romans, burned London, and massacred 
 70,000 of its inhabitants: but being shortly afterward 
 Captured by Suetoniijs. poisoned herself, C5'A. D. 
 
 Boulogne, France, besieged and taken l\v Henry 
 VIII., 1544: sold to France for 400.000 crowns/1550; Sir 
 Sidney Smith failed in an attack on the flotilla there, 
 November, I--IH;. 
 
 Boyne, battle of, between King William and King 
 Jame's, when the latter was defeated, July 1. 1690. 
 
 Brazil, discovered by the Portuguese, 1500, who set- 
 tled there 1540; diamond mines discovered 3730; the 
 royal family arrives at, 1807; revolution took place, 
 1821; its independence declared and the prince regent 
 declared emperor, 18:22; the king of Portugal ratified 
 the treaty and took the title of emperor of, 18-5: war 
 with Buenoa Ayres, 1826 : death of the dowager princess 
 of, at Lisbon, August 8, 1829 ; revolution and expulsion of 
 the emperor, Dom Pedro, and the appointment of a re- 
 gency in the name of his son, 1830; became a republic, 
 1889. 
 
 Brochs are prehistoric structures in Scotland re- 
 sembling low, circular, roofless towers) with walls of 
 great thickness of unhewn stones, and inclosed by a 
 narrow passage, chiefly in Orkney. Shetland, etc. The 
 brochs of Mousa is a typical arid the best preserved 
 example. 
 
 Buenos Ayres, founded 1535 by Pedro de Mendoza; 
 rebuilt 1580; taken from the Spaniards by Sir Home 
 Popham, June 21, 1806; retaken after an attack of three 
 days, August 12: British attack on, under Lieutenant 
 Ge'neral Whitelock, in which the British were repulsed, 
 July i>. 1807; declaration of independence published, 
 July 19, 1316. 
 
 Bulgarians, defeated by Basilius, Emperor of the 
 East, who made 15,000 of them prisoners and caused 
 their eyes to be put out, except one in a hundred, whom 
 he left "one eye, that they might serve as leaders to the 
 rest, 1014. 
 
 liy/.aiitium, built by a colony of Athenians, B. C. 670. 
 The'seat of empire removed thither from Rome, A. D. 
 300, and its name changed to Constantinople. 
 
 California, first settled by the Spaniards, 1769, at 
 San Diego. Ranks first in barlev, grape culture, gold, 
 and quicksilver: second in wool; third in hops; fifth 
 in wheat and salt ; seventh in silk goods ; eighth in soap 
 and silver: and ninth in wealth. Alining, manufactur- 
 ing, stock raising, and agriculture form the principal 
 industries of the state. Commerce is extensive with 
 China, Japan, the East Indies, and Australia, and with 
 other states and territories. No state in the Union has 
 developed so rapidly. 
 
 Caledonia is the name given by the Romans to that 
 part of Scotland lying bet ween the" Forth and the Clyde; 
 so called from the" tribe of Caledonii. The name disap- 
 pears in the fourth century, and the people of Scotland 
 began to be called Pictsito the east) and Scots (to the 
 west). In more modern times Caledonia is a poetical 
 name for Scotland. 
 
 Canada, discovered, 1499: settled by the French, 1534; 
 Quebec built by Samuel Champlain, 1608; conquered by 
 the English, 1759 ; ceded to them, 1763. 
 
 Canary Islands, discovered by a Norman, 1405; con- 
 quered by the Spaniards, 1491. 
 
 Caiulia, the ancient Crete, once subject to Greece, 
 sold to the Venetians till taken by the Turks after 22 
 years' siege, K69. 
 
 Canna, Battle of, where 40,000 Romans were killed by 
 the Carthaginians, B. C. 216. 
 
 Carthajre, founded by the Tyrians, B. C. 1259; built 
 by Queen Dido, about 869 ; destroyed, B. C. 704. 
 
 Catalonia, Kingdom of, conquered by the Goths. 414 ; 
 by the Saracens, 714: taken by the Moors, 800; united to 
 Spain, 1492. 
 
 Central America. T'nder the name of Central 
 America are included the republics of Guatemala, 
 Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and 
 the territory known as British Honduras. In 1502 Co- 
 lumbus discovered the eastern shore of Central America, 
 and shortly afterward the Spaniards took possession of 
 it, retaining it until 1820, when it rebelled, and many of 
 the states which then composed it were annexed by 
 Mexico. Three years afterwards was formed the Cen- 
 tral American Confederation, but in 1839 Nicaragua 
 withdrew, as did also Costa Rica in 1840, and Guatemala 
 in 1847. In 1872 Guatemala, Costa Rica, San Salvador, 
 and Honduras became united, forming the Central 
 
 American Union, the object of the union being the 
 maintenance of peace in the several states and of the 
 republican form of government. 
 
 The representatives of the Greater Republic of Cen- 
 tral America, which was formed by the treaty of Ama- 
 pala. concluded June 20, 1895, on August 27, 1898, adopted 
 a federal constitution, in which the name was changed 
 to " the United States of Central America." It was 
 composed of the states of Honduras, Nicaragua, and 
 Salvador. The Republics of Costa Rica and Guatemala 
 did not enter into this union. 
 
 November 30, 1898, the Federal Organizers formally 
 declared the union dissolved, the three States resuming 
 respectively absolute sovereignty. The collapse was 
 due to the failure of the troops of Honduras, acting in 
 behalf of the Federal Organizers, to suppress an out- 
 break in Salvador against the proposed federation, and 
 to force Salvador into the union. 
 
 The Central American coalition lasted nominally just 
 one month. The new regime was ushered in by elab- 
 orate celebrations at Amapala on November 1. "Under 
 the proposed form of government, the administration 
 was to pass into the control of a representative from 
 each of the three republics Dr. Salvador Callego, of 
 Salvador; SeHor Miguel Agnelugarte, of Honduras, and 
 Dr. Manuel Corrolel Matus, of Nicaragua. These were 
 to continue in power until March 14, 1899, when they 
 ' were to elect a president of the United States of Cen- 
 tral America, to hold office four vears. It was under- 
 stood that the three States had virtually agreed upon 
 SeHor J. Rosa Pacose, of Salvador, for the Executive 
 chair. In the meantime the presidents of the three re- 
 publics were to assume the grade of governors. 
 
 From the outset the Salvadoreans opposed the coali- 
 tion, as the expense of maintaining the federal govern- 
 ment would have fallen chiefly upon them. General 
 Regalado headed an insurrection, whose avowed pur- 
 pose was to defeat the plans of the Federal Organizers. 
 President Zelaya, of Nicaragua, declined to allow the 
 Nicaraguan troops to suppress the outbreak, and the 
 task was assigned to the armies of Honduras. The lat- 
 ter entered Salvador, but were compelled to retire 
 unsuccessful. Thus, unable to bring Salvador into the 
 union, the promoters of the coalition scheme had no 
 alternative but to abandon it. 
 
 Chartists, The, were a body of the English people 
 who, on the passage of the Reform Bill (1832) demanded 
 the People's Charter, the points of which were : (1) 
 Universal suffrage ; (2) vote by ballot ; (3) annual parlia- 
 ments; (4) payment of members; (5) abolition of prop- 
 erty qualification ; (6) equal electoral districts. Great 
 demonstrations and damage done in 1838-9. After dem- 
 onstration and presentation cf petition, April 10, 
 1848, the movement subsided, although the government 
 had meanwhile dealt severely with some of the leaders. 
 
 Chaldeans, The, or Akkadians, are a non-Semitic 
 race, who came originally from the mountain country 
 of Elam, and were formerly the dominant people of 
 Babylonia. One of the four great cities of Shinar was 
 Accad. The Babylonians were indebted to the Sumero- 
 Akkadians for their cuneiform writing, religion, and 
 mythology. 
 
 Champ de Mars, The, or " Field of March," was a 
 grand general assembly of Frank warriors, held from 
 time to time in Gaul, from the fifth century till the 
 time of Charles le Chauve (877), when all trace of them 
 disappears. The objects of these conventions were two- 
 fold : (1) That of military reviews, in which the free- 
 men came to pay homage to their chief and bring their 
 annual gifts; and (_') consultative deliberations upon 
 what expeditions should be made, what should be done 
 for the defense of the nation, and what laws should be 
 passed for the better government of the State. From 
 755 these assemblies were held in May. Napoleon I. 
 announced a gathering to be held in the great plain 
 called the Champ de Mars of Paris, on May 26; but it 
 was not held till June 1, 1815. The object was to pro- 
 claim L'Acte ad ditionelaux constitutions de V Empire, 
 
 Charing Cross was originally a London suburb, 
 where was erected the last of the" crosses in memory of 
 Eleanor, queen of Edward I. The cross was destroyed 
 in 1647, but a new one was placed on the spot in 1865. 
 
 Chillon is a celebrated castle of Switzerland, at the 
 eastern end of the Lake of Geneva. It stands on an 
 isolated rock, and long served as a state prison. Here 
 for six years (1530-36) Bonnivard endured the captivity 
 immortalized by Byron's " Prisoner of Chillon" (1821). 
 
 China, Monarchy of , commenced B. C. 2367; but its 
 history does not e'xtend above the Greek Olympiads. 
 Fohi is by many writers supposed to be the founder of
 
 286 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the Empire, and its first sovereign, B. C. 2247. The 
 country conquered by the eastern Tartars, when the 
 emperor and his family killed themselves, A. D. 1641. 
 First voyage to China from the United States made 
 from New York, February 22, 1784. 
 
 < iinbri. The, were the ancient inhabitants of Jut- 
 land, of disputed nationality. They made serious in- 
 cursions into Italy, but were utterly routed by the 
 Romans, 101 B. C.,and were afterwards merged in the 
 Saxons. 
 
 Colorado (Centennial state). First settlement, by 
 Americans, near Denver, about 1850. Organized as a 
 territory, 1861. Ranks first in silver, fourth in gold, 
 eighth in square miles, seventeenth in miles of railway, 
 thirty-fifth in population and wealth. About one third 
 of the state is good agricultural land and easy of irriga- 
 tion, bringing forth bountiful harvests of all the cereals. 
 As a grazing and dairy country it is unsurpassed, its 
 nutritious grasses having peculiar advantages for herd- 
 ing. Its chief production is mining; in its yield of 
 gold and silver, it is the leading state of the Union. 
 
 Commune, The, is the unit or lowest division in the 
 administration of France, corresponding in the rural 
 districts to our township, and in towns to a munici- 
 pality. The rising of the Commune at Paris in 1871, 
 and which should not be confounded with communism, 
 was a revolutionary assertion of the autonomy of Paris, 
 that is, of the right of self-government through its 
 commune or municipality. The theory of the rising 
 was that every commune should have a" real autonomy, 
 the central government being merely a federation of 
 communes. The movement was based on discontent at 
 Paris, where the people found themselves in possession 
 of arms after the siege by the Germans. The rising be- 
 gan on the 18th of March, 1871, and was only suppressed 
 ten weeks later, after long, bloody fighting'between the 
 forces of the Commune and a large army of the central 
 government; 6,500 Communists having fallen during 
 20-30th of May, and 38,578 having been taken prisoners. 
 
 Covent Garden, originally the garden of the Abbot 
 of Westminster, is a spacious square in London, cele- 
 brated for a great market held within it of fruit, vege- 
 tables, and flowers. The square was formed about 1U31, 
 and is famous from its connection with the modern his- 
 tory of London. 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine, The, formed July 12, 
 1806, was a federation of the Germanic States, formed 
 by Napoleon Bonaparte, whose disastrous Russian cam- 
 paign (1812) caused the dissolution of the confederation, 
 the Germanic Confederation taking its place. 
 
 Connecticut, first settled by the English at Windsor 
 1633. Ranks first in clocks; third in silk goods; fourth 
 in cotton goods ; eighth in tobacco ; fourteenth in wealth. 
 Manufactures cotton, woolen, and worsted goods, hard- 
 ware, jewelry, plated ware, leather goods. Agricul- 
 ture and manufacture are carried on to a considerable 
 extent. Several extensive granite and freestone quar- 
 ries are successfully worked as are also mines of lead, 
 copper, and iron. Many of the towns have an extensive 
 coasting trade, and foreign commerce with the West 
 Indies. 
 
 Comedy, the first acted at Athens on a stage B C 
 562; those of Terence first acted, B. C. 154 ; the first reg- 
 ular one performed in England, 1551. 
 
 Constantinople, founded by Argives, B. C. 658- be- 
 sieged and destroyed, 193; received its present name 
 from Constantine the Great, who removed there the 
 seat of the Eastern Empire, 324 ; suffered greatly by lire, 
 pestilence, famine, and an earthquake, that overturned 
 its walls and towers, 446; had first an emperor, 1-'G8- 
 taken from the Greeks by Mahomet II., who slew the 
 emperor and 60,000 inhabitants this put an end to the 
 eastern empire, which began with the reign of Arcadus, 
 395, and continued 1055 years ; the embassadors of Eng- 
 land and i ranee arrived at, June 20, 1829. 
 
 Convention, for forming the constitution of the 
 United States, met at Philadelphia, May 25, 1787 and re- 
 ported the same to the States for adoption, September 
 17, of the same year. 
 
 Cook, Captain, sailed July 30, 1768, to go round the 
 world ; returned August, 1771 ; again to explore the sou th- 
 em hemisphere, July 13, 1772 ; returned July 20, 1775 
 Killed by savages on a voyage to the Sandwich Islands, 
 1879 ; ship returned, 1780. 
 
 Copenhagen burned, 77 streets destroyed, 1723 ; Sir 
 Hyde Parker and Lord Nelson passed tlie sound, and 
 after destroying the fleet, made peace with the Banes' 
 April 2, 1801 ; garrison of, capitulated to the British 
 troops after a severe bombardment of three days, Sep- 
 tember 6, 1807. 
 
 Cordova, the first Roman colonv in Spain, settled by 
 Marcellus: the residence of the Moorish princess, 759; 
 kingdom of, destroyed, 1014. 
 
 Corsica, dependent on Genoa until 1730 ; became free, 
 1733; elected Theodore king, 1736; ceded to France by 
 Genoa, 1779; sold to Germany, 1781 ; the Corsicans ac- 
 knowledged George III. as tlieir k'iug, 1794; the island 
 evacuated by the English, November, 1796. 
 
 Crusades', or Holy Wars, between the Christians and 
 Mohammedans, which, in the end, cost the lives of two 
 hundred million men. The first, in 1095, was under 
 Peter the Hermit and Godfrey de Bouillon : the second, 
 in 1146, under Emperor Conrad II. and Louis VII. of 
 France; the third, in 1188, by Frederick Barbarossa, 
 joined in 1190 by Philip II. of France and Richard 1. of 
 England; the fourth, in 1204, under Baldwin, Count of 
 Flanders; the fifth, in 1228, under Frederick II.; the 
 sixth, in 1248, under Louis IX. of France against Egypt ; 
 the seventh, in 1270, also by Louis IX., against Tunis, 
 where Louis lost his life. 
 
 Curfew Bell was established in England in 1068, 
 which, to prevent fires, obliged people to put out their 
 fire and candles at eight in the evening, when the bells 
 rang; abolished in 1100. I 
 
 Danes, their first descent upon Englantl was at Port- 
 land, 787; their second in Northumberland, 794, when 
 they were repelled and perished by shipwreck. Suc- 
 cessive invasions took place up to" the year 998; de- 
 feated the English at Ipswich, 1010; took Canterbury 
 and put nine out of ten of the inhabitants to death, 
 1011; settled in Scotland, 1020; expelled the English, 
 1041 ; landed again at Sandwich, 1047, and carried off 
 great plunder to Flanders; joined the Northumbrians, 
 burned York, and slew 3,000 Normans, 1069; invaded 
 England again, but, bribed by William II., quitted 
 it, 1140. 
 
 I >:i kut as. The, first settled by Americans at Pembina. 
 Admitted into the Union as' two states, North and 
 South Dakota, 1889. Ranks third in gold, ninth in sil- 
 ver, thirty-ninth in population. 
 
 Delaware, first settlement made by Swedes at Cape 
 Henlopen, 1<>58. The principal industries are agricul- 
 tural pursuits and mining. Fruit grows in great 
 abundance. Considerable manufacturing is done in the 
 northern part of the state. 
 
 Delft, one of the most ancient towns of South Hol- 
 land, is situated on the Schie, eight miles northwest of 
 Rotterdam by rail, and is intersected by numerous 
 canals. Delft was noted from the sixteenth to the 
 eighteenth century for its Delft ware, but has now en- 
 tirely lost its high reputation for this manufacture. 
 
 Decemvirs, The, were men who drew up a code of 
 Roman laws, and who, in 451 B. C., had the whole gov- 
 ernment of Rome in their hands. They were successful 
 in their administration till the incident of Appius 
 Claudius and Virginia led to the appointment of consuls. 
 Delphi was an ancient northern Greek town, cele- 
 brated for the oracles pronounced by the Pythian 
 priestess in the temple of Apollo. The oracle was known 
 as early as 900 B. C., and the temple became the reposi- 
 tory of immense treasures. It was plundered by the 
 Phocians and Nero, the latter taking away three hun- 
 dred costly statues in 67 A. D. 
 
 Denmark, the ancient kingdom of the Goths; its 
 first king reigned 714; embraced Christianity, 9)0; 
 united with the Crown of Norway, 141'-', and with Swe- 
 den, 1497; separated from Sweden'in 1528; crown made 
 hereditary and absolute, 1660; Copenhagen bombarded 
 by the English, 1807; commercial treaty between Den- 
 mark and England, 1824. 
 
 Diana, Temple of, at Ephesus, burned by the Amz.- 
 zons, about 1182; again by Erostratus, in order to per- 
 petuate his name, B. C. 356; again by the Goths, in their 
 third invasion, about 256. 
 
 Dionysius, Usurpation of, B. C. 409; besieged Rhe- 
 giuin, 3'88, and took it after eleven months; began the 
 first Punic war, 384 ; expelled from Syracuse by Dion, 357. 
 Doomsday Book, The, or "Domesday Book" (10*5- 
 1086), was a statistical survey of that part of England 
 which was under the sway of William the Conqueror. 
 So called, probably, because it was of authority in all 
 dooms, i. c., judgments in disputed questions which 
 afterwards arose on matters contained therein. It \\ as 
 anciently known as the " Liber de Wintonia " (Book of 
 Winchester), because at one time it was preserved in 
 the royal treasury of that city, under three locks and 
 kevs. 'it was printed and published in 1783, in two folic 
 volumes. In 1816 two supplementary volumes were 
 published.
 
 HISTORY AXD BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 287 
 
 Dublin, city, -wall built about 83!*: stormed by Der- 
 mond, 1171; its first charter granted, 1173; castle built, 
 1220; its University founded, 1591: Parliament House 
 begun, 1729; finished, 1739; insurrection in and murder 
 of Lord Kilwarden, July 23, 1803. 
 
 Duke, Title of, first given in England to Edward, son 
 of Edward III., March 17, 1336; quire extinct, 1572, but 
 has since been renewed in many instances. 
 
 Egypt, The kingdom of, began under Misraim, the 
 son of Hani, the second son of Noah, B. C. 2188, and 
 lasted 1.663 years; conquered by Cambyses, 525 ; revolted 
 from the Persians, assisted by the Athenians, 463; 
 taken by Alexander, 332; reduced to a province, 31; 
 conquered by the Turks, A. D. 1517; invaded by the 
 French under Bonaparte, 17P8. who, by the aid of the 
 British, were eventually expelled, 1800. Egypt, since 
 the year 1J-07, has been under the dominion of the Mo- 
 hammedans. 
 
 England, originally inhabited by the Britons, a 
 branch of the ancient Gauls or Celtae ; the western part 
 in the time of the Romans was inhabited by the Belgae ; 
 the northern part by the Brigantes : South Wales by the 
 Silures. and Norfolk and Suffolk bv the Iceni. Invaded 
 by Julius Cnpsar, B. C. 64 ; subdued by Claudius, 44, and 
 completely so by Agricola, in 85 A. D. The Romans 
 kept possession of it until 41A Conquered by the Sax- 
 ons, 455, who were invited over by the ancient inhab- 
 itants, and who divided it into seven kingdoms, called 
 the Heptarchy. Ravished bv the Picts and Scots, 448. 
 Erected into a kingdom by Egbert, by a union of all 
 the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, 827. Conquered by the 
 Danes, 877; recovered by Alfred, 880. Divided "into 
 counties and hundreds, 886; invaded by the Scots, who 
 were defeated by Athelstau, 921 ; by the AVelsh,984; by 
 Sweyn, king of Denmark, 1003; again by Sweyn and 
 almost subdued by him, 1013; by the Irish, 1069; by 
 Malcolm, king of Scotland, 1071, and again 1001 ; again, 
 1093. when Malcolm and his son were killed at Alnwick; 
 by Robert, Duke of Normandy, lioi ; by David of Scot- 
 land, 1136; by the Scots again, in 1183; by Henry, Duke 
 of Richmond", 1485 ; England declared wn r against Spain, 
 January 4. 1762; the famous dynasty of the Plantagenets 
 commenced with the reign of Henrv of Anjou. The 
 Magna Charta was adopted during John's reign, in 1215. 
 The reign of Elizabeth was signalized by the defeat of 
 the Spanish Armada, 1588. James VI., of Scotland, was 
 the first ruler ;of Great Britain. 
 
 Epirus, Kingdom of, first known in history by the 
 great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus, about B. C. 950 ; 
 a second Pyrrhus was renowned for his wars against 
 the Romans, B. C. 280; became a republic, 240, but was 
 subdued by the Romans, B. C. 167. It was finally con- 
 quered by Mahomet II., 1466, and became part of the 
 Ottoman Empire. 
 
 Falk Laws, The. 1873, were so called from Dr. Falk, 
 who insisted on the compulsory education of the clergy 
 of Prussia. The laws are four in number: (1) The 
 fir>t w;is directed against the abuse of ecclesiastical 
 discipline for political purposes, such as "boycotting." 
 excommunication, and anathemas; (2) the next regu- 
 lated the effect of secession from the Church on the ob- 
 ligation to meet certain taxes: (3) the third law was 
 directed at the evasions by Roman Catholics of state 
 education incumbent on all Germans; and (4) abolished 
 the legality of papal tribunals, recognizing the judg- 
 ments of the German ecclesiastical courts as the only 
 authority on Church matters. In 1874 these four laws 
 were supplemented by others, to insure more perfect 
 obedience. Dr. Adalbert Falk was appointed by Prince 
 Bismarck " Minister of Public Worship," January 22, 
 1872. In 1872 Prince Bismarck carried through" the 
 Prussian Houses a bill to transfer the control of primary 
 education from the Church to the State authorities. 
 
 Famous Retreat, The, of the ten thousand, occurred 
 B. C. 401-399. It was conducted by Xenophon, the his- 
 torian, who had joined the expedition of Cyrus. In the 
 battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus lost his life, and the Greeks 
 were left without a 'leader. Xenophon volunteered to 
 lead them back to Greece, and has left a historical nar- 
 rative of this famous retreat, called " Xenophon's 
 Anabasis." 
 
 Feudal Taw. introduced 1070. This consisted in 
 dividing the kingdoms into baronies, giving them to 
 certain persons and requiring those persons to furnish 
 the king with money and a stated number of soldiers. 
 
 First French Revolution. Its chief leaders: 
 Comte de Mirahoau. 1789-1791 ; Danton.from the death 
 of Mirabean to 1793; Robespierre, from June. 1793, to 
 
 July 27, 1794. Next to these three were St. Just, Cou- 
 thon, Marat, Carrier, Hebert, Santerre, Camille Des- 
 moulins, Roland and his wife, Brissot, Barnave, Sieyes, 
 Barras, Tallien, etc. Its great days: 1789, June 17, the 
 Tiers Efat constituted itself into the " National Assem- 
 bly " ; June 20, the day of the Jeu de Paume, when the 
 Assembly took an path not to separate till it had given 
 France a'constitution ; July 14, Storming of the Bastille ; 
 October 6, 6, the king and National Assembly trans- 
 ferred from Versailles to Paris. This closed the ancient 
 r?r/ime of the court. 1791, June 20, 21, flight and cap- 
 ture of the king, queen, and royal family. 1792, June 
 20, attack on the Tuileries by Santerre; August 10, at- 
 tack on the Tuileries and downfall of the monarchy; 
 September 2, 3, 4, massacre of the state prisoners. 1793, 
 January 21, Louis XVI. guillotined ; May 31, commence- 
 ment of the Reign of Terror; June 2," the Girondists 
 proscribed ; October 16, Marie Antoinette guillotined ; 
 October 31, the Girondists guillotined". 1794, April 5, 
 downfall of Danton ; July 27, downfall of Robespierre. 
 
 Florida (Peninsular State). First settlement by the 
 Spaniards, at St. Augustine, 1565. Admitted to the 
 Union, 1845. Ranks third in sugar and molasses; sixth 
 in rice; tenth in cotton; twenty-first in square miles; 
 twenty-seventh in miles of railway; thirty-fourth in 
 population*; thirty-sixth in wealth. The inhabitants 
 confine themselves to agriculture. The chief products 
 are cotton, sugar cane, rice, corn, and sweet potatoes, 
 and tropical fruits of great variety. There is considera- 
 ble trade also in lumber. 
 
 Franoe, the country of the ancient Gauls; a colony 
 of the Belgse from G'ermany were permitted to settle 
 in it B. C. 200; conquered by the Romans, B. C.25; by 
 the Goths, Vandals, Alans, Suevi, and Burgundi, who 
 divided it amongst them, from 400 to 486. The Franks, 
 from whom the French are derived, occupied part of 
 Brabant, one hundred and thirty years before the reign 
 of Clovis; it is the only state in Europe that can boast 
 a perpetual succession from the conquerors of the west- 
 ern empire. Its first king was Pharamond, who began 
 to reign in 418 ; Clovis was the first Christian king, 481 ; 
 the Assemblies, called the States-General, first met, 
 1302, and continued to 1614; the English crown lost all 
 its possessions in France between 1341 and 13U9. The 
 Revolution in France began 178J; the nobility and all 
 religionXorders suppressed, 1790; Louis XVI. beheaded, 
 Janna^F 21, 17'J3; his queen, Marie Antoinette, be- 
 headied, October 16, 1793; Bonaparte made first consul, 
 179lr; Louis XVIII. made his second entry into Paris, 
 July 8, 1815; Louis was succeeded in 1824, by his 
 brother, Charles X., who was expelled, with his family, 
 in July, 18?0, and the Duke of Orleans raised to the 
 throne" under the title of Louis Philippe, king of the 
 I French. In 1830 war was commenced with Algeria, 
 which country, as a consequence, was ceded to France. 
 In 1848, the Bourbons were again driven out, and a 
 republic established, with Napoleon III. as president. 
 In December, 1851, Napoleon seized the absolute power, 
 set aside the constitution, and shortly afterward was 
 crowned emperor. A war with Prussia was precipitated 
 in 1*70, at the conclusion of which the present republic 
 was established. 
 
 Franks, The, arose from a confederacy of the inhab- 
 itants of the Lower Rhine and Weser about 240. 
 
 Freemasons, The society of, are said to have taken 
 rise from a set of foreigners who called themselves free- 
 masons, whose secrets were kept intact; they are said 
 to have introduced the art of building with stone into 
 Knirland about 670 ; another version has it that the insti- 
 tution is as early as the building of Solomon's Temple. 
 The first lodge opened in America was at Boston, July 
 30, 1733. 
 
 Friedland, The great battle of, between the Russians 
 and French, in which the former were completely over- 
 thrown, with the loss of, 80 pieces of cannon, and 17,000 
 men killed, Majt4, 1807. 4^AA f J i 1 L f- 
 
 Games, Olympic, first celebrated in F.lis by the Idaei 
 Dactyli, B. C'. 1453 ; instituted by Pelops. 1.307 ; celebrated 
 by Hercules, 1222 ; restored at Elis by Iphitus, Lycurgus, 
 and Cleosthenes. 884 : Isthmian, instituted at Corinth by 
 King Sisyphus, B. C. 1326; restored, 584 ; Pythian, first 
 celebrated by Adrastus, king of Argos, B. C. 12G3; in- 
 stituted at Delphi, in Greece, 591 ; Capitoline, instituted 
 by Domitian, A. D. 86; Secular, celebrated at Rome, 
 A. I). 88. 
 
 Genoa, Republic, founded B. C. 63; the present one, 
 A. 1>. 950; the first Duke of , chosen 13.T7: republic re- 
 stored to its liberties 1 iy 1 )oria, 1528 : bank failed, 1750 ; the 
 city in 1799, then in possession of the French, was taken
 
 288 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 by the united forces of Austria and England, and in 
 1815 was united to the Sardinian monarchy. 
 
 Georgia (Empire State of South). First settlement, 
 by the English, Savannah, 1733. Ranks second in rice 
 and sweet potatoes ; third in cotton and molasses ; fourth 
 in sugar; seventh in mules; tenth in hogs; thirteenth 
 in population ; fifteenth in miles of railway : nineteenth 
 in square miles ; twenty-fifth in wealth/ The leading 
 Industry is agriculture, the products being corn, rice, 
 cotton, and sweet potatoes, and manufacturing, in which 
 it leads all other Southern States, having tine facilities. 
 Gold, iron, marble, and slate abound. 
 
 Germany, from Germann or warlike man, being an- 
 ciently divided into several independent states, was in- 
 significant in history until B.C. 26, when the people 
 withstood the power of the Romans, and expelled them 
 in 290; Charlemagne became master of the whole, 802. 
 The Emperor of Germanv assumed the title of Emperor 
 of Austria, August II, 1804. In 1521, at the Diet of 
 Worms, Luther made his famous defense ; religious dis- 
 sensions occupied the country for a long period after 
 the retirement of Charles V., in 1556, and in 1618, the 
 Thirty Years' War broke out; Germany secured her 
 religious freedom by the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648. 
 The foundation of the Prussian monarchy was laid in 
 1675. Numerous wars took place during the eighteenth 
 century, and constant mutations occurred in the map of 
 Germany. Under the famous Fredericks, the Kingdom 
 of Prussia developed into a first-class power. German 
 unification began under William I. ; the war with Prus- 
 sia was declared on July 19, 1870, and resulted in the 
 complete unification of Germany; the king of Prussia, 
 by this treaty, was proclaimed Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Ghent, Belgium, stands on 26 islands, connected with 
 each other by 80 bridges. The city of Venice is built on 
 80 islands, connected by nearly 400 bridges. In Venice 
 canals serve for streets, and gondolas for carriages. 
 
 Gibraltar, taken by Sir George Rooke, July 24, 1704; 
 besieged by the Spaniards, February 24, 1727; again, 
 May, 1731 ; besieged again by the Spaniards, from 1780 to 
 September 13, 1782, when their floating battery was 
 burned with red hot balls from the garrison commanded 
 by General Elliott. Gibraltar came into the possession 
 of the English in 1704. 
 
 Girondins, The, in English "The Girondists," were 
 the pure republican party in the National Assembly and 
 National Convention of the first French Revolution. So 
 called because it consisted mainly of the deputies of the 
 Gironde. This party was distinguished for its oratory, 
 and for a time dominated the assembly ; but, horrified 
 at the September massacres, they condemned the Reign 
 of Terror, and tried to bring in more moderate meas- 
 ures. This drew upon them the hatred of the dema- 
 gogues, and , on May 31, 1793, some twenty-nine of the 
 Girondists were arrested at the instigation of Robes- 
 pierre, and on October 31 twenty of them were guillo- 
 tined, among whom were Brissot, Gensonne, Vergniaud, 
 DucoSj and Sillery. Valaze' stabbed himself while he 
 stood in the dock. 
 
 Gordian Knot, the knot of the thong in the wagon 
 of Gordius, who was elected king of Thrygia from 
 driving a wagon, and which he afterwards deposited in 
 the temple of Jupiter. Whoever loosed this knot, the 
 ends of which were not discoverable, the Oracle declared 
 should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
 away the knot till he found the ends, and thus inter- 
 pretated the Oracle, B. C. 330. 
 
 Goths, The, who inhabited all the countries from the 
 Baltic to the Euxine seas, first mentioned as invading 
 the Romans, 250; waged war with them, 366; from 
 which time may be derived the fall of the Roman Em- 
 pire. The whole nation, a million in number, through 
 fear of the Huns, removed to the waste land in Thrace, 
 376 ; rebelled against the Romans, 377, and were quelled ; 
 afterwards attacked by Valens, the Roman army was 
 cut to pieces, and the emperor killed. The Goths capit- 
 ulated with and submitted to the Romans, October 3, 
 382. Embraced Christianity. 400; pillaged Rome and 
 massacred the inhabitants, 410; slew 300,000 inhabitants 
 of Milan, 539. 
 
 Granada, Kingdom of, conquered by the Moors, 715; 
 in 1235 it became the capital of a new kingdom, and 
 attained to almost matchless splendor ; the last Moorish 
 prince was Abou-Abdillah, who was conquered bv the 
 Castilians, 1492. 
 
 Grecian Monarchy, commenced by Alexander the 
 Great's victory over Darius, the last Persian monarch, 
 B. C. 328; empire began under Nicephorus, 1811, ended, 
 1453. 
 
 Greece, The early history of, is surrounded with 
 
 legend and myth. The heroic age of Greece is a frag- 
 ment of the poetic imagination. Hellen was claimed 
 by the Greeks as their common ancestor, the popular be- 
 lief being that from his sons, Dorus ami -Eolus, and his 
 grandsons, Ion and .Echa-ns, sprang the four different 
 branches of the nation the Dorians, the .Kolians, the 
 lonians, and the zEchanns. From first to last, Greece 
 was divided into numerous independent states. Au- 
 thentic history begins 776 B. C., when the first Olympiad 
 was held. In B. C. 431, began the Peloponnesian war. 
 Greece passed under Macedonian rule about 344 B. C.; 
 in B. C. 214 occurred the first collision between the 
 Greeks and the Romans ; f ro'u the fifth to the eighth 
 centuries Slavic and other foreign people appeared in 
 Greece, but were finally expelled : in the eleventh century 
 the Normans plundered and ravaged the cities of 
 Thebes, Athens, aad Corinth. In 1203, the Latin princes 
 appeared in the Crusades, conquered Constantinople, 
 and divided Greece among them, which divisions were 
 sweptawayby the Turks in 1453. In 10*7 the Christian 
 league besieged and took Athens, and the Moslem rule 
 was again established; the Ottoman yoke was com- 
 pletely thrown off in 1821, and was accomplished by 
 what is known as the modern revolution. Moslem rule 
 was again attempted in 1822, but the allied powers of 
 Europe decided to create Greece an independent king- 
 dom; in 1866 a revolution in Crete strained the relations 
 of Greece and Turkey; a renewed outbreak in 1896 led. 
 to a war with Turkey, which resulted in favor of Tur- 
 key, but did not imperil the independence of Greece. 
 
 Gretna Green is a village in Dumfriesshire, Scot- 
 land, and the place where, for nearly ;i century, runa- 
 way couples were made man and wife. These irregular 
 marriages were discountenanced by law in the year 
 1856. 
 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines. At the great battle of 
 Weinsberg, in Suabia, A. D. 1140, the Emperor Conrad 
 of Hohenstaiifen, and Welf, uncle of Henry the Lion, 
 Duke of Saxony, rallied their followers by the respective 
 war cries, "H'ie Waiblingen ! " "Hie Welf!" As the 
 chief theater of the conflict of these parties was Italy, 
 the original names took the Italian form of Ghibellini 
 and Guelfi, and under these names they became two 
 great parties, whose conflicts may almost be said to 
 make up the history of Italy and Germany from the 
 eleventh till the fourteenth century. The Ghibellini 
 may, in general, be described as the supporters of the 
 imperial authority in Italy, the Guelphs as the oppo- 
 nents of the emperors and adherents of the popes. Five 
 great crises in the strife of the Guelphs and Ghibelline 
 parties are commonly noted by historians: 1'ndcr 
 Henry IV., in 1055; under Henry the Proud,, in 1127; 
 under Henry the Lion, in 1140; under Frederick Barba- 
 rossa, in 1159 ; and in the pontificate of the great cham- 
 pion of Church temporal power, Innocent III. The 
 cities of northern Italy were divided between the two 
 parties Florence, Bologna, Milan, and other cities, as 
 a general rule, taking the side of the Guelphs; while 
 Pisa, Verona, and Arezzo were Ghibelline. In general, 
 it may be said that the nobles of the more northern 
 provinces of Italy inclined to the Ghibelline side, while 
 those of the central and southern provinces were 
 Guelph. After the downfall of the preponderance of 
 the German emperors in Italy, the contest ceased to be 
 a strife of principles and degenerated into a mere 
 struggle of rival factions. From the fourteenth cen- 
 tury the Guelphs or Ghibellines are seldom heard of as 
 actually existing parties; but in the sense already ex- 
 plained, the conflict of principles which they repre- 
 sented is found in every period of political history. 
 
 Gypsy Tribes. Gypsies, a term applied to a mysteri- 
 ous,' vagabond race, scattered over the whole of Europe, 
 and parts of Asia, Africa, and America. Whence they 
 originally came, is not definitely known, but India 
 seems to have been the cradle of the tribe. They are 
 called Bohemians, in France; Zingari, in Italy. Fur cen- 
 turies past they have drifted about o\ er Europe, in small 
 bands, having no permanent homes; living by begging. 
 fortune telling, and various tricks. The first mil ice of 
 them, which occurs in European literature, is embodied 
 in a free paraphrase, in German, of the Book of (iem-Ms. 
 written by an Austrian monk, about 1122. On August 
 17, 1427, a baud of them, coming from Bohemia, made 
 their appearance before Paris, which, however, they 
 were not allowed to enter, but were lodged at La Chapelle 
 Saint Denis. Other hordes succeeded these in the fol- 
 lowing years, spreading in rapid succession over all 
 parts of Germany, over Spain, England, Russia, Scan- 
 dinavia, and, indeed, over the remotest parts of Europe. 
 The account which they most frequently gave of them-
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 289 
 
 selves was, that they originally came from " Little 
 Egypt," that the king"of Hungary had compelled about 
 4,000 of them to be baptised, bad slain the remainder, 
 and had condemned the baptized to seven years' wander- 
 ing. In France, Germany, Scotland, and other coun- 
 tries, the most stringent laws were formerly enforced 
 against them, and they were slain by thousands. The 
 jargon spoken by the'Gypsies is styled Romany, and 
 contains many Sanscrit words and corrupted Hebraisms. 
 
 Hanseatic League, The, was a trades-union to pro- 
 tect merchandise from pirates and the pillage of nobles. 
 It began with the three towns of Hamburg, Bremen, 
 and Liibeck, but ultimately contained eighty-five trad- 
 ing towns. The league was divided into four colleges, 
 viz., Liibeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzig. Of 
 these, Liibeck was the chief, and presided in all the con- 
 ferences. 
 
 Hebrew Race, The, is distributed over the Eastern 
 continent as follows : In Europe there are 5,400,000 ; in 
 France, 63,000; Germany, 562,000, of which Alsace- I 
 Lorraine contains 39,000"; Austro-Hungary, 1,544,000; 
 Italy, 40,000; Netherlands, 82,000: Roumania, 265,000; i 
 Russia, L'.552,000; Turkey, 105,000, and in other countries 
 35,000, Belgium containing the smallest number, only 
 3,000. In Asia there are 319,000; Asiatic Turkey, 47,000, 
 in Palestine there being 25.000; Asiatic Russia", 47,000; 
 Persia, 18.000; Middle Asia, 14,000; India, 19,000, and 
 China, 1,000. Africa contains 350,000; Egypt, 8,000; 
 Tunis, 55,000; Algiers, 35,000; Morocco, 60,000; Tripoli, 
 6.000, and Abyssinia, 200,000. The entire number of 
 Hebrews in the world is nearly 6,300,000. 
 
 Heptarchy, The Saxon, consisting of the kingdoms 
 of Kent, the 'South Saxons, the West Saxons, the East 
 Saxons, Northumberland, the East Angles, and Mercier, 
 commenced in the sixth century, and continued till 800, 
 when Egbert reigned alone. The Saxons, notwithstand- 
 ing this division of the kingdom, were subject to one 
 monarch, who was called King of Britain; the mon- 
 archy was not then hereditary, but that person suc- 
 ceeded who had the greatest power. 
 
 Herculaneum, first suffered by an earthquake, Feb- 
 ruary 5. 63 A. D. ; totally overwhelmed, with Pompeii, 
 by an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, November 1, 79 A. D. 
 
 Hittites, The, were one of the most important tribes 
 in the south of Canaan. They are mentioned in Gen. x. 
 as the descendants of Heth,"a son of Canaan. In the 
 age of Abraham the Hittites inhabited Hebron and its 
 neighborhood (Gen. xxiii.)- The primitive seat of the 
 Hittites was probably the Taurus mountains of Asia 
 Minor, from whence, as indicated by the cuneiform re- 
 cords of Tel-el-Amarna, in the latte'r part of the eight- 
 eenth Egyptian dynasty, they invaded Syria, and later, 
 in the reign of Rameses II", were settled at Kadesh, 
 ultimately spreading to the south of Palestine. In race 
 the Hittites were probably Turanian, and in their lan- 
 guage allied to the Alarodinn family. The peculiar 
 hieroglyphic writings found on Hittite monuments in 
 Syria, Asia Minor, etc.. are beginning to be deciphered. 
 In common with the Hyksos, the deity of the Hittites 
 was Seti, the Egyptian Typhpn, and the local goddess 
 of Kadesh Anata', the Canaanitish goddess of war. 
 
 Hivites, The, were a Canaanitish people, specially as- 
 sociated with the Amorities, dwelling in the time of 
 Joshua (Josh, ix.) near the center of Palestine, and 
 near Mount Hermon and Mount Lebanon, the latter be- 
 ingregardedas thecountryof the Amorites in the Egyp- 
 tian texts, and Tel-el-Amarna tablets. The Hivites are 
 first mentioned in Scripture in Gen. x. : 17; they were 
 subjected to tributeby Solomon, after whose reign their 
 name no longer appears. 
 
 Holland, in the fourteenth century, after being ruled 
 for four centuries as a province of France or Germany, I 
 came under the rule of the Duke of Burgundy. Several | 
 wars, growing out of an attempt to extend the power of I 
 the inquisition, occurred between Holland and Spain, I 
 the last ending in 1C48, when the Netherlands achieved 
 their independence ; was overrun by the French, Janu- : 
 ary, 1785; secret expedition against j commenced by the 
 Duke of York, August, 1799; British troops evacuated, 
 November, 1799; Louis Bonaparte proclaimed king of , 
 June 11, 1806; decree for annexing it to France, July 9, 
 1810 ; the French expelled, 1813. 
 
 Holy Alliance, The, was a league formed by the 
 Emperors Alexander I. of Russia, Francis of Austria, 
 and King Frederick William III. of Prussia, after the 
 second abdication of Napoleon. The main principles of ' 
 the alliance were : 1. That the different Governments of , 
 Europe belonged to one family of nations. 2. That all 
 
 the different creeds of Christendom were to be accorded 
 full and equal rights in the alliance. 3. That the Chris- 
 tian religion was to be regarded as the moral principle 
 governing in the international conduct and comity of 
 the states. 4. That the Christian religion was to regu- 
 late the whole system of public law. 6. That the allied 
 sovereigns were to give one another united aid in all 
 i-a>c- when required. A special article of the treaty 
 also provided that no member of the Bonaparte family 
 should ever sit upon a European throne. Alexander of 
 Russia drew up the agreement and gave it a name. It 
 was signed by the three monarchs, September 26, 1815, 
 but it was not wholly made public until February 2, 1816. 
 All the Governments of Europe, except Rome, which 
 had not been invited, probably through fear that the 
 Pope would claim the first place in its councils, and thus 
 revive the old difficulty of the supremacy of the Church 
 over Christian Governments, and England, which had 
 declined, became members of the alliance. The alliance 
 accomplished but little, and after Alexander's death, in 
 1825, the compact lost authority, and the French Revo- 
 lution of 1830 caused a wide breach between the parties 
 to it. The formation of the Prussian Diet, in 1847, the 
 European uprising in 1848, the re-establishment of the 
 Napoleon dynasty in 1850, and finally the war of Russia 
 against England, France, and Turkey in 1854, brought 
 about the complete dissolution of the alliance. 
 
 Hottentots, The, are an African native race, occupy- 
 ing the country north from the Cape Colony to Mossa- 
 medes, stretching westward to the Atlantic, and bounded 
 on the east by the Kalahari desert. Formerly a numer- 
 ous nation, the Hottentots have been greatly diminished 
 by the oppression of the Boers, and the race is now nearly 
 extinct. The Hottentots include the Griquas, Bushmen, 
 Korannas, Namaquas, and Damaras. 
 
 Huguenots, Protestants firstcalled so in France, from 
 a German word signifying " allied by oath," 1560; mas- 
 sacre of them at Paris, August 24, 1572. 
 
 Hungary, the Pannonia of the ancients, was subject 
 to the Romans, B. C. 11 ; conquered by the Huns under 
 Attila, when the kingdom of began, A. fo.433; annexed to 
 Germany under Charlemagne, but became independent, 
 920; the"Turks contended with the Germans for it from 
 1540 to 1739, when by the treaty of Belgrade, it was ceded 
 to the latter; in 1848 occurred the Hungarian revolu- 
 tion, led by Kossuth, and which ended in the independ- 
 ence of Hungary, July 8,1867; the dual monarchy be- 
 tween Austria arid Hungary was established in 1867. 
 
 Huns, savage inhabitants of part of Siberia; their 
 kingdom was founded B. C. 230 ; kingdom taken and 
 divided A. D. 48 ; embraced Christianity, 416 ; conquered 
 Scythia and Germany, about 432 ; the kingdom destroyed 
 soon after the death of Attila, 453. 
 
 Idaho. Ranks sixth in gold, seventh in silver, twelfth 
 in square miles, forty-third in miles of railway, forty- 
 fifth in population. 'Population, 1890, 84,385. First set- 
 tlement, by Americans, 1842. Organized as a Territory, 
 1863. Admitted to the Union in 1890. 
 
 Independents, The, or Puritans, in the reign of 
 Charles I. were called "Roundheads." The royalists 
 were nicknamed "The Cavaliers." The former wore 
 their hair short, and dressed with great simplicity : the 
 hitter wore their hair flowing over their shoulders, and 
 dressed showily and expensively. The two came into 
 collision about" the expulsion of the bishops from the 
 House of Lords. The Roundheads insisted on their 
 expulsion, and the severance of the clergy from all 
 secular and state offices. It was in this brawl that the 
 two parties gave each other the nicknames of Round- 
 heads and Cavaliers. 
 
 Indian Territory was originally set apart as a res- 
 ervation for peaceful tribes. Organized in 1834, but not 
 under the same forms of government as the other ter- 
 ritories. The lands are held in common by the Indians, 
 each being allowed to cultivate as much as desired, 
 and whites can hold land only by marrying an Indian. 
 Grazing and agriculture are the leading industries. 
 Oklahoma was opened up to white settlers in 1889, and 
 organized as a territory in the following year, its cap- 
 ital being fixed at Guthrie. 
 
 Indian AVar, King Philip's, commenced in New 
 England and ended by his death, August 12. 17t>7. 
 
 Indiana, first settlement by the French at Vincennes, 
 1730. Ranks second in wheat", fourth in corn, hogs, and 
 agricultural implements, sixth in coal, and population ; 
 seventh in horses, oxen, and other cattle, malt and dis- 
 tilled liquors, and wealth ; ninth in hay and milch cows. 
 The inhabitants are largely engaged in agriculture. 
 Large quantities of corn, wheat, oats, pork, and beef
 
 290 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 are exported. Its mining and manufacturing interests 
 are constantly increasing. 
 
 Indies, East, lirst discovered by the Romans ; Alex- 
 ander marched into, B. C. 328; discovered by the Portu- 
 guese, A. D. 1487; conquered in 1500. and settled by 
 them in 1506; the first settlement was Goa; the East 
 India Company, established 1600. 
 
 Illinois, first settlement made by the French at Kas- 
 kaskia, 1682. Illinois is in the front rank as an agricul- 
 tural state, surpassing all others in the production of 
 wheat and corn, and second to none in the extent of 
 stock raising. It ranks fourth in population, and next 
 to Missouri in manufacturing, and the sixth in the 
 Union; its fruit and orchard products are very large. 
 The state abounds in mineral production, coal, lead, 
 and salt being the chief. Its great rivers and lakes pre- 
 sent natural facilities for an extensive commerce. The 
 railroads of the state are greater in the number of miles 
 within the state than any other. 
 
 Iowa, first settlement made by the French Cana- 
 dians at Burlington, 1788. Agriculture and mining are 
 the leading pursuits. The state takes a leading position 
 in the production of wheat, corn, and cattle. The man- 
 ufactures are important and show great progress an- 
 nually. It ranks first in hogs, second in milch cows, 
 oxen, and other cattle, corn, hay, and oati; third in 
 horses, fifth in barley, sixth in potatoes and rye, seventh 
 in coal and wheat. 
 
 Ireland, was originally occupied by the Celts ; in 432 
 Christianity was introduced by St. Patrick ; from the 
 eighth to the twelfth centuries perpetual warfare ex- 
 isted between the petty kings and their chiefs; con- 
 quered in 1174 by Henry II. of England, and appor- 
 tioned among: his Anglo-Norman followers; Parliamen- 
 tary union with Great Britain took place in 1800 : Catholic 
 Emancipation Act passed, 1829 ; Fenian riots, 1867. 
 
 Iron Cro-wn of Lorribardy, The, is not an iron 
 crown, but a magnificent gold diadem containing a 
 narrow iron band about three-eighths of an inch broad 
 and one-tenth of an inch in thickness, This band was 
 made out of a nail given to Constantine by his mother, 
 and said to be one of the nails used in the crucifixion. 
 The outer circlet of the crown is of beaten gold, set 
 with large rubies, emeralds, and sapphires, and the iron 
 band is within this circlet. The first Lombard king 
 crowned with it was Agilulph, at Milan, in 591. Charle- 
 magne was crowned with it in 774; Friedrich III., in 
 1452; Karl V., in 1530; and Napoleon I., May 23,1805, 
 crowned himself with it as " King of Italy "' in Milan 
 Cathedral. It was given up to Victor Emmanuel on the 
 conclusion of peace with Austria, in 1866. The motto 
 on the crown is, "God has given it me; beware who 
 touches it." 
 
 Israel, kingdom divided, B. C. 979; ended, and the 
 ten tribes carried captive by Shalmanezar, king of 
 Syria, 720. 
 
 Issns, Battle of, between Darius and Alexander, in 
 which the former lost 100,000 men, B. C. 333. 
 
 Italy, the successor of ancient Rome, suffered con- 
 siderable political change by the aggressions of Napo- 
 leon I. In 1801 Savoy and Piedmont were united to 
 France, the Duchy of Milan, formed the Cis-Alpine re- 
 public, to which, in 1805, the Duchy of Venice was added, 
 forming together the kingdom of Italy, and Genoa was 
 incorporated with France ; Naples was seized, the Pope 
 was deposed, and all Italy, except Sardinia and Sicily, 
 were subjected to France. In 1814, the states were re- 
 stored to their former rulers, except the Duchies of 
 Milan and Venice, which were given to Austria, and 
 formed the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. In 1848 the 
 great revolution was inaugurated, originating from a 
 simultaneous insurrection in Lombarrty and Venice. 
 March 14, 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared king of 
 Italy, under whom the kingdom was strengthened and 
 consolidated. He was succeeded by Humbert, the pres- 
 ent ruler, in 1878. 
 
 Jacobins were the members of a political club which 
 exercised a great influence during the French Revolu- 
 tion. It was oritrinally called the Cluh lln-ton, and was 
 formed at Versailles, when the States-General assembled 
 there in 17s:i. 
 
 Jucohites (from the Latin Jncohus, " James "), was 
 the name given lifter the Revolution of 1C88 to the ad- 
 herents of the exiled Stuarts James II. (if.:-i70l), and 
 his son and two grandsons, .Tamo* Francis F.dward, the 
 Chevalier de St. George (l(>88-17<;<i), Charles Edward 
 (1720-88), and Henry Benedict, Cardinal York (1725-1807) 
 Those adherents were recruited from the Catholics, the 
 
 Nonjurors, the High Churchmen, and Tories generally, 
 discontented and place-seeking Whigs, the Episcopa- 
 lians and Highlanders of Scotland, and the great body of 
 the Irish people. 
 
 Jamaica, discovered by Columbus, 1494: settled bv 
 the Spaniards, 1509; taken from the Spaniards by Ad- 
 miral Penn, May 7, 1055. 
 
 Japan, Empire of, founded by Jiminn, 660 B.C.; first 
 discovered by the Portuguese, 1540; Buddhism was in- 
 troduced int9 Japan in the sixth century; in 1519 St. 
 Francis Xavier introduced Christianity; in 1615 the 
 priests were exiled, and all foreigners expelled from 
 the island; in 1637, massacre of the Christians began; 
 commercial treaty between the United States and Japan 
 ratified in 1854. 
 
 Jerusalem, Temple of, built B. C. 1094; city taken by 
 Nebuchadnezzar after a siege of eighteen months, 587; 
 the second temple finished under Darius, B. C. 515; de- 
 stroyed by Titus, A. D. 70 ; pillaged by the Persians, and 
 90,000 inhabitants killed, 613; taken by the Saracens, 
 637; taken by Godfrey of Boulogne, who was elected 
 king of it, July 5, 1100; conquered by Saladin. 1187 , now 
 subject to the Turks. 
 
 Jugurthine War, begun B. C. Ill, and continued 
 five years. 
 
 Juries, first instituted, 970; trial of civil causes by in 
 Scotland enacted, 1815. 
 
 Justice of the Peace, first appointed, 1076. 
 
 Justinian Code, first published, 529. 
 
 Kansas (Garden of the West). Settled by American?. 
 Admitted to the Union, 1861. Ranks fifth in cattle, corn, 
 and rye, seventh in hay and miles of railway, ninth in 
 hogs, horses, wheat, and coal, fourteenth 'in square 
 miles, twenty-first in population, twenty-fourth in 
 wealth. Agriculture and stock raising form the chief 
 pursuits ot the inhabitants. Every variety of cereal 
 and farm products is raised in great quantities. Nearly 
 2,000,000 acres are mineral lands. Three fourths of the 
 state is suited for agriculture. 
 
 Kentucky, first settled at Boonesboro, 1775, by the 
 English. Agriculture is the main pursuit. Wheat, 
 corn, hemp, flax, and tobacco are leading productions. 
 Fruits of an excellent quality abound. Horses and cat- 
 tle are reared in great numbers. Thousands of swine 
 fatten in the woods. Mining is carried on to a large 
 extent. Kentucky produces nearly one half the tobacco 
 raised in the United States. 
 
 Knights Templars, a religious order instituted 1119; 
 flourished in England during the reign of Henry II.; 
 all of them arrested in France in one day ; they were 
 charged with great crime and great riches ; 59 of them 
 were burned alive at Paris, October 13, 1307; their order 
 destroyed by Philip of France, 1311. 
 
 L,a Belle Alliance is the name of a farm some thir- 
 teen miles from Brussels ; ever memorable for being 
 the position occupied by the center of the French in- 
 fantry in the battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815). Napo- 
 leon himself was in the vicinity of this farm, but 
 Wellington was at Mont St. Jean, two miles further 
 north. Between these two spots was La Have Sainte, 
 where were posted the French tirailleurs. The Prus- 
 sians call the battle of Waterloo the " Battle of la Belle 
 Alliance," and the French call it the " Battle of Mont 
 Saint Jean." 
 
 Liberia, First settlement of, on the west coast of 
 Africa, made in 1820, under the patronage of the Ameri- 
 can Colonization Society. 
 
 Lijrny, Battle of, Prussians under Blucher, totally de- 
 feated by the French, June 16, 1815. 
 
 Lincoln's Inn, London, the palace of the Bishop of 
 Chichester, about 122G ; converted into an inn of court 
 about 1310. 
 
 Louisiana (Creole state). First settlement, by the 
 French, at Iberville, 1699. Admitted to the Union, 1812. 
 Ranks first in sugar and molasses; third in rice; ninth 
 in salt; twenty-second in population ; twenty-seventh in 
 wealth ; twenty-eighth in square miles; twenty-ninth 
 in miles of railway. Holding, as it does, the outlet to 
 the Mississippi Valley, the state is able to control both 
 the foreign and domestic trade of this large and rich 
 section, hence commerce is large and important. The 
 manufacturing interests are comparatively small, ex- 
 cept in sutrars and molasses. Agriculture is the chief 
 pursuit. This state is the only- part of our country pro- 
 ducing sugar in large quantities. Cotton is largely 
 cultivated, Louisiana ranking fourth in its production. 
 The rice crop is also large. Indian corn and other cere-
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 291 
 
 als are also produce/T to a eonsiderable extent. The 
 tropical fruits are abundant. 
 
 Lombardy, kiiiAflom of , began 573 ; made numerous 
 conquests till 1771. when Decuderlus, their last king. 
 was taken by Charlemagne and territories annexed to 
 the German empire. 
 
 London, formerly called Augusta, founded by the 
 Romans, 49: walled and a palace built, 3K8; city re- 
 paired by Alfred, 885; burned to the ground, a'bout 
 912 : nearly destroyed by fire, 1077, and again in 1110 ; the 
 chief magistrate in the time of William I. was called 
 port-reeve; Richard I. ordained two bailiffs, but King 
 John changed them to a mayor: obtained their first 
 free charter for electing their own magistrates, 1208 ; 
 gates of the city taken down, 1760 ; the common council 
 ordered to wear blue silk gowns at court, September 16, 
 1761; practice discontinued, 1775; London bridge built 
 about 1098. The largest and richest city in the world. 
 
 Louislm rjj. taken by the French, July 27, 1758. 
 
 Lycurgrus, established his laws at Lacedaemon, B. C. 
 884 ; his institutions renounced by the Spartans, 188. 
 
 Mahrattas, The, are a native Indian race which 
 founded an empire in Central and Western India, 1674. 
 After 1795, Scindia, Holkar, ami Berar became inde- 
 pendent; the confederacy of Mahratta states came to 
 an end in 1818, and all the" chiefs became dependants of 
 the British Crown. 
 
 Massachusetts, first settled by the English at Ply- 
 mouth in 1620. Ranks first in cotton, woolen, and 
 worsted goods, cod and inackerelfishing ; second in com- 
 merce ; third in manufactories, printing, and publish- 
 ing: fourth in silk goods; fifth in soap and in wealth, 
 sixth in iron and steel; ninth in agricultural imple- 
 ments. Its manufactured articles include leather and 
 morocco, flour and meal, lumber and furniture, refined 
 molasses and sugar, machinery, ship-building, animal 
 and vegetable oils. Manufacturing and commerce chiefly 
 engage the attention of its inhabitants. The middle anil 
 western parts are fertile. Farms are highly cultivated. 
 
 Madagascar, first seen by the Portuguese, 1506; at- 
 teni]>r-ut colonization were" made by the English and 
 French from 1644 to 1773. The Island 'is at present under 
 a native ruler, though tributary to France. 
 
 Madeira Islands, discovered by the Portuguese, 1411. 
 
 Madrid, built B. C. 936; occupies the site of the an- 
 cient Mantua-Carpepanorum, called Majoritium in the 
 Middle Ages. Its importance commenced in 15C3, when 
 it was made the capital of Spain by Philip II. It was 
 held by the French from 1808 to 1812,"and here Napoleon 
 placed' his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain. 
 
 Marriage, first institution of, by ceremony, ascribed 
 to Cecrops, king of Athens, B. C. 1556; celebration in 
 churches first ordained by Pope Innocent III. about 
 1200, before which the only ceremony was that of a man 
 leading his bride home to his house ; marriage in Lent 
 forbidden by the Church, 364; forbidden to priests, 
 1015 ; publication of bans instituted about 1210. 
 
 Maryland, first settled by the English, 1634, at St. 
 Mary's. The chief industries are agriculture and man- 
 ufacturing. Corn, wheat, and tobacco are the leading 
 agricultural products. Coal is mined extensively. 
 Among other commercial products are flour and meal, 
 smelted copper, refined sugar and molasses, cotton 
 goods, lumber and furniture, malt and distilled liquors, 
 tobacco and cigars, oysters, fish, and vegetables, leather 
 goods, clothing, printing, and publishing. The' foreign 
 commerce of the state is carried on chiefly through the 
 city of Baltimore, which has all the advantages of a 
 seaport. The chief exports are tobacco, flour, canned 
 fruits, and oysters. 
 
 Maine (Pine Tree State). Settled by French at Bris- 
 tol, u;-_>5; admitted to the Union, 1820*. Ranks fifth in 
 buckwheat and copper: eighth in hops and potatoes; i 
 eleventh in hay : twenty-first in wealth ; twenty-seventh 
 in population;" thirty-third in miles of railway; thirty- 
 sixth in square miles. Industries: Extensive lumber 
 and ship-building trade, fisheries, cotton, woolens, 
 tanned and curried leather, boots and shoes, lime, etc. 
 T'-ie agricultural portion of the state lies in the valley 
 of St. John, and between the Penobscot and Kennebe'c 
 rivers. 
 
 Magna Charta, The, was the great charter or docu- 
 ment, founded mainly upon earlier Saxon charters, 
 which the English barons compelled King John to sign 
 at Runny medet June 15, 1215). The most important pro- 
 visions are: <1) No scutage or aid shall be raised, 
 except in the case of the king's captivity, the knighting 
 of his eldest son, or the marriage of his eldest daughter, 
 except by the general council of the kingdom ; (2; no 
 
 ' freeman shall be imprisoned or disseised, outlawed, or 
 proceeded against other than by the legal judgment of 
 liis peer, or by the law of the la'nd ; (3) that right or jus- 
 tice shall not "be sold, delayed, or denied to any ; <4) that 
 the civil court shall be stationary, and not follow the 
 king's person. Other provisions were directed against 
 the abuse of the power of the king as lord paramount, 
 the tyranny of the forest laws, and grievances connected 
 with feudal tenure. The Charter of Forests was granted 
 at the same time. Both documents have been confirmed 
 by Act of Parliament thirty-two times. 
 
 Manitoba was first settled by the French in 1731, and 
 English traders first made their appearance in 1767. It 
 is a wheat- growing country, and furs are also a leading 
 product. All kinds of garden vegetables, as well.as oats, 
 barley, Indian corn, nops, flax, hemp, potatoes, and 
 other" root crops are easily raised. The grassy savannas 
 of the Red River afford abundant pasturage. The 
 climate is very severe in winter, but occasionally hot in 
 summer. Winnipeg is the capital. 
 
 Massacres at Alexandria of many thousand citizens 
 by order of Antoninus. 213; of Thessalonica, Vhen up- 
 wards of 7,000 persons were put to the sword by order of 
 Theodosius, 390 ; of 35,010 persons at Constantinople, 532 ; 
 of the Jews, 1189; of the Huguenots at Paris, by order 
 of Charles IX., when 70,000 where destroyed, June 12, 
 141**; of the Swedish nobility at a feast, by order of 
 Christian II., 1520; at Paris, when the king le'd the way 
 and nearly 10,000 Protestants were slain, 1572; of the 
 Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 were 
 slain, 1592 ; of the English factory by the Dutch at Am- 
 boyna, 1623, in order to dispossess them of the Spice 
 Islands; of the Irish at the Island of Magee, when 
 40,000 English Protestants were killed, 1641; of the 
 whites in San Domingo by the negroes, 1803 and 1804; of 
 the Greeks at Scio, 1823. 
 
 Memnon. the Egyptian, invented letters, B. C. 1822. 
 
 Mexico, first conquered by Spain, 1521, by Cortez; a 
 revolution, fomented by the "clergy, took place in 1810; 
 a constitution was proclaimed in 1812, and in May, 1822, 
 Don Augustin Iturbide was elected emperor of Mexico; 
 he abdicated in 1823; became a federal republic in 1824; 
 in 1863, a French army invaded Mexico and occupied 
 the capital. Under the patronage of Napoleon the III., 
 Maximilian of Austria became emperor of Mexico from 
 18i>4 till 1867, when he was shot and a republic re- 
 proclaimed. 
 
 Minnesota (Gopher State). First settlement, by 
 Americans, Red River, 1812. Admitted to the Union, 
 1858. Ranks fourth in wheat and barley; eighth in oats 
 and hay; twelfth in miles of railway; thirteenth in 
 square miles; seventeenth in wealth; twenty-sixth in 
 population. The leading industries are: 1. Agricul- 
 ture; the staple productions being corn, wheat, and 
 oats, while other cereals are largely raised. 2. Lumber- 
 ing; great quantities of lumber are sawed in this state, 
 and immense rafts of logs are floated down the Missis- 
 sippi, to be sawed in other states. 3. Manufacturing; 
 the principal articles being sawed lumber and flour. 
 
 Missouri (Pennsylvania of the West). First settle- 
 ment, by the French, at St. Genevieve, 1764. Admitted 
 to the Union, 1821. Ranks first in mules ; third in oxen, 
 hogs, corn, and copper; fifth in population; sixth in 
 iron ore, wool, milch cows, and horses ; seventh in oats ; 
 eighth in wealth, wheat, and tobacco ; ninth in sheep 
 and potatoes; tenth in miles of railway; sixteenth in 
 square miles. Agriculture is the leading occupation. 
 Mining is extensively carried on in the section south of 
 St. Louis. The iron'resources of the state exceed those 
 of any other. The manufacturing interests are large 
 and increasing. The chief agricultural products are 
 great crops of corn, wheat, rye, tobacco, hemp, and 
 grapes. 
 
 Mississippi. First settlement made by the French at 
 Natchez, 1716. This state ranks second in cotton ; fifth 
 in rice; fifth in mules and molasses; seventh in sugar. 
 It is almost exclusively an agricultural state. Great 
 quantities of rice, corn, sugar, and sweet potatoes are 
 produced. Many tropical fruits grow in abundance. 
 The labor is largely performed by negroes. Horses, 
 mules, swine, and cattle, are extensively raised. 
 
 Microscopes. First used in Germany, 1621 ; with two 
 glasses, invented by Drebbel, 1624 ; solar, invented by 
 Lieberkuk, 1470. 
 
 Milan, anciently Liguria, the seat of the Roman em- 
 pire, 303; conquered by the Goths in the fifth century, 
 who were dispossessed" by the Lombards, 572; subdued 
 by the Emperor Charlemagne, 801 ; the French expelled 
 about 1525; taken by the Imperialists, 1706: recovered 
 by France and Spain, 1743; restored to Austria, 1748; in
 
 292 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 1805 the French made it the capital of the kingdom of 
 Italy; retaken by Austria in 1814; in 1859 was incorpo- 
 rated with Lombardy in the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Minstrels, originally piers appointed by the Lords 
 of Manor to divert their copyholders whilst at work; 
 owed their origin to the gleemen or harpers of the 
 Saxons ; continued until about 1500; female harpers not 
 uncommon in Britain, 680. 
 
 Mint. First established in London as a privileged 
 place, 1066 ; for the coinage of money, 1813; mint of the 
 United States first established at Philadelphia, April 2, 
 1792 ; coinage of gold commenced July 31, 1795. 
 
 Michigan (Wolverine State). First settled by the 
 French, at Detroit, 1650. Admitted to the. Union, 1837. 
 Ranks first in copper, luniber, and salt ; second in iron 
 ore ; third in buckwheat and wool ; fifth in hops and 
 potatoes; sixth in wheat, barley, and wealth; seventh 
 in agricultural implements; ninth in oats, population, 
 and miles of railway, and twentieth in square miles. 
 Agriculture, mining, lumbering, manufacturing, and 
 commerce command the attention of the inhabitants. 
 Large crops of wheat, corn, pats, and potatoes are pro- 
 duced, as also great quantities of wool, butter, and 
 cheese. Fruit raising is extensively followed, the value 
 of the orchard products exceeds that of New Jersey or 
 California. The copper mines of the state are the rich- 
 est known, and are extensively worked. The produc- 
 tion of sawed lumber is greater than that of any other 
 state. The value of manufacturing exceeds $100,000,000. 
 The fisheries form one of the secondary, yet important 
 sources of wealth, large quantities being taken for home 
 use and export. 
 
 Montana ranks fourth in silver, and square miles ; 
 fifth in gold ; fifteenth in cattle ; thirty-sixth in miles of 
 railway, and forty-fourth in population. The popula- 
 tion of Montana, according to census of 1880, was 39. 159, 
 but in 1884 the total vote cast for delegate to Congress 
 was 26,969, and in 1886, 32,262. In 1890, the population 
 numbered 132, 159. First settlement, by Americans, 1852. 
 Organized as a territory, 1864. Admitted to the Union 
 in 1889. 
 
 Mogul Empire. First conquered by Jenghis Kahn, a 
 Tartar prince, who died 1226; Timur Bek became 
 great mogul by conquest, 1399 ; the dynasty continued 
 in his family until the conquest of Tamerlane in the 
 fifteenth century; Kouli Khan, the famous Sophi of 
 Persia, considerably diminished the power of the mogul, 
 and since that event many of the nabobs have made 
 themselves independent; the last sovereign, Shah 
 Allura, died in 1806, a pensioner of England. 
 
 Monkery began in Egypt and Persia ; tolerably well 
 established about 330; in Egypt alone there were 96,000 
 monks. St. Anthony, the first example of a monastic 
 life, 305, established the first monastery on Mt. Colzim, 
 near the Red Sea. Athanasius introduced monastic life 
 into Rome, 341. 
 
 Mount Vernon, memorable as the residence and the 
 burial place of George Washington, is on the right bank 
 of the Potomac, in Virginia, fifteen miles below Wash- 
 ington. In 1856 the mansion and surrounding property 
 were saved from the auctioneer's hammer, and secured 
 as a national possession. 
 
 Moors, driven out of Spain, after they had continued 
 there 900 years, 1620, for attempting to free themselves 
 from the Inquisition; they were in number about 
 900,000. 
 
 Morocco, Empire of, anciently Mauritania, first 
 known, 1008; possessed by the Romans, B. C.25; about 
 1116 Abdallah, the leader of a sect of Mohammedans, 
 founded the dynasty of Almahides, which ended in the 
 last sovereign's total defeat in Spain, 1212; Morocco 
 was afterwards seized by the King of Fez, but the de- 
 scendants of Mahomet, about 15, r >0, subdued and united 
 the three kingdoms, and formed what is called the Em- 
 
 Eire of Morocco. The present sovereign of Morocco 
 elongs to the ninth dynasty, founded in 1C48. 
 Moscow, burned, 30,000 nouses destroyed, in 1739; 
 entered by the French, September 14, 1812, and burned 
 by the Russians, in consequence of which the French 
 retreated with great loss. 
 
 Museum, The British, established 1753; large addi- 
 tions made to the building and the library of George 
 III. given to the institution by George IV., 1827. 
 
 Nantes, Edict of, passed by Henry IV., by which 
 Protestants enjoyed toleration 'in France, 1598, 'revoked 
 by Louis XIV., 1685; in consequence of which 50,(iOO 
 French Protestantsemigrated to England ; they engaged 
 largely in the manufacture of silk ; some introduced the 
 art of making crystal glasses for watches and pictures. 
 
 Naples, anciently Capua and Campania, kingdom of, 
 began 1020; given by the pope to the Comte D'Anjou, 
 1'_'66: Alphonsusof Arragon united Sicily to it, and the 
 kings have since been called king of the Two Sicilies, 
 1442; taken from the French and annexed to Spain, 
 1504; order of the Crescent founded, 1464; taken by the 
 French, January 24, 1799; Joseph Bonaparte was made 
 king of Naples in 1805, but replaced by Murat in 1808; 
 the Austrians took possession in 1814; in 1861 the last 
 king of Naples was expelled by Garibaldi, and the two 
 Sicilies were merged in the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Nebraska. First settlement made by Americans. 
 Beef , cattle, and other livestock are raised in great num- 
 bers upon the grazing sections. Corn, wheat, and other 
 cereals, and fruit growing are carried on extensively 
 and with great success. The cheap and fertile land's 
 offer great inducements for settlement to immigrants. 
 
 New Hampshire (Granite State). First settlement 
 by the English at Little Harbor, 1623. Ranks third in 
 manufacture of cotton goods; fifteenth in potatoes; 
 twenty-second in wealth ; thirty-first in population ; 
 thirty-seventh in miles of railway ; forty-first in square 
 miles. Largely engaged in manufacturing; the abun- 
 dant water power affords great advantages. Agricul- 
 ture, pasturage, and drainage occupy a large number. 
 
 New Mexico. First settled by the' Spaniards at Santa 
 Fe, 1537; organized as a territory, 1850. Ranks eighth 
 in silver; eleventh in gold; nineteenth in sheep, and 
 twenty-second in cattle. Chief industries, mining and 
 cattle raising. 
 
 Nevada. First settled, by Americans, in 1850. Ranks 
 second in gold; fourth in silver, and thirty-seventh in 
 wealth. The leading industry is mining. The mines of 
 the state yield over three fifths of all the silver pro- 
 duced in 'the United States. Stock raising is also 
 largely followed, owing to the large amount of good 
 pasture land. 
 
 Netherlands were placed tinder the sovereignty of 
 the house of Orange and became a kingdom, 1815 ; in 
 1816, the Prince of Orange was elevated to the rank of 
 King of the Netherlands, with increased territories, ex- 
 tending over the present kingdom of Belgium; Bel- 
 gium was then erected into a kingdom, and the present 
 limits of the kingdom of the Netherlands were defined 
 in 1833. 
 
 New England, First settlement of, made at Plymouth, 
 November 10, 1620; states united, 1643. 
 
 Newfoundland, discovered by Cabot about 1500; 
 began to be settled by the English, 1520 ; in 1713 it was 
 declared by the treaty of Utrecht to belong wholly to 
 Great Britain. 
 
 New Jersey (Jersey Blue). First settlement by the 
 Dutch at Bergen, 1620". Ranks first in fertilizing marl, 
 zinc, and silk goods; fourth in iron ore; fifth in iron 
 and steel; sixth in buckwheat, manufactories, and 
 soap ; seventh in rye, twelfth in wealth ; nineteenth in 
 population; twenty-sixth in miles of railway; forty- 
 third in square miles. Manufactures : Molasses and 
 sugar refining, flour, machinery, leather and leather 
 goods, hats, caps, and clothing, woolen and cotton 
 goods, bleaching and dyeing, glass. Industries: The 
 commerce of the state is small, its manufactures large 
 and various. Its shad and oyster fisheries are exten- 
 sive. Mining is also a leading industry. But its chief 
 industry is agriculture and market gardening, the state 
 being one immense garden, the mildness of its climate 
 being such that small fruits are very productive, and, 
 being adjacent to the markets of New York and Phila- 
 delphia, farmers and fruit raisers find large profits from 
 their labor. 
 
 New Orleans. First laid out by the French, 1720; 
 battle of, January 8, 1815. 
 
 New Zealand, in the South Seas, first discovered bj 
 Abel J. Tasman, 1642; visited by Pope Marcus, a3C< 
 formally taken possession of as a British colony in 1840. 
 
 New York (Empire State). First settlement by the 
 Dutch at New York(New Amsterdam), 1614. Ranks first 
 in value of manufactories, population, soap, printing, 
 and publishing, hops, hay, potatoes, buckwheat, milch 
 cows, and wealth ; second in salt, silk goods, malt and 
 distilled liquors, and barley; third in agricultural im- 
 plements, iron ore, iron and steel, oats and rye ; fourth 
 in wool and miles of railway ; twenty-seventh in square 
 miles. In population, wealth, and commerce, New York 
 is the first in the Union. The commerce extends to all 
 parts of the world. Manufacturing la large, and con- 
 stantly increasing. Agriculture is one of the chief pur- 
 suits, wheat and corn being the staple productions. The 
 development of the salt springs of the interior is also one 
 of the industries of the state. Its magnificent system
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 293 
 
 of canals and railroads has done much to increase its 
 domestic trade. 
 
 North Carolina (Old North State). First settlers, 
 English, Cowan river, 1650. Ranks first in tar and tur- 
 pentine; second in copper; third in peanuts and to- 
 bacco ; fourth in rire : ninth in cotton ; fifteenth :n pop- 
 ulation : twentieth in miles of railway; twenty-third 
 in wealth: twenty-sixth in square miles. Agriculture 
 is the leading industry, the chief articles being corn, 
 wheat, tobacco, sweet potatoes, oats, rice, and cotton. 
 Vast forests furnish three times as much pitch, tar, 
 and resin as all the other states together. There are 
 valuable gold mines, and iron, copper, and coal abound. 
 
 Normandy, erected into a dukedom, 876; ceded to 
 France by Henry III., May 20, 1259; taken by the Eng- 
 lish in 1419, and' retained "until U25; finally joined to 
 France under Charles VII. 
 
 Norway, the ancient Scandinavia, including Sweden, 
 united with Denmark, iH'S; in 1319 Norway and Sweden, 
 for a short time, became united under Magnus V. ; in 
 1397 Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were again united, 
 which union remained in force until 1523, when Sweden 
 emancipated herself; Norway was annexed to Sweden, 
 November 4. 1M4. by the treaty of Kiel. 
 
 Notaries Public, originally appointed by the Fathers 
 of the Christian Church to collect the acts andmemoirs 
 of martyrs in the first century ; sincechanged into com- 
 merciaroffices. 
 
 Nova Scotia, charter granted, 1621 ; afterwards in the 
 -ion of the French, but ceded to England, 1713; 
 peopled by England, 1749. 
 
 Nova /einbla, discovered by Capt. Hugh Willoughby, 
 1553; has no permanent inhabitants. 
 
 Oath, swearing on the Gospels, first used, 528; first 
 administered in judicial proceedings bv the Saxons 
 about 600. 
 
 _Ohio was first settled by the English, at Marietta, in 
 1788. Ranks first in agricultural implements and wool ; 
 second in petroleum, iron, and steel; third in popula- 
 tion, wheat, sheep, coal, malt, and distilled liquors; 
 fourth in printing and publishing, salt, soap, and 
 wealth : fifth in milch cows, hogs, horses, hay, tobacco, 
 iron ore, and miles of railway. The agricultural inter- 
 est i> very large. Great crops of wheat, corn, oats, bar- 
 ley, hay, potatoes, garden and orchard products are 
 raised: also nax, tobacco, and grapes; Coal and iron 
 mining are extensively carried on in the eastern and 
 southern parts, and large numbers of live stock are sent 
 to the eastern markets. Its commerce by lake, river, 
 canal, and railroad transportation, is very large. 
 
 Olympiads, games instituted at Olympia by Pelops, 
 in honor of Jupiter, B. C. 1307; they we're revived by the 
 Greeks about 400 years after the destruction of troy, 
 and continued until the reign of Theodosius the Grea't, 
 when a new code of reckoning began ; the first 
 Olympiads began July 23, 776, Corsebus being then the 
 Olympic victor: the last ended about 440 B. C. 
 
 Ontario is the most important province of Canada. 
 Principal products are grain, fruit, lumber, petroleum, 
 copper, and iron. The population of Ontario is one 
 third of the whole Dominion. Toronto, the capital, is 
 the manufacturing and educational center. The popu- 
 lation of the province is largely of British descent. 
 
 Oregon was first settled by the Americans in 1811. 
 Agriculture, stock raising, anil lumbering are the chief 
 pursuits; wheat being the staple article of the former, 
 while most of the cereals of the middle states flourish. 
 Cutting timber from the immense pine forests of the 
 state gives employment to great numbers of inhabitants. 
 
 Orange, Title "of, first in the Nassau family by the 
 marriage of Claude de Chalons, the Prince of 'Orange's 
 sister, with the Count of Nassau, 1530; the Prince of 
 Orange was applied to by England for assistance, 1688; 
 landed at Torbay, in England, with an army, November 
 5, 1688 : took on him the government at the invitation of 
 the Lords ; declared king of England, February 13, 1689. 
 
 Organs. First introduced into churches 'by Pope 
 Yitallian I., 083 : into the western churches, 826. 
 
 Ostrogoths, their kingdom began in Italy, 47C ; 
 ended :.~>4. 
 
 Ottoman, or Turkish Empire, founded by Othman I., 
 in 1299, in Asia Minor, and soon extended i'nto Europe. 
 AVith the capture of Constantinople, i:i 1453, it suc- 
 ceeded to the Byzantine Empire. 
 
 Paganism, finally overthrown in the Roman Empire 
 in the reign of Theodosius between 3*8 and 395. 
 
 Palatines. Seven thousand families of these poor 
 Protestants were driven by the French from their habi- 
 
 tations on the banks of the Rhine, and came to Eng- 
 land ; a brief was granted to collect alms for them. 
 Five hundred families went under the protection of the 
 government to Ireland and the rest were sent to New 
 York and Hudson's Bay ; they finally went to Pennsyl- 
 vania, where they settled, 1709. 
 
 Pandects, a system of laws accidentally discovered at 
 Amalfi, Italy, 1137. 
 
 Pantheon, The, at Rome, built by Agrippa B. C. 25. 
 
 Paris, made the capital of France, 510; consumed by 
 fire, 588 ; barricaded to oppose the entry of the Duke o'f 
 Guise, 15 S 8; again 1688, in opposition'to the regency; 
 first parliament held, 1302 ; general confederation in the 
 Champ de Mars, July 14, 1790 ; an armed mob forced the 
 Tuileries and insulted the king of France, June 
 20, 1792; Tuileries again attacked and Swiss Guard 
 massacred by the Populists, August 10, 1792 ; royal fam- 
 ily imprisoned in the temple, August 14 ; massacre of the 
 state prisoners, September 2-5, 1792; Lord Malmesbury 
 negotiated for peace, October 28, 1796; Napoleon arrived 
 at midnight, December 18, 1812; allied sovereigns en- 
 tered, March 31, 1814; Louis XVIII. entered May 3, 18U ; 
 Napoleon returned to, from Elba, March 21, 1815; left ic 
 to meet the allied forces, May 2, 1815 ; capitulated to the 
 allies, July 3, 1815; treaties of general peace signed 
 November 20, 1815. 
 
 Pauls, St., London, built by Ethelbert, King of Kent, 
 on the foundation of an old temple of Diana, 596; 
 burned, 964; rebuilt and consecrated, 1240; it was 
 150 years building; again burned down, it was re- 
 built, 1631 ; first stone of the present building laid, 1675; 
 finished, 1710, at an expense of about $5,000,000. 
 
 Persecution, by the Jews, the first in 33; second, 44; 
 first general of the Christians under Nero, 64; second 
 under Domitiau, 93; third under Trajan, 107; fourth 
 under Marcus Aurelius, 154; fifth under Severus, 202; 
 sixth under Maximinus, 235 ; seventh under Decius, 250 ; 
 eighth under Valerian, 257; ninth under Aurelian,272; 
 tenth under Diocletian, 302; eleventh by the Arians 
 under Coustantius, 337 ; twelfth under Julian the Apos- 
 tate, 361; Luther's followers persecuted in Franconia, 
 1525. The Protestants persecuted in England, 1556 ; in 
 France, 1723. 
 
 Persian Empire, began under Cyrus after his con- 
 quest of Media, B. C. 536; ended in the conquest of 
 Darius, about 330; a new empire called the Parthian 
 was founded upon' its ruins by the Persians under Ar- 
 baces, B. C. 250, but took its original name under Arta- 
 xerxes, 229 ; the Saracens, however, A. D. 651, put an end 
 to that empire and Persia became a prey to the Tartars, 
 and the province of Hindustan, until the emperor Kouli 
 Kahn raised it to a powerful kingdom; emperor assas- 
 sinated by his relatives, 1747. 
 
 Pennsylvania (Keystone State). First settlement, 
 English, Philadelphia, 1082. Ranks first in rye, iron 
 and steel, petroleum, and coal ; second in wealth, popu- 
 lation, manufactories, buckwheat, potatoes, printing, 
 and publishing; third in miles of railway, milch cows, 
 hay, soap ; fourth in oats and tobacco ; fifth in silk 
 goods, wool, malt and distilled liquors; sixth in salt, 
 copper, and agricultural implements ; eighth in horses 
 and sheep; thirtieth in square miles. Pennsylvania 
 ranks next to New York in wealth, population, and 
 manufactures. Industries : The people are largely en- 
 gaged in agriculture, mining, and manufactures ; wheat, 
 corn, orchard fruits, potatoes, butter, and wool, are the 
 chief products. The farms are generally large and well 
 conducted. The manufactures are very extensive, and 
 comprise a great variety of articles; iron, cotton, and 
 woolen goods being the leading articles. In the pro- 
 duction of coal and iron Pennsylvania surpasses all 
 other states. 
 
 Pharsalia, Battle of, where Porupey was defeated by 
 Caesar, B. C. 47. 
 
 Philippi, Battle of, which terminated in the Roman 
 Republic, B. C. 41. 
 
 Phoenicians, by order of Pharaoh Necho, sailed f r*m 
 the Red Sea, round Africa, and returned by the Med- 
 iterranean, B. C. 607. 
 
 Picts. First mentioned in history, 284 ; kingdom of , 
 began in Scotland, 823; extirpated by the Scots, 840; 
 Pict's wall between England and Scotland built, 123. 
 
 Plagne. Almost the whole world visited by one, 
 B. C. 767 ; in Rome, which carried off 10,000 persons in a 
 day, 78 A. D. ; in England, that carried off 34,000, 771' : in 
 Scotland, wherein 40,000 died, 954; in England, 1247; 
 again, 1347; in Germany, which cutoff 90.000 people, 1348; 
 in Paris and England, when 57,000 died in England, 1362 ; 
 again in England, 30.000 killed in London, 1407; at Con- 
 stantinople, when 200,000 persons died, 1611 ; at Lyons,
 
 294 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 where 60,000 died, 1632; again at London, where 68,000 
 were destroyed, 1665 ; at Marseilles, fatal to 18,000 per- 
 sons, 1720 ; at Bassora, in Persia, when 80,000 persons died, 
 I "73 * 
 
 Poet laureate. The first mention of one is in the 
 reign of Edward IV., though the present office under 
 this title is derived from the " King's Versifier," of 
 whom we hear in 1251. 
 
 Poietiers, Battle of, between the French and English, 
 in which the former were defeated, September 19, 1356. 
 
 and divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, 1773; 
 annexed to Russia, 1815; revolution commenced at War- 
 saw, November 29, 1830. 
 
 Pope, Title of, formerly given to all bishops; but 
 Boniface III., 6ne, influenced the emperor Phocas to con- 
 fine it to the Bishops of Rome; Hygeuus was the first 
 Bishop of Rome that took the title, 138 ; pope's suprem- 
 acy over the Christian church, first established by Bon- 
 iface III., 607; John XIX., a layman made pope, 1024; 
 first pope that kept an army was Leo IX. ,1054; pope 
 Gregory obliged Henry IV., emperor of Germany, to 
 stand three days, in the depth of winter, barefooted, at 
 his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077; the pope's 
 authority first introduced into England, 1079 ; abrogated 
 by Parliament, 1534: the word pope struck out of all 
 English books, 1541. 
 
 Portugal, formerly called Lusitania, with the rest of 
 Spain, subject to the Moors, 713 ; held by the Moors until 
 the end of the eleventh century ; Portuguese monarchy 
 established, 1139; first conquest abroad made in 1415, 
 upon the discovery of the Island of Madeira; in 1.500 
 Brazil was discovered by Cabral, which was followed by 
 the establishment of a colony; taken by the Spaniards, 
 1580 ; revolted from Spain, and the Duke of Braganza 
 sat on the throne under Philip IV. of Spain, and the 
 III. of Portugal, 1640; in the latter year, the Duke of 
 Braganza expelled the Spaniards, and ascended the 
 throne under the title of John IV. ; invaded by France 
 in 1807, when the royal family went to Brazil ; from 
 1827 to 1833 the thronc'wasusurped by Don Miguel. The 
 erection of Brazil into an independent empire in 1826, 
 robbed Portugal of her richest possession. 
 
 Post, method of carrying letters invented by the Uni- 
 versity of Paris about 1470; general post office, estab- 
 lished in England, 1643. 
 
 Potatoes. First introduced into England from 
 America by Sir Francis Drake, 1586 ; introduced into 
 Ireland, 1610. 
 
 Protestants, Name of, began from the Diet of Spires, 
 when several of the German states protested against a 
 decree of the Diet to support the doctrine of the Church 
 of Rome, April 19, 1530. 
 
 Prussia, anciently possessed by the Venedi, B. C. 
 320; the Venedi were conquered by Borussi who inhab- 
 ited the Riphsean Mountains; whence the country was 
 called Borussia or Prussia, which was subdued liy the 
 Mercian knights, sent bv the Emperor Frederick II., 
 1215; revolted to Jagello, King of Poland, 1219; the 
 grand master of the Teutonic order conquered the 
 Poles and kept possession till 1700, when he was made a 
 king. 
 
 Public Houses, power of licensing them, first granted 
 to Sir Giles Montesson and Sir Francis Michel, 1621. 
 
 Punic Wars, First, began B. C. 204, lasted twenty- 
 three years ; second, began 218, and ended 200 ; third, be- 
 gan 150. 
 
 Quakers, founded by George Fox, 1646; sixty trans- 
 ported from England to America by order of Council, 
 1664; their affirmation adopted by Act of Parliament 
 for an oath, 1696. 
 
 Quebec, a province of Canada, was originally settled 
 by the French, and the present population is largely 
 composed of descendants of the Voyagers. The capital, 
 Quebec, is the oldest city in the Dominion. Its fortifi- 
 cations -were at one time* considered next to Gibraltar, 
 the strongest in the world. Nevertheless, the fortress 
 was captured by General Wolfe ; taken by the English, 
 December 13, 1758; unsuccessful attack on,"bv the Ameri- 
 cans, under (ieneral Montgomery, December 31, 1775. 
 The metropolis. Montreal, is .no'ted for its churches. 
 Ship building n the chief manufacturing industry. 
 There are also manufactures of iron castings, machin- 
 ery, cutlery, nails, leather, musical instruments, boots 
 and shoes, paper, India rubber goods, tobacco ;unl steel. 
 The staple of export is timber. Quebec wns first vis- 
 ited by Jacques Cartier in 1535. It then consisted of 
 
 an Indian village called Stadacona. In July, 1608- 
 Champlain founded the city, giving it its present name. 
 
 Reformation, The, first set on foot by John Wycliffe, 
 1370; began in England by Henry VIII. casting "of)' the 
 pope's supremacy and introducing the Protestant reli- 
 gion, 1534; completed by Edward VI., 1547. 
 
 Revolution, in Great Britain, took place through the 
 Prince of Orange taking possession of the throne, No- 
 vember 5, 1688; in France, began 1789; in the United 
 States, July 4, 1776: in Sweden, in 1772; second French 
 revolution, July, 1830. 
 
 Rhodes. An island of the Turks, peopled from 
 Crete, B. C. 916; the republic completed, 480; the citv 
 built, 432; taken by the Saracens and the Colossus sold, 
 652; taken from the Turks, 1308; retaken by them from 
 the Knights of Jerusalem, 1523; almost destroyed by ;m 
 inundation, B. C. 314; Hipparchus began his astronom- 
 ical observations here, 167. 
 
 Rhode Island. First settlement made by the Eng- 
 lish at Providence, 1636. Ranks second in cotton, flax, 
 and linen goods; twentieth in wealth. The state is 
 largely engaged in manufacturing. It has considerable 
 commerce. Farming is carried on to some extent : the 
 chief productions are grain, fruit, butter, and cheese. 
 
 Romans. First engaged in naval affairs and de- 
 feated the Carthaginians, B. C. 260; first crossed the Po, 
 pursuing the Gauls, who had entered Italy, 223; de- 
 feated by Hannibal at Canna>, 216; commenced the 
 auxiliary war against Philip in Epirus, which was con- 
 tinued at intervals, 216; subdued Spain and Sparta, 
 194; defeated Antiochus nt Thermopylae, 194; made war 
 arainst the Achirans, 147: destroyed Carthage. Hi!; 
 SO'.OOO defeated on the banks of the Rhone by the Cimbri 
 and Teutones, 105; Cyrene left them by Ptolemy Apion, 
 07; first invaded Eng'land, 15. C. 54; quitted Britain, 42f>. 
 
 Rome, built by Romulus, B. C. 753; republican gov- 
 ernment established, 509; first alliance between Rome 
 and Carthage, 508; burned by the Gauls, 390 ; first coin- 
 ing of silver, 269; first divorce known, 235; surgery in- 
 troduced, 219; gold first coined, 206 ; Asiatic luxury 'first 
 introduced by the army, from the spoils of Antiochus, 
 190; first library created with books obtained from 
 Macedonia, 168 ; philosophers and rhetoricians banished. 
 161; sumptuary law, limiting the expenses of eating and 
 drinking, 110; set on fire by Nero, A. D. C4; Capitol and 
 Pantheon destroyed by fire, 80. 
 
 Russia, anciently Sarmatia, was inhabited by the 
 Scythians ; came into renown in 804, when the natives 
 attempted to take Constantinople. The foundation of 
 the Russian empire was laid by the Rus or Varangians, 
 a body of Scandinavians led by Rurick, at Novgorod, 
 about 862; in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth 
 centuries, Russia was tributary to the Mongols; the 
 country was consolidated and extended under Ivan the 
 Great, and Ivan the Terrible, 14>2-1584. Peter the Great 
 was the most distinguished ruler of Russia, l(>72-17'-'5. 
 Important events of more recent times were : The dis- 
 memberment of Poland r of which the greater part be- 
 came Russian ; the wars of Napoleon and the burning of 
 Moscow, 1812; the Crimean war, 1853-55: the vast in- 
 crease in area by war and treaty of the Asiatic- prov- 
 inces, 1858-73 ; the abolition of serfdom. 1*51 ; the sale of 
 Alaska to the United States, 1867: the Turko-Russian 
 war, 1*77-78. 
 
 Rubicon, The, i.? a river of Italy, flowing into the 
 Adriatic, which formed the boundary between Cisalpine 
 Gaul and Italy proper. The passage of this river by 
 Julius Ca-sar was necessarily the signal for civil war. 
 the issue of which could not be foreseen, as Roman gen- 
 erals were forbidden to cross this river at the head of 
 an army. 
 
 Rye House Plot, a, plot to assassinate Charles II. at 
 a place called Rye House on his way to Newmarket, was 
 prevented by the king's house at Newmarket acciden- 
 tally taking' fire, which hastened his departure eight 
 i lays before the plot was to take place ; discovered June 
 12,"l683. 
 
 Sacred "War, first, concerning the temple of Delphi, 
 ]?. C. 448; second war, on Delphi being attacked by the 
 I'hocians, 356; war finished by Philip taking all the 
 .it ies of the Phocians, 348. 
 
 St. Helena, iirst, taken possession of by the English, 
 1600; taken by the Dutch. 1(17.": retaken by the English 
 the same year ; celebrated as the place of exile of Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte.) 18is, where he died .May :>, 1821. 
 
 Saints, tutelar, St. George of England, ST. Andrew of 
 Scotland. St. Patrick of Ireland. St. David of Wales. St. 
 I tennis of France. St. James of Spain. 
 
 Saracens, conquered by Spain, 71.": 70.000 slain in
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 295 
 
 battle by Ramirus.king of Spain, 844: empire of, ended 
 by the taking of Bagdad l>y the Tartars. 1258. 
 
 Sardinia, conquered by the Spaniards, 1303, in whose 
 -ion it continued until 170*. when it was taken by 
 an English fleet and given to the Duke of Savoy, with 
 the title of king. 
 
 Savoy. Part of Gallia, Narbonensis, submitted to 
 the Romans, B. 0. 118 ; the Alemanni seized it in 395 ; the 
 Franks, 406; it shared the revolutions of Switzerland 
 till 1040, when Conrad, Kniperor of Germany, gave it to 
 Hubert with the title of earl; erected into a duchy, 
 1417. 
 
 Sabines, The, were an important tribe of ancient 
 Italy, allied to the Latins, Samnites, etc. Famous in 
 Roman history as the people whose daughters were 
 treacherously seized by the Romans at the Consualia or 
 games in honor of the god Census. A treaty of peace 
 was concluded with the Sabines, 750 B. C. After fre- 
 quent wars, the Sabines were finally defeated, 449 B. C., 
 by M. Horatius, and were incorporated with Rome in 
 the third century B. C. 
 
 Salic Law, The, was the rode of the Salian Franks, 
 introduced into France (Gaul) by the Franks. It con- 
 tained four hundred articles, chiefly concerning debt, 
 theft, murder, and battery, the penalty in every case 
 being a fine. The most famous article of the code is 
 Title lxii.6, according to which only males could suc- 
 ceed to th3 Salic land or lod, i. c. to the lands given for 
 military service. In 1316, at the death of Louis le Hutin, 
 the law was extended to tlie crown, and continued to be 
 observed to the end of the monarchy. 
 
 San Marino, in Iraly, on the coast of the Adriatic 
 Sea, is the oldest republic in the world. It is, next to 
 Monaco, the smallest state in Europe. The exact date 
 of the establishment of this republic is not known, but 
 according to tradition it was in the fourth century, by 
 Marinu.s, a Dalmatian hermit, and has ever since re- 
 mained independent. It is mountainous and contains 
 four or five villages. The word " liberty " is inscribed 
 on its Capitol. 
 
 St. James's Palace is a large, inelegant brick struc- 
 ture, fronting towards Pall Mall. Originally a hospital 
 dedicated to St. James, it was reconstructed a - id made 
 a manor by Henry VIII., vho also annexed to it a park. 
 Here Queen Mary died, 1558; CharleS'I. slept here the 
 night before his execution; and here Charles II., the 
 Old Pretender, and George IV. were born. When 
 Whitehall was burned, in 1697, St. James became the 
 regular London residence of the British sovereigns, 
 and it continued to be so till Queen Victoria's time. 
 The Court of St. James is a frequent designation of the 
 British Court. St. James Park lies southward from the 
 Palace, and extends over fifty-eight acres. 
 
 Saxons, The ancient, we're pirates, and inhabited 
 three small islands at the month of the Elbe, and some 
 part of the shores of the Baltic ; were invited to Eng- 
 land. A. D. 440, by the Britons. 
 
 Scotland, anciently Caledonia. History began, B. C. 
 S'.'S. when Fergus I. was sent over by the people of Ire- 
 land; accepted the Christian faith about 203; united 
 under one monarchyby Kenneth II. and called Scotland, 
 838 ; divided into baronies, 1032; invaded by the King of 
 Norway, near Loch, Lomond, 12f>3 ; on the death of Alex- 
 ander III. was disputed by twelve candidates, who sub- 
 mitted their claims to the arbitration of Edward I. of 
 England, 1285, which gave him an opportunity to con- 
 quer it; recovered by the Scots, 1314; first General 
 Assembly of the church held. December 20, 15CO; United 
 with England under the reign of James VI. of Scotland 
 and James I. of England. 
 
 Sealing: of Writings. First introduced into Eng- 
 land, 1085. 
 
 Sicily. First colonized from Italy, B. C. 1294; 
 usurped by Agathocles, 317 ; Servile war began and con- 
 tinued three years, 135. 
 
 Slave Trade, Abolition of, in England proposed in 
 Parliament, 1789; abolished, 1807; abolished by France, 
 Spain, and Holland, 1817; treaty concluded between 
 Great Britain and Brazil for the abolition of, 1826. The 
 importation of slaves into the United States prohibited 
 after January 1, 1808: emancipation proclamation is- 
 sued, 1863. 
 
 Smyrna, built by the people of Cumae, B. C. 1050; 
 destroyed by an earthquake, 1040 A. D., and again, 
 1688 ; the chief commercial emporium of West Asia. 
 
 South. Carolina (Palmetto State). First settlers, 
 English, Ashley river, 1670. Ranks first in phosphates 
 and rice; fifth in cotton; twentieth in population; 
 twenty-eighth in miles of railway; thirtieth in wealth; 
 thirty-seventh in square miles. Agriculture is the prin- 
 
 cipal industry, the state producing a larger amount of 
 rice than any other state. " Sea Island Cotton " is of 
 the finest quality, and superior to all other, and is raised 
 on several islands along the coast of this state, and 
 Georgia. Corn, oats, wheat, sweet potatoes, and to- 
 bacco, are extensively raised. The export of rice and 
 cotton is large. But few manufactures are as yet es- 
 tablished in the state, though considerable attention is 
 being given to them. 
 
 Spain. First civilized by the Phoenicians; conquered 
 by the Romans, B. C. 206; the Goths and Vandals over- 
 turned the Roman power, 409, and continued in posses- 
 sion of the country till it was conquered by the Moore 
 in 712 ; the Moors kept possession till the small kingdoms 
 were swallowed up in Castile and Aragon ; kingdom 
 founded by the union of the two crowns of Castile and 
 Aragon, 1504; the king and princes of the House of 
 Bourbon ceded their claims to the throne of Spain in 
 1808; Joseph Bonaparte became king in the same year; 
 Ferdinand's rule was shortly afterwards re-established, 
 but was marked by serious insurrections; he was suc- 
 ceeded by his daughter Isabella II., who was forced to 
 abdicate in 1868 ; in 1876 a constitution was proclaimed, 
 providing that the government shall be a constitutional 
 monarchy. War was declared against Spain by the 
 United States in April, 1898. 
 
 Sparta, built by Lacedaemon, B. C. 1490 ; kingdom of 
 commenced under Euristhenes and Procles, B. C. 1U2; 
 ephori established at, 760. 
 
 Straits of Babel man deb, The, the passage from the 
 Persian Gulf into the Red Sea, are called the Gate of 
 Tears by the Arabs. The channel is only about twenty 
 miles wide, is rocky and very dangerous for passage in 
 rough weather. It received its melancholy name from 
 the number of shipwrecks that occurred there. 
 
 Surnames, first used among the nobility, 1200; many 
 of the most common were taken by the Flemings who 
 were naturalized in England about 1435. 
 
 Sweden, anciently Scandinavia, kingdom of, began 
 481 ; united to the crown of Denmark and Norway from 
 1394 to 1525, when Gustavus Vasa expelled the Danes; 
 Christianity introduced there 829; no nobility before 
 1500; popery abolished and the crown declared heredi- 
 tary, 1541 ; the house of Vasa ascended the throne in 
 1523, and gave to Sweden the great Gustavus Adolphus ; 
 it was succeeded by the House of Deux-Ponts, which 
 furnished the famous Charles XII.; in 1810 Marshal 
 Bernadotte of France was chosen Crown Prince and as- 
 cended the throne as Charles John XIV. in 1818; the 
 union with Norway took place in 1814. 
 
 Switzerland, inhabited formerly by the Helvetii.who 
 were subdued by Caesar B. C. 57 ; became part of the 
 kingdom of Burgundy, 888 ; the confederation was 
 founded January 1 , 1308 ; in 1803 Napoleon I. organized 
 a new confederation composed of 19 cantons ; this con- 
 federation was modified in 1815, the number of cantons 
 I being increased to 22; a new constitution was adopted 
 in 1848. 
 
 Tarpeian Rock, The, was so called from Tarpeia, 
 daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, governor of the citadel 
 on the Saturnian Hill of Rome. The story is that the 
 Sabines bargained with the Roman maid to open the 
 gates to them for the " ornaments on their arms." As 
 they passed through the gates, they threw on her their 
 shields saying, ' These are the ornaments we bear on 
 our arms.'"' She was crushed to death, and buried on 
 the Tarpeian Hill. Ever after, traitors were put to 
 death by being hurled headlong from the hilltop. 
 
 Tai-quin. The last king of Rome, expelled B. C. 509. 
 
 Tartary. The first ruler was Genghis Khan, 1206, 
 whose descendants held the empire until 1582, when the 
 Mongols revolted to the Manche w Tartars in China ; the 
 Eluths became a separate state about 1400. 
 
 Taxes. Originated from those levied by Solon at 
 Athens, B. C. 540; the first paid in money i'n England 
 were in 1067. 
 
 Tea. First brought into Europe by the Dutch East 
 India Company, early in the seventeenth century ; a 
 quantity of it "was brought from Holland by Lord" Ar- 
 lington and Lord Ossory, 1666 ; from this time it became 
 universal ; taxed in North America, 1770, Americans re- 
 fused to receive it with the duty on, and threw a cargo 
 of it into the sea at Boston, 1773. 
 
 Texas (Lone Star State). First settlement by the 
 Spaniards, at San Antonio, 1692. Admitted to the 
 Union, 1845. Ranks first in cattle and cotton and square 
 miles; second in sugar, sheep, mules, and horses; sixth 
 in miles of railway; seventh in milch cows; eighth in 
 rice and hogs; eleventh in population; nineteenth in
 
 296 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 wealth. Stock raising is the leading industry, Texas 
 ranking first in this production. Agriculture exten- 
 sively engages the attention of its inhabitants; corn, 
 wheat, and the other cereals are raised in the northern 
 part; sweet potatoes, sugar cane, tobacco, and tropical 
 fruits in the southern part. Its commerce consists of 
 exports of cotton, hides, and live stock. The state has 
 vast resources that have not, as yet, been fully devel- 
 oped; an abundance of most valuable timber, large 
 deposits of coal, iron, and salt, and other useful 
 minerals. 
 
 Tewtones, The, were a German tribe, mentioned by 
 Roman writers as inhabiting the northwest part of Ger- 
 many north of the Elbe. In conjunction with the Cim- 
 bri.they invaded Gaul,103 B. C., destroying three Roman 
 armies, and then proceeded to invade Italy; but the 
 Teutones were defeated and almost annihilated by 
 Marius at Aquae Sextiae, 102 B. C.,and the Cimbri at 
 Campus Raudms, near Verullfe, 101 B. C. 
 
 Tennessee, settled at Fort London, 1757, by the Eng- 
 lish. Agriculture is the most important industry, the 
 staples being wheat, cotton, corn, hemp, and tobacco. 
 In the production of tobacco, the state ranks third. 
 The iron and coal interests are growing rapidly, and 
 will prove one of the richest resources. The marbles of 
 the state are esteemed for their color and variety. Im- 
 mense numbers of swine and mules are raised in the 
 state. The manufacturing industries are better devel- 
 oped than in any of the southern central states. A large 
 internal commerce is carried on by means of the rivers 
 and railroads of the state. 
 
 Theater, thatof Bacchus at Athens, first ever erected, 
 built by Philos, B.C. 420; the ruins still exist; plays 
 were opposed by the Puritans, 1633, and suspended till 
 1660, when Charles II. licensed two companies; till this 
 time boys performed women's parts; Sir William Dave- 
 nant introduced operas, 1684. 
 
 Thebes, founded 1571 B. C. ; citadel built by Cadmus, 
 1493; nourished as a republic, 820; destroyed by Alex- 
 ander, with the slaughter of 120,000 persons, when he 
 left only the house of Pindar, the poet, standing, 335; 
 rebuilt by Cassander, B. C. 315. 
 
 Thermopylae, defended by Leonidas B. C. 480, dur- 
 ing the invasion of Xerxes; Romans defeated An- 
 tiochusat, 191. 
 
 Thrace, a considerable part of ancient Greece an- 
 nexed to Macedon by Philip and Alexander about 355; 
 conquered by the Romans, 168 ; Byzantium was its cap- 
 ital, on the ruins of which Constantinople was built; 
 taken by the Turks, 1453. 
 
 Tilts and Tournaments, instituted by Henry I. of 
 Germany, 919; forbidden by the Council of Rheims, 
 1131 ; in fashion in England in the eleventh and twelfth 
 centuries; abolished in France 1560, Henry II. having 
 been killed in one. 
 
 Tithes, first given by Jloses to the tribe of Levi, B. C. 
 1490 ; established in Framce under Charlemagne ; estab- 
 lished by law by the ^ateran Council, 1215. 
 
 Tobacco Plant, fl9nd by the Spaniards in the penin- 
 sula of Yucatan, 12m); introduced into France by Nicot, 
 1560; first brought into England by Ralph Lane. 1583. 
 
 Tonlonse, France, founded about B. C. 615 : a dread- 
 ful tribunal established there to extirpate heretics, 1229 ; 
 dissolved 1242; the troubadours or rhetoricians of, had 
 their origin about 1150, and consisted of a fraternity of 
 poets whose art was extended throughout Europe and 
 gave rise to the Italian and Spanish poetry. 
 
 Trojan War commenced B. C. 1193. The kingdom 
 of Troy began by Scamander, from Crete, B. C.1546; 
 city built, B.C. 1255: burned, B. C. 1184, when an end 
 was put to the kingdom. 
 
 Tunis and Tripoli, formerly the republic of Car- 
 thage. Carthage stood nearly where Tunis now stands. 
 The former was besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270; 
 it remained under African kings till taken by Barba- 
 rossa under Solyman the Magnificent; Barbarossa was 
 expelled by Charles V. but the country was recovered 
 by_ the Turks under Selim II., since which it has been 
 tributary to the Grand Seignior; it has long been a de- 
 pendency of Turkey. 
 
 Turkish Empire, founded about 998; at the end of 
 the thirteenth century, Othman established the present 
 empire in Asia Minor; in the fourteenth century they 
 invaded Europe and in 1453 took Constantinople ; the 
 capture of Constantinople was followed by other im- 
 portant conquests, among which were Greece and Ara- 
 bia; the glory of the empire culminated in the reien of 
 Solyman the Magnificent, 1520-1566; after his death be- 
 gan the declineof the Ottoman empire ; Austria expel led 
 them from Hungary, Russia deprived them of the prov- 
 
 inces between the mouths of the Danube and the Cau 
 casus in Europe, and those forming western Trans-Cau- 
 casia in Asia ; the (Jreeks formed an independent state : 
 Algiers was wrested from them by the French ; the 
 power of the Porte has nearly vanished from the 
 provinces of Asia Minor, Arabia, and Kgypt, and finally 
 the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 has* deprived the 
 Porte of much of the territory in Europe. 
 
 Tuileries, The, is the name* of a garden and palace in 
 Paris, built on the site of an amcleotfattrtque <./' tuiif*. 
 It was composed of three great pavilions, called the 
 pavillonde J/rsrm(north), the /<" ri//t>n tie Ftdre (south'). 
 and the pavilion de I'Jforlor/c (center). It was joined to 
 the Louvre by Napoleon III. (1851-6). The land was 
 bought by Francois I. in 1564, and the original palace 
 was made for Catherine de Medicis after the design of 
 Philibert Delorme. 
 
 Tuscany, the ancient seat of the Etruscans, belonged 
 to Germany till 1240. 
 
 Tyre, a city of great antiquity, suffered destruction 
 at an early period ; rebuilt under Ninuu ; taken by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar after a siege of thirteen years ; it became 
 subject to the Romans, B. C. 64. 
 
 Utah was first settled by Americans at Salt Lake City, 
 1847. Organized asa territory, I860: admitted aa a stair. 
 1896. Ranks third in silver ; 'tenth in gold ; fifteenth in 
 coal. 
 
 Varangians, The, were the Norse vikings, who, in 
 the ninth century laid the foundations of the Russian 
 Empire. Many of them entered the service of the By- 
 zantine emperors, and in the days of the Comneni the 
 Varangians regularly formed the imperial bodyguard at 
 Constantinople. The Varangiansat Constantinople were 
 largely recruited by Anglo-Saxons and Danes from Eng- 
 land after the Norman Conquest. 
 
 " Vaticamis Mons " is a hill at Rome, chiefly noted 
 for its magnificent palace of the popes, the Vatican, with 
 its superb gardens, its museums, celebrated library, and 
 basilica of St. Peter. The palace was constructed in 
 498, but has often been enlarged. 
 
 Valencia, conquered by the Moors under Abdallah 
 Ciz, and lost by them, 1004; relinquished to the Moors 
 again by the king of Castile ; soon after taken again by 
 James L of Aragon, 1238, and with Aragon united with 
 Spain, 1492; capitulated to the French January 9, 1812. 
 
 Vandals, The, inhabited Germany and embraced 
 Christianity, 400; began their kingdom in Spain, 411 ; in- 
 vaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa 
 under Genseric, 430; sacked and pillaged Rome, 4~>~>. 
 
 Vermont (Green Mountain State). First settled by 
 the English, Fort Dummer, 1764. Ranks fourth in cop- 
 per; seventh in hops and buckwheat; twenty -sixth in 
 wealth; thirty-second in population; fortieth "in square 
 miles ; forty-first in miles of railway. The state is noted 
 for its ricfi quarries of marble, soapstone, and slate, 
 which are worked at several points. It is also noted as a 
 good grazing country. The dairy products are exten- 
 sive and valuable. Stock raising is carried on to a con- 
 siderable extent. 
 
 Vendome Column, The, in Paris was erected by Na- 
 poleon I. 1806, in the Place Vendome, to commemorate 
 his successful campaign in Germany; pulled down by 
 the Communists 1871, but restored by the National As- 
 sembly,1874. It is one hundred and thirty-two feet high, 
 with a statue of Napoleon I. at the top. 
 
 Venice. Originally inhabitated by the Veneti ; con- 
 quered by the Gauls* and made a kingdom about It. ( '. 
 356 ; conquered for the Romans by Marcellus, 221. The 
 islands on which the city now stands began to be in- 
 habited by Italians about 421 ; its university founded, 
 1592. 
 
 Vesuvius, eruptions of, A. D. 79, 203, 272; ejected 
 flames that were seen at Constantinople ; obscured the . 
 sun at~noonday~ and raVHfJe'fl all Campania; was in 
 an active state of eruption upward of 35 times, between 
 the years 472 and the present. 
 
 Vienna, the capital of Austria-Hungary, was orig- 
 inally Vindobona of Upper Pannonia ; afterwards cap- 
 ital of the east provincesof the empire of Charlemagne; 
 besieged by the Turks in 1529, and again in 1683; the 
 French took it in 1806 and in 1809; the Congress of 
 Vienna, which fixed for a time the limits of the countries 
 of Europe, was held here November, 1S14, to June, 18K>. 
 
 Vikings, The, were the piratical Northmen who in- 
 fested the coasts of the British Islands and of France in 
 the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries. This word is 
 quite unconnected with "king," being derived from 
 the Scandinavian vik, " a bay " (the same which appears
 
 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 297 
 
 in the names Lerwick, Berwick, etc.), and this class of 
 marauders were so called because their ships put off 
 from the bays and liords. 
 
 Visigoths, The, or Western Goths, were the descend- 
 ants (if that branch of the Gothic race established by 
 Aurelian in Dacia (270). The descendants of the other 
 branch of the race, which remained in Southern Russia, 
 were called Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths). On the death 
 of Theodosius, the Visigoths, under Alaric, overran 
 Greece (3%) and Italv (400). After Alaric's death (410) 
 they established a kingdom at Tonlouse (418) which 
 eventually comprised the whole of Gaul south of the 
 Loire and west of the Rhone, as well as Provence and 
 the greater part of Spain. With the defeat (and death) 
 of Alaric II. by Clovis, on the lie Id of Vougl6 (or Vouille 
 or Voclad) near Poitiers (507), the kingdom of Toulouse 
 came to an end, and the Visigoths abandoned to the 
 conqueror all their territories north of the Pyrenees, 
 with the exception of a small tract of country in Gaul, 
 including the cities of Carcassone, NarboTnne, and 
 Niines. 
 
 Virginia, first settled at Jamestown by the English, 
 1607. Ranks first in peanuts ; second in tobacco ; eighth 
 in salt and iron ore; sixteenth in wealth. Agriculture 
 is the leading industry; tobacco, wheat, corn, and pota- 
 toes being the great staples. The mineral resources are 
 vast; the mountains containing rich deposits of coal 
 and iron, valuable marble, slate, and stone quarries with 
 important salt springs. 
 
 Wales. The first king was Edwawl, G90; it was con- 
 quered and divided by William I. ,1091; Griffith, the last 
 king, died 1137 ; the sovereign from that time forward 
 was the prince ; completely conquered and annexed to 
 the crown of England, 1283. 
 
 Walloons, The, are the inhabitants of the southeast- 
 ern division of Belgium, their country comprising the 
 provinces of Hainault, Namur, Liege, "and Luxemburg, 
 with part of Brabant. The Walloons are Romanized 
 Gauls, lineal representatives of the ancient Belgse, dis- 
 tinguished from their Flemish (Teutonic) neighbors by 
 their Romance language, their stronger physique, and 
 their darker complexion. The Walloon language, how- 
 ever, a strongly marked dialect of Northern France (the 
 Langue d'Oil), is now merely a provincial patois, French 
 being the written standard and official language of the 
 whole kingdom. 
 
 Warsaw, after two days' hard fighting, capitulated 
 and was taken possession of by the Russians, September 
 7, 1831. 
 
 Washington ranks eighth in gold, seventeenth in 
 square miles, forty-first in population, forty-second in 
 miles of railway. Population, according to" territorial 
 census in 1885, 127,292 ; United States Census, 1893,349,390. 
 First settlement, by Americans, at Astoria, 1811. Organ- 
 ized as a territory, "1853. Admitted to the Union, 1889. 
 
 Wat Tyler's insurrection occurred November 5, 1380, 
 a peasant's revolt, immediately due to the imposition 
 of a poll-tax on all persons above fifteen. Almost the 
 whole of the peasantry of the southern and eastern 
 counties of England rose in arms, murdering and plun- 
 dering, under the leadership of Wat Tyler, said to have 
 been a soldier in the French wars. O'n June 12, 1381, 
 they gathered on Blackheath. On June 14, Richard II., 
 then a lad of fifteen, met the Essex contingent at Mile 
 
 End, and, promising the abolition of villenage, induced 
 j them to return home. On June 15, he met the Kentish 
 men at Smithfield, and in the parley Wat Tvler was 
 killed by William Walworth, mayor of London, and 
 others. The peasants were about to avenge his death, 
 when Richard, with great presence of mind, rode for- 
 ward alone, and induced them to follow him to Isling- 
 ton, when, a body of troops coming to the king's aid, 
 and Richard being profuse of promises, they dispersed. 
 
 Waterloo. Battle of, in which Napoleon with 69,000 
 men attacked a combined army of 89,000 English, Dutch, 
 Belgian, and Hanoverian troops ; a dreadful slaughter 
 continued until four o'clock, when two Prussian corps 
 of 30,000 and 40,000, under Bulow and Blucher, succes- 
 sively arrived, and, turning his right wing, the whole 
 army fled in confusion at half past nine o'clock, June 
 18, 1815. 
 
 West Virginia. The first settlers were English, 
 Wheeling, 1774. Agriculture is the leading industry, 
 and the principal staples are tobacco, wheat, and corn. 
 The mountain pastures are well adapted to stock raising. 
 Its mineral resources are rich deposits of coal, iron, and 
 numerous oil wells, and salt springs. 
 
 Westminster Abbey, built by Sebert, king of Essex, 
 on the spot where the Temple of Apollo had once stood ; 
 its monastery, consecrated by Edward the Confessor, 
 10G5; rebuilt and consecrated, 1269; turned into a colle- 
 giate church, 1560. 
 
 Wills are of a very high antiquity; Solon intro- 
 duced them at Athens ; there are many regulations re- 
 specting wills in the Koran ; the Roman had this power ; 
 so had the native Mexican, so that it prevailed at least 
 in three parts of the globe ; lands were devisable by will 
 before the conquest ; privilege of making wills granted 
 by Henry I. in 1100. 
 
 Wisconsin (Badger State). First settlement, by the 
 French, Green Bay, 16CO. Admitted to the Union, 1848. 
 Ranks second in 'hops, third in barley and potatoes, 
 fourth in rye and buckwheat, fifth in oats and agricul- 
 tural implements, seventh in iron, steel, and wool, eighth 
 in hay and milch cows, ninth in copper, tenth in wealth, 
 eleventh ; in miles of railway, sixteenth in population, 
 and twenty-third in square miles. The chief industry is 
 agriculture, with large crops of corn, wheat, oats, bar- 
 ley, hay, potatoes, and hops, as the staple productions. 
 Live stock is largely raised. In the production of wool 
 and cheese it is among the leading states. The manu- 
 facturing interests are large and increasing. The great 
 pine forestsin abundance, and the most valuable timber, 
 lead, iron, zinc, and marblemines are extensively worked. 
 Lakes Michigan and Superior, and the Mississippi, afford 
 great natural highways for commerce. 
 
 Witchcraft. Six "hundred condemned as wizards, 
 and most of them burned in France, 1609; Grandier, 
 parish priest of Loudan, burned on the supposition of 
 having bewitched a whole convent of nuns, 1634 ; nine 
 old women were burned at Kalish, in Poland, charged 
 with having bewitched and rendered unfruitful the 
 lands belonging to a gentleman in that palatinate ; the 
 last punished in England for witchcraft, was October 
 29, 1808. 
 
 Wyoming. Ranks ninth in square miles, twelfth in 
 cattle, fourteenth in gold, sixteenth in coal, forty-fourth 
 in miles of railway, forty-sixth in population. First 
 settlement, by Amer'jans", 1867. Organized as a terri- 
 tory, 1868. Admitted to the Union in 1890. 
 
 HISTORIC TREATIES. 
 
 843. Contract of Verdun. This treaty concluded the 
 war between Lothar, Louis the German, 'and Charles the 
 Bald, over their respective shares of the imperial domin- 
 ions on the death of their father. Louis the Pious. 
 
 911. Treaty of St.-Clair-sur-Epte : concluded the war 
 between the" invading Norsemen under Rollo and the 
 French king, Charles the Simple. 
 
 1122. Concordat of Worms : an agreement between the 
 emperor and the pope, closing the long strife known as 
 the war of investitures. 
 
 1183. Treaty of Constance: between the emperor, 
 Fre-lerick Bafbarossa, and the Lombard cities. 
 
 1360. Peace of Bretigny : a treaty that interrupted the 
 Hundred Years' war between France and England. 
 
 1397, Union of Calmar : the treaty by which Denmark, 
 Sweden, and Norway were united under Queen Mar- 
 garet of Denmark. 
 
 1420. Treaty of Troves : interrupted the Hundred 
 Years' war on" terms most favorable to England. 
 
 1435. Treaty of Arras : a compact between Burgundy 
 and France. 
 
 1466. Treaty o Thorn : settled the terms of the Polish 
 conquest of W r est Prussia. 
 
 1482. Treaty of Arras : settled the dispute between 
 Louis XI. of France, and Maximilian of Austria. 
 
 1493. Bull of Pope Alexander VI. : arranged the con- 
 flicting claims of Spain and Portugal to newly discov- 
 ered lands. 
 
 1508. League of Cambray : a union formed by Louis 
 XII. of France and the Emperor Maximilian, which the 
 pope and others were invited to join. 
 
 1526. Treaty of Madrid : formed between Charles V. 
 of Germany and Francis I. of France. 
 
 4529. Treaty of Cambray: between Francis I. and 
 Charles V. 
 
 1544. Treaty of Crespy : concluded the fourth and 
 last war between Francis" I. and Charles V. 
 
 1579. Union of Utrecht : laid the foundations of the 
 Dutch Republic. 
 
 1648. Peace of Westphalia: concluded the Thirty 
 Years' War. 
 
 1659. Peace of the Pyrenees : closed the long war be- 
 tween France and Spam.
 
 298 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 1660. Treaty of Copenhagen : 'between Denmark and 
 Sweden. 
 
 1667. Treaty of Breda : between England and Hol- 
 land. 
 
 1668. Triple Alliance : between England, Holland, and 
 Sweden to defend Spain against Louis XIV. 
 
 1668. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle : between France and 
 Spain. 
 
 1668. Treaty of Lisbon : between Spain and Portugal 
 through the mediation of England. 
 
 1618. Peace of Nymwegeii : ended the Dutch war.- . 
 
 16y7. Peace of Ryswick : closed the war between 
 France under Louis XIV. and the princii al states of 
 Europe called the War of the Palatiuiite. 
 
 1699. Peace of Carlowitz: between Turkey on the one 
 hand and the Emperor of Germany, the King of Poland, 
 and the republic of Venice on the other. 
 
 1713 14. Treaties of Utrecht, Rastadt, and Baden : 
 concluded between the states taking part in the war of 
 the Spanish succession. 
 
 1717. Triple Alliance : between Great Britain, France, 
 and Holland. 
 
 1718-19. Quadruple Alliance: between Great Britain, 
 France. Holland, and the emperor against the aggres- 
 sions of Spain. 
 
 1718. Peace of Passarowitz : between the sultan and 
 emperor. 
 
 1721. Peace of Nystadt : between Sweden and Russia. 
 
 1738. Treaty of Vienna: between France and Ger- 
 many. 
 
 1742. Peace of Breslau : between Frederick II. of Prus- 
 sia and Maria Theresa of Austria. 
 
 1748. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle: between Great Brit- 
 ain, France, and Holland; Austria, Spain, Sardinia, 
 Genoa, and Modena being accessories. 
 
 17tl. The Family Compact: between the Bourbon 
 rulers of France and Spain. 
 
 1763. Peace of Paris: terminated the Seven Years' 
 war, known in United States history as the French and 
 Indian war. 
 
 1772. First Partition of Poland : executed by Russia, 
 Austria, and Prussia. . 
 
 1774. Peace of Kutchuk-Kainardji : between Russia 
 and Turkey. 
 
 1783. Treaty of Paris : in which Great Britain acknowl- 
 edged the independence of the North American colonies. 
 
 1783.' Treaty of Versailles: between Great Britain, 
 France, and Spain. 
 
 Ii92. .First Coalition against France: involved all the 
 powers except Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Tuscany, 
 Venice, and Genoa. 
 
 1795. Peace of Basel : between France and Prussia. 
 
 1795. Jay Treaty : between the United States and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1797. Treaty of Tolentino: between the French re- 
 public and the pope. 
 
 1797. Treaty of Campo Formio : between Napoleon 
 and the emperor of Germany. 
 
 1798. Second Coalition against France : initiated by 
 Russia; afterward comprised England, Austria, Naples, 
 Portugal, and Turkey. 
 
 1802. Peace of Amiens : between Great Britain on the 
 one hand, and France, Spain, and the Batavian republic 
 on the other. 
 
 180.3. Treaty between France and thn United States: 
 touching the purchase of Louisiana. 
 
 1805. Peace of Pressburg : between A ustria and France. 
 
 1807. Treaties of Tilsit: concluded between France, 
 Prussia, and Russia. 
 
 1809. Treaty of Schonbrunn: between France and 
 Austria. 
 
 1814. First Peace of -Paris: between France and the 
 principal European powers; after the defeat of Napo- 
 leon at Leipzig. 
 
 1814. Treaty of Ghent : between the United States and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1815. Congress of Vienna: attended by the principal 
 European powers. 
 
 1815. Second Peace of Paris : between France and the 
 allies after the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo. 
 
 1815. Holy Alliance: formed at Paris between the 
 monarchs of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 
 
 1818. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle: participated in by 
 Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and France. 
 
 1827. Treaty of London : between Great Britain, Rus- 
 sia, and France, to put an end to the war between Tur- 
 key and Greece. 
 
 1829. Treaty of Adrianople : between Russia and Tur- 
 key. 
 
 1840. Quadruple Treaty of London: between Great 
 Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia on the one hand 
 and Turkey on the other, touching Mehemet Ali of 
 Egypt. 
 
 1842. Treaty of Nanking: concluded the so-called 
 opium war between Great Britain and China. 
 
 1842. Ashburton Treaty: signed at Washington to 
 define the northeastern boundary between the United 
 States and British North America. 
 
 1848. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: between the 
 United States and Mexico. 
 
 1854. Treaty between the United States and Japan: 
 negotiated by Commodore Perry. 
 
 1856. Treaty of Paris : after the Crimean war. 
 
 1858. Treaties of Tientsin : between China and each 
 of the four nations, Great Britain, France, Russia, and 
 United States. 
 
 1859. Peace of Zurich ; settled the dispute between 
 France and Sardinia on the one hand and Austria on 
 the other. 
 
 1864. Peace of Vienna: concluded the war between 
 Austria, Prussia, and Denmark, growing out of the 
 Schleswig-Holstein question. 
 
 1805. Convention of Gastein : a compact between 
 Prussia and Austria. 
 
 1866. Peace of Prague : concluded the war between 
 Prussia and Austria. 
 
 ]871. Treaty of Frankfort : between France and Ger- 
 many. 
 
 1871. Treaty of Washington: to adjust the Alabama 
 claims. 
 
 1878. Treaty of San Stefano supplemented by the 
 Congress of Berlin : closed the Russo-Turkish war/ 
 
 1879. Triple Alliance : between Austria, Germany, and 
 Italy. 
 
 1895. Treaty of Shimonoseki : concluded the war be- 
 tween China and Japan. 
 
 1898. Treaty of Paris : concluded the Spanish-Ameri- 
 can war.
 
 
 THOMAS A, EDISON.
 
 Book IV. 
 Science, Invention, Discovery.
 
 Science, Invention, Discovery. 
 
 Alcoholic Drinks. The number of 
 alcoholic drinks is surprisingly large and 
 varied. The following are the principal : 
 Agua ardiente, made in Mexico, from the fer- 
 mented juice of agave ; arrack, made in India 
 from the juice of the palm and from rice ; 
 araka, made in Tartary, from fermented mare's 
 milk ; araki, made in Egypt from dates ; 
 brandy, made in nearly all wine countries from 
 wine and from fruits ; Geneva or Holland gin, 
 made in Holland from malted barley or rye, rec- 
 tified on juniper berries ; gin made in England 
 from malted barley, rye, or potatoes, and recti- 
 fied with turpentine; goldwasser, made at 
 Dantzic from various kinds of corn and recti- 
 fied with spices ; kirchwasser, made in Switz- 
 erland from the Mahaleb cherry ; lau, made 
 in Siam from rice ; maraschino, made in Dal- 
 matia from the Macarska cherry ; Mahwah 
 arrack, made in India from the flowers of the 
 madhuca tree ; rum, made in the West Indies 
 and South America from cane sugar and mo- 
 lasses ; rakia, made in Dalmatiafrom the husks 
 of grapes, mixed with aromatics ; rossolio, 
 made at Dantzic from a compound of brandy 
 with certain plants ; slatkai-trava, made at 
 Kamtschatka from a sweet grass ; show-choo, 
 made in China from the lees of rice wine ; 
 trosta, made in the Rhenish provinces from 
 the husks of grapes fermented with barley and 
 rye ; tuba, made in the Philippine Islands 
 from palm wine ; vino mescal, made in Mexico 
 by distilling the fermented juice of the agave ; 
 whisky, made in Scotland, Ireland, and United 
 States from raw and malted grain, and south 
 of France from sloes. 
 
 Air. The gaseous envelope of the earth. 
 Our planet has two coverings : one the water, 
 which is distributed as lakes and seas, filling 
 up the deep cavities of the solid surface, tend- 
 ing to produce a more level superficies ; the 
 second covering is the air or atmosphere, which 
 rests upon the top of the water and the dry 
 land, enveloping the highest mountains, and 
 rising upwards to an altitude somewhat above 
 forty-five miles ; it is a true, aeriform ocean 
 surrounding our earth and has upon its upper 
 surface waves and tides, and, throughout its 
 mass, currents flowing in constant and vari- 
 able directions, precisely as those of the ocean 
 comport themselves ; it is held down to the 
 surface of the earth by attraction, and rotates 
 with the planet ; its density varies with its 
 actual height at the place of observation, of 
 which the barometric pressure is the evidenrr. 
 This pressure aimi'ushes as the elevation al>o,-<: 
 
 the sea increases, owing to the upper portions 
 of the atmosphere pressing upon and condens- 
 ing the lower strata, so much so, that one half 
 the actual weight of the atmosphere is com- 
 prised within the space of the lower five miles 
 of its total height, the remaining forty miles 
 in height containing the other half. The air 
 is highly compressible and elastic, and its 
 volume diminished inversely as the pressure 
 increases. This accounts for the facility of 
 setting it in motion and its velocity. Like 
 fluids, it presses equally in every direction, and 
 when it conies in contact with a more expanded 
 and therefore lighter portion of air, it pushes 
 it up and occupies its place, producing cur- 
 rents of air and winds when it flows in streams, 
 and sounds when it is thrown into vibrations 
 or undulations. The air is warmed solely by 
 the earth, and not by the transmitted rays of 
 the sun, hence warm air exists within the 
 tropics, and diminishes towards the poles, and 
 insensibly decreases every three hundred and 
 fifty feet of elevation. 
 
 Acoustics. The doctrine of the different 
 sounds of vibrating strings, and the communi- 
 cation of sounds to the ear by the vibration of 
 the atmosphere, was probably first explained 
 by Pythagoras, about 500 B. C. Mentioned 
 by Aristotle, 330 B. C. The speaking trum- 
 pet is said to have been used by Alexander the 
 Great, 335 B. C. The discoveries of Galileo 
 were made about 1600 A. I). The velocity of 
 sound was investigated by Newton before 1700. 
 Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curves was 
 demonstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714; 
 and further perfected by D'Alembert, Etiler, 
 Bernoulli, and LaGrange, at various periods of 
 the eighteenth century. 
 
 Algebra. Where Algebra was first used, 
 and by whom, is not precisely known. Dio- 
 phantus first wrote upon it, probably about 170 
 A. D. ; lie is said to be the inventor. Brought 
 into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and 
 into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The 
 first writer who used algebraical signs was 
 Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The intro- 
 duction of symbols for quantities was by Fran- 
 cis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into 
 general use. The binomial theorem of New- 
 ton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and 
 the new analysis, 10(58. Descartes applied al- 
 gebra, to geometry about 1637. 
 
 Almanacs. The Egyptians computed 
 time by instruments. Log calendars were 
 anciently in use. The word almanac is of 
 Saxon origin. Michael Nostradamus, the as-
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 301 
 
 trologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Mer- ' 
 Jin, 1556. The first published is said to have 
 been by Martin Hykus, at Buda in 1470. The 
 first almanac in England was printed at Oxford, 
 in 1673. 
 
 Anatomy. The human body was studied 
 by Aristotls about 350 B. C., and its structure 
 was made part of the philosophical investiga- 
 tions of Plato and Xenophon ; it became a 
 branch of medical education, under Hippocra- 
 tes about 420 B. C. Erasistratusandllerophi- 
 lus first dissected the human form, and may be 
 regarded as the fathers of anatomy ; it is said 
 that they practiced upon the bodies of living 
 criminals about 300 and 293 B. C. Galen, 
 who died 193 A. D., was a great anatomist. ; 
 In England the schools were long supplied 
 with bodies unlawfully exhumed from graves ; 
 and until 1832 the bodies of executed murder- 
 ers were ordered for dissection. Pope Boni- 
 face VIII. forbade the dissection of dead 
 bodies, 1297. The first anatomical plates, 
 designed by Titian, were employed by Vesalius, 
 about 1538. The discoveries of Uarvey were 
 made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was 
 discovered in 1G80. 
 
 Angling, The origin of this art is in- 
 volved in obscurity ; allusion was made to it 
 by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most j 
 ancient books of the Bible, as Amos. It came 
 into general repute in England about the pc- j 
 riod of the reformation. Winkin de "\Vorde 's j 
 Treaty se of Fysshinye, the first book printed on J 
 angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's 
 book was printed in 1653. 
 
 Arithmetic. -Where first invented is not 
 known, at least with certainty. Ifc was 
 brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, 
 about 600 B. C. The oldest treatise upon 
 arithmetic is by Euclid, about 300 B. C. The 
 sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 
 A. D. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the 
 author of thirteen books of arithmetical ques- 
 tions (of which six are extant) in 156. Nota- 
 tion by nine digits and'zero, known at least as 
 early as the sixth century in Hindostan in- 
 troduced from thence into Arabia, about 900, 
 into Spain 1050. into England 1253. Arith- 
 metic of decimals invented 1482. First 
 work printed in England on arithmetic was 
 by Tonstall, bishop of Durham, 1522. The 
 theory of decimal fractions was perfected by 
 Lord Napier in 1617. 
 
 Assaying. The assaying of silver and 
 gold is affected by a process called cupellation. 
 Cupels are small flat crucibles made by press- 
 ing bone ash moistened with water, into cir- 
 cular steel molds, and they are dried by ex- 
 posure to the air. The principle upon which 
 the operation depends is, that all metals with 
 
 which gold and silver are usually alloyed, are 
 convertible into oxides by exposure to atmos- 
 pheric air at a high temperature, whereas the 
 precious metals remain unacted upon. 
 
 To assay silver by cupellation the silver is 
 flattened and wrapped up in an envelope of 
 lead. A muffle or oven is heated in an assay 
 furnace and the two metals put into it. The 
 metals melt and the lead becomes converted 
 into an oxide, which as well as any baser met- 
 als before combined with the silver is absorbed 
 by the substance of the cupel until at length 
 the silver is left absolutely pure. 
 
 The assaying of gold is performed, to a cer- 
 tain extent iu a similar way, and if the gold 
 were alloyed only with copper, the process 
 would be as simple as that of silver assaying. 
 Usually, however, gold contains silver, and this 
 cannot be got rid of by cupellation, the part- 
 ing process is, therefore, iiad recourse to ; this 
 consists in dissolving the silver by dilute ni- 
 tric acid, which leaves the gold perfectly pure. 
 
 Iron ores are assayed by separating the oxy- 
 gen from the iron, by the greater affinity of 
 charcoal for that element at high temperatures. 
 The ore, some charcoal, and an alkaline flux 
 are heated iu a crucible ; and the result is that 
 all the impurities in the ore are made to leave 
 the iron so that the latter is presented in a 
 purely metallic form. 
 
 Copper ores usually contain sulphur, and in 
 order to assay them a flux is prepared of fluor 
 spar, borax, slacked lime, argol, and niter. 
 
 Automobile. This name covers all forms 
 of self-propelling vehicles for use on country 
 roads or city streets, whether driven by steam 
 produced by the combustion of fuel, stored 
 steam, compressed air, oil or gasoline engines, 
 or by electric motors taking current from accu- 
 mulators. Automobiles are not of recent ori- 
 gin, as many generally suppose, but date back 
 to the early days of the steam engine, to the 
 time of Sir Isaac Newton, who, in 1680, pro- 
 posed a form of steam carriage which embodied 
 the essential features of a steam automobile. 
 In 1790 Nathan Read patented and constructed 
 a model steam carriage. But the first actual 
 experiments were made in 1769, by a French 
 army officer, Nicholas Cugnot, who built a 
 three wheel carriage. In America, Oliver 
 Evans, as early as 1786, suggested a form of 
 road wagon to be propelled by steam. In 1803 
 Richard Trevithick built a full sized carriage 
 which was exhibited in London, having driven 
 itself 90 miles en route from Camborne, where 
 it was constructed. David Gurney built and 
 operated a steam carriage in 1827, in which he 
 made frequent and long journeys, covering as 
 much as 85 miles in 10 hours. He was ex- 
 celled by Walter Hancock who established
 
 302 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 several stage lines. Since 1895 the construc- 
 tion of automobiles has been carried on with 
 great energy, and many improvements have 
 been made. So far the most satisfactory re- 
 sults have been obtained with the steam, oil, 
 and electric carriages. In tire construction 
 the pneumatic tire occupies the first place in 
 public favor, although solid rubber tires are 
 largely employed. The highest speed is ob- 
 tained by use of light oils, preferably gasoline ; 
 steam motors are most successfully used with 
 heavy trucks and vans ; the electric motor has 
 given the best satisfaction when employed on 
 vehicles for city cab and carriage work and 
 short radius runs. 
 
 u^Eoliaii Harp was the invention, it is be- 
 lieved, of Athanasius Kircher, who lived in 
 the seventeenth century, and it is so called 
 from JEolus, the god or ruler of the winds. 
 It is a simple musical instrument, the sounds 
 of which are produced by the vibrations of 
 strings moved by wind. It may be composed 
 of a rectangular box made of thin boards, five 
 or six inches deep and about the same width, 
 and of a length sufficient to extend across the 
 window it is to be set at, so that the breeze 
 coming in can sweep over it. At the top of 
 each end of the box a strip of wood is glued, 
 about a half -inch in height ; the strings are 
 then stretched lengthwise across the top of the 
 box, and may be tuned in unison by means of 
 pegs constructed to control their tension, as in 
 the case of a violin. The sounds produced by 
 the rising and falling wind, in passing over 
 the strings, are of a drowsy and lulling charac- 
 ter, and have been beautifully described by the 
 poet Thomson as supplying the most suitable 
 kind of music for the Castle of Indolence. 
 
 Aerial Navigation. Pilatre des Hosiers 
 made the first balloon ascension at Paris, No- 
 vember 21, 1783. His balloon was inflated 
 with heated air. December 1 , 1783, an ascen- 
 sion was made by M. Charles, a professor of 
 Natural Philosophy, at Paris, and at about the 
 same time successful ascensions were also made 
 by Messrs. Rittenhouse and Hopkins, of Phila- 
 delphia, hydrogen gas being used in these in- 
 stances for inflating purposes. The valve at 
 the top of the balloon, and the hoop attached 
 to the balloon with netting, by which is sus- 
 pended the car, are the inventions of M. 
 Charles. In 1785 a successful passage of the 
 English Channel was made by M. Blanchard, 
 the first professional aeronaut, and an Ameri- 
 can traveler named Dr. Jeffries. The use of 
 ropes for the purpose of steadying balloons was 
 first adopted by M. Gay-Lussac, in 1803. 
 From 1852 to 1884 French, German, and 
 American aeronauts labored with degrees of 
 success to improve the method of construction 
 
 and to invent a means for the propulsion of 
 balloons, and in the latter year Captains Ren- 
 ard and Krebs produced an air ship which 
 was considered the crowning effort in this 
 line of invention. This ship was a cigar- 
 shaped balloon, carrying a platform, on 
 which the steering and propelling apparatus 
 was placed. The balloon was made of strong 
 silk and covered with a light netting of cords. 
 It was 197 feet long and 39 feet in diameter. 
 To the netting was suspended the platform, 131 
 feet long and 10 feet broad, on the front of 
 which was fixed the propeller, a screw of light, 
 wooden framework and air-tight cloth. The 
 rudder was at the rear of the platform. The 
 propeller was driven by electricity, generated 
 by a dynamo, which was in turn driven by 
 stored electricity. The first ascension of this 
 ship fully satisfied the most sanguine expecta- 
 tions of its builders. It was driven seven 
 miles and back in the space of forty minutes, 
 and obeyed fully every movement of the rudder. 
 During the siege of Paris, in the Franco-Ger- 
 man war of 1870-71 , ballooning was extensively 
 used by the besieged for communication with 
 the outer world, and also by the besiegers for 
 military purposes, and since that date military 
 ballooning has become an important subject of 
 study and experiment by soldiers. 
 
 American Clocks and Watches. 
 The first attempt to manufacture watchoa or 
 clocks on a large scale in America was made 
 by Eli Terry, a Connecticut Yankee, who in- 
 vented wooden wheels for clocks in 1792. In 
 1837 Chauncey Jerome, of Massachusetts, first 
 applied machinery to the making of metal- 
 wheeled clocks, and as a result drove the 
 wooden-wheeled clocks out of the market. 
 The manufacture of watches by machinery, 
 which has since become such an important 
 business, was begun at Roxbury, Mass., in 
 1850, and was continued there until 1854, when 
 the works were removed to Waltham. 
 
 Archimedes, Principle of. Archi- 
 medes, the most celebrated of ancient mathe- 
 maticians; was born at Syracuse about 287 
 B. C. He is said to have been a kinsman of 
 King Hiero, though he does not seem to have 
 held any public office, but devoted himself en- 
 tirely to science. He is the only one of the 
 ancients who contributed anything satisfactory 
 on the theory of mechanics and on hydrostat- 
 ics. He first established the truth that a 
 body plunged in a fluid loses exactly as much 
 of its weight as is equal to the weight of the 
 fluid displaced by it. This is one of the most 
 important principles in the science of hydro- 
 statics, and is called by his name. It was by 
 this law that he determined how much alloy 
 the goldsmith, whom Hiero had commissioned
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 303 
 
 to make a crown of pure gold, had fraudu- 
 lently mixed with the metal. The solution of 
 the problem had suggested itself to him as he 
 was entering the bath, and he is reported to 
 have been so overjoyed as to hasten home with- 
 out waiting to dress, exclaiming, "I have 
 found it! I have found it!" Among the 
 numerous inventions ascribed to Archimedes is 
 that of the endless screw, and the cochlea, or 
 water-screw, in which the water is made in a 
 manner to ascend by its own gravity. 
 
 Atlantic Cables -In July, 1866, the 
 first permanent Atlantic cable was laid from 
 Valentia Bay, Ireland, to Trinity Bay, N. F., 
 and in September of the same year a cable 
 which had been lost in 1865 was recovered 
 and its laying completed, thus giving two lines 
 between the two points. These lines were 
 known as the Anglo-American Cable, and 
 were managed by a company of the same 
 name. The French Atlantic Telegraph Com- 
 pany was formed in 1868, and it laid a line 
 from Brest, France, to Roxbury, Mass., the 
 following year. In the summer of 1873 the 
 fourth Atlantic telegraph cable was laid from 
 Valentia, Ireland, to Heart's Content, Trinity 
 Bay, N. F., and the Brazilian telegraph cable 
 was laid from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to a 
 bay on the coast of Portugal a few months later. 
 The Direct United States Cable Company 
 was formed, and laid a line from Ballenskill- 
 ings Bay, Ireland, to Rye, N. H., via Nova 
 Scotia, in 1874. The same year a sixth line 
 across the Atlantic was laid from Ireland to 
 Newfoundland, and in 1880 another French 
 line was laid from Brest to St. Pierre, an is- 
 land in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1884- 
 '85, the companies owning all these lines hav- 
 ing previously formed a combination to keep 
 up rates, a competing company was formed by 
 James Gordon Bennett and Mr. Mackay, who 
 laid two lines from Ireland to Nova Scotia, 
 and also a connecting line from Ireland to 
 France. . The difficulty with these submarine 
 cables at first was to send through them a cur- 
 rent of sufficient power to record the message. 
 The method adopted is as follows : Two keys, 
 which when depressed transmit respectively 
 positive and negative currents, are employed 
 at the sending station, in connection with the 
 battery. The current of the battery does not 
 pass directly into the cable, but into a con- 
 denser, which passes it into the submarine 
 line. This greatly increases the force of the 
 current used, and serves to cut off interfering 
 earth-currents. The receiving-instrument first 
 employed was a reflecting galvanometer. 
 Upon the magnet of this instrument is carried 
 a small curved mirror. About two feet in 
 front of it is placed a lamp behind a frame in 
 
 which is a vertical slit, while above it is a 
 screen. The light from this lamp, passing 
 through the slit, falls on the surface of the 
 mirror, which throws it back upon the screen. 
 The flash of light, moving from right to left 
 with the motion of the needle, indicates the 
 message sent. This method, however, has 
 been of late years almost entirely superseded 
 by an invention called the syphon galvanome- 
 ter. In this the movements of the needle are 
 recorded by means of ink spurted from a fine 
 glass syphon-tube. This tube is attached to a 
 coil suspended between two fixed magnets, 
 which swing to right or left as the pulsations 
 of the needle pass through it. The possibility 
 of laying an electric cable in the Atlantic from 
 Europe was suggested by Professor Morse as 
 far back as 1843, but it was not until 1854 that 
 Mr. Cyrus W. Field discussed the means of 
 practically realizing the idea, and it is to his 
 energy that the successful completion of this 
 great work is due. 
 
 Aurora Borealis. Since the discovery 
 of electricity, and especially electro-magnetism, 
 all speculation on the nature of the aurora has 
 taken in that force as a principal element, and 
 modern experiments have been especially 
 turned to securing proof of the electric nature 
 of the auroral display. The theory advanced 
 by M. De La Rive, a Genoese scientist, and 
 which is generally accepted, is, that the aurora 
 is caused by the recomposition of the positive 
 and negative electricity, always to be found in 
 the upper and lower strata of air respectively. 
 Miniature auroras have been produced by 
 electricity by M. De La Rive, and also by a M. 
 Lenstrom. In M. Lenstrom's experiments, 
 which were made in Finland in 1882, the peak 
 of a mountain was surrounded with a coil of 
 copper wire, pointed at intervals with tin nibs. 
 This wire was charged with electricity, and a 
 yellow light was produced on the tin points, in 
 which the spectroscope analysis revealed the 
 greenish yellow ray that characterizes the au- 
 rora borealis. The aurora was supposed to be 
 of supernatural origin by the ancients. 
 
 Armor. The warlike Europeans at first 
 despised any other defense than the shield. 
 Skins and padded hides were first used ; and 
 brass and iron armor, in plates or scales, fol- 
 lowed. The first body armor of the Britons 
 were skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the 
 Roman conquest, for the well tanned leathern 
 cuirass. This latter continued until the Anglo- 
 Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale 
 armor, A. D. 449. The heavy cavalry were 
 covered with a coat of mail, 1216. Armor be- 
 came exceedingly splendid about 1350. The 
 armor of plate commenced, 1407. The armor 
 of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel,
 
 304 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. 
 Armor ceased to reach below the knees in the 
 time of Charles I., 1625. 
 
 Artillery. The first piece was a small 
 one, contrived by Schwartz, a German cordel- 
 ier, soon after the invention of gunpowder in 
 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the 
 Moors at Algeciras in Spain, in the siege of 
 1341 ; it was used, according to historians, at 
 the battle of Cressy, in 1346, when Edward III. 
 had four pieces of cannon, which gained him 
 the battle. Artillery was used at the siege of 
 Calais, 1347. The Venetians first employed 
 artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. 
 Cast in England, together with mortars for 
 bombshells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 1543. 
 Made of brass, 1635. From this time forward 
 the improvement in field artillery has been 
 rapid and important. 
 
 Astronomy. The earliest accounts we 
 have of this science are those of Babylon, 
 about 2234 B. C. The study of astronomy was 
 much advanced in Chaldea under Nabonas- 
 sur ; it was known to the Chinese about 1100 
 B. C. ; some say many centuries before. Lu- 
 nar eclipses were observed at Babylon with ex- 
 ceeding accuracy, 720 B. C. Spherical form 
 of the earth, and the true cause of lunar 
 eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 B. C. Further 
 discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doc- 
 trine of celestial motions, and believed in the 
 plurality of habitable worlds, 500 B. C. Hip- 
 parch us began his observations at Rhodes, 167 
 
 B. C., began his new cycle of the moon in 143, 
 and made great advances in the science, 140 B. 
 
 C. The procession of the equinoxes confirmed, 
 and the places and distances of the planets dis- 
 covered, by Ptolemy, A. D. 130. After the 
 elapse of nearly seven centuries, during which 
 time astronomy was neglected, it was resiimed 
 by the Arabs about 800 ; and \vas afterwards 
 brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary 
 and Spain, but not sooner than 1201, when 
 they also introduced geography. True laws 
 of the planetary motions discovered by Kepler 
 1619 ; the discoveries of Galileo were made 
 about 1631. Newton's Pnncipia published 
 and the system as now taught incontroverti- 
 bly established, A. D. 1687 ; Mecanique Celeste, 
 published by La Place, 1796. 
 
 Ax-Wedge. These instruments, with the 
 lever, and various others of a coarse construc- 
 tion and still in common use, are said to have 
 been invented by D^dalus, an artificer of 
 Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention 
 of masts and sails for ships, 1240 B. C. Many 
 tools are represented on the Egyptian monu- 
 ments. 
 
 Beer, Origin of. The Germans, Gauls. 
 and Bretons manufactured beer from barley 
 
 and wheat as far back as there are any written 
 records regarding them. Tacitus tells us that 
 beer was a common beverage of the Germans 
 when he wrote, in the first century. We learn 
 from Pliny that " The people of Spain, in par- 
 ticular, brew this liquor so well that it will 
 keep a long time." He describes it as made 
 from corn and water. The earliest of Greek 
 writers speak of wine made from barley, anc. 
 of the art of making it as derived from the 
 Egyptians. It is believed that Archilochus, the 
 Parian poet, who lived about 700 B. C., re- 
 ferred to beer drinking when he depicted the 
 follies and vicious indulgences of his time. In 
 the ancient writings of China reference is 
 made to a fermented drink called " sam-shoo, " 
 made from rice. When it was first invented 
 is unknown, but it was probably long before 
 the Christian Era. 
 
 Blood, Circulation of. The true the- 
 ory regarding the circulation of blood was 
 discovered by the celebrated English physiolo- 
 gist, William Harvey, about 1616. He re- 
 ceived his diploma as Doctor of Medicine from 
 the University of Padua in 1602, and in 1615 
 was made Lecturer at the College of Physi- 
 cians in London, an appointment which he 
 held for forty years. It is generally supposed 
 that he expounded his views regarding blood 
 circulation in his first course of lectures. He 
 died at London June 3, 1657. 
 
 Bonnet. The English bonnet, which was 
 superseded in the early part of the sixteenth 
 century by the hat, was made of cloth, silk, or 
 velvet, less or more ornamented, according to 
 the taste or means of the wearer. In Scotland, 
 however, bonnets were universally worn for a 
 century or two later, and they still are, to a 
 certain extent, a national characteristic. The 
 bonnet worn by the Lowland Scottish peasan- 
 try was of a broad, round, and flat shape, over- 
 shadowing the face and neck, and of a dark- 
 blue color, excepting a red tuft like a cherry 
 on the top. It was made of thick milled 
 woolen, and with reasonable care would last a 
 man his whole life. From having been worn, 
 till comparatiyely late times, by small rural 
 proprietors such as owners of a cottage and 
 an acre or two of land it gave to these local 
 notabilities the distinctive appellation of Bonnet 
 Lairds. The bonnets worn by the Highland- 
 ers were made of the same fabric, but rise to a 
 point in front and are without any rim. From 
 time immemorial these various kinds of Scots 
 bonnets have been manufactured at Stewarton, 
 a small town in Ayrshire. Formerly the Stew- 
 arton bonnet makers formed a corporation, 
 which, like other old guilds, was governed by 
 regulations conceived in a narrow and often 
 amusingly absurd spirit ; one of the rules of
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 305 
 
 of the fraternity, however, can be spoken of A man's brain, it is estimated, consists of 
 only with commendation, for it enforced acer- 300,000,000 nerve cells, of which over 3,000 
 tain weight of material in each bonnet, as well are disintegrated and destroyed every minute. 
 
 as durability in the color. 
 
 Every one, therefore, has a new brain once in 
 
 Botanic Gardens. In 1309 A. D., the ! sixty days. But excessive labor, or the lack of 
 first approach to a botanic garden was made j sleep, prevents the repair of the tissues, and 
 in the garden of Matthaeus Salvations, at Sa- j the brain gradually wastes away. Diversity of 
 lerno, botanic science, however, being merely | occupation, by calling upon different portions 
 subservient to medicine ; and it was not until j of the mind or body, successively affords, in 
 1533 that the first true botanic garden was some measure, the requisite repose to each, 
 formed. This was made for Caspar de Ga- But in this age of overwork there is no safety 
 brieli, a wealthy Tuscan noble at Padua, and except in that perfect rest which is the only 
 was followed by similar gardens at Pisa, natural restorative of exhausted power. It has 
 Florence, Bologna, and Home, the first public j been noticed by observant physicians in their 
 garden being that at Pisa. In 1545 a public i European' travels that the German people, 
 garden was established at Padua by decree of j who, as a rule, have no ambition and no hope 
 the Republic of Venice. In 1580 the Elector of j to rise above their inherited station, are pecul- 
 Saxony established a public botanic garden at j iarly free from nervous diseases ; but in Amer- 
 Leipzig, which was soon followed by others, j ica, where the struggle for advancement is 
 There was no botanic garden in France till sharp and incessant, and there is nothing that 
 
 Louis XIII. established the Jardin des Planter 
 at Paris, which was completed in 1634. The 
 first public botanic garden was established in 
 England at Oxford by the Earl of Danby, al- 
 though numerous private gardens had existed 
 
 will stop an American but death, the period of 
 life is usually shortened five, ten, or twenty 
 years by the effects of nervous exhaustion. 
 
 After the age of 50 the brain loses an ounce 
 every ten years. Cuvier's weighed 65, Byron's 
 
 in England for the greater part of a century, i 79, and Cromwell's 90 ounces, but the last 
 The botanic garden at Edinburgh, the first in i was diseased. Post-mortem examinations in 
 Scotland, was founded about 1680. The bo- France give an average of 55 to 60 ounces for 
 tanic garden at Kew occupies a high place the brains of the worst class of criminals, 
 among British national institutions, and pos- Beds. -The ancients slept on skins. Beds 
 sesses one of the richest collections of plants were afterwards of loose rushes, heather, or 
 in the world. The gardens connected with straw. Th'e Romans are said to have been the 
 the imperial palace at Schonbrunn, in Austria, first to use feathers. An air-cushion is said 
 and that of Berlin, are the greatest in Germany, [to have been used by Heliogabalus, 218-222 ; 
 The Jarflin dex Planless in Paris undoubtedly air beds were in use in the sixteenth century. 
 may be regarded as holding the first place on Feather beds were used in England in the reign 
 the continent of Europe, both with reference of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the Egyp- 
 to the strictly scientific study of botany and to tians and later Greeks, like modern couches, be- 
 
 the care bestowed upon the introduction and 
 diffusion of useful or beautiful plants from all 
 parts of the world. In the United States the 
 botanic gardens of New York and Philadelphia 
 are the most worthy of notice. 
 
 Brain. The latest classification of races, 
 according to Bastian and other experts, shows 
 weight of brain, in ounces, as follows : Scotch, 
 50.0; Germans, 49. 6; English, 49.5 ; French, 
 47. &; Zulus, 47.5; Chinese, 47.2; Pawnees, 
 47.1; Italians, 46.9; Hindoo, 45.1; Gypsy, 
 44.8; Bushmen, 44.6; Esquimaux, -43.9. 
 Compared with size of body, the brain of the 
 Esquimau is as heavy as the Scotchman's. 
 
 The measurement of that part of the skull 
 which holds the brain is stated in cubic inches 
 thus: Anglo-Saxon, 105; German, 105; Ne- 
 
 gro, yd ; Ancient Egyptian, 93 ; Hottentot, 
 58 ; Australian native, 58. 
 
 In all races the male brain is about 10 per 
 cent, heavier than the female. The highest baptized as we do ships, but with 
 class of apes has only 16 oz. of brain. solemnity. 
 
 came common amongthe Roman upper classes. 
 
 Bells were used among the Jews, Greeks, 
 and Romans. The responses of the Dodonean 
 oracle were in part conveyed by bells. The 
 monument of Porsenna was decorated with 
 pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. Said 
 to have been introduced by Paulinus, bishop 
 of Nole, in Campagna, about 400 ; and first 
 known in France in 550. The army of Clo- 
 thaire II., king of France, was frightened from 
 the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of 
 St. Stephen's church. 
 
 Bells were used in churches by order of 
 Pope John IX., about 900. as a defense, by 
 ringing them, against thunder and lightning. 
 Bells are mythically said to have been cast bv 
 Turketul, Abbot of England, about 941. Hi 
 
 successor improved the invention, and can 
 the first tunable set to be put up at Crnv!;- 
 Abbey* 960. In most Catholic states, bells
 
 306 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Billiards. Invented by the French, by 
 whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, and Jtal- 
 ians, they were brought into general vogue 
 throughout Europe. The French ascribe their 
 invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist, in 
 the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate 
 billiard tables were introduced in England in 
 1827. 
 
 Boots, said to have been the invention of 
 the Carians, were mentioned by Homer, 907 
 B. C., and frequently by the Roman historians. 
 A variety of forms may be seen in Fairholt's 
 " Costume in England." An instrument of 
 torture ' ' termed the boot ' ' was used in Scot- 
 land upon the Covenanters about 1666. 
 
 Botany. Aristotle is considered the founder 
 ' of the philosophy of botany. The Historia Plan- 
 tarum of Theophrastus was written about 320 
 B. C. Authors on botany are numerous from 
 the earlier ages of the ^yorld to the close of the 
 fifteenth century, when the science became 
 better understood. The study was advanced 
 by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpinus, and 
 others, between 1535 and 1600. The system 
 and arrangement of Linnaeus, the first bota- 
 nist of modern times, made known about 1750 ; 
 Jussieu's system, in 1758. At the time of the 
 death of Linnaeus, A. D. 1778, the species of 
 plants actually described amounted in number 
 to 11,800. The number of species x of all de- 
 nominations now recorded cannot fall short of 
 100,000. 
 
 Bottles in ancient times were made of 
 leather. The art of making glass bottles and 
 drinking-glasses was known to the Romans at 
 least before 79 A. D. ; for these articles and 
 other vessels have been found in the ruins of 
 Pompeii. Bottles were made in England about 
 1558. 
 
 Bread. Ching-Noung, the successor of 
 Fohi, is reputed to have been the first who 
 taught men (the Chinese) the art of hus- 
 bandry, and the method of making bread from 
 wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 B. C. Bak- 
 ing of bread was known in the patriarchal 
 ages; it became a profession at Rome, 170 
 B. C. During the siege of Paris by Henry 
 IV., owing to the famine which then raged, 
 bread, which had been sold whilst any re- 
 mained for a crown a pound, was at last made 
 from the bones of the charnel-house of the 
 Holy Innocents, A. D. 1594, In the time of 
 James I. the usual bread of the poor was made 
 of barley ; in Iceland codfish beaten to powder 
 is made into bread ; potato bread is used in 
 Ireland. Bread was made with yeast by the 
 English bakers in 1634. In 1850 and. 1857, 
 Dauglish patented a mode of making " aerated 
 bread " in which carbonic acid gas is com- 
 bined with water and mixed with the flour, 
 
 and which is said to possess the advantages of 
 cleanliness, rapidity, and uniformity. 
 
 Bricks were used in Babylon, Egypt, 
 Greece, and Rome ; in England by the Romans 
 about 44. Made under the direction of Al- 
 fred the Great, about 886. The size regu- 
 lated by order of Charles I., 1625. Brick ma- 
 chines were invented by Messrs. Cook and Cun- 
 ningham in 1839 ; by Messrs. Dixon and Cor- 
 bett in 1861. 
 
 Butter. It was late before the Greeks 
 had any notion of butter, and by the early 
 Romans it was used as a medicine only, never 
 as food. The Christians of Egypt burned but- 
 ter in their lamps instead of oil, in the third 
 century. In Africa vegetable butter is made 
 from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of 
 richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made 
 from cow's milk. 
 
 Calico Printing. The art of calico 
 printing was introduced into Europe about the 
 seventeenth century, although it is believed to 
 have been known in India and Egypt as earl} 
 as the first or second centuries. In this early 
 period the printing was done by means of 
 blocks on which the designs to be transferred 
 to the cloth had been engraved in relief. These 
 were dipped into dye-stuff, and then pressed 
 upon the material by hand. Later, presses foi 
 this block-printing were invented, and the use 
 of several was introduced so engraved as to fill 
 up each other's A 7 acancies, and thus several 
 colors were put into the pattern. About 1770 
 copper-plate printing was invented in England. 
 By this method the design was cut into plates, 
 the color filled into the sunken parts of the en- 
 graving, and the cloths were printed by being 
 pressed upon it. This invention finally led to 
 the introduction of cylinder-printing, the 
 method now in use. The cylinders are of cop- 
 per, and the design is engraved upon their 
 surface. A separate cylinder is required for 
 each color or shade of color to be used in print- 
 ing the cloth, and in fine and intricate designs 
 as many as twenty cylinders are sometimes 
 used. These are set in a strong frame against 
 the face of a large central drum made of iron 
 and covered wi'h woolen cloth in several folds, 
 between which and the cylinders the calico is 
 printed as it passes. The color is spread upon 
 the cylinders, as they revolve, by contact with 
 another roller, which dips into a trough con- 
 taining the coloring-matter properly thickened. 
 This roller is made of an absorbent, elastic 
 material, similar to the roller used in inking 
 a printing press. Each cylinder thus receives 
 its proper color, and imparts it, in revolving, 
 to the calico pressed between its face and that 
 of the fixed drum. A sharp blade of metal 
 pressing against the copper cylinder removes all
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 307 
 
 superfluous color from its surface, so that only 
 the design cut in the metal is imprinted in 
 clear outline upon the cloth. The employ- 
 ment of a number of rollers to make one design 
 is attended with much difficulty, as in passing 
 under them the cloth is in much danger of 
 being displaced and the regularity of the print 
 destroyed. As the cloth leaves the printing- 
 machine it is drawn over rollers through a 
 hot-air chamber, by which it is thoroughly 
 dried, and the colors become fully set. 
 
 Candles. It was not until the fourteenth 
 century that candles having any resemblance 
 to those now in use were manufactured. Pre- 
 vious to that time our English ancestors soaked 
 splints of wood in fat or oil to obtain their 
 light. The candles used by the Greeks and 
 Romans were rude torches made by dipping 
 strips of papyrus or rushes into pitch and then 
 coating them with wax. These candles were 
 also in use in Europe during the middle ages, 
 and were very large and heavy. A dipped 
 candle made from tallow was introduced in 
 England in the fourteenth century, and wax- 
 candles were also made at the same time. 
 These latter were very costly, and were con- 
 sidered great luxuries. In 1484 a company 
 for the manufacture of wax candles was incor- 
 porated in London. Mold candles are said to 
 be the invention of the Sieur Le Brez, of Paris. 
 
 Casting Plate-Glass. The whole oper- 
 ation of casting a plate of glass occupies but a 
 very short time. The casting-tables, the most 
 important pieces of apparatus in plate-glass 
 works, are 39 feet long, 14 feet wide, and 7 
 inches thick. Each is provided with an iron 
 roller 30 inches in diameter and 15 feet long. 
 Strips of iron on each side of the table afford 
 a bearing for the rollers and determine the 
 thickness of the plate of glass to be cast. The 
 rough plate is commonly 9-1 6ths of an inch in 
 thickness. After polishing, it is reduced to 
 6-16ths or 7-16ths. The casting- tables are 
 mounted on wheels, and run on a track that 
 reaches every furnace and annealing-oven in 
 the building. The table having been wheeled 
 as near as possible to the melting-furnace, the 
 pot of molten glass is lifted by means of a 
 crane and its contents quickly poured on the 
 table. The heavy iron roller is then passed 
 from end to end, spreading the glass into a 
 layer of uniform thickness. The cold metal 
 of the table cools the glass rapidly. As soon 
 as possible the door of the annealing-oven is 
 opened and the plate of glass introduced. The 
 floor of the oven is on the same level as the 
 casting-table so the transfer can be conve- 
 niently and quickly made. When, after sev- 
 eral days, the glass is taken out of the oven, 
 its surface is found to be decidedly rough and 
 
 uneven. A small quantity is used in this con- 
 dition for skylights and other purposes where 
 strength is required without transparency. It 
 is known as rough-plate. The greater part of 
 the glass, however, is ground, smoothed, and 
 polished before it leaves the establishment. 
 Few industries offer such fine scenic displays 
 as the pouring of the molten glass. 
 
 Celluloid is made from the cellulose con- 
 tained in cotton cloth or raw cotton. The cot- 
 ton is treated to a Aveak solution of nitric acid. 
 This has the effect of making a pulp of cotton 
 very much like paper pulp. After the^ acid 
 has acted the pulp is treated to a copious water- 
 bath that in a large measure washes out the 
 acid. Then it goes through a partial drying 
 process, and a large quantity of camphor-gum 
 is mixed with it, and it is rolled into sheets 
 ready for the drying-room, where it is dried on 
 hot cylinders, the same as paper is dried. It 
 can be softened by steam, but hardens again 
 when it is dry. Celluloid, when ready for 
 market, burns as readily as ordinary sealing- 
 wax. 
 
 Chess, Origin of. Although the origin 
 of chess is enshrouded in considerable mystery, 
 there is but little doubt that its birthplace 
 was in India, and that it is an offspring of a 
 game called Chaturanga, which is mentioned 
 in Oriental literature as in use fully 2,000 
 years before the Christian era. From India 
 chess spread into Persia, and thence into Ara- 
 bia, and ultimately the Arabs took it to Spain 
 and the rest of Western Europe. The game 
 was in all probability invented for the purpose 
 of illustrating the art of war. The Arab legend 
 upon this point is that it was devised for the 
 instruction of a young despot by his father, a 
 learned Brahman, to teach him that a king, 
 notwithstanding his power, was dependent for 
 safety upon his subjects. The Greek histo- 
 rians credit the invention of the game to Pala- 
 medes, who, they claim, devised it to beguile 
 the tedium of the siege of Troy during the 
 Trojan war. 
 
 Common Names of Chemical Sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Aqua Fortis, 
 
 Aqua Regia, 
 
 Blue Vitriol, 
 
 Cream of Tartar, 
 
 Calomel, 
 
 Chalk, 
 
 Salt of Tartar, 
 
 Caustic Potassa, 
 
 Chloroform, 
 
 Common Salt, 
 
 Copperas, or Green Vitriol, 
 
 Corrdsive Sublimate, 
 
 Diamond, 
 
 Dry Alum, 
 
 Epsom Salts, 
 Ethiops Mineral, 
 Galena, 
 
 Nitric Acid. 
 Nitro-Muriatic Acid. 
 Sulphate of Copper. 
 Bitartrate Potassium. 
 Chloride of Mercury. 
 Carbonate Calcium. 
 Carbonate of Potassium. 
 Hydrate Potassium. 
 Chloride of Gormyle. 
 Chloride of Sodium. 
 Sulphate of Iron. 
 Bi-Chloride of Mercury. 
 Pure Carbon. 
 Sulphate Aluminium and 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 Sulphate of Magnesia. 
 Black Sulphide of Mercury. 
 Sulphide of Lead.
 
 308 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Glauber's-Salt, 
 
 Glucose, 
 
 Iron Pyrites, 
 
 Jeweler's Putty, 
 
 King's Yellow, 
 
 Laughing Gas, 
 
 Lime, 
 
 Lunar Caustic, 
 
 Muriate of Lime, 
 
 Niter or Saltpeter, 
 
 Oil of Vitriol, 
 
 Potash, 
 
 Realgar, 
 
 Red Lead, 
 
 Rust of Iron, 
 
 Sal-ammoniac, 
 
 Slacked Lime, 
 
 Soda, 
 
 Spirits of Hartshorn, 
 
 Spirit of Salt, 
 
 Stucco, or Plaster of Paris 
 
 Sugar of Lead, 
 
 Verdigris, 
 
 Vermilion, 
 
 Vinegar, 
 
 Volatile Alkali, 
 
 Water, 
 
 White Precipitate, 
 
 White Vitriol, 
 
 Sulphate of Sodium. 
 Grape Sugar. 
 Bi-Sulphide Iron. 
 Oxide of Tin. 
 Sulphide of Arsenic. 
 Protoxide of Nitrogen. 
 Oxide of Calcium. 
 Nit rate of Silver. 
 Chloride of Calcium. 
 Nitrate of Potash. 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 Oxide of Potassium. 
 Sulphide of Arsenic.- 
 Oxide of Lead. 
 Oxide of Iron. 
 Muriate of Ammonia. 
 Hydrate Calcium. 
 Oxide of Sodium. 
 Ammonia. 
 Hydro-Chloric, or Muriatic 
 
 Acid. 
 
 Sulphate of Lime. 
 Acetate of Lead. 
 Basic Acetate of Copper. 
 Sulphide of Mercury. 
 Acetic Acid (diluted). 
 Ammonia. 
 Oxide of Hydrogen. 
 Ammoniated Mercury. 
 Sulphate of Zinc. 
 
 Chemistry was introduced into Spain by 
 the Moors about 1150. The Egyptians and 
 Chinese claim an earlier acquaintance with 
 chemistry. The first chemists were alchemists ; 
 but chemistry was not a science until the seven- 
 teenth century, during which it was promoted 
 by Bacon, Hooke, Mayow, and Boyle. In the 
 early part of the eighteenth century, Dr, 
 Stephen Hales laid the foundation of pneumatic 
 chemistry, and his contemporary, Boerhaave, 
 combined the study of chemistry with medicine. 
 These were succeeded by Bergman, Stahl, 
 Black, and others. In 1772, Priestley pub- 
 lished his researches on air, having discovered 
 the gases, oxygen, ammonia, etc., and thus 
 commenced a new chemical era. The nine- 
 teenth century opened with the brilliant dis- 
 coveries of Davy, Dalton, Faraday, Thompson, 
 and Silliman. Organic chemistry has been very 
 greatly advanced by Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, 
 Laurent, Hoffmann, Cahours, Frankland, and 
 others, since 1830. 
 
 Climate. Climate is the state of the at- 
 mosphere in regard to temperature, winds, 
 moisture, and salubrity. 
 
 The climate of a place as regards tempera- 
 ture depends upon : 
 
 Latitude. The general haw is that the 
 amount of heat is greatest at the equator, and 
 diminishes toward the poles. There are three 
 reasons for this: 1. The sun's rays fall per- 
 pendicularly upon the earth at the equator, 
 and more and more obliquely as we go toward 
 the poles. 2. The area covered by a given 
 amount of heating power from the sun is 
 smaller at the equator. 3. Where the sun's 
 rays fall perpendicularly they pass through a 
 less amount of atmosphere, and the absorption 
 of heat is less. 
 
 Altitude. The decrease in temperature is 
 about 3 deg. F. for every 1,000 feet of eleva- 
 tion. As the air receives most of its heat by 
 radiation and reflection from the earth, and as 
 the higher we go the less dense the air, the less 
 heat is absorbed either from the earth or from 
 the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 PrecuHhif/ 1HW*. Wiudsblowingfrom the 
 tropical regions carry the heat with them. and. 
 conversely, winds from the polar regions lower 
 the temperature. Whichever wind prevails 
 throughout the year in a given place will con- 
 sequently modify the temperature of that place. 
 
 Lenc/th of Day. During the day the earth 
 receives from the sun more heat than it radiates 
 into space ; while during the night it radiates 
 more than it receives. Hence a succession of 
 long days and short nights results in an Accu- 
 mulation of heat, raising the average temper- 
 ature and producing summer ; while long 
 nights and short days result in a temperature 
 below the average, producing winter. The 
 heating power of the sun is greater in summer, 
 because at that season it is shining more di- 
 rectly upon that part of the earth, and con- 
 versely in winter. In the tropical regions the 
 inequality of day and night is very little, but 
 increases toward the poles. The temperature 
 in the tropics is therefore more uniform. The 
 length of day makes up for the lessened inten- 
 sity of the sun's rays ; hence a place in high 
 latitude may have at times higher tempera- 
 ture than a place within the tropics. 
 
 Ocean Currents. The warm waters of the 
 tropical regions being brought toward the 
 polar regions bring the heat with them, radia- 
 ting it into space, and it is absorbed by the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Mountain Ranges. A mountain range will 
 make a country near it warmer or colder, ac- 
 cording as it shields it from a cold or warm 
 wind. 
 
 The Distribution of Land and Water. Land 
 heats or cools rapidly, absorbing or emitting 
 but little heat. Water heats or cools slowly, 
 absorbing or emitting large quantities of heat. 
 Hence the land is subject to great and sudden 
 changes of temperature ; the water to small and 
 gradual changes. Places situated near the sea 
 have, therefore, a more equable climate. 
 
 Character of Soil. Dry, sandy soil heats 
 and cools more rapidly than wet and marshy 
 lands ; hence the latter will have a more uni- 
 form temperature. 
 
 SlujK' i>/' I. mill. - Land which slopes so that 
 the sun's rays will strike it nearer vertically 
 will receive more heat. The south side of a 
 hill is warmer in winter than the north side. 
 
 In regard to wimls the climate of a place 
 depends upon :
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 300 
 
 Temperature. A.s winds are but masses of 
 air set in motion by the unequal heating, the 
 winds of any given place depend primarily 
 upon the temperature, though not necessarily 
 upon the temperature of that place. As the 
 air is heated in the tropical parts of the earth 
 by the sun, it rises, and colder air flows in 
 from the polar regions to take its place ; hence 
 the primary currents, which are modified in 
 various ways by other causes. 
 
 Rotation of the Earth. The winds are turned 
 out of their course by the rotation of the earth 
 in the same manner as the ocean currents. 
 
 Land ami Water. The land becomes warmer 
 during the day than the sea, and, the air rising, 
 a cooler air flows in from tl>3 sea. At night 
 the land parts with its heat more rapidly than i 
 the water and becomes cooler ; then the Avind ; 
 sets the other way. Hence we have the land 
 and sea breezes. 
 
 Elecation of the Land. Mountains, as has 
 already been stated, shelter places from winds. 
 Some of the great plains are subject to almost 
 constant winds. 
 
 In regard to moisture, the climate of a place 
 depends upon : 
 
 Prevailing Wind. If a wind blows from 
 large bodies of water in a warm region it will 
 be laden with moisture which will be likely 
 to be precipitated 011 reaching a colder country. 
 
 Mountain*. The contact of a moisture- 
 laden wind with the cold sides of mountains 
 will cause a precipitation of its moisture, and 
 the regions beyond the mountains will not 
 receive it. 
 
 Forests, by shading the earth, keep its surface 
 cool, and this tends to condense the moisture. 
 
 Cultivation of the Soil, causing it to absorb 
 moisture from the atmosphere, and by capil- 
 lary attraction in dry weather bring up mois- 
 ture from below to. the surface. 
 
 Temperature. Increased heat causes greater 
 evaporation, and hence more moisture in the 
 atmosphere. More rain falls within the tropics 
 than in the temperate or polar regions. 
 
 Land and Water. More rain falls on the 
 coasts of a country than in the interior, be- 
 cause the winds are more moist. More rain 
 falls in the northern hemisphere than in the 
 southern, because there is a greater diversity of 
 land and water, the evaporation coming mainly 
 from the ocean, and the condensation from the 
 diversified land surface. 
 
 Isothermal line* are lines connecting places 
 that have the same mean temperature. 
 
 There is a line or limit of elevation, above 
 which the surface is covered with perpetual 
 snow; this is called the arioir-line. 
 
 Coaches. Covered carriages appear to 
 have been used by the old Romans. In the 
 
 year 1588, Duke Julius of Brunswick published 
 an act against riding in coaches. Philip II. 
 of Pomerania-Stettin published a similar doc- 
 ument in 1608. Coaches appear to have been 
 used iu France very early. An ordinance of 
 Philip the Fair, issued in 1294, for suppressing 
 luxury, forbids citizens' wives to ride in 
 coaches. Coaches were first used in England 
 in 1565, the first being that made for the Earl 
 of Rutland. In 1601 an act was passed to 
 prevent men riding in coaches, on the score 
 of its effeminacy. Coaches began to be com- 
 mon in 1605, and were petitioned against by 
 the saddlers and other. Hackney coaches in- 
 troduced in 1634. In 1661, a stage coach 
 was two days going from London to Oxford, 
 and the "flying coach " was thirteen hours, 
 even in summer weather, when the roads were 
 at their best. 
 
 Coffins. Athenian heroes were buried in 
 coffins of the cedar tree, owing to its aromatic 
 and incorruptible qualities. Coffins of marble 
 and stone were used by the Romans. Alex- 
 ander is said to have been buried in one of 
 gold ; and glass coffins have been found in 
 England. The earliest record of wooden 
 coffins among the English speaking people is 
 that of the burial of King Arthur in an entire 
 trunk of oak, hollowed, A. D. 542. The 
 patent coffins were invented in 1796. 
 
 Coin. Silver was first coined by Phidon, 
 King of Argos, 869 B. C. In Rome, silver 
 money was first coined 269 B. C. Gold and 
 silver coins first used in the East. Coin first 
 used in Britain 25 B. C., and in Scotland not 
 until 248 years later. In 1101, round coins 
 were first used in England. Silver halfpence 
 and farthings were coined in the reign of John, 
 and pence were the largest current coins. Gold 
 was first coined in England in 1087 ; in Bohe- 
 mia, in 1301. In 1531, groats and half-groats 
 were the largest silver coin in England. Gold 
 was first coined in Venice in 1346. Shillings 
 were first coined in England in 1068. Crowns 
 and half-crowns were first coined in 1551. 
 Henry III. introduced copper money into 
 France in 1580. Copper money introduced 
 into England by James I. in 1620. The proc- 
 ess of milling coin introduced in 1662. The 
 mint of the United States of America was es- 
 tablished in 1793. 
 
 Comets. It has been lately suggested 
 that there is a great degree of affinity between 
 comets and meteors in fact, that a comet is 
 merely an aggregation of meteors. Comets 
 have been supposed to be bodies of burning 
 gas. Their mass is very great, and their bril- 
 liant tails are many millions of miles in 
 extent. In their orbits, they differ greatly 
 from the planets. While the latter are direct
 
 310 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 in their wanderings, comets are most irregular 
 and eccentric. When first seen, the comet 
 resembles a faint spot of light upon the back- 
 ground of the sky. As it comes nearer, the 
 brightness increases and the tail begins to show 
 
 The term comet signifies a hairy body. A 
 comet consists usually of three parts : the nu- 
 cleus, a bright point in the center of the head ; 
 the coma (hair), the cloud-like mass surround- 
 ing the nucleus; and the tail, aluminous train 
 extending generally in a direction from the sun. 
 
 It is not understood whether comets shine by 
 their own or by reflected light. If their nuclei 
 consist of white-hot matter, a passage through 
 such a furnace would be anything but desirable. 
 
 The discovery of the elliptical orbit of comets 
 is due to Halley. He discovered a comet in 
 1682 which he demonstrated to be a return of 
 the comet described by Kepler in 1007 ; that 
 it had appeared in 1531, and that it was the 
 comet that had appeared still earlier by the 
 same period of seventy-five years, in 1457, and 
 that had caused such consternation among the 
 Christians, who regarded it as a sign, Con- 
 stantinople having just fallen 'and all Europe 
 being threatened by the Turks. Halley also 
 predicted the return of the comet in 1757. It 
 reached its perihelion in 1759. Its last appear- 
 ance was in 1835. It will be looked for in 1911. 
 
 Encke's, Biela's, and the comets of 1843 
 and 1858 are comparatively recent. Others 
 came in 1861, 1874, 1883. In 1881, two com- 
 ets appeared. Some comets of antiquity were 
 very remarkable, and are reputed to have 
 equaled the sun in magnitude. One tail is 
 usually supposed to be the distinguishing mark 
 of a comet, but in 1774 one appeared with six 
 tails, arranged something like a fan. Some- 
 times the tail is separated from the head. 
 Some comets appear at regular intervals, and 
 their approach can be determined with accuracy. 
 Of course we only see those which are attracted 
 by the sun, or those which revolve in the solar 
 system. There must be thousands of other 
 comets which we never see at all. 
 
 Compass, The. The directive power of 
 the magnet seems to have been unknown in 
 Europe until late in the twelfth century. It 
 appears, however, on very good authority, that 
 it was known in China and throughout the 
 east generally at a very remote date. The 
 Chinese annals assign its discovery to the year 
 2634 B. C., when, they say, an instrument for 
 indicating the south was constructed by the Em- 
 peror Hon-ang-ti. At first, they would appear 
 to have used it exclusively for guidance in 
 traveling by land. The earliest date at which 
 we hear of their using it at sea is somewhere 
 about A. D. 300. According to one account, 
 a knowledge of the compass was brought to 
 
 Europe by Marco Polo on his return from 
 Cathay. It was long contended that the com- 
 pass as a nautical instrument was first invented 
 by Flavio Gioja, a native of Amalfi, about the 
 year 1362, and that the section of the Kingdom 
 of Naples where he was born has a compass for 
 its arms. For this there is no authority what- 
 ever, as the compass was well known as a nau- 
 tical instrument before his time. The phe- 
 nomena of the magnetic needle which perplex 
 scientists most are that in every place it is sub- 
 ject to variations. By observation at Paris it 
 was found that in 1681 the needle varied 2 
 degrees 30 minutes to the west; in 1865, 18 
 degrees 44 minutes to the west. At London, 
 between 1580 and 1692, the needle varied from 
 10 degrees 15 minutes east to 6 degrees west. 
 In Dakota the average variation is 12 degrees 
 30 minutes east, in Minnesota 1 1 degrees east, 
 while in Montana it is 20 degrees east. In a 
 work on Government Surveys it is stated that 
 "the needle does not point due north except 
 in a few localities, and at noplace does it con- 
 tinue to point with a given angular distance 
 from the north for any stated length of time. 
 It changes secularly, annually, diurnally and 
 hourly, and is, further, subject to fluctuations 
 reducible to no method of tabulation." In the 
 vicinity of iron or magnetic sands, the needle 
 is deflected toward the material attracting it. 
 
 Compressed-Air Engines. The ar- 
 rangements of atmospheric engines is largely 
 identical with that of non-condensing steam- 
 engines, and they are used very generally both 
 in the United States and Europe in the con- 
 struction of tunnels, their great advantage be- 
 ing that in place of escaping heat and steam, 
 which would seriously vitiate the close air in 
 the shaft, the working of the engine gives out 
 pure cold air, serving also the purpose of ven- 
 tilation. An engine worked by compressed 
 air, however, can never be a prime motor in 
 itself, since the air which propels it must be 
 ompressed by another power either steam, 
 lectricity, falling water, or animal force. 
 There are several ways of applying this com- 
 pressed air. One is to fill with it a large, 
 strong cylinder or reservoir, and use it to work 
 a piston in the same way that steam is used. 
 Another is to conduct the air from the prime 
 motor in tubes to several smaller engines. la 
 ;he construction of the Mont Cenis Tunnel the 
 lydraulic power of a cataract near the entrance 
 of a tunnel was used as a prime motor to com- 
 aress air in reservoirs, whence it was con- 
 ducted by flexible tubes to work the rock-bor- 
 ing machines. When this boring is done by 
 percussion of steel drills, the atmospheric 
 pressure moves a piston connected with them. 
 When the boring is performed by rotation, as
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 311 
 
 is the case with the diamond drill, the atmos- 
 pheric engine is either a rotary or reciprocat- 
 ing one. Compressed air is also used with 
 sceam as a motor. Air when compressed 
 greatly becomes very hot, and if it is then 
 forced through hot water it becomes saturated 
 with steam, and this steam and air are found 
 to have enormous expansive power. This 
 motive-power has been very successfully ap- 
 plied to the propulsion of street cars. In the 
 working of electric-light machinery compressed 
 air is used to a considerable extent. 
 
 Coperiiieaii System, The, is that which 
 represents the sun to be at rest in the center of 
 the universe, and the earth and planets to 
 move round it as a center. It got its name 
 from Copernicus, who (although some vague 
 general notion of the system seems to be due 
 to Pythagoras) first distinctly drew the atten- 
 tion of philosophers to it, and devoted his life 
 to its demonstration. For the rest, the glory 
 of developing on the lines he broadly laid 
 down, belongs to Kepler, Galileo, and others, 
 and to Newton, who finally marked out the 
 form of^modern theoretical astronomy. Many 
 who reverence the name of Copernicus in con- 
 nection with this system, would be surprised 
 to find, on perusing his work, how much of 
 error, unsound reasoning, and happy conjec- 
 ture combined to secure for him in all time 
 the association of the system with his name ; 
 yet, with all its faults, that work marks one 
 of the greatest steps ever taken in science. 
 
 Corsets. An article of dress somewhat re- 
 sembling the corsets now worn by women was 
 used in Germany and France as early as the 
 thirteenth century, and it found its way into 
 England in the latter half of the fourteenth 
 century. It contained rods and plates of whale- 
 bone and steel, and was designed, we are told, 
 to conceal the defects and exaggerate the beau- 
 ties of the figure. This stiff arrangement was 
 discarded at the time of the French Revolution 
 owing to the Greek costume having been 
 brought into vogue, and its place was taken by 
 a smoothly fitting under waist. 
 
 Cotton, a vegetable wool, is the product of 
 a shrub indigenous to the tropical regions of 
 India and America. Indian cotton cloth is 
 mentioned by Herodotus, was known in Arabia 
 in the time of Mahomet 627, and was brought 
 into Europe by his followers. It does not ap- 
 pear to have been in use among the Chinese 
 till the thirteenth century ; to them we are in- 
 debted for the cotton fabric termed naul-<>:/i. 
 Cotton was the material of the principal 
 articles of clothing among the American In- 
 dians, when visited by Columbus. It was 
 grown and manufactured in Spain in the tenth 
 century ; and in the fourteenth century was in- 
 
 troduced into Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, 
 
 j and cottons were so largely imported into 
 
 j England in the seventeenth century, that an 
 act of parliament followed prohibiting their 
 introduction. Cotton became the staple com- 
 
 j modity of England in the present century. 
 
 I First cotton factory in America established at 
 East Bridgewater, Mass., 1787. First power 
 looms in the United States, 1813. The method 
 of spinning cotton was formerly by hand ; 
 but about 1767 Mr. Hargraves, of Lancashire 
 invented the spinning jenny with eight spin- 
 dles ; he also erected the first carding machine 
 with cylinders. Sir Richard Arkwright ob- 
 tained a patent for a new invention of ma- 
 chinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an 
 engine in 1775. Crompton invented the mule, 
 a further and wonderful improvement in the 
 manufacture of cotton in 1779, and various 
 other improvements have been since made. 
 In 1793, Eli Whitney, an American, invented 
 the cotton gin, a machine by which cotton 
 wool is separated from the pod and cleaned 
 with great ease and expedition. 
 
 Cremation. The reduction of the hu- 
 man body to ashes by fire was a very early and 
 
 j widespread usage of antiquity. The early Ar- 
 
 I vans, as opposed to the non- Aryan aborigines 
 of India, Greeks, Romans, Sclavs, Celts, and 
 Germans, burned their dead ; therefore crema- 
 tion may be regarded as the universal custom 
 of the Indo-European races. The graves of 
 North Europe throughout the ' ' bronze age ' ' 
 contain only jars of ashes. The advocates of 
 disposing of the dead by cremation are at the 
 
 i present time numerous, their principal argu- 
 
 j ments in favor of it being of a sanitary nature. 
 According to the method which is most fa- 
 
 I vored by modern cremationists, the body is 
 placed in an oblong brick or iron-cased cham- 
 
 I ber, underneath which is a furnace. The air 
 of the chamber is raised to a very high tem- 
 
 j perature before the body is put in, and a stream 
 of heated hydro-carbon from a gasometer is 
 then admitted, which on contact with in- 
 tensely-heated air within immediately bursts 
 into flame. The chamber is, of course, so 
 constructed as neither to admit draughts of air 
 from without nor to permit the escape of gas 
 from within. The noxious gases which aie 
 evolved in the beginning of the combustion 
 process are passed through a flue into a second 
 
 , furnace, where they are entirely consumed. 
 
 j By this process a body weighing 144 pounds 
 can be reduced in about fifty minutes to not 
 more than four pounds of lime-dust. In the 
 
 ; cremation of each body about 200 pounds of 
 fuel is used. 
 
 Crockery. The materials used in the 
 manufacture of crockery are kaolin, pipe-clay,
 
 312 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 quartz or flint, and feldspar the kaolin and 
 quartz to give hardness, and the pipe-clay and 
 feldspar to yield a flux sufficient to bind the 
 masses firmly together. The materials are 
 ground into a fine powder and then mixed "with 
 water in a machine called a " blunger," which 
 is a box containing paddles worked very 
 rapidly. When the matter has been thoroughly 
 mixed it is drawn off and forced by a hydraulic 
 pump through a series of sieves and then 
 worked up in what is called a pug-mill, after 
 which it is cut by a fine wire into rectangular 
 blocks. These blocks are then molded into 
 the shape of the article desired, some by the 
 use of a lathe, and some by simply shaping 
 them with the hands. The pieces are thus 
 partially dried, turned on a lathe with a sharp 
 tool to give them a uniform surface, dried 
 slowly in a drying room, then baked in an oven. 
 In baking the ware is kept at a white heat for 
 thirty-six hours. The pieces are then glazed 
 by being dipped in a mixture of ground feld- 
 spar, ground flint, sal soda, plastic clay, and 
 boracic acid, the whole pulverized and mixed 
 with a small proportion of white lead and a 
 little cobalt blue. This glaze is mixed with 
 water, the articles are dipped in it one by one, 
 receiving a deposit like a thin paste on the 
 surface, which, when placed in the oven again, 
 fuses and flows over it, making a coating of 
 glassy smoothness. Fine, white china or 
 porcelain is of course made of finer material 
 than crockery, but the process of manufacture 
 is similar. 
 
 Cryolite is a snow-white mineral, partially 
 transparent, of a vitreous luster and of brittle 
 texture. It is so named from its fusibility in 
 the flame of a candle. It is a compound of 
 sodium, fluorine, and aluminum, and is used 
 for the preparation of the metal aluminum. 
 It occurs in veins in gneiss with pyrites and 
 galena, and has been found in western Green- 
 land and at Miyask in the Ural Mountains. 
 It is extensively employed in the United States 
 in the manufacture of white porcelain glass, 
 and also in the preparation of caustic soda. 
 
 Daguerreotype. The name given to a j 
 process invented by M. Daguerre of Paris in 
 1839, by which perfect facsimiles of objects 
 are transferred upon thin copper plates, plated 
 with silver. The. images are produced by the 
 action of light upon the iodine through the 
 focus of the camera obscura. An apparatus 
 somewhat kindred in design was in contem- 
 plation about the same time by M. Niepce, 
 and about five years previously by Henry Fox 
 Talbot of London ; the original idea, however, 
 is traceable as far back as the days of Roger 
 Bacon. So important a discovery in the fine 
 arts was the daguerreotype deemed by the 
 
 French government, that it awarded to its in- 
 ventor a life pension of 0,000 francs. 
 
 Damascus Steel. The skill of the Dam- 
 ascenes in the manufacture of steel became 
 famous in Europe at the time of the Crusades, 
 but the secrets of their process have never been 
 revealed. A Russian mining engineer, Gen- 
 eral Anosoff, by analysis and examination, 
 however, succeeded in making steel that could 
 scarcely be distinguished from it in appear- 
 ance. The essential point of his process was 
 melting the iron in crucibles with graphite and 
 a small quantity of dolomite ; but the details 
 of working these materials with success were 
 of course known only by himself, and the 
 quality of the steel produced by the works 
 since his death has very much deteriorated. 
 An imitation of Damascus steel is also made in 
 America and is often known by that name, 
 though its proper appellation is damask steel, 
 so called from the peculiar damask figures on 
 its surface. 
 
 Damask Linens and Silks. They 
 were first manufactured at Damascus, and 
 hence the name ; have been imitated by the 
 Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture was 
 introduced into England by artisans who fled 
 from the persecutions of Alva, 1571-3. 
 
 Day and Jfiglit. The earth has two con- 
 stant motions : (1 ) its daily motion, or rotation 
 on its axis (its shorter diameter), from west to 
 east; (2) its yearly motion, or movement in a 
 nearly circular path (called its orbit) around 
 the sun. The length of time the earth is turn- 
 ing on its axis is called a day. Every part of 
 the earth's surface being successively carried 
 into light and shade, the daily rotation causes 
 the phenomena of day and night. The length 
 of time the earth is in passing around the sun 
 is called a year. It turns on its own axis in 
 the same time about 365^ times, hence there 
 are 365^ days in a year. As the earth revolves 
 from west to east, the sun will appear to 
 travel from east to west. At the equator the 
 days and nights are always twelve hours long ; 
 the farther a point lies from the equator, the 
 longer are its longest day and its longest night. 
 At the poles the year is made up of but one 
 day and one night, each lasting six months. 
 All places in about 66^ degrees of latitude, 
 north or south, have one day in the year 
 twenty-four hours long, and one night of an 
 equal length. 
 
 Dew. For any assigned temperature of 
 the atmosphere there is a certain quantity of 
 aqueous vapor which it is capable of holding 
 in suspension at a given pressure. Conversely, 
 for any assigned quantity of aqueous vapor 
 held in suspension in the atmosphere there is 
 a minimum temperature at which it can re-
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 313 
 
 main so suspended. This minimum tempera- 
 ture is called the dew point. During the day- 
 time, especially if there has been sunshine, a 
 good deal of aqueous vapor is taken into sus- 
 pension in the atmosphere. If the tempera- 
 ture in the evening now falls below the dew 
 point, which after a hot and calm day gener- 
 ally takes place about sunset, the vapor which 
 can be no longer held in suspension is de- 
 posited on the surface of the earth, sometimes 
 to be seen visibly falling in a fine mist. An- 
 other form of the phenomenon of dew is as 
 follows : The surface of the earth, and all 
 things on it, and especially the smooth sur- 
 faces of vegetable productions, are constantly 
 parting with their heat by radiation. If the 
 sky is covered with clouds, the radiation sent 
 back from the clouds nearly supplies an equiv- 
 alent for the heat thus parted with ; but if the 
 sky be clear, no equivalent is supplied, and 
 the surface of the earth and things growing on 
 it become colder than the atmosphere. If the 
 night also be calm, the small portion of air 
 contiguous to any of the surfaces will become 
 cooled below the dew point, and its moisture 
 deposited on the surface in the form of dew. 
 If the chilled temperature be below 32 degrees 
 Fahrenheit, the dew becomes frozen, and is 
 called hoar-frost. The above two phenomena, 
 though both expressed in our language by the 
 word "dew" which perhaps helps to lead 
 to a confusion of ideas on the subject are 
 not necessarily expressed by the same word. 
 For instance, in French, the first phenomenon 
 the falling evening dew is expressed by 
 the word serein: while the latter the dew 
 seen in the morning gathered in drops on the 
 leaves of plants or other cool surfaces is ex- 
 pressed by the word roxt'e. Similar to rose'e is 
 the moisture which condenses on the outside 
 surface of pitchers or glasses of ice-water. 
 The air in immediate contact is cooled below 
 the dew point and deposits the suspended 
 moisture. 
 
 Dictionary. A standard dictionary of 
 the Chinese language, containing about 40,- 
 000 characters, most of them hieroglyphics, or 
 rude representations somewhat like our signs 
 of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, 
 who lived about 1100 B. C. Cyclopedias were 
 compiled in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- 
 turies. The first dictionary of celebrity, per- 
 haps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Ve- 
 netian friar ; it is in Latin ; he wrote another 
 in eight languages, about A. D. 1500. Cham- 
 bers's Cyclopedia, the first dictionary of the 
 circle of the arts and sciences, was published in 
 1728. The English dictionary by Samuel John- 
 son appeared in 1755. Noah Webster's great 
 American dictionary of the English language 
 
 in two volumes was published at New Haven 
 in 1828. Worcester's dictionary appeared in 
 1860. Harper's Latin Dictionary (founded 
 upon Andre ws's translation of Freund's Latin- 
 German lexicon), adopted as the standard 
 authority in English and American universi- 
 ties, was published in 1879. 
 
 Discovery of Gold in California. 
 On January 19, 1848, John W. Marshall 
 was building a mill for himself and Sutter on 
 the south fork of the American River, fifty- 
 four miles east of Sutter's Fort. . This mill, it 
 was expected, would supply the ranches and 
 settlements with pine lumber. On this par- 
 ticular morning Marshall picked up from the 
 bed-rock of the race of the mill a small piece 
 of yellow metal which weighed about seven- 
 teen grains. It was malleable, heavier than 
 silver, and in all respects resembled gold. 
 Marshall showed the piece in the afternoon to 
 those who were working at the mill. The re- 
 sult of the discussion which ensued was the 
 rejection of the gold theory. Marshall, how- 
 ever, was not satisfied, and afterward tested it 
 with nitric acid, and found it was actually 
 gold. He discovered pieces like it in all the 
 surrounding gulches wherever he dug for it. 
 The news of the discovery soon spread, and 
 in April reports of the find were published. 
 
 Diving Bells. The principle of the div- 
 ing bell is extremely simple, and can be seen 
 by pressing any hollow vessel mouth down- 
 ward into water. Although some species of 
 diving bell was probably used in the time of 
 Aristotle for it is recorded that divers took 
 with them a vessel which enabled them to re- 
 main under water and in mediaeval times, it 
 was not until about 1715 that any practical 
 method of supplying the bell with air while 
 under water was discovered. About that year 
 this want was met by a Doctor Halley. He 
 used two water-tight barrels, each supplied 
 with a hose, also attached to the diving bell, 
 and these, attached to heavy weights, were 
 dropped on each side of the bell, and the 
 diver could, therefore, remain under water as 
 long as the air supplied by the barrels was fit 
 ! to breathe. The diver's cap, which was made 
 i of metal and fitted with a tube for conveying 
 air to it from the bell, so that the wearer 
 could leave the bell and walk around the bot- 
 tom of the sea, was soon after devised by the 
 same inventor. In 1779, the air pump, which 
 forced down air from above, was applied to 
 diving bells by an engineer named Smeaton. 
 The most practical bell in use at present is a 
 sort of submarine boat, called the Nautilus, 
 with double sides, between which water is 
 forced to cause the boat to descend and air to 
 cause it to rise.
 
 314 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Dyeing is attributed to the Tyrians, about 
 1500 B. C. The English are said to have 
 sent fine goods to be dyed in Holland till the 
 art -was brought to them, probably in 1608. 
 A statute against abuses in dyeing passed in 
 1783. The art has been greatly improved by 
 chemical research. Among the most promi- 
 nent names connected with the art of dyeing 
 is that of Dr. Stenhouse, who in 1848 invented 
 a number of beautiful dyes, mauve, magenta, 
 red, green, black. 
 
 Dynamite. As generally manufactured, 
 dynamite consists of infusorial earth, porce- 
 lain earth, coal-dust, siliceous ashes or the 
 like, saturated with about three times its 
 weight of nitro-glycerine, a' compound which 
 is produced by the action of a mixture of 
 strong nitric and sulphuric acids on glycerine 
 at low temperatures, though the proportions 
 vary with different makers. According to its 
 elements, it is to the eye a grayish-brown, 
 reddish, or blackish powder, damp and greasy 
 to the touch, and without smell. Its explo- 
 sive power is about eight times greater than 
 that of gunpowder. The manufacture of dyna- 
 mite is attended with great danger, owing to 
 the proneness of nitro-glycerine to explosion 
 even at the slightest shock. The explosive 
 force of the latter substance, which has the 
 appearance of common oil, is about ten times 
 greater than that of gunpowder. 
 
 Dynamite Gun. The nitro-gelatine or 
 dynamite gun, known as the " Zalinski gun," 
 was the invention of Lieutenant Zalinski and 
 Captain Bartlett of the United States army. 
 It is a long tube made of wrought iron, lined 
 with seamless brass tubing one eighth of an 
 inch thick. The projectile used is shaped like 
 a huge rocket, five or six feet in length. The 
 stick of the rocket has a wooden or metal base 
 large enough to fill the bore of the gun, and 
 against this base the pressure of the air (the 
 propelling force being compressed air) 1,000 
 pounds to the square inch is exerted. The 
 head of the rocket contains from fifty to sixty 
 pounds or more of nitro-gelatine, a new 
 explosive made of nitro-glycerine and gun- 
 cotton. The projectile, being shot from the 
 gun, is exploded, after reaching its mark, by 
 electricity. A small battery is fixed in the 
 head of each shot, and the discharge is effected 
 by concussion if the shot strikes, or by action 
 of water on a sensitized surface if the shot 
 lights in the sea. It is thought that a sub- 
 marine explosion within 100 feet of a ship will 
 be disastrous in eight cases out of ten. The 
 gun is from 40 to 75 feet in length, and of cal- 
 iber from 6 to 10 inches. The mechanical ar- 
 rangement for compressing the air in the gun 
 and discharging the piece is said to be taken 
 
 from an invention of B. T. Babbitt, patented 
 in 1878. 
 
 Earth's Surface, The. The earth's 
 surface covers an area of about 197,000,000 
 square miles, of which only about one fourth 
 is land. 
 
 Lowlands are tracts, either level or diversified 
 by hill and vale, not elevated more than 1,000 
 feet above sea-level. Deserts are extensive 
 tracts destitute of water, and, consequently, of 
 vegetation and animal life. 
 
 Silvas are forest plains. Plains that produce 
 grass, but not trees, are known in North Amer- 
 ica as prairies ; in South America as llanos and 
 pampas ; in Asia and Southeastern Europe as 
 steppes. 
 
 The desert of Sahara, as far as known, con- 
 sists partly of table lands and partly of low 
 plains. It is interspersed with oases, or fertile 
 spots, which are generally lower than the sur- 
 rounding country ; some of these are of con- 
 siderable extent and well populated. 
 
 A mountain is an elevation of land exceed- 
 ing 2,000 feet in height. A hill is less than 
 2,000 feet in height. 
 
 A mountain chain is a long, elevated ridge, 
 or several mountains extending in a line. 
 
 Mountains are of great use to man. They 
 attract the clouds, condense their moisture, 
 and store up in reservoirs the water received 
 from them, sending it forth again in streams, 
 from thousands of springs, to fertilize the soil. 
 They increase the surface of the earth, giving 
 variety to its vegetable productions. They 
 protect the adjacent countries from cold and 
 piercing winds, and thus exert a favorable in- 
 fluence on their climate. 
 
 An avalanche is a large mass of snow, ice, 
 and earth, sliding or rolling down a mountain. 
 A water shed is the mountain chain or ridge 
 of land which separates one basin from 
 another, and from which the rivers flow. 
 
 A mountain /HISS is an elevated road crossing 
 a mountain chain through a natural opening 
 or depression. 
 
 Glaciers are immense masses of ice formed 
 by the accumulated snows upon the mountain 
 tops. They fill in vast valleys, and have an 
 onward motion throughout like a liquid or 
 semi-liquid body. Their course down the 
 slopes is very slow, but, like rivers, they flow 
 faster in the middle than at the bottom and 
 sides. The lower extremities are constantly 
 melting, forming torrents and mountain 
 streams, while the upper parts are fed by the 
 snows. Rocks of immense size are torn off 
 and carried down by glaciers. They occur in 
 the greatest numbers in the Alps. When a 
 glacier reaches the ocean large fragments are 
 broken off and float away as icebcry*.
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 315 
 
 Earthquakes. The phenomena con- 
 nected with earthquakes have been variously 
 described. Many writers refer to appearances 
 in the heavens, or changes in the atmosphere, 
 which to them seem to have some connection 
 with the catastrophes they narrate. They tell 
 of irregularities in the seasons preceding or 
 following the shock; of sudden gusts of wind, 
 interrupted by sudden calms ; of violent rains 
 at unusual seasons or in countries where such 
 phenomena are almost unknown ; of a redden- 
 ing of the sun's disk ; of a haziness in the 
 air, often continued for months ; and similar 
 phenomena. But these are so irregular in their 
 appearance, and have been so seldom observed 
 associated with more than a single earthquake, 
 that in the absence of any decided reason to 
 the contrary there seems good ground for be- 
 lieving they have no real connection with the 
 earthquake. The general opinion of investi- 
 gators is that these agitations proceed from 
 within outward, and are not of atmospheric or 
 other external origin. True, Professor Alexis 
 Perry, of Dijon, France, thought he discovered 
 relations between the ages of the moon and 
 these occurrences which seemed to sustain the 
 theory of Zantedeschi that the liquid nucleus 
 of the earth responds to the moon's attraction 
 in tides, somewhat as the coast does ; but the 
 theory that the earth has a liquid nucleus cov- 
 ered with only a thin, solid crust is losing ad- 
 herents continually. All theorists are agreed, 
 as to the connection between volcanoes and 
 earthquakes, that they are produced by the 
 same subterraneous agency. Mr. Mallet, in 
 an elaborate report on the subject presented to 
 the British Association, proposed an ingenious 
 theory. He assumes that volcanoes and the 
 centers of earthquake disturbances are near the 
 sea or other large supplies of water ; and he 
 says that when an eruption of igneous matter 
 takes place beneath the sea-bottom the first 
 action must be to open up large fissures in its 
 rocky material, or to lift and remove its inco- 
 herent portions, such as sand, mud, gravel, 
 etc. The water, on meeting the heated sur- 
 face, assumes the spheroidal state. While in 
 this condition the intestine motion may be 
 great, but little steam is generated; but no 
 sooner have the surfaces cooled than the water 
 comes into close contact with them, and a vast 
 volume of steam is evolved explosively and 
 blown off into the deep and cold water of the 
 sea, where it is condensed, and thus a blow 
 of the most tremendous sort is given at the 
 volcanic focus, and, being transferred out- 
 wardly in all directions, is transmitted as the 
 earthquake shock. Whatever their origin, 
 whether of one cause or various causes, the 
 prevailing opinion still is that the vibrations of 
 
 every earthquake can be traced to a focus 
 within the earth, and that this lies directly be- 
 neath the point of greatest disturbance on the 
 earth's surface. There are creditable records 
 of between 6,000 and 7,000 earthquakes, be- 
 tween 1606 B. C. and A. D. 1842. In the 
 great Lisbon earthquake no less than 60,000 
 perished, while in that of Calabria, in the end 
 of the last century, 40,000 were destroyed. It 
 is estimated that at least 13,000,000 of the 
 human race have perished in this way. 
 
 Electric Light, The, was first invented 
 I by Sir Humphry Davy, in the early part of 
 this century, who produced the arc light with 
 a battery of 2,000 cells. It was not in prac- 
 I tical use, 'however, until 1844, when improve- 
 I merits in its manner of construction were 
 made by a Frenchman named Foucault, and 
 it was used to illuminate the Place de la Con- 
 cord, in Paris. In 1855, Jules Duboscq's 
 electric lamp thus far the most perfect of 
 the kind was shown at the Paris Exposi- 
 tion ; but, though improvements were made 
 in the invention during the twenty years fol- 
 lowing, little was accomplished toward practi- 
 cal electric lighting until the invention of 
 Jablochkoff's candle. Paul Jablochkoff was 
 a Russian, who resigned his position under 
 the government in 1875 to devote his time 
 wholly to scientific study. It was his inten- 
 tion to visit the Centennial Exposition in Amer- 
 ica, but he was induced to remain in Paris, 
 where, in 1876, he produced the electric can- 
 dle, whose discovery made a great sensation. 
 The light given by this candle was soft 
 and steady, and a great many of them speedily 
 I came into use in Europe. In the last fifteen 
 years great progress has been made, and there 
 < are now many different styles and forms, but 
 ; in their essential features they nearly all come 
 i under two general classes the arc light and 
 i the incandescent light. The arc light is, in 
 principle, the same as that invented by Davy, 
 i the improvements consisting in different de- 
 | vices for regulating and maintaining at a 
 constant distance the tips, and in different 
 preparations for the substance of these tips, 
 which are generally of carbon. The light is 
 produced as follows : Two tips connected with 
 the opposite poles of a strong battery are 
 brought near to each other. The electricity, 
 overcoming the resistance of the air, jumps 
 from one tip to the other, and in so doing gen- 
 erates such an intense heat that the particles 
 on the end of the one tip are volatilized and 
 carried to the other in a condition of white heat, 
 forming an arc of light of intense brilliancy. 
 Thus one tip is slowly consumed and the other 
 somewhat increased, and hence the necessity 
 of regulators for the tips, whence these lights
 
 316 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 are sometimes called regulated lamps. The 
 Brush patent is the arc light best known and 
 most used in America. In lights of the incan- 
 descent cla'ss a lighter current is used, and the 
 luminous substance is not consumed, being 
 inclosed in a sealed glass bulb from which the 
 air has been exhausted. It consists of a loop 
 of a thin fiber of some infusible substance (car- 
 bon has been found the best), inclosed in a 
 vacuum, as just stated. The ends of this fiber 
 are carried through the neck of the bulb and 
 connected with the opposite poles of the bat- 
 tery ; then the current, in passing through 
 such a small conductor, has to overcome a high 
 resistance, and in so doing generates a heat 
 sufficient to maintain the entire loop at a steady 
 temperature of white heat. The principal 
 forms of the incandescent light are those of 
 Edison, Swan, Maxim, and Siemens. It is 
 perhaps worthy of note that the great impetus 
 given to electric lighting by the work of Thomas 
 Edison has been not so much in improving the 
 lamp as in cheapening the process of generat- 
 ing the electricity and inventing a ready mode 
 of dividing the light. Hitherto the two prin- 
 cipal barriers in the way of applying the electric 
 light to public use had been the expense at- 
 tendant upon the production of the electric 
 force and the difficulty of using it simulta- 
 neously at a large number of illuminating 
 points. 
 
 Electricity As far back as 321 B. C., 
 
 the ancient philosopher Theophrastus men- 
 tions, the power of amber to attract straws and 
 dry leaves. Pliny, in 70 A. D., writes con- 
 cerning the same phenomenon, and it is from 
 the Greek name of " amber," pronounced 
 "electron," that we call this phenomenon 
 "electricity." Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, 
 may be considered the founder of the science 
 of electricity, for it was he that carefully re- 
 peated the observations of the ancients, and 
 experimented in various ways and published 
 these experiments in a book during the period 
 between 1540 and 1603. Sir William Watson 
 (1715 to 1807) distinctly announced the theory 
 of positive and negative electricity, which was 
 afterwards elaborated by Dr. Benjamin Frank- 
 lin. Dr. Franklin also established the fact 
 that the lightning was an electrical spark, 
 similar to that made by an electric machine or 
 Leyden jar. In 1790, Galvani discovered that 
 the contact of metals produced muscular con- 
 traction in the legsof adead frog, andin 1800, 
 Volta discovered the art of generating elec- 
 tricity by contact of metals Vvith damp cloths. 
 From these we obtained the galvanic battery 
 and the voltaic pile. 
 
 It remained with Prof. II. C. Oersted, of 
 Copenhagen, however, to bring forward the 
 
 most important fact, viz. : the magnetic action 
 of the electrical current. This was in 1820. 
 As soon as the discovery reached France, the 
 eminent French philosopher Ampere set to 
 work to develop the important consequences it 
 involved. Faraday in 1820, discovered electric- 
 magnetic rotation. From this time up, exper- 
 imentists and theorists were busy searching 
 for ways and means by which the electrical 
 energy could be utilized as a mechanical power, 
 and to-day the galvanic battery and electric 
 dynamo are rapidly ousting steam, and in a 
 thousand ways doing its work with less noise, 
 expense, and better results. 
 
 As to the question of the real nature of 
 electricity, recent experiments and further 
 knowledge of its properties rather open fresh 
 avenues to new hypotheses than point to the 
 truth of any one special theory. Some iden- 
 tify electricity with energy, some with matter, 
 and some with the subtle all-pervading 
 ' ' ether. " At all events it has been computed 
 that in every single cubic foot of ether there 
 are locked up 10,000 foot-tons of energy ! The 
 latest researches give well-founded hopes that 
 this inconceivably vast storehouse of power 
 will one day be accessible to man. And here- 
 in lies the splendid possibility of a new and 
 mighty successor to the decreasing energy of 
 our coal-fields, with the speedy extinction of 
 which alarmists threaten us. By creating in 
 a room a powerful electrostatic field alternat- 
 ing very rapidly, Professor Nicola Tesla 
 brought it to such a state that illuminating 
 appliances could be placed anywhere, and kept 
 lighted without being electrically connected 
 with anything ! He suspended two sheets of 
 metal, each connected with a terminal of the 
 electric coil, between which an exhausted tube, 
 carried anywhither, remained always lumi- 
 nous. A true flame can now therefore be pro- 
 duced without chemical aid -a flame yielding 
 light and heat without the consumption of ma- 
 terial or any chemical process ! Further, 
 these and similar experiments on electric radia- 
 tion, which now advances so brilliantly to the 
 forefront, by Tesla and Crookes, etc., point to 
 the bewildering possibility of telegraphy with- 
 out wires, without cables, without posts. 
 There is considerable evidence to show that, 
 could the electric ether-waves be obtained suffi- 
 ciently short, the rays would fall within the 
 limits of visibility, and thus place the final 
 crown of proof on the magnificent experiments, 
 of Hertz and others, who would make light an 
 electric phenomenon. 
 
 As regards the effect on the human body of 
 alternating currents of very high frequency 
 (which at best have a very doubtful reputa- 
 tion) it has been found that, as the rapidity of
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 317 
 
 the alternation increases, they become, not 
 more but less dangerous. In fact, Tatum has 
 shown that their fatal effects are nearly in- 
 versely proportionate to their frequency. Thus, 
 with currents alternating about 5,000 per sec- 
 ond, the current needed to become fatal is 
 about ten times greater than at the ordinary 
 low frequency of about 120 per second. With 
 still higher frequencies used by Tesla (up to 
 20,000 per second) the currents are incompar- 
 ably less dangerous than at low frequencies ; 
 but still altogether harmless. 
 
 Electricity, Storage of. The storage 
 of electricity is the conversion of electricity 
 into chemical energy under such circumstances 
 that it may be readily converted back into 
 electricity. The secondary batteries, which 
 are used for storing purposes, are termed " ac- 
 cumulators." The first battery of this kind 
 was made by Hitter about 1840, and it con- 
 sisted of a series of disks of a single metal, al- 
 ternated with cloth or card moistened in a 
 liquid by which the metal would not be af- 
 fected chemically. In 1859 Mr. Gaston Plante 
 made a secondary battery, for which he used 
 plates of lead instead of plates of platinum. 
 Passing a current through these, lead oxide 
 was deposited, and after the charging-current 
 was removed the lead . and lead-oxide were 
 found to yield a very slight current. To in- 
 crease this, Plante devised the plan of first 
 charging the plates, then discharging, then 
 charging again with the battery-current re- 
 versed, and so on, until, by repeated oxida- 
 tions and subsequent reductions of the oxidized 
 material, very porous plates were made. These, 
 by their porosity, exposed a large surface to 
 the oxidizing action of the current, so that a 
 small porous plate took up as much electricity 
 as one of large superficial area. Plante found 
 that by connecting a number of cells together, 
 and, after charging them, arranging them in 
 series : that is, the positive plate of one con- 
 necting with the negative plate of another, and 
 soon he could store for use quite powerful 
 currents of electricity. In 1880 another elec- 
 trician, M. Camille Faure, devised the plan of 
 coating Plante 's lead-plates with red-lead, and 
 then incasing them in flannel. The advan- 
 tage of the red-lead is that it is very quickly 
 made porous, and therefore the process of re- 
 peated charging of the plates, known as the 
 " forming " process, was reduced from weeks 
 to days, and even to hours. This discovery, 
 by reducing the time and expense of making 
 the secondary battery, gave it a commercial 
 value that it never had before, and it was 
 hailed as a great advantage. Since that time 
 a number of patents have been obtained for 
 storage-batteries, and they now exist in differ- 
 
 ' ent forms, but generally modeled on the in- 
 l ventions of Plante and Faure. The efforts of 
 inventors have been mainly directed toward 
 reducing the weight of the cells and to devis- 
 ing new ways of holding red-lead on the plates. 
 This last-named substance, becoming porous, 
 i drops off readily, and for this reason the in- 
 casements of flannel, etc., were first devised. 
 i In some of the storage-batteries a plate or 
 frame of cast lead is used, with receptacles, 
 cells, etc., which are filled with the red-lead. 
 
 Electroplating. The first to gild the 
 baser metals by means of the galvanic current 
 was Brugnatelli, in 1803 ; but the first to make 
 the process a success was the chemist De la 
 Rive, and it has since been greatly improved 
 ! by later inventions. The process depends upon 
 j the peculiar power which the electric current 
 I possesses of separating certain compound bodies 
 into their constituent parts. For instance, if 
 1 a current from a galvanic battery is passed by 
 means of platinum electrodes through water to 
 which sulphuric acid has been added, this 
 chemical separation, which is called electrolysis, 
 will take place, the water being resolved into 
 its constituent gases, oxygen and hydrogen. 
 Now, if some sulphate of copper be thrown 
 ! into the liquid, electrolysis will still go on, 
 : with a double result : the water will be sepa- 
 rated into its elements, and the hydrogen, by 
 its stronger affinity, will form a new compound 
 with the sulphur in the sulphate, setting the 
 copper free ; and the liberated copper, being 
 j electro-positive in character, will be deposited 
 [ on the platinum electrode, which is negative. 
 On this general principle the process of electro- 
 plating or electrotyping depends, and its art 
 consists in applying the metals thus released 
 from their solutions to artistic and useful pur- 
 poses. To carry on electroplating on a large 
 scale oblong vats are used, which hold 200 
 gallons of solution. Silver plates connected 
 with a powerful galvanic battery are placed at 
 intervals in the vats ; they form the positive 
 electrodes and correspond in extent of surface 
 with the articles to be coated, and face them 
 on both sides. These articles act as the nega- 
 tive electrodes, and are suspended by copper 
 wire from brass rods laid lengthwise over the 
 vats and connected with the battery. The 
 articles are prepared for plating by being first 
 boiled in a solution of po;ash to free them 
 from all grease ; they are then quickly dipped 
 in red nitrous-acid to remove any oxide that 
 may have formed on the surface, and after this 
 are well washed in water to remove every trace 
 of the acid ; they are then dipped into a solu- 
 tion of mercury and then washed in water 
 again. The effect of this latter operation is 
 to make the film of silver adhere more readily.
 
 S18 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The articles are then weighed and suspended 
 in the solution, and are left there until a suf- 
 ficient amount of silver has been deposited 
 upon them. This amount is tested by weight. 
 If the additional weight is not gained within 
 the expected time the article is put in the solu- 
 tion again. When finally taken out, the arti- 
 cles are rubbed with brushes of fine wire and 
 cleaned with fine sand ; they are then polished 
 on revolving brushes with rotten-stone, then 
 with chamois-leather and rouge. The process 
 of electro-gilding is essentially the same, with 
 the exception that gold is substituted for 
 silver. 
 
 Embalming. The ancient Egyptians be- 
 lieved that their souls, after many thousand 
 years, would come to re-inhabit their bodies, in 
 case these latter were preserved entire. Hence 
 arose their practice of embalming the dead. 
 The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead 
 has been the admiration and wonder of modern 
 times. They render the body not only incor- 
 ruptible, but it retains its full proportion of 
 size, symmetry of feature, and personal like- 
 ness. They called the embalmed bodies mum- 
 mies, some of which, buried 3,000 years ago, 
 are perfect to this day. The art of such em- 
 balming is now lost. When Nicodemus came 
 with Joseph of Arimathea to pay the last 
 duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he 
 brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes to em- 
 balm his body. Carbolic acid was successfully 
 employed by Professor Seely in America, in 
 1868. The modern method of embalming 
 generally consists of an injection of camphor- 
 ated spirits of wine into the arteries and veins, 
 though many other chemical substances are 
 successfully used. 
 
 Embroidery. Its invention is generally 
 ascribed to the Phrygians ; but the Sidonians 
 excelled in it, and it is mentioned by Homer 
 and other ancient authors, in the year 1491 
 B. C. The latter were particularly skilled in 
 decorative species of needlework. The first 
 embroidery machine is said to have been in- 
 vented by John Duncas, of Glasgow, in 1804. 
 Heilman's embroidery machine was patented 
 by Kochlin. An ancient existing specimen of 
 beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapestry, 
 worked by Matilda, the queen of William the 
 First of England. It is nineteen inches wide, 
 214 feet long, and is divided into compart- 
 ments showing the events from the visit of 
 Harold to the Norman court to his death at 
 Hastings. It was reproduced by autotype 
 process, with notes, in 1875. 
 
 Emery is found, upon analysis, to be com- 
 posed of alumina, oxide of iron, and silica, 
 with a little lime. It is a dull, opaque sub- 
 stance, sometimes of a grayish black, some- 
 
 times of a bluish color, and it is prepared for 
 use by crushing the lumps in a stamp mill, 
 and then passing the powder through sieves of 
 different degrees of fineness. For the most 
 delicate uses of opticians the powder is graded 
 by the process known to chemists as elutria- 
 tion. Emery was for a long time brought 
 from the island of Naxos in the Grecian Arch- 
 ipelago. The Greek government granted a 
 monopoly of its trade to an English merchant. 
 In 1847, Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, an American 
 explorer in the employ of the Turkish govern- 
 ment, found deposits of the mineral at various 
 points in Asia Minor, and the monopoly was 
 destroyed and the price lowered. Deposits of 
 emery have since been found in Bohemia, in 
 the Ural Mountains, in Australia, and in North 
 Carolina, Georgia, and Montana. The supply 
 from these deposits is too small, however, to 
 compete with that which is brought from 
 Turkey and Naxos. | 
 
 Engraving. The engraving of gems is a 
 branch of art of the highest antiquity. The 
 earliest writers make mention of engraved seals 
 and seal rings, and there still exist many an- 
 tique engravings equal to later productions of 
 similar artists. Engraving from plates and 
 wood is chiefly of modern invention, having 
 its origin about the middle of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. Engraving on glass was perfected to an 
 art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The art of 
 engraving, especially in photographic processes, 
 has made great progress in the United States 
 during the past quarter century. Prints from 
 engraved copper plates made their appearance , 
 about 1450, and were first produced in Ger- 
 many. Masso is considered to have been the 
 first Italian engraver, about 1440. Etchings 
 on copper by means of aqua fortis is reputed 
 to have been discovered by Francis Mazzuoli, 
 about 1532. Etching was later practiced by 
 Albert Durer, and most especially by Rem- 
 brandt. Its revival began about 1860. Mezzo- 
 tints are said to have been discovered by Col- 
 onel Von Siegen, who engraved the portrait of 
 Princess Amelia of Hesse in mezzotint, in 
 1643; it was improved by Prince Rupert in 
 1648; and by Sir Christopher Wren, about 
 1662. The mode of engraving on soft steel, 
 which after it has been hardened \\iil multiply 
 copper plates and fine impressions, indefinitely, 
 was introduced into England by Messrs. Per- 
 kins & Heath of Philadelphia, in 1819. 
 
 Entomology, the science of insects, is 
 based upon the arrangements of Linnaeus, A. 
 D. 1739. The Entomological Society of Lon- 
 don was instituted in 1833. A national ento- 
 mological exhibition at the Westminster aqua- 
 rium was opened March, 1878. Numerous 
 chairs of entomology have been established in
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 319 
 
 colleges and universities in the United States 
 and Europe within a recent period. 
 
 Etching', Art of. About the middle of 
 the fifteenth century Tomaso Fiiiiguerra, a 
 Florentine, introduced the art of etching. In 
 Germany, Italy, and France its value met with 
 prompt recognition, but it was not carried 
 to a state of perfection till later times. It was 
 at first regarded as an industrial art, but it 
 soon grew to have a higher value, reproducing 
 in graceful freedom and precision of touch the 
 very feeling of the artist. The first step in 
 etching is to cover the plate with a composi- 
 tion of wax, asphaltum, gum-mastic, resin, 
 etc., dissolved by heat. An outline of the 
 design, made on paper in pencil or red chalk, 
 is then "transferred" to the surface of this 
 composition by being passed through a press. 
 The subject is then drawn on the ground with 
 the etching point, which cuts through it and 
 exposes the copper. Etching-points or nee- 
 dles resemble large sewing needles shortened 
 and fixed into handles four or five inches long. 
 Some are made oval, to produce broader lines. 
 A rim of wax being put around the plate, acid 
 is poured on, and corrodes the copper not pro- 
 tected by the ground. If the acid is found not 
 to have acted sufficiently, it may be applied 
 again to the whole design, or only to portions 
 of it, by stopping up with a mixture of lamp- 
 black and Venice turpentine, applied with a 
 earners-hair 1 pencil, what has been sufficiently 
 Iiitfcn-in. When a series of parallel lines are 
 wanted, as in backgrounds, etc., an ingenious 
 machine called a ruler is employed, the accu- 
 racy of whose operation is exceedingly perfect. 
 This is made to act on the etching-ground by 
 a point or diamond connected with the appa- 
 ratus, and the tracings are bit in with m/uu 
 fords in the ordinary way. The art of etching 
 was popularized by Sandro Botticelli, who em- 
 bellished an edition of " Dante " with etching 
 illustrations about the end of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. The great- German etchers of that time 
 were Shoengauer, Bechellin, and Wohlgemuth, 
 and the Italian representatives were Bacio 
 Baldini, Pollajuoli, and Montegna. In the 
 succeeding century Goltzius and others repro- 
 duced the works of the old masters, through 
 etching, with wonderful mobility. Toward the 
 'latter end of the seventeenth century the art 
 was carried to a high degree of perfection by \ 
 Le Bas and by the Spanish school. Then, for 
 a time, the art declined, its place being taken 
 by steel engraving, which in turn gave way to I 
 the chromo, and that to the lithograph. The \ 
 revival of the art in England is largely due to >, 
 Fliilip .Gilbert Harnerton. At that time Sey- | 
 mour Haden was the leading etcher in Eng- : 
 land, as was Count de Gravesande in France. 
 
 "\Vhistler, the eccentric American, is now one 
 of the leading lights in the art in England, 
 and Hamilton Hamilton is probably the most 
 popular etcher in America. Among the great- 
 est of modern etchers are Salonne, Couteau, 
 Waltner, llajon, De Baines, and Koepping. 
 
 Ether was known to the earliest chemists. 
 Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in 
 1681 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride 
 of tin, by Courtanvaux in 1759. Acetic ether 
 was discovered by Count Lauraguais, same 
 year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared 
 by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained 
 by M. Boullay. Ether is said to have been 
 first applied to the purpose of causing insensi- 
 bility to pain by Dr. Horace Wells of Connec- 
 ticut, in 1846. The discovery that by inhaling 
 ether the patient is rendered unconscious of 
 pain, is due to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of 
 Boston ; but to Dr. Morton of the same place, 
 probably belongs the credit of first demonstrat- 
 ing, by actual experiment, the use of ether in 
 dentistry and surgery. The practice was 
 first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, 
 of Edinburgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, in 
 1846. 
 
 Ethnology is the science which treats of 
 the division of man into races, with their ori- 
 gin, relations, and characteristics. Natural- 
 ists divide mankind, according to certain 
 physical characteristics, in ho varieties, or races. 
 Authorities differ greatly in this classification. 
 Cuvier made three races; Pritchard, seven; 
 Agassiz, eight, and Pickering, eleven ; but 
 the classification most commonly accepted is 
 that into five races, as made by Blumenbach, 
 as follows : The Caucasian, European, or white 
 race; the Mongolian, Asiatic, or yellow race ; 
 the Ethiopian, African, or black race ; the 
 American Indian, or red race ; the Malay, or 
 brown race. The first three are much more 
 clearly marked, and are considered by Guyot 
 as primary races ; the others, being modifica- 
 tions of these three, he designates as secondary 
 races. Because of the blending of types, it is 
 difficult to make a classification, hence the dif- 
 ference among authorities. The points on 
 which the classification is based are mainly the 
 size and proportions of the body, the shape of 
 head and the features, the hair and beard, and 
 the color of the skin. 
 
 The Caucausian race is characterized by 
 tall stature, oval head and face, high forehead, 
 regular features, abundance and softness of 
 hair and beard, and usually fair skin, but in 
 some it is tawny or swarthy, as in the Hindoos, 
 Arabs, and others. This race stands at the 
 head in intelligence and civilization. Itis'rep- 
 resented by the principal inhabitants of Europe 
 and their descendants in America, and by the
 
 320 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 inhabitants of India, Arabia, and of Western 
 Asia and Northern Africa. 
 
 The Germanic nations are descendants of 
 the numerous tribes of the ancient German 
 stock that destroyed the Roman empire and 
 erected different states upon its ruins. 
 
 The Romanic nations occupy Southern Eu- 
 rope, and are so called because their languages 
 are mostly derived from the Latin spoken by 
 the ancient Romans. They are mixed nations, 
 descended partly from the ancient Pelasgians 
 and- partly from other branches of Aryan stock. 
 
 The Italians derive their origin from the 
 Romans, German Longobards, and Normans, 
 with a slight intermixture of the Arabic stock. 
 
 The Spanish and Portuguese have sprung 
 from a mixture of Celts, Romans, Germans, 
 and Arabs. 
 
 The Mongolian race are distinguished by 
 short stature, round head, wide face, high 
 cheek bones, obliquely set eyes, coarse, straight 
 hair, scarcely any beard, and yellowish color 
 of the skin. They are distributed over the 
 whole of Eastern Asia, except in India, and 
 include the Esquimaux of the northern part of 
 North America. 
 
 The Ethiopian race are characterized by 
 medium stature, generally ungainly form, low 
 and retreating forehead, head full back of the 
 ears, flat, broad nose, projecting jaws, thick 
 lips, short, curly hair, and skin generally black 
 or dark. They occupy all of Africa, except 
 the northern part, and many of their descend- 
 ants are found in America. 
 
 The American race resemble the Mongolian, 
 but the head is not so round, the face less 
 wide and flat, the eyes horizontal, the hair 
 black and straight, and beard scanty, and the 
 skin a reddish or copper color. They occupy 
 North and South America, except on the 
 Arctic shores. 
 
 The Malay race resemble also- the Mongolian, 
 but have thicker lips, horizontal eyes, hairless 
 straight, generally full beards, and color usu- 
 ally brown. They occupy the Malay peninsula 
 and the islands of the Pacific and Indian 
 Oceans. 
 
 Evolution Theory, The. Ancient writ- 
 ers occasionally seemed to have a glimmering- 
 knowledge of the fact of progress in nature, but 
 as a theory" evolution " belongs to the enlight- 
 enment of the nineteenth century. In the lat- 
 ter part of the seventeenth century Leibnitz 
 expressed the opinion that the earth was once in 
 a fluid condition, and about the middle of the 
 eighteenth century Kant definitely propounded J 
 the nebular hypothesis, which was enlarged as 
 a theory by the Herschels. About 1750 the 
 transmutation of species among animals was I 
 suggested by Buff on, and other writers fol- 
 
 lowed out the idea. The eccentric Lord Mon- 
 boddo was the first to suggest the possible 
 descent of man from the ape, about 1774. 
 The evolution theory declares the universe as 
 it now exists to be the result of a long series 
 of changes, which were so far related to each 
 other as to form a series of growths analogous 
 to the evolving parts of a growing organism. 
 Herbert Spencer defines evolution as a progress 
 
 ! from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous ; 
 
 I from general to special ; from the simple to 
 the complex elements of life ; and it is believed 
 that this process can be traced in the formation 
 of worlds in space, in the multiplication of 
 types and species among animals and plants, 
 in the origin and changes of language and 
 literature and the arts, and also in all the 
 changes of human institutions and society. 
 Asserting the general fact of progress in na- 
 ture, the evolution theory shows that the 
 method of this progress has been (1) by the 
 multiplications of organs and functions ; (2) 
 according to a definite unity of plan, although 
 with (3) the intervention of transitional forms, 
 and (4) with modifications dependent upon 
 surrounding conditions. The two great apos- 
 tles of the evolution theory were Charles Darwin 
 and Herbert Spencer. The' latter began his 
 first great work, the " First Principles of Phi- 
 losophy, ' ' showing the application of evolution 
 in the facts of life, in 1852. In 1859 appeared 
 Darwin's " Origin of Species." The hypothe- 
 sis of the latter was that different species 
 originated in spontaneous variation, and the 
 survival of the fittest through natural selection 
 and the struggle for existence. This theory 
 was further elaborated and applied by Spencer, 
 Darwin, Huxley, and other writers in Europe 
 and America; and though,, to-day, by no 
 means all the ideas upheld by these early ad- 
 vocates of the theory are still accepted, still 
 evolution as a principle is now acknowledged 
 by nearly all scientists. It is taken to be an 
 established fact in nature a valid induction 
 from. man's knowledge of natural order. 
 
 Facts as to Sound. In air, sound trav- 
 els from 1,130 to 1,140 feet per second. In 
 water, it passes at the rate of 4,700 feet per 
 second. A bell sounded under water may be 
 heard under water at 1,200 feet distance. 
 Sounds are distinct at twice the distance on 
 water that they are on land. On Table Moun- 
 tain, a mile above Cape Town, every noise in 
 it, and even words, may be heard distinctly. 
 Dr. Jamieson says Ihat in calm weather he 
 heard every word of a sermon at the distance 
 of two miles. The sound of a tuning fork may 
 be distinctly heard at a distance of 200 yards, 
 by connecting the stem by pack threads with 
 the ear.
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 321 
 
 Fire is said to have been first produced by 
 striking Hints together. The poets supposed 
 that lire was stolen from heaven l>y Prome- 
 theus. Ileraclitus, about596 B. C., maintained 
 that the world was created from fire, and 
 deemed it to be an omnipotent God ; he taught 
 this theory about 506 B. C. Zoroaster, king 
 of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the 
 Magi, or worshipers of fire, still numerous in 
 the countries of the East, 2115 B. C. In the 
 Scriptures, God is said often to have appeared 
 in fire, or was encompassed by it. as in the 
 burning bush at Mt. Horeb. The wrath of 
 God is described as a consuming fire, and the 
 angels, as his ministers, are compared to it. 
 
 Fire Engines, to force water, existed in 
 very ancient times. The first of the kind now- 
 ill use, but of a vastly inferior character, was 
 invented by two Dutchmen, each named Jan 
 Van der Heide, at Amsterdam, in 1518. ' In 
 1<!.~>7. an improved engine was introduced at 
 Nuremberg by John Hantsch. Fire engines 
 were first known at Paris in 1699. The first 
 volunteer fire coYnpany in America was the 
 Union of Philadelphia, about 1736. 
 
 Freezing, Fusing, and Boiling Points. 
 
 SrusT YN< r>. 
 
 FlJEF.ZIXG 
 
 Bromine freezes at 
 oil \nise 
 
 16^ 
 8 
 
 20 
 10 
 
 " Olive 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 ' ' Rose 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 
 31.5 
 
 39.4 
 
 Water .... 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 Frsixo 
 Bismuth metal fuses at 
 Cadmium 
 
 200 
 248.8 
 
 264 
 315 
 
 Copper. 
 
 874.6 
 
 1093 
 
 (,,,1,1 
 
 961 
 
 1200 
 
 Iodine . .'. 
 
 9 
 
 f!5 
 
 Iron 
 
 1230 
 
 1538 
 
 Lead 
 
 266.5 
 
 325 
 
 Potaiuin 
 
 46 
 
 58 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 3i 
 
 41 
 
 Silvi-r 
 
 816.8 
 
 1021 
 
 " Nitrate 
 
 159 
 
 198 
 
 Sodium 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 Steel 
 
 1452 
 
 1856 
 
 Sulphur. . . 
 
 :.' 
 
 90 
 
 Tin 
 
 173 
 
 230 
 
 Zinc 
 
 328 
 
 410 
 
 BOILING 
 Alcohol boils at 
 
 63 
 
 78 
 
 Bromine 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 Ether 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 " Nitrous 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 Iodine 
 
 140 
 
 175 
 
 Olive Oil 
 
 252 
 
 315 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Nil 
 
 350 
 
 Water 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 Reaumur 
 
 | 
 
 Centi- 
 grade. 
 
 Fahren- 
 heit. 
 
 50 
 50 
 60 
 
 39 
 32 
 
 507 
 592 
 
 2000 
 
 i 2200 
 
 239 
 
 2800 
 617 
 136 
 111 
 
 ; 1870 
 389 
 194 
 
 3300 
 194 
 446 
 770 
 
 173 
 145 
 95 
 57 
 347 
 600 
 602 
 212 
 
 First Railroads. The first railroad ever 
 built for general traffic was the Stockton and 
 Darlington in England, which was thirty-five 
 miles long, constructed in 1825 by Edward 
 Pease and George Stephenson. In the same 
 year a railroad was projected in America by 
 Gridley Bryant, but it was not constructed until 
 
 the following year, when Bryant secured the 
 assistance of Col. T. H. Perkins in the enter- 
 ; prise. This road was four miles long, and was 
 used for carrying granite from the quarries in 
 Qnincy, Mass., to the site of the Bunker Hill 
 Monument. In 1827 the Mauch Chunk Rail- 
 way, a coal road, thirteen miles long, was 
 built, and February 27 of the same year the 
 Maryland Legislature granted a charter to the 
 Baltimore and Ohio road. The first locomo- 
 tive? which proved of practical value was in- 
 vented by George Stephenson, the celebrated 
 English engineer, and was used on the Stock- 
 ton and Darlington Railway. In 1829 a rail- 
 way line was built between Liverpool and 
 Manchester, of which Stephenson was the 
 I principal engineer, and for this road he con- 
 I structedthe engine known as the Rocket, which 
 accomplished the till then undreamed-of speed 
 of thirty-five miles an hour. The first loco- 
 motive built in America w r as used on the Balti- 
 more and Ohio Railroad. 
 
 Flies Walking on the Ceiling. For 
 a long time it w r as supposed that the ability of 
 the fly to walk on the ceiling was owing to 
 each of his feet being a miniature air-pump. 
 This, however, was proved to be fallacious, 
 and then a theory was propounded that it was 
 by means of a viscous substance exuded from 
 the hairs on its feet. Some eight years or 
 so ago this theory was thoroughly investigated 
 by Dr. Rombouts, who demonstrated that it 
 was only partly sound ; for, though the hairs 
 with which the foot-cushion is covered do cer- 
 tainly exude an oily liquid, the liquid is not 
 sticky, and does not harden when dry. Dr. 
 Rombouts proved by his experiments that the 
 true theory of the walking of flies on smooth 
 substances is that they hang on by the help of 
 capillary adhesion the molecular attraction 
 between solid and liquid bodies. By a series 
 of nice calculations, such as weighing hairs 
 and measuring their diameters, and sticking 
 the cut end of hair in oil or water to make it 
 adhere when touched to glass, this scientist 
 proved that capillary attraction would uphold 
 a fly were it four ninths as heavy again as it is 
 at present. It is true that the foot-hairs are 
 very minute, but as each fly is said to be fur- 
 nished with 10,000 to 12,000 of these, we need 
 not be surprised at whattheycan do. Reason- 
 ing from this theory, we would conclude that 
 flies find it difficult to mount a glass slightly 
 dampened, because of the repulsion between 
 the watery surface and the oily liquid exuding 
 from the feet ; and they are likewise impeded 
 by a slight coating of dust, because the in- 
 terspaces between the hairs are filled with dust, 
 and observation seems to show this to be the 
 case. When we see a fly making his toilet, he
 
 322 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 is not, as we might suppose, cleaning his body, 
 but his feet, so that they may the more readily 
 adhere. 
 
 Forks were in use in Europe in the thir- 
 teenth and fourteenth centuries, though this 
 is disputed as being too early. In Moryson's 
 " itinerary " it is said that at Venice each per- 
 son was served (besides his knife and spoon) 
 with a fork to hold the meat while he cuts it, 
 for there they deem it ill manners that one 
 should touch it with his hand. Thomas Cory- 
 ate, an Englishman, describes with much 
 solemnity, the manner of using forks in Italy, 
 and adds, " I myself have thought it good to 
 imitate the Italian fashion since I came home 
 to England," 1608. Two pronged forks were 
 made at Sheffield soon after. Three pronged 
 forks are more recent. Silver forks, previously 
 only used by the highest classes, came into 
 general use in England about 1814. 
 
 Galvanized Iron is merely ordinary iron 
 which has been dipped in molten zinc and re- 
 tains a surface coating of the zinc when re- 
 moved. It has come to be of great importance 
 and usefulness, as by this simple process any 
 article may be made to combine the strength 
 and cheapness of iron, and yet be entirely free 
 from rust, as the zinc is unaffected by air or 
 water, oxidizing only at a high temperature. 
 
 Gasoline is simply air which has been 
 impregnated with very volatile hydro-carbons. 
 Previous to 1836 it was made by passing air 
 over benzol made from coal tar, but between 
 that year and 1858 numerous machines were 
 patented for its manufacture. The cost of 
 benzol was at first a great obstacle in the 
 manufacture of gasoline, but the discovery of 
 petroleum rendered it possible to make air gas 
 at twenty-five cents per gallon, the former 
 price, when benzol was used, having been 
 $1.50. The machines used for making this 
 gas include a " generator," a large vessel more 
 or less complicated in construction, in which a 
 quantity of liquid petroleum or naphtha is ex- 
 posed in shallow trays for evaporation. A 
 current of air is introduced, which mingles 
 with the distilled vapor and forms air gas. 
 This is a dangerous substance, as it bursts into 
 flame with a sharp explosion upon contact 
 with fire. If the generator, however, is placed 
 at some distance from the point where the gas- 
 oline is to be used, conveying it thither in air- 
 tight pipes, the danger is removed. Gasoline 
 is extensively used for the lighting of hotels, 
 factories, and private residences in small 
 towns or rural districts. 
 
 Geography. The first correct record we 
 have of geographical knowledge is from 
 Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles 
 as representing the earth surrounded by the 
 
 sea, and also the countries of Greece, islands 
 of the archipelago, and the site of Troy. The 
 priests taught that the temple of Apollo at 
 Delphos was the center of the world. Anaxi- 
 mander of Miletus was the inventor of geo- 
 graphical maps, about 568 B. C. Hipparchus 
 attempted to reduce geography to a mathe- 
 matical basis, about 135 B. C. Strabo, the 
 Greek geographer, lived 71-14 B. C. Ptolemy 
 flourished about 139 A. D. The science was 
 brought to Europe by the Moors of Barbary 
 and Spain about 1240. Maps and charts were 
 introduced into England by Bartholomew Co- 
 lumbus to illustrate his brother's theory respect- 
 ing a western continent, 1489. Geography is 
 now divided into mathematical, physical, and 
 political, and its study has been greatly pro- 
 moted during the present century by expedi- 
 tions at the expense of various governments 
 and societies. There are in the world about 
 sixty-five geographical societies. 
 
 Geologic Ages, The. There are seven 
 great geologic ages, or divisions of time, 
 known as the Azoic, the Silurian, the Devo- 
 nian, the Carboniferous, the Reptilian, the 
 Mammalian, and the Age of Man. Our 
 knowledge of the plants and animals of the 
 ages preceding the creation of man is derived 
 from their remains dug out of the earth, and 
 called fossils. 
 
 The Azoic Age is the era, as its name im- 
 plies, when there was no life, either vegeta- 
 ble or animal, on the globe. The crystalline 
 minerals and all the igneous rocks date back to 
 this age, and hence they are destitute of fossils. 
 
 During the Silurian Age, the second in 
 antiquity, there was no terrestrial life ; but 
 mollusks animals with soft, fleshy bodies, 
 without any internal skeleton, like the oyster 
 and the snail abounded in the waters. The 
 oldest sandstone and limestone belong to this 
 period. Its plant fossils are sea weeds. 
 
 The Devonian Age was the age of fishes, 
 remarkable for their thick, bony scales. The 
 sea also teemed with shells, corals, and sea 
 weed ; while the land, though yet limited in 
 extent, began to be covered with vegetation. 
 Insects, the earliest of terrestrial animals, 
 now first appeared. 
 
 The Carboniferous Age, or age of coal, is 
 fourth. From colossal tree ferns, leaves, and 
 branches, deposited in successive centuries, 
 were formed, by gradual decomposition under 
 water, those vast coal beds on which the in- 
 dustrial pursuits of the present day so largely 
 depend. The animals of this age consisted 
 mainly of insects of various kinds ; and in- 
 ferior tribes of reptiles. 
 
 The Reptilian Age was marked by the great 
 number, variety, and size of its reptiles, the
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 323 
 
 appearance and habits of which are known 
 from the remains, found buried in the rocks 
 of this period. The rocks of this age are the 
 freestones, extensively used for building, sand- 
 stone formations, intersected with ridges of 
 trap of igneous origin, limestone and gypsum, 
 laminated and plastic clays, and chalk beds, 
 containing layers of flint. 
 
 The Mammalian Age was the sixth. The 
 reptiles now dwindled in size and diminished 
 in number, being succeeded by quadrupeds, 
 some of which were much larger than any 
 modern species. The deinotherium, masto- 
 don, megatherium and fossil elephant were 
 among the gigantic animals of this era, while 
 the plants resembled those of the present time, 
 palms, oaks, maples, magnolias, etc., being 
 found in the forests. 
 
 The Age of Man is the last of the seven 
 geologic ages. The huge monsters that gave 
 the preceding period its peculiar character be- 
 came extinct, and were replaced by smaller 
 animals those we see around. Man was 
 created, and invested with dominion over the 
 earth. This is the "era of the finished 
 world the era, also, of man's progress and 
 preparation for another and a higher life." 
 
 Geometry. Its origin is ascribed to the 
 Egyptians ; the annual inundations of the 
 Nile having given rise to it by carrying away 
 the landmarks, and the boundaries of farms. 
 Thales introduced geometry into Greece, about 
 600 B. C. The doctrine of curves originally 
 attracted the attention of geometricians from 
 the conic sections, which were introduced by 
 Plato about 390 B. C. Euclid's elements 
 were compiled about 280 B. C. Geometry 
 was taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. 
 Books on the subject of geometry and astron- 
 omy were destroyed in England in 1552, being 
 regarded as infected with magic. The science 
 was greatly improved and augmented by Sir 
 Isaac Newton and LaPlace. 
 
 Geysers are intermittent, spouting, hot 
 springs, and have a temperature at the boil- 
 ing point. They are found in Iceland, New 
 Zealand, and in the " National Park " at the 
 head waters of the Yellowstone River in the 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The roost celebrated is the Great Geyser of 
 Iceland. It consists of an immense well, or 
 funnel, 10 feet wide at its mouth, and about 
 70 feet deep, surmounted at the surface with 
 a basin 65 feet in diameter and 7 feet deep, 
 formed by the deposit of mineral matter from 
 the water. At intervals it sends up a column 
 of water and steam to the height of 100 feet. 
 More remarkable even than the geysers of Tee- 
 land are some that are found in the " National 
 Park." One, the Giantess, throws water to 
 
 the height of 200 feet. Grasshoppers and 
 other insects, and pieces of wood which fall 
 into the waters, soon become incrusted with 
 quartz, which is held in solution by the water, 
 thus permanently petrifying them. 
 
 Glacial Period is a term used in geology 
 to designate the period when the greater part 
 of the northern hemisphere was enveloped in 
 one great ice-sheet. This period belongs to 
 the post-tertiary or later formations, in the 
 geological succession, and is important in its 
 relations to the general question of the earth's 
 history, and especially to the appearance of 
 man upon the earth. Geologists are generally 
 agreed that long before the advent of man, 
 parts of the northern hemisphere were elevated 
 several thousand feet higher than they are at 
 present, causing the cold of the Arctic zone to 
 extend far southward into present temperate 
 regions, and that a vast glacier rising in the 
 vicinity of Hudson Bay covered the American 
 continent north of the fortieth parallel. The 
 loose soil which covers so large a part of the 
 surface of the northern continent to a depth 
 varying from thirty to one hundred feet, over 
 which lie the vegetable deposits of later ages, 
 is considered by geologists the effects of gla- 
 ciers that in the quaternary or latest geological 
 age slowly moved southward across the coun- 
 try. Upon examination it is found that the 
 erratic bowlders scattered over the western 
 prairies and other northern regions are unlike 
 the native rocks of the same regions, being 
 entirely foreign to the localities where they 
 now appear. Sometimes the nativity of the 
 rock is traced hundreds of miles north of where 
 it now rests, showing that some powerful 
 agency has carried it southward. Again, if 
 the native rock be uncovered and closely ex- 
 amined, it will be observed to be polished and 
 grooved with parallel marks, running north 
 and south, as if chiseled out by some coarse 
 and heavy instrument. These marks are 
 attributed to sharp, hard rocks projecting 
 through the lower surfaces of the glaciers. 
 That glaciers do produce such markings is 
 proved by examination of the rocks which 
 the moving ice-fields of Switzerland and other 
 glacial regions have worn and are marking 
 to-day ; also, the general appearance of the 
 loose, unstratified, heterogeneous deposit is 
 similar to that of the moraines that the modern 
 glaciers leave as they slowly melt away. In New 
 York and other Eastern states, the rocks are 
 scratched from a northwesterly direction, in 
 Ohio from a northerly direction, showing in 
 each state the direction of the origin of the 
 glacier. Scotland, Ireland, and the major por- 
 tion of England, were enveloped in this great 
 ice-sheet, and Scandinavia was invested with
 
 324 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 a sheet of ice which filled up the Baltic and 
 extended into Northern Germany. The Gla- 
 cial Period, or Ice Age, as it is also called, is 
 estimated to have begun upward of 200,000 
 years ago, and lasted for 160,000 years. 
 
 Glass. The Egyptians are said to have 
 been taught the art of making glass by 
 Hermes. Pliny says the discovery of glass 
 took place in Syria. Glass houses were erected 
 in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture 
 for many ages. This article is mentioned 
 among the Romans in the time of Tiberius ; 
 and it is known from the ruins of Pompeii, 
 that windows were formed of glass before A. 
 D. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next 
 France, whence they came to England. Used 
 for windows in private houses in the reign of 
 Henry II. of England, 1177, but imported. 
 The manufacture was established in England 
 at Crutched-Friars in 1557. It was improved, 
 1635, and was brought to great perfection in 
 the reign of William the Third. Plate glass 
 for coach windows, mirrors, etc., was made at 
 Lambeth by Venetian artists, 1673. The man- 
 ufacture was improved by the French, who 
 made very large plates ; and further improve- 
 ments have been made in Lancashire, Eng- 
 land, and the United States. 
 
 Glass, Discovery of. There is com- 
 paratively little known in regard to the inven- 
 tion of glass. Some of the oldest specimens 
 are Egyptian, and are traced to about 1500 
 years before Christ (by some, 2300 B. C.). 
 Transparent glass is believed to have been first 
 used about 750 years before the Christian era. 
 The credit of the invention was given to the 
 Phoenicians by the ancient writers. The story 
 of the Phoenician merchants who rested their 
 cooking-pots on blocks of natron (subcarbonate 
 of soda) , and found glass produced by the union , 
 under heat, of the alkali and the sand on the 
 shore, is a familiar one. The world no doubt 
 owes the art of glass-making to the Egyptians. 
 It was introduced into Rome in the time of 
 Cicero, and among the Romans attained a 
 high degree of perfection. Some of the most 
 beautiful specimens of glass ever manufactured 
 were made in Rome before the Christian era ; 
 as, for instance, the exquisite Portland vase in 
 the British Museum. During the mid- 
 dle ages the Venetians were the most famous 
 makers of fine glassware, and after them 
 the Bohemians. Though the art of making 
 glass and blowing it into all kinds of shapes 
 was known so early, this material does not seem 
 to have been used for windows until about A.D. 
 300. 
 
 Glucose, termed also grape sugar, starch 
 sugar, and diabetic sugar, is a natural organic 
 compound, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, 
 
 and oxygen. It is found to some extent in the 
 animal kingdom and very largely in the vege- 
 table kingdom, being a constituent of the 
 juice of almost all sweet fruits and vegetables. 
 The name " diabetic " is due to its large occur- 
 rence in the urinary secretion and other fluids 
 of the body in the disease called diabetes. It 
 is manufactured in large quantities from starch 
 and is used in the manufacture of beer and a 
 coarse kind of alcohol. It is in taste much 
 the same as ordinary sugar, but less sweet. It 
 has a peculiar effect upon a ray of polarized 
 light, passing through it; and there are two 
 varieties comprising fruit sugar, one of which 
 turns the plane of polarization to the right, 
 and is called dextro-glucose, and the other 
 turning the plane of polarization to the left, 
 and called Irevo-glucose, or dextrose and laevu- 
 lose respectively. 
 
 Grain. The origin of its cultivation is 
 attributed to Ceres, who, having taught the art 
 to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 
 B. C. Corn, or grain, provided a common 
 article of food from the earliest ages of the 
 world. The first importation of corn into 
 England of which we have any knowledge was 
 in 1347, though it was introduced into Britain 
 in the sixth century. 
 
 Graphite. The name is derived from 
 the Greek graphein, to write. It is also com- 
 monly but incorrectly called black lead and 
 plumbago. It contains no lead, but is an 
 allotropic form of carbon, and therefore iden- 
 tical in composition with charcoal and dia- 
 monds. It occurs as a mineral, both massive 
 and disseminated through the rock, generally 
 in granite, gneiss, mica schist, and crystal- 
 lized limestone. It is also a product in the 
 destructive distillation of coal, and can be arti- 
 ficially obtained by other methods in the 
 laboratory. It is lighter than water, and this 
 property is made use of in separating it from 
 the rock in which it is found. The ore is pul- 
 verized and then thrown into large, shallow 
 tanks ; the particles of rock sink, while the 
 particles of graphite float and are taken from 
 the surface free from the rock, and are formed 
 into solid blocks by great pressure. The mine 
 at Burrowdale, in Cumberland, England, has 
 been known since the time of Queen Elizabeth 
 and probably furnished the first lead pencils 
 ever made, but became exhausted many years 
 ago. Large deposits of graphite have been 
 found in the northeastern part of Siberia, and 
 in Germany, France, Austria, and in several 
 portions of the United States. Its most im- 
 portant use is in the manufacture of lead 
 pencils. But, as it is infusible and a good 
 conductor of electricity, it has found other 
 important applications, as for crucibles and
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 325 
 
 the linings of small furnaces, and in the 
 process of electrotyping. It is unctuous to 
 the touch and has a high metallic luster, and 
 is used also in polishing and lubricating com- 
 pounds, but for this latter purpose has been 
 found too hard to be satisfactory. 
 
 Graphophofte. This instrument is, in 
 its essential features, identical with Edison's 
 phonograph. [See Phonograph.'] The grapho- 
 phone now in experimental use is the inven- 
 tion of Mr. Sumner Tainter, aided by Professor 
 Bell. In a correct nomenclature the phono- 
 graph would represent, a machine for making a 
 record of speech, the record made would be 
 termed a phonogram, and the graphophone 
 would be a machine for reproducing speech from 
 the phonogram. The words are all derived from 
 the same two Greek roots, which mean " write " 
 and " speak." 
 
 Gravitation, as a supposed innate power, 
 was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Sen- 
 eca, who speaks of the moon attracting the 
 waters, about 38 A. D. Kepler investigated 
 the subject about 1615 ; 'and Hooke devised a 
 system of gravitation about 167-i. The prin- 
 ciples of gravity were demonstrated by Galileo, 
 at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law 
 on this subject, laid down by Newton in his 
 Priilcipia, in 1687, is said to have been proved 
 by him, in 1670. His attention was directed 
 to tLe subject by the fall of an apple from a 
 tree, in 166tf. In 1867, M. Chasles laid before 
 the Paris Academy of Sciences some letters al- 
 Ieg3d to has-e been written by Newton to Pas- 
 cal and others tending to show that to Pascal 
 was due the theory of gravitation. The au- I 
 thenticity of these letters was denied and their 
 forgery afterward shown. 
 
 Guillotine, the instrument of decapitation 
 was introduced during the French Revolution 
 by the Convention, and named after its sup- 
 posed inventor, Joseph Ignace Guillotin, a 
 physician, who, however, was only the person 
 who first proposed its adoption. It was erected 
 and first employed to execute a highwayman I 
 on the Place de Grieve, Paris, 25th April, 1792. 
 It is composed of two upright posts, grooved on 
 the inside, and connected at the top by a cross- 
 beam. In these grooves a sharp iron blade, 
 having its edge cut obliquely, descends by its 
 o\vn weight on the neck of the victim, who is 
 bound to a board laid below. 
 
 Gun-Barrels. The finest musket-bar- 
 rels are made of iron which contains a portion 
 of steel, or undergoes some steeling process. 
 Laminated, twisted, or Damascus steel is used 
 in the manufacture of the best barrels. Scraps I 
 of saws, steel pens, files, springs, and steel 
 tools are collected from various workshops, for , 
 the material of laminated steel. These are , 
 
 cut in small and nearly equal pieces, cleansed 
 and polished by revolving in a cylinder, fused 
 into a semi-fluid state, and gathered into a 
 ' ' bloom " or mass. This bloom is forged with 
 a three-ton hammer, and hardened and solidi- 
 fied with a tilt-hammer. It is then rolled into 
 rods, each rod is cut into pieces six inches 
 long, and these pieces are welded together. 
 The rolling, cutting, and welding process is 
 then repeated several times, and thus finally 
 the metal is brought into a very hard, tough, 
 fibrous, and uniform state. Twisted steel for 
 barrels is made by taking thin plates of iron 
 and steel, laying them alternately one on an- 
 : other in a pile, welding them by heat and 
 i hammering, and twisting them by very power- 
 : ful mechanical agency until there are twelve or 
 fourteen complete turns to an inch. The 
 length becomes reduced one half and the thick- 
 ness doubled by this twisting. Barrels made 
 j of Damascus steel are manufactured of steel 
 which has undergone a still further series of 
 j welding and twisting operations. Some bar- 
 rels are made of a mixture of old files with old 
 j horseshoe nails ; these are called stub Damas- 
 cus barrels. The files are heated, cooled in 
 water, broken with hammers, and pounded in 
 a mortar into small fragments. Three parts of 
 these fragments are mixed with five of stub 
 and the mixture is fused, forged, rolled, and 
 twisted. An inferior kind of Damascus twist 
 is made by interlaying scraps of sheet iron 
 with charcoal and producing an appearance of 
 twist, but without the proper qualities. Infe- 
 rior kinds of barrel-iron are known as " three- 
 penny-skelp " and " twopenny s kelp " ; but 
 the worst of all is " sham-dam skelp." The 
 finest barrels are all twisted in form. The 
 skelps, or lengths of prepared steel, are twisted 
 into a close spiral a few inches long ; several 
 of these spirals are welded end to end, and the 
 fissures are closed up by heating and hammer- 
 ing. The rough barrel, with a core or man- 
 drel temporarily thrust in it, is placed in a 
 groove and hammered cold until the metal be- 
 comes very dense, close, strong, and elastic. 
 The interior is then bored truly cylindrical by 
 a nicely adjusted rotating cutting tool. If, on 
 close inspection, the interior is found to be 
 straight and regular, the exterior is then 
 ground on a rapidly revolving stone and finally 
 turned in a lathe. The skelps for the com- 
 moner barrels are heated, laid in a semi-cylin- 
 drical groove, hammered until they assume the 
 form of that groove, placed two and two to- 
 gether, and heated and hammered until one bar- 
 rel is made from two halves. These are browned 
 externally with some kind of chemical stain. 
 The finest barrels are rubbed externally with 
 fine files and polished with steel burnishers.
 
 32 Q 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Gunpowder, Discovery of. It is gen- 
 erally conceded that gunpowder -was used by 
 the Chinese as an explosive in prehistoric times. 
 When they first discovered or applied its power 
 as a propellent is less easily determined. There 
 is an account of a bamboo tube being used, 
 from which the " impetuous dart " was hurled 
 a distance of 100 feet ; this was at a very early 
 period, but it is difficult to say precisely when. 
 It is alleged, however, that in the century be- 
 fore the Christian era a cannon was employed 
 bearing the inscription, "I hurl death to the 
 traitor and extermination to the rebel." It 
 has also been asserted that India has equal 
 claims with China to the first acquaintance 
 with gunpowder. The ancient Sanskrit writ- 
 ings appear to point very plainly to the opera- 
 tion of some primitive sort of cannon, when, in 
 recording the wars of the Egyptian Hercules 
 in India, it is stated that the sages remained 
 unconcerned spectators of the attack on their 
 stronghold till an assault was attempted, when 
 they repulsed it with whirlwinds and thunders, 
 hurling destruction on the invaders ; and a 
 Greek historian of Alexander's campaign testi- 
 fied that the Hindoos had the means of dis- 
 charging flames and missiles on their enemies 
 from a distance. According to Meyer, the 
 preparation of gunpowder was described by 
 Julius Africanus, A. D. 215. In 1073 King 
 Solomon of Hungary bombarded Belgrade 
 with cannon, and in 1085 the ships of Tunis, 
 in the naval battle near Toledo, were said to 
 shoot "fiery thunder." All of which would 
 go to prove that the custom of ascribing the 
 discovery of gunpowder to Bertholdus 
 Schwartz in 1330, or even to Roger Bacon in 
 1267, is open to considerable objection, al- 
 though these men probably introduced it in 
 European warfare. 
 
 Gutta-P ercha. The name "gutta-per- 
 cha" is Malayan, f/utta signifying the concrete 
 juice of a plant, and perclia the name of the 
 particular tree from which it is obtained. It 
 is the dried milky juice of the tree which is 
 found in the peninsula of Malacca and the 
 Malayan Archipelago. Its use was first dis- 
 covered by Europeans about 1843. It is im- 
 ported in blocks and lumps of five to ten 
 pounds weight in various forms, chiefly like 
 large cakes, or rounded into gourd-like lumps. 
 It has a cork-like appearance when cut, and a 
 peculiar cheese-like odor. Before it can be 
 used it has to undergo some preparation . This 
 consists in slicing the lumps into thin shav- 
 ings, which are placed in a devHing or tearing 
 machine revolving in a trough of hot water. 
 This reduces the shavings to exceedingly small 
 pieces, which, by the agitation of the tearing 
 teeth, are washed free from many impurities, 
 
 especially fragments of the bark of the tree, 
 which, if not separated, would interfere with 
 the compactness of its texture. The small 
 fragments, when sufficiently cleansed, are 
 kneaded into masses, which are rolled several 
 times between heated cylinders, which press 
 out any air or water and render the mass 
 uniform in texture. It is then rolled between 
 heated steel rollers into sheets of various 
 thicknesses for use, or is formed into rods, 
 pipes for water or speaking tubes, and an end- 
 less number of other articles. The great value 
 of gutta-percha arises from the ease with which 
 it can be worked, and its being so complete a 
 non-conductor of electricity. It softens in 
 warm water, and can be molded into any form 
 in that state, as, when soft, it is not sticky, 
 and turns well out of molds. 
 
 Hats and Caps. A covering for the 
 head was early adopted by the inhabitants of 
 northern climes, and was usually a hood made 
 of fur ; but it was not until the Phrygians 
 had conquered Asia Minor that the people of 
 warmer latitudes wore any head-covering. The 
 Phrygians were the first to adopt the fashion, 
 and they did it in order to distinguish them- 
 selves from the conquered race with whom they 
 lived. Their head-dress was a small, close- 
 fitting cap, which was also soon adopted by 
 the Roman free citizens. In 1404 a Swiss 
 manufacturer of Paris invented the first hat. 
 
 Hearse. The word "hearse, "or herse, 
 is of French origin, and means a harrow or 
 frame for setting candles in, and was originally 
 applied to a bar or framework with upright 
 spikes for the reception of candles ; and it was 
 used at the ceremonies of the Church and at 
 funeral services. In the fifteenth and six- 
 teenth centuries hearses of great splendor came 
 into use, and were erected in the churches over 
 the bodies of distinguished personages. The 
 framework was of iron or brass, sometimes of 
 beautiful workmanship, square, octagonal, etc., 
 in plan, with pillars at the angles, and arched 
 framework above forming a canopy. The 
 whole was hung over with rich cloths and em- 
 broidery, and lighted up with hundreds of wax 
 candles and decorated with wax images. From 
 this the transition to the modern hearse can 
 easily be traced. In Roman Catholic churches 
 of the present day the hearse still exists as a 
 triangle with spikes on which candles are 
 placed. 
 
 Heliography. The idea of first convoy- 
 ing signals by means of mirrors, which is the 
 meaning of heliography, is said to have been 
 employed by Alexander the Great, 333 B. C. 
 The heliostat, an instrument invented by a Hol- 
 lander early in the eighteenth century, and the 
 heliograph, invented bv Mr. Mance in 1875,
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 have both been used by the British army in their 
 Eastern campaigns. The instruments differ 
 somewhat in construction, but the result arrived 
 ;it is the same in both. Signals are produced by 
 causing a reflected ray of the sun to appear 
 and disappear alternately at a distant point, 
 the intervals of appearance and obscuration 
 being carried in length so as to produce the 
 combination of long and short signals, known 
 as the Morse alphabet. The reflecting body is 
 a glass mirror which varies in size according 
 to the distance to which it is desired to signal. 
 A five inch mirror has given, when atmos- 
 pheric conditions were favorable, distinct sig- 
 nals at a distance of sixty miles. The helio- 
 graph has also been found of great service in 
 defining distant points for large surveys, and 
 was used for verifying the arc of the meridian 
 by the astronomers at the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Horse Power of Steam Engines. 
 The unit of nominal power for steam engines, 
 or the usual estimate of dynamical effect per 
 minute of a horse, called by engineers a " horse 
 power," is thirty-three thousand pounds at a 
 velocity of one foot per minute, or, the effect 
 of a load of two hundred pounds raised by a 
 horse for eight hours a day, at the rate of two 
 and a half miles per hour, or 150 pounds at 
 the rate of 220 feet per minute. 
 
 RULE Multiply the area of the piston in 
 square inches by the average force of the 
 steam in pounds and by the velocity of the pis- 
 ton in feet per minute ; divide the product by 
 thirty-three thousand, and seven tenths of the 
 quotient equals the effective power. 
 
 Human Family, The The three pri- 
 mary divisions of man, asindicated by Latham, 
 are the Indo-European, the Mongolian, and 
 the African. 
 
 I. THE INDO-EUROPEAN OR CAUCASIC 
 race originally extended from India across 
 Europe, and, increasing ever in civilization and 
 intellectual power from age to age, has become 
 the dominant one in the world, extending its 
 influence to every part of the earth, supplanting 
 many inferior races," and repeopling wide 
 areas, as in America and Australia. 
 
 The Caucasic race comprises two principal 
 branches the Aryan and the Semitic. A 
 third branch, according to M. de Quatrefages, 
 includes the Caucasians proper, Euscarians 
 (Basques), and others. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants of Europe belong to 
 the Aryan Family ; they are arranged in the 
 following groups : 
 
 1. The Keltic, in the X. W., comprising 
 the Welsh, Gaels, Erse, Manx, and Armor- 
 icans. 
 
 2. The Italic, chiefly in the S. W. and S., 
 comprising the Italian and other Romance 
 
 nations French, Spanish, Portuguese, Rou- 
 manesch, and Roumanians. 
 
 3. The Thraco-Hellenic, in the S. E., 
 Greeks, and Albanians. 
 
 4. The Teutonic, in the N. N. W. and 
 center, comprising the Germans, Scandina 
 vians, Danes, Icelanders, Dutch, Flemings, 
 English. 
 
 5. The Lithuanian, S. E. of the Baltic. 
 
 6. The Slavonic, in the E., comprising the 
 Russians, Poles, Tsekhs, Serbs, Croats, Bul- 
 garians, etc. 
 
 The Indo-European or Caucasic race in Asia 
 comprises the Hindoos, Baluchis, Afghans, Ir- 
 anians (Persia), Galchas (Zarafshan), and the 
 Semitic tribes of Armenia, Syria, Arabia, etc. 
 
 II. THE MONGOLIAN is divisible into three 
 branches, according to geographical position, 
 which again form numerous smaller families. 
 
 1. The Asiatic, comprising the Mongolians 
 of the Chinese Empire, India, and.Indo-China; 
 the Kalmucks, adjoining the Turks, who ex- 
 tend from Southern Europe far into Central 
 Asia ; the Magyars of Hungary ; the Yakuts 
 and Samoeids (or Samoyedes) of Siberia ; with 
 the Lapps, Finns, and various tribes of East 
 Europe. 
 
 2. The Oceanic Mongolians are composed 
 of two classes. 1. The black-skinned found 
 in New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, and the 
 islands between New Zealand, and New Cale- 
 donia. II. The yellow, olive, or brown race, 
 occupying New Zealand, the Malay Peninsula, 
 Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Moluccas, Philippines, 
 Madagascar, etc. 
 
 3. The American Mongolians comprise a 
 large number of tribes, the chief of which in 
 North America are the Athabaskans, Algon- 
 kins, Sioux, Paducas, and Mexicans. In South 
 America, the Quichuas, Chilians, and Pata- 
 gonians extend along the west coast. The 
 Caribs, Maypures, Brazilians, Moxos, and 
 Chiquitos occupy the north, east, and center 
 of the continent. The Eskimos form a con- 
 necting link between the Asiatic and American 
 branches of this family. 
 
 III. THE AFRICAN, forming the third great 
 division of the human race, is exhibited in its 
 purest form by the natives of Western Africa. 
 The Xegroes occupy the whole central portion 
 of the country from Cape Verde on the west 
 to Khartoom on the east, and south to the 
 Congo. South of the Negroes are the Bantus 
 (including the Kafirs), inhabiting the greater 
 part of Africa between the 4th parallel of N. 
 lat. and the Cape. In the S. W. are the Hot- 
 tentots. Certain dwarfish tribes are found in 
 different parts of the continent, as the Bush- 
 men of the Kalahari Desert, the Obongo of 
 Otiowe basin and others. The Fulas and Nu-
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 has occupy parts of the Soudan ; the former, 
 in the N. W., extend from the Senegal and 
 Niger towards Lake Tchad ; the latter are 
 found in Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, etc. The 
 Gallas, Copts, Somali, of the Sahara, Egypt, 
 and East Africa ; the Abyssinians ; and the 
 Berbers, Kabyles, Tuareks and other tribes of 
 North Africa, belong to the Hamitic race, 
 which is closely allied to the Semitic race. 
 The latter is represented by the Arabs of the 
 N. coast, and of the Arabian Peninsula, and 
 by the Tigres and other tribes of Abyssinia. 
 
 Hypnotism is a method for the alleged 
 cure of disease, by the concentrated action of 
 the mind upon the body while in a state of 
 trance, induced by causing the patient to fix 
 his eyes and concentrate his mind upon a disc 
 of bright metal held at a distance of about 
 twelve inches above the level of the eyes. 
 The first effort to investigate hypnotism in a 
 scientific manner was made by James Braid, 
 of Manchester (1846), from which circum- 
 stance hypnotism is sometimes called Braidism. 
 The power to hypnotize is possessed only by per- 
 sons of peculiar mental organization. While 
 in the hypnotized condition, which renders 
 them insensible to pain, patients may be op- 
 erated upon for surgical or medical purposes, 
 the patient being entirely subject to the will of 
 the hypnotizer. Hypnotism can, however, only 
 be considered as of quasi medical utility, 
 though investigation is being made with the 
 view to placing it on a sound scientific basis. 
 
 Igneous Rocks are those which have 
 been produced from materials fused by heat. 
 They differ from the sedimentary rocks in 
 their origin, structure, and position. They 
 invariably come from below upward, breaking 
 through the older rocks, and are generally 
 ejected in a melted state from volcanic vents, 
 or from fissures opened to some seat of fires 
 within or below the earth's crust. The mate- 
 rials of sedimentary strata are fragments of 
 pre-existing rocks worn by the action of water 
 either into a fine mud or into rounded particles 
 of greater or Jess size ; whereas igneous rocks 
 exhibit either a vitreous structure, as when 
 they have been quickly cooled, or a granular 
 structure composed of more or less minute 
 crystals, according to the rate of cooling, or a 
 vesicular structure when they have been ex- 
 panded by the contained gases, or by being 
 brought into contact with water. In position, 
 also, they may be distinguished from the sedi- 
 mentary rocks, very seldom occurring regularly 
 stratified with parallel upper and under sur- 
 faces, but generally local, thinning out into 
 wedge-shaped beds, or having that irregular 
 stratification which may be seen in modern 
 lava. They are also found as upright walls 
 
 and columns, of which the famous Giant's 
 Causeway and Fingal's Cave are notable ex- 
 amples. Igneous rocks when filling a narrow 
 fissure in an older stratum, and also when 
 speading beyond the fissure and forming an 
 extensive superstratum, are called a dike. The 
 rocks above mentioned are dikes, as are also 
 the Palisades on the Hudson, Salisbury Crags 
 near Edinburgh, many rocks around Lake Su- 
 perior, over the western slope of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and numerous other localities. 
 The outflow in some cases has been very large, 
 the lava floods of Oregon, Nevada, and north- 
 ern California being estimated to comprise a 
 total area of not less than 200,000 square 
 miles, with a maximum thickness of 3,500 
 feet, the average being probably 2,000 feet. 
 The most common rocks of dikes are dolerite 
 (often called trap) and peridotite ; both some- 
 times called basalt when not granular in text- 
 ure. 
 
 Ignis-Fatuus. A number of theories 
 have been advanced in explanation of the lu- 
 minous appearance which is frequently seen in 
 marshy places, church yards, and stagnant 
 pools, and which is known as ignis-fatuus. 
 Of these it is only necessary to mention two. 
 The first is that the ignis-fatuus is due to phos- 
 phureted hydrogen gas, which possesses the 
 power of spontaneous ignition on coming in 
 contact with dry atmospheric air ; the gas 
 would be generated by the decomposition of 
 animal matter present in a marshy soil. The 
 motion of the ignis-fatuus (it floats in the air at 
 about two feet from the ground, is sometimes 
 fixed, and sometimes travels with great rapid- 
 ity) is accounted for by the flame being com- 
 municated along the line of a stream of gas. 
 The second is that it is due to the combustion of 
 light carbureted hydrogen gas arising from the 
 decomposition of vegetable matter ; but, though 
 this supposition satisfactorily accounts fur 
 many appearances connected with the ignis- 
 fatuus, the gas itself is not spontaneously com- 
 bustible, and an additional supposition re- 
 quires to be made to account for its ignition. 
 The ignis-fatuus generally appears a little af- 
 ter sunset as a pale, bluish-colored flame, vary- 
 ing in size and shape ; sometimes it shines 
 steadily till morning, at other times disappears 
 and reappears within about half-hourly inter- 
 vals. In general it recedes on being ap- 
 proached, and i- ice versa, though several suc- 
 cessful attempts have been made to light a 
 piece of paper by it. In former times, under 
 the names of Will-o'-the- Wisp, Jack-o' -Lantern, 
 S/niiikie, etc., it was an object of superstition 
 among the inhabitants of the districts where it 
 appears, and was believed to be due to the 
 agency of evil spirits attempting to lure the
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 329 
 
 traveler to his destruction; and unfortunately 
 there are many instances on record of travelers 
 mistaking the ignis-fatuus for a lamp, and 
 being thus decoyed into marshy places, where 
 they perished. The ignis-fatuus is not a com- 
 mon phenomenon, but it is not unfrequently 
 seen in the north of Germany, the swampy 
 and moorland districts in the south and north- 
 west of England, and in the lowlands of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Important Origins. Air Balloons, in- 
 vented by Gusmac, a Jesuit, in 1729. Revived 
 in France by M. Montgolfier, in 1783. 
 
 Air Guns, invented by Guhr, of Nuremberg, 
 in 1656. 
 
 Arquebus, introduced about 1520, and re- 
 mained in use until after 1567, when the 
 matchlock supplanted it. In 1630 the flint 
 lock was invented, and the musket was intro- 
 duced. 
 
 Banking. The first bank in Europe was the 
 Bank of Venice, 1J.71. The Bank of England 
 was established in 1694, the Bank of North 
 America, 1781. 
 
 Barometers, invented in 1626 ; wheel barom- 
 eters in 1668, phosphoric in 1675, pendent in 
 1695, and marine in 1700. 
 
 Battering Ram, invented 441 B. C. 
 
 Bayonets, invented at Bayonne, in 1670. 
 First used in England in 1693. At first these 
 had wooden handles fitting into the guns, but 
 in 1699 the socket bayonet was introduced. 
 
 Bellows. Strabo informs us that the inven- 
 tion of bellows is due to the Scythian philoso- 
 pher, Anacharsis, who lived in the time of 
 Solon. 
 
 Bombs, invented at Venlo, in 1588, and used 
 first in the service of France, in 1634. 
 
 Bridges. The first bridge of stone in Eng- 
 land was that built at Bow, near Stratford, in 
 1087. 
 
 Bullets of stone used in 1514. Iron bullets 
 first mentioned in 1550. 
 
 Camera Obscura, invented by Baptista Porta, 
 in 1515. 
 
 Chain Shot, invented by DeWitt, Dutch Ad- 
 miral, in 1666. 
 
 Chimneys, first introduced in England, in 
 1200, but at first only in the kitchen or large 
 hall. 
 
 China, made at Dresden, in Saxony, in 
 1706 ; at Chelsea (England) in 1752 ;' by Mr. 
 Wedgwood in 1762. 
 
 Chronograph, A, is an instrument noting time 
 within the fraction of a second. By the elec- 
 trical chronograph used by astronomers, the 
 transit of a star can be recorded to within one 
 hundredth of a second. 
 
 Chronometer, The, is an instrument for 
 measuring time, now generally applied only to 
 
 those watches specially made for determining 
 longitude at sea. A chronometer which gained 
 a prize of $100,000, offered by the British 
 Board of Longitude for a timepiece to ascertain 
 longitude within thirty miles, was made in 
 1761, by John Harrison of Foulby, near 
 Pontefract. 
 
 Clepsydra, The, is an instrument to measure 
 time by the trickling or escape of water. In 
 Babylonia, India, and Egypt, the clepsydra 
 was used from before the dawn of history, 
 especially in astronomical observations. 
 
 Clocks are of ancient date, one having been 
 made by Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, in 
 the ninth century. Clocks with wheels were 
 used in monasteries about the twelfth century, 
 and were made to strike the hour. Pendulum 
 said to have been first applied by Harris, 
 1641; dead-beat pendulum invented 1700, 
 and the compensating pendulum, 1715. 
 
 Coal Mines, discovered in the neighborhood 
 of Newcastle about 1234. Coals were first 
 used in London in the reign of Edward I., 
 when the smoke was supposed to corrupt the 
 air to such an extent that he forbade the use 
 of them by a proclamation, 1273 ; first brought 
 from Newcastle to London, 1381. 
 
 Coffee introduced into Arabia Felix, 1454 ; 
 became known at Constantinople and coffee 
 houses opened, 1554; brought to Marseilles, 
 1644 ; the art of roasting and making it intro- 
 duced at London by a Greek servant, and house 
 opened in Georgeyard, Lombard street, 1652. 
 
 Cosmos is a term used to denote the order 
 and harmony of the universe. Originally used 
 by Homer to denote " order," it was applied 
 by Heraclitus and Anaxagoras to the divine 
 order and arrangement of nature ; by Plato to 
 celestial and terrestrial order. It was further 
 applied to the habitable world and the world 
 generally as an orderly system. 
 
 Delf (or Delff) earthenware invented at 
 Firenze in 1450. 
 
 Envelopes for letters are mentioned by Swift, 
 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopes came into 
 general use shortly after the establishment of 
 the penny postal system in 1840. Machinery 
 for their manufacture was patented in 1844 ; 
 many improvements have since been made. 
 
 Express. The first American express was 
 opened between New iTork and Boston, in 1821 , 
 by W. F. Harnden. 
 
 Figures, in arithmetic, introduced into Eu- 
 rope by the Saracens from Arabia, 991 ; till 
 then, letters were used. 
 
 Flag. The American flag was first used by 
 Washington at Cambridge, January 1, 1776. 
 
 Guns, invented by Swart/, a German, about 
 1378 ; brought into use by the Venetians, 1382 ; 
 great ones first used at the battle of Crecy,
 
 330 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 1346 ; first used in England at the Siege of 
 Berwick, 1405 ; first cast in England, 1554. 
 
 Handkerchief* were first manufactured at 
 Paisley, in Scotland, in 1743. 
 
 HomfKopatliy was introduced into the United 
 States in 1825. 
 
 Horseshoes. Although the ancients pro- 
 tected the hoofs of their horses with some cov- 
 ering, horseshoes, of the kind now known, 
 were not in general use until the ninth cen- 
 
 . tul 7- 
 
 Hydrometer. The oldest mention of this 
 
 instrument belongs to the fifth century, but its 
 invention has been attributed to Archimedes. 
 
 Lace. The knitting of lace is a German 
 invention, first known about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 Life-Boats, invented by Greathead, who re- 
 ceived a premium from Parliament in May, 
 1802. 
 
 Lightning-Rods were first used by Benjamin 
 Franklin about 1752. 
 
 Linen, first made in England by Flemish 
 weavers, 1253 ; staining of linen first known 
 in England, 1579 ; linen trade in Ireland, be- 
 gan by Lord Wentworth, 1634 ; British Linen 
 Company erected, 1746. 
 
 Lithography, discovered, 1808 ; introduced 
 into England, 1817 ; into the United States, 
 1828. 
 
 Magnifying-Glasses, first made in England by 
 Roger Bacon, 1260. 
 
 Marble Paper. A German invention belong- 
 ing to the seventeenth century. 
 
 Microscopes, first used in Germany in 1621. 
 Improved by Torricelli in 1624. 
 
 Organs, first introduced into churches by 
 Pope Vitalian I., 683 ; into the western 
 churches, 826. 
 
 Parchment, invented by King Attalus, of 
 Pergamus, 887 B. C. 
 
 Paving with Stones, first introduced at Paris 
 in 1186. 
 
 'Post Office, first established between Vienna 
 and Brussels in 1516. Posts established regu- 
 larly between London and all the principal 
 towns throughout England in 1635. Postage 
 stamps were introduced in England in 1840 ; 
 in the United States in 1847. 
 
 Ribbon Looms It has been asserted that 
 these looms were first known to the Swiss, but 
 others claim their invention for a German in 
 the town of Dantzic in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Ruling Machines, invented by a Dutchman in 
 London in 1792. 
 
 Sewing Machine, first patented in England, 
 in 1755. The first complete machine was con- 
 structed by an American, Elias Howe, in 1846. 
 
 Sextant, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augs- 
 burg, in 1550. 
 
 Silk, Raw, first made by people of China, 
 called Sers, B. C. 150; first introduced from 
 India, 374 ; a pound at this time was worth a 
 pound of gold; manufacture of, introduced 
 into Europe from India by some monks, 551 ; 
 first worn in dress, 1455; first silk manufac- 
 tured in France, 1521. 
 
 Sleeping Cars were first used in 1858. Pull- 
 man's patent dates from 1864. 
 
 Speaking Trumpets, invented by Kircher, a 
 Jesuit, in 1652. 
 
 Stirrups, according to a statement made by 
 the Emperor Mauritius, were first used in the 
 sixth century. Hippocrates and Galen speak 
 of a disease which, in their time, was occa- 
 sioned by long and frequent riding, because 
 the legs hung down without any support. 
 
 Sun-dials, invented 558 B. C. The first in 
 Rome, 308 B. C., was that erected by Papirius 
 Cursor, when time was divided into hours. 
 
 Tanning Leather, a new and more expe- 
 ditious method than that previously in use was 
 invented in 1795. 
 
 Tapestry, invented by Sir Francis Train, 
 1255 ; the first manufactured in England, 1620. 
 
 Tin Mines, first discovered in Germany, 
 1240 ; till then those in England were the 
 only ones in Europe. 
 
 Ventilators, first introduced by the Rev. Dr. 
 Hales in 1740. 
 
 \' in/ ins of. the modern kind invented about 
 1477. Introduced into England by Charles II. 
 
 Wall Papers, first used in Spain and Holland 
 in 1555. Flock or velvet wall papers were 
 first used in 1620. 
 
 Watches, supposed to have been invented by 
 Peter Hale at Nuremberg, 1490 ; though Rob- 
 ert, king of Scotland, had one about 1310 ; first 
 used in the astronomical observations by Pur- 
 bach, 1500 ; spring watches invented by Hooke, 
 1658. Repeaters invented, 1676. 
 
 Water Mills for grinding corn are said to 
 have been invented by Belisarius when Rome 
 was besieged by the Goths in 555. Pliny, 
 however, mentions wheels turned by water. 
 
 Weathercocks. The earliest mention of a 
 weathercock is that made by Vitruvius, concern- 
 ing that on the tower built at Athens by An- 
 dronicus Cyrrhestes. 
 
 Weights and Measures, invented by Phidon, 
 Tyrant <jf Argos, B. C. 864 ; fixed in England, 
 A. D. 1257; equalized, 1825; weights origi- 
 nally taken from grain of wheat, the lowest of 
 which is called a grain. 
 
 \\'iitdfrs of some kind were glazed as early 
 as the third century ; the fashion was intro- 
 duced into England about 680, but did not 
 become general until 1180. 
 
 }\"n>< , the art of making, brought from 
 India by Bacchus ; none produced in France in
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERT. 
 
 the timg of the Romans ; sold by apothecaries 
 as a cordial, 1300 ; licenses for vending it, 
 established 1661. 
 
 Woolen Cloth. Although the making of 
 woolen cloth is one of the most ancient of arts, 
 its manufacture was not known in France 
 until 1646, when it was made at Sedan. It 
 was first made in England in 1331, but was 
 not dyed or dressed until 1667. 
 
 Indian Summer. Scientists differ re- 
 garding the cause of this phenomenon, which 
 is peculiar to North America and certain parts 
 of Central Europe. A change in the condition 
 of the upper strata of the atmosphere, confin- 
 ing the radiating heat-rays in the lower strata, 
 is generally held to be the true explanation. 
 A theory to account for the smoky appearance, 
 which appears plausible, is that it is due to 
 the decay or slow chemical combustion of 
 leaves, grass, and other vegetable matter under 
 the action of frost and sun. It was to forest 
 and prairie fires kindled by the Indians that 
 the early settlers attributed the smoky appear- 
 ance of the season. Hence the name " Indian 
 Summer." 
 
 Infusoria are minute animalcules, some 
 large enough to be barely visible to the naked j 
 eye (1-100 inch), but most of them altogether I 
 microscopic and almost exceeding the power I 
 of the glass to detect. They belong to the | 
 lowest order of animal life, have neither ves- 
 sels nor nerves, and are made up of a uniform 
 tissue called by Huxley protoplasm. The body | 
 has some well-defined form, of which the varie- | 
 ties are very great in different species. Many 
 in the higher orders are furnished with hairs, 
 the motion of which carries them with great 
 rapidity through the fluid in which they live, 
 and by means of which, also, currents are 
 created in the fluid to bring food to the mouth. 
 Some infusoria have a few slender filaments j 
 instead of hairs, which they agitate with an 
 undulatory movement. Others move by con- 
 tractions and extensions of their bodies. Some 
 have stiff, bristle-like organs, which they use 
 as feet for crawling on the surfaces of other | 
 bodies, and some have hooks, by which they I 
 attach themselves to foreign bodies. The food 
 of the infusoria consists of organic particles 
 of various kinds, and the different species have 
 been remarked to show a preference, like those ! 
 of higher animals, for particular kinds of food. I 
 The numbers of the infusoria are prodigious. 
 They are found in all parts of the world, both 
 in fresh and salt water, and in stagnant pools ; 
 hut they are most usually developed in infusions 
 of decayed animal and vegetable substances. 
 
 Iron, Disco-very of. The actual discov- 
 ery of iron was probably made so early in the 
 history of the human race that it cannot now 
 
 be accurately placed. The Bible ascribes the 
 discovery of working iron to Tubal-Cain. The 
 Egyptians ascribe it to one of their early 
 mythological kings, Hephaestus, who has been 
 identified by students with the Hephaestus of 
 Greek and the Vulcan of Roman mythology. 
 The Egyptians and the Assyrians made iron at 
 a very early period of their history. In ancient 
 tombs and ruins but recently unearthed, many 
 implements of iron are found, cooking utensils, 
 and weapons of various kinds. The Chalybes, 
 a Scythian tribe living south and east of the 
 Black Sea, who attained great skill in iron 
 working, are accredited by ancient writers 
 with being the first to use coal in their fur- 
 naces, the inventors of steel or hardened iron, 
 and the discoverers of magnetic iron. The 
 books of Moses mention the use of iron some 
 eleven centuries before the Christian era, and 
 the Arundelian marbles fix a date for it before 
 1370 B. C. 
 
 Jacquard Loom. The Jacquard appa- 
 ratus, for the purpose of pattern weaving, was 
 invented by M. Joseph Marie Jacquard, a 
 native of Lyons, France, in 1801. Being 
 necessitated to carry on the weaving business 
 of his father, for which he had a distaste, he 
 endeavored to improve the existing machinery, 
 and the Jacquard loom was the result. He 
 enabled, by his invention, an ordinary work- 
 man to produce, with comparative ease, the 
 most beautiful patterns in a style which had 
 only previously been accomplished by skilled 
 labor. The reception of his great invention 
 by the public, however, was most discouraging, 
 for although rewarded with a small pension 
 by Napoleon, the silk weavers offered such 
 violent opposition to its introduction that on 
 one occasion he narrowly escaped with his 
 life. The machine was destroyed by the weav- 
 ers on the public square of Lyons. The merit 
 of the invention, however, was too great to 
 admit of its being long suppressed, and when 
 its value was once fairly recognized it effected 
 a complete revolution in the art of weaving, 
 especially in the finer kinds of figured silk 
 fabrics. ' 
 
 Jelly Fishes consist of a jelly-like mass, 
 containing a cavity which generally has a 
 mouth from which extend tentacles, varying 
 in length from thirty to one hundred feet. 
 From the center, tubes pass to connect with 
 other tubes around the circumference. Their 
 food is smaller marine animals, which they 
 catch with thread-like lassos attached to their 
 tentacles. Agassiz divided jelly fishes, or 
 mt-tlnsfc, into three orders : Beroid medusae, 
 in' <IU.<HI- proper, and Jtydroidce. Of the beroids 
 the most curious are the pleurobrachia,found off 
 the northeast coast of America. The medusae
 
 332 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 proper, known as the " sun fisn, when large is 
 one of the most beautiful of the jelly fishes. The 
 Gulf of Mexico furnishes the finest hydroids. 
 
 Lace-Making. The application of ma- 
 chinery to lace making has cheapened lace that 
 would otherwise always have remained ex- 
 pensive, and has consequently deprived a large 
 number of the inhabitants of towns in France 
 and elsewhere of a lucrative source of income. 
 The great centers of the manufacture of real 
 lace, as hand-made lace is called to distinguish 
 it from machine-made or imitation lace, are 
 Belgium, France, and England. In the for- 
 mer country there are at least 900 lace schools, 
 and over 150,000 women find employment in 
 this trade. Brussels lace, which is of very 
 fine thread and intricate design, has a world- 
 wide reputation. Mechlin lace, a fine and 
 transparent web, is made at Mechlin, Ant- 
 werp, Lierre, and Turnbrout. Valenciennes is 
 largely made in Flanders, but is extinct in its 
 native city, from which it derived its name. 
 The towns of Ypres, Bruges, Courtrai, Menin, 
 Ghent, and Alost produced this lace in large 
 quantities and fine quality. Before the intro- 
 duction of machinery the number of lace- 
 makers in France was estimated to be at least 
 250,000, but this number has been greatly re- 
 duced within the last few years. The cele- 
 brated Point d'Alencjon lace, which is made en- 
 tirely by hand with a small needle, in small 
 pieces, which are afterward united by invisible 
 seams, is made chiefly at Bayeux. Another 
 favorite lace, the Chantilly, which was for- 
 merly made almost altogether at Chantilly, is 
 now made at Bayeux and Caen. Lille lace, 
 which though simple in design is fine and beau- 
 tiful, is the production of the town of Lille. 
 The lace of Bailleul is strong and cheap, and 
 extensively used for trimming. In the dis- 
 trict of Auvergne, of which the town of Le 
 Puy is the center, over 100,000 women are em- 
 ployed in lace-making, and nearly every kind 
 of lace is made. The industry is considered 
 more extensive and more ancient in this dis- 
 trict than in any other portion of France. In 
 England the counties of Buckingham, Devon, 
 and Bedford are the centers of lace-making. 
 The most widely known of the English lace is 
 Honiton, so called from the town of this name 
 in Devonshire The manufacture of hand- 
 made laces was an important industry in Not- 
 tingham some years ago, but it has been al- 
 most entirely destroyed by the introduction of 
 machinery. Lace is made to a limited extent 
 in Limerick, Ireland ; also in Scotland, and in 
 fact in nearly every country in Europe. The 
 imitation or machine-made lace is manufac- 
 tured in Caen, France ; in Nottingham, Eng- 
 k land ; and also in the United States. 
 
 Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; 
 they were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. 
 The earthen lamp which Epictetus, the philos- 
 opher, had in his study, sold, after his death, 
 for 3,000 drachmas. Lamps with horn sides 
 are said to be the invention of Alfred. Lon- 
 don streets were first lighted with oil lamps in 
 1681, and with gas lamps in 1814. A lamp 
 constructed to produce neither smoke nor 
 smell was patented, in 1784, by a Frenchman, 
 and was brought into general use in England 
 early in the present century. On the principle 
 of Argand are founded the lamps invented by 
 Carcel, about 1803, and since 1825 the mod- 
 erator lamps of Levavasseur, Hadrot, and 
 Neuburger. The domestic lamp is now of 
 elegant manufacture and many artistic designs. 
 
 Latitude. First determined by Hip- 
 parchus, of Nice, about 170 B. C. It is the 
 extent of the earth, or of the heavens, reck- 
 oned from the equator to either pole. Mau- 
 pertuis, in 1737, measured a degree of latitude, 
 and made it 69.493 ; Swanberg, in 1803, made 
 it 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four 
 astronomers made it 68.732 ; and Lambton 
 made it 08.743 ; Mudge, in England, made it 
 69.148; Cassini, in France, made it 69.12, 
 and Biot, 68.769 ; while a recent measure, in 
 Spain, makes it 68.63 less than at the 
 equator, and contradicts all others, proving 
 the earth to be a prolate spheroid, which was 
 the opinion of Cassini, Bernoulli.!, Euler. and 
 others, while it has more generally been re 
 garded as an oblate spheroid. 
 
 Life Insurance, Origin of. The rise 
 of life insurance may be traced to several 
 sources. The doctrine of probabilities devel- 
 oped by Pascal and Iluyghens as to games of 
 chance was applied to life contingencies by the 
 great Dutch statesman Jan De Witt in 1671, 
 but it was not till some time after that it was 
 applied to life insurance. In 1696 there was 
 a hint at modern life insurance in a London 
 organization, and this was followed by another 
 association two years after. The operators of 
 these two seem to have passed away without 
 giving to their successors any clear account of 
 their plan of operations. In 1706 the Amica- 
 ble Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office 
 was founded in London, and this is considered 
 the first actual life insurance company estab- 
 lished. Its plan was mutual that is, each 
 member, without reference to age, paid a fixed 
 admission fee and a fixed annual payment per 
 share on from one to three shares ; at the end 
 of the year a portion of the fund was divided 
 among the heirs of deceased members in pro- 
 portion to the shares held by each. In after 
 years the limitations as to age, occupation, 
 and health were added.
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 333 
 
 Liquid Air. Popular attention has been 
 attracted to this subject recently in America by 
 the experiments of Mr. Charles E. Tripler, 
 although the liquefaction of gases is by no 
 means new. It was first accomplished by 
 Northmore in 1806, who succeeded in obtaining 
 liquid chlorine by pressure. Faraday followed. 
 Two factors are necessary to liquefy a gas, 
 pressure and cold. Every gas, so far as now 
 known, will liquefy under a given pressure, 
 provided it is cooled to a certain temperature 
 known as its " critical temperature." In 1877 
 two French experimenters, Pictet, Cailletet, 
 working separately, and along different lines, 
 succeeded in liquefying oxygen. This was fol- 
 lowed in 1883 by successful experiments by two 
 Russian physicists, Wrobleski and Olszewski. 
 Among other surprising results they succeeded 
 in freezing alcohol. It was not until 1890 
 that liquid air and oxygen were produced in | 
 any quantity. This was first done by Prof. 
 Dewar, of the Royal Institution, London. 
 About this time Mr. Tripler, of New York, 
 developed a form of apparatus which may be 
 said to be a practical machine. The capacity 
 of his plant is about 40 gallons per day. The 
 process claimed by this physicist is also claimed 
 by Mr. Thompson in England, and Dr. Carl 
 Linde of Munich, Germany. 
 
 The effects of the intense cold which can be 
 produced by evaporating liquid air, oxygen, or 
 hydrogen are almost beyond comprehension ; 
 practically all plastic or soft materials when 
 immersed in it become hard and brittle, leather 
 being an exception ; some metals become brittle, 
 and can be broken or crumbled ; alcohol may be 
 frozen, and air and oxygen themselves solidify 
 if placed in liquid hydrogen. The possibili- 
 ties of liquid air are many. It can be used 
 for refrigeration ; motor vehicles and launches 
 can be operated by it ; surgeons can use it in 
 operations, and for ventilating and cooling 
 rooms it is invaluable. 
 
 Magnet. The iron ore which possesses 
 the property of attraction was given the name 
 of magnet by the Greeks, because it was first 
 found in Magnesia in Asia Minor, or accord- 
 ing to another account because it was first dis- 
 covered by a shepherd named Magnes, who 
 had iron tips on his shoes, and while walking 
 over some rocks found that his feet stuck to 
 them in a mysterious way. The ore is now 
 called magnetite, and is an oxide of iron con- 
 taining about seventy-three per cent, of iron 
 when pure. It is a very valuable ore, and 
 supplies a large amount of the finest iron and 
 steel of commerce. Large deposits occur in 
 Norway and Sweden, Finland and the Ural; 
 in the Adirondack region in northern New 
 York ; in northern New Jersey; in eastern 
 
 Pennsylvania, the most noted locality being 
 Cornwall, Lebanon County, where the mines 
 have been worked for over a hundred years ; 
 in North Carolina, California, and Oregon, 
 and several places in Canada. It is also found 
 in the form of sand in some places in North 
 America, India, and New Zealand. One of the 
 largest occurrences of magnetic sand is on the 
 south shore of Long Island, near Quogue, 
 where a furnace was built and an attempt made 
 to work it ; but the enterprise proved unsuccess- 
 ful and was abandoned. 
 
 Mariner's Compass. The Chinese as- 
 cribed the invention of the compass to their 
 Emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grand- 
 son of Noah ; some of their historians refer 
 the invention of it to a later date, 1115 B. C. 
 The honor of its discovery, however, though 
 much disputed, is generally given to Flavio 
 Gioja, a native of Amalfi, an ancient com- 
 mercial city of Naples, A. D. 1302. The com- 
 pass is also said to have been known to the 
 Swedes in the time of King Jarl Birger, 1250. 
 The variation of the needle was first discov- 
 ered by Columbus in his voyage of discovery, 
 1492. The compass box and hanging compass, 
 used by navigators, were invented by William 
 Barlowe, an English divine and natural philos- 
 opher, in 1608. The measuring compass was 
 invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. 
 The dipping needle was invented by Robert 
 Norman, a compass maker of Ratcliffe, Eng- 
 land, in 1580. 
 
 Matches, Invention of. Previous to 
 1829 the matches in use consisted of a slender 
 stick with a pointed end, which had been 
 dipped in sulphur ; and they were lighted, by 
 touching them to a spark struck into tinder by 
 flint and steel. In that year, however, what 
 was known as the " Instantaneous Light-Box" 
 was invented. It consisted of a small tin box 
 containing a bottle, in which was placed some 
 sulphuric acid, with sufficient fibrous asbestos 
 to soak it up and prevent its spilling out of the 
 bottle, and a supply of properly prepared 
 matches. These consisted of small splints of 
 wood about two inches long, one end of 
 which was coated with a chemical mixture 
 prepared by mixing chlorate of potash, pow- 
 dered loaf-sugar and powdered gum arabic, 
 the whole colored with a little vermilion, and 
 made into a thin paste with water. The splints 
 were readily inflamed by dipping the prepared 
 ends into the sulphuric acid. These were suc- 
 ceeded by the lucifer, or loco-foco match, 
 which was ignited by friction ; and that, in 
 turn by the Congreve, which was similar to 
 the sulphur matches now in use ; and this, 
 shortly afterward, by the present parlor match. 
 
 Maxim Self-Acting Gun was invented
 
 334 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 by Hiram S. Maxim of England. The peculiar 
 features of this gun are : Every round after 
 the first is fired by the recoil of the previous 
 explosion ; the cartridges are picked out of the 
 cartridge belt, one end of which is placed in 
 the gun mechanism on one side by the auto- 
 matic action of the gun, and the belt and 
 cartridge shells are ejected after firing; every 
 recoil of the gun brings the next cartridge into 
 position, forces it into the barrel, cocks the 
 hammer, pulls the trigger, extracts the empty 
 shell, and ejects it from the gun all these 
 processes going on with such marvelous rapid- 
 ity that six hundred rounds are fired in a 
 minute. The gun can be turned in any direc- 
 tion by means of a crank, and the rate of dis- 
 charge is regulated by a controlling chamber, 
 ingeniously contrived so that the gun may be 
 fired rapidly or slowly, as desired. At the 
 moment of firing, the recoil drives the barrel 
 back about three quarters of an inch, and it is 
 this recoil which directs the mechanism of the 
 gun and makes its discharges continuous. 
 
 Medicine appears to have been first prac- 
 ticed by the Egyptian priests. Pythagoras 
 endeavored to explain the philosophy of disease 
 and the action of medicine about 529 B. C. 
 Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, flour- 
 ished about 422 B. C., and Galen, born A. D. 
 131, was the oracle of medical science. About 
 980, Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of 
 medicine. The art was brought into Europe 
 from the East, about A. D. 1150. In the 
 early stages of the practice, the preparation of 
 simples was principally confined to ecclesiastics 
 in Europe generally, until the close of the fif- 
 teenth century. The dogmatic age of medi- 
 cine lasted until the Reformation, when it was 
 attacked by Paracelsus (1493-1541) and Vasa- 
 lius (1514-64). Since 1800 medical practice 
 has been completely transformed by physio- 
 logical and chemical research. The practice 
 of medicine is now one of the highest sciences, 
 and in most countries is in the hands of learned 
 and distinguished men ; various statutes have 
 been enacted to discourage pretenders to the 
 healing art. 
 
 Meerschaum is a mineral existing in 
 many parts of the world. In Europe, it is 
 found chiefly at Hrubschitz in Moravia, and at 
 Sebastopol and Kaffa in the Crimea ; and in 
 Asia it is found abundantly just below the soil 
 in the alluvial beds at Kittisch and Bursain 
 Xatolia; and in the rocks of Eske-Hissar, in 
 the same district, it is mined so extensively as 
 to give employment to nearly a thousand men. 
 Meerschaum, from its having been found on 
 the seashore in some places, iu peculiarly 
 rounded snow white lumps, was ignorantly 
 imagined to be petrified froth of the sea, 
 
 which is the meaning of its German name. It 
 is composed of silica, magnesia, and water. 
 When first dug from the earth it is quite soft 
 and soap-like to the touch, and as it lathers 
 with water and removes grease, it is employed 
 by the Turks as a substitute for soap in wash- 
 ing. After being molded into pipes, these are 
 boiled in oil or wax and baked until hard. 
 
 Mesmerism was first brought into notice 
 by Frederick Anton Mesmer, a German physi- 
 cian, in 1766, when he published a thesis on 
 " The Influence of the Plaiiets on the Human 
 Body," claiming that the heavenly bodies 
 diffused through the universe a subtle fluid 
 which acts on the nervous system of animated 
 beings ; and he further stated that he regarded 
 the new force, which, he said, could be exerted 
 by one living organism upon another, as a 
 means of alleviating or curing disease. In 
 1778 he left Vienna for Paris, where he gained 
 numerous proselytes and much money. His 
 discovery was fostered by Dr. D'Elson, physi- 
 cian to the king's brother, and in 1784 the 
 French government ordered the medical fac- 
 ulty of Paris to investigate Mesmer's theory. 
 A committee was appointed, who subsequently 
 reported that " The violent effects which are 
 observed in the public practice of magnetism 
 are due to the manipulations, to the excite- 
 ment of the imagination which leads us to 
 repeat anything which produces an impression 
 upon the senses." One year later, 1785, 
 Mesmer's popularity had so far declined that 
 he left Paris and retired to Switzerland, where 
 he spent the balance of his life. Mesmer- 
 ism excited some attention again in 1848, 
 when Miss Harriet Martineau and others an- 
 nounced their belief in it. 
 
 Meteors. Meteors are small, erratic 
 bodies rushing through the planetary system, 
 and, getting hot in the process, appear in the 
 atmosphere surrounding our earth as " shoot- 
 ing stars." Some of these falling bodies have 
 reached the earth, and such are called " aero- 
 lites " or " meteorites." X umbers, of course, 
 are burned up before they reach us, and who 
 can tell what destruction such a catastrophe 
 may represent, or whether it be or be not an 
 inhabited world which has thus been plunged 
 to destruction by fire ? They are of a metallic 
 or stony nature. On certain nights in August 
 and Xovember it has been calculated that 
 these meteors will appear. They fall from 
 certain constellations, after which they are 
 named ; as Leonides, from Leo, in the Xovem- 
 ber displays. 
 
 The star showers sometimes present the ap- 
 pearance of a beautiful display of rockets. 
 Millions of them rush round the sun, and 
 when, as occasionally happens, our earth
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 335 
 
 comefi near them, we have a grand display of 
 celestial fireworks. 
 
 It is estimated that the average number of 
 meteors that traverse the atmosphere daily, 
 and which are large enough to be visible to 
 the eye on a dark, clear night, is 7,500,000 ; 
 and if to these the telescopic meteors be added, 
 the number will be increased to 400,000,000. 
 In the space traversed by the earth there are, 
 on the average, in each volume the size of our 
 globe (including its atmosphere), as many as 
 13,00[) small bodies, each one capable of fur- 
 nishing a shooting star visible under favorable 
 circumstances to the naked eye. 
 
 Metric System, The, originated in France 
 about 1790. In 1799, on the invitation of 
 the Government, an international convention, 
 at which were present representatives from 
 France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzer- 
 land, Spain, Savoy, and the Roman Republics, 
 
 assembled at Paris to settle, from the results 
 of the .great Meridian Survey, the exact length 
 of the " definitive meter." As a result of the 
 investigations of this learned body, the Metric 
 System was based upon the length of the fourth 
 part of a terrestrial meridian. The ten-mil- 
 lionth part of this arc was chosen as the unit 
 of measures of length, and called Meter. The 
 cube of the tenth part of the meter was adopted 
 as the unit of capacity, and denominated Liter. 
 The weight of a liter of distilled water at its 
 greatest density was called Kilogramme, of 
 which the thousandth part, or Gramme, was 
 adopted as the unit of weight. The multiples 
 of these, proceeding in decimal progression, are 
 distinguished by the employment of the pre- 
 fixes deca, hecto, kilo, and myria (ten, hundred, 
 thousand, ten thousand) from the Greek, and 
 the subdivisions by (led, centi, and milli (tenth, 
 hundredth, thousandth) from the Latin. 
 
 Measures of Length (Unit, Meter). 
 
 Millimeter 
 
 EQUAL TO Inches. 
 0.03937 
 
 Feet. 
 0.003281 
 
 Yards. 
 
 0.0010936 
 
 Fathoms. 
 0.0005468 
 
 Centimeter. ... 
 
 0.39371 
 
 0.032809 
 
 0.0109363 
 
 0.0054682 
 
 Decimeter 
 
 3.93708 
 
 0.328098 
 
 0.1093633 
 
 0.0540816 
 
 METER 
 
 39.37079 
 
 3.280988 
 
 1.0936331 
 
 0.5468165 
 
 Decameter 
 
 393.70790 
 
 32.809892 
 
 10.9363306 
 
 5.41)81653 
 
 
 3,937.07900 . 
 
 328.089917 
 
 109 3633056 
 
 54 6816528 
 
 Kilometer 
 
 39,370.79000 . 
 
 . 3,280.899167 
 
 1,093.6330556 
 
 546 8165278 
 
 Mvriameter. . . 
 
 394,707.90000 . 
 
 . 32,808.991667 
 
 10,936.3305556 
 
 5,468.1652778 
 
 Cubic Measures, or Measures of Capacity (Unit, Later). 
 
 EQUAL TO 
 
 Milliliter, or cubic centimeter 
 
 Centiliter, 10 cubic centimeters 
 
 Deciliter, 100 cubic centimeters 
 
 LITER, or cubic Decimeter, 
 
 Deca) iter, or Centistere 
 
 Hectoliter, or Decistere 
 
 Kiloliter, or Stere, or cubic meter, 
 Myrialiter, or Decastere 
 
 EQUAL TO 
 
 Milligramme 
 
 Centigramme 
 
 Decigramme 
 
 GRA MME 
 
 Decagramme 
 
 Hectogramme 
 
 Kilogramme 
 
 Myriagramme 
 
 Culnc Inches. 
 
 Cubic Feet. 
 
 0.06103 
 
 0.000035 
 
 0.61027 
 
 0.000353 
 
 6.10271 
 
 0.003532 
 
 61 .02705 
 
 0.035317 
 
 610.27052 
 
 0.353166 
 
 6,102.70515 
 
 3.531 P58 
 
 61,027.05152 
 
 35.316581 
 
 610,270.51519 
 
 353.165807 . 
 
 Pints. 
 
 0.00176 
 
 0.01761 
 
 0.17608 
 
 1.7(077 
 
 17.60773 
 
 176.07734 
 
 1,760.77341 
 
 17,607.73414 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 0.0002201 
 
 0.0022010 
 
 0.0220017 
 
 0.2200SI67 
 
 2.200D668 
 
 22.0096677 
 
 220.0966767 
 
 2,200.9667675 
 
 Measures of Weight (Unit, Gramme). 
 
 Grains. 
 
 0.01543 
 
 0.15432 
 
 1.54323 
 
 1543235 
 
 154.32349 
 
 1,543.23488 
 
 15,432.348(-0 
 
 154,323.48800 
 
 Troy Oz. ./ 
 0.000032 . 
 0.000322 . 
 0.003215 . 
 0.032151 . 
 0.321507 . 
 3.215073 . 
 32.150727 . 
 321.507267 . 
 
 voirdupois Lbs. 
 0.0000022 . 
 0.0000220 . 
 0.0002205 . 
 0.0022046 . 
 0.0220462 . 
 0.2204621 . 
 2.2046213 . 
 22 0462129 . 
 
 Cwt. of 112 Llit 
 0.0000000 . 
 O.OOOC002 
 0.0000020 
 0000197 
 0.0001968 
 0.0019684 
 0.0196841 
 0.1968412 
 
 Square Measures, or Measures of Surface (Unit, AreX 
 
 EQUAL TO Sq. Feet. Sq. Yards. Sq. Perches. Sq. Roods. 
 
 Centare, or square meter 10794299 .. 1. 196033 .. 0.0395283 .. 0.0009885 
 
 ARE, or 100 square meters 1,076429034 .. 119.603326 .. 3.95K8290 .. 0.0988457 
 
 Hectare, or 10,000 square meters... 107,642.993419 . . 11.9C0.332602 .. 395.3828959 .. 9.8845724 
 
 Miles. 
 0.0000006 
 0.0000062 
 0.0000621 
 0.0006214 
 0.0062138 
 0.0621381 
 0.6213824 
 6.2138242 
 
 fin slid s. 
 
 0.0000275 
 
 0.0002751 
 
 0.0027512 
 
 0.0275121 
 
 0.2751208 
 
 2.75120^5 
 
 27.5120846 
 
 275.1208459 
 
 Tows. 
 0.0000000 
 0.0000000 
 0.0000001 
 0.0000010 
 0.0000098 
 0.0000984 
 0.0009?42 
 0.0098421 
 
 Sq. Acres. 
 0.0002471 
 0.0247111 
 2.4711434 
 
 Microphone, The, is the black carbon 
 button used in telephones, and is an instru- 
 ment for magnifying sound. The most sensi- 
 tive substance, so far as yet discovered, to have 
 the peculiar power, when placed in the electric 
 current, of magnifying sound, is willow char- 
 coal plunged, when at white heat, into mercury. 
 A piece of such charcoal an inch long, placed 
 vertically between two blocks of carbon, hol- 
 lowed to receive its ends, wires connecting the 
 blocks with an electric battery, and the ordi- 
 nary receiving instrument of a telephone, con- 
 
 stitute one of the simplest forms of a micro- 
 phone. The invention of the microphone is 
 claimed by Professor Hughes of England, and 
 Thomas Edison, the American inventor. 
 
 Microscope, Invention of the. It is 
 generally believed that the first compound mi- 
 croscope was made in 1590 by a Hollander 
 named Zacharias Jansen. Pocket microscopes 
 were first made in London in 1740 by Ben- 
 jamin Martin. The discovery of the magnify- 
 ing power of the simple lens was undoubtedly 
 made long before the Christian era, as it is
 
 336 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 known that the Greeks used magnifiers of glass 
 which they called " reading-glasses," and rude 
 lenses of crystal have been found in Egyptian 
 ruins. 
 
 Mirage. Mirage (sometimes called Fata 
 Morgana} is the appearance in the air of the 
 image of some distant object, seen either in 
 connection with the object itself, above or be- 
 low the latter, or suspended in the air, the ob- 
 ject being invisible. It is a very curious but 
 sufficiently common phenomena, and in the 
 Asiatic and African plains it is frequently 
 observed. When the weather is calm and the 
 ground hot, the Egyptian landscape appears 
 like a lake, and the houses look like islands in 
 the midst of a widely-spreading expanse of 
 water. This causes the mirage, which is the 
 result of evaporation, while the different tem- 
 peratures of the air strata cause an unequal re- 
 flection and refraction of light, which give 
 rise to the mirage. Travelers are frequently 
 deceived, but the camels will not quicken their 
 usual pace until they scent water. 
 
 The Fata Morgana and the inverted images 
 of ships seen at sea are not uncommon on Eu- 
 ropean coasts. Between Sicily and Italy this 
 phenomenon is seen in the Sea of Reggio with 
 fine effect. Palaces, towers, fertile plains, with 
 cattle grazing on them, are seen, with many 
 other terrestial objects, upon the sea the 
 palaces of the Fairy Morgana. The inverted 
 images of ships are frequently perceived, and 
 many most extraordinary but perfectly authen- 
 tic tales have been related concerning the re- 
 flection and refraction of persons and objects 
 in the sky and on land, when no human beings 
 nor any of the actual objects were within the 
 range of vision. 
 
 Mirrors. - In ancient times mirrors were 
 made of metal ; those of the .Jewish women of 
 brass ; mirrors of silver were introduced by 
 Praxiteles, 328 B. C. Mirrors or looking- 
 glasses were made at Venice, A. D. 1300; and 
 in England, at Lambeth, near London, in 
 1673. The French excelled in their manu- 
 facture of them in the last century. Various 
 methods of coating glass by a solution of silver, 
 thus avoiding the use of mercury, so injurious 
 to the health of the workman, have been made 
 known, by M. Petitjean,in 1851 ; byM. Cimeg, 
 in 1861, and by Liebig and others. 
 
 Mother-of -Pearl The shells of many 
 molluscous animals display a brilliant pearly 
 and iridescent luster, resulting from the peculiar 
 manner in which the layers of calcareous 
 matter of which they are composed have been 
 successively formed. Such shells, even when 
 small in size, form bright and, especially to 
 the untutored eye, attractive ornaments, and 
 as such are used for necklaces and similar 
 
 purposes. When the shells are of sufficient 
 size to cut and shape for purposes of utility, 
 they become articles of some commercial 
 importance under the name of Mother-of- 
 Pearl. This term, though applicable to all 
 pearly shells, is in commerce principally 
 applied to the shells of the bi-valve pearl 
 mussel, which is the principal source of the 
 commercial product. 
 
 The largest and steadiest consumption of 
 mother-of-pearl is in the button trade, and 
 much is also consumed by cutlers for handles 
 of fruit and dessert knives and forks, pocket- 
 knives, and other forms of cutlery. It is also 
 used in the inlaying of Japanese and Chinese 
 lacquers, European lacquered papier-mach6 
 work, trays, toys, and as an ornamental inlay 
 generally. In an innumerable variety of 
 small and fancy articles, mother-of-pearl is 
 also employed, its use being limited only by 
 the moderate dimensions and thickness of 
 material obtained, and its rather brittle 
 nature. 
 
 The carving of pilgrim shells, and the 
 elaboration of crucifixes and ornamental work 
 in mother-of-pearl is a distinctive industry of 
 the monks and other inhabitants of Bethlehem. 
 Among the South Sea Islands the shell is 
 largely fashioned into fishing hooks, a purpose 
 for which its brilliant, conspicuous appearance 
 seems to render it suitable without the addi- 
 tion of any bait or other lure. 
 
 Music. Lucretius ascribes its invention 
 to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds. 
 Franckinus, to the various sounds produced by 
 the hammers of Tubal-Cain ; Pontique and 
 others to the singing of birds ; and Zarlino to 
 the sound of water. It is however agreed that 
 music was first reduced to rules by fTubal, 1800 
 B. C. The flute and harmony or concord in 
 music was invented by Hyagnis, 1500. Vocal 
 choruses of men are first mentioned 56 B. C. 
 The first six musical notes are said to have 
 been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 
 monk of Arezzo, about 1025. The notes of 
 present use were perfected in 1338. Musical 
 pitch was settled in France in 1859. Pythago- 
 ras maintained that the motion of the twelve 
 spheres must produce delightful sounds inau- 
 dible to mortal ears, which he called the music 
 of the spheres. Saint Cecilia, a Roman lady, 
 is said to have excelled so eminently in music, 
 that an angel was enticed from the celestial re- 
 gions by the fascinating charms of her melody ; 
 this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed 
 sufficient authority to make her the patroness 
 of music. She died in the third century. 
 
 Nails. It is only since 1810 that machin- 
 ery has been employed to any extent in the 
 manufacture of nails. Previous to that date,
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 3:57 
 
 they were made by hand by forging on an 
 anvil, and great numbers of men were em- 
 ployed in the industry, there having been as 
 many as 00,000 nailers in the neighborhood 
 of Birmingham alone. It appears that as 
 early as 160(5 a patent was obtained for cutting 
 nail rods by water power, by Sir Davis Bul- 
 nier. An improvement on this was patented 
 in 1618, and a new invention in 1790, which 
 last was the first nail machine in actual use ; 
 it was patented by Thomas Clifford, and used 
 in French's factory at Wimburn, Staffordshire, 
 in 1792. Toward the close of the last cen- 
 tury many patents were obtained in the United 
 States for new machines and improvements on 
 old ones. Many of the first inventors spent 
 large sums of money on their machines, and it 
 has been estimated that it cost fully $1,000, 000 
 to bring them to the perfection attained in 
 1810, when a machine made 100 nails a min- 
 ute. The machine invented by Jesse Reed of 
 Massachusetts, about 1800, is the one which 
 first came into general use, and this, with 
 some improvements, is the one most largely 
 used to-day. In 1810, Joseph C. Dyer of 
 Boston, then a merchant in London, took out 
 patents in England for the nail machinery in- 
 vented in Massachusetts. It was at once 
 widely introduced, and large manufacturing 
 establishments were soon founded. Some 
 factories at Birmingham are now capable of 
 making over 40,000,000 nails a week. The term 
 penny, used to indicate the size of nails, is 
 supposed to be a corruption of pound ; thus a 
 fourpenny nail was one such that 1,000 of 
 them weighed four pounds ; a tenpenny, such 
 that 1,000 weighed ten pounds. Originally, 
 the " hundred,'' when applied to nails, meant 
 sixscore, or 120 ; consequently the thousand 
 was 1,200. In France, the greater part of the 
 nails used in carpentry-work are made of soft 
 iron wire, pointed with the hammer, and the 
 head is formed by pinching them in a toothed 
 vise. 
 
 Nebular Hypothesis. The Nebular Hy- 
 pothesis assumes that the solar system was 
 once an enormous mass of gaseous substance. 
 Rapid rotation arising in this gaseous mass, it 
 took the form of a disc, and at last inertia 
 (popularly but erroneously called centrifugal 
 force), overcoming cohesion, whole rings and 
 fragments flew off from this disc, and by grav- 
 itation contracted into spheroid masses. As, 
 in the original mass, the velocity of the outer 
 circle of each body thrown off is greater than 
 the inner circle, this causes each spheroid to 
 revolve on its own axis. This process goes on, 
 and the central mass continues to cool and 
 shrink until we have at last a central body 
 with a number of smaller spheroidal bodies re- 
 
 volving around it in orbits ; the smaller, the 
 nearer they are to the central orb. Certain 
 points are assumed in this hypothesis to ex- 
 plain the distribution of matter in our solar 
 system. It is assumed that in throwing off 
 great masses from the central disc, immense 
 quantities of minute particles were also 
 thrown, which continue to revolve, in the same 
 plane with the large mass around the central 
 body. By slow degrees these minute atoms, 
 by the law of gravitation, were aggregated 
 into the mass nearest to them. These subor- 
 dinate aggregations would form with most dif- 
 ficulty nearest the large central mass, because 
 of the superior attractive force of the latter, 
 wherefore the interior planets Mercury, 
 Venus, the Earth, and Mars are smaller 
 than the two great orbs in the zone beyond 
 them. These two enormous planets, Jupiter 
 and Saturn, occupy the space where conditions 
 are most favorable to subordinate aggregations ; 
 but beyond them the gravity of aggregating 
 material becomes reduced, and so the planets 
 found in the outer zone, Uranus and Neptune, 
 are smaller than the planets of the middle 
 zone. This hypothesis was first suggested by 
 Sir William Herschel, and was adopted and 
 developed by Laplace. 
 
 Needles. The making of Spanish needles 
 was first taught in England by Elias Crowse, a 
 German, about the eighth year of Queen Eliza- 
 beth, and in Queen Mary's time there was a 
 negro who made fine Spanish needles in Cheap- 
 side, London. At his death the secret of fab- 
 rication was lost, and not recovered again till 
 1566. The family of Greenings, ancestors of 
 Lord Dorchester, established a needle factory 
 in Bucks a little later. German and Hunga- 
 rian steel is of best repute for needles. The 
 manufacture was greatly improved at White 
 Chapel, London ; Redditch, in Gloucestershire; 
 and Hathersage, in Derbyshire. An exhibi- 
 tion of ancient needles and needlework was 
 formed at South Kensington museum in 1873. 
 Nickel was first obtained as a metal in 
 Germany about 1751 ; but the ore had been 
 previously known to miners, who called it 
 kupfemickel, or Old Nick's copper, for the 
 reason that, though it looked like copper ore, 
 no copper could be obtained from it. Nickel, 
 when pure, is silvery white, and does not 
 oxidize or tarnish in the air. It is found in 
 many parts of the world, but the principal 
 mines are in Russia, Sweden, Germany, Aus- 
 tria, England, and Scotland, and in the states 
 of Pennsylvania and Connecticut in America. 
 Its chief use is for plating other metals, but it 
 is also used in alloys. 
 
 Oceans, Depths of. The average depth 
 of all the oceans is from 2,000 to 3,000
 
 338 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 fathoms. Soundings have been made in the 
 Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles off the island of 
 St. Thomas, in the West Indies, which showed 
 a depth of 23,250 feet, or about four and one- 
 half miles. In 1872-74, the ship Challenger 
 made a voyage around the world for the pur- 
 pose of taking deep-sea soundings, and the 
 result showed that the greatest depth in the 
 Pacific Ocean was between four and one-half 
 and five miles, while that of the Atlantic was 
 probably as given above. 
 
 Ocean Steam Navigation. The first 
 ocean steam navigation in the world was by 
 the steamboat Phoenix, built by Colonel John 
 Stevens, and navigated from Hoboken, N. J., 
 to Philadelphia in 1808 by Robert L. Stevens. 
 In 1819, the Savannah, an American vessel of 
 380 tons burden, built at Corlear's Hook, 
 N. Y., made the first steam voyage across the 
 Atlantic. The steamer went from New York 
 to Savannah, Ga., and thence to England. 
 From England she proceeded to St. Petersburg, 
 Russia, where an effort was made to dispose of 
 her to the czar. The sale not being consum- 
 mated, she returned to New York, and was 
 afterwards converted into a sailing vessel. 
 
 Ohm's Law is so named from its discov- 
 erer, Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist, 
 born 1787, died 1854. He devoted himself 
 particularly to the investigation of the laws 
 governing galvanic currents, and by a combina- 
 tion of mathematical and experimental inves- 
 tigation , carried on for many years, he at length 
 discovered and established the law which forms 
 the basis of the mathematical theory of elec- 
 tricity. His discoveries were first announced 
 in scientific journals in 1825-'26. This funda- 
 mental theorem, known as Ohm's Law, may 
 be briefly stated as follows : The strength of 
 a galvanic current is equal to the electro-motive 
 force divided by the resistance. The term ohm 
 is now used to designate the standard measure 
 or unit of galvanic resistance, and is equal to 
 the resistance of a cylindrical wire of pure 
 copper one twentieth of an inch in diameter 
 and 250 feet long. 
 
 Oleomargarine. The belief which is 
 prevalent among the masses that the ingredients 
 which constitute oleomargarine are unclean is 
 fallacious, as will be seen by the following 
 description : Clean beef fat and a proportion- 
 ate quantity of salt are by process of machin- 
 ery and heat transformed into what is called 
 white stearine and butter oil, otherwise the oil 
 which has been pressed from the fat. This 
 oil is then churned in the proportion of about 
 442 pounds of butter oil, 120 pounds of milk, 
 37^ pounds of cream-made butter, and If 
 ounces of bicarbonate of soda. To this some 
 coloring matter is added, and the mixture 
 
 1 churned for some fifty minutes, giving as a 
 I result a smooth mass resembling an emulsion 
 of cream. This is put into ice-cream freezers 
 and kept constantly agitated until it solidifies. 
 It is then worked over with revolving butter- 
 workers to get the necessary amount of salt 
 well into it, and is then packed in firkins or 
 made into molds. Science shows that chem- 
 ically, pure oleomargarine butter differs but 
 slightly from pure cream butter. By analysis 
 the constituents of cream butter are : Water 
 11.968, butter solids 88.032. Those of oleo- 
 margarine are: Water 11.203, butter solids 
 88.797. The process of making oleomarga- 
 rine was invented by M. Hippolyte Niege, a 
 French chemist, about 1872 ; but later exper- 
 iments, made by Doctor Mott of New York, 
 added to the commercial value of the original 
 process. The name is derived from two words 
 oleine and margarine. Oleine is the thin, 
 oily part of fats, and margarine is a peculiar, 
 pearl-like substance, extracted from some veg- 
 etable oils, and also from some animal fats, 
 the name being of Latin origin, from mar- 
 garita, a pearl. 
 
 Painting. An art, according to Plato, of 
 the highest antiquity in Egypt. Osymandyas 
 caused his exploits to be represented in paint- 
 ing, 2100 B. C. Pausias, of Sicyon, was the in- 
 ventor of the encaustic, a method of burning 
 the colors into woo'd or ivory, 335 B. C. The 
 ancients considered Sicyon the nursery of 
 painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said to 
 have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 
 B. C. The art was introduced at Rome from 
 Etruria, by Quintus Fabius, who on that ac- 
 count was styled Pictor. The first excellent 
 pictures were brought from Corinth by Mum- 
 rnius,140 B. C. After the death of Augustus 
 not a single painter of eminence appeared for 
 several ages ; Ludius, who was very cele- 
 brated, is supposed to have been the last, about 
 A. D. 14. Painting on canvas seems to have 
 been known at Rome in A. D. 66. Bede, the 
 Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew some- 
 thing of the art. It revived about the end of 
 the thirteenth century and to Giovanni Cima- 
 bue of Florence is awarded the honor of its 
 restoration. It was at once encouraged and 
 generously patronized in Italy. John Van- 
 Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother Hubert, are 
 regarded as the founders of the Flemish school 
 of painting in oil, 1415. Paulo Uccello was 
 the first to study perspective. The earliest 
 mention of the art in England is A. D. 1523, 
 about which time Henry the Ejghth patronized 
 Hulbein, and invited Titian to- his court. Wil- 
 kins invented a process of using oil with min- 
 eral colors for frescoes in 1853. The first 
 practicing "rtist of celebrity in the United
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 339 
 
 .States was John Watson, who commenced the use of this material to be of considerable 
 painting portraits in New Jersey, 1715. Ben- antiquity. Of the use of linen rags in Europe, 
 jamin West was the first native American the earliest proof is the celebra'ed document 
 artist ; born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, found by Ichwandner in the monastery of Goss, 
 1708. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, in Upper Styria, which purports to be a man- 
 1738, began his first important work in 1760. date of Frederick II., Emperor of the Romans, 
 Other noted American painters, belonging to and is dated 1242. It is written on paper 
 the early period, were Charles W. Peale, Gil- which has been proved to have been made of 
 bert Charles Stuart, John Trumbull, William linen. The practice of making a distinctive 
 Dunlap, and E. G. Malbone. Latterly Amer- watermark on paper was also of very early 
 ican artists have been greatly influenced by date, as manuscripts as old as the thirteenth 
 the French schools. I century bear it. There is, however, no really 
 
 Paper Hangings. The invention of satisfactory information respecting the exact 
 hangings of paper to take the place of other time or place of the introduction of paper 
 more costly hangings, has been attributed to a making into Europe. By some it is supposed 
 manufacturer of paper hangings named Breit- that Spain was the first to receive the art, and 
 kopf, of Leipsic. That kind known as velvet that thence it spread to France and Holland, 
 paper is said to have been invented by Jerome and subsequently to England ; but it is quite 
 Lanyer, an Englishman, who received a patent certain that England was a long time behind 
 for it in 1634, although the invention has also the other countries. As proof of this we find 
 been claimed for Francois, a Frenchman, who that the first patent for paper making was taken 
 is asserted to have introduced it at Rouen, in out. in 1665, by one Charles Hildeyerd, but it 
 
 1G20. 
 
 Paper, History of. It is generally con- 
 ceded that the Egyptians were the first manu- 
 
 was for "the way and art of making blew 
 paper used by sugar-bakers and others. ' ' Ten 
 years later, 1675, a patent was taken out by 
 
 factures of paper, which they made from papy- i Eustace Barneby for "the art and skill of 
 rus, a species of reed. In former times this making all sorts of white paper for the use of 
 plant grew in abundance on the banks of the i writing and printing, being a new manufacture, 
 Nile, but it is now said to have disappeared j and never practiced in any way in any of our 
 from Egypt. It was called by the Egyptians j kingdome or dominions." Paper is now made 
 "papu"; by the Greeks "papyrus"; our ; out of cotton and linen rags, waste paper, straw, 
 word paper is a later derivative. Herodotus esparto grass, wood, cane, jute, and manilla. 
 
 named it " byblus," whence came the Greek 
 " biblion " (book) and our word Bible. The 
 
 Papier-Mache has been in use for more 
 than a century in Europe, and it is thought 
 
 ancient Mexicans used a kind of paper pre- probable that it was first suggested by some of 
 pared from the maguey plant that grows on the beautiful productions of Sinde and other 
 tablelands and closely resembles the Egyp- ! parts of India, where it is employed in making 
 tian papyrus. This paper took ink and color ' boxes, trays, etc., as well as in China. Its 
 well, as is attested by specimens which have ! first application, as far as is known, was to the 
 
 been preserved. The credit of being first to 
 form from fiber the web which constitutes 
 modern paper belongs to the Chinese, and the 
 art was known to them as early as the com- 
 mencement of the Christian era. In the sev- 
 enth century the Arabians learned the art of 
 making it from cotton from the Chinese, and 
 the first manufactory was established at Sa- 
 
 manufacture of snuff boxes by a German 
 named Martin in 1740, who learned it of a 
 Frenchman named Lefevre. The cheaper arti- 
 cles of papier-mach6 are made of paper reduced 
 to a pulp with water and glue, and pressed in 
 oiled molds. Better articles are produced by 
 pasting together sheets of paper, and when a 
 proper degree of thickness is attained it is 
 
 marcand, about A. D. 706. From thence it j pressed into the shape desired. When moist, 
 
 was taken into Spain, where under the Moors 
 paper was made, it is thought, of hemp and 
 
 flax as well as cotton. Just when linen 
 
 rags 
 
 were first used in the composition of paper is 
 uncertain ; but the best evidence is offered by 
 the Arabian physician Abdollatiph, who writes, 
 in an account of his visit to Egypt in the year 
 1200, " that the cloth found in the catacombs 
 
 this substance may be made to take any form, 
 and when dry may be planed into any shape. 
 A brilliant surface can be had by polishing 
 with rotten stone and oil. Papier-mach6 is 
 much used to make architectural ornaments, 
 both for exterior and interior decorations. 
 The sheets of paper, placed in layers with glue, 
 are pressed into metal molds for some hours ; 
 
 and used to envelop mummies was made into then they are removed, and a composition of 
 garments or sold to the scribes to make paper paper pulp, mixed quite thin with resin and 
 for shopkeepers "; and as there is no doubt ! glue, is poured in, and the paper impressions 
 that these mummy cloths were linen, it proves , are again put in and subjected to powerful
 
 340 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 pressure. This causes the composition to 
 adhere to the molded articles, and gives them 
 the rough surface that is desired. Papier- 
 mache* can be made waterproof by adding to 
 the pulp sulphate of iron or some of the sili- 
 cates, and fireproof by mixing with clay and 
 borax, phosphate of soda, or any alkali. 
 
 Parchment. The ordinary writing- 
 parchment is made from the skins of the sheep 
 and she-goat ; the finer kind, known as vellum, 
 is made from those of very young calves, kids, 
 and lambs. The thick, common kinds of 
 parchment, which are used for drums, tam- 
 bourines, battledoors, etc., are made from the 
 skins of old he-goats and she-goats and in north- 
 ern Europe from wolves ; and a peculiar kind 
 which is used for tablets, is made from asses' 
 skins. Parchment, as a writing material, was 
 known at least as early as 500 B.C. Herodotus 
 speaks of books written upon skins in his time. 
 Pliny, without good grounds, places the inven- 
 tion as late as 196 B.C., stating that it was made 
 at Pergamos (hence the name Pergamena, cor- 
 rupted into English parchment). Possibly the 
 Pergamian invention was an improvement in 
 the preparation of skins, which had certainly 
 been used centuries before. The manufacture 
 rose to great importance in Rome about a cen- 
 tury before Christ, and soon became the chief 
 writing material ; and its use spread all over 
 Europe, and retained its pre-eminence until 
 the invention of paper from rags. 
 
 Pearl Fisheries. The cause of the pearl 
 is the introduction of a grain of sand or other 
 foreign substance into the shell of the pearl 
 oyster. This causes an irritation of the deli- 
 cate tissues of the oyster, which immediately- 
 deposits the pearly matter around it for pro- 
 tection. Advantage of this fact has been taken 
 to put substances within the shells of young 
 oysters to induce the formation of pearls, and 
 the Chinese by this method force a species of 
 fresh-water mussels to produce the jewel. The 
 most important pearl fisheries of the world are 
 those of Ceylon and Coromandel, in the Indian 
 Sea, whence pearls have been obtained since 
 the earliest times of history. The divers are 
 natives, trained to the pursuit, who are accus- 
 tomed to descend to the depth of six or eight 
 fathoms some forty times a day, and remain 
 under water from a minute to a minute and a 
 half. The fishing season begins in March or 
 April and lasts but one month. A single shell 
 may contain from eight to twenty pearls, vary- 
 ing in size from that of a small pea to about 
 three times that size. The coasts of Java, 
 Sumatra, Japan, and also Colombia and other 
 points on the shores of South America have 
 yielded large quantities of pearls ; but they are 
 usually smaller than the Oriental pearls. 
 
 Percussion Caps, Composition of. 
 
 The explosive which is used in the making of 
 percussion caps is a fulminate of mercury, 
 made by first dissolving 100 parts mercury in 
 1,000 parts of nitric acid or 740 parts by 
 measure. When the solution is heated to 130 
 degrees Fahrenheit it should be slowly poured 
 through a glass funnel tube into 830 parts 
 alcohol, sp. gr. .830 or 1,000 parts by 
 measure. After effervescence, filtering, wash- 
 ing, and drying, the explosive is dropped into 
 the copper cap. 
 
 Perfumery. Directions are given for 
 making the holy incense in Exodus, chapter 30, 
 1-190 B. C. The Scriptures abound with in- 
 stances "of the use of incense and perfumes. 
 Philip Augustus of France granted a charter 
 to the master perfumers in 1190. Perfumes 
 became fashionable in England in the reign of 
 Elizabeth. No such trade as a perfumer was 
 known in Scotland in 1763. A stamp tax was 
 laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- 
 land, and the vender was obliged to take out a 
 license, in 1786. In 1860 there were about 
 forty manufacturing perfumers in London ; in 
 Paris about eighty. 
 
 Petrified Bodies. Petrifaction is sim- 
 ply the substitution of the organic substance 
 by the inorganic, atom by atom. As a mole- 
 cule of wood or bone decays, a molecule of 
 stone takes its place. This can only occur 
 when the air, or earth, or water surrounding 
 the organic substance holds in solution some 
 readily precipitated mineral. In the case of a 
 woody substance, or of bone, while decomposi- 
 tion goes on there yet remains a framework 
 whose interstices are gradually filled by the 
 mineral substance ; but in the case of flesh no 
 such framework exists. The very rapid de- 
 cay of flesh also makes it impossible for the 
 very slow process of petrifaction to have any 
 effect upon it. The stories of petrified bodies 
 found in graveyards, that float periodically 
 through the press, are usually made up of 
 "whole cloth," as the saying is, though it is 
 true that bodies of both men and animals have 
 been found incrusted with silicious substance 
 so as to resemble petrifactions. These, how- 
 ever, w T hen veritable finds, are fleshless skele- 
 tons, the soft parts of the body having decayed 
 while the slow process of incrustation was go- 
 ing on. It maybe noted here that but one 
 true human bone petrifaction has ever been 
 found, and that is the " Fossil Man of Men- 
 tone," discovered in 1873-74. The majority 
 of fossils, be it remembered, are of great age, 
 antedating the existence of man on the earth. 
 In places where the silicious deposits have 
 been rapid, as in limestone caverns, human 
 bones, fossilized, have been discovered. Two
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 341 
 
 human skeletons were found in an apparent 
 state of complete petrifaction on the Island of 
 (iuadaloupe early in the present century. One 
 of these was placed in the British Museum, 
 and the other in the museum at Paris. But 
 examination showed that in these the bony 
 structure still remained, though it was com- 
 pletely incased in the calcareous deposits. In 
 excavating in the cavern of Mentone, in 
 France, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 
 some fifteen years ago, M. Riviere, a noted I 
 French scientist, found a number of human 
 bones and a complete skeleton in a true fossil ] 
 condition, which were complete evidence of 
 the existence of men upon the earth at a period 
 of very great antiquity. 
 
 Phonograph. The phonograph is aj 
 machine for recording and then transmitting ; 
 sounds, speech, music, etc. It is the invention 
 of Thomas A. Edison, the most noted electri- 
 cian of this age. The phonograph was acci- 
 dentally discovered. Mr. Edison was at work 
 on an apparatus for recording a telegraphic 
 message, by having an armature (with a needle ' 
 fastened in one end) of the sounder make in- 
 dentations on a piece of tin foil wrapped | 
 around a cylinder. The message would thus j 
 be punctured or indented on this tin foil, then, | 
 by substituting another needle blunt f or j 
 the sharp one and turning the cylinder, the 
 armature would be vibrated as the needle en- 
 tered into and passed out of the indentations. 
 While experimenting, he turned the cylinder : 
 very rapidly, and instead of a succession of 
 " clicks," a musical sound was produced. He 
 seized the idea, and the Edison phonograph is 
 the result. 
 
 The perfected phonograph of to-day consists 
 of a cylinder of wax, or other plastic material, 
 which is revolved either by hand, foot power, 
 or an electric motor. This cylinder, called the 
 phonogram, is used for recording the sound. 
 This is done by a diaphragm such as is used 
 in a telephone into the center of which is 
 fastened a sharp needle, which rests upon and 
 just touches the phonogram. When the words 
 are spoken the diaphragm vibrates, moving 
 this needle up and down, and a series of in- 
 dentations are made in a spiral line on the 
 phonogram, which is turning around about 
 eighty-five times a minute. To make the 
 phonograph speak, or repeat the words, an- 
 other diaphragm, similar to the first or re- 
 corder, but having a blunt instead of a sharp 
 needle, is placed at the starting point and the 
 phonogram made to revolve ; of course, as the 
 needle passes over the indentations it vibrates 
 the diaphragm and the words are reproduced, 
 as in a telephone. 
 
 The phonograph faithfully reproduces mu- 
 
 sic, whistling, singing, speech, or any sounds, 
 and the phonograms can be packed into a 
 mailing tube and sent all over the world to be 
 used as often as desired. 
 
 Phosphorescence is the property which 
 some bodies possess of being luminous in the 
 dark without the emission of sensible heat. 
 There are five kinds distinguished by physicists, 
 and designated as follows : Spontaneous phos- 
 phorescence ; phosphorescence from the effects 
 of heat ; from mechanical action ; from the 
 action of electricity ; by insolation or exposure 
 to the light of the sun. The first is by far 
 the most common and familiar phenomenon, 
 being exhibited by certain living organisms 
 both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. 
 There are flowers of a bright red or yellow 
 color which have been observed to emit light 
 flashes in the dark, and other plants which 
 give out a faint, continuous light, caused prob- 
 ably by the oxidation of some hydro-carbon 
 which they secrete. The best known exam- 
 ples, however, are those seen in animals, as 
 the glow-worm or firefly, and the myriads of 
 minute animalcula which cause the magnifi- 
 cent displays of phosphorescence that are often 
 seen at sea by night, especially in the tropics, 
 and in temperate zones during the summer. 
 Various causes have been assigned for this ani- 
 mal phosphorescence, and they doubtless vary 
 with different animals. In the glow-worm and 
 firefly it is thought to be produced by an act of 
 the will. M. Jousset discovered the liquid 
 which exudes from the crushed eggs of the 
 glow-worm to be phosphorescent, and to re- 
 main so until dried up. In the marine ani- 
 malcula, it is believed that a subtle luminous 
 matter is thrown off as a secretion supplied by 
 glands having this special function ; and some 
 naturalists assert that it contains epithelial 
 cells in a state of fatty degeneration, the de- 
 composing fat being the cause of the phosphor- 
 escence. That phosphorescence seen in de- 
 caying fish and other animal matter, and in 
 wood (called "fox-fire"), is due to a species 
 of slow combustion by which vibrations are 
 excited capable of emitting luminous rays. The 
 other kinds of phosphorescence are, for the 
 most part, seen only in scientific experiments, 
 except the last, which is now receiving some 
 application in articles of everyday use, as 
 match boxes, clock-faces, etc. ; they are covered 
 with a preparation possessing this property, 
 and remain luminous, and therefore easily vis- 
 ible in the dark. Certain compounds have 
 been discovered which exhibit the property in 
 a high degree, as Canton's phosphorus, Bo- 
 lognese phosphorus, etc. It is probably due 
 to the absorption of the energy of the vibra- 
 tions falling upon them, which is afterward
 
 342 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 radiated from them again . It is probable that 
 all bodies possess the quality in a greater or 
 less degree ; but with the great majority the 
 duration of the phenomenon is very short 
 rarely more than a small fraction of a second. 
 The phenomenon has no connection with or- 
 dinary phosphorus, but the name is thence 
 derived from the similar light emitted by phos- 
 phorus in the dark, which is due to the slow 
 combustion of this element, which oxidizes at 
 a very low temperature. 
 
 Photography. The action of light on 
 chloride of silver was known as early as the 
 sixteenth century. The phenomenon was 
 studied by Scheele (1777), Senebier (1790;, Hit- 
 ter and Wollaston (1801). From the results 
 of these investigations, experiments were 
 made by Thomas Wedgwood and Humphry 
 Davy, which were published, 1802. Wedg- 
 wood may be regarded as the first photog- 
 rapher. His paper was entitled " An Account 
 of a method of copying paintings upon glass, 
 and of making profiles by the agency of light 
 upon nitrate of silver." Further discoveries 
 were made by Niepce in 1814, and by Sir J. 
 Ilerschel in 1819. Daquewe commenced his 
 experiments in 1824 ; and in 1826 joined 
 Niepce, and worked with him till the death of 
 the latter in 1833. In 1839, Henry Fox Tal- 
 bot first published his mode of multiplying 
 photographic impressions, by producing a nega- 
 tive photograph (i. e., with the lights and 
 shades reversed), from which any number of 
 positive copies may be obtained. His patent 
 is dated February, 1841. From this time im- 
 provements have been made with great rapid- 
 dity. 
 
 Celestial photography began with Professor 
 Bond, the astronomer, of Cambridge, Mass., 
 in 1851. It was greatly improved by Dr. 
 Draper in 1859 to 1881, and by others more 
 recently. 
 
 Photogravure. The earliest attempt at 
 photographic engraving dates back to 1827, 
 which was six years previous to the introduc- 
 tion of the daguerreotype process, and was the 
 invention of M. Nicephore Niepce of Paris, 
 who first discovered that thin plates of bitu- 
 men were curiously affected by light. He 
 therefore coated metal plates with a thin layer 
 of bitumen of the kind called Jew's pitch, 
 and placed them in a camera ol/scura, so 
 arranged that he could insure their exposure to 
 the same image for several hours. The plate 
 was then submitted to the action of oil of spike, 
 which readily dissolved those portions not acted 
 upon by the light, but exerted little action 
 upon the remainder. The metal exposed by 
 the solution of the bitumen was then acted 
 upon by acid, which produced a complete 
 
 etching plate, the picture part being protected 
 by its bituminous varnish from the action of 
 the acid. The art, which can now be per- 
 formed by several different methods, is also 
 known by the names of photo-zincography and 
 process-engraving. In ordinary zincography 
 the picture is laid, by the help of transfer 
 paper, on a zinc plate ; the parts to be pro- 
 tected are then covered with a varnish that 
 will resist acid, and the whole is then dipped 
 in a bath of dilute nitrous acid. This is re- 
 peated until the bitiny-in is sufficient, when the 
 plate is dried and the ink taken off with ben- 
 zine. In another process brass plates are 
 used, which are covered with white wax, the 
 design being drawn with an etching point 
 upon the wax. The plate is then submitted to 
 a powerful acid, which acts upon the parts of 
 the metal exposed by the lines, but does not 
 affect the wax. In photo-zincography the 
 drawing is photographed to the right size, and 
 an ordinary negative on glass is taken. This 
 is then laid on a sensitized zinc plate, on 
 which the picture is printed by the action of 
 light. The zinc is coated with bitumen, and 
 after the picture is printed, so much of the 
 bitumen as has not become insoluble by the 
 action of light is removed by a wash of tur- 
 pentine. In another process the photo- 
 graphic etching process the negative is 
 printed on a sensitized carbon paper, which is 
 then laid on a polished zinc plate, and, being 
 wet, all the carbon paper that does not hold 
 the lines of the drawing is readily removed. 
 The plate is then bitten-in in an acid bath. In 
 what is called the Ives process a negative is 
 applied to a gelatine plate, sensitized with 
 bichromate of potash. This plate is then put 
 into water, and all the parts not touched by 
 the negative will swell. A cast is then taken 
 of this in plaster of paris, which serves to form 
 a base for electrotypes. The lines of engrav- 
 ing can also be reproduced by photography, 
 and a late process produces successfully intaglio 
 plates. Photo-engraving has enormously cheap- 
 ened the reproduction of pictures, but it does 
 not give plates that print with the clearness 
 and distinctness of those taken from wood 
 engravings. 
 
 Physics has been described as a science of 
 unbounded extent, and as reaching from an 
 atom to God himself. It is made to embrace 
 the entire doctrine of the bodies and existences 
 of the Universe : their phenomena, causes, and 
 effects. Lockvvood would include God, angels, 
 and spirits under this term. The origin of phys- 
 ics is referred to the Brahmans, magi, and 
 Hebrew and Egyptian priests. From these it 
 was passed to the Greek sages, particularly 
 Thales, who first professed the study of nature
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 343 
 
 in Greece, about 595 B. C. Pythagoras en- 
 deavored to explain the philosophy of disease 
 and the action of medicine, about 529 B. C. 
 From him, together with Plato and the Peri- 
 patetic Schools, it descended into Italy and 
 the rest of Europe. 
 
 Pianoforte. Invented by Schroter of 
 Dresden, in 1717 ; he presented a model of 
 his invention to the court of Saxony. Some 
 time after, Silberman, a musical-instrument 
 maker; began to manufacture pianofortes with 
 considerable success. The invention has also 
 been ascribed to Cristofalli, an Italian instru- 
 ment maker of Florence, and Marius, a 
 Frenchman, early in the eighteenth century. 
 The square pianoforte was first made by Fried- 
 erici, an organ builder of Saxony, about 1759. 
 Pianofortes were made in London by M. 
 Zumpie, a German, 1766, and have been since 
 greatly improved by Clementi, Broadwood, 
 Collard, Kirkman, Erard, Pleyel, Chickering, 
 Steinway, and others. Upright pianos, first 
 made in the United States, were suggested by 
 Isaac Hawkins, in 1800, and Thomas Loud, 
 in 1802. 
 
 Pins are first mentioned in the statutes of 
 England, A. D. 1483. Brass pins were 
 brought from France in 1540, and were first 
 used in England it is said by Catherine How- 
 ard, queen of Henry VIII. Before the in- 
 vention of pins both sexes used ribbons, loop 
 holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks 
 and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver, and gold. 
 Pins were made in England in 1543. They 
 were first manufactured by machinery in 1824, 
 under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wright of 
 the United States. 
 
 P laying-Cards. The invention of play- 
 ing-cards has been variously attributed to In- 
 dia, China, Arabia, and Egypt, There seems 
 to be but little doubt that they originated in 
 Asia, and were introduced into Europe by the 
 Saracens about the close of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. There is historical mention of the game 
 of cards in Germany in 1275, in Italy in 1299, 
 but not in France until 1393. An active trade 
 in cards sprung up in Germany as early as the 
 fifteenth century, where they were manufac- 
 tured for other portions of Europe. One hun- 
 dred years later we find the manufacture of 
 cards a flourishing business in England, and 
 under Edward IV. their importation was for- 
 bidden, thus protecting the home industry. 
 Owing to their supposed immoral influences 
 they were at times prohibited by various Eu- 
 ropean governments. The marks upon the 
 suits of cards are believed to have been chosen 
 to represent symbolically the different classes 
 of society. Thus, the hearts stood for the 
 clergy, clubs for the soldiery, spades for the 
 
 serfs, and diamonds for the merchants. In 
 the early French cards the kings were pictures 
 of David, Alexander, Caesar, and Charlemagne, 
 representing the monarchies of the Jews. 
 Greeks, Romans, and French ; the queens were 
 Argine, Esther, Judith, and Pallas. The num- 
 ber of the cards, the ace, and the knave, were 
 probably based on similar ideas. The suits 
 of the earliest German cards were designated 
 by hearts, bells, leaves, and acorns. Italian 
 cards had swords, batons, cups, and money. 
 The court cards at first were the king, cheva- 
 lier, and knave. The queen was first substi- 
 tuted for the chevalier by the Italians. The 
 English cards in the seventeenth century were 
 embellished with heraldic designs, the king of 
 clubs bearing the coat-of-arms of the Pope of 
 Rome, and those of hearts, diamonds, and 
 spades being adorned respectively with the ar- 
 morial device of the kings of England, Spain, 
 and France. The club of modern cards de- 
 rived its form from the trefoil, a French 
 design. A pack of Hindustani cards in the 
 possession of the Royal Asiatic Society of 
 England is supposed to be fully 1,000 years 
 old. It consists of eight suits of divers colors. 
 The kings are mounted on elephants ; the 
 viziers, or second honors, upon horses, tigers, 
 and bulls ; and some of the common cards have 
 such curious marks as a pineapple in a shallow 
 cup, and a something like a parasol without a 
 handle, and with two broken ribs sticking 
 through the top. 
 
 Post Offices, Origin of. The name 
 post office originated in the posts placed at in- 
 tervals along the roads of the Roman Empire, 
 where carriers were kept in readiness to bear 
 dispatches and intelligence ; but the posts of 
 ancient times were never used for the convey- 
 ance of private correspondence. The first 
 letter post seems to have been established in 
 the Hanse towns in the early part of the 
 thirteenth century. A line of letter posts 
 followed, connecting Austria with Lombardy, 
 in the reign of the Emperor Maximilian, 
 which are said to have been organized by the 
 princes of Thurn and Taxis ; and the repre- 
 sentatives of the same house established another 
 line of posts from Vienna to Brussels, con- 
 necting the most distant parts of the domin- 
 ions of Charles V. In England, in early times, 
 both public and private letters were sent by 
 messengers, who, in the reign of Henry III. 
 wore the royal livery. They had to supply 
 themselves with horses until the reign of Ed- 
 ward I., when posts were established where 
 horses were to be had for hire. Camden men- 
 tions the office of " Master of the Postes " as ex- 
 isting in 1581, but the duties of that officer 
 were probably connected exclusively with the
 
 344 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 supply of post horses. A foreign post for 
 the conveyance of letters between London and 
 the Continent seems to have been established 
 by foreign merchants in the fifteenth century ; 
 and certain disputes which arose between the 
 Flemings and Italians regarding the right of 
 appointing a postmaster, which were referred 
 to the privy council, led to the institution of a 
 "Chief Postmaster of England, "who should 
 have charge both of the English and the foreign 
 posts. Thomas Randolph was the first Chief 
 Postmaster of England, appointed in 1581. 
 In 1635 a mail was established to run weekly 
 between London and Edinburgh, and soon 
 eight other lines were instituted. Far back in 
 the twelfth century the University of Paris, 
 whose students gathered from all the civilized 
 nations, employed foot runners to carry letters 
 for its members to all parts of Europe. But 
 not until 1524 was permission granted to the 
 Royal French posts to carry other letters than 
 those for the Government and the nobility. 
 In the United States, Massachusetts was the 
 first colony to provide by legislation for a 
 postal system. This was done in 1639, and 
 Virginia followed in 1657. In 1762 a monthly 
 post was instituted between Boston and New 
 York. In the beginning, letters arriving in 
 this country from beyond the seas were de- 
 livered on board the ship. Letters not called 
 for were left by the captain at a coffee house 
 near the wharf, where they were spread on a 
 table or shelf, awaiting call. These coffee 
 houses gradually grew into common use for 
 letters between cities and the interior, until reg- j 
 nlar posts were instituted. The establish- 
 ment of a general post office department was ! 
 one of the first acts of the Continental Con- | 
 gress, and Benjamin Franklin was appointed 
 as the first Portmaster-General. 
 
 Postage Stamps, First. Postage 
 stamps, in the form of stamped envelopes, 
 were first used by M. de Velayer, who owned 
 a private'post in the city of Paris in the reign 
 of Louis XIV. Over a century later, in 1758, 
 M. de Chamouset, also the proprietor of a post, 
 issued printed postage slips to be attached to | 
 letters. In Spain, in 1716, and in Italy also, 
 stamped covers for mail matter were tried ; 
 but it was not until 1840 that stamps, as we 
 know them now, were put in use. This was 
 in England, the Government adopting the sys- 
 tem devised by Rowland Hill. Brazil was the j 
 first country to take up the new invention. 
 Russia adopted the postage stamp next, in 
 1845; then Switzerland, in 1846 ; and March 
 3, 1847, the Congress of the United States 
 authorized the issue of postage stamps. These 
 were at first a five-cent stamp and a ten-cent 
 stamp. The reduction of rates in 1851 gave a 
 
 ; new set of stamps, valued at one, three, and 
 twelve cents respectively. Other stamps of 
 different values were added from time to time 
 to meet the exigencies of postal arrangements, 
 reduction of postage to foreign countries, etc. 
 Before 1845, the postal rate on letters in the 
 United States varied from six cents for carry- 
 ing a distance of thirty miles to twenty-five 
 cents for over four hundred miles. By the 
 reduction of that year the postage was made 
 five cents for three hundred miles or less, and 
 ten cents for any distance above that. In 1851 
 the rate was fixed at three cents for every half 
 ounce for three thousand miles, and six cents 
 for any greater distance within the United 
 States. In 1883 the postage was reduced to 
 two cents for half an ounce for letters sent less 
 than three thousand miles, and in 1885 to two 
 cents an ounce. 
 
 Potatoes. The potato was used as a food 
 in America long before the advent of Europe- 
 ans, and was probably indigenous from Chili 
 to Mexico. It was taken from Peru to Spain, 
 and thence into the Netherlands, Burgundy, 
 and other parts of Europe early in the six- 
 teenth century. In 1563 or 1565 it was car- 
 ried from Virginia to Ireland by Sir John 
 Hawkins, and Sir Francis Drake introduced it 
 into England in 1585. Its importance as a 
 vegetable was not recognized, however, until 
 the time of Sir Walter Raleigh, who cultivated 
 it on a considerable scale on his estates in the 
 County of Cork, Ireland. Through the exer- 
 tions of Raleigh it was developed in quality 
 and popularized as food to such an extent in 
 Ireland that its cultivation spread into Eng- 
 land, where it became known as the "Irish 
 potato." The potato mentioned by early Eng- 
 lish writers before the seventeenth century was 
 the same as the Spanish batatas, or sweet 
 potato. 
 
 Printing Crockery. Common crockeiy, 
 when it is in the state called biscuit ware 
 that is, when it has been whitened by baking 
 but has not been glazed is figured upon or 
 decorated by applying to its surface a design 
 freshly printed upon paper. The ware absorbs 
 the enamel ink, and the paper is removed by 
 water. It is then fired in seggars, or a muffle, 
 to fix the color, dipped in glaze, and then 
 again fired, which converts the glaze into a 
 perfectly transparent glassy covering all over 
 the surface of the pottery. Porcelain decora- 
 tion has long held a righ rank as a fine art ; 
 and the exquisite skill shown in some of the 
 finest works of the continental manufacturers, 
 and also in those of Great Britain, has fairly 
 entitled it to that rank. The colors employed 
 are all colored glasses ground to impalpable 
 powder, and mixed with borax, or some other
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 345 
 
 fluxing material ; for use they are generally 
 made liquid with oil of spike, and they are 
 laid on with hair pencils in the same way as 
 oil colors. The whole process is exactly the 
 same as in painting or staining glass, tb/j i glaze 
 on the biscuit porcelain being true glass, and 
 the enamel colors being exactly the same as 
 those used by the glass decorator. Peculiar 
 and beautiful metallic lusters are produced 
 upon pottery by precipitated platinum and 
 other metals. The manufacture of pottery is 
 carried on with great activity at Trenton, 
 N. -T.. Philadelphia, Liverpool v l~ Ohio), and 
 other places in the United States. 
 
 Printing in America. Printing was 
 introduced into America at Mexico by the 
 Viceroy Mendoza in 1536. The first book 
 printed was the Escala espiritual de San Juan 
 Climaco, of which no copy is known to exist ; 
 but the oldest American book now extant is 
 the Manual de Adultos, dated 1540, of which 
 only the last four leaves are to be found in the 
 library of the Cathedral of Toledo. The name 
 of the earliest printer is a matter of question. 
 
 Cambridge, Massachusetts, is entitled to the 
 distinction of having the first printing press in 
 North America, which was under the charge 
 of Stephen Daye. For this press the colony 
 was mainly indebted to the Rev. Jesse Glover, 
 a nonconformist minister possessed of a con- 
 siderable estate, who had left England to set- 
 tle among his friends in Massachusetts. Some 
 gentlemen of Amsterdam also ' ' gave towards 
 furnishing of a printing press with letters, 
 forty-nine pounds and something more. ' ' This 
 was about 1638. The first book issued was the 
 Bay Psalm Rook, in 1640. 
 
 The first book issued in the Middle Colonies 
 was an almanac, printed by William Brad- 
 ford in 1685, near Philadelphia. Bradford 
 was brought out from England in 1684 by 
 William Penn. As the government of Penn- 
 sylvania became very restrictive in regard to 
 the press, Bradford in 1693 removed to New 
 York, and was appointed printer to that colony, 
 where he established, in 1725, the Xew York 
 Gazette, the first newspaper published there. 
 He died May 23, 1752, after an active and 
 useful life of eighty-nine j - ears. 
 
 The first newspaper in America was the 
 B< >*i on Xors Letter, which was first issued by 
 John Campbell on Monday. April 24, 1704 ; 
 it was regularly published for nearly seventy- 
 two years. The second was the Boston Gazette, 
 begun December 21, 1719. The third was the 
 American Weekly Mercury, issued in Philadel- 
 phia, by Andrew Bradford, on December 22. 
 1719. James Franklin, an elder brother of 
 Benjamin, established the Xew England Con- 
 rant, August 17, 1721. 
 
 The oldest living paper of the United States 
 ; is the Neic Hampshire Gazette, published at 
 : Portsmouth, now (Oct. 7, 1899) one hundred 
 and forty-three years old. 
 
 The North American and United States Ga- 
 zette leads the existing daily press of this coun- 
 try in point of antiquity. It is the successor 
 of the Pennsylvania Packet (begun in 1771 and 
 becoming a daily paper in 1784), and is still 
 the chief commercial journal of Philadelphia. 
 The first paper mill in America was estab- 
 lished near Germantown, Pa., in 1690, by 
 William Rittenhouse. 
 
 Ptolemaic System, The Ptolemy of 
 Alexandria (A. D. 130-150) was the founder 
 of a theory called the Ptolemaic system , based 
 largely upon the materials gathered by previ- 
 ous astronomers, such as Hipparchus, already 
 mentioned, and Eratosthenes, who computed 
 the size of the earth by means even now con- 
 sidered the best the measurement of an arc 
 of the meridian. The advocates of the Ptole- 
 maic theory assumed that every planet revolves 
 j in a circle, and that the earth is the fixed cen- 
 ter around which the sun and the heavenly 
 bodies _move. They conceived that a bar, or 
 i something equivalent, is connected at one end 
 I with the earth ; that at some part of this bar 
 the sun is attached ; while between that and 
 the earth, Venus is fastened, not to the bar di- 
 rectly, but to a sort of crank ; and farther on, 
 Mercury is hitched on in the same way. They 
 did not fully understand the nature of these 
 bars whether they were real or only imag- 
 inary but they did comprehend their action, 
 as they thought ; and so they supposed the bar 
 revolved, carrying the sun and planets along in 
 a large circle about the earth ; while all the 
 short cranks kept flying around, thus sweep- 
 ing each planet through a smaller circle. 
 
 The movements of the planets were to the 
 ancients extremely complex. Venus, for in- 
 stance, was sometimes seen as " evening star " 
 \ in the west; and then again as "morning 
 star " in the east. Sometimes she seemed to 
 be moving in the same direction as the sun, 
 then, going apparently behind the sun, she 
 appeared to pass on again in a course directly 
 i opposite. At one time she would recede from 
 the sun more and more slowly and coyly, un- 
 til she would appear to be entirely stationary; 
 then she would retrace her steps, and seem to 
 meet the sun. All these facts were attempted 
 to be accounted for by an incongruous system 
 , of "cycles and epicycles." 
 
 The system of Ptolemy passed current for 
 1400 years, and during this time astrology was 
 ranked as one of the most important branches 
 of knowledge. Star diviners were held in the 
 greatest estimation, and the issue of any im-
 
 346 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 portant undertaking, or the fortune of an 
 individual, was foretold by means of horo- 
 scopes representing the position of the stars 
 and planets. The system of the astrologers 
 was very complicated, and contained regular 
 rules to guide the interpretation, so intricate 
 that years of study were required for their 
 mastery. Venus foretold love ; Mars, war ; 
 the Pleiades, storms at sea. Not only the 
 ignorant were the dupes of this system, Lord 
 Bacon believing in it most firmly. 
 
 Pulley. The pulley, together with the 
 vise, and other mechanical instruments, is 
 said to have been invented by Archytas of 
 Tarentum, a disciple of Pythagoras, about 516 
 B. C. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and 
 mechanic, is said to have invented the pump, 
 with other hydraulic instruments, about 224 
 B. C., although the invention was ascribed to 
 Danaus, 1485 B. C. They were in general 
 use in England, A. D. 1425. The air pump 
 was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and 
 was improved by Boyle in 1657. 
 
 Rainbow. A rainbow can only be seen 
 when the spectator stands between it and the 
 sun ; its center must always be directly oppo- 
 site the sun, moving with the sun's motion, 
 falling if the sun is rising, and rising if the 
 sun is declining. A rainbow occurs when the 
 sun or moon, not too far above the horizon, 
 throws its beams upon a sheet of falling rain- 
 drops on the opposite side of the heavens. 
 Thus, a ray of light from the sun strikes a 
 rain-drop obliquely ; part of it is reflected at the 
 surface of the drop ; the rest, passing into 
 the drop, is refracted ; on the other side of 
 the drop part of the ray passes through, and the 
 rest is again reflected ; on passing from the 
 drop :>n the same side that it entered, a second 
 refraction occurs. These successive reflections 
 and refractions separate the ray of white light 
 into its component colored rays, and as the 
 angles of incidence and emergence vary for 
 each color, the eye of a spectator perceives 
 them as distinct bands. Now, every drop in 
 the sheet of falling water which has equal 
 obliquity to the spectator's eye will send to it 
 rays of the same color. But the only drops 
 which can fulfill these conditions of like obliq- 
 uity of reflected rays are those which define the 
 base of a cone whose apex is the eye, and the 
 center of whose base is in a right line passing 
 through the sun and the eye of the spectator. 
 At or near sunset, when the sun and the 
 observer are in the same horizontal plane, the 
 bow will be seen to form a complete semicircle ; 
 when the sun is higher in the sky, a smaller 
 arch is seen ; the entire circle could only be 
 visible to a spectator on the top of a very high 
 and narrow mountain peak, which would ele- 
 
 vate his plane much above that of the sun's 
 rays without cutting off their light. A com- 
 plete circle may also be sometimes seen in the 
 rainbow formed by the sunlight on the spray 
 arising from cataracts. The lunar rainbow, 
 which fl^a comparatively rare but very beauti- 
 ful phenomenon, differs from the solar simply 
 in the source and intensity of the light by 
 which it is produced ; and, as in all cases of 
 feeble light, the distinction of the colors is 
 very difficult. In fact, except under the most 
 favorable circumstances, the lunar rainbows 
 rarely show colors at all, giving a pale, ghostly 
 gleam of apparently white or yellow light. 
 
 Reaper, First in the United States. 
 In 1803 a reaping machine was patented by 
 Richard French and John J. Hawkins, but it 
 did not prove successful. Prior to 1832 there 
 were granted eight patents for machines for 
 cutting grain. No inventor, however, suc- 
 ceeded in producing machines that possessed 
 sufficient practical merit to be used otherwise 
 than experimentally until we come to Bell, 
 Hussey, and McCormick, whose machines have 
 since become so Avell known. At the meeting of 
 the British Association at Dundee, September, 
 1867, the Reverend Patrick Bell stated that he 
 invented his reaping machine in 1826. Mc- 
 Cormick 's American machine was patented in 
 1834, and, with improvements added in 1845 
 and 1847, received a medal at the World's 
 Fair in London, 1851. In 1833, Obed Hussey, 
 then of Cincinnati. Ohio, patented a machine 
 to which he applied saw-toothed cutters and 
 guards. This machine was at once put into 
 practical operation, and gave general satisfac- 
 tion. Hussey, in 1847, patented the open- 
 topped slotted finger. The practical use of 
 self-rakers, in this country, dates from the in- 
 vention of W. II. Seymour of New York, in 
 1851. He arranged a quadrant-shaped plat- 
 form directly behind the cutters, a reel to 
 gather the grain, and a ral^e moving over the 
 platform in the arc of a circle depositing the 
 sheaves on the ground. In 1856, Owen JJorsey 
 of Maryland combined the reel and rake, and 
 his improvement has been extensively used 
 here and abroad, with some modifications, one 
 of which was by Johnston in 1865, who ar- 
 ranged it so that the size of the sheaves, or 
 gavels, as they are called, could be regulated 
 at the will of the driver. The names of 
 Haines, Ketchum, Manny, and Wood are prom- 
 inent among inventors of improvements in 
 mowers and harvesters. 
 
 Saddles. Pliny informs us that one Pele- 
 thronus was the first to introduce a piece of 
 leather fastened to. the back of a horse for the 
 accommodation of its rider. For a long time 
 these cloths and pieces of leather were regarded
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 347 
 
 as unmanly, and were consequently treated by 
 soldiers with great scorn. The old German 
 races despised the Roman cavalry for riding 
 on such effeminate contrivances. Saddles of 
 the kind now used appear to have been iii use 
 in 385. Side-saddles were first used in 1380. 
 Previous to their introduction women always 
 rode astride. 
 
 Salt, Sources of. At one time nearly 
 the whole of the salt used as food and for in- 
 dustrial purposes was obtained from sea-water, 
 and in many countries where the climate is 
 dry and warm and there is a convenient sea- 
 board, large quantities are still so obtained. 
 In Portugal more than 250,000 tons are an- 
 nually produced, and about the same quan- 
 tity is obtained on the Atlantic and Mediter- 
 ranean coasts of France. Spain has salt-works 
 in the Balearic Islands, the Bay of Cadiz, and 
 elsewhere, which turn out annually 300,000 
 tons ; and even the small Adriatic seaboard 
 of Austria produces every year from 70,000 to 
 100,000 tons. The peninsula and islands of 
 Italy yield about 165,000 tons, and there are 
 still a few establishments in England and Scot- 
 land ; but in these latter countries the indus- 
 try has been almost entirely driven out by the 
 rock-salt works. The salt obtained from this 
 source is called " sea " or " bay " salt. The 
 works are generally called salt gardens salina 
 (Spanish) salz garten, in Austria. They 
 consist of a series of large, shallow evaporat- 
 ing reservoirs. The sea water is admitted, and 
 flows slowly from one to another, all the while 
 evaporating under the heat of the sun, until 
 finally the dry salt remains in crystalline crusts 
 on the salting-tables in the final basins. These 
 reservoirs vary from ten to sixteen inches in 
 depth, the sediment and many of the impuri- | 
 ties being deposited in the earlier and deeper 
 basins in the first stages of evaporation. Be- 
 tween the temperatures of 25 and 26 degrees 
 (Baume') pure salt is deposited, equal to about 
 twenty-five per cent, of the whole. This is I 
 kept pure by conducting the brine to separate 
 salting-tables at this temperature, and, after it 
 reaches 26 degrees, carrying it on to other 
 basins, where a second quality, equal to about 
 sixty per cent, of the whole, is formed. After 
 the brine reaches 28.5 degrees it is led into I 
 still other basins, where the remainder of the 
 salt is deposited. The salt is raked up and j 
 sold just as it is formed, with the slight puri- 
 fication resulting from a few months' exposure 
 to the weather, which is customary. The 
 evaporating surface of these shallow basins 
 covers, in many establishmeTits, hundreds of 
 acres. Those at Berre, on the Mediterranean, 
 have an area of 815 acres. Sea-salt has been 
 obtained in this way in many of the seaboard 
 
 States of the United States, but not to any ex- 
 tent. The other great source of common salt 
 is the vast mineral deposits. Salt also occurs 
 as a mineral in an almost pure state, and asso- 
 ciated with the rocks of almost every geologic 
 period. Many of the deposits are of vast ex- 
 tent, and are another great commercial source 
 of this substance. This mineral deposit is 
 called rock-salt, and is evidently the insult of 
 the evaporation of great shallow bodies of salt- 
 water in remote ages, as is proved by its gen- 
 erally stratified nature, with beds of clay in- 
 tervening, and the occurrence of marine shells 
 and fossils in the surrounding rock formation. 
 j Large mines are worked in England and all 
 , the European countries, and in many places 
 j throughout the world. The most famous of 
 all is the mine at Williczka, nine miles from 
 Cracow, in Galicia, which has been worked 
 continuously for upward of six hundred years. 
 It is stopped-out in longitudinal and trans- 
 verse galleries, with frequent large vaulted 
 chambers supported by massive pillars. These 
 extend on four different levels, and have a to- 
 tal length of 30 miles, the mine being 1 mile 
 1,279 yards long by 830 yards wide and 284 
 yards deep. The lower levels contain streets 
 and houses, constituting a complete village ; 
 and many of the miners, of whom there are 
 800 to 1,000, rarely come above ground. The 
 salt is sold just as it is dug out of the mine, 
 and 55,067 tons are annually extracted. The 
 total extent of this deposit is 500 by 200 miles, 
 with an average depth of 1,200 feet. Salt is 
 also obtained in many localities from mineral 
 deposits by means of salt-wells. In some cases 
 the water occurs naturally in the salt strata, 
 and the saturated brine is reached by deep 
 borings (sometimes 1.500 feet) ; in other cases 
 water is introduced into the borings and then 
 pumped out again, two concentric tubes being 
 employed. After the brine is secured it is 
 evaporated by artificial heat in large iron vats. 
 The salt- wells in Onondaga County, New York, 
 near Syracuse and Salina, are a large and im- 
 portant industry. Michigan has the largest 
 output next to New York, and many other 
 States produce it to some extent ; but the 
 home supply is not equal to the demand, and 
 there is a large annual importation into the 
 United States. 
 
 Saw. Invented by Daedalus. Talus, it is 
 said, having found the jaw bone of a snake, 
 employed it to cut through a piece of wood, 
 and then formed an instrument of iron like it. 
 Sawmills were erected in Madeira in 1420 ; 
 at Breslan in 1427. Norway had the first 
 sawmill in 1530. The attempts to introduce 
 sawmills in England were violently opposed, 
 and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was
 
 348 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 forced to be abandoned. Sawmills were erected 
 near London about 1770, and thenceforward 
 became general. 
 
 Screw Propeller, The. In 1802 Dr. 
 Shorter, an English mechanician, produced 
 motion by the agency of a screw ; but his dis- 
 covery was of no value at the time, as the 
 steam engine had not then been applied to 
 navigation. In 1832, Mr. B. Woodcroft pat- 
 ented a screw propeller with an increasing 
 pitch ; and four years later Mr. F. P. Smith 
 patented a screw 'making two whole turns, 
 which he reduced in 1839 to one whole turn. 
 In 1837 he and Captain Ericsson brought the 
 matter practically forward on the Thames, 
 where a small screw steamer, forty-five feet 
 long, eight feet broad, and of twenty-seven 
 inches draught, towed a vessel of six hundred 
 and thirty tons against the tide at four and 
 one half knots an hour. This experiment was 
 followed by a number of others, some un- 
 dertaken under the direction of the British 
 Admiralty, which clearly established the 
 practicability of the screw, and its advantages 
 for ships of war became incontestable. From 
 the entire submergence of the propeller, and 
 the consequent lowness of its engines in the 
 ship, the chances of injury from an enemy's 
 shot were reduced almost to nothing. The 
 screw propeller is of the same construction as 
 the common screw, but with the narrow thread 
 exaggerated into a broad, thin plate, and the 
 cylinder diminished to a mere spindle. If a 
 screw of this form were turned round in an 
 unyielding substance, as wood, it would for 
 each turn advance as much as the center of 
 the blade (or thread) had moved along the 
 spindle in forming the screw, i. e., the dis- 
 tance. If, on the other hand, the screw itself 
 were prevented from moving longitudinally, 
 and the piece of wood not fixed, the latter 
 would be compelled to advance along the 
 screw the same distance. When the screw is 
 fixed beneath a ship and made to v revolve in 
 the water, the case lies between the two just 
 supposed the screw moves forward, and with 
 it the ship, and the water in which it has been 
 working movfts backward. The backward 
 motion should only be small proportionately, 
 and the ratio between it and the sum of the 
 backward motion of the water and the forward 
 motion of the ship is called the slip. Screws 
 have been formed with two, three, four, and 
 six blades, or arms ; but the form most com- 
 monly used ie two blades for ships of war, and 
 three or four blades in the merchant service. 
 
 Ship Building. This art is attributed 
 to the Egyptians, as the first inventors ; the 
 first ship (probably galley) being brought from 
 Egypt to Greece by Danaus, in 1485 B. C. 
 
 The first double-decked ship was built by the 
 Tyrians, 786 B. C. The first double-decked 
 one built in England was by order of Henry 
 VII., 1509. It was called the Great Harry 
 and cost 14,000 pounds. Portholes and other 
 improvements were-^ivented by Descharges, a 
 French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis 
 XII., about 1500. Ship building was first 
 treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. Iron is 
 now greatly used in ship building. For beau- 
 tiful models and fast sailing, the shipping of 
 the United States (especially the packet ships 
 and steamers sailing from New York) is not 
 surpassed, and probably not equaled, by that 
 of any other nation in the world. 
 
 Signals, Wind and Weather. A red 
 flag with a black center indicates that a storm 
 of marked violence is expected. A yellow flag 
 with a white center indicates that the winds 
 expected will not be of extreme severity. A 
 red pennant indicates easterly winds that is, 
 from northeast to south, inclusive, and that, 
 generally, the storm center is approaching. If 
 shown above the red flag, winds from the 
 northeast are more probable ; if below, winds 
 from the southeast may be expected. A white 
 pennant indicates westerly winds that is, 
 from north to southwest, inclusive, and that, 
 generally, the storm center has passed. If 
 shown above the red flag, winds from north- 
 west will probably prevail ; if below, winds 
 from southwest. A white flag indicates fair 
 weather. A blue flag indicates rain or snow. 
 A black triangular flag refers to temperature ; 
 when placed above the white or blue flag it 
 indicates warmer weather ; and when placed 
 below them, colder weather. A white flag 
 with black square in center indicates the ap- 
 proach of a sudden and decided fall in tempera- 
 ture, and is usually ordered at least twenty-four 
 hours in advance of a cold wave. When dis- 
 played on poles, the signals are arranged to 
 read downward ; when displayed from horizon- 
 tal supports, a small streamer is attached to 
 indicate the point from which the signals are 
 to be read. 
 
 Silkworm. It is the general belief that 
 the great importance of the silkworm was first 
 discovered by Se-ling, the wife of the Chinese 
 Emperior Hoangti, who reigned about 2637 
 B. C., and that she also invented and taught 
 the art of silk-spinning and weaving. The 
 worms are exceedingly tender, and liable to 
 perish from the slightest changes of tempera- 
 ture and dampness. They feed upon the leaves 
 of various trees and bushes, but experiments 
 I go to show that the best silk is produced when 
 the worm is fed upon mulberry leaves. The 
 great centers of this industry are China, Japan, 
 i India, and Southern Europe, and they have
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 349 
 
 been successfully raised in California, Ohio, 
 Kansas, East Tennessee, Northern Georgia, 
 Kentucky, and in some parts of New Jersey. 
 
 Soap is a salt, a compound of fatty acid 
 with an alkali, soda, or potash. The Hebrew 
 borith, translated soap, is merely a general 
 term for cleaning substances. Pliny declares 
 soap to be an invention of the Gauls, though 
 he preferred the German to the Gallic soap. 
 In remote periods clothes were cleansed by 
 being rubbed or stamped upon in water. 
 Homer tells us that Nausicaa and her attend- 
 ants washed clothes by treading upon them with 
 their feet in pits of water. The Roman's used 
 fuller's earth. Savon, the French word for 
 soap, is ascribed to its having been manufac- 
 tured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufac- 
 ture of soap began in London in 1524, before 
 which time it was supplied by Bristol at one 
 penny per pound. 
 
 Soaps, Natural. - From time immemo- 
 rial the Egyptian soaproot and the Spanish 
 soaproot have been employed for washing in 
 Southern Europe and Egypt, and are, to some 
 extent, exported for use in cleansing fine arti- 
 cles. In the West Indies and South America, 
 a pulpy fruit, which grows on a tree known as 
 the soap-tree, is said to have such cleansing 
 properties that it will clean as much linen as 
 sixty times its weight of manufactured soap. 
 There is also a tree in Peru, Quillaja Saponaria, 
 whose bark, in infusion, yields a soapy liquid 
 much valued for washing woolens, and is 
 largely imported to England and other coun- 
 tries for this purpose. The juice of the soap- 
 wort, or, as it is commonly called in the 
 United States and Great Britain, the " Bounc- 
 ing Bet," strongly possesses the saponaceous 
 qualities. In California the roots of the Phel- 
 angiuin Pomaridianum. which grows there abun- 
 dantly, are much used for washing. This 
 plant has a strong odor of brown soap in its 
 leaves and stems, as well as the roots. The 
 South Sea Islands and the islands of the Carib- 
 bean Sea also produce plants which are used as 
 soap substitutes. 
 
 Solar System, The. So named from sol 
 (Latin), the sun, consists of the sun in the 
 center, numerous planets, and an unknown 
 number of bodies named comets. The word 
 planet is from the Greek planao, to wander, 
 because the few such bodies known to the 
 ancients were chiefly remarkable in their eyes 
 on account of their constantly shifting their 
 places with reference to the other luminaries 
 of the sky. Comets are so named from coma 
 (Latin), a head of hair, because they seem to 
 consist of a bright spot, with a long brush 
 streaming behind. 
 
 Some of the planets have other planets mov- 
 
 ing round them as centers the moon, for in- 
 stance, round the earth. These are called 
 secondary planets, moons, or satellites ; while 
 those .that move round the sun are called pri- 
 mary planets. The primary planets consist 
 1st, of eight larger planets, including the 
 Earth ; their names, in the order of their near- 
 ness to the sun, are Mercury, Venus, the 
 Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel or 
 Uranus, and Neptune. 2d. A group of small 
 planets or planetoids, called also asteroids, con- 
 siderable in number. The discovery of a new 
 asteroid by Professor Borelli, places the entire 
 number of planets in the solar system at one 
 1 hundred and eighteen, against six known in 
 1781, when Sir W. Herschel discovered Ura- 
 nus. 
 
 The planets move round the sun on nearly 
 j one level or plane, corresponding with the 
 j center of his body, and in one direction, from 
 west to east. The secondary planets, in like 
 manner, move in planes round the centers of 
 their primaries, and in the same direction, 
 ; from west to east. These are denominated 
 revolutionary motions ; and it is to be ob- 
 served that they are double in the case of the 
 ! satellites, which have at once a revolution 
 j round the primary, and a revolution, in com- 
 pany with the primary, round the sun. The 
 path described by a planet in its revolution ia 
 called its orbit. 
 
 I Each planet, secondary as well as primary, 
 and the sun also, has a motion in its own body, 
 | like that of a bobbin upon a spindle. Au 
 imaginary line, forming, as it were, the spindle 
 of the sun or planet, is denominated the axis, 
 and the two extremities of the axis are called 
 the poles. The axes of the sun and planets 
 are all nearly at a right angle with the plane 
 of the revolutionary movements. The motion 
 on the axis is called the rotary motion, from 
 rota, the Latin for a wheel. The sun, the pri- 
 mary planets, and the satellites, with the 
 doubtful exception of two attending on Uranus, 
 move on their axes in the same direction as the 
 revolutionary movements, from west to east. 
 
 ! NAME. 
 
 *&% 
 
 Mean 
 
 1 Mstanco 
 From Sun, 
 Millions c.r 
 Miles. 
 
 Sidereal 
 Period, 
 Days. 
 
 l?i! 
 
 Mean 
 Diameter, 
 Miles. 
 
 Run . 92.9 
 
 
 
 866,400 
 -3,030 
 7,700 
 7,918 
 4,230 
 86.500 
 71,000 
 31,900 
 31,800 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Venus..". 
 Firth 
 
 r>6.9 
 25.7 
 
 36.0 
 67.2 
 92.9 
 141.5 
 483.3 
 886.0 
 1,781.9 
 2,791.6 
 
 87.969 
 224.701 
 365.256 
 686.950 
 4.332.58 
 10,759.22 
 30,686.82 
 60,181.11 
 
 23 to 35 
 21.9 
 18.5 
 15.0 
 8.1 
 6.0 
 4.2 
 3.4 
 
 Mars.... 48.6 
 Jupiter . 390.4 
 Saturn. . - 793.2 
 Uranus.. 1.689.0 
 Neptune 2,698.8 
 
 The number of asteroids discovered up to 
 present dates is 330. A number of these small
 
 850 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 planets have not been observed since their dis- 
 covery, and are practically lost. Consequently 
 it is now sometimes a matter of doubt, until 
 the elements have been computed, if the .sup- 
 posed new planet is really new, or only an old 
 one rediscovered. 
 
 It is supposed that a Centauri, one of the 
 brightest stars of the Southern Hemisphere, is 
 the nearest of the fixed stars to the earth. 
 The researches on its parallax by Henderson 
 and Maclear gave it for its distance from the 
 earth, in round numbers, 20,000,000,000,000 
 of miles. At the inconceivably rapid rate at 
 which light is propagated through space, it 
 would require three years and three months to 
 reach the earth from this star. 
 
 Some Interesting Dates. FRUITS, 
 FLOWERS, ETC. The cherry dates back to 
 
 A. D. 100 ; the lily, 800 ; jasmine, 1500 ; mul- 
 berry, 1520 ; mignonette, 1528 ; the plum, 
 1530 ; geranium, 1534 ; gooseberry, 1540 ; 
 melons, 1540 ; hyssop, 1548 ; pomegranate, 
 1548; lemon, 1554; peach, 1562; carnation, 
 1567 ; pink, 1567 ; lavender, 1568 ; pineap- 
 ple, 1568 ; quince, 1573 ; tulip, 1578 ; oleander, 
 1600; Virginia creeper, 1629; black walnut, 
 1629 ; hickory nut, 1640 ; nectarine, 1652 ; 
 honeysuckle, 1656 ; sassafras, 1663 ; hawthorn, 
 1683 ; passion flower, 1692 ; raspberry, 1696 ; 
 foxglove, 1696 ; currant, 1705 ; snowdrop, 
 1756 ; chrysanthemum, 1790 ; dahlia, 1803 ; 
 camellia, 1811 ; petunia, 1823 ; verbena, 1827 ; 
 fuchsia, 1835. 
 
 FOODS AND COOKERY. Forks first used, 
 1220 ; sugar in Europe, 1250 ; first English 
 cook book, 1498; cabbages, 1510; turkeys, 
 1523; guinea fowl, 1540; potatoes, 1565; 
 cauliflower, 1603 ; tea, 1610 ; cattle imported 
 to America, 1611 ; coffee, 1616 ; bread made 
 with yeast, 1634; rice, 1690; celery, 1704; 
 ice cream, 1760 ; United States fish culture, 
 1804 ; Liebig's extract, 1847 ; condensed milk, 
 1849 ; food adulteration act, 1854 ; aerated 
 bread, 1856 ; cooking schools, ,1873. 
 
 FUEL AND LIGHT. Wood fuel, prehistoric ; 
 charcoal, B. C. 1800; oil lamps, B; C. 1000; 
 wax candles, B. C. 200 ; peat, B. C. 60 ; rush 
 lights, A. D. 1300; coal gas, 1739 ; Davy's 
 safety lamp, 1802 ; sperm candles, 1811 ; par- 
 affine, 1825 ; petroleum, 1859 ; natural gas, 
 1870 ; water gas, 1873 ; electric heating, 1876 ; 
 incandescent electric light, 1878. 
 
 THE WORLD'S CLOTHING. Spinning and 
 weaving and dyeing are prehistoric. The 
 peplon, or long cloak, was worn in Greece, 
 
 B. C. 600; Tyrian purple dye used, B. C. 
 600-300 ; Roman toga worn, B. C. 250-A. D. 
 100; breeches worn by the Scythians, B. C. 
 550 ; kilts and trews worn by the Celts, B. C. 
 100 ; figured weaving in Italy, A. D. 100- 
 
 1000 ; Dutch and Flemish weaving, A. D. 1100 ; 
 silk weaving at Palermo, A. D. 1146 ; linen 
 cloth made in England, 1253 ; English wool 
 trade flourished from A. D. 1337 ; Brabant 
 looms brought to England, 1340 ; linen shirts 
 in common use, 1560; silkworms brought to 
 France, 1600; felt in common use, 1610; fly 
 shuttles, 1738 ; calico printing, 1764 ; spin- 
 ning jenny, 1767 ; carding machine, 1770 ; 
 mule, 1779 ; power loom, 1785 ; cotton gin, 
 1791; shoddy, 1813; sewing machine. 1841; 
 silkworm disease, 1854 ; rubber coats, 1875 ; 
 electric looms, 1889. 
 
 Specific Gravity of Substances. A 
 gallon of water or wine weighs 10 Ibs., and 
 this is taken as the basis of the following ta- 
 ble : 
 
 LIQUIDS. 
 
 Water 
 
 100 
 103 
 124 
 
 84 
 
 TIMBER. METAI.s. 
 
 Cork 24 7.\no. 
 
 719 
 721 
 
 729 
 779 
 783 
 840 
 89o 
 1,051 
 1,135 
 1,357 
 
 2',150 
 
 406.3 
 428.3 
 
 . 226 
 . 252 
 . 270 
 . 278 
 . 279 
 
 Sea Water 
 Dead Sea 
 
 Poplar 38 
 
 Cast iron.. - 
 Tin 
 Bar iron . . . 
 Steel 
 
 Fir 55 
 Cedar 61 
 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 92 
 99 
 100 
 101 
 102 
 102 
 102 
 103 
 104 
 104 
 I 
 T.5 
 35.3 
 
 77 
 92 
 93 
 94 
 120 
 130 
 8E 
 
 15 
 36 
 51 
 56 
 62 
 66 
 70 
 
 Pear 6<> 
 
 Turpentine 
 Wine 
 
 Walnut 67 
 Cherry 72 
 Maple 75 
 Ash 84 
 Apple 79 
 
 Brass 
 Copper 
 Silver 
 Lead 
 Mercury... 
 Gold 
 Platina . . . 
 
 Garnet 
 Ruby 
 
 Porcelain.. . 
 Stone 
 Marble . . 
 Granite 
 Chalk 
 
 Urine 
 Cider 
 
 Beer 
 
 Woman's milk, 
 Cow's milk 
 Goat's milk 
 Porter 
 
 Emerald 2 
 Crystal 2 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Beech 85 
 Mahopanv... 106 
 Oak .... 117 
 
 Ebony 133 
 
 BECIOUS STONES. 
 
 Diamond .. 353.0 
 Topaz 401.1 
 
 SUNDRIES. 
 
 Peat . . . 133 
 
 Ice. 
 
 Opium 134 
 Honey 145 
 
 Gunpowder . . . 
 Butter 
 
 Ivorv 183 
 
 Clay 
 
 Brick 200 
 
 Coal 
 
 Sulphur 203 
 
 LECTED WEIGHTS 
 
 Lbs. per 
 Cub. Ft. 
 Oak 70 
 
 Glass 
 
 Lbs 
 Cub 
 Iron 
 
 . 289 
 
 ' 470 
 520 
 630 
 680 
 1.155 
 
 Lbs. 
 Cub. 
 Cork 
 
 
 Clay 72 
 
 Copper 
 Silver 
 Lead 
 
 Beech 
 
 Coal NO 
 
 Butter 
 Water 
 
 Brick 120 
 Stone 150 
 
 Gold 
 
 Mahogany 
 Ice ". 
 
 Granite 166 
 Glass 172 
 
 
 Spectacles and Reading 1 Glasses were 
 unknown to the ancients. They are generally 
 supposed to have been invented in the thir- 
 teenth century by Alexander de Spina, a monk 
 of Florence in Italy, about A. D. 1285. Ac- 
 cording to Dr. Plott they were invented by Roger 
 Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes them to 
 Salvino, who died in 1317. 
 
 Spinning Wheel. The invention of the 
 art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients 
 to Minerva, the Goddess of Wisdom. It is 
 said that Areas, the King of Arcadia, taught 
 his subjects the art about 1500 B. C. The use 
 of the spindle and distaff, however, was known 
 in Egypt even earlier than this, as is shown by 
 pictures upon Egyptian monuments. The dis- 
 taff was a simple stick, around which the fiber
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 351 
 
 was coiled, and was held in the left hand. The 
 spindle was a species of top, which was set in 
 motion by a twirl of the hand and by com- 
 bining its rotary motion with a gradual move- 
 ment away from the spinner. The size of the 
 fiber was equalized by passing it between the 
 finger and thumb of the right hand until 
 the motion of the spindle was exhausted, when 
 the thread was wound around it, and the process 
 was repeated. The improvement upon this 
 method by placing the spindle in a frame, and 
 making it revolve by mechanical action of the 
 hand or foot in connection with a wheel and 
 treadle, constituted the spinning wheel, which, 
 though probably in use long before, cannot be 
 traced farther back than A. D. 1530. The 
 spinning jenny, a machine of eight spindles, 
 was first invented in 1767, and subsequent to 
 that time many improvements in spinning Ly 
 machinery have been made. 
 
 Sponges and Sponge Fishing. 
 Sponges belong to the very lowest order of 
 animal life, and are attached like plants to 
 rocks, or similar substances. Those fit for 
 use are found generally in the seas of warm 
 climates. They consist of a framework, 
 which is sometimes of an elastic fibrous sub- 
 stance, and sometimes is made up of an aggre- 
 gation of hard, siliceous spicules. A sponge, 
 when fixed to a rock, increases in size by a 
 regular process of growth. To free them 
 from the jelly-like animal matter which they 
 contain when first brought, they are buried for 
 some days in the sand, and are then soaked 
 and washed. In the Turkish sponge fisheries 
 the sponge is obtained by diving, and the diver 
 guides himself beneath the water with a stone, 
 to which a cord from the boat is attached. 
 The best sponges are obtained from eight to 
 ten fathoms below the surface of the water. 
 In the Greek sponge fisheries of the Morea, 
 and on the Bahama Islands, a pronged fork at 
 the end of a long pole is used to detach the 
 sponges from the rocks below. Two species 
 are found in the Levant, another on the Ba- 
 hamas, and still another on the coasts of Flor- 
 ida and Mexico. 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion may be 
 defined as the ignition of inflammable bodies 
 without the application of flame, or without 
 obvious cause of increase of temperature, and 
 arises from the well-understood liability of 
 certain bodies to undergo chemical changes 
 which develop sufficient heat to set them on fire. 
 Recently expressed fixed oils are particularly 
 disposed to oxidize when exposed to light and 
 air. They then absorb oxygen, and give out 
 carbonic acid and hydrogen. If the process 
 goes on rapidly, as it usually does when the 
 oil is diffused through light inflammable sub- 
 
 ! stances, as cotton, tow, the waste used in 
 j lubricating machinery, oatmeal, etc., the heat 
 I may be sufficient to set them on fire. Bitu- 
 I minous coal lying in large heaps is liable to 
 | be ignited by the heat evolved in the decompo- 
 sition of the sulphuret of iron which it com- 
 monly contains. The rapid absorption of water 
 by quicklime is also attended with development 
 of heat sufficient to ignite combustible bodies 
 in contact with the lime. Strong nitric acid 
 will act on straw, hay, and such bodies, so as 
 to render them spontaneously combustible. 
 
 Stars, The. The idea at which astron- 
 omers have arrived respecting the stars, is, 
 that they are all of them suns, resembling our 
 own, but diminished to the appearance of mere 
 specks of light by the great distance at which 
 they are placed. As a necessary consequence 
 to this supposition, it may be presumed that 
 they are centers of light and heat to systems 
 of revolving planets, each of which may be 
 further presumed to be the theater of forms 
 | of beings bearing some analogy to those which 
 exist upon earth. 
 
 The stars seen by the naked eye on a clear 
 j night are about two thousand in number. 
 | This, allowing a like number for the half of 
 i the sky not seen, gives about four thousand, 
 I in all, of visible stars. These are of different 
 j degrees of brilliancy, probably in the main in 
 i proportion to their respective distances from 
 j our system, but also, perhaps, in some meas- 
 I ure in proportion to their respective actual 
 j sizes. Astronomers class the stars under dif- 
 ferent magnitudes, not with regard to appar- 
 ent size, for none of them present a meas- 
 urable disc, but with a regard to the various' 
 quantities of light flowing round them ; thus, 
 there are stars of the first magnitude, the 
 second magnitude, and so on. Only six or 
 seven varieties of magnitude are within our 
 natural vision ; but with the telescope vast 
 numbers of more distant stars are brought into 
 view ; and the magnitudes are now extended 
 by astronomers to at least sixteen. 
 
 Steam Engines. - The application of 
 steam as a moving power is claimed by va- 
 rious nations, but the first extensive employ- 
 ment of it, and most of the improvements 
 made upon the steam engine, the world indis- 
 putably owes to the English and the Americans. 
 It would appear that as early as 1543 a Span- 
 ish captain named Blasco de Garay showed in 
 the harbor of Barcelona a steamboat of his 
 own invention. It is most likely that Blasco 'S 
 engine was on the principle of the ^Eolipile of 
 Hero, invented 130 B. C., in which steam pro- 
 duces rotatory motion by issuing from orifices, 
 as water does in Barker's mill. The preacher 
 Mathesius, in his sermon to miners in Nurem-
 
 352 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 berg in 1562, prays for a man who " raises 
 water from fire and air," showing the early 
 application of steam power in Germany. An 
 Italian engineer, G. Branca, invented in 1629 
 a sort of steam windmill, the steam being gen- 
 erated in a boiler, which was directed by a 
 spout against the flat vanes of a wheel, which 
 was thus set in motion. In England, among 
 the first notices we have of the idea of employ- 
 ing steam as a propelling force is one contained 
 in a small volume, published in 1647, entitled 
 " The Art of Gunnery," by Nat. Nye, math- 
 ematician, in which he purposes to "charge 
 a piece of ordnance without gunpowder " by 
 putting in water instead of powder, ramming 
 down an air-tight plug of wood and then the 
 shot, and applying a fire to the breech < till it 
 burst out suddenly." But the first .successful 
 effort was that of the Marquis of Worcester. In 
 his " Century of Inventions," the manuscript 
 of which dates from 1655, he describes a steam 
 apparatus by which he raised a column of 
 water to the height of forty feet. This, under 
 the name of " Fire Waterwork," appears 
 actually to have been at work at Vauxhall in 
 1656. The first patent for the application of 
 steam power to various kinds of machines was 
 taken out in 1698 by Captain Savery. In 1699 
 he exhibited before the Royal Society a work- 
 ing model of his invention. His engines were 
 the first used to any extent in industrial opera- 
 tions. In all the attempts at pumping engines 
 hitherto made, including Savery's, the steam 
 acted directly upon the water to be moved, 
 without any intervening part. To Dr. Papin, 
 a celebrated Frenchman, is due the idea of the 
 piston. It was first used by him in a model 
 constructed in 1690. The next great step in ad- 
 vance was made in 1705, in the " atmospheric 
 engine," conjointly invented by Newcomen, 
 Cawley, and Savery. This machine held its 
 own for nearly seventy years, and was very 
 largely applied to mines. The next essential 
 improvements on the steam engine were those 
 of Watt, which began a new era in the history 
 of steam-power. His first and most important 
 improvement was the separate condenser, 
 patented in 1769. He had observed that the 
 jet of cold water thrown into the cylinder to 
 condense the steam necessarily reduced the 
 temperature of the cylinder so much that a 
 great deal of the steam flowing in at each up- 
 ward stroke of the piston was condensed before 
 the cylinder got back the heat abstracted from 
 it by the spurt of cold water used for condens- 
 ing the steam in the cylinder. The loss of 
 steam arising from this was so great that only 
 about one fourth of what was admitted into 
 the cylinder was actually available as motive 
 power. This difficulty was overcome by Watt's 
 
 invention. The principal improvements that 
 have been made since Watt's time have been 
 either in matters relating to the boiler, in 
 details of construction consequent upon our 
 increased facilities, improved machinery, and 
 greater knowledge of the strength of materials, 
 in the enlarged application of his principle of 
 expansive working, or in the application of the 
 steam engine to the propulsion of carriages and 
 vessels. 
 
 Steel, Manufacture of, Steel, which 
 is a compound of iron and carbon, was used 
 by the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks. The 
 oldest method of making it is the pot-steel 
 process, which consists at first in melting 
 wrought iron with carbon in clay crucibles, 
 and this process is still used to some extent. 
 The direct process of making steel by immers- 
 ing malleable iron in a bath of cast-iron was 
 first invented in 1722 by Reaumur. Improve- 
 ments in this manufacture were made in the 
 early part of this century by Mush at and Lu- 
 cas, and the eminent metallurgist, Heath, first 
 successfully melted the ingredients of cast steel 
 on the open hearth of the reverberatory furnace 
 about 1839. He patented his process in 1845, 
 but it was not regarded as successful until 
 practical conditions were furnished for it by 
 the invention of the Siemens regenerative gas- 
 furnace in 1862. By the Bessemer process, 
 which was first patented in 1855, and which 
 is now the most generally used, twenty tons of 
 crude iron have been converted into cast steel 
 in twenty-three minutes. Sir Henry Bessemer 
 has received in royalty on this process some 
 $10,000,000. The manufacture of steel has 
 been carried to the highest perfection in the 
 United States, and the output of American 
 steel works is about 600,000 tons yearly. 
 
 Steel Pens, Invention of. During the 
 last century many efforts were made to im- 
 prove the quill pen, the great defect of which 
 was its speedy injury from use, and the conse- 
 quent trouble of frequent mending. These 
 efforts were chiefly directed to fitting small 
 metal, or even ruby, points to the nib of the 
 quill pen ; but the delicacy of fitting was so 
 great that but very little success attended the 
 experiments. At the beginning of this cen- 
 tury pens began to be made wholly of metal. 
 They consisted of a barrel of very thin steel, 
 and were cut and slit so as to resemble the 
 quill pen as closely as possible. They were, 
 however, very indifferent, and, being dear, they 
 made biit little way. Their chief fault was 
 hardness, which produced a disagreeable 
 scratching on the paper. In 1820 Joseph Gil- 
 lott perfected the present form of steel pens 
 and began their manufacture at Birmingham, 
 England. The first gross of steel pens ever
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 353 
 
 sold at wholesale were sold for $36, in 1820, at 
 Birmingham. In 1830 the price was $2 ; in 
 1832, $1.50; in 1860, 12 cents; while an ar- 
 ticle as good as those manufactured in 1820 
 was sold at 4 cents. The annual production 
 of steel pens in Birmingham alone ranges from 
 8,000,000 to 15,000,000 gross. 
 
 Stenography. The art of writing in 
 shorthand is said to have been practiced by the 
 ancients. It is said to have followed from the 
 hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also at- 
 tributed to the poet Ennius, to Tyro, and still 
 more to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Charac- 
 teris, written about 1412, is the oldest system 
 extant. Dr. Timothy Bright's " Characterie, 
 or the art of short, swift, and secret writing," 
 published in 158S, is the first English work on 
 shorthand. Peter Bales, the famous penman, 
 wrote on stenography in 1590. There are 
 now numerous systems of it, many of them of 
 easy acquirement and great simplicity. By- 
 rom's system was invented, 1767 ; Guerney's, 
 1710; Mason's, 1750; Taylor's, 1786; Ma- 
 vor's, 1789; Pitman's (phonographic), 1837. 
 
 Stereotyping 1 . The papier-mache process, 
 which is the most general, was first used in 
 France in 1848. It is extremely simple. The 
 types being set, corrected, made into pages, 
 and fixed in a frame, are laid upon the stone 
 or table used, face upward, and a little fine oil 
 is brushed over them to prevent the papier- 
 mache irom adhering to the face of the types. 
 This papier-mache', which is used for making 
 the matrix or mold, is formed by pasting upon 
 a sheet of tough brown paper, several sheets 
 of tissue paper, and a sheet of soft, absorbent 
 white paper. It is made in sheets, and usu- 
 ally, to make a matrix of the desired thick- 
 ness, several sheets are used. It is kept moist 
 for use, and is lightly covered with pulverized 
 French chalk when laid upon the face of the 
 types. Then it is beaten with a stiff brush to 
 force the soft paper into all the interstices of 
 the types. Other sheets of prepared paper are 
 added to secure the desired thickness, and the 
 whole is then covered with a woolen blanket 
 and put into a press, the bed of which is mod- 
 erately heated, and the press is screwed down. 
 The heat soon dries the matrix, which, when 
 taken out of the press, is a stiff card, showing 
 a perfect reversed impression of the types. A 
 mold of metal is then taken from the matrix, 
 in which the exact face of the types are repro- 
 duced for printing. When the plate is to be 
 run on a rotary press, it is cast in a box which 
 is curved inside, so that the form of the plate 
 will fit the cylinder of the press. By this 
 method an entire large plate can be made in a 
 quarter of an hour, or even less time. For 
 fine book work the matrices are made of plaster 
 
 of paris, which is a much slower and more 
 costly way, but produces a finer and cleaner 
 plate when finished. This process was in- 
 vented about 1731. 
 
 Suez Canal, The, is the most important 
 shipping enterprise known to history. It en- 
 ables two ships to do the work of three in 
 trading between Europe and the East. From 
 London to Bombay, by way of the Cape, is 
 10,595 miles ; by the canal, 6,330. It cost 
 17,000,000, was begun in 1856, and finished 
 in 1869. Its length is ninety-two miles, 
 depth, twenty-six feet ; the tolls average 800 
 per vessel, or eight shillings per ton of net 
 tonnage. The estimated saving to commerce 
 is 5,000,000 a year. -In 1889, 3,425 vessels 
 went through, the mean time of passing being 
 twenty-seven hours. Electric lights are now 
 used to enable ships to pass at night as readily 
 as in the daytime. 
 
 Sugar is supposed to have been known to 
 the ancient Jews. Found in the East Indies 
 by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander the Great, 
 325 15. C. An oriental nation in alliance 
 with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a 
 common beverage. It was prescribed as a 
 medicine by Galen, second century. Brought 
 into Europe from Asia, A. D. 625 ; in large 
 quantities, 1150. Its cultivation was attempted 
 in Italy, but not succeeding the Portuguese 
 and Spaniards carried it to America about 
 1510. Sugar cane first grown in the territory 
 now constituting the United States, 1751. 
 First American sugar mill built near New 
 Orleans, 1758. Sugar refining was made 
 known to Europeans by a Venetian, 1503 ; and 
 was first practiced in England in 1659. The 
 invaluable vacuum pan was invented by How- 
 ard, 1812, and Dr. Scoffern's processes were 
 patented in 1848-50. 
 
 Technical Terms in Printing. Al- 
 ley. The space between two stands. 
 
 Ascending letters. Letters that ascend into 
 the upper shoulder; as, b, d, 1, etc., and all 
 the capitals. 
 
 Author's proof . The clean proof sent to an 
 author after the compositors' errors have been 
 corrected. 
 
 Bank. A table about four feet high, to lay 
 sheets on at press. 
 
 Bastard title. A short title preceding the 
 general title of a work. 
 
 Bastard type. Type with a face larger or 
 smaller than its regular body : as Nonpareil on 
 Minion body, or Minion on Nonpareil body. 
 
 Batter. Types accidentally injured in a form. 
 
 Beard of a letter. The outer angles support- 
 ing the face of a type and extending to the 
 shoulder. 
 
 Bearer. A strip of reglet to bear off the im-
 
 354 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 pression from a blank page. A long piece of 
 furniture, type-high, used in working jobs. A 
 solid-faced type interspersed among the blank 
 parts of a page composed for stereotyping, to 
 resist the pressure of the knife when the plate 
 is shaved. 
 
 Bearer-lines. The top line and bottom line 
 in a page prepared for stereotyping. 
 
 Bed. The flat part of the press on which 
 the form is laid. 
 
 Bevels. Slugs cast nearly type-high, with a 
 beveled edge, used by stereotypers to form the 
 flange on the side of the plates. 
 
 Bite. An irregular white spot on the edge 
 or corner of a printed page, caused by the fris- 
 ket not being sufficiently cut out. 
 
 Blanket. A woolen cloth used in the tym- 
 pan. 
 
 Blank-line. A line of quadrates. 
 
 Blocks. The mahogany forms on which 
 stereotype plates are placed for printing. 
 
 Blocked up. When the font of type is all 
 set, and none is available for present use. 
 
 Bodkin. A delicate awl-like tool used for 
 correcting errors in type. 
 
 Body. The shank of the letter. 
 
 Botch. A bungling, incompetent workman. 
 
 Bottled. Type wider at the bottom than at 
 the top. 
 
 Boxes. The compartments of a case in 
 which the types are placed. 
 
 Brayer. A wooden or glass rubber, flat at 
 the bottom, used to bray or spread out ink on 
 the ink-block. 
 
 Break-line. A short line. 
 
 Broad-side. A form of one page, printed on 
 one side of a whole sheet of paper. 
 
 Broken matter. Pagee of type disrupted and 
 somewhat intermingled. 
 
 Bundle. Two reams of paper. 
 
 Bur. Rough edge of a type which the 
 founder neglected to take off in dressing. 
 
 Cabinet. A receptacle for cases, chases, 
 leads, etc. 
 
 Canceled figures. Figures cast with lines 
 across the face. 
 
 Caret. A character [A] used in proof read- 
 ing to denote the place where omitted words 
 or letters should be inserted. 
 
 Case. The receptacle for type, divided into 
 numerous compartments. 
 
 Cassie paper. Formerly, the two outside 
 quires of a ream, consisting of defective sheets. 
 
 Casting off. Estimating how many pages a 
 certain quantity of copy will make in type. 
 
 Cattle. Imperfect or smutty look of a 
 printed sheet caused by an oily or unclean 
 roller. 
 
 Ceriphs. The lines or cross-strokes at the 
 ends of the stem of a letter. 
 
 Chapel. A printing office. 
 
 Chapel laws. Rules of a printing office. 
 
 Chase. A rectangular iron frame in which 
 pages of type are imposed. 
 
 Circular quadrates. Blank types curved on 
 one side. 
 
 Clean proof. A proof containing few faults. 
 
 Clearing away. Properly disposing of ma- 
 terials 'after a work has been completed. 
 
 Clicker. The chief of a companionship. 
 
 Close matter. Solid matter with few break 
 lines. 
 
 Companionship. All the hands employed on 
 a work. 
 
 Composing. Setting type. 
 
 Composing rule. A steel or brass rule, with 
 a beak at one end, used in type setting. 
 
 Composing stick. An instrument in which 
 types are arranged in words and lines. 
 
 Corner quadrates. A quarter section of a 
 hollow square or rectangle. 
 
 Correct. A compositor is said to correct 
 when he amends the faults marked in a proof. 
 
 Corrections. The alterations or errors marked 
 in a proof. 
 
 Cut-in letter. A type of large size adjusted 
 at the beginning of the first paragraph of a 
 chapter. 
 
 Cut-in note. A note justified into the side 
 of a page. 
 
 Dead horse. Matter charged and paid for 
 before it is set. 
 
 Dele, 8 A proofreader's mark, signifying 
 to take out. 
 
 Descending letters. Letters that go down 
 into the lower shoulder of the body ; as, g, j, 
 
 p> q, y- 
 
 Devil. The errand boy of a printing office. 
 
 Dished. A defect in electrotype plates, the 
 center of a letter being lower than its edges. 
 
 Distributing. Returning types to their vari- 
 ous boxes after having been printed from. 
 Spreading ink evenly over the surface of a 
 roller. 
 
 Double. Among compositors, repetition of 
 words ; among pressmen, a sheet that is twice 
 pulled and mackled. 
 
 Dressing a chase or form. Fitting the pciges 
 and chase with furniture and quoins. 
 
 Drive out. To space widely. 
 
 Duck's-bill. A tongue cut in a piece of 
 stout paper and pasted on the tympau at the 
 bottom of the tympan-sheet, to support the 
 paper when laid on the tynipan. 
 
 Duodecimo or 12mo. Twelve pages to a 
 form. 
 
 Em. The square of the body of a type. 
 
 En. Half the dimensions of the preceding. 
 
 Even page. The 2d, 4th, 6th, or any even- 
 numbered page of a book.
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 355 
 
 Fat. Poetry and leaded matter. 
 
 Fat face, or fat letter. Broad stemmed 
 letter. ' 
 
 leather of the chapel. President or chair- 
 man of a composing room or press room , chosen 
 by the hands. 
 
 F<-ed ijuiile. An implement attached to a 
 press to aid in correct feeding. 
 
 Feeding. Supplying the press with sheets. 
 
 First form. The form first printed, which 
 generally contains the first page of a sheet. 
 
 Fly. The person or apparatus that takes 
 off the sheets from the press. 
 
 Folio. Two pages to a form. 
 
 Font. A complete assortment of type, of 
 the same nick, body, and face, put up by type 
 founders in accordance with an ascertained 
 ratio. 
 
 Fixit stick*. Sloping pieces of furniture 
 placed at the bottom of pages, between which 
 and the chase the quoins are driven to fasten 
 the pages. 
 
 Form. The pages when imposed in a chase. 
 
 Foul proof. A proof with many faults 
 marked in it. 
 
 Fountain. Reservoir for ink, attached to 
 printing presses. 
 
 Friar. A light patch in a printed sheet, 
 caused by defective rolling. 
 
 Frixket. An iron frame fastened by a hinge 
 to the upper part of the tympan, to hold the 
 sheet of paper fast as it goes in and comes 
 from the press. 
 
 Fudge. To contrive without proper materials. 
 
 Full press. When two men work at the 
 press with hand rollers. 
 
 Furniture. Strips of wood or metal placed 
 around and between pages to make the proper 
 margin. 
 
 Guilt- y. A wooden or brass flat oblong tray, 
 with side and head ledges, for holding type 
 when composed. 
 
 Galley slaves. An ancient term of derision 
 applied by pressmen to compositors. 
 
 Gauge. A strip of reglet with a notch in it, 
 passed with the make-up, to denote the length 
 of the pages. 
 
 Gauge-pin. An instrument to aid in feed- 
 ing job presses correctly. 
 
 Get in. To set close. 
 
 Gooff color. Sheets printed neither too black 
 nor too light. 
 
 Guide. A strip of metal frequently used to 
 denote the last line of copy set. 
 
 Gutter-sticks. Furniture used in imposition 
 to separate the pages. 
 
 Half press. When but one person works at 
 the press. 
 
 Half title. The title of a book inserted in 
 the upper portion of the first page of matter. 
 
 Hanging indention. Where successive lines 
 are set-in an em or more beyond the first line. 
 
 Head sticks. Furniture put at the head of 
 pages in imposition, to make margin. 
 
 Hell. The receptacle for broken or battered 
 letters ; the old metal box ; the shoe. 
 
 High-line. Term applied to a type that 
 ranges above the rest in a line. 
 
 High (or low) to paper. Applied to a type 
 cast higher or lower than the rest of the font. 
 
 Hollow quadrates. Metal quadrates mortised 
 for the insertion of types, etc. 
 
 Horse. The stage on the bank on which 
 pressmen set the heap of paper. 
 
 Horsing. Charging for work before it is ex- 
 ecuted. 
 
 Imposing. Arranging and locking up a form 
 of type in a chase. 
 
 Imposing stone. The stone on which com- 
 positors impose and correct forms. 
 
 Imprint. The name of the printer or of the 
 publisher appended to jobs or title pages. 
 
 Inferior letters. Small letters cast near the 
 bottom of the line. 
 
 Inset. Same as off cut. 
 
 Jeff". To throw for the first choice witk em 
 quadrates instead of dice. 
 
 Justifying. Spacing out lines accurately. 
 
 Keep in. To crowd in by thin spacing. 
 
 Keep out. To drive out or expand matter 
 by wide spacing. 
 
 Kerned letter. Type of which a part of the 
 face hangs over the body. 
 
 Laying cases. Filling cases with a font of 
 new type. 
 
 Laying pages. Placing pages of type on the 
 stone in a proper order for imposition. 
 
 Leaders. Dots or hyphens placed at inter- 
 vals of one or more ems in length, to guide the 
 eye across the line to the folio in tables of con- 
 tents, etc. 
 
 Leads. Thin strips of metal cast of various 
 thicknesses, quadrate-high, to separate lines of 
 type. 
 
 Lean. Close and solid matter. 
 
 Lean face. Light, thin type. 
 
 Letter hangs. When the page is out of 
 square. 
 
 Letter-press printing. Printing from types. 
 
 Ligatures. Two or more letters cast on the 
 same shank, as ff, fi, fl, ffi, ffl, ae, oe. 
 
 Line formers. Brass rule bent in various 
 shapes to aid in making curved lines of type. 
 
 Locking up. Tightening up a form by 
 means of quoins. 
 
 Logotypes. The same as ligatures. 
 
 Long cross. The bar that divides a chase 
 the longest way. 
 
 Long pull. When the bar is brought close 
 to the cheek of a press.
 
 356 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Low case. When the compositor has set 
 almost all the letters out of his case. 
 
 Lower case. The case containing the small 
 letters of the alphabet, figures, points, etc. 
 
 Lou: line. Applied to a type that ranges 
 lower than the rest in a line. 
 
 Mackle. When part of the impression ap- 
 pears double. 
 
 Make-up. To arrange the lines of matter 
 into pages. 
 
 Make-up rule. A steel rule with a projec- 
 tion on the top, for making up matter. 
 
 Making margin. In imposition, arranging 
 the space between the pages of a form so that 
 the margin will be properly proportioned. 
 
 Making ready. Preparing a form on the 
 press for printing. 
 
 Mallet. A wooden hammer. 
 
 Matter. Composed type. 
 
 Measure. The width of a page. 
 
 Monk. A black spot in a printed sheet, 
 owing to the ink not being properly distrib- 
 uted. 
 
 Naked form. A form without furniture. 
 
 Nicks. Hollows cast in front of the lower 
 part of the shank of a type, to show the com- 
 positor how to place it in his stick. 
 
 Octavo or 8vo. Eight pages to a form. 
 
 Octodecimo or 18mo. Eighteen pages to a 
 form. 
 
 Odd page or folio. The first, third, and all 
 uneven numbered pages. 
 
 Off. Signifies that the pressman has 
 worked off the form. 
 
 Offcut. A portion of a sheet that is cut off 
 before folding. 
 
 Off its feet. When matter does not stand 
 upright. 
 
 Open matter. Matter widely leaded or con- 
 taining numerous break lines. 
 
 Out. An omission marked in a proof by the 
 reader. 
 
 Out of register. When the pages do not 
 back each other. 
 
 Overlay. A scrap of paper pasted on the 
 tympan -sheet to bring up the impression. 
 
 Overrunning. Carrying words backward or 
 forward in correcting. 
 
 Page-cord. Twine used for tying up pages. 
 
 Passing the make-up. Passing to the next 
 hand in order the lines remaining (if any) 
 after a compositor has made up his matter, to- 
 gether with the gauge and proper folio. 
 
 Peel. A broad, thin board with a long 
 handle. 
 
 Perfecting. Printing the second form of a 
 sheet. 
 
 Perforating rule. Brass or steel rule, some- 
 what higher than type. 
 
 Pi. Type promiscuously intermingled. 
 
 Pick. A particle of ink or paper imbedded 
 in the hollow of a letter, filling up its face and 
 occasioning a spot. 
 
 Pigs. An ancient nickname given in deri- 
 sion by compositors to pressmen. The press 
 room was called a pigsty. 
 
 Planer. A smooth block of wood used for 
 leveling the surface of pages of type when 
 imposed. 
 
 Planing down. To bringdown types evenly 
 011 their feet, by laying a planer on a page and 
 striking it firmly with a mallet. 
 
 Platen. The part of a printing press which, 
 acted upon by the lever,, gives the impression 
 to a sheet. 
 
 Point-holes. Fine holes made by the points 
 to register the second impression by. 
 
 Points. Two thin pieces of steel with a 
 point at one end, adjusted to the tympan with 
 screws, to make register. 
 
 Quadrate. A low square blank type, used 
 to indent the first line of a paragraph, and to 
 fill up blank spaces. 
 
 Quarters. Octavos and twelves are said to 
 be imposed in quarters, not from their equal 
 divisions, but because they are imposed and 
 locked up in four parts. 
 
 Quarto, or J^to . Four pages to a form. 
 
 Quire. Twenty-four sheets of paper. 
 
 QUoins. Small wedges for locking up a form . 
 
 Quotation furniture. Quotations cast of vari- 
 ous sizes in length and width, used for blank- 
 ing and as furniturlb. 
 
 Quotations. Large hollowed quadrates. 
 
 Rack. Receptacle for cases. 
 
 Ratchet. An instrument for turning the 
 I screws of stereotype blocks. 
 
 Ratting. Working at less than established 
 prices. 
 
 Ream. Twenty quires of paper. 
 
 Recto. Right hand page. 
 
 References. Letters or characters serving to 
 direct the reader's attention to notes at the 
 foot of the page. 
 
 Register. To cause the pages in a sheet to 
 print precisely back to back. 
 
 Register sheet. The sheet used to make reg- 
 ister. 
 
 Reglet. Thin furniture, of an equal thick- 
 ness all its length. It is made to match the 
 depth of type. 
 
 Reiteration. The form printed on the second 
 side. 
 
 llei-ise. The last proof of a form before 
 working it off. 
 
 Riding. One color falling on another. Type 
 at the end of a line catching against a lead. 
 
 Rise. A form is said to rise when, in rais- 
 ing it from the correcting stone, no letters 
 drop out.
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 357 
 
 Roller. A wooden cylinder covered with 
 composition, which, set in an iron frame, re- 
 volves upon a rod, and is used for inking 
 type. 
 
 Rounce. The handle for running in and 
 out the carriage of a hand press. 
 
 Round pick. A dot in a letter in a stereo- 
 tyi>e plate caused by an air bubble. 
 
 Running title. The title of the book or sub- 
 ject placed at the top of the pages. 
 
 Runs on sort*. Requiring an inordinate pro- 
 portion of particular letters. 
 
 Sau>-6lock. A box similar to a carpenter's 
 miter-Mock, to guide in cutting furniture, etc. 
 
 Sche/Iii/' . A sheet of paper passed with the 
 make-up, containing folios, on which the com- 
 positor marks his name opposite to the pages 
 set by him. 
 
 Set off. When sheets that are newly worked 
 off soil those that come in contact with them, 
 they are said to set-off. 
 
 Skunk. The metal body upon which the 
 face of a letter stands. 
 
 Sheep's foot. An iron hammer with a claw- 
 end. 
 
 Sheetwise. When the pages of a sheet are 
 imposed in two forms, which are backed in 
 printing. 
 
 Shooting stick. A wedge shaped instrument 
 for locking up a form. 
 
 Short cross. The short bar which, crossing 
 the long bar, divides the chase into quarters. 
 
 Shoulder. The surface of the shank of a 
 type not covered by the letter. 
 
 Side sorts. Types in the side and upper 
 boxes of a case, consisting of letters not fre- 
 quently used. 
 
 Side sticks. Sloping furniture on the out- 
 side of the pages next to the chase, where the 
 quoins are inserted. 
 
 Signature. A letter or a figure used at the 
 bottom of the first page of a sheet, to direct 
 the binder in placing the sheets in a volume. 
 
 Slice galley. A galley with an upper mova- 
 ble bottom, called a slice, used for pages and 
 jobs too large to be lifted by the fingers. 
 
 Slug. A thick lead. Sometimes with a 
 word or figure on top, used to denote the own- 
 ership of matter on galleys. 
 
 Slur. A blurred impression in a printed 
 sheet. 
 
 Sniid pick. A letter in a stereotype plate 
 filled up with metal, resulting from an imper- 
 fect mold. 
 
 Sorts. The letters in the several case boxes 
 are separately called sorts, in printers' and 
 founders' language. 
 
 Space rules. Fine lines cast type high, and 
 of even ems in length, for table and algebra- 
 ical work. 
 
 Spaces. Low blank types used to separate 
 words. 
 
 Squabble. A page or form is squabbled 
 when the letters are twisted out of a square 
 position. 
 
 Stand. The frame on which the cases are 
 placed. 
 
 Stem. The vertical strokes of a type. 
 
 Stereotype printing. Printing from stereo- 
 typed plates. 
 
 Stet. Written opposite to a word in a proof, 
 to signify that the word erroneously struck out 
 shall remain. 
 
 Sub. A compositor occasionally employed 
 on a daily paper, to fill the place of an absen- 
 tee. 
 
 Superior letters. Letters of a small face, 
 cast by the founder near the top of the line. 
 
 Table-work. Matter consisting partly of 
 rules and figures. 
 
 Take, or Taking. A given portion of copy. 
 
 Token. Two hundred and fifty sheets. 
 
 Turn for a letter. VVheu a sort runs short, 
 a letter of the same thickness is substituted, 
 placed bottom upward. 
 
 Tympan. A frame covered with parchment 
 or muslin and attached to the press-bed to lay 
 the sheet on before printing. 
 
 Underlay. A piece of paper or card placed 
 under types or cuts to improve the impression. 
 
 Upper case. The case containing capital 
 and small capital letters, fractions, etc. 
 
 Verso. Left-hand page. 
 
 Wayz-goose. A term given in England to 
 the annual dinner customary among printers 
 there during the summer months. 
 
 White line. A line of quadrates. 
 
 White page. A blank page. 
 
 While paper. Until the second side of a 
 sheet is printed, pressmen call the heap white 
 paper. 
 
 Work and turn. When a sheet is printed 
 half-sheetwise, the paper must be turned and 
 worked on the second side. 
 
 Working in pocket. When the hands share 
 equally their earnings on a work. 
 
 Telegraph, The. The word is Greek, 
 meaning "to write from a distance." The 
 Greeks never thought of doing such a thing. 
 Like most scientific designations, it is a made- 
 up word out of that wonderful tongue . Before 
 Morse's time it had come to mean the giving 
 of any information from afar. The ideas of 
 speech, quick delivery, are involved. If time 
 is not the essential, we may go or send. In- 
 dians use columns of smoke. We use signals 
 and the heliograph. Vessels at sea have long 
 used visual telegraphic signals. But as soon as 
 it was known that electricity could be sent 
 long distances over wires, human genius began
 
 358 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 to devise means for using it for sending mes- 
 sages. Many of these devices were tried and 
 failed. Some of them seem now to us absurd, 
 because they were attempted before even the 
 battery was invented, when the current was 
 obtained by friction. In 1832 an American, 
 Morse, while on a voyage home from Europe in 
 a sailing vessel, began to think of making 
 what we now know as a telegraph. After 
 more than eight years of waiting, Congress 
 made an appropriation for building a line be- 
 tween Baltimore and Washington. The story 
 of this first line is curious, almost absurd, 
 showing how little the inventor knew when he 
 began it, and how much was learned during 
 its construction. Morse had an assistant named 
 Alfred Vail, who is the author of most of the 
 features of the telegraph which have proved 
 useful, as we now know it. 
 
 In principle, and even in practice, the tele- 
 graph is one of the simplest of electrical ap- 
 pliances. Any two operators can communi- 
 cate with each other over a great distance with 
 two parts only ; a battery and a wire, for the 
 wonderful alphabet of Vail, the dots and 
 dashes, can be read in any language, and by 
 sight, hearing, tasting, or feeling. Something 
 to produce a current, and a wire to carry it, 
 are all that are absolutely necessary. There is 
 usually only one wire. There would be two, 
 but the earth acts in place of the return wire, 
 and the connection is simply made at the bat- 
 tery, along the wire, and into the ground. 
 The only machine, so to speak, that is neces- 
 sary in practice is the small electro-magnet 
 which one hears pulling down the armature to 
 it every time a connection is made by the op- 
 erator at the other end of the circuit who is 
 sending a message, and spelling out the words 
 of it with the click and pause sound which 
 would be the dot and dash of the old roll of 
 paper indented by a pointed stylus, now dis- 
 carded. This electro-magnet and its action 
 with an interrupted current has been briefly 
 explained. The key with which the message 
 is spelled out is a lever with a button at the 
 end, which, when pressed down, makes a con- 
 tact and completes the circuit over the wire 
 and the windings of the electro-magnet, and, 
 when released, breaks it again. 
 
 Telephone, The. This wonderful ad- 
 vance in electrical science was made practical 
 in 1875, and is the invention of Prof. A. G. 
 Bell, Chicago. There were simultaneous in- 
 ventions by Gray, Edison, and others. Tn 
 reality, the telephone is simple in construc- 
 tion, but it is difficult to explain in words. 
 The human voice, recognizable in articulate 
 words, is apparently carried for miles on a 
 wire. Yet it is well to understand in the be- 
 
 ginning that such is not the case. The lis- 
 tener does not hear any person talk. All that 
 goes over the wire is thousands of varying 
 impulses of electricity. The entire secret lies 
 in electrical induction. 
 
 It has been shown that electricity produces 
 magnetism. Following it has been shown that 
 this process can be reversed, and that mag- 
 netism produces electricity. This last fact was 
 made use of in the original Bell telephone. 
 The Blake transmitter is now used, slightly 
 modifying the action, but not altering the 
 principle of the instrument, and an endeavor 
 to explain this will be made. It has been 
 shown that an approach to, or a receding from, 
 a wire carrying a current, produces an induced 
 current. Then it was shown that if one of the 
 pieces were a magnet, and there was a rapid 
 approach and receding by a piece of soft iron, 
 an induced current would also be produced. 
 
 Now there is in the transmitting instrument 
 of a telephone a bar magnet, and on one end 
 of this is wound several layers of fine insulated 
 wire. The ends of .this wire run off and be- 
 come a part of the circuit between two tele- 
 phones. No current passes over this circuit 
 ordinarily, but one can be induced if a piece of 
 iron is made to move quickly, to tremble, near 
 the bar. This is accomplished by placing 
 crosswise to the end of the bar magnet the 
 thin black disc of sheet-iron against which, so 
 to speak, one talks when using the telephone. 
 The voice impinging upon this, causes it to 
 tremble ; to approach to and recede from the 
 magnet, not vaguely and without rule, but pre- 
 cisely in proportion to the tone of the voice. 
 Every time one of these very small movements 
 of the disc occurs a small impulse is sent from 
 the magnet out over the circuit whose coil in- 
 closes it. 
 
 At the other end of the circuit there is a pre- 
 cisely similar arrangement of bar magnet and 
 coil and disc, inclosed in that trumpet-shaped 
 receiving instrument which is held to the ear. 
 The magnetism in this last magnet is increased 
 with each impulse in precise proportion to the 
 power of the impulse, and this disc of the re- 
 ceiving instrument is drawn toward its mag- 
 net and released again in unison with the 
 movements of the disc in the transmitter, 
 which movements, as stated, are great or 
 small, or slow or fast, in accordance with the 
 tones of the voice of the speaker. 
 
 It follows that the mechanical rattle of a 
 disc of sheet-iron held close to the ear pro- 
 duces sounds that vary in pitch and intensity 
 precisely as those do which are produced by 
 the impinging of the human voice upon the 
 other disc, a mile or more away. The move- 
 ment of the transmitting disc controls those
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 359 
 
 of the receiving disc through the medium of 
 varying impulses of electricity sent to the mag- 
 net of the latter by the magnet of the former. 
 The movements of the former are controlled 
 by the human voice. It follows that the move- 
 ments of the latter are also controlled by the 
 same voice. It is the reversal of a process. If 
 a disc is moved by the voice in a certain way, 
 the moving of a disc in the same icay by some 
 other means will imitate the voice. So far as 
 volume is concerned the imitation is micro- 
 scopic. But it can be heard, and answers all 
 purposes. It is doubtful if, among all the 
 productions of human genius, there will ever 
 be anything nearer the miraculous than the 
 almost universally used telephone. 
 
 Telescopes. This invention is noticed 
 by Leonard Digges, about 1571 . Roger Bacon, 
 A. D. 1250, described telescopes and micro- 
 scopes exactly, and yet neither was made till 
 one Metius, at Alkmaar, and Jansen, of Mid- 
 dleburg, made them about the same time ; the 
 latter from an accidental discovery made by his 
 children, 1590-1609. Galileo imitated their 
 invention by its description, and made three in 
 succession, one of which magnified a thousand 
 times. With these he discovered Jupiter's 
 moons, and the phases of Venus. Telescopes 
 became very popular, and were improved by 
 Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and 
 finally by Martin, Hall, Dolland, and Herschel. 
 Achromatic telescopes were made by Hall about 
 1723. Many excellent and powerful tele- 
 scopes have since been constructed. 
 
 Terms in Electricity. The technical 
 terms used in regard to electricity refer to 
 units of various nature. Thus the unit of 
 capacity is one farad ; the unit of activity, one 
 watt ; the unit of work, one joule ; the unit of 
 quantity, one coulomb ; the unit of current, 
 one ampere ; the unit of resistance, one ohm ; 
 the unit of magnetic field, one gauss ; the unit 
 of pressure, one volt ; the unit of force, one 
 dyne. The names are mostly derived from the 
 names of men that have been famous in the 
 field of electrical research. Thus Michael Far- 
 aday. James Watt, and James P. Joule, famous 
 English discoverers, give their names to the 
 first three units mentioned; Charles A. Cou- 
 lomb and Andre M. Ampere, French invent- 
 ors, to the two units following; G. S. Ohm 
 and Carl F. Gauss, Germans, name two more 
 units : and the volt is named from the Italian 
 discoverer, Volta. The dyne is derived from 
 the root word of dynamo, itself meaning force. 
 
 Thermometer, The. The thermometer 
 is an instrument for measuring the heat or tem- 
 perature of bodies by the regular expansion of 
 mercury or alcohol in a graduated glass tube. 
 Halley proposed the substitution of mercury 
 
 for alcohol in 109*7. The thermometers usually 
 employed are Fahrenheit's, the Centigrade, 
 and Reaumur's, the first invented in 1726, 
 and the two others soon afterwards. 
 The following table is interesting as a com- 
 parison of the three thermometers : 
 
 
 Reau- 
 mur. 
 
 Centi- 
 grade. 
 
 Fahren- 
 heit. 
 
 Freezing point 
 
 
 8 
 16 
 32 
 40 
 48 
 56 
 64 
 72 
 80 
 
 
 10 
 20 
 40 
 ' 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 
 32 
 50 
 68 
 104 
 122 
 140 
 158 
 176 
 194 
 212 
 
 Vine cultivation 
 
 Cotton cultivation 
 
 Hatching eggs 
 
 Water boils 
 
 Ice melts at 32; temperature of globe, 50 ; 
 blood heat, 98 ; alcohol boils, 174 ; water 
 boils, 212 ; lead melts, 594 ; heat of common 
 fire, 1,140; brass melts, 2,233; iron melts, 
 3,479. 
 
 Thunder is caused by the sudden re- 
 entrance of the air into a vacuum which is sup- 
 posed to be caused by the lightning in its pas- 
 sage through the atmosphere. The electricity 
 exerts a powerful repulsive force upon the par- 
 ticles of air along the path of its discharge, 
 thus making a momentary vacuum. Into this 
 void the surrounding air rushes with a violence 
 proportioned to the intensity of the electricity, 
 and is thus thrown into vibrations, which are 
 the source of the sound. 
 
 Tides, The The ebb and flow of tidal 
 waters depend upon the moon to a great extent. 
 Twice every day we have the tides, twelve 
 hours apart, and the flow and ebb are merely 
 examples of the attraction of gravitation which 
 is exercised on all bodies, whether liquid or 
 solid. The tides may be compared to a great 
 wave, which, raised by the moon's attraction, 
 follows her in her course round the earth. The 
 sun also aids in this effect, but as the moon is 
 so much nearer the earth her influence is far 
 greater. The tides are highest at the equator 
 and lowest at the poles, because the tropics 
 are more exposed to the lunar attraction. 
 
 Tohacco. The name tobacco is thought 
 
 j by some to have been taken from Tobacco, a 
 
 ! province of Yucatan ; by others from Tobago, 
 
 I an island in the Caribbean Sea ; and by still 
 
 others from Tobasco, in the Gulf of Florida. 
 
 The plant, although it is asserted that the 
 
 Chinese have used it from earliest times, 
 
 was not introduced into Europe until after the 
 
 discovery of America by Columbus. He first 
 
 found it in use on the Island of San Domingo 
 
 in the West Indies. The Indian, among all 
 
 the tribes from Peru to Upper Canada, smoked 
 
 it in pipes. The seed of the plant was first 
 
 introduced in Europe by Gonzalo Hernandez
 
 360 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 de Oviedo, who took it to Spain and cultivated 
 it for ornamental purposes ; but its narcotic 
 qualities were shortly afterward discovered and 
 the practice of smoking it soon became gen- 
 eral, and its manufacture into snuff followed in 
 course of time. It was introduced in Italy and 
 France in 1560, and was brought into the latter 
 country by Jean Nicot, the French Embassador 
 to Portugal, in whose honor it received its bo- 
 tanical name Xicotiuna, whence the name nico- 
 tine. The plant was introduced into England 
 by Sir Walter Raleigh. It was along in the 
 seventeenth century before it was known to 
 be used in Asia, but the Oriental nations at 
 the present time are probably the greatest 
 smokers in the world. 
 
 Type-Setting Machines The first 
 
 type-setting machine appears to have been in- 
 vented by William Church of Connecticut 
 about 1820. This, after the lapse of twenty 
 years, was followed by a number of others, 
 scarcely a year passing without one or more 
 being made the subject of a patent. In 1857 
 a machine was invented by Robert Hattersley 
 which is capable of setting from 4,000 to 6,000 
 types in an hour about three men's work. 
 This machine, which occupies a space of about 
 two or three feet, has a horizontal stage on 
 which is placed a partitioned tray, containing 
 the rows of type running from hack td front, 
 each row being, of course, all the same letter. 
 Descending vertically along the front of this 
 tray is a series of as many wires with pistons 
 as there are rows of types, and these pistons 
 are depressed by the keys acting by bell 
 cranks, and then return to their positions 
 by means of India rubber bands or springs. 
 A propeller kept in a state of tension by an 
 India rubber string is placed in the rear of each 
 row of types, and draws them forward to the 
 piston. When the girl working the machine 
 presses down, say, an e key, it depresses the e 
 piston, which pulls down with it an e type, and 
 drops it into a tube or channel, Avhich conveys 
 it to what represents the composing-stick, and 
 so on with every letter, figure, comma, or space. 
 Another successful machine is the Mitchell 
 type-setter. The compositor has a key-board, 
 each key of which strikes out a type from a 
 brass slide placed on an incline. The type 
 travels along an endless band to a spot where 
 it is turned on end and pushed forward by a 
 notched wheel. The apparatus comprises nu- 
 merous bands, the lengths and velocities of 
 which so vary as to enable the types at differ- 
 ent distances from the wheel to reach it in the 
 order in which the keys are struck. The words 
 are built up in rows thirty inches long, and 
 "justified," as is the case with the Hattersley 
 machine, by hand. 
 
 Typewriters. Perhaps the earliest form 
 of a typewriter is a rude machine invented in 
 England in 1714, without any practical fruits. 
 M. Foucault sent to th<- Paris Kxposition of 
 1855, a writing machine for the blind, but the 
 first of what are now popularly known as 
 typewriters, was patented in 1868 by C. L. 
 Sholes, of Wisconsin. This has been im- 
 proved, until now it is possible to attain a 
 speed of seventy-five to eighty words a minute 
 in writing with this machine, which is fast 
 enough for reporting speeches. The princi- 
 pal advantages gained are rapidity of execu- 
 tion and legibility. A typewriter can write 
 with both hands and several fingers in instant 
 succession, every letter being made with a sin- 
 gle light touch, instead of requiring from three 
 to seven distinct strokes and dots, as in ordi- 
 nary script. 
 
 Umbrellas are by no means a modern in- 
 vention. They are found sculptured on the 
 monuments of Egypt, and on the ruins of 
 Nineveh, and their use in China and India is 
 also very ancient. In Greece they had a part 
 in certain religious cere monies ; and there is no 
 doubt, from the paintings on ancient Greek 
 vases, that umbrellas very much like those in 
 use at the present time were known many years 
 before the Christian era. They were also used~ 
 among the Romans, but only by women. The 
 umbrella also seems to have been a part of an 
 insignia of royalty, as is still the case in parts 
 of Asia and Africa. An English dictionary, 
 published in 1708, defines an umbrella as " a 
 screen commonly used by women to keep off 
 rain." Jonas Han way is said to have been 
 the first man to have carried an umbrella 
 through the streets of London in rainy weather, 
 about 1750, and he was hooted and jeered at 
 by boys for his fears of a wetting. It is not 
 known, however, when their use began in 
 England, as representations of such articles are 
 found in very ancient manuscripts. Umbrellas 
 were introduced in America in the latter part 
 of the eighteenth century, but their use at first 
 was confined almost exclusively to women, as 
 it was considered very effeminate to carry one. 
 
 Uiiclulatory Theory of Light. For a 
 long while there were two rival theories to 
 account for the nature of light and optical 
 phenomena, and it is only of late years that the 
 observations and experiments of scientists have 
 fully established the undulatory theory ai.d 
 disproved the corpuscular theory. The former 
 maintains that light is a transference of energy 
 to the eye ; the latter, that it is a transference 
 of matter. The undulatory theory assumes the 
 entire universe and all matter to be pervaded 
 with a highly elastic imponderable fluid, which 
 is called ether. Light, then, consists in the
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 361 
 
 propagation of energy by a wave motion 
 through this fluid a process exactly anal- 
 ogous to the transmission of sound in air and 
 of waves in water. This theory explains the 
 nature of radiant heat also and its relation to 
 light, considering it is an undulatory motion, 
 in this same ether, of similar character but 
 different degree. The now discarded corpus- 
 cular theory, which was supported by no less a 
 man than Sir Isaac Newton, assumed that an 
 infinite number of minute material particles 
 emanated from a luminous body, and, imping- 
 ing on the eye, gave the sensation of light. 
 Huygens has the credit of having propounded, 
 developed, and illustrated the undulatory 
 theory. His propositions and conclusions were 
 finally and fully substantiated by the succes- 
 sive experiments and demonstrations of Young, 
 Fizeau, and Foucault. The velocity of light, 
 or the rate at which this wa~ve motion is com- 
 municated through the ether, is 186,000 miles 
 a second. 
 
 Vaccination, as a preventive of small- 
 pox, was discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner, an 
 English physician. His attention was directed 
 to the subject upon casually hearing that per- 
 sons engaged in milking cows frequently had 
 the cowpox, a mild disorder of the eruptive 
 kind appearing on the udder of the animal, 
 and communicated in a similar form to the 
 hands, and that the belief was common among 
 the agricultural classes that whoever had taken 
 the disease was secure against the infection of 
 smallpox. After frequent experiments he 
 ascertained that only one form of the eruption 
 on the cow's udder possessed this property, a 
 number of these experiments being made upon 
 his son, a boy six years old. He labored 
 against opposition for many years before the 
 value of his discovery was acknowledged by 
 the medical profession. There are several 
 places in the United States where a business is 
 made of supplying the market with "vaccine 
 points" small quills, with a coating of the 
 cow virus' on the ends. The name is derived 
 from racca, meaning a cow. 
 
 Vacuum. This word means, literally, 
 empty space, or space wholly devoid of matter. 
 In this sense, the results of modern scientific 
 investigation tend to prove that a vacuum can- 
 not exist, as all space is pervaded by the im- 
 ponderable elastic fluid called ether, whose 
 existence must be allowed to explain the trans- 
 mission of light and heat from distant lumi- 
 nous bodies. (See Undulatory Theory of 
 Light.) In common language, a vacuum j 
 (more or less perfect) is said to be produced 
 when ordinary ponderable matter, as air, has 
 been removed from the interior of a closed 
 vessel. Until the beginning of the present 
 
 century the most perfect vacuum that could be 
 obtained was what is called the Torricellian 
 vacuum i. e., the space above the mercury 
 in a carefully filled barometer tube. Such a 
 vacuum is, however, almost useless for experi- 
 mental purposes ; and, besides, it contains 
 mercurial vapor. By modern scientific meth- 
 ods and appliances a vacuum may be obtained 
 in which there is leftlessthan 1-135,000 of the 
 original volume of air. An ordinary air-pump 
 in good working order will remove all but 
 about 1-120 of the air in the receiver. The 
 old phrase that "Nature abhors a vacuum," 
 was used to account for various phenomena in 
 the past among them the rise of water in 
 pumps. Most of these are now well under- 
 stood, the simple natural laws governing them. 
 Water, for instance, rises in a tube, when the 
 air is exhausted above it, owing to the pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere on the open surface of 
 the liquid in which the end of the tube is im- 
 mersed. This pressure or weight of the at- 
 mosphere is equal to the weight of a column 
 of water about thirty-two feet high, and, ac- 
 cordingly, will raise the water to this height. 
 Velocity. The average velocity of various 
 bodies is here given : 
 
 Per hour. 
 3 miles, or 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 or 
 
 A man walks 
 
 A horse trots 
 
 A horse runs 
 
 Steamboats move 18 
 
 Sailing vessels move 10 
 
 Slow rivers flow 3 
 
 Rapid rivers flow 7 
 
 A moderate wind blows 7 
 
 A storm moves 36 
 
 A hurricane moves 80 
 
 A rifle ball moves 963 
 
 Sound moves 743 
 
 Light moves 192,000 miles per second. 
 
 Electricity moves 288,000 
 
 Per sec. 
 4 feet. 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 or 26 
 or 14 
 or 4 
 or 10 
 or 10 
 or 52 
 or 117 
 or 1,466 
 or 1,142 
 
 Violin. The origin of the violin can be 
 traced back to a stringed instrument called the 
 ravanastron, invented, it is believed, in 5000 
 B. C., by Ravana, King of Ceylon. The 
 crwth, which was in use in Wales long before 
 the sixth century, and to which the Anglo- 
 Saxons gave the name of fythel, whence our 
 fiddle, was a similar instrument. The violin 
 of modern form was not made until the fifteenth 
 or sixteenth centuries, and its earliest maker 
 was Gaspard di Salo, of Lombardy ; and the 
 Italian school of violin-making was probably 
 founded by him at Brescia. These Brescian 
 instruments that is to say. those made by 
 Giovanni Paolo Magini, still hold a place 
 among the best ever made. It was not long, 
 however, after the establishment of the Bres- 
 cian school when the makers of Cremona be- 
 gan to produce instruments which have been 
 objects of wonder and admiration from their 
 time to the present. The three greatest Crem-
 
 362 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 onese makers were Nicholas Amati, Joseph 
 Guarneri del Gesu and Antonius Stradivarius. 
 To those who at the present time willingly pay 
 hundreds and even thousands of dollars for a 
 violin made by one of these great makers, 
 it may be of interest to know that they all 
 were simple, hard-working artisans, who sold 
 their works of genius for a few florins. 
 
 Volcanoes. A volcano is a mountain, or 
 opening in the earth's crust, through which 
 issue fire, smoke, ashes, lava, steam, etc. 
 Volcanoes may be distinguished as extinct 
 and active. Extinct volcanoes are such as are 
 now at rest, but were subject to eruptions in 
 former ages, as is shown by their form and 
 structure, and the presence of craters. Active 
 volcanoes are such as are either in a constant 
 state of eruption, or have eruptions from time 
 to time, with intervals of rest. 
 
 Volcanoes throw out an enormous amount of 
 material. Whole islands and portions of con- 
 tinents have been formed by volcanic action. 
 Iceland is an example of a volcanic island. 
 
 The lava, when it first issues from a volcano, 
 is somewhat like melted iron running from a 
 furnace, but soon cools on the surface and 
 forms a black, porous crust. Sometimes the 
 streams are so thick that the interior remains 
 hot for twenty years. 
 
 A terrific eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, A. D. 
 79, destroyed the flourishing cities of Pompeii, 
 Herculaneum, and Stabise, and covered them 
 with ashes and cinders to the depth of fifteen 
 feet. 
 
 About sixty eruptions of Mt. Etna are re- 
 corded. In 1669, a stream of lava from this 
 mountain overflowed the ramparts of Catania, 
 sixty feet in height, and destroyed a portion of 
 the city. In 1832, several craters opened in 
 the sides of the mountain, and a stream of j 
 lava eighteen miles long, or.e mile broad, and 
 thirty feet deep, poured over tho adjacent 
 fields. 
 
 In 1835, the terrible eruption of Conseguina 
 occurred. It lasted three days, during which 
 the light of the sun was obscured over half of 
 Central America, and more than 40,000 square 
 miles are said to have been covered with dust, 
 ashes, and lava. 
 
 Water Gas Much of the illuminating 
 gas now used is made by the comparatively 
 new process in which the main volume of the 
 gas, consisting of hydrogen, is taken out of 
 water. In the original coal gas process the 
 illuminating agent is obtained directly from 
 the distillation of soft or bituminous coal ; 
 and impurities being removed by washing it 
 with water and then passing it through lime, 
 the gas is ready for burning. The new proc- 
 ess is, in outline, as follows : Steam is passed 
 
 through retorts filled with anthracite coal raised 
 to a white heat by an air blast. In its passage 
 it is decomposed, and the gas issuing from the 
 pipes at the top consists of a mixture of hydro- 
 gen and carbon dioxide. This serves as the 
 carrier for the true illuminating agents, which 
 are a comparatively small percentage of the 
 entire volume, and these are combined by 
 mingling with naphtha vapor. This mixture 
 has now about the same composition as the 
 ordinary coal gas, but must be fixed tha^is, 
 made a stable compound by subjecting it to 
 the effect of heat and cold. This is accom- 
 plished by conducting it through two series of 
 pipes, surrounded in one case by cold, running 
 water, and in the other by steam. It is then 
 purified in the same way as mentioned above. 
 By passing it through a water tower loosely 
 filled with something, as charcoal, down 
 through which water trickles as the gaseous 
 mixture ascends, the ammonia is dissolved out ; 
 then, by passing it through thin layers of lime, 
 the other main impurity, sulphureted hydro- 
 gen, is removed. It is then ready for distri- 
 bution through the city. Its illuminating 
 power is about the same as, or somewhat 
 greater than, that of coal gas. The water 
 process produces the gas at a much lower cost ; 
 but in the other process there are a number of 
 by-products derived from the distillation of 
 the coal e. fj., coke, coal tar, and also aqua 
 ammonia, which is present in greater quanti- 
 ties in the coal gas which are sold, and thus 
 make the entire cost of manufacture about the 
 same in each case. 
 
 Weaving 1 . The art of weaving appears 
 to have been practiced in China from the ear- 
 liest antiquity more than a thousand years 
 before it was known in Europe or Asia. Poets 
 assign the art to the spider. Women origi- 
 nally spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of 
 these arts is ascribed, by ancient nations, to 
 different women as women's art. The Egyp- 
 tians ascribed the art to Isis, the Greeks to 
 Minerva, and the Peruvians to the wife of 
 Manco Capac. In most Eastern countries, 
 the employment of \veaving is still performed 
 by the women. The Saviour's vest, or coat, 
 had not any seam, being woven from the top 
 throughout, in one whole piece. In 1331, two 
 weavers from Brabrant settled at York, Eng- 
 land, where they manufactured woolen. Flem- 
 ish dyers, cloth drapers, linen makers, silk 
 throwsters, etc., .settled at Canterbury, Nor- 
 wich, Colchester, Southampton, and other 
 places, on account of the Duke of Alva's per- 
 secution, 1567, and carried on the occupation 
 of weaving. 
 
 Whisky. The process of distilling liquors 
 from grain is thought to have been first
 
 SCIENCE, INVENTION, DISCOVERY. 
 
 363 
 
 discovered in India, and introduced into 
 Europe by the Moors about 1150. Its use in 
 Ireland dates back to about the same time, but 
 it was not introduced into England until the 
 close of the century. When first made, 
 whisky was used as a medicine ; and direc- 
 tions for making usquebaugh, or aqua vitae, 
 are contained in the " Red" Book of Ossory," 
 a volume compiled in the fourteenth century, 
 in which it is described as a panacea for all 
 diseases. The name whisky was at first given 
 by the Scotch Highlanders to the liquor which 
 they distilled from barley only, and had not, 
 until later times, its present more general 
 application. Usquebaugh was a Celtic name 
 for the liquor, from which the word whisky 
 is no doubt derived. 
 
 AVire. The invention of drawing wire is 
 ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, about 
 1410. Mills for this purpose were set up at 
 Nuremberg in 1563. The first wire mill in 
 England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. 
 The astonishing ductility, which is one of the 
 distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way 
 more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylin- 
 der of forty-eight ounces of silver, covered 
 with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, 
 is usually drawn into a wire, two yards of 
 which weigh only one grain ; so that ninety- 
 eight yards of the w T ire weigh no more than 
 forty-nine grains, and one single grain of gold 
 covers the whole ninety-eight yards. Eight 
 grains of gold, covering a cylinder of silver 
 are commonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet 
 long ; yet so perfectly does it cover the silver 
 that even a microscope does not discover any 
 appearance of the silver underneath. 
 
 X or Rontgen Rays are a newly dis- 
 covered form of energy that is radiated from a 
 highly exhausted discharge tube, and devel- 
 oped by an electrical discharge. The rays are 
 so called for their discoverer, Prof. W. C. 
 Rontgen of Wurtzburg, who gave them the 
 name " X rays " because he was ignorant of 
 their precise nature, the letter " X " being the 
 usual algebraic symbol for an unknown quan- 
 tity. The Rontgen rays resemble ordinary 
 light in being propagated in straight lines, in 
 being capable of reflection, in causing phos- 
 phorescence, and in affecting a sensitized plate. 
 They differ from it in being invisible, in not 
 being capable of refraction or polarization, and 
 in being able to traverse many substances 
 that are opaque to ordinary light. The phe- 
 nomena caused by the passage of electricity 
 through exhausted tubes have long attracted 
 attention. It was noticed by Faraday in 1837, 
 and by Plucker, in 1858, who was the first to 
 cause apparatus to be made whereby a practi- 
 cally permanent vacuum could be maintained 
 
 | in a glass bulb. The physicist Crookes im- 
 proved the tube and made many experiments 
 with "cathode rays." The discovery of 
 i Rontgen was announced in 1896 as a new form 
 of radiation. The discovery was accidental, 
 and was made by observing that a highly flour- 
 escent substance with which he was experi- 
 menting gave out light whenever a neighbor- t 
 ing Crookes tube was excited, though this 
 tube was covered with an opaque cloth. The 
 phenomena differed from cathode rays, and it 
 was found that when the human hand was 
 interposed between the tube and a photo- 
 graphic plate, the new rays caused a marked 
 shadow picture of the skeleton to appear on 
 the plate. Nothing but a shadow picture was 
 possible owing to the fact that the rays are 
 capable of but slight reflection. Extraordi- 
 I nary and widespread interest was at once 
 ! aroused, but the purely scientific interest was 
 j for the time being overshadowed in the public 
 i mind by the sensational announcement that a 
 ' means of " seeing through " the human body 
 had been devised. Notwithstanding these 
 i exaggerations, experimenters in all countries 
 ; verified Prof Rontgen's own claims. 
 
 The shadow pictures are used for a great 
 variety of purposes, such as locating foreign ' 
 bodies, examining fractures and malformations 
 of bones, in dental surgery, and in detecting 
 adulterations. The rays have also been util- 
 ized in France for the study of fossils. 
 
 Zodiac, The, is the name given by the 
 ancients to an imaginary band extending 
 around the celestial sphere, having as its me- 
 sial line the ecliptic or apparent path of the 
 sun. The signs of the zodiac embrace the 
 twelve important constellations which, owing 
 to the motions of the earth, appear to revolve 
 through the heavens within a belt extending 
 nine degrees on each side of the sun's apparent 
 annual path, and within or near which all the 
 planets revolve. Since the sun appears suc- 
 cessively in each of these constellations during 
 the year, the zodiac was divided into twelve 
 equal parts, corresponding to the months. 
 These signs and their subdivisions were used 
 in measuring time, and as a basis of astro- 
 nomical and astrological calculations and predic- 
 tions. Astronomers now, for convenience, use 
 these signs, giving to each constellation an ex- 
 tent of thirty degrees, although the constella- 
 ! tions vary in size. These signs are Aries, 
 I representing the ram ; Taurus, the bull ; Gem- 
 i ini, the twins ; Cancer, the crab ; Leo, the 
 j lion ; Virgo, the virgin ; Libra, the balance ; 
 j Scorpio, the scorpion ; Sagittarius, the archer; 
 I Capricornus, the goat; Aquarius, the water- 
 ; bearer, and Pisces, the fishes. On the 20th of 
 March the sun enters Aries, and at midnight
 
 364 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Virgo, the opposite constellation, will be over- 
 head. During the month of April the sun 
 will pass into Taurus, and at midnight Libra 
 will be overhead. The early astronomers were 
 astrologers, and claimed to be able to predict 
 the future careers of individuals and nations 
 by observing the positions and movements of 
 ^the planets and the condition of the weather 
 at the most important periods of men's lives. 
 A man born when the sun was in the constella- 
 tion Scorpio was believed to be naturally bent 
 toward excessive indulgence of the animal 
 passions ; one born when the sun was in Aries 
 was destined to be a great scholar or ruler ; 
 one born when the sun was in Pisces was pre- 
 destined to grovel or be a servant, and so on. 
 The porticoes of the temples of Denderah and 
 Esne, in Egypt, have representations of the 
 zodiacal constellations which are of great an- 
 tiquity and have formed a fruitful theme of 
 discussion ; but the truth seems to be that 
 nothing is as yet known respecting these an- 
 cient representations, for the manner in which 
 the investigations have been mixed up with 
 the Biblical question of the antiquity of man 
 has prevented any truly scientific research. 
 The Greeks would seem to have borrowed their 
 constellations from the Egyptians and Baby- 
 lonians, and this is corroborated to some ex- 
 tent by occasional remarks of Greek writers as 
 to the positions of various constellations at 
 certain times, which positions are inconsistent 
 with' the supposition of the observer being in 
 Greece. The zodiacal figures of the Hindus, 
 ancient Persians. Chinese, and Japanese have 
 such a remarkable resemblance to those of the 
 Egyptians that there can be little doubt as to 
 their common origin. 
 
 Zoology is that science which treats of ani- 
 mals, their structure, habits, and classification. 
 
 There are four principal divisions of animals, 
 based on distinct types of structure, and in- 
 cluding all the denizens of the earth, the water, 
 
 and the air. Following are the divisions of th e 
 animal kingdom, beginning with the lowest : 
 
 CLASSES OF SUB- 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 1. Amoeba, sponges, pro- 
 tei, etc. They have no 
 mouth, and no distinct 
 members, but are ca- 
 pable of making many 
 
 SUB-KINGDOMS OR 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 I. PKOTOZOA First-liv- 
 ing things, or lowest form -< 
 of animal life. 
 
 II. RADIATA Radiates, 
 that is, such as are shaped 
 like a star or flower, and 
 have their organs arrang- 
 ed uniformly around a 
 common center. 
 
 III. MOLLUSCA Mol- 
 lusks, that is, soft-bodied, 
 without joints, and with- 
 out vertebrae, but usually 
 protected by a shell. 
 
 IV. ARTICULATA Ar- 
 ticulates, that is, animals 
 having the body and mem- 
 bers jointed, but without 
 an internal skeleton. 
 
 V. VBRTEBBAT A Ver- 
 tebrates, that is, animals 
 that have a backbone, and 
 an articulated or jointed 
 skeleton, and a great ner- 
 vous cord, the spinal mar 
 row, inclosed in a bony 
 sheath. 
 
 changes in their form. 
 
 1. Coral animals, sea- 
 anemones, etc. 
 
 2. Jelly-fishes, sea-nettles. 
 
 3. Star-iishes, sea-urchins. 
 
 1. Bryozoa, that is, moss 
 animals ; as sea-mats, 
 white sea-weeds, etc. 
 
 2. Brachiopods, that is, 
 with arm-feet, or spiral 
 appendages; as the lin- 
 gulae, spirifers, etc. 
 
 3. Ascidians, that is, 
 pouch-like; as salpae, 
 etc. 
 
 4. Acephals, that is, head- 
 less ; as oysters, etc. 
 
 5. Cephalates, that is, with 
 heads ; as snails, etc. 
 
 6. Cephalopoda, that is, 
 with heads and feet, or, 
 more strictly, tentacles. 
 
 1. Worms, as earthworms, 
 leeches, etc. 
 
 2. Crustaceans, as crabs, 
 lobsters, etc. 
 
 3. Centipedes, etc. 
 
 4. Spiders, etc. 
 
 5. Beetles, butterflies, etc. 
 
 1. Fishes. 
 
 2. Reptiles, that is, creep- 
 ing things, as turtles, 
 frogs, snakes, lizards, 
 etc. 
 
 3. Birds, that is, "Every 
 winged fowl." 
 
 4. Mammalia, that is, :mi- 
 mals with teats. 
 
 The last class, Mammalia, is further sub- 
 divided into fourteen orders, of which the most 
 distinctive, still ascending from the lower to 
 the higher, are four, namely : 
 
 1. Cetacea, that is, of the whale tribe. 
 
 2. Quadrupeds, that is, four-footed animals generally. 
 
 3. Quadrumana, that is, four-handed; as the gorilla, 
 
 chimpanzee, ape, and monkey. 
 
 4. Bimana, that is, two-handed; of wh-'ch the on.y 
 
 representative is man,.
 
 ' u '"V 
 
 i , v -,, \ '.f*T ' .
 
 Book V. 
 
 Domestic Economy, Hygiene 
 
 Dietetics.
 
 Domestic Economy, Hygiene, Dietetics. 
 
 AIR. 
 
 The common air is a fluid composed mainly 
 of two gases, in certain proportions ; namely, 
 oxygen as twenty and nitrogen as eighty parts 
 in a hundred, with a very minute addition of 
 carbonic acid gas. Such is air in its pure and 
 right state, and such is the state in which we 
 require it for respiration. When it is loaded 
 with any admixture of a different kind, or its 
 natural proportions are in any way deranged, 
 it cannot be breathed without producing inju- 
 rious results. We also require what is apt to 
 appear a large quantity of this element of 
 healthy existence. The lungs of a healthy 
 full-grown man will inhale the bulk of twenty 
 cubic inches at every inspiration, and he will 
 use no less than fifty-seven hogsheads in 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 Now, there are various circumstances which 
 tend to surround us at times with" vitiated air, 
 and which must accordingly be guarded 
 against. That first calling for attention is the 
 miasma or noxious quality imparted to the air 
 in certain districts by stagnant water and de- j 
 caying vegetable matter. It is now generally i 
 acknowledged that this noxious quality is in 
 reality a subtle poison, which acts on the hu- j 
 man system through the medium of the lungs, 
 producing fevers and other epidemics. 
 
 Putrid matter of all kinds is another con- 
 spicuous source of noxious effluvia. The filth 
 collected in ill-regulated towns, ill-managed 
 drains, collections of decaying animal sub- 
 stances placed too near or within private dwell- 
 ings, are notable for their effects in vitiating 
 the atmosphere, and generating disease in 
 those exposed to them. In this case, also, it 
 is a poison diffused abroad through the air 
 which acts so injuriously on the human frame. 
 
 The human subject tends to vitiate the 
 atmosphere for itself, by the effect which it 
 produces on the air which it breathes. Our 
 breath, when we draw it in, consists of the in- 
 gredients formerly mentioned ; but it is in a 
 very different state when we part with it. On 
 passing into our lungs the oxygen, forming the 
 lesser ingredient, enters into combination with 
 the carbon of the venous blood (or blood which 
 has already performed its round through the 
 body) ; in this process about two fifths of the 
 oxygen is abstracted and sent into the blood ?< 
 only the remaining three fifths being expired, 
 along with the nitrogen nearly as it was before. 
 In place of the oxygen consumed, there is ex- 
 pired an equal volume of carbonic acid gas, 
 such gas being a result of the process of com- 
 
 bination just alluded to. Now, carbonic acid 
 gas, in a larger proportion than that in which 
 it is found in the atmosphere, is noxious. The 
 volume of it expired by the lungs, if free to 
 mingle with the air at large, will do no harm ; 
 but, if breathed out into a close room, it will 
 render the air unfit for being again breathed. 
 Suppose an individual to be shut up in an air- 
 tight box : each breath he emits throws a cer- 
 tain quantity of carbonic acid gas into the air 
 filling the box ; the air is thus vitiated, and 
 every successive inspiration is composed of 
 worse and worse materials, till at length the 
 oxygen is so much exhausted that it is insuffi- 
 cient for the support of life. He would then 
 be sensible of a great difficulty in breathing, 
 and in a little time longer he would die. 
 
 Most rooms in which human beings live are 
 not strictly close. The chimney and the chinks 
 of the doors and windows generally allow of a 
 communication to a certain extent with the 
 outer air, so that it rarely happens that great 
 immediate inconvenience is experienced in 
 ordinary apartments from want of fresh air. 
 But it is at the same time quite certain that, 
 in all ordinary apartments where human beings 
 are assembled, the air unavoidably becomes 
 considerably vitiated, for in such a situation 
 there cannot be a sufficiently ready or copious 
 supply of oxygen to make up for that which 
 has been consumed, and the carbonic acid gas 
 will be constantly accumulating. This is par- 
 ticularly the case in bedrooms, and in theaters, 
 churches, and schools. 
 
 Perhaps it is in bedrooms that most harm 
 is done. These are generally smaller than 
 other rooms, and they are usually kept closed 
 during the whole night. The result of sleep- 
 ing in such a room is very injurious. A com- 
 mon fire, from the draught which it produces, 
 is very serviceable in ventilating rooms, but it 
 is at best a defective means of doing so. The 
 draught which it creates generally sweeps 
 along near the floor between the door and the 
 fire, leaving all above the level of the chimney- 
 piece unpurified. Yet scarcely any other ar- 
 rangement is anywhere made for the purpose 
 of changing the air in ordinary rooms. 
 
 FOOD. 
 
 A food is a substance which, when intro- 
 duced into the body, supplies material w r hich 
 renews some structure or maintains some vital 
 process ; and it is distinguished from a medi- 
 cine in that the latter modifies some vital ac- 
 tion, but does not supply the material which
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 367 
 
 sustains such action. It is essential to the 
 idea of a food that it support or increase vital 
 actions; whilst medicines usually may lessen, 
 increase, or otherwise modify some of them. 
 " Foods are derived," says Dr. Edward Smith, 
 'from all the great divisions of nature and 
 natural products, as earth, water, and air, 
 solids, liquids, and gases; and from substances 
 which are living and organic, or inanimate and 
 inorganic. The popular notion of food as a 
 solid substance derived from animals and veg- 
 etables, whilst comprehensive is too exclusive, 
 since the water which we drink, the air which 
 we breathe, and certain minerals found in the 
 substance of the earth, are, adopting the defi- 
 nition given, of no less importance as foods. 
 It is. however, of great interest to note how fre- 
 quently all these are combined in one food, and 
 how closely united are substances which seem 
 to be widely separated. Thus water and min- 
 erals are found in both flesh and vegetables, 
 whilst one or both of the components parts of 
 the air, viz., oxygen and nitrogen, are dis- 
 tributed through every kind of food which is 
 alone capable of sustaining life. Hence, not 
 only may we add food to food to supply the 
 waste of the body, but we may within certain 
 limits substitute one for another as our appe- 
 tites or wants demand. . . . Further, 
 there seems to be an indissoluble bond existing 
 between all the sources of food. There are 
 the same classes of elements in flesh as in flour, 
 and the same in animals as in vegetables. 
 
 ' ' The vegetable draw s water and minerals 
 from the soil, whilst it absorbs and incorporates 
 the air in its own growth, and is then eaten 
 to sustain the life of animals, so that animals 
 gain the substances which vegetables first ac- 
 quired. But in completing the circle the veg- 
 etable receives from the animal the air (car- 
 bonic acid) which was thrown out in respira- j 
 tion, and lives and grows upon it ; and at 
 length the animal itself in whole or in part, 
 and the refuse which it daily throws off , be-! 
 come the food of the vegetable. Even the very 
 bones of an animal are by the aid. of nature or 
 man made to increase the growth of vegetables 
 and really to enter into their structure ; and 
 being again eaten, animals may be said to eat 
 their own bones, and live on their own flesh." 
 It will be seen from this that animal and veg- 
 etable foods contain precisely the same ele- 
 ments though in different combinations. At 
 the same time they differ sufficiently to make 
 a due proportion of each necessary to perfect 
 nutrition. One sterling point of difference is, 
 that nitrogen constitutes a much larger per- 
 centage of animal bodies than of vegetables. 
 Nitrogen is one of the most important ele- 
 ments of food ; only such substances as con- 
 
 tain it can efficiently produce flesh or repair 
 wasted tissue. So important is this distinction, 
 in fact, that one of the divisions of food most 
 generally recognized by physiologists is into 
 nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous, or, as Lie- 
 big termed them, the flesh-forming and the 
 heat-producing. Both kinds are essential to 
 the maintenance of life, and it is because veg- 
 etables as a whole are deficient in nitrogen 
 that the highest degree of bodily vigor cannot 
 be kept up by them alone. 
 
 It is understood that the structures of the 
 | body are in a state of continual change, 
 so that atoms which are present at one hour 
 may be gone the next, and when gone the 
 structures will be so far wasted, unless the proc- 
 ess of waste be accompanied by renewal. But 
 the renewing substance must be of the same 
 nature as that wasted, so that bone shall be re- 
 newed by the constituent elements of bone, 
 and flesh by those of flesh. This is the duty 
 assigned to food, to supply to each part of 
 the body the very same kind of material that 
 it lost by waste. As foods must have, the 
 same composition as the body, or supply some 
 such other materials as can be transformed 
 into the substances of the body, it is desirable 
 to gain a general idea of what these substances 
 are. The following is a summary of the prin- 
 cipal materials of which the body is com- 
 posed : 
 
 Flesh, in its fresh state, contains water, fat, 
 fibrin, albumen, besides compounds of lime, 
 phosphorus, soda, potash, magnesia, silica, and 
 iron, and certain extractives, whose nature is 
 unknown. Blood has a composition similar in 
 elements to that of flesh. 
 
 Bone is composed of cartilage, fat, and salts 
 of lime, magnesia, soda, and*potash, combined 
 with phosphoric and other acids. 
 
 Cartilage consists of chondrin, from which 
 gelatine is formed, with salts of soda, potash, 
 lime, phosphorus, magnesia, sulphur, and iron. 
 
 The brain is composed of water, albumen, 
 fat (so-called), phosphoric acid, osmazome, 
 and salts. 
 
 The liver consists of water, fat, and albu- 
 men, with phosphoric and other acids, in con- 
 junction with soda, lime, potash, and iron. 
 
 The lungs are formed of a substance called 
 connective tissue, from which gelatine is formed 
 by prolonged boiling, albumen, a substance 
 analogous to casein, various fatty and organic 
 acids, with salts of soda and iron, and water. 
 
 Bile consists of water, fat, resin, sugar, fatty 
 and organic acids, cholesterin, and salts of 
 potash, soda, and iron. 
 
 Hence, it is requisite that the body should 
 be provided with salts of potash, soda, lime, 
 magnesia, sulphur, iron, and manganese, as
 
 368 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 well as sulphuric, hydrochloric, phosphoric, 
 and fluoric acids and water ; also, nearly all 
 the fat which it consumes daily, and probably 
 all the nitrogenous substances which it re- 
 quires and which are closely allied in compo- 
 sition, as albumen, fibrin, etc. "So great an 
 array of mysterious substances," says Dr. 
 Smith, " might well prevent us from feeding 
 ourselves or others if the selection of food de- 
 pended solely upon our knowledge or judg- 
 ment ; but it is not so, for, independently of 
 the aid .derived from our appetites, there is the 
 great advantage of having foods which con- 
 tain a proportion of nearly all these elements ; 
 and combinations of foods have been effected 
 by experience which protect even the most 
 ignorant from evil consequences. Thus flesh, 
 or the muscular tissue of animals, contains 
 precisely the elements which are required in 
 our flesh-formers, and, only limited by quan- 
 tity, our heat-generators also ; and life may be 
 maintained for very lengthy periods upon ani- 
 mal food and water. Seeing, moreover, that 
 the source of flesh in animals which are used 
 as food, is of vegetable origin, it follows that 
 vegetables should contain the same elements 
 as flesh, and it is a fact of great interest that 
 in vegetables we have food elements closely 
 analogous to those contained in the flesh of 
 animals. Thus, in addition to water and salts, 
 common to both, there is vegetable chondrin, 
 vegetable albumen, vegetable fibrin, and vege- 
 table casein, all having a composition almost 
 identical with animal albumen, fibrin, chondrin 
 and casein." The articles containing most 
 of the three articles needed generally in the 
 body are as follows : for fat and heat-making 
 butter, lard, sugar and molasses; for flesh 
 or muscle-forming- lean meat, cheese, peas, 
 beans, and lean fishes ; for brain and nerves 
 shell fish, lean meats, pease, beans, and very 
 active birds and fishes, who live chiefly on food 
 in which phosphorus abounds. Tn a meat 
 diet, the fat supplies the carbon for keeping 
 up the heat of the body, and the lean furnishes 
 nutriment for the muscles, brain, and nerves. 
 Green vegetables, fruits, and berries furnish 
 additional supplies of the acids, the salts, and 
 water needed. 
 
 Kinds of Food. The simplest and most 
 powerful agent in determining the character of 
 our food is climate. In cold countries the 
 requirements of man are very different from 
 those felt in the tropics, and from the Esqui- 
 maux, who, according to Dr. Kane, will drink 
 ten or twelve gallons of train oil in a day, to 
 the Peruvians and other tropical nations for 
 whom the banana suffices for nearly all seasons 
 of the year, there are various gradations in 
 which the constituents of the diet bear a very 
 
 direct relation to the prevailing temperature. 
 In cold regions man requires such food as not- 
 only supplies him with nutriment, but also 
 with heat; as oil, butter, fat, sugar, and other 
 substances in which carbonaceous elements 
 predominate. In warm countries, on the con- 
 trary, it is one of the most essential conditions 
 of good health, that his food should be as lit- 
 tle heating as possible. Tn our own climate 
 this law holds good as between summer and 
 winter; in the latter season, plenty of lean 
 meat, butter, potatoes, eggs, sugar, and 
 similar food are necessary to keep the animal 
 machine in working order, while in summer 
 the diet should consist chiefly of those sub- 
 stances of which nitrogenous or flesh-forming 
 elements compose the largest part. There is 
 probably no other cause so fruitful in produc- 
 ing the dyspepsia and similar diseases of which 
 Americans, as a nation, are in a peculiar degree 
 the victims as the neglect to harmonize the 
 food with the changing seasons. 
 
 The next most important question in deter- 
 mining the character of our food is that of its 
 digestibility ; and it must be borne in mind 
 that the nutritiA^e value and the digestibility 
 of food have no necessary relation to each 
 other. A food may have a very high nutri- 
 tive value and yet be so indigestible as to be 
 practically useless, and on the other hand it 
 may be very easily digested and worth little or 
 nothing for nutrition. No general rules as to 
 the digestibility of different foods can be laid 
 down, because it depends very largely upon in- 
 dividual habits and conditions. Persons who 
 have a strong constitution, and take sufficient 
 exercise, may eat almost anything with appar- 
 ent impunity ; but young children who are 
 forming their constitutions, and persons who 
 are delicate, and who take but little exercise, 
 are very dependent for health upon a proper 
 selection of food. As a general thing, when 
 the body requires a given kind of diet, spe- 
 cially demanded by brain , lungs, or muscles, the 
 appetite will crave that food until the neces- 
 sary amount is secured. If the food in which 
 the needed aliment abounds be not supplied, 
 other food will be taken in larger quantities 
 than needed until that amount is gained ; for 
 all kinds of food have supplies for every part 
 of the body, though in different proportions. 
 Thus, for example, if the muscles are worked 
 a great deal, food in which nitrogen abounds 
 is required, and the appetite will remain un- 
 ap] Ceased until the requisite amount of nitro- 
 gen is secured. Should food be taken which 
 has not the requisite quantity, the consequence 
 will be that the vital powers will be needlessly 
 taxed to throw off the excess. There are other 
 kinds of food which are not only nourishing
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 369 
 
 but stimulating, so that they quicken the 
 functions of the organs on which they operate ; 
 the condiments used in cookery, such as pep- 
 per, mustard, and spices, are of this nature. 
 There are certain states of the system in which 
 these stimulants may be beneficial and even 
 necessary ; but persons in perfect health, and 
 especially young children, never receive any 
 benefit from such food, and just in proportion 
 as condiments operate to quicken the action of 
 the internal organs, they tend to wear down 
 their powers. The same observation applies 
 to the use of wines and other spirituous and 
 malt liquors. Under certain conditions where 
 the vital powers are low, they are a highly im- 
 portant addition to ordinary food ; but when 
 used habitually, their temporary stimulation 
 is gained at the expense of permanently weak- 
 ening the digestive organs which finally refuse 
 to perform their work without some such ex- 
 ternal aid. It follows from the above that the 
 requirements of food in each case may in a nor- 
 mal condition of things be left to the individual 
 taste, to be selected and prepared as is indi- 
 cated by experience to be most appropriate. 
 
 Xutritiousness of Food. The follow- 
 ing table from authentic sources shows the 
 ascertained percentage of nutriment in the 
 common articles of table consumption : 
 
 KIND OF FOOD. 
 
 Preparation. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 Nutriment. 
 
 Time of 
 Digestion. 
 
 Almonds 
 
 raw 
 
 66 
 
 H. M. 
 
 Apples , 
 
 raw 
 
 10 
 
 1 30 
 
 Apricots 
 
 raw 
 
 26 
 
 
 Barley. 
 
 boiled 
 
 92 
 
 2 00 
 
 Beans, dry 
 
 boiled 
 
 87 
 
 2 30 
 
 Beef 
 
 roast 
 
 26 
 
 3 30 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 <22/ 
 
 
 Bread 
 
 baked 
 
 80 
 
 3 30 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 boiled 
 
 
 4 30 
 
 Carrots 
 
 boiled 
 
 10 
 
 3 15 
 
 
 raw 
 
 25 
 
 2 01 
 
 Chickens 
 Codfish 
 
 tricasseed 
 boiled 
 
 27 
 21 
 
 2 45 
 2 00 
 
 Cucumbers 
 
 raw 
 
 2 
 
 
 Eggs. ..... 
 
 whipped 
 
 13 
 
 1 30 
 
 Flour, bolted 
 Flour, unbolted... 
 Gooseberries 
 Grapes 
 
 in bread 
 in bread 
 raw 
 raw 
 
 21 
 35 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 2 no 
 
 2 30 
 
 Haddock 
 
 boiled 
 
 18 
 
 2 30 
 
 Melons 
 
 raw 
 
 3 
 
 2 00 
 
 Milk 
 
 raw 
 
 7 
 
 2 15 
 
 Mutton 
 
 roast 
 
 30 
 
 3 15 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 baked 
 
 74 
 
 3 30 
 
 Oils 
 
 raw 
 
 96 
 
 3 30 
 
 Pease, dry . 
 Peaches 
 
 boiled 
 raw 
 
 93 
 20 
 
 2 30 
 2 00 
 
 Pears 
 
 raw 
 
 10 
 
 3 30 
 
 Plums 
 
 raw 
 
 29 
 
 2 30 
 
 Pork 
 
 roast 
 
 21 
 
 5 15 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 boiled 
 
 13 
 
 2 30 
 
 Rice... 
 
 boiled 
 
 88 
 
 1 00 
 
 Rye flour 
 
 baked 
 
 79 
 
 3 30 
 
 Sole 
 
 fried 
 
 21 
 
 3 00 
 
 Soup, barley 
 Strawberries 
 Turnips 
 
 boiled 
 raw 
 boiled 
 
 20 
 12 
 4 
 
 1 30 
 2 00 
 3 30 
 
 Veal 
 
 fried 
 
 25 
 
 4 30 
 
 Venison 
 
 broiled 
 
 22 
 
 1 30 
 
 Wheat bread 
 
 baked 
 
 95 
 
 3 30 
 
 Digestibility of Food. In Order of 
 
 Time. The following table of the digesti- 
 bility of the most common articles of tood, 
 prepared from standard authorities, is approxi- 
 mately correct, and is of very general prac- 
 tical interest : 
 
 QUALITY. 
 
 Preparation. 
 
 Time of 
 Digestion. 
 
 Coleslaw 
 
 
 H. M. 
 
 1 00 
 
 Rice 
 
 boiled 
 
 1 00 
 
 Pig's feet, soused 
 
 boiled 
 
 i oo 
 
 Tripe, soused 
 
 boiled 
 
 1 00 
 
 Eggs, whipped 
 
 
 1 30 
 
 Trout, salmon, fresh .... 
 
 boiled 
 
 1 30 
 
 Trout, salmon, fresh 
 
 fried 
 
 1 30 
 
 Soup, barley 
 
 boiled 
 
 I 30 
 
 Apples, sweet, mellow 
 
 raw 
 
 1 30 
 
 Venison steak 
 
 broiled 
 
 1 35 
 
 Brains, animal 
 
 boiled 
 
 1 45 
 
 Sao'o . . . 
 
 boiled 
 
 1 45 
 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 00 
 
 Barley 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 00 
 
 Milk 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 00 
 
 Liver, beef's, fresh 
 
 broiled 
 
 2 00 
 
 Eggs, fresh 
 
 raw 
 
 2 00 
 
 Codfish, cured, dry 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 00 
 
 Apples, sour, mellow 
 
 raw 
 
 2 00 
 
 Cabbage, with vinegar. 
 
 raw 
 
 2 00 
 
 Milk 
 
 raw 
 
 2 15 
 
 Eggs, fresh 
 
 roasted 
 
 2 15 
 
 Turkey, wild 
 
 roasted 
 
 2 18 
 
 Turkey, domestic 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 25 
 
 Gelatine 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 25 
 
 Turkey, domestic 
 
 roasted 
 
 2 30 
 
 
 roasted 
 
 2 30 
 
 Pig;, sucking 
 
 roasted 
 
 2 30 
 
 Lamb, fresh 
 
 broiled 
 
 2 30 
 
 Hash, meat and vegetables 
 Beans, pod 
 
 warmed 
 boiled 
 
 2 30 
 2 30 
 
 Cake, sponge 
 
 baked 
 
 2 30 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 30 
 
 Potatoes, Irish 
 
 roasted 
 
 2 30 
 
 Cabbage, head 
 
 raw 
 
 2 30 
 
 Spinal marrow, animal 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 40 
 
 Chicken, full grown 
 
 fricasseed 
 
 2 45 
 
 Custard 
 
 baked 
 
 2 45 
 
 Beef, with salt only 
 
 boiled 
 
 2 45 
 
 Apples, sour, hard 
 
 raw 
 
 2 50 
 
 Oysters, fresh 
 
 raw 
 
 2 55 
 
 Eggs, fresh 
 
 soft boiled 
 
 3 00 
 
 Bass, striped, fresh 
 
 broiled 
 
 3 00 
 
 Beef, fresh, lean, rare 
 
 roasted 
 
 3 00 
 
 Pork, recently salted 
 
 stewed 
 
 3 00 
 
 Mutton, f resli 
 
 broiled 
 
 3 00 
 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 00 
 
 Chicken soup 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 00 
 
 Aponeurosis 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 00 
 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 00 
 
 Cake, corn 
 
 baked 
 
 3 00 
 
 Oysters, fresh 
 
 roasted 
 
 3 15 
 
 Pork steak 
 
 broiled 
 
 3 15 
 
 Mutton, fresh 
 
 roasted 
 
 3 15 
 
 Bread, corn 
 
 baked 
 
 3 15 
 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 15 
 
 Sausage, fresh 
 
 broiled 
 
 3 30 
 
 Flounder, fresh 
 
 fried 
 
 3 30 
 
 Catfish, fresh 
 
 fried 
 
 3 30 
 
 Oysters, fresh 
 
 stewed 
 
 3 30 
 
 Butter 
 
 melted 
 
 3 30 
 
 Cheese, old, strong 
 
 raw 
 
 3 30 
 
 Soup, mutton 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 30 
 
 Oyster soup 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 30 
 
 Bread, wheat, fresh 
 
 baked 
 
 3 30 
 
 Turnips, flat 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 30 
 
 Potatoes, Irish 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 30 
 
 Eggs, fresh 
 
 hard boiled 
 
 3 30 
 
 Green corn and beans 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 45 
 
 Beets 
 
 boiled 
 
 3 45 
 
 Salmon, salted 
 
 boiled 
 
 4 00 
 
 Reef 
 
 fried 
 
 4 00 
 
 Veal, fresh 
 
 broiled 
 
 4 00 
 
 

 
 370 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Composition of Various Articles of 
 Food. In 100 parts. 
 
 KIND OF FOOD. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Albumen, etc. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 4J 
 
 C8 
 
 ft 
 
 73.3 
 66.8 
 2.4 
 2.5 
 298 
 3.6 
 
 1.3 
 1 
 
 83.0 
 0.7 
 0.5 
 0.2 
 24.3 
 31.1 
 6.3 
 8.1 
 26.7 
 138 
 10.5 
 
 30.7 
 2.9 
 4.1 
 15.45 
 3.49 
 3.9 
 1.8 
 31.1 
 4.9 
 5.6 
 0.5 
 2.1 
 48.9 
 0.2 
 3.8 
 0.7 
 2.0 
 5.5 
 
 16. 
 
 15.8 
 2.0 
 
 s 
 
 "cl 
 
 w 
 
 2.9 
 2.1 
 2.0 
 3.3 
 4.4 
 5.1 
 0.2 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.0 
 0.8 
 0.7 
 1.0 
 5.4 
 4.5 
 4.9 
 1.7 
 1.8 
 1.3 
 1.5 
 1.6 
 1.3 
 1.0 
 3.0 
 3.0 
 .21 
 0.8 
 0.8 
 3.5 
 4.8 
 3.0 
 1.0 
 2.5 
 2.3 
 0.7 
 1.2 
 0.5 
 1.8 
 1.4 
 
 2.4 
 0.6 
 4.7 
 1.7 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Sj 
 
 y 
 
 a: 
 
 
 18 
 15 
 24 
 15 
 11.75 
 51 
 72 
 91 
 8 " 
 37 
 15 
 88 
 91 
 83 
 36.8 
 38 
 44 
 14 
 66 
 75 
 74 
 78 
 52 
 78 
 74 
 54 
 88 
 86 
 88 
 53 
 72 
 15 
 82 
 15 
 39 
 75 
 74 
 13 
 15 
 77 
 5 
 23 
 68 
 91 
 63 
 15 
 
 8.8 
 7.1 
 6.3 
 24.3 
 14.8 
 19.3 
 0.1 
 15.6 
 8.1 
 
 4.1 
 2.0 
 13 
 335 
 28.4 
 448 
 11.1 
 2.7 
 9.9 
 14.0 
 20.4 
 16.0 
 18.1 
 18 9 
 27.6 
 3.4 
 4.1 
 4.0 
 12.4 
 18.3 
 12.6 
 1.1 
 23.0 
 9.8 
 2.1 
 21.0 
 6.3 
 8.0 
 16.1 
 
 13.2 
 1.2 
 165 
 10.8 
 
 82.0 
 69.4 
 
 47.4 
 8.4 
 64.7 
 
 4.6 
 4.9 
 5 
 
 58.4 
 9.6 
 55.4 
 
 18.8 
 
 79.1 
 69.5 
 
 5.1 
 66.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 '8.7 
 3.6 
 6.4 
 6.1 
 
 0.4 
 2.8 
 
 5.2 
 5.4 
 
 5.4 
 58 
 2.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 0.4 
 3.7 
 
 95.0 
 77.0 
 
 2.1 
 4.2 
 
 Bacon, dried 
 
 
 Barley meal 
 
 
 Beef, fat 
 
 Beef lean 
 
 Beer and porter 
 
 
 Bread 
 
 
 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Cheese 
 
 
 Cheese, skim 
 
 
 
 Eels 
 
 
 
 
 Fish, white 
 
 Liver, ox 
 
 Meat, cooked , roasted . 
 
 
 
 
 Mutton, lean 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Pease 
 
 Pork, fat 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Poultry 
 
 Kice , 
 
 Rye meal 
 
 Salmon 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Treacle 
 
 Tripe 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Veal 
 
 Wheat flour 
 
 
 Quantity of Food. With regard to the 
 quantity of food to be taken, this also depends 
 upon individual conditions and cannot be 
 formed into a general rule. Where hunger is 
 felt it may safely be assumed that when the 
 hunger has been fully appeased sufficient food 
 has entered the stomach. Such are the cir- 
 cumstances of civilized life, however, that in 
 most cases hunger is a very rare sensation ; 
 and food is prepared and eaten more to gratify 
 the palate than because nature demands it. 
 On this point each individual is and must be 
 a law unto himself, and we can only point out 
 the consequences of eating a larger quantity 
 than is needed. When too great a supply of 
 food is put into the stomach, the. gastric juice 
 only dissolves that portion of it which the 
 wants of the system demand ; most of the re- 
 mainder is ejected in an unprepared state, 
 
 the absorbents take portions of it into the cir- 
 culatory system, and all the various bodily 
 functions dependent on the blood are thus 
 gradually and imperceptibly injured. Very 
 often, indeed, intemperance in eating pro- 
 duces immediate results, such as colic, head- 
 ache, indigestion, and vertigo ; but the more 
 common result is the gradual undermining of 
 all parts of the human frame, shortening life 
 by thus weakening the constitution. 
 
 As to the hours of meals these are of no im- 
 portance provided they are regular and come 
 at regular intervals. This interval should 
 never be less than five hours, as the stomach 
 requires at least three hours to digest its sup- 
 ply of food, and not less than two hours should 
 be allowed it for rest and recuperation. 
 
 Eating between meals is a most injurious 
 practice, the source in children, especially, of 
 endless stomachic disorders. It may be well 
 to give children under ten years of age one 
 more meal during the day than the three which 
 adults in this country usually allow themselves ; 
 but these, as we have said above, should be at 
 regular times and with stated intei*vals between 
 them. 
 
 After taking a full rneal, it is very impor- 
 tant to health that no great bodily or mental 
 exertion be made till the labor of digestion is 
 over. Muscular exertion draws the blood to 
 the muscles, and brain work draws it to the 
 head ; and in consequence of this the stomach 
 loses the supply which is necessary to it when 
 performing its office, the adequate supply of 
 gastric juice is not afforded, and indigestion is 
 the result. The heaviness which is felt after 
 a full meal is a sure indication of the need 
 of quiet ; when the meal is moderate, the 
 process of digestion will be sufficiently ad- 
 vanced in an hour, or an hour and a half, to 
 justify the resumption of bodily or mental 
 labor. 
 
 The Diet of Brain AVorkers It has 
 long been one of the pet theories of popular 
 physiology, that fish and other substances com- 
 posed largely of phosphorus, are the most ap- 
 propriate diet for brain workers ; but it is now 
 conceded that the best food for the brain is 
 that which best nourishes the whole body with 
 special reference to the nervous system, viz. : 
 fat and lean meat, eggs, milk, and the cereals. 
 Discussing this point in a recent treatise, Dr. 
 George M. Beard says: "The diet of brain 
 workers should be of a large variety, delicately 
 served, abundantly nutritious, of which fresh 
 meat, lean and fat, should be a prominent 
 constituent. In vacations, or whenever it is 
 desired to rest the brain, fish may, to a certain 
 extent, take the place of meat. We should 
 select those articles that are most agreeable to
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 371 
 
 our individual tastes, and, so far as possible, 
 we should take our meals amid pleasant social 
 surroundings. In great crises that call for un- 
 usual exertion, we should rest the stomach, 
 that for the time the brain may work the 
 harder ; but the deficiency of nutrition ought 
 always to be supplied in the first interval of 
 repose." 
 
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 
 THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 The human body is composed of the follow- 
 ing elements, all of which are found also in 
 the food provided by nature, or in air or 
 water, and all must be supplied, day by day, 
 or some bad results are sure to follow : 
 
 Oxygen, a gas, in quantity sufficient to 
 'occupy a space equal to 750 cubic feet, 
 
 Hydrogen, a gas, in quantity sufficient to 
 occupy 3000 feet, which with oxygen, 
 constitutes water, the weight o'f the 
 two indicating nearly the necessary 
 amount of water ". 
 
 Carbon, constituting fat, and used also 
 for fuel to create animal heat 
 
 Nitrogen, which constitutes the basis of 
 the muscles, and solid tissues, and 
 which is supplied by that part of the 
 food which we shall denominate Ni- 
 trates 
 
 Phosphorus, the physical source of vitali- 
 ty, and the most important of the 
 mineral elements, will represent the 
 whole class which we shall denominate 
 the Phosphates 
 
 Calcium, the metallic base of lime, which 
 is the base of the bones 
 
 Fluorine, found combined in small quanti- 
 ties in bones 
 
 Chlorine, constituting, with sodium, com- 
 mon salt, found in the blood 
 
 Sodium, the base of all the salts of soda. . 
 
 Iron, which is supposed to give color to 
 the blood 
 
 Potassium, the base of all the salts of pot- 
 ash 
 
 Magnesium, the base of magnesia, and 
 nut<niesiaii salts 
 
 Silicon, the base of silex, which is found 
 in the hair, teeth, and nails 
 
 LB. OZ. GB. 
 
 Ill 
 
 2 116 
 100 
 
 290 
 19 
 
 The elements of a man weighing 154 Ibs. 
 
 Classification of Food. Food may be 
 divided into three classes. That class which 
 supplies the lungs with fuel, and thus furnishes 
 heat to the system, and supplies fat or adipose 
 substance, etc., we shall call Carbonates, car- 
 bon being the principal element ; that which 
 supplies the waste of muscles, we shall call 
 Nitrates, nitrogen being the principal element ; 
 and that which supplies the bones, and the 
 brain, and the nerves, and gives vital power, 
 both muscular and mental, we shall call the 
 Phosphates, phosphorus being the principal ele- 
 ment. These last might be subdivided into 
 the fixed and the soluble phosphates, the 
 fixed being a combination principally with 
 lime to form the bones, and the soluble being 
 combinations with potash and soda, to work 
 
 the brain and nerves ; but our analyses as yet 
 are too imperfect to allow a subdivision, and 
 as all the mineral elements are more or less 
 combined with each other, and all reside to- 
 gether in articles of food, we shall include 
 all mineral elements under the term Phos- 
 phates. 
 
 The waste, and consequently the supply, of 
 these three classes of elements is very differ- 
 ent, four times as much carbonaceous food 
 being required as nitrogenous, and of the 
 phosphates not more than two per cent, of the 
 carbonates. Altogether, the waste of these prin- 
 ciples will average in a man of moderate size, 
 with moderate heat, more than one pound in a 
 day, varying very much according to the amount 
 of exercise and the temperature in which he 
 lives. These elements must all be supplied in 
 vegetable or animal food, not one being allowed 
 to become a part of the system unless it has been 
 first organized with other elements of food, in 
 some vegetable, or in water, or the atmosphere ; 
 but being appropriated by some animal, remain 
 organized and adapted to the human system, 
 so that animal and vegetable food contain the 
 same elements in the same proportion and 
 nearly the same chemical combinations, and 
 are equally adapted to supply all necessary el- 
 ements. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 In Animal Food, 
 
 In Vegetable Food, 
 
 |"The Carbonates 
 are furnished in 
 
 ) Albumen, 
 
 The Nitrates in j Fibrin, and 
 ) Casein. 
 
 TThe Carbonates ) Sugar, 
 
 | Starch, and a 
 | are furnished in 1 little Fat. 
 
 
 ) Gluten, 
 
 The Nitrates in S Albumen, 
 ) and Casein. 
 
 The Phosphates in both animal and vege- 
 table food are found inseparably connected 
 with the nitrates, none being found in any of 
 the carbonates, and generally in the propor- 
 tion of from two to three per cent, of all the 
 principles in vegetable, and from three to five 
 in animal food. 
 
 The Carbonates of both animal and vegeta- 
 ble food are chemically alike fat, sugar, and 
 starch, all being composed of carbon, oxygen, 
 and hydrogen, and in about the same chemical 
 combinations and proportions. 
 
 The Nitrates, also albumen, gluten, fibrin, 
 and casein, are alike in chemical combina- 
 tions and elements, being composed of nitro- 
 gen, oxygen, and hydrogen, and a little carbon 
 not digestible. These simple bodies are not, 
 however, capable of being assimilated and con- 
 verted into tissue ; they must be previously 
 combined, primarily by the vegetable kingdom.
 
 372 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Analysis of Articles of Food in their Natural State. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Nitrates. 
 
 Carbonates. 
 
 Phosphates. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 15.0 
 
 69.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 14.0 
 
 Barley 
 
 17.0 
 
 69.5 
 
 3.5 
 
 14.0 
 
 Oats 
 
 17.0 
 
 66.4 
 
 3.0 
 
 13.6 
 
 Northern corn, or maize 
 
 12.0 
 
 73.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 Southern corn 
 
 35.0 
 
 45.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 Tuscarora corn 
 
 5.0 
 
 80.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 8.6 
 
 75.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 14.2 
 
 Rye 
 
 13.8 
 
 71.5 
 
 1.7 
 
 13.0 
 
 Beans 
 
 24.0 
 
 57.7 
 
 3.5 
 
 14.8 
 
 Pease 
 
 23.4 
 
 60.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 14.1 
 
 Lentils 
 
 26.6 
 
 58.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 14.0 
 
 Rice 
 
 6.5 
 
 79.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 13.5 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 1.4 
 
 22.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 75.2 
 
 Sweet potatoes 
 
 1.5 
 
 26.5 
 
 2.9 
 
 67.5 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 1.2 
 
 7.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 82.0 
 
 Turnips 
 
 1.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 90.5 
 
 Carrots 
 
 0.6 
 
 6.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 87.5 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 90.0 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 6.4 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.0 
 
 90.0 
 
 Cucumbers . 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 97.0 
 
 Apples 
 
 5.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 81.0 
 
 Milk of cow 
 
 5.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 86 -.0 
 
 Human milk 
 
 3.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 89.5 
 
 Veal 
 
 16.0 
 
 16.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 62.5 
 
 Beef 
 
 15.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 50.0 
 
 Lamb 
 
 110 
 
 35.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 50.5 
 
 Mutton 
 
 12.5 
 
 40.0 
 
 3.5 
 
 44.0 
 
 Pork 
 
 10.0 
 
 50.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 38.5 
 
 Chicken 
 
 20.0 
 
 35.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 73.0 
 
 Codfish 
 
 14.0 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 79.0 
 
 Haddock 
 
 13.0 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 82.0 
 
 Sole 
 
 15.0 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 79.0 
 
 Plaice 
 
 14.0 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 80.0 
 
 Flounder 
 
 15.0 
 
 some fat 
 
 3 or 4 
 
 78.0 
 
 Turbot 
 
 14.0 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 79.0 
 
 Trout 
 
 17.0 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 75.0 
 
 Whiting 
 
 15.0 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 78.0 
 
 Smelt 
 
 17.0 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 75.0 
 
 Salmon 
 
 20.0 
 
 some fat 
 
 6 or 7 
 
 74.0 
 
 Eels 
 
 17.0 
 
 some fat 
 
 3 or 4 
 
 75.0 
 
 Herrinp 
 
 18.0 
 
 some fat 
 
 4 or 5 
 
 75.0 
 
 Halibut 
 
 18.0 
 
 some fat 
 
 3or4 
 
 74.0 
 
 Oyster 
 
 10.0 
 
 very little 
 
 2 or 3 
 
 87.0 
 
 Clam 
 
 12.0 
 
 very little 
 
 2 or 3 
 
 
 Lobster 
 
 14 
 
 very little 
 
 5 or 6 
 
 79.0 
 
 Kpgs, white of 
 
 15.5 
 
 none 
 
 4.5 
 
 80.0 
 
 Kgs, yolks of 
 
 17 5 
 
 28% 
 
 5.5 
 
 54.0 
 
 Butter... 
 
 
 all carbonates 
 
 
 
 CLEANLINESS. 
 
 To keep the body in a cleanly condition is 
 the third important requisite for health. This 
 becomes necessary in consequence of a very 
 important process which is constantly going on 
 near and tipon the surface of the body. 
 
 The process in question is that of perspira- 
 tion. The matter here concerned is a watery 
 secretion produced by glands near the surface 
 of the body, and sent up through the skin by 
 channels imperceptibly minute and wonderfully 
 numerous. From one to two pounds of this 
 secretion is believed to exude through these 
 channels, or pores, in the course of twenty-four 
 hours, being, in fact, the chief form taken by 
 what is called the waste of the system, the re- 
 mainder passing off by the bowels, kidneys, 
 and lungs. To promote the egress of this 
 fluid is of great consequence to health ; for, 
 when it is suppressed, disease is apt to fall 
 upon some of the other organs concerned in 
 the discharge of waste. 
 
 One of the most notable checks which per- 
 spiration experiences is that produced by a 
 current of cold air upon the skin, in whicli 
 case the pores instantly contract and close, 
 and the individual is seized with some ailment 
 either in one or the other of the organs of waste 
 whichever, is in him the weakest, or in the in- 
 ternal lining of some part of the body, all of 
 which is sympathetic with the condition of the 
 skin. A result of the nature of that last 
 described is usually recognized as a cold or 
 catarrh. We are not at present called on par- 
 ticularly to notice such effects of checked per- 
 spiration, but others of a less immediately 
 ; hurtful or dangerous nature. 
 
 The fluid alluded to is composed, besides 
 water, of certain salts and animal matters, 
 which, being solid, do not pass away in vapor, 
 as does the watery part of the compound, but 
 rest on the surface where they have been dis- 
 charged. There, if not removed by some arti- 
 ficial means, they form a layer of hard stuff,
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 373 
 
 and unavoidably impede the egress of the cur- 
 rent perspiration. By cleanliness is merely 
 meant the taking proper means to prevent this 
 or any other matter accumulating on the sur- 
 face, to the production of certain hurtful con- 
 sequences. 
 
 Ablution or washing is the best means of 
 attaining this end ; and accordingly it is well 
 for us to wash or bathe the body very frequently. 
 Many leave by far the greater part of their 
 bodies unwashed, except, perhaps, on rare oc- 
 casions, thinking it enough if the parts ex- 
 posed to common view }>e in decent trim. If 
 the object of cleaning were solely to preserve 
 fair appearances, this might be sufficient; but 
 the great end, it must be clearly seen, is to 
 keep the skin in a fit state for its peculiar and 
 very important functions. Frequent change 
 of the clothing next to the skin is of course a 
 great aid to cleanliness, and may partly be 
 esteemed as a substitute for bathing, seeing 
 that the clothes absorb much of the impuri- 
 ties, and, when changed, may be said to carry 
 these off. But still this will not serve the end 
 nearly so well as frequent ablution of the 
 whole person. Anyone will be convinced of 
 this, who goes into a bath, and uses the flesh- 
 brush in cleansing his body. The quantity of 
 scurf and impurity which he will then remove, 
 from even a body which has changes of linen 
 once a day, will surprise him. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Bodily exercise is absolutely essential to the 
 maintenance of good health. The human body 
 may be regarded as a complex machine, the 
 various parts of which are so beautifully 
 adapted to each other, that, if one be dis- 
 turbed, all must suffer. The bones and mus- 
 cles are the portions of the frame on which 
 motion most depends. There are four hun- 
 dred muscles in the body, each of which has 
 certain functions to perform that cannot be 
 disturbed without danger to the whole, and it 
 is a wise provision of nature that the more 
 these muscles are exercised the stronger do 
 they become ; hence it is that laborers are 
 stronger and more muscular than persons whose 
 lives are passed in easy or sedentary occupa- 
 tions. Besides strengthening the limbs, mus- 
 cular exercise has a most beneficial influence 
 on respiration and the circulation of the blood. 
 Says a distinguished medical writer: "Exer- 
 cise tells by inciting both heart and lungs to 
 increased action and energy, and this, done in 
 a pure air, is great gain to the purification of 
 the blood ; but exercise does much more, for 
 not only are the lungs, with their large capac- 
 ity for air, great purifiers, but the skin is little 
 less effective towards the same end. All know 
 
 the palpable effect of exercise upon the skin ; but 
 many are not aware that the sensible perspira- 
 tion is but an increase of an insensible per- 
 spiration which is unceasingly poured out from 
 myriads of little pores the mouths of the 
 sweat glands and the oil glands of the skin. 
 The ordinary insensible perspiration is contin- 
 ually freeing us from amass of impurity which 
 cannot be retained in our system without in- 
 jury. Convert the insensible perspiration into 
 sensible, by exercise, and produce moderate 
 sweating, and if the clothing be rational, you 
 will give off to the winds the cause of many a 
 headache and gloomy thoughts. Now this in- 
 creased skin secretion must come from some- 
 where ; and so it does, for the increased 
 exertion causes increased wear and tear of 
 system ; every step works up tissue ; and mus- 
 cles, blood vessels, nerves, are all used quicker 
 than when there is no action. Off go these 
 used-up matters, probably the worst first, 
 through lungs and skin, as fast as they can, 
 and the man begins to feel this waste, for from 
 all sides there are telegraphs to the stomach 
 for supplies, and he finds himself getting ex- 
 cessively hungry, the dinner hour very wel- 
 come, and the formerly capricious stomach 
 ready for anything ; and so new supplies go in 
 to supply the place of the old used-up works, 
 and the physical man is greatly renovated 
 taken to pieces, as it were, and built up again. 
 
 1. In order that exercise may be truly ad- 
 vantageous, the parts must be in a state of 
 sufficient health to endure the exertion. In no 
 case must exercise be carried beyond what the 
 parts are capable of bearing with ease ; other- 
 
 ! wise a loss of energy, instead of a gain, will 
 be the consequence. 
 
 2. Exercise to be efficacious, even in a 
 I healthy subject, must be excited, sustained, 
 
 ' and directed by that nervous stimulus which 
 gives the muscles the principal part of their 
 strength, and contributes so much to the nutri- 
 tion of parts in a state of activity. 
 
 3. The waste occasioned by exercise must 
 I be duly replaced by food ; as, if there be any 
 i deficiency in that important requisite, the blood 
 j will soon cease to give that invigoration to the 
 | parts upon which increased health and strength 
 
 j depend. 
 
 Kinds of Bodily Exercise. Exercise 
 is usually considered as of two kinds active 
 j and passive. The active consists in walking, 
 I running, leaping, riding, fencing, rowing, 
 skating, swimming, dancing, and various ex- 
 ercises, such as those with the poles, ropes, 
 etc., prescribed in gymnastic institutions. The 
 passive consists in carriage-riding, sailing, 
 friction, swinging, etc. 
 
 Walking is perhaps the readiest mode of tak-
 
 374 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Ing exercise, and the one most extensively re- 
 sorted to. If it brought the upper part of the 
 body as thoroughly into exertion as the lower, 
 it would be perfect, for it is gentle and safe 
 with nearly all except the much debilitated. 
 To render it the more effectual in the upper 
 part of the body it were well to walk at all 
 times, when convenient, singly and allow the 
 arms and trunk free play. It is best to walk 
 with a companion, or for some definite object, 
 as the flow of nervous energy will be by these 
 means promoted, and the exercise be rendered, 
 as has been already explained, the more serv- 
 iceable. 
 
 Very long or rapid walks should not be at- 
 tempted by individuals of sedentary habits, 
 nor by weakly persons. Their frames are 
 totally unprepared for such violent exertion. 
 
 Running as an Exercise. Among the 
 means which nature has bestowed on animals 
 in general for the preservation and enjoyment 
 of life, running is the most important. Since, 
 then, it is pointed out to us by nature, it must 
 be in a high degree innocent. It is very sin- 
 gular that we should apparently do all we can 
 which, fortunately, is not much to make 
 our children unlearn the art of running. Our 
 earliest physical treatment of them seems cal- 
 culated to destroy their aptitude for it ; in a 
 little time, it is too often the case that the city 
 boy scarcely dares look as if he wished to run, 
 we prohibit it so strongly as vulgar, and when 
 he is more grown up gentility steps in and pro- 
 hibits it altogether. Medical prejudices and our 
 own convenience contribute likewise their 
 share, and never allow our children, boys and 
 girls, to acquire an art innocent of itself and 
 necessary to all. It is possible that a person 
 may get injury from running, but the fault is 
 not in the exercise, but in the person who runs 
 without having had proper training and prac- 
 tice. 
 
 Running should only be practiced in cool 
 weather ; as, for instance, in the late fall, 
 winter, and early spring months. 
 
 The clothing should be light, the head bare, 
 and the neck uncovered. As soon as the ex- 
 ercise is finished, warm clothing should be put 
 on and gentle exercise continued for some time. 
 It is not necessary to have a race course. The 
 teacher of a school may take his pupils into 
 the fields and find suitable ground for them. 
 Then his pupils may exercise their bodies in 
 other ways, acquire strength, agility, health, 
 and the capacity of continued exertion ; the 
 will is brought into play vigorously, which is 
 a great aid in the battle of life. 
 
 Care must be taken not to overdo, and thus, 
 perhaps for life, weaken or injure the heart. 
 The race, at first, should be short and fre- 
 
 quently repeated, rather than long, and full 
 speed should not be attempted for some tune. 
 
 Running is well adapted to young and mid- 
 dle aged persons, but not to those who are fat. 
 Sedentary persons may find great benefit in it 
 after the day's work is ended. If they live in 
 cities, a quiet spot in the park maybe selected, 
 and short trials adapted to the strength entered 
 into. Invalids may do the same thing, only 
 they must be more careful than the robust never 
 to over-exert themselves. 
 
 Girls may run as well as boys, and, -while 
 they cannot go so fast, they can race much 
 more gracefully and beautifully. Indeed, there 
 can be few more attractive sights than that of 
 a race between bec.utiful girls from ten to twelve 
 years of age. After maturity, the change in 
 the formation of the bones of the pelvis in girls 
 renders running less easy and graceful. In 
 ancient Greece girls were trained to run races 
 as well as boys, and to their superb physical 
 culture was in great part due the grandeur 
 and beauty of Greek life during the years of 
 their ascendency. The modern style of dress 
 for young women is also entirely unsuited to 
 running. 
 
 Fencing is of all active exercises that which 
 is the most commendable, inasmuch as it 
 throws open the chest, and at the same time 
 calls into action the muscles both of the upper 
 and lower extremities. Add to this that it 
 improves very much the carriage of the body ; 
 for which reason it may be reckoned a branch 
 of polite education. 
 
 Dancing is exhilarating and healthful, and 
 seems to be almost the only active exercise 
 which the despotic laws of fashion permit 
 young ladies to enjoy. 
 
 Rope Jumping. As the cool weather 
 approaches the jumping rope may be more and 
 more in the hands of girls. Properly used it 
 is not an objectionable plaything. But chil- 
 dren cannot be too frequently cautioned against 
 jumping against time or competing to see who 
 can jump the greatest number of times with- 
 out stopping. 
 
 Repose a Condition Demanded l>y 
 Exercise. Exercise demands occasional pe- 
 riods of repose, and, in particular, that a cer- 
 tain part of every twenty-four hours be spent 
 in sleep. After having been engaged in daily 
 occupations for fourteen or sixteen hours, a 
 general feeling of fatigue and weakness is in- 
 duced ; the motions of the body become diffi- 
 cult, the senses confused, the power of volition 
 or will suspended, and the rest of the mental 
 faculties, becoming more and more inactive, 
 sink at length into a state of unconsciousness. 
 The sense of sight first ceases to act by the 
 closing of the eyelids ; then the senses of taste
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 375 
 
 and smell become dormant ; and then those of 
 hearing and touch. The muscles, also, dis- 
 pose themselves with a certain reference to 
 ease of position, those of the limbs having 
 grown indolent before those that support the 
 head, and those that support the head be- 
 fore those of the trunk. In proportion as 
 these phenomena proceed, the respiration be- 
 comes slower and more deep, the circulation 
 diminishes in impetus, the blood proceeds in 
 great quantity toward the head, and all the 
 functions of the internal organs become re- 
 tarded. In this state, shut out as it were from 
 the external world, the mind still retains its 
 wonted activity, deprived, however, of the 
 guidance of judgment and the power of dis- 
 tinct recollection ; in consequence of which, it 
 does not perceive the monstrous incongruities 
 of the imagery which sweeps before it, and 
 takes but faint cognizance of the time which 
 elapses. 
 
 It may be laid down as an axiom, that the 
 more uninterrupted sleep is, the more refresh- 
 ing and salutary will be its effects ; for dur- 
 ing this period, the body undoubtedly acquires 
 an accession of nervous energy, which restless- 
 ness, however induced, must disturb ; and 
 therefore the state of the body before going to 
 sleep, the kind of bed, and the manner of 
 clothing, require especial attention. As the 
 functions of the body are performed more 
 slowly during our sleeping than our waking 
 hours, a full meal or supper, taken immedi- 
 ately before going to bed, imposes a load on 
 the stomach which it is not in a condition to 
 digest, and the unpleasant consequence of op- 
 pressive and harassing dreams is almost cer- 
 tain to ensue. When the sleeper lies on his 
 back, the heart pressing, while pulsating, on 
 the lungs, gives rise to a sense of intolerable 
 oppression on the chest, which seems to bear 
 down upon the whole body, so that in this 
 painful state not a muscle will obey the im- 
 pulse of the will, and every effort to move ap- 
 pears to be altogether unavailing. This con- 
 stitutes incubus or nightmare ; and it may be 
 observed, that, as acidity on the stomach, or 
 indigestion, gives rise to such dreams, so all 
 dreams of this disturbed character are converse 
 indications of indigestion ; for which reason 
 the great physiologist Haller considered dream- 
 ing to be a symptom of disease. 
 
 The kind of bed on which we repose requires 
 attention. Some are advocates for soft, others 
 for hard, beds ; hence some accustom themselves 
 to feather beds, others to mattresses. The 
 only difference between a soft and a hard bed 
 is this that the weight of the body in a soft 
 bed presses on a larger surface than on a hard 
 ^ed, and thereby a greater degT3e of comfort 
 
 is enjoyed. Parents err in fancying that a 
 very hard bed contributes to harden the con- 
 stitution of their children ; for which reason 
 they lay them down on mattresses, or beds 
 with boarded bottoms. A bed for young 
 children cannot be too soft-, provided the child 
 does not sink into it in such a manner that the 
 surrounding parts of the bed bend over and 
 cover the body. The too great hardness of 
 beds, says Dr. Darwin, frequently proves in- 
 jurious to the shape of infants, by causing 
 them to rest on too few pai'ts at a time ; it also 
 causes their sleep to be uneasy and unrefresh- 
 ing. Whatever be the time chosen for sleep, 
 it is evident that no person can with impunity 
 convert day into night. Eight o'clock for 
 children, and eleven for adults, may be recom- 
 inended as good hours for retiring to rest. It 
 is well known that children require more sleep 
 than adults ; and more sleep is requisite in 
 winter than in summer. The average duration 
 of sleep which may be recommended for adults 
 is eight hours ; but much depends upon habit, 
 , and many persons require only six. It is 
 scarcely necessary to observe that, on rising in 
 the morning, the strictest attention should 
 be paid to washing the face, neck, and hands ; 
 the mouth and teeth should also be well 
 cleansed. The most simple powder for the 
 teeth is finely brayed charcoal, a little of 
 which will clear away all impurities, and pre- 
 serve the teeth. On leaving the bedroom, the 
 windows shoiild be opened, and the clothes of 
 the bed turned down, in order that the exhala- 
 tions of the body during sleep may be dissi- 
 pated. If, instead of this, the bed be made 
 immediately after we have risen, these exhala- 
 tions are again folded up with the clothes a 
 practice which is not consonant either with 
 cleanliness or health. 
 
 Overworking 1 the Undeveloped 
 Brain. " Overwork," properly so-called, 
 can only occur when the organ upon which 
 the stress of the labor falls is as yet immature, 
 and, yierefore, in process of development. 
 When an organ has reached the maturity of 
 its growth it can only work up to the level of 
 its capacity or faculty for work ! Fatigue may 
 produce exhaustion, but that exhaustion will 
 come soon enough to save the organ. Re- 
 peated "efforts" may, under abnormal condi- 
 tions, follow each other too rapidly to allow of 
 recuperation in the intervals of actual exertion, 
 and as the starting point will, in each succes- 
 sive instance, be lowerthan the previous state, 
 there may be a gradual abasement ; but even 
 this process should not seriously injure a 
 healthy and well developed organ. In short, 
 a great deal of nonsense has been said and 
 written about the < ' overwork ' ' of mature
 
 376 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 brains, and there are grounds for believing that 
 an excuse has been sought for idleness, or in- 
 dulgence in a valetudinarian habit, in the pop- 
 ular outcry on this subject which awhile ago 
 attracted much attention. Nevertheless there 
 can be no room to question the extreme peril 
 of " overwork " to growing children and 
 youths with undeveloped brains. 
 
 The excessive use of an immature organ ar- 
 rests its development by diverting the energy 
 which should be appropriated to its growth, 
 and consuming it in work. What happens to 
 horses which are allowed to run races too early 
 happens to boys and girls who are overworked 
 at school. The competitive system as applied 
 to youths has produced a most ruinous effect 
 on the mental constitution which this genera- 
 tion has to hand down to the next, and 
 particularly the next but one ensuing. School 
 work should be purely and exclusively directed 
 to development. " Cramming " the young for 
 examination purposes is like compelling an 
 infant in arms to sit up before the muscles of 
 its back are strong enough to support it in the 
 upright position, or to sustain the weight of 
 its body on its legs by standing while as yet 
 the limbs are unable to bear the burden im- 
 posed on them. 
 
 A crooked spine or weak or contorted legs is 
 the inevitable penalty of such folly. Another 
 blunder is committed when one of the organs 
 of the body to wit, the brain is worked 
 at the expense of other parts of the organism, 
 in face of the fact that the measure of general 
 health is proportioned to the integrity of de- 
 velopment, and the functional activity of the 
 body as a whole in the harmony of its compo- 
 nent systems. No one organ can be developed 
 at the expense of the rest without a corre- 
 sponding weakening of the whole. 
 
 Mental Exercise. The same rules and 
 regulations by which exercise may be service- 
 able to the physical system, hold good respect- 
 ing the mental faculties. These, as is gener- 
 ally allowed, however immaterial in one^ sense, 
 are connected organically with the brain a 
 portion of the animal system nourished by the 
 same blood, and regulated by the same vital 
 laws, as the muscles, bones, and nerves. As, 
 by disuse, muscle becomes emaciated, bone 
 softens, blood vessels are obliterated, and 
 nerves lo.e their natural structure, so, by dis- 
 use, does the brain fall out of its proper state, 
 and create misery to its possessor ; and as, by 
 over-exertion, the waste of the animal system 
 exceeds the supply, and debility and unsound- 
 ness are produced, so, by over-exertion, are the 
 functions of the brain liable to be deranged 
 and destroyed. The processes are physiologic- 
 ally the same, and the effects bear an exact rela- 
 
 tion to each other. As with the bodily powers, 
 the mental are to be increased in magnitude 
 and energy by a degree of exercise measured 
 with a just regard to their ordinary health and 
 native or habitual energies. Corresponding, 
 moreover, to the influence which the mind has 
 in giving the nervous stimulus so useful in 
 bodily exercise, is the dependence of the mind 
 upon the body for supplies of healthy nutri- 
 ment ; and, in like manner with the bodily 
 functions, each mental faculty is only to be 
 strengthened by the exercise of itself in partic- 
 ular. 
 
 It ought to be universally known, that the 
 uses of our intellectual nature are not to be 
 properly realized without a just regard to 
 the laws of that perishable frame with which 
 it is connected ; that, in cultivating the mind, 
 we must neither overtask nor undertask the 
 body, neither push it to too great a speed, nor 
 leave it neglected ; and that, notwithstanding 
 this intimate connection and mutual depend- 
 ence, the highest merits on the part of the 
 mind will not compensate for muscles mis- 
 treated, or soothe a nervous system which se- 
 vere study has tortured into insanity. To come 
 to detail, it ought to be impressed on all, that 
 to spend more than a moderate number of 
 hours in mental exercise diminishes insensibly 
 the powers of future application, and tends to 
 abbreviate life ; that no mental exercise should 
 be attempted immediately after meals, as the 
 processes of thought and of digestion cannot 
 be safely prosecuted together ; and that, with- 
 out a due share of exercise to the whole of the 
 mental faculties, there can be no soundness in 
 any, while the whole corporeal system will 
 give way beneath a severe pressure upon any 
 one in particular. These are truths completely 
 established with physiologists, and upon which 
 it is undeniable that a great portion of human 
 happiness depends. 
 
 THE HUMAN PULSE. 
 
 The phenomenon known as the arterial 
 pulse or arterial pulsation is due to the disten- 
 tion of the arteries consequent upon the inter- 
 mittent injection of blood into their trunks, 
 and the subsequent contraction which results 
 from the elasticity of their walls. It is per- 
 ceptible to the touch in all excepting very minute 
 arteries, and, in exposed positions, is visible to 
 the eye. The pulse is usually examined at the 
 radial artery at the wrist, the advantages of 
 that position being that the artery is very 
 superficial, and that it is easily compresset- 
 against the bone. It is usual and convenient, 
 though not quite accurate, to include under 
 the term the conditions observed between the 
 beats, as well as those produced by them.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 37V 
 
 The condition of the pulse depends mainly on 
 two factors, each of which may vary inde- 
 pendently of the other : First, the contraction 
 of the heart, which propels the stream of 
 blood along the artery ; and, second, the re- 
 sistance in the small arteries and capillaries, 
 which controls the rate at which it leaves the 
 artery. The first determines the frequency 
 and rhythm of the pulse and the force of the 
 beats ; but the tension of the artery betv/een 
 them and their apparent duration depends 
 mainly upon the peripheral resistance. " Feel- 
 ing the pulse," therefore, gives important in- 
 formation besides the rate of the heart's action, 
 and implies much more than the mere count- 
 ing of pulsations. Dr. Broadbent says : ''A 
 complete account of the pulse should specify 
 
 (1) the frequency i. e., the number of beats 
 per minute, with a note of 'any irregularity or 
 intermission or instability of the rhythm ; 
 
 (2) the size of the vessel ; (3) the degree of 
 distention of the artery between the beats ; 
 
 (4) the character of the pulsation whether 
 its access is sudden or gradual, its duration 
 short or long, its subsidence abrupt or slow, 
 note being taken of dicrotism, when present; 
 
 (5) the force or strength of both the constant 
 and variable pressure within the artery, as 
 measured by its compressibility ; (6) the state 
 of the arterial walls.'' 
 
 The frequency of the pulse varies with age, 
 from 130 to 140 per minute at hirth to 70 to 
 75 in adult males, and with sex, being six or 
 eight beats more in adult females. In some 
 individuals it deviates considerably from this 
 standard, and may even be habitually below 
 forty or above ninety without any signs of dis- 
 ease. It is increased by exertion or excite- 
 ment, by food or stimulants, diminished in a 
 lying posture or during sleep. In disease 
 (acute hydrocephalus, for example), the pulse 
 may reach 150 or even 200 beats; or, on the 
 other hand (as in apoplexy and in certain or- 
 ganic affections of the heart, it may be as slow 
 as between 30 and 20. 
 
 The normal regular rhythm of the pulse 
 may be interfered with either by the occa- 
 sional dropping of a beat (intermission), or by 
 variations in the force of successive beats, and 
 in the length of the intervals separating them 
 (irregularity). These varieties often occur in 
 the same person, but they may exist independ- 
 ently of each other. Irregularity of the pulse 
 is natural to some persons ; in others it is the 
 mere result of debility ; but it may be caused 
 by the most serious disorders, as by disease of 
 the brain, or by organic disease of the heart. 
 
 The other qualities of the pulse are much 
 more difficult to recognize though of no less 
 importance. The degree of tension or resist- 
 
 ance to compression by the fingers varios 
 greatly : in a soft or <l low tension " pulse the 
 artery may be almost imperceptible between 
 the beats ; in a hard or " high tension " pulse 
 it may be almost incompressible. An unduly 
 soft pulse is usually an indication of debility ; 
 an unduly hard one is most often characteristic 
 of disease of the kidneys and gout. But the 
 tension, like the frequency of the pulse, under- 
 goes considerable variations in health from 
 temporary causes, and may in certain individ- 
 uals be habitually above or below the average 
 without actual disease. 
 
 The force of the beats is a measure of the 
 vigor and efficiency of the heart's action. A 
 strong pulse is correctly regarded as a sign of 
 a vigorous state of the system ; it may, how- 
 ever, arise from hypertrophy of the left ven- 
 tricle of the heart, and remain as a persistent 
 symptom even when the general powers are 
 failing. As strength of the pulse usually in- 
 dicates vigor, so weakness of the pulse in- 
 dicates debility. Various expressive adjectives 
 have been attached to special conditions of the 
 pulse, into the consideration of which our 
 space will not permit us to enter. Thus, we 
 read of the jerking pulse, the hobbling pulse, 
 the corded pulse, the wiry pulse, the thrilling 
 pulse, the rebounding pulse, etc. The full 
 significance of changes of the pulse in disease 
 can only be appreciated by considering them 
 in connection with the other signs and symp- 
 toms of the case. 
 
 Average frequency at different ages in 
 health. 
 
 AGES: BEATS PER MINUTE: 
 
 In the foetus in utero between 150 and 140 
 
 Newborn infants between 140 and 120 
 
 During the first year from 1.30 down to 115 
 
 During the second year from 160 down to 100 
 
 During the third year from 106 down to 95 
 
 From 7th to 14th year from 90 down to 80 
 
 From 14th to 21st year from 85 down to 75 
 
 From 21st to 60th year from 75 down to 70 
 
 In old age between 75 and 70 
 
 Co-Relation of Pulse and Tempera- 
 ture. Asa general rule the co-relation of 
 pulse and temperature may be stated as fol- 
 lows, namely : 
 
 An increase of temperature of one degree 
 above 98 F. corresponds with an increase of 
 ten beats of the pulse per minute, as in the 
 following table : 
 
 Tempei 
 
 Thei 
 
 ature is 
 than in* 
 
 ature of 98 corre 
 99 
 ' 100 
 101 
 102 
 103 
 104 
 105 
 106 
 
 rmometry. ] 
 
 normally one 
 adults. 
 
 sponds w 
 
 n chile 
 or two 
 
 ith a pulse of 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 130 
 140 
 
 nper- 
 igher 
 
 ren 
 de; 
 
 the 
 jre< 
 
 3 tei 
 
 38 h
 
 378 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The temperature is normally one degree 
 higher under the tongue than in the axilla. It 
 is highest upon awakening in the morning ; 
 lowest at midnight. 
 
 A rise of one degree in temperature usually 
 marks an increase of the pulse from six to ten 
 beats a minute. 
 
 Continued temperature above 98.50 indi- 
 cates prostration and illness; 101 to 105, 
 severe fever; 105 to 108, danger; 108 to 
 109, impending death. 
 
 A temperature of 105 or 106 on the first 
 day of illness, is prima facie evidence of epheme- 
 ral fever ; it is not typhoid or typhus, but 
 probably malarious. 
 
 Though the typical evidences of pneumonia 
 are present, if the thermometer fails to reach 
 101.70, it may be concluded no soft infiltration 
 of lungs is present. 
 
 High temperature after the eruption of 
 measles has faded, indicates complications. 
 An evening typhoid temperature of 103.5 in- 
 dicates a mild course of fever; 105 in the 
 evening or 104 in the morning, in the third 
 week, indicates danger. A temperature of 
 104 and upwards, in pneumonia, indicates a 
 severe attack. A temperature of 104 is 
 always alarming in acute rheumatism ; look 
 for cardiac complications. In jaundice a rise 
 of temperature is unfavorable. A rise of tem- 
 perature in a puerperal female indicates the 
 approach of pelvic inflammation. An increase 
 of temperature in tuberculosis shows an ad- 
 vance of the disease, or rise of complications. 
 
 Daily fluctuations of temperature are asso- 
 ciated with malarial fever, typhus, typhoid, 
 exanthemata, rheumatism, pyaemia, pneu- 
 monia, and acute tuberculosis. An even tem- 
 perature from morning nntil evening is 
 favorable. A high temperature from evening 
 until morning is unfavorable. A falling tem- 
 perature from evening until morning is favor- 
 able. A rising temperature from evening until 
 morning is dangerous. The temperature of 
 the body must be normal before convalescence 
 begins. 
 
 Respiration. 
 
 fwo months to two years 35 per minute 
 
 Two to six years 23 " " 
 
 Six to twelve years 20 " " 
 
 Twelve to fifteen years 18 " " 
 
 Fifteen to twenty^one years 16 to 18 " " 
 
 Respiration and pulsation in the adult female 
 is usually a trifle faster than in the male, 
 especially during pregnancy. 
 
 ALE. 
 
 This a liquor manufactured from malt, 
 which is usually produced from the parched 
 grain of germinating barley by a process of 
 great antiquity called brewing. It can, how- 
 
 ever, be made from the dried germinating 
 grain of wheat and other cereals ; any sub- 
 stance containing sugar being capable of yield- 
 ing a wort or solution which may be fermented 
 or converted into ale or beer. In several of the 
 English pale ales the proportion of alcohol is 
 as high as 10 per cent., and the average is from 
 5 to 7 per cent. So that a pint of good ale 
 contains the same amount of alcohol as a bot- 
 of claret. These ales, with those of Scotland, 
 are largely imported, and are generally much 
 superior to the American product. Burton 
 ale, so called from the place where it is made, 
 is one of the strongest and very popular. It 
 is of a somewhat thick, glutinous consistence, 
 and sweetish to the taste ; and a small quan- 
 tity of it produces intoxication in those who 
 are not accustomed to it. The best Eng- 
 lish ales are Bass and Allsopp's. Scotch ale, 
 especially the Edinburgh brands, has a pale 
 flavor, extremely vinous arid very like some of 
 the light French wines. It is mild in its 
 effect, pale in color, and the taste of the hops 
 does not predominate as in the India pale ale 
 (manufactured especially for the Indian mar- 
 ket) and Allsopp's. Scotch ales are also said 
 to be less liable to adulteration than the 
 English. American ales are very light, rarely 
 containing more than 3 per cent of alcohol, 
 and resemble what is known in England as 
 "table beer." They are for the most part 
 pure, however, and when fresh make a very 
 mild and agreeable beverage. The best are 
 made in the limestone districts of the North- 
 west. 
 
 BATH. 
 
 The skin of the human being is not merely 
 an outward covering for the body, but an 
 organ the proper performance of whose work 
 is of vital importance to good health. Its 
 seven million pores are not a useless part of 
 the animal economy, but form the sluices 
 through which the system throws off a por- 
 tion of its waste and deleterious matter ; this 
 matter is removed in the form of an impercep- 
 tible watery vapor, mixed with a few saline and 
 gaseous substances, and the quantity capable 
 of being gotten rid of in this way, in the space 
 of twenty-four hours, amounts in round num- 
 bers to twenty ounces. The retention of this, 
 by reason of the inability of the skin to per- 
 form its functions, is of course productive of 
 great injury to the system, throwing more than 
 their due share of work on the other secretive 
 organs. The only method of keeping the skin 
 clear and in proper working order is bathing 
 with sufficient frequency. - Bathing not only 
 removes the matter which the skin has already 
 discharged, but stimulates its activity, and in-
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 379 
 
 creases its efficiency. The temperature of the 
 water is a highly important circumstance, and 
 medical writers usually classify baths, as cold, 
 warm, and hot. 
 
 Cold Bath. The cold bath is taken in 
 water which is cold as compared with the 
 normal heat of the body, or at a temperature 
 of 33 to G5. The effect of such a bath on 
 a person in good health is, on first plunging 
 in, a sensation of extreme cold (the duration 
 of which depends on the temperature of the 
 water and the condition of the bather), and is 
 followed by a reaction which brings on a sensa- 
 tion of warmth and a feeling of lightness and 
 vigor. By degrees, if the body continue to be 
 immersed, the bather again begins to feel cold, 
 chilliness, accompanied by shivering, comes 
 on, the pulse grows feebler and slower, and the 
 whole body becomes languid and powerless. 
 The time to leave the bath is during the period 
 of warmth, 'before the second chilliness be- 
 gins ; and immediately on stepping out the 
 bather should rub himself dry with a coarse 
 towel, and continue rubbing till the skin is in 
 a glow. The ultimate effect of the cold bath 
 has been differently described by different phy- 
 sicians, and some are strongly opposed to its 
 use at all ; but, where it agrees, it is tonic and 
 bracing, it improves the digestion, stimulates 
 the skin, and renders the circulation more 
 active and vigorous. It also hardens the sys- 
 tem and causes it to be much less sensitive to 
 changes of temperature, being on this account 
 an excellent protection against taking cold on 
 exposure. Its beneficial effect depends much 
 on the strength of the reaction ; if, therefore, 
 on coming out of the cold bath, the person 
 feels dull and chilly, or complains of headache, 
 or a sensation of tightness across the chest, the j 
 cold bath disagrees, and should be discontinued 
 or modified. 
 
 But many persons experiencing these symp- 
 toms seem to need just the sort of stimulus the 
 cold bath gives. This they can get by apply- j 
 ing cold water with a wash rag to a square ! 
 foot or two of the skin at a time, rubbing the 
 space into a glow with a towel, and repeating 
 the process until the whole body has been 
 bathed. The writer knows instances where j 
 this method has cured people too sensitive to j 
 cold. 
 
 The diseases for which cold baths are valu- 
 able as a remedy are morbid irritability and 
 sensibility, accompanied by general debility ; 
 also for asthma, in the intervals between the 
 paroxysms, when the system is in other re- 
 spects in a proper condition for it. \Vlien 
 there is a tendency to colds and rheumatism, 
 the cold bath is an excellent preventive ; for ; 
 this purpose it should be used continuously i 
 
 j throughout the year. It is improper in the 
 case of those who have a tendency to consump- 
 tion, or who are constitutionally liable to 
 bowel complaints ; and it should never be ven- 
 tured on by anyone suffering from chronic 
 inflammation of the mucous membranes of 
 the bronchia and intestinal canal. The best 
 time for taking a cold bath is in the early 
 morning just after rising. But persons of 
 feeble circulation in whom reaction does not 
 readily follow, had better not take a cold bath 
 before their breakfast is digested. 
 
 "Warm Bath. This includes all baths 
 ranging in temperature from 66 to 95. Its 
 effect is very different from that of the cold 
 bath. There is no shock, but the temperature 
 is grateful to the bather ; the blood circulates 
 more rapidly, and a gentle glow pervades the 
 body ; the skin absorbs water, is softened, and 
 throws off the scales of decomposed matter 
 which may have accumulated on it ; pain is 
 allayed, and nervous irritation is soothed. 
 The warm bath is especially grateful and ben- 
 eficial after - excessive muscular exertion, or 
 after the fatigue and excitement of traveling. 
 It refreshes and tranquilizes the system ; but, 
 on the other hand, it has none of the tonic in- 
 fluence of the cold bath, and its frequent use 
 tends to relax and debilitate, while rendering 
 the system more sensible to changes of temper- 
 ature. The best temperature for the bath of 
 a healthy person is what is called tepid, and it 
 is also the most agreeable. A distinctly warm 
 bath taken just before going to bed will prob- 
 ably cure any tendency to wakefulness, espe- 
 cially if the wakefulness come from overuse 
 of the brain. No bath whatever should be 
 taken while digestion is going on say in less 
 than two hours after a meal. 
 
 Hot Bath. This has a temperature rang- 
 ing from 98 (blood-heat) to 112. It is a 
 very powerful stimulant, and should never be 
 used by persons in a good state of health. 
 Even in cases of disease, it should only be 
 taken under a physician's advice. As the ob- 
 ject is to stimulate the vital actions, the bather 
 should never remain long enough in the bath 
 to produce exhaustion, the average time is 
 from ten to fifteen minutes. The best way to 
 obtain the full beneficial effect of the hot bath 
 is to commence with tepid water and gradually 
 increase the temperature. The hot bath is 
 chiefly used where it is desirable to produce 
 abundant perspiration, when it should be fol- 
 lowed by rolling the patient in blankets. 
 
 Shower Bath. When cold water is used, 
 the effect of this bath is similar to that of the 
 ordinary cold bath, but the shock from the 
 shower bath is greater than that from simple 
 immersion, especially if the quantity of water
 
 380 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 be large, the temperature low, and the fall 
 considerable. Its effects are also more speedy, 
 and extend more to the internal organs than 
 those of the common bath. When the result 
 is beneficial the glow is felt almost imme- 
 diately, consequently when recourse is had to 
 it, the bather should withdraw immediately 
 after the shock ; if its use is prolonged it 
 quickly lowers, and at last destroys the sensi- 
 bility, and is then highly injurious. For del- 
 icate persons, the tepid shower bath is prefera- 
 ble ; and salt added to the water is an improve- 
 ment. When used for hygienic purposes the 
 best time to take the shower bath is imme- 
 diately after rising in the morning. 
 
 Sponge Bath. Sponging the body off 
 with water and a sponge or cloth is as effectual, 
 though perhaps not as pleasant, as any other 
 form of bathing, and may be resorted to when 
 bathing conveniences are not at hand. It is 
 frequently adopted in cases of fever, to cool 
 the surface of the body ; but as its action is 
 powerful it is rather venturesome to employ it 
 except as directed by the physician. Spong- 
 ing is also used successfully as a tonic to ward 
 off disease. It is found especially serviceable 
 when a person is disposed to asthma or is suf- 
 fering from a cough. For this purpose the 
 chest may be sponged daily, and afterwards 
 well rubbed and dried, so as to produce a glow 
 on the surface. In some cases vinegar and 
 water, or salt and water are preferable and 
 then much rubbing is not necessary. This is 
 an excellent method for bathing very young 
 children. 
 
 THE TREATMENT OF CORPU- 
 LENCE. 
 
 According to Ebstein, in his work on cor- 
 pulence, fattening is strictly analogous to the 
 fattening of cattle, and depends on overfeed- 
 ing. He, however, disputes the current view 
 that fat makes fat ; on the contrary, he thinks 
 fatty food protects the albumen, and prevents 
 its forming fat. His plan of treatment, there- 
 fore, consists in moderating the quantity of 
 food, and while cutting off all vegetable carbo- 
 hydrates, sugar, starch, etc., allowing a mod- 
 erate quantity of fat, two or three ounces 
 daily to be taken. He also suggests that the 
 diet should be monotonous, greasy, and suc- 
 culent, so as to cause satiety rapidly. He dis- 
 allows beer, but permits light wines. 
 
 The plan advocated appears rational, and is 
 free from the objection to Banting's method, 
 which is too much like starvation. The fol- 
 lowing is the diet used successfully by Ebstein 
 in one of his cases : ?i- 
 
 Breakfnul. - One large cup of black tea 
 about half a pint without sugar ; two ounces 
 
 of white bread or brown bread, toasted, with 
 plenty of butter. 
 
 Dinner Soup, often with marrow; from 
 
 four to six and one half ounces of roast or 
 boiled meat ; vegetables in moderation, legu- 
 minous preferably, and cabbages. Turnips were 
 almost, and potatoes altogether, excluded. 
 After dinner a little fresh fruit. For second 
 course a salad or stewed fruit without sugar. 
 Two or three glasses of light wine, and imme- 
 diately after dinner a large cup of black tea, 
 without milk or sugar. 
 
 Supper. A large cup of black tea, as be- 
 fore. An egg, a little fat roast meat, or both, 
 or some ham with its fat, Bologna sausage, 
 smoked or dried fish, about an ounce of white 
 bread well buttered, occasionally a small quan- 
 tity of cheese, and some fresh fruit. 
 
 On this diet the patient lost twenty pounds 
 in six months. 
 
 Ebstein insists on the necessity of always 
 keeping to the restricted diet if the tendency 
 to corpulence is to be successfully combated. 
 
 Dr. George Johnson's diet for excess of fat : 
 The patient may eat : lean mutton and beef, 
 veal, lamb, tongue, sweetbreads, soups, not 
 thickened, beef tea and broths, poultry, game, 
 fish, cheese, eggs, bread in moderation, greens, 
 spinach, watercress, mustard and cress, let- 
 tuce, asparagus, celery, radishes, French beans, 
 green pease, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauli- 
 flower, onions, broccoli, sea-kale, jellies, flavored 
 but not sweetened, fresh fruit in moderation, 
 without sugar or cream, pickles. 
 
 May not eat: Fat bacon and ham, fat of 
 meat, butter, cream, sugar, potatoes, carrots, 
 parsnips, beet root, rice, arrowroot, sago, tapi- 
 oca, macaroni, vermicelli, semolina, custard, 
 pastry, and pudding of all kinds, sweet cakes. 
 
 May drink: Tea, coffee, cocoa from nibs, 
 with milk, but without cream or sugar, dry 
 wines of any kind, in moderation, brandy, 
 whisky, or gin, in moderation and without 
 sugar, light bitter beer. Apollinaris water, 
 soda water, seltzer water. 
 
 May not drink: Milk, except sparingly, 
 porter and stout, sweet ales, sweet wines. As 
 a rule, alcoholic liquors should be taken very 
 sparingly, and never without food. 
 
 MEDICINAL FOOD. 
 
 Spinach has a direct effect upon complaints 
 of the kidneys ; the common dandelion, used as 
 greens, is excellent for the same trouble ; aspar- 
 agus purifies the blood ; celery acts admirably 
 upon the nervous system, and is a cure for 
 rheumatism and neuralgia ; tomatoes act upon 
 the liver ; beets and turnips are excellent appe- 
 tizers ; lettuce and cucumbers are cooling in 
 their effects upon the system ; beans are a very
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 381 
 
 nutritious and strengthening vegetable ; while 
 onions, garlic, leeks, chives, and shallots, all 
 of which are similar, possess medicinal virtues 
 of a marked character, stimulating the circu- 
 latory system, and the consequent increase of 
 the saliva and the gastric juice promoting 
 digestion. Red onions are an excellent diu- 
 retic, and the white ones are recommended 
 raw as a remedy for insomnia. They are 
 tonic, nutritious. A soup made from onions 
 is regarded by the French as an excellent restora- 
 tive in debility of the digestive organs. 
 
 Eggs are considered one of the best reme- 
 dies for dysentery. Beaten up slightly, with 
 or without sugar, and swallowed, they tend 
 by their emollient qualities to lessen the in- 
 flammation of the stomach and intestines, and, 
 by forming a transient coating on those organs, 
 enable Nature to resume her healthful sway 
 over the diseased body. Two, or at most 
 three, eggs per day, would be all that is re- 
 quired in ordinary cases ; and, since the egg is 
 not merely medicine, but food as well, the 
 lighter the diet otherwise, and the quieter the 
 patient is kept, the more certain and rapid is 
 the recovery. 
 
 LOCATION OF THE HOUSE. 
 
 Its situation is a most important factor in ! 
 the choice of a dwelling. The climate, the ! 
 direction in which it faces, its altitude, its loca- I 
 tion upon a hillside or in a valley, the neigh- 
 boring rivers, ponds, lakes, swamps, and 
 marshes, whether upon dry, sandy, or rocky j 
 soil, all these features are to be considered, i 
 The severity of the sun's rays, the prevailing j 
 direction of the wind, temperature, and hu- ; 
 midity vary in different localities. Rooms 
 facing south are warmer, but subject to greater 
 changes of temperature ; those facing north are 
 cooler, but preserve a more equable tempera- 
 ture. Houses situated in deep forests or lying 
 between dense clumps of large trees are apt to 
 be unhealthy from dampness. But a wood at j 
 some distance from the house is an advantage, 
 since it furnishes abundance of oxygen besides 
 protection from high winds and excessive heat. 
 
 It is best not to live near a factory, mine, or ' 
 hospital, since injurious gases, vapors, and 
 dust particles may be developed there. Swamps 
 and marshes, too, are bad neighbors, for the 
 humid air is often vitiated by the emanations 
 of decomposing animal and vegetable matter. 
 These are very unhealthy, often causing marsh 
 fever, malaria, and other ailments. In trop- 
 ical and sub-tropical regions, where cold north- 
 ern winds are unfelt, such swamps may be 
 rendered harmless by plan ting eucalyptus trees 
 in their vicinity ; and sunflowers, in the tem- 
 perate zone, may be made to serve a similar 
 
 ! purpose in some degree, especially when planted 
 in large numbers. 
 
 SPRENG FEVER. 
 
 ITS ANTIDOTE. A writer gives the symp- 
 toms and several remedies for a very common 
 i complaint, prevalent with almost every one to a 
 greater or less extent at this season of the year. 
 The hampered body, says the writer, which 
 ] has been coddled, petted, stuffed with carbon- 
 bearing fats, and calorified in every possible 
 way, begins to protest. The machinery is 
 clogged ; headache, dyspepsia, and the thou- 
 sand nameless sensations of discomfort which 
 we charge to variable weather, afflict and 
 hamper poor humanity. To-day the fog 
 depresses our vital force, to-morrow the brain 
 is pierced with blinding sunshaft ; and so each 
 day's external is made responsible for internal 
 shortcoming. The litterateur, in atrabilious 
 humor, afflicts the world with morbid philos- 
 ophy. The pastor sees weak humanity more 
 than ever sinful, and his Lenten homilies are 
 unconsciously tinctured with a deeper dye for 
 the pangs of his own mortality. The house- 
 wife, in overheated rooms, with a monotone of 
 circumscribed care and too little outside diver- 
 sion, finds dirt and despair in the kitchen, 
 chaos in the nursery, a forlorn hope in her 
 mending basket. 
 
 Among other remedies for people who say, 
 " I always have a bilious attack in the spring," 
 the following seems the most potent : 
 
 On rising, sponge the body lightly and 
 quickly with cold water, briskly toweling after. 
 It is not necessary that this be a long or 
 laborious operation ; the more rapidly the bet- 
 ter, with sufficient friction to bring a glow to 
 the skin. If you cannot secure time to go 
 over the whole bodily surface, at least make it 
 a point to daily sponge the trunk and arms. 
 Rousing and stimulating the whole system, 
 clearing and opening the pores, it imparts an 
 indescribable freshness and exhilaration, amply 
 repaying the effort. Rehabilitated, you are 
 now ready for your morning bitters, namely, 
 the clear juice of a fresh lemon in a wineglass 
 of water, without sugar. This is a bomb 
 straight at the enemy, for a more potent sol- 
 vent of bile is not in the materia medica. 
 Searching out rheumatic tendency, attacking 
 those insidious foes which are storing up an- 
 guish against our later days calculi it 
 pervades the system like a fine moral sense, 
 rectifying incipient error. It is needful, per- 
 haps, to begin with two lemons daily, the 
 second at night just before retiring. 
 
 A primitive but most efficacious prescrip- 
 tion, which corrected the physical reaction 
 after a pork -eating winter for our ancestors,
 
 382 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 was a wineglass full of very hard cider, made 
 effervescent by a crumb of sal soda. More 
 potent and palatable is the concentric force of 
 the pure lemon acid. 
 
 We venture to claim for this self-treatment 
 alone, faithfully applied, more relief for the 
 body and stimulus to the mind than from a 
 battery of pills or quarts of herb decoction. 
 
 Common Sense in Summer. The 
 employment of the natural common sense pos- 
 sessed by intelligent adult humanity would do 
 much to mitigate the discomforts of our torrid 
 summers. Natural appetite, if not corrupted 
 or perverted, is an excellent guide to eating 
 and drinking. The following of Procrustean 
 rules as to the quality and quantity of food is 
 pernicious. An unvarying amount of food, 
 as three hearty meals each day, which might I 
 be healthful for winter or the cool weather of ; 
 autumn, is not appropriate for the intense | 
 heats of summer. No set of rules can be laid | 
 down for anybody's guidance, still less is it j 
 competent to make rules for everybody's guid- 
 ance ; but a few simple suggestions made by a 
 physician recently may not be amiss. 
 
 He said : " Keep cool in temper ; enter into 
 no argument or contention on politics, ethics, 
 or religion ; restrain anger ; attempt no athletic 
 feats of rowing, walking, or ball playing ; 
 look on the pleasant side of your circumstances ; 
 be kindly affectionate, as St. Paul recom- 
 mended ; do not sit outdoors long after sun- 
 down the less of this the better; never 
 work before breakfast ; eschew meats as much 
 as possible and chew food thoroughly ; drink 
 but little ice water or hot tea and coffee 
 warm tea is not injurious. Lemonade in 
 moderate quantities is not hurtful. Alcoholic 
 stimulants should be tabooed entirely unless a 
 physician's prescription compel their use. Do 
 not allow your dress to be a burden in material 
 or amount, nor have it so light and thin that 
 the body, from perspiration, becomes chilled." 
 
 BREAKFAST. 
 
 The substantial and hearty meal partaken 
 of by Americans is the bone of a very great 
 .contention. On the one hand it is maintained 
 it is the ruin of digestion and the most pro- 
 lific source of dyspepsia, etc. On the other 
 hand it is shown that, for a busy, active peo- 
 ple, and also for a people who generally have 
 only two meals a day breakfast and dinner 
 the meal is none too substantial. However, 
 which is right or wrong, must be a matter of 
 individual opinion and experience. 
 
 The difficulty lies in what is eaten at break- 
 fast. More attention could be, with very great 
 advantage, bestowed on this meal. The table, 
 to begin with, could be fresher and more cheer- 
 
 ful, with flowers and fruit ; tablecloth and 
 napkins white, with a colored border too, have a 
 much more pleasing effect than a cloth en- 
 tirely colored. Too often the breakfast-room 
 is about the worst for the purpose in the house 
 dark, dismal, and chilly. 
 
 The dishes should be varied ; a change 
 should be striven for every day. The beef- 
 steak one day should be plain, another day 
 with fine herbs or stewed tomatoes over it, 
 with brown oyster sauce or onion sauce, etc. ; 
 then vary it with chops, eggs, kidneys broiled, 
 stewed, or saute' ; with fish, in the many differ- 
 ent ways described ; tripe, oysters, liver, and 
 the many other preparations given, such as 
 savory hashes of game, beef, lamb ; with slices 
 of cold, boiled and roast beef, mutton, etc. ; 
 grilled or deviled, and served with any sort ot 
 piquant sauce. 
 
 Fresh fruit and salads are to be commended 
 for breakfast very relishable and extremely 
 healthful. Oatmeal, too, is to be particularly 
 recommended ; eat it the first thing at break- 
 fast every morning. Eschew too Jiberal in 
 dulgence in hot breads ; accustom yourselves 
 to eating bread (homemade) twelve hours old. 
 
 Breakfast parties are rapidly conrv.g into 
 fashion they have been popular abind for 
 some time usually served at 9 A. M. to 12 
 M. Of course the earlier they are served the 
 more appropriate they are as breakfasts. Some 
 bills of fare are given as selections for parties 
 and also for family use. The dishes marked 
 in italics may be left out, if thought too elab- 
 orate, without spoiling the effect of the break- 
 fast. 
 
 Family Breakfasts. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Oatmeal and milk. 
 
 Stewed apples. 
 
 Rolls, butter, coffee, chocolate, broma, or tea 
 
 Beefsteak, broiled oysters. 
 
 Lyonnaise potatoes, poached eggs on toast. 
 
 Rice cakes, syrup. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Cracked wheat and milk. 
 
 Stewed prunes. 
 
 Hread or rolls, butter, coffee, etc. 
 
 Mutton chops, fried baron. 
 
 Boiled eggs, potatoes a la innitre d'hotel. 
 
 Waffles, cinnamon and .sugar. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 Fried hominy. 
 
 Stewed dried peaches. 
 
 Rolls or bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
 
 Broiled ham, with fried eggs. 
 
 Mutton and potato hash, Drowned. 
 
 Baked potatoes. 
 
 Flannel cakes, powdered sugar. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Coarse hominy, boiled. 
 Strawberries and cream. 
 Bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
 Broiled chicken, stewed potatoes. 
 Dried beef, dressed with cream. 
 Radishes. 
 Muffins.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 383 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Oatmeal and milk. 
 
 Fresh currants and sugar. 
 
 Buttered toast, bread, coffee, etc. 
 
 Broiled hluetish or whiterish. 
 
 Stewed potatoes. 
 
 Minced mutton, served on toast. 
 
 Shirred eggs. 
 
 Hominy cakes, syrup. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Cracked wheat and milk. 
 Fresh raspberries. 
 Rolls, butter, coffee, etc. 
 Cold roast beef , sliced thin. 
 Frizzled ham, with eggs. 
 Fried potatoes, sliced cucumbers. 
 Graham gems, or popovers. 
 
 Autumn. 
 
 Oatmeal mush, fried in slices. 
 Peaches and cream, or blackberries. 
 Brown bread, rolls, butter, coffee, etc. 
 Lamb chops, fried potatoes. 
 Mushrooms baked, and served on toast. 
 Sliced tomatoes, dressed as a salad. 
 
 Autumn. 
 
 Hulled corn, with cream. 
 
 Baked pears, grapes. 
 
 Bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
 
 Veal cutlets, potato balls. 
 
 Omelette, with grated ham. 
 
 Virginia bakes (thin corn meal pancakes). 
 
 Autumn. 
 
 Coarse hominy, boiled and browned. 
 Peaches and cream. 
 Bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
 Beefsteak, oysters on toast. 
 Stewed potatoes. 
 Muffins. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Fried mush, 
 
 Baked sweet apples. 
 
 Rolls, bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
 
 Turkey hash, stewed potatoes. 
 
 Salt mackerel. 
 
 Buckwheat cakes, syrup. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Cracked wheat. 
 
 Baked pears. 
 
 Rolls, Graham bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
 
 Sausages, garnished with fried sour apples. 
 
 Quail on toast, baked potatoes, 
 
 Buckwheat cakes, syrup. 
 
 "Winter. 
 
 Fried hominy. 
 
 Stewed apples. 
 
 Bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
 
 Venison steak, cold sparerib, sliced. 
 
 Potatoes & la maitre d'hotel. 
 
 Buckwheat cakes, syrup. 
 
 Breakfast Parties. 
 
 Early Spring. 
 
 Grapes, apples, oranges. 
 
 ( Cutlets of bass en papillote. ) T atnil _ R1 ., nf .h<> 
 I Cucumbers pickled. } Latm Blancne - 
 
 i Roast English snipe. 
 \ Baked mushrooms. 
 ( Lobster salad. 
 1 Bread, butter, crackers, 
 i Chocolate eclairs. 
 ( Vanilla ice cream. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 Berries and peaches with cream. 
 ( Brook trout broiled, with tomato sauce. 
 I Boiled potatoes, pickled gherkins, and [ Chablis. 
 ( olives 
 
 j Fi b?ans f '*** **"**' WM 
 Cauliflower bread-crumbed. 
 ( Fillets of chickens en fricassee, with ; 
 ! rice. } Hochheimer. 
 
 I Brussel sprouts & la Bechamel. 
 
 c h ~ rrv 
 SI 
 
 } Chateau La Rose. 
 
 ( Fried oysters. 
 
 I Celery and lettuce, mixed with mayonnaise. 
 Tutti frutti, assorted cake, coffee. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 Chicken consomme with poached eggs. (Madeira). 
 
 ( Small middle cut(darne; of salmon, 
 with anchovy sauce and shrimps. 
 
 ( Potatoes & la Printaniere. 
 
 ( Chicken croquettes. i Clos 
 
 I Canned string beans (Haricots verts). ) Vougeot. 
 Sorbet au kirchwasser. 
 '( Roast saddle of Southdown mutton, 
 
 j sauce soubise. } Sauterne. 
 
 ( Turnips au yeloute. 
 
 ( Broiled quails aux croutons. 
 
 ( Endive, with plain dressing. 
 
 ( Cream in mold of swan and cygnets. ) 
 
 ] Macaroons, bonbons, chocolate wafers. \ Sherry. 
 
 ( Fruits, and nuts. ) 
 
 Vienna coffee (coffee with whipped cream piled on it). 
 
 Dinner. On ordinary occasions, where 
 incomes are not above the average, circum- 
 stances generally determine what folks shall 
 have for dinner. A very modest meal, how- 
 ever, may be tastefully spread and served, and 
 there is no reason why, so far as they are 
 available, it should not have the benefit of the 
 principles that apply to the most elegant 
 banquets. 
 
 In the first place, a good dinner need not be 
 expensive, though (as is not always the case 
 where much money is spent) there is no end 
 to the expense that may be indulged in with- 
 out preventing the result being good. 
 
 To one philosophizing much on the subject, 
 the order of the fundamental courses of a good 
 dinner is apt to suggest the old saw of " fish, 
 flesh, fowl, and good salt herring." Expand 
 flesh to mean all edible flesh but game-birds, 
 interpret good salt herring as meaning some- 
 thing pungent the whole range of salads 
 (herring salad if you like it), keep in mind 
 what everybody knows, that before dinner 
 comes soup, and after it dessert, and you have 
 the key to the whole subject fish, flesh, 
 fowl, and good salt herring. All beyond this 
 is mere elaboration, and all that requires varia- 
 tion from it is exceptional. Give a man more 
 and he should feel honored ; give him this, 
 and he should feel contented, for he cannot 
 say that he has not had a good dinner. 
 
 Now for the elaborations. 
 
 I. Five small raw oysters, opened (on the 
 deep shell, so as to retain the liquor) just 
 before dinner, and put at each plate before the 
 dining room is opened. A colored doiley may 
 be put under them on each plate. If oysters 
 are not in season, substitute small round clains. 
 If weather is quite warm, let them rest on each 
 plate in a bed of cracked ice. In either case, 
 quarter of a lemon on each plate. With clams, 
 red pepper within reach. 
 
 II. After fish, either patties, bits of toast, 
 each supporting a single selected mushroom, 
 and saturated with brown sauce, or some simi-
 
 384 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 lar trifle. Whatever is used, let but one be put 
 on each plate, and before the plates are handed. 
 
 III. If you have more than one meat, let 
 the first be relatively substantial, and the sec- 
 ond of a lighter character. For instance a 
 fillet of beef might be followed by chicken cro- 
 quettes, or a boiled turkey (which is never 
 really good without oyster sauce) by mutton 
 chops with almond paste. Other things even, 
 let a roast precede a boil, but put the heavier 
 thing first. 
 
 IV. After meats, entries, such as croquettes, 
 calves' brains, deviled kidneys, oysters fried 
 or broiled, etc. 
 
 V. Before game, a small glass of sorbet to 
 each, to be brought in in the glasses. 
 
 VI. With game, jelly ; though true epicures 
 don't take it. The salad is frequently served 
 with the game, though, for those who wish 
 both jelly and salad, this is awkward if jelly 
 be served. 
 
 VII. After salad, cheese, either one of me- 
 dium strength, or two kinds one pungent, 
 one mild. The waiter had best hand both 
 kinds together (previously cut up) for the 
 company to choose. With this, hard crackers. 
 
 VIII. If you elaborate your dessert, let the 
 order be : pastry or pudding, ices, fruits, nuts, 
 and raisins, bonbons. 
 
 IX. Black coffee in small cups. Sugar (in 
 lumps) to be passed separately. This is quite 
 frequently reserved till the ladies have left the 
 table and served to them in the parlor, and to 
 the gentlemen in the dining room. 
 
 BILL, OF FAKE. 
 
 WINES. 
 
 Raw oysters or clams. 
 
 Sauterne, or any light 
 
 SOUP. 
 
 white wines. 
 
 Olives. 
 
 
 
 SHERRY. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 
 Olives, Dressed cucum- 
 
 Latour Blanche, Chablis, 
 
 bers, etc. 
 Either Bouchees A la 
 
 Chateau, Yquem, or other 
 white wine with a body. 
 
 Heine, Mushrooms on 
 
 Some like a substantial 
 
 toast, or something sim- 
 ilar. 
 
 white wine with oysters. 
 
 MEAT. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE. 
 
 If more than one, roast 
 first, or the heavier first. 
 
 Cigarettes. 
 
 Entrees (any light made 
 
 RED WINE NOT 
 
 dishes not sweet). 
 Sorbet. 
 
 SWEKT, 
 
 GAME. 
 
 i. e., Claret or Bur- 
 
 SALAD. 
 
 gundy, etc. 
 
 Olives, Pickles, etc. 
 
 
 Cheese, Crackers. 
 
 PORT. 
 
 DESSERT. 
 
 Still white wine, any 
 
 Pastry. Ices. Fruit. 
 
 named above. 
 
 Nuts and Raisins. 
 
 
 Bonbons. 
 
 Liqueurs, Brandy, Cor- 
 
 Black Coffee. 
 
 dials, etc. 
 
 The fundamentals (both of food and wine) 
 are printed in capitals. Of course no list 
 could include everything. This one merely 
 attempts to give what can frequently be real- 
 
 ized. If you care for anything more, you 
 have probably already so far studied the sub- 
 ject as to ba beyond the need of any aid. 
 
 If you omit any of the courses indicated by 
 capitals, let them be game first, then fish, then 
 salad, last soup. 
 
 Setting: the Table. To raise feeding 
 from the grade of an animal function into 
 that of a fine art is worth anybody's while, 
 and almost anybody can do it. It need cost 
 but a little polishing of glass and metal, and 
 a handful of flowers, to make a very plain 
 table pleasing to even the critical eye. 
 
 Have a thick, soft blanket under the table- 
 cloth. It prevents noise from laying things 
 down, and gives a pleasant feeling to the hand 
 resting on the table. 
 
 Decoration. The first rule for setting a 
 table well is not to put on it anything to eat. 
 Exception may be made in favor of a few or- 
 namental plates containing bright colored 
 pickles, olives, fruits, and confectionery. 
 These are admissible only in so far as they are 
 decorative. Let each course be brought on 
 and removed separately after the guests are 
 seated. 
 
 Now here is a very important matter, which 
 even good dinner-givers sometimes neglect. 
 Do not let the ornament in the center be so 
 high as to prevent people naturally seeing each 
 other across the table. If you do, it will con- 
 fine the talk to people sitting next each other, 
 and seriously impede general and lively con- 
 versation. There is no denying that a high 
 center ornament is decorative and excellent for 
 a supper where people stand. But a little taste 
 and ingenuity will devise low ones suitable for 
 dinners, that will not interfere with the dis- 
 tinctively human enjoyment conversation. 
 Flowers, of course, are generally the most 
 available material. They should not be gath- 
 ered, however, into a single flat mass, but 
 should be placed at a height of two or three 
 inches on small plates or the narrow troughs 
 now to be found at the crockery stores, and 
 grouped around some object not much over a 
 foot high in the center. This central object 
 can be a bouquet, a stand of fruit, or any other 
 tasteful thing that ingenuity may suggest. In 
 warm weather ice, either in a large, clear 
 block, or several pieces too large to melt out 
 of proportion during the meal, combined with 
 ferns or flowers, is suggestive, and may be 
 made very beautiful. The writer wishes to 
 state, most emphatically, that, generally, on 
 noticing that dinner is passing off with pecul- 
 iar spirit, he has also noticed that the orna- 
 ments are so disposed as not to impede 
 intercourse. 
 
 A small bouquet de corsage at each lady's
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 385 
 
 place, and a flower with a leaf tied to it at each 
 gentleman's, for his buttonhole, are very 
 agreeable. 
 
 Chairs. Avoid cane seats in a dining 
 room. Where fine fabrics and laces are kept 
 on them so long a time continuously (longer 
 than anywhere else), they play havoc. 
 
 Plates. One should be at each seat. The 
 raw oysters or clams, on a separate plate, are 
 placed on the first plate. So with the soup. 
 The first plate is exchanged for the plate with 
 the fish. Always have a stock of plates in 
 reserve sufficient for all the courses and prop- 
 erly heated. The most decorated plates are 
 best enjoyed about the time of salad or cheese 
 and at dessert. 
 
 Knives and Forks. It saves the waiter's 
 time to start with at least two forks, and two 
 knives by each plate. It is not bad to have 
 three. One knife should be of silver, for the 
 fish. Silver knives are, of- course, essential 
 for fruit. 
 
 Napkins are never supposed to appear a 
 second time before washing. Hence napkin 
 rings are domestic secrets, and not for com- 
 pany. 
 
 Wines that can be drunk at the temperature 
 of the room may be on the table from the start, 
 and they add to the decoration. 
 
 Wineglasses. Three or four with the 
 water glass, are enough to start with. If you 
 have more wines, bring the glasses on with 
 them, a:id substitute them for the sherry glass, 
 sauterne glass, etc. Provide colored glasses for 
 still, white wines. Americans pretty generally 
 set their glasses in a row at the right of the 
 plate, in a direction across the table. .The 
 French quite generally set theirs in front of the 
 plate, parallel with the edge of the table. 
 Liqueur glasses come on with the liqueurs. 
 
 Clams (don't forget the ice in warm 
 weather) should always be on the table before 
 the company comes in. The plates with ice 
 are too ticklish for the waiter to pass over 
 shoulders. Taking up the plates is easier. 
 
 Ice Pitchers are not articles of dinner 
 table furniture, except that in very hot weather 
 one may be used from a side table. 
 
 Carafes and cracked ice should be within 
 everybody's reach. 
 
 Cards on Plates, bearing the names of 
 the company, so as to seat them with reference 
 to congeniality, are very important. For host 
 or hostess to marshal them after they are in 
 the dining room is not nearly so easy as for 
 them to marshal themselves by the cards, and 
 the host and hostess are sure, in the confusion 
 of the moment, to get people placed exactly as 
 they did not intend to have them. 
 
 Bread. Cut pieces about four inches long, 
 
 two wide, and two thick, and always place a 
 piece beside each plate in setting the table. 
 
 Finger Bowls are to be passed after 
 pastry on plates with doilies between the plates 
 and the bowls. The plates are to be used for 
 fruit and nuts, if there are any. If none are 
 handed, the finger bowl will not be taken from 
 the plate. The finger bowl should be filled 
 about one third, contain a slice of lemon, and 
 in very warm weather, a bit of ice. 
 
 Fruit. It is well to have a dish, atone 
 side, independent of any that may be on the 
 table, with grapes cut into small bunches, and 
 oranges and large fruits halved. If fruit 
 decorating the table is to be used, let it be re- 
 moved and so prepared before it is passed. 
 
 We append bills of fare four for entertain- 
 ments and twelve for family dinners. Al- 
 though they are scattered through the seasons, 
 they are almost all available at any season, 
 and with the help of the separate articles on 
 like subjects will probably aid the house- 
 keeper in answering the constantly recurring 
 question, " What shall we have for dinner? " 
 
 Washington's Birthday. 
 
 Oysters on Half Shell. 
 
 Mock Turtle Soup. 
 
 Baked White Fish, Bechamel Sauce. 
 
 Boiled Turkey, Oyster Sauce. 
 
 Boiled Sweet Potatoes. 
 
 Steamed Potatoes. Stewed Tomatoes. 
 
 Scalloped Onions. 
 
 Salmi of Game. 
 
 Olives. Chicken Salad. 
 
 Washington Pie. Bavarian Cream. 
 
 Variegated Jelly. Marble Cake. 
 
 Candied Fruits. Raisins and Nuts. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 April 19. 
 
 Cream of Spinach Soup. 
 Boiled Shad, Sauce Tartare. 
 Leg of Mutton a la Venison. 
 
 Steamed Potatoes. Creamed Parsnips. 
 
 Oyster Patties. Currant Jelly. 
 
 Lettuce Salad. 
 
 Delmonico Pudding. Pineapple Sherbet. 
 
 Rolled Jelly Cake. Fruit. Coffee. 
 
 July 4. 
 
 Clam Soup. 
 
 Boiled Cod, with Lobster Sauce. 
 Roast Lamb, Mint Sauce. 
 
 New Potatoes Boiled. 
 
 Green Pease. Spinach with Eggs. 
 
 Cucumbers Sliced. 
 
 Chicken Patties. 
 
 Naple Biscuits. Vanilla Ice Cream. 
 
 Chocolate Macaroons. Strawberries. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Thanksgiving Day. 
 
 Oysters on Half Shell. 
 
 Cream of Chicken Soup. 
 
 Fried Smelts, Sauce Tartare. 
 
 Roast Turkey, Cranberry Sauce. 
 
 Mashed Potatoes. Baked Squash. 
 
 Boiled Onions. Parsnip Fritters. 
 
 Olives. Chicken Salad. 
 
 Venison Pastry. 
 
 Pumpkin Pie. Mince Pie. 
 
 Charlotte Russe. Almond Ice Cream. 
 
 Lemon Jelly. Hickory Nut Cake. 
 
 ' Cheese. Fruits. 
 
 Coffee.
 
 386 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Family Dinners. 
 
 January 4. July 1O. 
 
 Beef soup with vegeta- ' Consomm6 aux nouilles. 
 
 bles. Rock bass, with fried po- 
 
 Bream, with oyster sauce. tatoes. 
 Boiled potatoes. Tomatoes, with slices of 
 
 Corned beef, with carrots. : chicken dressed in may- 
 Stewed kidneys. onnaise. 
 Spanish puffs. Peaches and cream. 
 
 February 18. 
 
 Bouillabaisse. 
 
 Boiled Chicken. 
 
 Fried parsnips, caper 
 sauce. 
 
 Fillets of bass, with pick- 
 les. 
 
 Mince patties. 
 
 March 21. 
 
 Oysters, with lettuce. 
 Roast sirloin of beef. 
 Potato croquettes. 
 Cabbage boiled with 
 
 cream. 
 Baked lemon pudding. 
 
 April 3. 
 
 Fried oysters, sliced cu- 
 cumbers. 
 
 Smelts fried with fat salt 
 pork. 
 
 Baked potatoes. 
 
 Lamb chops, with baked 
 macaroni. 
 
 Pumpkin pie and coffee. 
 
 May 30. 
 
 Clam soup. 
 
 Boiled leg of mutton, to- 
 mato sauce. 
 
 Mashed potatoes. 
 
 Oyster plant in batter. 
 
 Lettuce and green onions. 
 
 Raisin pudding, sherry 
 sauce. 
 
 June 12. 
 
 Salmon. 
 
 Chicken soup with barley. 
 
 Cold roast mutton, with 
 
 boiled cauliflower. 
 Lettuce, with cives and 
 
 olives mixed. 
 Charlotte Russe. 
 
 August 14. 
 
 Clams on the half shell, 
 pickles. 
 
 Broiled porterhouse steak. 
 
 Green pease and asparagus. 
 
 Strawberry shortcake, cof- 
 fee. 
 
 September 24. 
 
 Oyster soup. 
 
 Broiled eels, with cucum- 
 bers. 
 
 Braised fowl. 
 
 ,String beans. 
 
 Celery, with capers. 
 
 Currant tart,with whipped 
 cream. 
 
 October 25. 
 
 Pot-au-feu. 
 
 Halibut, with parsley sauce. 
 
 The beef, with the vege- 
 tables. 
 
 Potato salad. 
 
 Tapioca pudding, sauce au 
 quatre fruits. 
 
 Cream cakes. 
 
 November 3O. 
 
 Mock turtle. 
 
 Turkey, cranberry sauce. 
 
 Rice croquettes. 
 
 Kgg plant stuffed. 
 
 Snipe, fried oysters. 
 
 Water-cresses, with hard 
 
 boiled eggs. 
 German puffs. 
 
 December 14. 
 
 Pur^e of beans. 
 Broiled herring, Dutch 
 
 sauce. 
 
 Ribs of beef. 
 Boiled potatoes. 
 Stewed tomatoes. 
 Pumpkin pie. 
 
 LUNCH. 
 
 Where late dinners are the custom it is 
 necessary that something should be eaten in 
 the long interval between breakfast and din- 
 ner, and this meal is called lunch. The best 
 time for lunch is either twelve or one o'clock, 
 according as the breakfast hour is early or late ; 
 it should not be later than one o'clock or it 
 may spoil the appetite for dinner. The hour, 
 moreover, should always be the same ; and the 
 meal should never be shirked, as it is too apt 
 to be by business men, in favor of any of those 
 miserable pretexts of the barroom or confec- 
 tionery counter which are among the most 
 fruitful causes of dyspepsia and its train of ills. 
 Lunch should be made a regular repast, to 
 which the guest may sit down, eating and en- 
 joying his food deliberately. 
 
 The very best midday refreshment for busy 
 people, involving the least possible interrup- 
 
 tion to their pursuits, is a bowl of good soup ; 
 such as consommS (with vermicelli or maca- 
 roni), mock-turtle, ox-tail, gumbo, or giblet. 
 All these combine the advantage of being hot, 
 of taking little time to eat, and of containing 
 much nutriment in small bulk. Bread may 
 be soaked in any of these, or eaten as an ac- 
 companiment. If they cause thirst, it may be 
 allayed with a wineglassf ul of toast and water, 
 or a little cold tea. 
 
 The three following Bills of Fare are given 
 for entertainments, in order to show the man- 
 ner of the serving. The plates are to be 
 changed precisely as for dinner. Those dishes 
 which are printed in italics may be omitted if 
 desired. 
 
 Spring. 
 
 LUNCKEON FOR TEN PERSONS. 
 
 Conspmm<S with vermicelli. (Slierrv.) 
 ( Boiled bluefish, with lobster suet;. ) Haute- 
 j Potato croquettes. i Sauterue. 
 
 ( Vol-au-vent of oysters 1 
 j Quetwlles of partriibje . | Chambertin. 
 ( Green peas. 
 
 ( Roast sirloin of beef A la jardiniere. } fi arpt 
 
 | Artichokes au gratin. j 
 
 I'tuK-h d la liomaine. 
 
 \ Woodcocks on toast. ) p ham . iaf , np 
 
 I Chicory salad. } cl 
 
 Plum pudding glace 1 . 
 
 Assorted cakes, crackers, bonbons, coffee. 
 
 Summer. 
 
 LUNCHEON FOR EIGHTEEN PERSONS. 
 
 Oysters k la poulette. Rudesheimec 
 Sorrel soup aux croutons. Madeira. 
 
 ( Salmon cutlets, broiled, with ) (<i aret 
 
 ( green pease. ) 
 
 ( Chickens, roasted, with ) 
 
 ! apple sauce. > Chateau Yquem. 
 
 ( Macaroni, with cheese. ) 
 
 ( Fricandcau, icith ) rtoammHm* 
 , ,,,;,'< spinach.} 01 
 
 ( Lobster salad. 
 
 ( Crackers and -cheese. 
 Ice cream, milk punch, f rappee. 
 Cakes, bonbons, coffee. Maraschino. 
 
 Winter. 
 
 LUNCHEON FOR SIX PERSONS. 
 
 Mock turtle soup. Sherry. 
 ( Fillets of flounders,saute, ( 
 
 caper sauce. ] Marcobrunner 
 
 ( Fried potatoes. 
 
 ' i t -'""rt\'i' 1 -":^ "'"' j Red Hermitage. 
 Roast turkey with stewed mushrooms (-.vhitr-X 
 
 i /,'' it! l>irds, " au petit sate" I p omni <j rv 
 
 \ Fried oysters. ' 
 
 Ice cream, cakes, etc. 
 Cafe noir. 
 
 SUPPER AND TEA. 
 
 In the large cities, where late dinners are 
 the rule, tea is an obsolete meal, lunch in the 
 middle of the day having taken its place. 
 Some, it is true, have adopted the continental 
 practice of eating late suppers ; but the prac- 
 tice is unquestionably a bad one, except for 
 those who sit up very late or who work hard 
 at night. A dinner requires at least foiu
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 387 
 
 hours to digest, even in a perfectly healthy 
 stomach, and the digestive organs afterwards 
 require a period of rest. To take in more food 
 while the process of digestion is in full opera- 
 tion cannot but be injurious, and the conse- 
 quences, in the shape of dyspepsia and sleep- 
 lessness, are not slow in manifesting them- 
 selves. When dinner is taken at midday, the 
 tea may consist of any of the dishes suggested 
 for breakfast and lunch. (See Breakfast and 
 Lunch.) For late suppers, the lighter the 
 food the better. Fresh fish, sardines, well- 
 ripened fruit, a cream, light pudding, blanc- 
 mange, a little iced fruit, fruit jelly, prunes, 
 etc., are appropriate. Strong tea or coffee 
 should not be drunk ; nor wine, unless it be a 
 very light one. 
 
 SMALL POINTS ON TABLE ETI- 
 QUETTE. 
 
 Delicacy of manner at table stamps both 
 man and woman, for one can, at a glance, 
 discern whether a person has been trained to 
 eat well t. e., to hold the knife and fork 
 properly, to eat without the slightest sound of 
 the lips, to drink quietly, to use the napkin 
 rightly, to make no noise with any of the im- 
 plements of the table, and last, but not least, 
 to eat slowly and masticate the food thor- 
 oughly. All these points should be most care- 
 fully taught to children, and then they will 
 always feel at their ease at the grandest tables 
 in the land. There is no position where the 
 innate refinement of a person is more fully ex- 
 hibited than at the table, and nowhere that 
 those who have not been trained in table eti- 
 quette feel more keenly their deficiencies. Tho 
 knife should never be used to carry food to 
 the mouth, but only to cut it up into small 
 mouthfuls ; then place it upon the plate at one 
 side, and take the fork in the right hand, and 
 eat all the food with it. When both have been 
 used finally, they should be laid diagonally 
 across the plate, with both handles toward the 
 right hand ; this is understood by well-trained 
 waiters to be the signal for removing them, to- 
 gether with the plate. 
 
 Be careful to keep the mouth shut closely 
 while masticating the food. It is the opening 
 of the lips which causes the smacking which 
 seems very disgusting. Chew your food well, 
 but do it silently, and be careful to take small 
 mouthfuls. The knife can be used to cut the 
 meat finely, as large pieces of meat are not 
 healthful, and appear very indelicate. At 
 many tables, two, three, or more knives and 
 forks are placed on the table, the knives at the 
 right hand of the plate, the forks at the left, 
 a knife and a fork for each course, so that 
 there need be no replacing of them after the j 
 
 breakfast and dinner is served. The smaller 
 ones, which are for game, dessert, or for hot 
 cakes at breakfast, can be tucked under the 
 edges of the plate, and the large ones, for the 
 meat and vegetables, are placed outside of them. 
 Be very careful not to clatter your knives and 
 forks upon your plates, but use them without 
 noise. When passing the plate for a second 
 helping, lay them together at one side of the 
 plate, with handles to the right. When you 
 are helped to anything, do not wait until the 
 rest of the company are provided, it is not con- 
 sidered good breeding. Soup is always served 
 for the first course, and it should be eaten with 
 dessert spoons, and taken from the sides, not 
 \ the tips of them, without any sound of the 
 I lips, and not sucked into the mouth audibly 
 ; from the ends of the spoon. Bread should 
 not be broken into sdUp or gravy. Never ask 
 to be helped to soup a second time. The 
 hostess may ask you to take a second plate, 
 i but you will politely decline. Fish chowder, 
 which is served in soup plates, is said to be an 
 exception which proves this rule, and when 
 eating of that it is correct to take a second 
 plateful if desired. 
 
 Another generally neglected obligation is 
 that of spreading butter on one's bread as it 
 lies on one's plate, or but slightly lifted at one 
 end of the plate ; it is very frequently buttered 
 in the air, bitten in gouges, and still held in 
 the face and eyes of the table with the marks 
 of the teeth on it. This certainly is not alto- 
 gether pleasant, and it is better to cut it, a bit 
 at a time, after buttering it, and put piece by 
 piecein the mouth with one's finger and thumb. 
 Never help yourself to butter, or any other 
 food with your own knife or fork. It is not 
 considered good taste to mix food on the same 
 plate. Salt must be left on the side of the 
 plate, and never on the tablecloth. 
 
 Let us mention a few things concerning the 
 eating of which there is sometimes doubt. A 
 cream cake and anything of similar nature 
 should be eaten with knife and fork, never 
 bitten. Asparagus which should be always 
 served on bread or toast so as to absorb super- 
 fluous moisture niay be taken from the 
 finger and thumb ; if it is fit to be set before 
 you, the whole of it may be eaten. Pastry 
 should be broken and eaten with a fork, never 
 cut with a knife. Raw oysters should be eaten 
 with a fork, also fish. Pease and beans, as we 
 all know, require the fork only ; however, food 
 that cannot be held with a fork should be eaten 
 with a spoon. Potatoes, if mashed, should 
 be mashed with the fork. Green corn should be 
 eaten from the cob ; but it must be held with 
 a single hand. 
 
 Celery, cresses, olives, radishes, and relishes
 
 388 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 of that kind are, of course, to be eaten with 
 the fingers ; the salt should be laid upon one's 
 plate, not upon the cloth. Fish is to be eaten 
 with the fork, without the assistance of the 
 knife ; a bit of bread in the left hand some- 
 times helps one to master a refractory morsel. 
 Fresh fruits should be eaten with a silver- 
 bladed knife, especially pears, apples, etc. 
 
 Berries, of course, are to be eaten with a 
 spoon. In England they are served with their 
 hulls on, and three or four are considered an 
 ample quantity. But then, in England they 
 are many times the size of ours ; there they take 
 the big berry by the stem, dip into powdered 
 sugar, and eat it as we do the turnip radish. 
 It is not proper to drink with a spoon in the 
 cup ; nor should one, by the way, ever quite 
 drain a cup or glass. 
 
 Don't, when you drink, elevate your glass as 
 if you were going to stand it inverted on your 
 nose. Bring the glass perpendicularly to the 
 lips, and then lift it to a slight angle. Do this 
 easily. 
 
 Drink sparingly while eating. It is far bet- 
 ter for the digestion not to drink tea or coffee 
 until the meal is finished. Drink gently, and 
 do not pour it down your throat like water 
 turned out of a pitcher. 
 
 When seating yourself at the table, unfold 
 your napkin and lay it across your lap in such 
 a manner that it will not slide off upon the 
 floor; a gentleman should place it across his 
 right knee. Do not tuck it into your neck, 
 like a child's bib. For an old person, how- 
 ever, it is well to attach the napkin to a napkin 
 hook and slip it into the vest or dress button- 
 holes, to protect the garments, or sew a broad 
 tape at two places on the napkin, and pass it 
 over the head. "When the soup is eaten, wipe 
 the mouth carefully with the napkin, and use 
 it to wipe the hands after meals. Finger 
 bowls are not a general institution, and yet 
 they seem to be quite as needful as the napkin, 
 for the fingers are also liable to become a little 
 soiled in eating. They can be had quite 
 cheaply, and should be half filled with water, 
 and placed upon the side table or butler's tray, 
 with the dessert, bread and cheese, etc. 
 They are passed to each person half filled with 
 water, placed on a parti-colored napkin with a 
 dessert plate underneath, when the dessert is 
 placed upon the table. A leaf or two of sweet 
 verbena, an orange flower, or a small slice of 
 lemon, is usually put into each bowl to rub 
 upon the fingers. The slice of lemon is most 
 commonly used. The finger tips are slightly 
 dipped into the bo\*J, the lemon juice is 
 squeezed upon them, and then they are dried 
 softly upon the napkin. At dinner parties and 
 luncheons they are indispensable. 
 
 Spoons are sometimes used with firm pud- 
 dings, but forks are the better style. A spoon 
 should never be turned over in the mouth. 
 
 Ladies have frequently an affected way of 
 holding the knife half-way down its length, 
 as if it were too big for their little hands ; but 
 this is as awkward a way as it is weak ; the 
 knife should be grasped freely by the handle 
 only, the forefinger being the only one to 
 touch the blade, and that only along the back 
 of the blade at its root, and no further down. 
 
 At the conclusion of a course, where they 
 have been used, knife and fork should be laid 
 side by side across the middle of the plate 
 never crossed ; the old custom of crossing them 
 was in obedience to an ancient religious for- 
 mula. The servant should offer everything at 
 the left of the guest, that the guest may be at 
 liberty to use the right hand. If one has been 
 given a napkin ring, it is necessary to fold 
 one's napkin and use the ring ; otherwise the 
 napkin should be left unfolded. 
 
 BRANDY. 
 
 Brandy is made by distillation from wine, 
 and genuine brandy can be made in no other 
 way ; it is, therefore, in its pure state the 
 choicest and most agreeable of the class of ar- 
 dent spirits. The best brandy is made from the 
 white wines of Cognac and Armagnac districts 
 of France ; but as 1000 gallons of wine makes 
 only 100 to 150 gallons of brandy, it may be 
 imagined that some inferior wines are gener- 
 ally substituted for delicate and highly flavored 
 wines. In point of fact, however, the greater 
 part of the brandy consumed all over the world 
 is not made from wine at all, but is simply al- 
 cohol distilled and flavored with oil of Cognac. 
 Fiery potato spirits are also frequently con- 
 verted into so-called brandy by distillation and 
 "flavoring." Among the adulterations of 
 brandy, hot and pungent substances, such as 
 pepper, capsicum, ginger, etc., are added to 
 give the appearance of strength. They may 
 be detected by evaporating a little of the sus- 
 pected brandy nearly to dryness, when the 
 acrid and burning taste will be sensibly in- 
 creased if such substances haVe been used. 
 
 The 'liquors manufactured in this country 
 and known as apple brandy, peach brandy, 
 blackberry brandy, and the like, are not bran- 
 dies at all but a radically different spirit. 
 
 BANANA. 
 
 A variety of the plantain, found in the 
 "West Indies and South America, and through- 
 out the tropical regions of both hemispheres. 
 In the countries where it grows it is almost al- 
 ways the staple food, occupying the same place 
 there as the cereals with us. No other product
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 of the vegetable kingdom affords so much nu- 
 triment from a given space of ground as the 
 banana, and no other food is so peculiarly 
 adapted to support life in the tropics. It is 
 estimated that a quarter of an acre planted in 
 bananas will produce enough for a family of 
 five the year round. It grows in thick clus- 
 ters of 150 to 200 to the cluster. It is eaten 
 raw, either alone or cut in slices with sugar 
 and cream, or wine and orange juice. It is 
 also ro~asted, fried, or boiled, and is made 
 into fritters, preserves, and marmalades. It 
 is dried in the sun and preserved as figs ; meal 
 is extracted from it by pounding and made into 
 something resembling bread ; and the fer- 
 mented juice affords an excellent wine. With 
 us it is brought to the table as dessert, and 
 proves universally acceptable. The best kind, 
 when they can be procured fresh, are the 
 " lady fingers " as they are called. They are 
 found in our markets from March to October. 
 
 EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE EATING. 
 
 The consequences of uncontrolled indulgence 
 of the appetite manifest themselves variously. 
 The immediate result of over-eating is lethargy, 
 heaviness, and tendency to sleep. The effect 
 of persisting in the habit will depend upon 
 numerous circumstances. In a healthy sys- 
 tem, with good digestion and much active out- 
 of-door exercise, bad results may not follow 
 from the freest use of plain food. In other 
 conditions the burden may fall upon the over- 
 worked digestive organs, which are irritated by 
 the presence of the excess of food which they 
 cannot appropriate. If digestion be strong, an 
 excess of nutriment may be projected into the 
 blood, overloading the circulation. If food is 
 not expended in force, the natural alternative 
 is its accumulation in the system, increasing 
 the volume of muscle and tissue, and swelling 
 the deposit of fat. Degeneracy of the struct- 
 ures, mal-assimilation of nutritive material, 
 increased proneness to derangement and dis- 
 eased action, and various unhealthy conditions 
 may be induced by the habitual employment 
 of too much food. It is either transmuted into 
 fat and flesh, or into pain and disease. Yet it 
 is very common to charge upon quantity the 
 evils that flow from quality in diet. Injury 
 may spring from hearty indulgence in a rich, 
 concentrated, and various diet, which would 
 not flow from the most liberal use of plain and 
 simple food. "Dine upon one dish, and in 
 that consult your taste, " is an excellent motto. 
 
 EFFECTS OF INSUFFICIENT NU- 
 TRITION. 
 
 The blood is the stock of material on ha$d, 
 from which the supplies of the constantly wast- 
 
 ing system are withdrawn, and this stock is 
 but small. 'It contains, dissolved, only about 
 one eighth of the dry matter of the body, so 
 that the strength can be sustained only a very 
 short time without external supplies. Yet 
 when food is withheld, life holds its ground 
 against extensive changes. An animal does 
 not die of starvation till it has lost two fifths 
 of its weight and more than a third of its heat. 
 Yet, so important is the prompt and regular 
 ingestion of aliment, to keep the system up to 
 the par of its activity, that even transient in- 
 terruptions produce serious disturbance. As 
 the demand for nourishment is the prime 
 necessity of our being, taking precedence of 
 all other needs, if the supply be suspended, 
 the clamors of the system for food rise at once 
 above all other wants. Until hunger is ap- 
 peased, there is disquiet ; the mind traverses 
 with less than its usual freedom, the temper is 
 more easily started, and sleep fails to invigor- 
 ate as usual. There was shrewd practical 
 wisdom in the warning of Cardinal De Retz to 
 politicians, never to risk an important motion 
 before a popular assemblage, however proper 
 or wise it might be, just before dinner. Of 
 the effects of insufficient food, Moleshott speaks 
 as follows : ' ' There is another instinct by 
 which the vigor of the mind is vanquished in 
 a more melancholy way. Hunger desolates 
 head and heart. Though the craving for nu- 
 triment may be lessened to a surprising degree 
 during mental exertion, there exists nothing 
 more hostile to the cheerfulness of an active, 
 thoughtful mind, than the deprivation of 
 liquid and solid food. To the starving man. 
 every pressure becomes an intolerable burden ; 
 for this reason, hunger has effected more revo- 
 lutions than the ambition of disaffected sub- 
 jects. It is not, then, the dictate of cupidity 
 or the claim of idleness which prompts the 
 belief in a natural human right to work and 
 food." 
 
 DIET OF INFANCY. 
 
 Nature prescribes the infant's diet in the 
 composition of its mother's milk ; but nature 
 is sometimes defeated in her intention, as the 
 mother's diet controls the milk secretion both 
 in quantity and quality. If her food be scanty, 
 or low and light, the infant will be imper- 
 fectly nourished. The lactic secretion requires 
 to contain its due proportion of casein, sugar, 
 oil, and phosphate of lime ; and to produce 
 these copiously, a varied nutritious diet of good 
 bread, meat, milk, eggs, and potatoes is re- 
 quired. The aliment which the mother fur- 
 nishes to her child is more richly nutritive than 
 that which she retains for her own nourish- 
 ment. She should avoid indigestible substances
 
 390 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 and especially take but little vinegar or acid 
 fruits, as these both diminish the amount of 
 milk and render what there is less nutritious. 
 The nursing mother may with great ad vantage 
 make free use of milk itself, as it furnishes, 
 ready formed, the substances she is required to 
 impart. Should there be tendency to acidity, 
 it may be corrected by mixing the milk with 
 a mild alkali, such as one fourth or one fifth 
 of its bulk of soda water. It becomes often 
 necessary that children should be surrendered 
 to wet nurses. As the composition and con- 
 sequent physiological effects of milk gradually 
 change in the successive months after the 
 child's birth, it is important that the ages of 
 the children, both of the mother and wet- 
 nurse, should be as nearly as possible the same. 
 That nature, temper, and character are com- 
 municated by her milk, from the mother to 
 the nursing child, is not an idle prejudice. 
 Not only do bodily circumstances of health 
 affect the lactic secretion, but conditions of 
 the mind and passions also. A paroxysm of 
 anger may pervert and even poison the foun- 
 tain of life ; ' ' and there is no thought more 
 natural than that on the breast of its mother 
 the infant may imbibe together with its milk, 
 her nobleness of mind." When the exigency 
 occurs, therefore, the selection of wet nurses 
 is a matter of much, importance. If they have 
 been accustomed to plain, substantial diet, it 
 is highly unwise to pamper them with deli- 
 cacies, as is sometimes done in affluent fami- 
 lies, indigestion and bad bodily conditions 
 being very liable to ensue. As respects the 
 use of spirits under these circumstances, Dr. 
 Chambers, himself no advocate of abstinence, 
 nas the following remarks: " Nursing women 
 are desired to drink an unusual quantity of 
 porter, wine, bitters, and what not, till they 
 get bloated, thick-complexioned, stupid, and 
 dyspeptic. The reason of this is, that alcohol 
 and other ingredients, in such a diet, arrest 
 metamorphosis, detain in the system the se- 
 cretions we want to flow out, and fill those 
 which do flow out, with effete matter. If the 
 constitution of the mother is robust enough to 
 stand this bad usage, and still afford the due 
 quantum of milk for her child, yet that must 
 bv- of inferior quality to what she otherwise 
 would have made, and the innocent consumer 
 suffers." The milk of the cow differs so con- 
 siderably from that of the mother, that it 
 should be corrected if it is to be given to the 
 infant. This is done by adding a third or a 
 fourth of water, and about one twenty-fifth its 
 weight of refined sugar ; it should be warmed 
 to the temperature of the body, 98. To this, 
 solid substances may be gradually added, as 
 wheate.i bread or boiled farina, but not arrow- 
 
 root, tapioca, sago, or rice, upon which many 
 children are fed to death. These are not com- 
 plete nutriments and are incapable of promoting 
 the growth of either bones or flesh. Even 
 after weaning, soft mixtures of good bread 
 with milk and sugar, or with the juices of 
 meat ; also the more readily digestible roots 
 and vegetables, together with soups prepared 
 from the meat of young animals, may be con- 
 sidered the best food. After the teeth are cut, 
 meat and bread in their simple form may also 
 be given. Aliments difficult of digestion, fat 
 meat, heavy bread, rich pastry, unripe fruit, 
 leguminous seeds, and heating condiments are 
 carefully to be avoided for children. 
 
 DIET OF CHILDHOOD AND 
 YOUTH. 
 
 Besides the maintenance of activity, the diet 
 of this period must be such as to harden, 
 strengthen, and expand the system. The mus- 
 cles increase in fibrin and firmness, tissues are 
 developed and strengthened, and the gelatinous 
 model of the bones is solidified and enlarged 
 into a strong skeleton by the gradual deposit 
 of bone-earth. With these changes there is 
 also a slowly augmenting activity of bodily 
 transformation, the excretion of carbonic acid 
 by the lungs, and of urea by the kidneys, in- 
 creasing in amount up to the twenty-fifth or 
 thirtieth year. The demand for food is, there- 
 fore, more peremptory during the growing 
 time of youth than at any portion of subse- 
 quent life. As regards the indulgence of the 
 appetite at this period, perhaps there is no bet- 
 ter guide than the indications of nature. So 
 children have plain food, if healthy and active, 
 they will hardly eat sufficient to injure them- 
 selves. It is not right to subject the young to 
 a regimen adjusted to the adult ; they require 
 more nutritious food, and to satisfy the appe- 
 tite oftener. Something to eat in mid-fore- 
 noon and mid-afternoon will often be necessary, 
 but the thing should be done strictly upon 
 system, as the habit of eating irregularly, at 
 every capricious call of appetite, is wrong and 
 injurious. Yet, though the diet of youth 
 should be nutritive and strength-imparting, it 
 is of the first necessity that it should be plain 
 and unexciting. Luxurious, stimulating food, 
 charged with condiments and nerve-provoca- 
 tives, gives rise to a morbid precocity of in- 
 stincts, thoughts, and actions, and helps to 
 explain the unhealthy prematurity and slender 
 figures and pale faces of boys and girls brought 
 up in towns. 
 
 DIET OF MIDDLE LIFE. 
 
 When maturity has been reached, there 
 comes a period, varying in duration, but ex-
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 39! 
 
 tending perhaps from the ages of twenty-five 
 to forty-five, in which the bodily exchanges 
 are in equilibrium, the expenses and receipts of 
 nutrition are balanced, and the individual 
 neither gains nor loses weight. No portion of 
 the food is now to be appropriated as hereto- 
 fore, in growth ; it may all be devoted to ex- 
 ertion. It is the time of maximum power, 
 the effective working period of life. The diet 
 should be varied and strong, but of course 
 ought to be modified in accordance with the ac- 
 tivity, constitution, and various circumstances. 
 For hard, exhausting labor, broM a or lean 
 meat, the leguminous seeds, bread, buid an ad- 
 mixture of vegetables may be employed. It 
 can hardly be necessary to add in the light of 
 the principles of nutrition which have been 
 established, that fat pork is generally much 
 over-estimated by laborers ; it is the blood 
 producing beans and bread with which it is 
 always associated that chiefly imparts the 
 strength. It has been sufficiently pointed out 
 that persons in light sedentary occupations, 
 brain-workers and idlers, should avoid those 
 more indigestible substances, and while rein- 
 ing in the appetite, or, at all events, not spur- 
 ring it, should live upon a diet of the most 
 easily digestible substances. 
 
 DIET OF ADVANCED LIFE. 
 
 As age comes on, the nutritive conditions 
 of youthhood are reversed, the body can no 
 longer digest and appropriate sufficient to meet 
 its destructive losses, and there is a decrease 
 of strength and weight. The tissues shrink, 
 as we see in the shriveled hands and wrinkled 
 brow, the hair is changed in composition, the 
 bones become more earthy and brittle, the car- 
 tilages ossify, there is a general diminution of 
 fat, and a loss of fluids in all parts except the 
 brain, which becomes more watery. The stom- 
 ach participates in the general decline, its di- 
 minished and weakened juices becoming less 
 capable of dissolving the necessary food ; the 
 circulation is retarded and the general vitality 
 lowered. As the solvent powers of the stom- 
 ach begin to be enfeebled, and the appetite 
 becomes languid, elderly people should be ad- 
 monished to exercise care in selecting food, 
 and not waste the power they have on refrac- 
 tory, indigestible aliments. Young and tender 
 meats, strong broths, milk, light, well-baked 
 bread, and tender succulent vegetables, tax the 
 digestive organs least. Nor should they com- 
 mit the error of supposing that the waning 
 powers of advancing life can be sustained by 
 increasing the quantity of food eaten. Dr. 
 Cheyne remarked more than a hundred years 
 ago, " Every man after fifty ought to begin to 
 lessen the quantity of his aliment; and if he 
 
 would avoid great and dangerous distempers, 
 and preserve his senses and faculties clear to 
 the last, he should go on every seven years 
 abating gradually." When hints like these 
 are neglected, and persons persist in a high 
 and hearty diet, keeping up a plethoric state 
 of the system, serious and fatal consequences 
 often ensue. The blood vessels of the brain 
 are not only weaker than those of any other 
 part of the body, but they derive no support 
 as other vessels do from the elastic pressure of 
 surrounding muscles. In the imperfect nutri- 
 tion and growing debility of advancing age, 
 these vessels participate, so that with over- 
 1 fullness there arises liability of their giving 
 away, as in brain congestion or apoplexy. 
 
 GYMNASTICS AND PHYSICAL 
 DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The principal methods of developing the 
 physical man now prescribed by trainers are 
 exercise with dumbbells, the bar bell, and 
 the chest weight. The rings and horizontal 
 and parallel bars are also used, but not nearly 
 to the extent that they formerly were. The 
 movement has been all in the direction of 
 the simplification of apparatus ; in fact, one 
 well known teacher of the Boston Gymnasium, 
 when asked his opinion, said: "Four bare 
 walls and a floor, with a well posted instruc- 
 tor, is all that is really required for a gymna- 
 sium." 
 
 Probably the most important as well as the 
 simplest appliance for gymnasium work is 
 the wooden dumbbell, which has displaced the 
 ponderous iron bell of former days. Its weight 
 is from three quarters of a pound to a pound 
 and a half, and with one in each hand a variety 
 of motions can be gone through, which are of 
 immense benefit in building up or toning down 
 every muscle, and all vital parts of the body. 
 
 The first object of an instructor in taking a 
 beginner in hand is to increase the circulation. 
 This is done by exercising the extremities, the 
 first movement being one of the hands, after 
 which come the wrists, then the arms, and 
 next the head and feet. As the circulation is 
 increased, the necessity for a larger supply of 
 oxygen, technically called "oxygen-hunger," 
 is created, which is only satisfied by breathing 
 exercises, which develop the lungs. After the 
 circulation is in a satisfactory condition, the 
 dumbbell instructor turns his attention to ex- 
 ercising the great muscles of the body, begin- 
 ning with those of the back, strengthening 
 which holds the body erect, thus increasing 
 the chest capacity, invigorating the digestive 
 organs, and in fact all the vital functions. By 
 the use of very light- weights an equal and 
 symmetrical development of all parts of the
 
 392 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 body is obtained, and then there are no sudden 
 demands on the heart and lungs. 
 
 After the dumbbell comes exercise with the 
 round or bar bell. This is like the dumbbell, 
 with the exception that the bar connecting the 
 balls is four or five feet, instead of a few 
 inches, in length. Bar bells weigh from one to 
 two pounds each, and are found most useful in 
 building up the respiratory and digestive sys- 
 tems, their special province being the strength- 
 ening of the erector muscles and increasing the 
 flexibility of the chest. 
 
 Of all fixed apparatus in use, the pulley 
 weight stands easily first in importance. 
 These weights are available for a greater vari- 
 ety of objects than any other gymnastic appli- 
 ance, and can be used either for general 
 exercise or for strengthening such muscles as 
 most require it. With them a greater local- 
 ization is possible than with the dumbbell, and 
 for this reason they are recommended as a 
 kind of supplement to the latter. As chest 
 developers and correctors of round shoulders, 
 they are most effective. As the nameimpjies, 
 they are simply weights attached to ropes, 
 which pass over pulleys, and are provided with 
 handles. The common pulley is placed at 
 about the height of the shoulder of an aver- 
 age man, but recently those which can be 
 adjusted to any desired height have been very 
 generally introduced. 
 
 When more special localization is desired 
 than can be obtained by means of the ordinary 
 apparatus, what is known as the double-action 
 chest weight is used. This differs from the 
 ordinary kind in being provided with several 
 pulleys, so that the strain may come at differ- 
 ent angles. Double-action weights may be 
 divided into threeclasses high, low, andside 
 pulleys each with its particular use. 
 
 The highest of all, known as the giant pul- 
 leys, are made especially for developing the 
 muscles of the back and chest, and by stretch- 
 ing or elongating movements to increase the 
 interior capacity of the chest. If the front of 
 the chest is full and the back or side chest 
 deficient, the pupil is set to work on the giant 
 pulley. To build up the side-walls, he stands 
 with the back to the pulley box and the left 
 heel resting against it ; the handle is grasped 
 in the right hand if the right side of the 
 chest is lacking in development, and then 
 drawn straight down by the side ; a step for- 
 ward with the right foot, as long as possible, 
 is taken, the line brought as far to the front 
 and near the floor as can be done, and then 
 the arm, held stiff, allowed to be drawn slowly 
 up by the weight. To exercise the left side 
 the same process is gone through with, the 
 handle grasped in the left hand. Another 
 
 kind of giant pulley is that which allows the 
 operator to stand directly under it, and is used 
 for increasing the lateral diameter of the chest. 
 The handles are drawn straight down by the 
 sides, the arms are then spread and drawn 
 back by the weights. Generally speaking, 
 high pulleys are most used for correcting high, 
 round shoulders ; low pulleys for low, round 
 shoulders ; side pulleys for individual high or 
 low shoulders, and giant pulleys for the devel- 
 opment of the walls of the chest and to correct 
 spinal curvature. 
 
 The traveling rings, a line of iron rings cov- 
 ered with rubber and attached to long ropes 
 fastened to the ceiling some ten feet apart, are 
 also valuable in developing the muscles of the 
 back, arms, and sides. The first ring is grasped 
 in one hand, and a spring taken from an ele- 
 vated platform. The momentum carries the 
 gymnast to the next ring, which is seized with 
 the free hand, and so the entire length of the 
 line is traversed. The parallel bars, low and 
 high, the flying rings, the horizontal bar, and 
 the trapeze all have their uses, but of late 
 years they have been relegated to a position of 
 distinct inferiority to that now occupied by 1 he 
 dumbbells and pulley weights. 
 
 POSOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Medicines, with doses for adults. For pa- 
 tients over 20 years of age, the full dose; from 
 14 to 20 years, ^ of full dose ; 7 to 14 years, 
 | dose ; 4 to 7 years, ^ dose ; 3 years, ^ dose ; 
 2 years, ^ dose ; 1 year, ^ dose. 
 
 MEDICINE. DOSK. 
 
 Arsenic, Fowler's Solution of 2 to 10 ilro)<s 
 
 Aconite, Extract of 1-6 to V 2 gra i n 
 
 Aconite, Tincture of 1 to 5 drops 
 
 Aloes, Purified .1 to 5 grains 
 
 Aloes, Pills of Ito 4 pills 
 
 Aloes, Pills of Asafoetida and 1 to 4 pills 
 
 Asaf cetida, Mixture of ^ to 2 taMeapoonfala 
 
 Asaf cetida, Tincture of V 2 to 2 teaspoonfuls 
 
 Asafcptida. Pill of 1 to 4 pills 
 
 Atropia, Sulphate of ,$ to ^ of a grain 
 
 Belladonna, Extract of y 4 to 1 grain 
 
 Belladonna, Fluid Extractor 1 to 5 drops 
 
 Belladonna, Tincture of 5 to 30 drops 
 
 Bismuth, Subnitrate of 10 to "0 grains 
 
 Bromide of Ammonia 5 lo 20 grains 
 
 Bromide of Potassium 5 to 20 grains 
 
 Bromide of Sodium. 5 to 20 grains 
 
 Buchu, Fluid Extract of 10 to 60 drops 
 
 Calibar Bean, Extract of % to 1 grain 
 
 Calomel to 10 grains 
 
 Camphor, Spirits of 5 to 15 drops 
 
 Camphor Water 1 to 4 teaspoonf uls 
 
 Capsicum, Tincture of 10 to 20 drops 
 
 Castor Oil / 4 to 2 tablespoonfuls 
 
 Chloral, Hydrate of 5 to 30 grains 
 
 Cinchona, Sulphate of 5 to 30 grains 
 
 Cinchona, Compound Tincture of 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls 
 
 Cod Liver Oil V 2 to 1 tablespoonfnl 
 
 Copper, Sulphate of '.". J to y 2 grain 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate B ' to -fa grain 
 
 Cream of Tartar 5 to <;0 grains 
 
 Croton Oil 1 to 2 drops 
 
 Digitalis, Extract of ^ to 2 grains 
 
 Digitalis, Tincture of 5 to 60 drops 
 
 Dover's Powder 5 to 10 grains 
 
 EpsomSalts V 2 to 2 tablespoonfuls 
 
 Ergot, Fluid Extract of y 2 to 2 teaspoouf uls
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 393 
 
 MEDICINE. DOSE. should be instructed with regard to disinfec- 
 
 Gelseinium. Fluid Extract of 5toiodrops t j on- xhey must be taught that no reliance 
 
 Gentian, Extract of 1 to 5 grams , J ,. . 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid, dilute 1 to 5 drops , can be placed upon disinfectants Simply be- 
 lly, sryamus, Fluid Extract of ...... .5 to 20 drops caus e they smell of chlorine or carbolic acid, 
 
 Hy.j-ryamus, Tincture of ^ to 2 teaspoonfuls J f 
 
 iodine, Compound Tincture of .". -i to 5 drops or possess the color ot permanganate, and 
 
 Iodide of Potassium 5 to 30 grains j th t j general, proprietary disinfectants with 
 
 Ipecacuanha, Fluid Extract of 2 to 36 drops I .. J . 
 
 Ipecacuanha, Syrup of 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls high-sounding names are practically worthless, 
 
 irmVe"hi ] riMi T 6S f Mor i' hineand -- lt 1 t 1 2 tro l ^^ as they either have no value whatever, or, if 
 iron! Pyrophosphate of..... ".....!.......... 2 to 5 grains value, cost many times as much as they are 
 
 irctic ri Aci ; d re0ftlieChlorideof I5toodrops^ wol ' th ' and cannot be used ia sufficient 
 
 Laudanum. .'....'.'.'..'......'.'.'............'.'.". '.'.15 to 40 drops ! quantity. 
 
 S^A^fe-of/"/.::::::::::r.::::::4to5^S Explanations.- Disinfection is the de - 
 
 .May Apple, Extract of 3 to 8 grains struction of the poisons of infectious and con- 
 Muriatic Acid, dilute 5 tO 10 drops taa-inna rliapicpe 
 
 Morphine '. % to % grains ta ^ U ^ dl . seases ' 
 
 Magnesia, Sulphate of y a to 2 tablespoonfuls j Deodorizers, or substances which destroy 
 
 Mustard, Ground 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls cmplle arp nnt nppps^arilv rlisinfpf taiits and 
 
 Nitre, Sweet Spirits of V 2 to 1 teaspoonful S 11S ' ar( ,' a 
 
 Nitro-Muriatic Acid, dilute 2 to 10 drops disinfectants do not necessarily have odor. 
 
 ^wimTxtraJt of"' 6 f % tofgrains | Disinfection cannot compensate for want of 
 
 Opium! Tincture of. .'.....'....".'.......... '.".15 to 40 drops cleanliness or ventilation. 
 
 Opium, Camphorated Tincture of y 4 to 2 tablespoonfuls Im _ DISINFECTANTS TO BE EMPLOYED. 
 
 Paregoric V 4 to 2 tablespoonfuls -, T> n /u f t 
 
 Potassium, Bicarbonate of 5to20grains 1. Roll sulphur (brimstone) for fumiga- 
 
 Potassium, Bitartrate of 5 to 60 grains finn 
 
 Potassium, Bromide of 5to20grains . . , v ,. , , . 
 
 Potassium, Chlorate of 5to20grains 2. Sulphate of iron (copperas) dissolved in 
 
 Potassium, Iodide of 5to30graius -.vit^r in tVip mvmnrtinn nf nnp aiiH i half 
 
 Potassium, Liquor Of 2 to 20 drops water ln tne P r P O1 
 
 Pepsin 5 to 10 grains pounds to the gallon ; for soil, sewers, etc. 
 
 Qu inine'.^. 1 !^^ 6 f '. '2toU Si 3 ' Sul P h ate f zinC and coramon salt ' dis ' 
 
 Salicin. ........!......... ................ ....5 to 20 grains solved together in water in the proportion of 
 
 Senna, Confection of 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls f/-mr niinpps cnlnhatp anH two niinpps snlt tn 
 
 Senna, Fluid Extract of 1 tablespoonf ul J 
 
 Soda, Bicarbonate of 5 to 30 grains the gallon ; for clothing, bed linen, etc. 
 
 Soda, Salicylate of 10 to 30 grains ~NYTi? Pavhnlip ar>irl i<j nnr inoliirlprl in 
 
 Squill , Syrup of % to 1 teaspSonf ul L t. u ~ 
 
 Strychnia, Suli>hate of ^ to ^ of a grain the above list for the following reasons : It is 
 
 ^SSSSf^S^^::::::::.%^iSsg&& ver y difficult to determi e the q alifc y of the 
 
 Veratrum Viride, Tincture of 1 to 4 drops commercial article, and the purchaser can 
 
 Zinc, Oxide of y 2 to5grains never be certain of securing it of proper 
 
 strength ; it is expensive, when of good qual- 
 
 DISIXFECTANTS AXD HOW TO ity, and experience has shown that it must be 
 USE THEM. employed in comparatively large quantities to 
 
 The National Board of Health of the United be of any use ; it is liable by its strong odor 
 States of America, consisting of a number of to give a false sense of security, 
 our leading physicians and chemical experts, of 
 
 which Professor C. F. Chandler of New York IT - HOW TO USE DISINFECTANTS. 
 
 was chairman, have issued the following in- 1. In the Sick Room. The most available 
 structions for disinfection, intended especially agents are fresh air and cleanliness. The 
 for the guidance of physicians and nurses in clothing, towels, bed linen, etc., should at 
 the yellow fever districts, but which are equally once, on removal from the patient, be placed 
 applicable in other classes of contagious dis- in a pail or tub of the zinc solution, boiling 
 eases. In submitting this report the chairman hot if possible, before removal from the room, 
 says : All discharges should either be received in 
 
 It has been the aim of the committee to pre- vessels containing copperas solution, or, when 
 pare concise directions for disinfection, so this is impracticable, should be immediately 
 simple and clear that they may be easily fol- covered with copperas solution. All vessels 
 lowed by any person of intelligence. used about the patient should be cleansed with 
 
 In the selection of disinfecting agents the the same solution. 
 
 aim has been: 1st, to secure agents which j Unnecessary furniture especially that which 
 can be relied upon to accomplish the work ; is stuffed carpets and hangings, when possi- 
 2d, which can be procured in a state of com- ble, should be removed from the room at the 
 parative purity in every village in the United outset ; otherwise, they should remain for 
 States ; 3d, so cheap that they may be used in subsequent fumigation and treatment, 
 adequate quantities. 2. Fumigation with sulphur is the only 
 
 It is extremely important that the people ( practicable method for disinfecting the house.
 
 394 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 For this purpose the rooms to be disinfected 
 must be vacated. Heavy clothing, blankets, 
 bedding, and other articles which cannot be 
 treated with zinc solution, should be opened 
 and exposed during fumigation, as directed 
 below. Close the rooms as tightly as possible, 
 place the sulphur in iron pans supported upon 
 bricks, set it on fire by hot coals, or with the 
 aid of a spoonful of alcohol, and allow the 
 room to remain closed for twenty-four hours. 
 For a room about ten feet square, at least two 
 pounds of sulphur should be used ; for larger 
 rooms, proportionally increased quantities. 
 
 3. Premises. Cellars, yards, stables, gut- 
 ters, privies, cesspools, water-closets, drains, 
 sewers, etc., should be frequently and liberally 
 treated with copperas solution. The copperas 
 solution is easily prepared by hanging a basket 
 containing about sixty pounds of copperas in a 
 barrel of water. 
 
 4. Body and Bed Clothing, etc. It is best to 
 burn all articles which have been in contact 
 with persons sick with contagious or infectious 
 diseases. Articles too valuable to be destroyed 
 should be treated as follows : 
 
 a. Cotton, linen, flannels, blankets, etc., 
 should be treated with the boiling hot zinc 
 solution, introducing piece by piece, securing 
 thorough wetting, and boiling for at least half 
 an hour. 
 
 b. Heavy woolen clothing, silks, furs, stuffed 
 beds covers, beds, and other articles which can- 
 not be treated with the zinc solution, should 
 be hung in the room during fumigation, 
 pockets being turned inside out, and the 
 whole garment thoroughly exposed. After- 
 ward they should be hung in the open air, 
 beaten, and shaken. Pillows, beds, stuffed 
 mattresses, upholstered furniture, etc., should 
 be cut open, the contents spread out and thor- 
 oughly fumigated. Carpets are best fumi- 
 gated on the floor, but should afterward be 
 removed to the open air and thoroughly beaten. 
 
 SLEEPLESSNESS. 
 
 Nothing lowers the vital forces more than 
 sleeplessness, which may generally be traced 
 to one of four causations : (1) msntal worry ; 
 (2) a disordered stomach ; (3) excessive muscu- 
 lar exertion ; (4) functional or organic disease. 
 Loss of sleep is, when rightly understood, one 
 of Nature's premonitory warnings that some 
 of her physical laws have been violated. When 
 we are troubled with sleeplessness, it becomes 
 requisite to discover the primary cause, and 
 then to adopt suitable means for its re- 
 moval. When insomnia, or sleeplessness, 
 arises from mental worry, it is indeed most 
 difficult to remove. The best and perhaps 
 the only effectual plan under such circum- 
 
 stances to reach the root of the disorder is ;-. 
 spare diet, combined with plenty of outdoor 
 exercise, thus to draw the blood from the 
 brain ; for it is as impossible for the brain to 
 continue active without a due circulation of 
 blood as" it is for an engine to move without 
 steam. 
 
 When suffering from mental distress, a hot 
 soap bath before retiring to rest is an invalua- 
 ble agent for obtaining sleep, as by its means 
 a more equable blood pressure becomes estab- 
 lished, promoting a decrease of the heart's 
 action and relaxation of the blood vessels. 
 Many a sleepless night owes its origin to the 
 body's temperature being unequal. In mental 
 worry, the head is often hot and the feet cold, 
 the blood being driven to the brain. The 
 whole body should be well washed over with 
 carbolic soap and sponged with very hot water. 
 The blood then becomes diverted from the 
 brain, owing to an adequate diffusion of circu- 
 lation. Tea and coffee should not be taken 
 of an evening when persons suffer from insom- 
 nia, as they directly induce sleeplessness, be- 
 ing nervine stimulants. A sharp walk of 
 about twenty minutes is also very serviceable 
 before going to bed. 
 
 Sleeplessness is sometimes engendered by a 
 disordered stomach. Whenever this organ is 
 overloaded, its powers are disordered, and 
 wakefulness or a restless night is its usual ac- 
 companiment. Dr. C. J. B. Williams, F.R.S., 
 remarks that no food should be taken at least 
 within one hour of bedtime. It cannot be too 
 generally realized that the presence of undi- 
 gested food in the stomach is one of the most 
 prevailing causes of sleeplessness. 
 
 Persons suffering from either functional or 
 organic disease are peculiarly liable to sleep- 
 lessness. When inability to sleep persistently 
 occurs, and cannot be traced to any perverted 
 mode of life or nutrition, there is good reason 
 for surmising that some latent malady gives 
 rise to a condition so truly distressing. Under 
 these circumstances, instead of making bad 
 worse, by swallowing deadly sleeping drugs, a 
 scientific physician should be without delay 
 consulted. Functional disorders of the stomach, 
 liver, and heart, are often the primary source 
 of otherwise unaccountable wakefulness. 
 
 Recently the dangerous and lamentable 
 habit of promiscuously taking sleeping draughts 
 has unfortunately become very prevalent, en- 
 tailing misery and ill health to a terrible de- 
 gree. Most persons addicted to this destruc- 
 tr-e practice erroneously think that it is better 
 to take a sleeping draught than lie awake. A 
 greater mistake could hardly exist. All opi- 
 ates more or less occasion mischief, and even 
 the state > stupefaction they induce utterly
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 395 
 
 fails to bring about that revitalization resulting 
 from natural sleep. The physiological effect 
 of hypnotics, or sleeping draughts, upon the 
 system is briefly as follows : (1) They para- 
 lyze the nerve centers and disorder the stomach, 
 rendering it unfit for its duties ; witness the 
 sickness and loss of appetite consequent upon 
 a debauch. Chloral, chloroform, opium, etc., 
 act upon the system much in the same way as 
 inebriation. (2) One and all anaesthetics in- 
 troduced into the body have life-destroying 
 properties in a low degree proved by an 
 overdose being fatal. (3) The condition they 
 produce is not sleep, but a counterfeit state of 
 unconsciousness. (4) They directly poison the 
 blood, consequent upon its carbonization, re- 
 sulting from their action. While speaking of 
 sedatives, we cannot omit drawing special at- 
 tention to chloral. This powerful drug is pop- 
 ularly supposed to give a quiet night's rest, 
 without any of the after effects (headache, 
 etc.) produced by various preparations of 
 morphia. Now chloral is what is termed 
 cumulative in its action, which implies that 
 even the same dose, persisted in for a certain 
 length of time, may cause death. Of all 
 hypnotics, chloral is by far the most deadly, 
 and should never, under any circumstances, be 
 taken except under medical supervision. 
 
 To epitomize what has already been said re- 
 garding sleeplessness : its rational cure should 
 be arrived at in each individual case by seeking 
 out the cause, and then removing the morbid 
 action, of which it is but a natural sequence. 
 
 Lastly, sleeplessness, under no circumstances, 
 should be neglected, as it acts disastrously 
 both on the mental and physical forces. 
 
 DRUGS. 
 
 In purchasing drugs, whether in the raw 
 state or in the form of extracts, tinctures, etc., 
 it is very important to obtain them from a 
 reputable chemist, who will take care that the 
 article is genuine and properly labeled. The 
 adulteration of drugs is carried on to an enor- 
 mous extent, and, as commonly sold by irre- 
 sponsible parties, the strength is seldom above 
 one half of what it ought to be. Besides this, 
 there is the danger of substituting a cheap 
 drug for a dear one. Drugs are, most of them, 
 soon spoiled by keeping, and in all cases they 
 should be preserved in well-stoppered bottles 
 with the exception of Epsom salts, niter, 
 soda, and some few others, which will keep 
 without injury for an indefinite time. All 
 vegetable medicines lose their virtues in the 
 course of a few months, if not carefully closed 
 from the'air ; and even in bottles, they seldom 
 keep good for a year. It is desirable, there- 
 fore, to purchase them in small quantities at a 
 
 time, and to renew them at intervals of twelve 
 months. Most drugs simply lose their strength 
 with time; but laudanum, on the contrary, 
 becomes stronger, especially if it be left un- 
 corked ; the spirit evaporates, leaving almost 
 pure opium. This must be guarded against, 
 as the most fatal results might occur from giv- 
 ing a dose much greaier (in point of strength) 
 than was intended. 
 
 A few drugs requiring extended notice are 
 given under separate titles in this work. 
 
 The additional ones given below are least 
 liable to abuse, in family use. Each is intro- 
 duced in alphabetical order, with its properties 
 and effects given under the respective heads 
 (a) Physical properties ; (&) Therapeutical effects ; 
 (c) Use; and (r/) Dose and mode of adminis- 
 tration. Extracts, tinctures, and all such com- 
 pounds as will bear keeping, and are likely to 
 be useful in a family, are better when bought 
 of a good druggist than as made at home. 
 They are therefore given without direction to 
 manufacture. It should be borne in mind, 
 however, that drugs of any kind should be 
 used very sparingly except by direction of a 
 physician. 
 
 Acid, Acetic. Vinegar distilled from 
 wood, and purified. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Limpid, colorless, 
 volatile ; odor, pungent and fragrant ; taste, 
 acid. 
 
 (i) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, escha- 
 rotic, but, when diluted with water, cooling. 
 
 (c) Used in lotions for cooling purposes 
 diluted with water, also in ringworm and re- 
 moving warts. 
 
 (<7) Dose. It is not given internally, except 
 in combination with other medicines. 
 
 Acid, Acetic (diluted'). Diluted acetic 
 acid, prepared from the acid just described. 
 
 () Physical properties. A clear acid fluid. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Astringent, dia- 
 phoretic, cooling, and antiseptic. It is useful 
 in making the acetate of lead more soluble. 
 Externally, it is stimulant in its full strength, 
 or, when mixed with water, cooling. 
 
 (r) Used in fevers internally ; or as a gargle 
 with capsicum ; or as an inhalation in sore 
 throat. A useful lotion when mixed with spirit 
 and water, in bruises, sprains, and burns. 
 
 (<7) Dose. Half a drachm to one drachm. 
 
 Acid, Benzoic. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. White and shin- 
 ing crystals, with flakes of a fragrant aromatic 
 odor, and acid taste. Sparingly soluble in 
 water, but is easily dissolved in alcohol. When 
 heated, is completely evaporated, with an agree- 
 able and peculiar odor ; but if the tempera- 
 ture is raised too high, it takes fire, and burns 
 with a yellow flame.
 
 396 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant and ex- 
 pectorant. 
 
 (c) Used in chronic bronchitis. 
 
 (rf) Dose. Five grains to half a drachm 
 twice a day. 
 
 Acid, Carbolic (pure and impure). A 
 powerful antiseptic substance, obtained from 
 coal tar oil. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. The pure anhy- 
 drous acid is in long, colorless, prismatic crys- 
 tals, turning a pale pink on keeping. It rapidly 
 deliquesces in moist air. The impure is a 
 more or less brown liquid. Both strongly re- 
 semble tar in smell. 
 
 (/>) Therapeutical effects. Strongly antisep- 
 tic, antifermentative, and caustic. 
 
 (c) The pure acid is applied on cotton for 
 allaying tenderness and pain in decayed teeth. 
 Being a caustic, it should be carefully kept 
 from touching anything but the tooth ; when 
 properly used, it is the best application for 
 toothache arising from this cause, and is indeed 
 a specific. 
 
 Dose. About a grain of the acid is enough 
 for toothache. One drachm of carbolic acid to 
 a pint of water is strong enough for disinfect- 
 ant purposes. 
 
 Acid, Citric, prepared from the juice of 
 lemons. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Sharp acid taste, 
 white semi-transparent crystals of a rhom- 
 boidal shape. Decomposed by heat ; soluble in 
 twice their weight of cold, and half their 
 weight of boiling water. 
 
 (1>) Therapeutical effects. Refrigerant. 
 
 (c) Used in febrile and inflammatory com- 
 plaints ; dissolved in water as a substitute for 
 lemon juice, and added to soda to form the 
 common effervescing draught. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 grains to 1 scruple; 15 
 grains of the acid neutralize 20 grains of bicar- 
 bonate of soda, to form the effervescing 
 draught. 
 
 Acid, Gallic, prepared from galls. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A powder of nearly 
 colorless semi-crystalline appearance ; dissi- 
 pated by heat ; dissolves in water and spirit. 
 
 (c) Used in discharges of blood and diar- 
 rhoea, and in other mucous discharges. Also 
 in hemorrhoids. 
 
 (<l) Dose. 2 to 5 grains. As an injection 
 half a drachm dissolved in one ounce of water ; 
 an ointment, 20 grains are mixed with an 
 ounce of lard, with the addition of 30 or 40 
 grains of powdered opium. 
 
 Acid, Hydrochloric (diluted). Hydro- 
 chloric acid, mixed with three times its bulk 
 of water. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Taste, intensely 
 acrid and caustic ; smell, acrid and suffocating ; 
 
 the acid is colorless when pure, but usually is 
 of a straw color, with the presence of peroxide 
 of iron, or nitrous acid. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Tonic, antiseptic, 
 and partially diuretic, by promoting all the 
 secretions. 
 
 (c) Used, when combined with diluted nitric 
 acid, in affections of the liver ; also with bit- 
 ters, to prevent the generation of worms ; in 
 gargles for sore throat. 
 
 (</) Dose. 20 minims to 40. 
 
 Acid, Sulphuric (diluted). Sulphuric acid 
 mixed with about eleven times its bulk of 
 water. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Strong acid taste, 
 inodorous, colorless, and transparent. Specific 
 gravity, 1.103. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Tonic, astringent, 
 and antiseptic. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia, also to check sweat- 
 ings, salivation, and diarrhrea ; likewise as a 
 gargle. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 minims to 30, diluted largely 
 (2 drachms to 8 ounces) as a gargle, with honey, 
 sage, etc. 
 
 Acid, Tartaric. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Colorless imper- 
 fect crystals, inodorous, very acid, soluble, 
 largely in water. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Refrigerant, an- 
 tiseptic, diuretic, and slightly aperient. 
 
 (c) Used in fevers, etc., with some soda or 
 potassium, as an effervescing draught, instead 
 of citric acid ; the proportions being the same. 
 
 ./Ether, Sulphuric. 
 
 (c) Physical properties. A limpid, volatile, 
 inflammable fluid, without color, produces great 
 cold by evaporation ; taste, peculiar, but hot 
 and pungent ; sparingly soluble in water, readily 
 so in alcohol. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. A diffusible stim- 
 ulant, afterwards narcotic and antispasmodic ; 
 externally cooling ; when inhaled producing 
 anaesthesia. 
 
 (c) Used in hysteria, faintings, asthma, and 
 other spasmodic complaints. 
 
 (d) Dose. 20 minims to 60, in water. 
 Aloes, Barbadoes. The inspissated 
 
 juice, of the cut leaf of the Aloe spicata, im- 
 ported from the Cape of Good Hope and West 
 Indies. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Of a dark In-own 
 color, and shining resinous surface, with a 
 strong disagreeable odor, and very bitter taste ; 
 very difficult to powder, and soluble in diluted 
 alcohol. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effi-cta. A stimulating pur- 
 gative, producing its chief effects on the lower 
 bowels. Apt to produce and aggravate hemor- 
 rhoids.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 397 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia and in head affec- 
 tions ; also as a common purgative. 
 ' (</) Dose, One fourth of a grain to 5 grains, 
 well powdered, or dissolved in hot water. 
 
 Alum. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A semi-transparent, 
 rough, irregular mass of saline matter. Taste, 
 acid-astringent. Soluble in 18 parts of water 
 at 60 degrees, and in a little more than an equal 
 weight of water at 212 degrees. 
 
 (/;) Therapeutical effects. Astringent and 
 styptic. 
 
 (c) Used internally in hemorrhages ; exter- 
 nally in ophthalmia, or as a gargle. 
 
 (</) Dose. 10 grains to 20. As gargle 
 1 drachm to a pint of water. 
 
 Ammonia, Liquor of. Ammonia con- 
 densed in water. 
 
 (a) Physical Properties. A stimulating so- 
 lution. Blisters the skin. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulating, dia- 
 phoretic, anti-acid, when given internally. 
 Externally, irritant and eschorotic. 
 
 (c) Used, when largely diluted, in faintings, 
 asphyxia, hysteria, spasms, acidities of the 
 stomach ; and, externally, as an irritant of the 
 skin. 
 
 (W) Dose. The aromatic spirits of ammonia 
 is the usual form for internal use. Dose from 
 15 to 40 minims. 
 
 Ammonia, Sesqui-Carbonate of. Am- 
 monia united with carbonic acid. 
 
 (ti) Physical properties. A mass of irregu- 
 lar crystals, somewhat resembling white sugar, 
 but more transparent and striated. Smell, 
 pungent ; taste, sharp and alkaline ; soluble in 
 four times its weight of cold water ; becomes 
 opaque and friable on exposure to the air. 
 
 {!>) Therapeutical effects. Stimulating, anti- 
 spasmodic, diaphoretic, and anti-acid. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia, hysteria, and all dis- 
 eases requiring a rapidly acting diffusible 
 stimulant. Externally, to the nostrils in 
 syncope. 
 
 (.'/) Dose. 2 grains to 5, in pills or dis- 
 solved in any fluid. 
 
 Antimony, Potassio-Tartrate of. Tar- 
 tar emetic. 
 
 (a) I'hy.-tii-nl properties. A colorless, trans- 
 parent, inodorous, crystallized salt, with a 
 slightly metallic taste. Soluble in fifteen 
 times its weight of cold water, and twice its 
 weight of boiling water ; insoluble in pure 
 alcohol, but soluble in proof spirit or wine. 
 The aqueous solution becomes decomposed by 
 keeping. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical iffects. Emetic in large 
 doses ; diaphoretic in small ones ; expectorant, 
 slightly aperient and alterative ; externally ap- 
 plied, produces a crop of pustules. 
 
 (c) Used to evacuate the stomach, to slow 
 the circulation, and to produce profuse per 
 spiratiou. Externally applied in the form of 
 an ointment, to produce counter-irritation. 
 
 (//) Dose. As an emetic, 1 grain to 4 
 grains in solution ; in pneumonia, 1-2 a grain 
 j to 3 grains, often repeated ; as an expectorant, 
 or diaphoretic, 1-8 of a grain to 1-2 a grain. 
 
 Asafoetida, Gum, 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A mass of irregular 
 pieces, varying in color from red or reddish- 
 brawn to white ; odor resembling garlic, but 
 more fetid ; taste, bitter and slightly acrid ; 
 difficult to powder, unless rubbed with car- 
 bonate of ammonia. Forms a milky mixture 
 with water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Antispasmodic, ex- 
 pectorant, anthelmintic. 
 
 (c) Used in hysteria, flatulence, colic, etc. 
 
 (</) Dose. 5 to 10 grains. 
 
 Bismuth, Trisnitrate of. The metal 
 bismuth united with nitric acid. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A white, tasteless, 
 inodorous powder, very slightly soluble in 
 water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Antispasmodic, 
 stomachic, and tonic. 
 
 (c) Used much in dyspepsia, attended with 
 pain of the stomach, and water brash, and 
 diarrhoea. 
 
 (d) Dose. 5 to 10 grains. 
 Borax. Biborate of soda. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Sweetish, shining, 
 efflorescent crystals, soluble in twelve parts of 
 cold and two parts of boiling water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Absorbent, cool- 
 ing, and alterative. 
 
 (c) Used in intestinal irritation of infants. 
 Externally applied to thrush, and to cutaneous 
 diseases. 
 
 (d) Dose, o grains to 30. Externally ap- 
 plied, dissolved in eight times its weight of 
 honey, or mucilage, or, better, in pure water. 
 
 Calomel, See MERCURY. 
 
 Camphor, A peculiar substance, ob- 
 ' tained by distillation from the wood of the 
 Laurus camphor. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. In large, white 
 semi-transparent cakes, with a strong pecul- 
 iarly fragrant and aromatic odor ; taste, bitter 
 and acrid ; insoluble in water ; soluble in alco- 
 hol, ether, acetic acid, and the fixed oils. 
 
 (/;) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, dia- 
 phoretic, sedative ; externally, soothing. 
 
 (c) Used in hysteria, asthma, chorea, and 
 generally in spasmodic diseases. Externally, 
 in muscular pains, bruises, etc. 
 
 (W) Dose. 3 grains to 5, in pills. When 
 dissolved in water as camphor mixture, the 
 quantity is scarcely appreciable.
 
 398 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Cantharides, Plaster of. Blistering 
 plaster. Sometimes prepared in the form of a 
 tissue paper, imbued with the active principle. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. The plaster is a 
 firm preparation requiring the warmth of the 
 hand to enable it to be spread upon leather or 
 calico. It soon spoils by keeping ; and if more 
 than a month old should, after spreading, be 
 dusted over with powdered cantharides. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. To raise the cuti- 
 cle from the cutis, producing at the same time 
 a large secretion of serous fluid. The time 
 varies from 3 hours to 12, or even more. In 
 babies the blister should always be carefully 
 watched after 3 hours, as it often rises rapidly 
 and would be liable to produce severe ulcera- 
 tion of the skin. Blistering may be promoted 
 by applying a poultice after the removal of the 
 cantharides. 
 
 Capsicum. 
 
 (a) Physical Properties. Berries of a red 
 color, and an extremely pungent odor and 
 teste, which is yielded to alcohol, ether, vine- 
 gar, and water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, stom- 
 achic, and rubefacient. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia, flatulence ; externally, 
 as an ingredient in gargles for relaxed sore 
 throat. 
 
 (d) Dose. 3 grains to 5 grains, in pills ; 2 
 drachms to 8 ounces form the strength for using 
 as a gargle diluted largely with water. 
 
 Castor Oil, obtained from Ricinus com- 
 munis. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A pale yellow- 
 colored, transparent and viscid oil, with a 
 faint odor and nauseous taste. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Mildly aperient. 
 
 (c) Used in colic and in those cases of con- 
 stipation which will not bear drastic purga- 
 tives ; also for mixing with gruel for the ordi- 
 nary enema. 
 
 (d) Dose. A teaspoonful to one or two 
 tablespoonfuls ; an ounce is the proper quan- 
 tity for mixing with gruel to make an enema. 
 
 Cerate. A species of ointment made rather 
 hard with wax. 
 
 (a) Simple Cerate, Add 20 ounces of 
 melted wax to a pint of olive oil, and mix while 
 warm, stirring till cold. 
 
 (6) Cerate of Spermaceti. Melt to- 
 gether eight ounces of white wax and ten of 
 spermaceti ; then add a pint of olive oil, and 
 stir together till they cool. 
 
 (c) Cerate of Acetate of I^ead. Melt 
 four ounces of white wax in eight fluid ounces 
 of olive oil ; then gradually add four drachms 
 of powdered acetate of lead, previously rubbed 
 with two fluid ounces of olive oil, and stir with 
 a spatula till they unite. 
 
 (d) Cerate of Resin. Mix together 15 
 ounces each of resin and wax, and melt xhem 
 over a slow fire ; then add a pint of olive oil, ' 
 and press the cerate, while hot, through a linen 
 cloth. 
 
 Chalk, prepared. Friable carbonate of 
 lime, rubbed into a fine powder and washed. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. An inodorous, in- 
 sipid, white, friable powder, heavy, and insolu- 
 ble in water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Anti-acid, astring- 
 ent, and absorbent. 
 
 (c) Used in acidities of the stomach and 
 bow r els, and to correct .the irritation which is 
 established in diarrhoea. Externally as a mild 
 application of sores and burns. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 to 15 grains. 
 Chamomile Flowers. 
 (a) Physical properties. 
 
 The flowers are small, with a strong, fra,- 
 grant odor, and bitter aromatic taste, and 
 some slight degree of warmth. Water and a*- 
 cohol both absorb the virtues of this plant. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Tonic, stomachic, 
 and carminative. The warm infusion, when 
 weak, is emetic. Externally soothing. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia, hysteria, flatulence, 
 and also to work off emetics. 
 
 (d) Dose of the powder. 30 to 40 grains 
 twice a day. The infusion a hal ounce to a 
 pint of water is usually preferred. 
 
 Chloride of Zinc. A combination of 
 Zinc with chlorine. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. In solid piece, 
 snow-white, inodorous, having a strongly styp- 
 tic and metallic taste. 
 
 (ft) Powerfully caustic, destroying the vital- 
 ity of the part with which it is in contact, and 
 causing very severe pain. In solution it is 
 used as a disinfectant, appearing to act more 
 energetically than chlorinated soda or lime, 
 with a less disagreeable odor of chlorine. 
 
 (c) Used as a caustic in cancer and fungoid 
 disease. In solution, it is applied to cutaneous 
 diseases, and to mucous membranes, but re- 
 quires great caution in its use. As a disin- 
 fectant, it must be largely diluted. (See DIS- 
 INFECTANTS.) 
 
 Ciiicona Bark (yello/r}. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Larger, thicker, and 
 less rolled than the pale bark. Externally of 
 a brownish yellow, and internally of a cinna- 
 mon brown. The fracture is fibrous ; taste 
 bitter, and less aromatic than the pale, with 
 scarcely any degree of astringency. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Astringent, tonic, 
 antiseptic, and febrifuge. 
 
 (c) Used in typhoid fevers, and in all low 
 states cf the system, being in such cases su- 
 perior to quinine.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 399 
 
 (</) Dose. 10 grains to 50, in wine or wine 
 and water. 
 
 Cinnamon, Bark, oil. and -water, used 
 as a warm and cordial spice to prevent the 
 griping of purgatives, etc. 
 
 Cod-Ijiver Oil, Prepared from the liver 
 of the codfish. 
 
 (a ) Physical properties. An oil of three differ- 
 ent colors : pale yellow, pale brown, and dark 
 brown. The pale brown appears to possess 
 the highest virtues. 
 
 (7;) Therapeutical effects. Nutritive and act- 
 ing also on the general system. 
 
 (c) Used largely in consumption and chronic 
 bronchitis to diminish the secretion from the 
 lungs, and arrest, to some extent, the waste 
 incident to these diseases ; in nervous affec- 
 tions as a nerve-food, and in some skin dis- 
 eases ; also in other exhausting diseases. 
 
 (d) Dose. One drachm carried up to 4 in any 
 convenient vehicle, as infusion of cloves. 
 
 Colocynth. The peeled fruit of the bitter 
 cucumber. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A white, soft, po- 
 rous, medullary substance, investing the seeds 
 with an intensely bitter, acrid, and nauseous 
 taste. 
 
 (&) Therapeutical effects. Powerfully ape- 
 rient. 
 
 (c) Used, with warm cordial spices, as an 
 ordinary aperient. (See EXTRACTS.) 
 
 (a*) Dose. 5 to 10 grains. 
 
 Coiiium (Hemlock). The leaves of Conium 
 iitiK-nlatum, an indigenous plant. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Has a heavy nar- 
 cotic smell, with a bitter, nauseous, and herba- I 
 ceous taste : color, dull green ; powers soon ' 
 destroyed by light. Should be gathered just 
 as the plant comes into flower, and dried in the 
 sun, or in a stove. 
 
 (/>) Therapeutical effects. Sedative, narcotic 
 in some cases alterative, and even tonic. 
 
 (c) Used in scirrhous and cancerous affec- 
 tions externally, and internally for neuralgia 
 and pulmonary complaints ; also in scrofulous 
 complaints of children, especially in ophthal- 
 mia in all cases requiring great caution ; ex- 
 ternally as a poultice, made by scalding the 
 fresh leaves. 
 
 (//) Dose. 2 to 3 or 4 grains. 
 
 Copaiba Balsam. 
 
 () Physical properties. A liquid of a trans- 
 parent yellowish color, and peculiar smell and 
 taste, which is pungent, acrid, and nause- 
 ous ; when fresh, of the consistency of linseed 
 oil, gradually becoming thicker by exposure to 
 the air, till at last it is as solid as resin ; soluble 
 in ether and alcohol. 
 
 (>) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, diuretic, 
 purgative in large doses ; allays irritation of 
 
 the mucous membranes, and especially those 
 of the urinary passages. 
 
 (c) Used in chronic bronchitis, spasmodic 
 asthma, whooping-cough, and in chronic in- 
 flammation of the bladder, etc. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 minims to 30 in emulsion, or 
 in the gelatine capsules in which it is sold. 
 
 Creosote. A peculiar liquid prepared from 
 pyroxylic oil. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. An oily, colorless, 
 transparent fluid, with a disagreeable smell, re- 
 sembling somewhat the odor of badly-smoked 
 meat. 
 
 (6) Therapeutical effects. Tonic, stomachic, 
 diaphoretic, antiseptic, and styptic. 
 
 (c) Used internally in phthisis ; also in 
 troublesome vomiting, from any cause not 
 readily understood, as seasickness. 
 
 Decoction of Cinchona. 
 
 (a) Boil 10 drachms of bruised yellow 
 cinchona in a pint of water for ten minutes, 
 in a closed vessel, then strain. 
 
 (6) Therapeutical effects. Antiseptic, as- 
 tringent, tonic, febrifuge. 
 
 (c) Used in fever, malignant sore throat, 
 dyspepsia. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1^ to 3 ounces twice or thrice a 
 day. 
 
 Decoction of Dandelion. 
 
 (a) Boil 4 ounces of bruised dandelion in l 
 pints of distilled water to a pint, and strain. 
 
 (6) Therapeutical effects. Diuretic, slightly 
 aperient, and specially acting on the liver. 
 
 (c) Used in torpid conditions of the liver, 
 jaundice, habitual constipation, etc. 
 
 (a 1 ) Dose. 2 or 3 ounces twice or thrice a 
 day. 
 
 Decoction of Iceland Moss. 
 
 (a) Boil 5 drachms of Iceland moss in a pint 
 and a half of water down to a pint, and strain. 
 
 (//) Therapeutical effects. Tonic, emollient, 
 slightly astringent. 
 
 (c) Used in consumption and dysentery. 
 
 (a 1 ) Dose. 1 to 2 ounces. 
 
 Decoction of Logwood, 
 
 (a) Boil 10 drachms of sliced logwood in 
 1^ pints of water to a pint, and strain. 
 
 (6) Therapeutical effects. Astringent and 
 tonic. 
 
 (c) Used in diarrhrea and dysentery. 
 
 (a") Dose. 1 ounce to 2 ounces after each 
 action of the bowels. 
 
 Decoction of Poppyheads. 
 
 (a) Boil five ounces of bruised poppyheads in 
 3 pints of water for a quarter of an hour, and 
 strain. 
 
 (6) Therapeutical effects. Anodyne and 
 soothing. 
 
 (c) Used as a fomentation in painful swell- 
 ings and inflammation.
 
 400 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Decoction of Sarsaparilla (simple). 
 
 (a) Boil four ounces of sarsaparilla in 4 pints 
 of water to 2 pints, and strain. 
 
 (ft) T/trntpritticitl effects. Alterative 4 , dia- 
 phoretic, and tonic. 
 
 (c) Used in cutaneous diseases, chronic 
 rheumatism, and scrofula. 
 
 (d) Dose. 2 ounces, twice or thrice a day. 
 
 Decoction of Sarsaparilla (compound). 
 
 (a) Mix 4 pints of boiling decoction of sar- 
 saparilla, 10 drachms of sliced sassafras, 10 
 drach ms of guaiacum-wood shavings,! Odrachms 
 of bruised stick-liquorice, and 3 drachms of 
 mezereori bark ; boil for a quarter of an hour, 
 and strain. 
 
 (ft) (c) (d) Therapeutical effects. The same 
 as the last, but warmer, and therefore better 
 suited to weak stomachs. 
 
 Dill Water. Prepared from Dill seeds by 
 distillation. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. An aromatic odor, 
 with a pungent agreeable taste. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Carminative and 
 stimulative. 
 
 (c) Used in the flatulence and gripings of 
 children. 
 
 (d) Dose. % drachm to 1| ounce. 
 Extract of Gentian. 
 
 (a) Made from the gentian root, 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Tonic and stom- 
 achic. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia. 
 
 (d) Dose. 5 to 20 grains. 
 
 Extract of Henbane. Prepared from 
 the leaves of Hyoscyamus niger. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. An extract of a 
 dingy olive color, and a peculiar disagreeable 
 smell; taste, bitterish and saline. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Narcotic, anodyne, 
 and antispasmodic. 
 
 (c) Used instead of opium, in irritability of 
 the nervous system, or mucous surfaces, or in 
 combination with purgatives to prevent their 
 griping, as it does not cause constipation. 
 
 (d) Dose. 5 to 8 grains. 
 Extract of Hop. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A dark -colored bit- 
 ter extract, Without much smell. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Tonic and sedative. 
 
 (c) Used in chronic dyspepsia and loss of 
 sleep. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 to 15 grains. 
 
 Extract of Sarsaparilla (liquid'). Pre- 
 pared from sarsaparilla, and used for the same 
 purposes as the decoction. It is sold both as 
 a simple and compound extract. 
 
 (a) Dose. 30 drops to 1 drachm two or 
 three times a day in water. 
 
 Gamboge. A gum resin, of a purgative 
 nature, but too powerful for domestic use. 
 
 Horseradish (the fresh root). 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Pungent odor, bit- 
 ing, acrid taste ; communicates its active prin- 
 ciples partially to water, but completely to 
 alcohol. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, diuretic, 
 sudorific, emetic. 
 
 (c) Used in paralytic affections and chronic 
 rheumatism. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 to 2 drachms, cut into small 
 pieces, or made into an infusion. 
 
 Infusion of Chamomile. 
 
 Chamomile tea. 
 
 (a) Macerate 5 drachms of chamomile flow- 
 ers in a pint of boiling distilled water for ten 
 minutes, in a closed vessel, and strain. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Tonic, stomachic ; 
 emetic, when warm. Externally soothing. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia, and to assist the oper- 
 ation of emetics. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 to 2 ounces. For emetic pur- 
 poses, a weaker infusion is used in large quan- 
 tities. 
 
 Infusion of Cloves. 
 
 (a) Macerate 3 drachms of bruised cloves in 
 a pint of boiling water, in a covered vessel, 
 and strain. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, stom- 
 achic, slightly tonic. 
 
 (c) Used as a vehicle for more active tonics, 
 especially cod-liver oil. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 ounce to 2 or 3. 
 Infusion of Gentian (compound). 
 
 (a) Macerate 2 drachms of sliced gentian, 2 
 drachms of dried orange-peel, and 4 drachms 
 of lemon peel in a pint of boiling water for an 
 hour, in a covered vessel, and strain. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stomachic and 
 tonic. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia and general debility. 
 
 (d) Dose. l to 2 ounces two or three times 
 a day. 
 
 Infusion of Linseed (compound). 
 Linseed tea. 
 
 (a) Macerate 6 drachms of bruised linseed 
 and 10 drachms of sliced fresh liquorice in a 
 pint of boiling water, for four hours, near the 
 fire, in a covered vessel, and strain. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Soothing, espe- 
 cially to the mucous passages. 
 
 (c) Used in chronic bronchitis and strangury. 
 
 (d) Dose, ad libitum. 
 
 Infusion of Orange-peel (compound). 
 
 (a) Macerate half an ounce of dried orange- 
 peel, two drachms of lemon-peel, one drachm 
 of cloves bruised, in a pint of boiling water, 
 for a quarter of an hour, in a covered vessel, 
 and strain. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, stom- 
 achic, and tonic.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 401 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia, and as a vehicle for 
 other remedies. 
 
 (rf) Dose. 1 ounce to 2 or 3, at short inter- 
 vals. 
 
 Infusion of Quassia. 
 
 (a) Macerate 10 scruples of quassia sliced, 
 in a pint of boiling water for two hours, in a 
 covered vessel. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Tonic and stom- 
 achic. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia. 
 
 (rf) Dose. l to 2 ounces. 
 
 Infusion of Rhubarb. 
 
 () Macerate 3 drachms of sliced rhubarb 
 root in a pint of boiling water for two hours, 
 in a covered vessel, and strain. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stomachic, tonic, 
 and aperient. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia accompanied with con- 
 stipation, especially in combination with gen- 
 tian. 
 
 (d) Dose. half ounce to l ounce. 
 Infusion of Roses (compound). 
 
 (a) Put three drachms of the dried red rose 
 leaves into a pint of boiling water, then add a 
 fluid drachm and a half of diluted sulphuric 
 acid. Macerate for two hours, and strain the 
 liquor ; lastly, add 6 drachms of sugar. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Astringent, re- 
 frigerant, and antiseptic. 
 
 (c) Used as a drink in fevers ; also as a 
 vehicle for sulphate of magnesia, quinine, etc. 
 
 (d) Dose. l to 2 ounces. 
 Infusion of Senna (compound). 
 
 . Senna tea. 
 
 (a) Macerate 15 drachms of senna leaves, 
 and four scruples of bruised ginger in a pint 
 of boiling water for an hour in a closed vessel, 
 and strain. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Aperient. 
 
 (c) Used as a vehicle for more active purga- 
 tives, which it assists ; or by itself as a mild 
 purgative. ' 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 to 3 ounces. 
 Ipecacuanha, the root. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. In pieces of three 
 or four inches in length, with a resinous frac- 
 ture ; an acrid, aromatic somewhat bitter taste. 
 slightly nauseous ; peculiar odor ; yields its 
 active principle to water, spirit, and wine. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Emetic, diapho- 
 retic, expectorant, and acting peculiarly on 
 the liver. 
 
 (c) Used as an emetic ; also as an expecto- 
 rant in bronchitis, asthma, etc., as a nauseate 
 in pneumonia, diarrhoea, dysentery ; as a dia- 
 phoretic in various diseases, and in torpid 
 liver, to promote its proper secretions. 
 
 (rf) Dose. As an emetic, 15 to 30 grains ; 
 as a nauseate, 2 to 4 grains ; as a diaphoretic, 
 
 1 grain, with a small dose of opium ; as an 
 expectorant or for torpid liver, to 1 grain. 
 
 Jalap, the Root. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Thin, transverse 
 slices, or round masses ; solid, hard, and 
 heavy ; dark gray color, striated appearance ; 
 sickly smell ; taste sweetish but nauseous. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Actively aperient. 
 
 (c) Used in obstinate constipation, worms, 
 dropsy ; requires a carminative to prevent 
 griping and nausea. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 grains to 30. 
 Laudanum, (See OPIUM.) 
 Liniment of Ammonia. 
 
 (a) To 1 fluid ounce of the solution of am- 
 monia add 2 fluid ounces of olive oil and 
 shake together. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant and ru- 
 befacient. 
 
 (c) Used in sore throat externally, also in 
 chronic rheumatism, with friction. 
 
 Liniment of Camphor. 
 
 (a) Dissolve 1 ounce of camphor in 4 fluid 
 ounces of olive oil. 
 
 (6) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant. 
 
 (c) Used in chronic rheumatism, with fric- 
 tion. 
 
 Liniment of Camphor (Compound). 
 
 (a) Dissolve 2 ounces of camphor and 1 
 drachm of oil of lavender in 17 fluid ounces of 
 rectified spirits of wine ; then add 3 fluid 
 ounces of the strong solution of ammonia, and 
 shake well together. 
 
 (6) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant. 
 
 (c) Used with friction in the same way as 
 the simple liniment, but it is more powerful. 
 
 Liniment of Turpentine, 
 
 (a) Shake well together 2 ounces of soft 
 soap and an ounce of camphor, with 16 fluid 
 ounces of the spirit of turpentine, until mixed. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant. 
 
 (c) Used in paralytic affections and chronic 
 rheumatism ; also to burns and scalds. 
 
 Liquor of Acetate of Lead. Sold by 
 the druggists. 
 
 (a) Therapeutical effects. Sedative and as- 
 tringent when applied externally. 
 
 (ft) Used as a lotion to inflamed surfaces 
 when largely diluted with water. Goulard 
 water is prepared from it by adding a fluid 
 drachm and a half of it and 2 fluid drachms of 
 proof spirit to a pint of distilled water. 
 
 Magnesia, Carbonate of. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A solid, white, 
 tasteless, inodorous powder, insoluble in water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Anti-acid and pur- 
 gative. 
 
 (c 1 ) Used in dyspepsia with costiveness, in 
 the constipation of children and delicate grown 
 persons
 
 402 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 (rf) Dose. $ drachm to 1 drachm or 2. 
 
 Magnesia, Sulphate of. Epsom salts. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Small, pointed crys- 
 tals of a transparent, colorless appearance ; in- 
 odorous, with a disagreeable bitter taste ; 
 dissolves readily in water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Purgative. 
 
 (c) Used as a cooling laxative, washing the 
 bowels out, but not searching them. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 drachm to 1 ounce. 
 Marsh Mallows. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A root ; long cylin- 
 drical ; grayish without, white within ; inodor- 
 ous ; taste sweetish. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Soothing. 
 
 (c) Used to make a soothing drink in irrita- 
 tion of the mucous membranes, or as a fomen- 
 tation ; boiling the leaves and roots to form it. 
 
 Mercury, Ammonia-chloride of. 
 White precipitate. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A white, inodorous 
 powder ; insipid, insoluble in water and alcohol. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Used externally 
 only ; it is detergent. 
 
 (c) Used for cutaneous diseases and for de- 
 stroying lice, etc., in its powdered condition. 
 
 Mercury, Mild Chloride of. Calomel. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A white, semi-trans- 
 parent crystalline mass, inodorous, insipid, 
 and insoluble. Usually sold as a heavy white 
 powder. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Alterative, purga- 
 .tive, and producing absorption. 
 
 (c) Used in chronic diseases of the liver and 
 general torpidity of the stomach and bowels ; 
 in dropsy, in combination with other medi- 
 cines. A most dangerous medicine when em- 
 ployed by those who are not aware of its 
 powerful effects. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 grain twice a day as an alter- 
 ative, 4 to 5 grains as an aperient, combined 
 with, or followed by, some mild vegetable pur- 
 gative. 
 
 Mercury, Nitric Oxide of. Red pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A powder of a 
 brilliant red color, insoluble in water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, external. 
 
 (c) Used in old ulcers and to heal indolent 
 sores of all kinds when made into an ointment 
 with lard. (See Ointments.) 
 
 Mint-water. Prepared from peppermint 
 or spearmint. These are sold in the shops. 
 
 (a) Therapeutical effects. Both are carmin- 
 ative and slightly stimulating. Spearmint 
 water is also diuretic. 
 
 (ft) Used as a vehicle for other remedies. 
 
 Mixture of Chalk. 
 
 (a) Rub ounce of prepared chalk and 3 
 drachms of sugar with a fluid ounce and a half 
 
 of mixture of acacia and 8 fluid ounces of cin- 
 namon water. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Anti-acid, absorb- 
 ent, and astringent when given in diarrhoea. 
 
 (c) Used in diarrhoea. 
 
 (d) Dose. A tablespoonful every two hours. 
 Mixture of Iron (compound). 
 
 (a~\ Rub 2 drachms of powdered myrrh and 1 
 drachm of carbonate of potassium with a fluid 
 ounce of spirit of nutmeg ; to these, while 
 rubbing, add 18 fluid ounces of rose-water, 2 
 drachms of sugar, and 2 scruples of pow- 
 dered sulphate of iron. Put the mixture in a 
 well-stoppered bottle. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stomachic, as- 
 tringent, tonic, emmenagogne. 
 
 (c) Used in chlorotic girls, and in all the 
 defective secretions of young females. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 to l ounce. 
 Ointment of Creosote. 
 
 (a) Rub half a fluid drachm of creosote 
 with an ounce of lard, until they are incor- 
 porated. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant. 
 
 (c) Used in scald head, etc. 
 
 Ointment of Galls (compound}. 
 
 (a) Mix 6 drachms of finely powdered galls, 
 6 ounces of lard, and l drachm of powdered 
 opium. 
 
 (ft) Astringent and anodyne. 
 
 (c) Used for hemorrhoids ; but one quarter 
 of the quantity of gallic acid answers much 
 better. 
 
 Ointment of Green Iodide of Mer- 
 cury. 
 
 (a) Mix from 30 grains to 1 drachm of green 
 iodide of mercury with 1 ounce of lard. 
 
 (ft) Used in scald head, for which it is very 
 efficacious. 
 
 Ointment of Nitric Oxide of Mer- 
 cury. 
 
 (a) Rub 1 ounce of finely powdered nitric 
 oxide of mercury with 10 ounces of wax, and 
 6 ounces of lard. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant. 
 
 (c) Used in indolent ulcers. 
 
 Ointment of Zinc. 
 
 () Mix 1 drachm of oxide of zinc with 6 
 drachms of lard. 
 
 (ft) Used as a cooling, astringent, and dry- 
 ing ointment. 
 
 Olive Oil. 
 
 () Physical properties. A transparent 
 fixed oil, of a yellowish color ; inodorous and 
 without much taste. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Soothing, and 
 slightly aperient. 
 
 (c) Used in bronchial irritation ; also as a 
 vehicle for other medicines in the form of lini- 
 ment.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 403 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 to 2 drachms. 
 Peruvian Balsam. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Of the consistence 
 of honey ; color, brow?-. ; agreeable smell, and 
 hot, acrid taste. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, expec- 
 torant ; externally applied to indolent ulcers. 
 
 (c) Used in catarrh and chronic rheumatism. 
 
 (d) Dose. 15 minims to half a drachm. 
 Pill of Mercury. Blue pill. 
 
 (a) The metal partially oxidated, and mixed 
 with confection of roses. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Alterative and 
 purgative, especially on the liver. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia, torpidity of the liver, 
 and constipation. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 to 5 or 6 grains. 
 Pill of Rhubarb (compound). 
 
 (a) Made up of rhubarb, aloes, and myrrh. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Laxative. 
 
 (c) Used in dyspepsia and constipation. 
 
 (d) Dose. Two at bedtime. 
 
 Pitch, Burgundy. The impure resin of 
 the Xorway spruce fir. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A tenacious mass, 
 of fragrant odor, semi-transparent, and unc- 
 tuous. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant and 
 rubefacient. 
 
 (c) Used externally in the form of a plaster 
 in bronchitis, whooping cough, etc. 
 
 Poultice of Charcoal. 
 
 (a) Macerate for a short time before the 
 fire 2 ounces of bread in 2 fluid ounces of boil- 
 ing water; then mix and gradually stir in 10 
 drachms of linseed meal ; with these mix 
 2 drachms of powdered charcoal, and sprinkle 
 a drachm on the surface. 
 
 (b) Antiseptic and digestive, 
 (r) Used in gangrene. 
 Poultice of Hemlock. 
 
 (a) Make a poultice of linseed meal ; then 
 add 1 ounce of extract of hemlock previously 
 softened with water, or 4 ounces of the fresh 
 leaves scalded and bruised. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Anodyne and dis- 
 cutient. 
 
 (c) Used in glandular swellings and cancer- 
 ous sores. 
 
 Poultice of Linseed. 
 
 (a) Put into a basin enough meal to form a 
 poultice, making a hole in its center ; then 
 pour upon it boiling water to fill that hole, 
 and stir rapidly with a kitchen knife. This 
 will generally be sufficient to make the poul/ 
 tice of the proper consistency. It is always 
 better to add enough water at first, as it is not 
 so smooth if added piecemeal. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, and yet 
 soothing. 
 
 (c) Used for abscesses and ulcers when in- 
 flamed. 
 Poultice of Mustard. 
 
 (a) Make either a bread or a linseed-meal 
 poultice, then sprinkle over it enough flour of 
 mustard to conceal its surface, and wet it with 
 a little boiling water. Some people add hot 
 vinegar to wet it with. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, and 
 often inclined to blister the skin. 
 
 (c) Used as a rapid counter-irritant. 
 Poultice of Yeast. 
 
 (a) Mix 5 ounces of yeast with an equal 
 quantity of water, -at 100 degrees ; with these 
 stir up a pound of flour, so as to make a poul- 
 tice ; place it by the fire till it swells, and use. 
 
 (b) Stimulant, emollient. 
 
 (c) Used for indolent abscesses and sores. 
 Powder of Ipecacuanha (compound). 
 
 Dover's powder. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Compound of opium, 
 ipecacuanha, and sulphate of potassium. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Diaphoretic, ano- 
 dyne, and narcotic. 
 
 (c) Used to produce perspiration in rheuma- 
 tism and dysentery, etc. 
 
 (d) Dose. 5 to 10 grains. 
 Quinine, Sulphate of. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Colorless, inodor- 
 ous, lustrous, bitter efflorescent crystals, totally 
 soluble in water previously acidulated with 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stomachic, stimu- 
 lant, febrifuge, and tonic. 
 
 (c) Used in general debility, neuralgia, and 
 after fever. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 to 3 grains. 
 
 Rhubarb. The root, whole and powdered. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. The root is in firm, 
 flattish, irregular pieces, occasionally pierced 
 with large holes ; color, bright yellow, exter- 
 nally ; odor, peculiar and aromatic ; taste, bit- 
 ter, astringent, and somewhat nauseous ; im- 
 parts its virtue to water and alcohol. The 
 powder is of a reddish yellow. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Purgative and 
 stomachic ; acting on the small bowels. 
 
 (c) Used as a mild purgative in the consti-' 
 pation of children and adults. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 to 30 grains. 
 Saffron. 
 
 (a) A coloring matter obtained from the 
 Crocus sativus. 
 Senna. The leaves. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Leaves of a pale 
 green color ; leaflets broad, lanceolate ; the 
 two sides unequal ; odor faint, somewhat like 
 green tea ; taste, nauseous and bitter. Yields 
 its properties to spirit and water. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Cathartic.
 
 404 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 ,(c) Used in constipation, and to lower the 
 system. Made into the infusion. 
 
 (d) Dose. 5 grains to 25, rubbed down with 
 ginger and sugar. 
 
 Soda, Bicarbonate of. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A heavy white 
 powder, without smell, and tasting slightly 
 soapy. Entirely soluble in water. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Anti-acid. 
 
 (c) Used in the manufacture of effervescing 
 draughts, and for acidities of the stomach. 
 
 (d) Dose. 5 to 30 grains. 
 
 Soda, Sulphate of. Glauber's salts. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Crystals, of an ex- 
 ceedingly bitter taste, and without smell. Solu- 
 ble in water. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effect*. Purgative and 
 diuretic. 
 
 (c) Used in costiveness. 
 
 (d) Dose. to 1 ounce. 
 
 Spirit of Ammonia (aromatic). 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A compound, con- 
 taining carbonate of ammonia and aromatics, 
 with spirit ; and possessing an aromatic, warm, 
 and alkaline taste. Miscible with water, which 
 it renders milky. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant and 
 cordial. 
 
 (c) Used as the ordinary diffusible stimulus 
 in faintings and hysteria ; also added to senna 
 to prevent griping. 
 
 (d) Dose. 30 to 60 drops. 
 Spirit of Ammonia (fend). 
 
 (a) Physical properties. The same as the 
 above, with the addition of asafoetida. 
 
 '(7;) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant and an- 
 tispasmodic. 
 
 (c) Used in hysterical fits. 
 
 (d) Dose. 30 to 60 drops. 
 
 Spirit of Horse-radish (compound). 
 
 (a) Mix 20 ounces of sliced horse-radish, 
 20 ounces of dried orange peel, 5 drachms of 
 bruised nutmegs, and a gallon of rectified spirit 
 with 10 pints of water ; then distill to a gallon, 
 with a slow fire. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, diapho- 
 retic and diuretic. 
 
 (c) Used internally in dyspepsia, and in pa- 
 ralysis, externally rubbed into the skin. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 to 2 drachms. 
 
 Spirit of Nitric Ether. Sweet spirits 
 of niter. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A colorless, trans- 
 parent, volatile, inflammable fluid, of an ethe- 
 real odor. 
 
 (/;) Therapeutical effects. Cooling, diuretic, 
 and diaphoretic ; also slightly antispasmodic. 
 
 (c) Used in febrile diseases, dropsy, and 
 spasm. 
 
 (d) Dose. 20 to 60 minims, largely diluted. 
 
 Squill. The sea onion. 
 
 (a) A root of a pear shape, covered with 
 several thin dry tissues, under which are oval, 
 flaky, red or white scales ; odor, pungent ; 
 taste, acrid and bitter. Imparts its virtue to 
 vinegar, spirits, and water. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Expectorant, 
 emetic, diuretic. 
 
 (c) Used in chronic bronchitis and asthma. 
 
 (d) Dose. 2 to 6 grains. Syrup of squills, 
 dose, 1 to 1 drachms. 
 
 Syrup of Iodide of Iron is used in order 
 to preserve the iodide of iron from injury. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Alterative, and 
 affording the effects of iron and iodine. 
 
 (c) Used in scrofulous diseases, and in cachec- 
 tic states of the system. 
 
 (d) Dose. 20 to 40 minims. 
 Turpentine, Spirit of. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. A limpid, colorless 
 fluid, of a strong odor and hot taste, exceed- 
 ingly inflammable. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, diuretic, 
 carthartic, and destructive to worms. 
 
 (c) Used in hemorrhages, lumbago, etc., and 
 to destroy worms ; also externally as a rubefa- 
 cient. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 drops to 30 internally, or 2 to 
 4 drachms mixed with castor oil as a vermi- 
 fuge ; but it should not be given internally 
 without the sanction of a physician. 
 
 Tincture of Camphor (compound.) Par- 
 egoric elixir. 
 
 (a) A tincture containing camphor, opium, 
 anise, and benzoic acid. 
 
 (b) Used in coughs. 
 
 (c) Dose. 1 drachm. 
 Tincture of Ginger. 
 Dose. 1 drachm. 
 
 Tincture of Iodine. (See IODINE.) 
 
 Dose. 5 to 15 minims. 
 
 Tincture of Myrrh. 
 
 Dose. 30 to 60 minims. Useful as a wash 
 for the teeth. Rarely used internally. 
 
 Tincture of Opium. Laudanum. 
 
 Dose. 6 to 20 minims. 
 
 Tincture of Quinine. 
 
 Dose. Teaspoonful. 
 
 Tincture of Rhubarb (compound). A 
 very warm, useful preparation. 
 
 Dose. 2 to 4 drachms. 
 
 Tincture of Valerian (compound). 
 
 Dose. 30 to 60 minims, in dyspepsia and 
 hysteria. 
 
 Tolu, Balsam of. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Of considerable con- 
 sistence ; reddish brown in color ; odor, very 
 pungent; taste, warm, and sweetish. 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. A stimulant ex- 
 pectorant.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 405 
 
 (c) Used in chronic coughs, and also in 
 wounds and ulcers. 
 
 (d) Dose. 10 grains. 
 Valerian. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Several long, slen- 
 der, dusky-brown fibers, issuing from one 
 head ; strong, fetid odor ; warm, bitterish, 
 subacid taste. 
 
 (/;) Therapeutical effects. Antispasmodic, 
 tonic. 
 
 (c) Used in hysteria. 
 
 (d) Dose. 1 drachm. 
 Wine of Iron. 
 
 (a) Digest for 30 days 2 ounces of tartar- 
 ated iron in a pint of sherry. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Stomachic and 
 tonic. 
 
 (c) Used the same as other steel medicines. 
 
 (rf) Dose. Two tablespoonfuls. 
 
 Wine of Opium. 
 
 (a) Prepared with opium and spices/ 
 
 (b) Therapeutical effects. Stimulant, after- 
 wards anodyne. 
 
 (c) Used chiefly as an application to the eyes. 
 (jf) Dose. 10 to 20 minims. 
 
 Wine of Potassio-tartrate of Anti- 
 mony, Antimonial wine. 
 
 (o) Dissolve 2 scruples of potassio-tartrate 
 of antimony in a pint of sherry. 
 
 (A) Therapeutical effects. Emetic and dia- 
 phoretic. 
 
 (c) Used in inflammatory diseases. 
 
 (d) Dose. 15 to 60 minims. 
 
 Zinc, Chloride of. A powerful drug, 
 but scarcely adapted to domestic use, except as 
 a disinfectant, for which it is sold in solution. 
 (See DISINFECTANTS.) 
 
 Zinc, Sulphate of. White vitriol. 
 
 (a) Physical properties. Transparent crys- 
 tals. 
 
 (ft) Therapeutical effects. Tonic, astringent, 
 and emetic. 
 
 (c) Used as a wash or as an emetic. 
 
 (d) Dose. As an emetic, 10 to 30 grains ; 
 tonic, 2 grains. 
 
 CHOICE OF ARTICLES OF*FOOD. 
 
 Nothing is more important in the affairs of 
 housekeeping than the choice of wholesome 
 food. 
 
 Mackerel must be perfectly fresh. The 
 firmness of the flesh and the clearness of the 
 eyes must be the criterion of fresh mackerel, 
 as they are of all other fish. 
 
 Flounders, and all flat white fish, ar^ 
 rigid and firm when fresh ; the under side 
 should be of a rich cream color. 
 
 Cod is known to be fresh by the rigidity of 
 
 Salmon. The flavor and excellence of this 
 fish depend upon its freshness, and the short- 
 ness of time since it was caught. 
 
 Herrings can only be eaten when very fresh. 
 
 Fresh Water Fish. The remarks as to 
 firmness and clear, fresh eyes, apply to this 
 variety of fish, of which there are pike, perch, 
 etc. 
 
 Lobsters recently caught have always some 
 remains of muscular action in the claws, which 
 may be excited by pressing the eyes with the 
 finger ; when this cannot be produced, the lob- 
 ster must have been too long kept. When 
 boiled, the tail preserves its elasticity if fresh, 
 but loses it as soon as it becomes stale. 
 
 Crabs have an agreeable smell when fresh. 
 
 Prawns and Shrimps, when fresh, are 
 firm and crisp. 
 
 Oysters. If fresh, the shell is firmly 
 closed ; when the shells of oysters are opened, 
 they are dead and unfit for food. The small- 
 shelled oysters are the finest in flavor. Larger 
 kinds are generally considered only fit for 
 stewing and sauces, though some persons pre- 
 fer them. 
 
 Beef. The grain of ox beef, when good, is 
 loose, the meat red, and the fat inclining to yel- 
 low. When meat pressed by the finger rises up 
 quickly, it may be considered as that of an 
 animal which was in its prime ; when the dent 
 made by pressure returns slowly, or remains 
 visible, the animal had probably passed its 
 prime, and the meat consequently must be of 
 inferior quality. 
 
 Veal should be delicately white, though it 
 is often juicy and well flavored when rather 
 dark in color. On examining the loin, if the 
 fat enveloping the kidney be white and firm 
 looking, the meat will probably be prime and 
 recently killed. 
 
 Mutton. The meat should be firm and 
 close in grain, and red in color, the fat white 
 and firm. Mutton is in its prime when the 
 sheep is about five years old, though it is often 
 killed much younger. If too young, the flesh 
 feels tender when pinched, if too old on being 
 pinched it wrinkles up, and so remains. In 
 young mutton, the fat readily separates ; in 
 old, it is held together by strings of skin. 
 
 Lamb. This meat will not keep long after 
 it is killed. The large vein in the neck is 
 bluish in color when the forequarter is fresh, 
 green when becoming stale. In the hind- 
 quarter, if not recently killed, the fat of the 
 kidney will have a slight smell, and the knuckle 
 will have lost its firmness. 
 
 Pork. When good, the rind is thin, 
 smooth, and cool to the touch ; when chang- 
 
 the muscles (or flesh), the redness of the gills, i ing, from being too long killed, it becomes 
 and clearness of the eyes. I flaccid and clammy.
 
 406 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Bacon should have a thin rind, and the fat 
 should be firm and tinged with red by the cur- 
 ing ; the flesh should be of a clear red, without, 
 intermixture of yellow, and it should firmly 
 adhere to the bone. To judge the state of a 
 ham, plunge a knife into it to the bone ; on 
 drawing it back, if particles of meat adhere to 
 it, or if the smell is disagreeable, the curing 
 has not been effectual, and the ham is not 
 good ; it should, in such a state, be immedi- 
 ately cooked. 
 
 Venison. When good, the fat is clear, 
 bright, and of considerable thickness. 
 
 Turkeys. In choosing poultry, the age 
 of the bird is the chief point to be attended 
 to. An old turkey has rough and reddish 
 legs ; a young one, smooth and black. Fresh 
 killed, the eyes are full and clear, and the feet 
 moist. When it has been kept too long, the 
 parts about the vent begin to wear a greenish, 
 discolored appearance. 
 
 Common Domestic Fowls, when 
 young, have the legs and combs smooth ; when 
 old, they are rough, and on the breast long 
 hairs are found instead of feathers. Fowls 
 and chickens should be plump on the breast, 
 fat on the back, and white legged. 
 
 Geese. The bills and feet are red when 
 old, yellow when young. Fresh killed, the 
 feet are pliable, stiff when too long kept. 
 Geese are called green while they are only two 
 or three months old. 
 
 Ducks. Choose them with supple feet 
 and hard, plump breasts. Tame ducks have 
 yellow feet, wild ones red. 
 
 Pigeons are very indifferent food when 
 they are too long kept. Suppleness of the 
 feet shows them to be young ; the state of the 
 flesh is flaccid when they are getting bad from 
 keeping. Tame pigeons are larger than the 
 wild. 
 
 Partridges, when young, have yellow legs 
 and dark colored bills. Old partridges are 
 very indifferent eating. 
 
 Woodcock and Snipe, when old, have 
 the feet thick and hard ; when these are soft 
 and tender, they are both young and fresh 
 killed. When their bills become moist, and 
 their throats muddy, they have been too long 
 killed. 
 
 SEASONABLE FOOD 
 
 To be Obtained in Our Markets During the Year. 
 
 January. Meats. Beef, mutton, pork, 
 lamb. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Rabbits, hares, par- 
 tridges, woodcocks, grouse or prairie chickens, 
 snipes, antelope, quails, swans, geese, chick- 
 ens, capons, tame pigeons, wild ducks, the 
 
 canvas-back duck being the most popular and 
 highly pri/ed ; turkeys. 
 
 Fish. Haddock, fresh codfish, halibut, 
 flounders, bass, fresh salmon, turbot. Frozen 
 fresh mackerel is found in our large cities dur- 
 ing this month ; also frozen salmon, red snap- 
 per, shad, frozen bluefish, pickerel, smelts, 
 green turtle, diamond-back terrapin, prawns, 
 oysters, scallops, hard crabs, white bait, fin- 
 nan haddie, smoked halibut, smoked salmon. 
 
 Vegetables. Cabbage, carrots, turnips, pars- 
 nips, beets, pumpkins, chives, celery, winter 
 squash, onions, white and sweet potatoes, Je- 
 rusalem artichokes, chicory, Brussels sprouts, 
 kale sprouts, oyster plant, leeks, cress, cauli- 
 flower. Garden herbs, both dry and green, 
 being chiefly used in stuffing and soups, and 
 for flavoring and garnishing certain dishes, are 
 always in season, such as sage, thyme, sweet 
 basil, borage, dill, mint, parsley, lavender, 
 summer savory, etc., and may be procured green 
 in the summer and dried in the winter. 
 
 Fruit. Almonds, apples. 
 
 February. Meats. Beef, mutton, pork, 
 lamb, antelope. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Partridges, hares, rab- 
 bits, snipes, capons, pheasants, fowls, pullets, 
 geese, ducks, turkeys, wild ducks, swan, 
 geese, and pigeons. 
 
 Fish. Halibut, haddock, fresh codfish, 
 striped bass, eels, fresh salmon, live lobsters, 
 pompano, sheep's-head, red-snapper, white 
 perch (apanfish), smelts green and frozen; 
 shad, herring, salmon-trout, whitefish, pick- 
 erel, green turtle, flounders, scallops, prawns, 
 oysters, soft-shell crabs which are in excel- 
 lent condition this month ; hard crabs, white 
 bait, boneless dried codfish, finnan haddie, 
 smoked halibut, smoked salmon. 
 
 Vegetables. White potatoes, sweet potatoes, 
 cabbage, onions, parsnips, oyster plant, okra, 
 celery, chicory, carrots, turnips, Jerusalem 
 artichokes, French artichokes, Brussels sprouts, 
 beets, mushrooms raised in hot houses, pump- 
 kins, winter squash, dry shallots and garden 
 herbs for seasoning put up in the dried state. 
 
 Fruit. ,. Apples, chestnuts, oranges. 
 
 March. Meats. Beef, yoal, mutton, lamb, 
 pork. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Chickens, turkeys, duc*, 
 rabbits, snipes, wild pigeons, capons. 
 
 Fish. Striped bass, halibut, salmon, live 
 codfish, chicken halibut, live lobster, Spanish- 
 mackerel, flounders, sheep's-head, pompano, 
 grouper, red-snapper. Shad are plentiful this 
 month. Herring, salmon-trout, sturgeon, 
 whitefish, pickerel, yellow perch, catfish, green 
 turtle, terrapin, scallops, soft-shell clams, oys- 
 ters, prawns, smoked salmon, smoked halibut, 
 smoked haddock, salt codfish.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 407 
 
 Vegetables. Cabbage, turnips, carrots, pars- 
 nips, artichokes, white potatoes, sweet pota- 
 toes, onions, leeks, radishes, Brussels sprouts, 
 celery, mushrooms, salsify, chives, cress, pars- 
 ley and other garden herbs, greens, rhubarb 
 and cucumbers raised in hot beds. 
 
 Fruit. Apples, chestnuts, oranges. 
 
 April. Meats. Beef, veal, pork, mutton, 
 lamb. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Chickens, fowls, green 
 geese, young ducks, capons, golden plover, 
 squabs, wild ducks. 
 
 Fish. Haddock, fresh cod, striped bass, 
 halibut, eels, chicken halibut, live lobsters, 
 salmon, white perch, flounders, fresh mackerel, 
 sheep's head, smelts, red-snapper, bluefish, 
 skate or ray fish, shad, whitefish, brook trout, 
 salmon-trout, pickerel, catfish, prawns, cray- 
 fish, green turtle, oysters, scallops, frogs' legs, 
 clams, hard crabs, white bait, smoked halibut, 
 smoked salmon, smoked haddock, salt mackerel, 
 salt codfish. 
 
 Vegetables. Onions, white and sw r eet pota- 
 toes, kale-sprouts, rhubarb, artichokes, tur- 
 nips, radishes, Brussels sprouts, okra, cab- 
 bage, parsnips, mushrooms, cress, carrots, 
 beets, dandelion, egg plant, leeks, lettuce, 
 cucumbers, asparagus, string beans, peas, 
 chives. 
 
 I'rnit. Apples, nuts, oranges, pears. 
 
 May. Meats. Beef, veal, mutton, lamb, 
 pork. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Fowls, pigeons, spring- 
 chickens, young ducks, chickens, green geese, 
 young turkeys. 
 
 Fish. Halibut, haddock, striped bass, sal- 
 mon, flounders, fresh mackerel, Spanish mack- 
 erel, blackfish, pompano, butterfish, weakfish, 
 kingfish, porgies, shad, bluefish, clams, brook- 
 trout, whitefish, carp, crayfish, prawns, green 
 turtle, soft crabs, frogs' legs, smoked fish. 
 
 Vegetables. New potatoes, sweet potatoes, 
 cabbage, young onions, asparagus, beets, car- 
 rots, kidney beans, string beans, lettuce, to- 
 matoes, cauliflower, peas, turnips, squash, 
 rhubarb, spinach, radishes, artichokes, sorrel, 
 egg-plant, cucumbers, salads generally. 
 
 Fruit. Apples, pears. 
 
 June. Meats. Beef, veal, mutton, lamb. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Chickens, geese, ducks, 
 young turkeys, plovers, pigeons. 
 
 Fish. Fresh salmon, striped bass, halibut, 
 fresh mackerel, flounders, kingfish, blackfish, 
 weakfish, butterfish, pompano, Spanish mack- 
 erel, porgies, sheep's-head, sturgeon, sea bass, 
 bluefish, skate 'or rayfish, carp, black bass, 
 crayfish, lobsters, eels, white bait, frogs' legs, 
 soft crabs, clams. 
 
 Vegetable*. Potatoes, spinach, cauliflower, 
 string beans, peas, tomatoes, asparagus, car- 
 
 j rots, artichokes, parsnips, onions, cucumbers, 
 I lettuce, radishes, cress, oyster plant, egg plant, 
 ' rhubarb, and all kinds of garden herbs, sorrel, 
 1 horse-radish. 
 
 Fruit. Apples, apricots, cherries, currants, 
 gooseberries, melons, pears, strawberries. 
 
 July. Meats. Beef, veal, mutton, lamb, 
 pork. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Fowls, chickens, pigeons, 
 plovers, young geese, turkey plouts, squabs, 
 doe birds, tame rabbits. 
 
 Fish. Spanish mackerel, striped bass, fresh 
 mackerel, blackfish, kingfish, flounders, sal- 
 mon, cod, haddock, halibut, pompano, butter- 
 fish(a sweet panfish), sheep's-head, porgies, sea 
 bass, weakfish, swordfish, tautog, bluefish, 
 skate, brook trout, crayfish, black bass, moon- 
 fish (a fine baking or boiling fish), pickerel, 
 perch, eels, green turtle, frogs' legs, soft crabs, 
 white bait, prawns, lobsters, clams. 
 
 Vegetables. Potatoes, asparagus, pease, green 
 string beans, butter beans, artichokes, celery, 
 lettuce, carrots, salsify, tomatoes, spinach, 
 mushrooms, cabbage, onions, endive, radishes, 
 turnips, mint, various kinds of greens and 
 salads. 
 
 Fruit. Apples, apricots, cherries, currants, 
 damsons, gooseberries, melons, nectarines, 
 peaches, pears, oranges, pineapples, plums, 
 raspberries, strawberries. 
 
 August. Meats. Beef, veal, mutton, 
 lamb, pork. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Venison, young ducks, 
 green geese, snipe, plover, turkeys, guinea 
 fowls, squabs, wild pigeons, woodcock, fowls. 
 
 Fish. Striped bass, cod, halibut, haddock, 
 salmon, flounders, fresh mackerel, bonito, but- 
 terfish, sea bass, kingfish, sheep's-head, porgies, 
 bluefish, moonfish, brook trout, eels, black 
 bass, crayfish, skate or rayfish, catfish, green 
 turtle, white bait, squid, frogs' legs, soft crabs, 
 prawns, clams. 
 
 Vegetables. Carrots, artichokes, onions, 
 string beans, lima beans, cauliflower, Irish po- 
 tatoes, sweet potatoes, green corn, tomatoes, 
 pease, summer squash, cucumbers, radishes, let- 
 tuce, celery, rhubarb, beets, greens, mushrooms, 
 chives. 
 
 Fruit. Apples (summer pippin), cherries, 
 currants, damsons, gooseberries, grapes, melons, 
 mulberries, nectarines, peaches, pears, plums 
 (greengages), raspberries. 
 
 September. Meats. Beef, veal, mutton, 
 lamb, pork, venison. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Larks, woodcock, snipe, 
 wild pigeons, squabs, young geese, young tur- 
 keys, plover, wild ducks, wild geese, swans 
 and brant fowls, reed birds, grouse, doe birds, 
 partridges. 
 
 Fish. Salmon, halibut, codfish, pompano
 
 408 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 striped bass, haddock, cero (a large fish similar 
 to the Spanish mackerel), flounders, fresh mack- 
 erel, blackfish, Spanish mackerel, butterfish, 
 whitefish. weakfish, smelts, porgies, squids, 
 pickerel, crayfish, catfish, bluefish, wall-eyed 
 pike, sea bass, skate, carp, prawns, white bait, 
 frogs' legs, hard crabs, moonfish, soft crabs, 
 herrings, lobsters, clams. 
 
 Vegetables. Potatoes, cabbages, turnips, arti- 
 chokes, peas, beans, carrots, onions, salsify, 
 mushrooms, lettuce, sorrel, celery, cauliflower, 
 Brussels sprouts, sweet potatoes, squash, rhu- 
 barb, green peppers, parsnips, beets, green 
 corn, tomatoes, cress. 
 
 Fruit. Apples, damsons, grapes, hazelnuts, 
 medlars, peaches, pears, pineapples, plums, 
 quinces, strawberries, walnuts. 
 
 October. Aleuts. Beef, veal, mutton, 
 lamb, pork, venison, antelope. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Turkeys, geese, fowls, 
 pullets, chickens, wild ducks, the canvas-back 
 duck being the most highly prized, for its deli- 
 cate flavor ; woodcock, grouse, pheasants, 
 pigeons, partridges, snipes, reed birds, golden 
 plover, gray plover, squabs. 
 
 Fish. Striped bass, fresh cod, halibut, had- 
 dock, Spanish mackerel, fresh mackerel, cero, 
 flounders, pompano, weakfish, white perch, 
 grouper, sheep's-head, whitefish, bluefish, pick- 
 erel, red snapper, yellow perch, smelts, sea 
 bass, black bass, cisco, wall-eyed pike, cray- 
 fish, carp, salmon tr out, spotted bass, terrapin, 
 frogs' legs, hard crabs, soft crabs, white bait, 
 green turtle, scallops, eels, lobsters, oysters. 
 
 Vegetables. Potatoes, cabbages, turnips, car- 
 rots, cauliflowers, parsnips, string beans, *peas, 
 lima beans, corn, tomatoes, onions, spinach, 
 salsify, egg plant, beets, pumpkins, endive, 
 celery, parsley, squash, cucumbers, mush- 
 rooms, sweet herbs of all kinds, salads of all 
 kinds, garlic, shallots. 
 
 Fruit. Almonds, apples, black and white 
 damsons, hazelnuts, grapes, peaches, pears, 
 quinces, walnuts. 
 
 November. Meats. Beef, veal, mutton, 
 pork, venison, antelope. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Rabbits, hares, pheas- 
 ants, woodcock, partridges, quails, snipe, 
 grouse, wild ducks, wild geese, fowls, turkeys, 
 pigeons. 
 
 Fish. Striped bass, fresh cod, halibut, had- 
 dock, salmon, fresh mackerel, blackfish, white- 
 fish, bluefish, catfish, redfish or spotted bass, 
 black bass, yellow perch, skate, red snapper, 
 salmon trout, pickerel, shad, wall-eyed pike, 
 cisco, crayfish, terrapin, green turtle, scallops, 
 prawns, white bait, frogs' legs, hard crabs, 
 oysters. 
 
 Vegetables. Potatoes, carrots, parsnips, tur- 
 nips, onions, dried beans, artichokes, cabbages, 
 
 beets, winter squash, celery, parsley, pump- 
 kins, shallots, mushrooms, chicory, all sorts 
 of salads and sweet herbs. 
 
 Fruit. Almonds, apples, chestnuts, hazel- 
 1 nuts, grapes, pears. 
 
 December. Meats. Beef, veal, mutton, 
 pork, venison. 
 
 Poultry and Game. Rabbits, hares, grouse, 
 pheasants, woodcock, snipe, partridges, tur- 
 key, fowls, chickens, pullets, geese, wild geese, 
 ducks, wild duck, tame duck, canvas-back 
 duck, quails. 
 
 Fish. Turbot, sturgeon, haddock, halibut, 
 eels, striped bass, flounders, salmon, fresh cod. 
 blackfish, whitefish, grouper, cusk, shad, mul- 
 let (a sweet panfish), black bass, yellow perch, 
 salmon-trout, pickerel, cisco, skate, wall-eyed 
 pike, terrapin, crayfish, green turtle, prawns, 
 hard crabs, soft crabs, scallops, frogs' legs, 
 oysters. 
 
 Vegetables. Potatoes, cabbages, onions, 
 winter squash, beets, turnips, pumpkins, car- 
 rots, parsnips, dried beans, dried peas, mush- 
 rooms, parsley, shallots, Brussels sprouts, leeks, 
 horse-radish, garlic, mint, sage, and small 
 salads. Garden herbs, which are mostly used 
 for stuffings and for flavoring dishes, soups, 
 etc., or for garnishing, may be found either 
 green or dried the year round, always in season. 
 
 Melons can be had at most of our markets 
 from July 1st until the 15th of October ; they 
 are received from the South in the early part 
 of the season, and are not as fresh and good 
 as those ripened in our own vicinity. 
 
 Fruits. Apples, chestnuts, hazelnuts. 
 
 TERMS USED IN FRENCH COOK- 
 ERY. 
 
 Many dishes and processes peculiar to French cookery 
 are now so largely introduced into culinary and other 
 treatises, that a glossary of them can scarcely fail to 
 prove practically useful. 
 
 Allemande, reduced or concentrated white veloute 
 sauce, thickened with cream and yolks of eggs, and sea- 
 soned with nutmeg and lemon juice. 
 
 Angelica is a plant, the tender tubular branches of 
 which, after being preserved in syrup, are used for the 
 purpose of decorating entremets, etc. 
 
 Assiette Yolante, dish passed round. 
 
 Aspic, savory jelly for cold dishes. 
 
 Au Gratin, ilishe's prepared with sauce and crumbs 
 and baked. 
 
 A.U Natural, cooked and served in its natural state ; 
 plain. 
 
 Baba, a light sort of cake, served as a remove to the 
 second course roast. 
 
 Bechamel, a rich white sauce, made with stock. 
 
 Beipnet, fritter. 
 
 Bisque, a soup of shell fish and game. 
 
 Blanc, a rich white broth in which game, poultry, 
 etc., are cooked. 
 
 To Blanch, to place any article on the fire till it 
 boils, then plunge it in cold water; to whiten poultry, 
 vegetables, etc. ; to remove the skin by immersing in 
 boiling water. 
 
 Blaiiquette, scollops cut from cold roast joints and 
 warmed in allrm:md<> sauce. 
 
 Knuchees, very thin patties or cakes, as name indi- 
 cates mouthfuls.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 409 
 
 Boudin, a delicate kind of entree, prepared with 
 quenelle, force-meat, or mince. 
 
 Bouilli, boiled fresh beef with vegetables. 
 
 Bouillon, a clear soup, stronger than broth, yet not 
 so strong as ooraommt, which is " reduced " soup. 
 
 Bouquet (garnbhed), or faggot, consists of a handful 
 of parsley, six green onions, a small bay leaf, ami a 
 sprig of thyme, neatly tied together with twine. 
 
 Braise, meat cooked in a closely covered stewpan, 
 so that it retains its own flavor and those of the vegeta- 
 bles and flavorings put with it. 
 
 Brioche, a very rich, unsweetened French cake 
 made with yeast. 
 
 Buisson, a high standing dish of sngar-work and 
 pastry. 
 
 Cannelon, stuffed, rolled-up meat. 
 
 Caramel, burned sugar for coloring soups. 
 
 Casserole, a mold of rice, a stewpan. 
 
 Charlotte consists generally of very thin slices of 
 bread, steeped in clarified butter, and placed 'in sym- 
 metrical order in a plain mold, garnished with fruit or 
 preserves. 
 
 Chartreuse of Vegetables, a mixed preparation, 
 consisting of vegetables symmetrically and tastefully 
 arranged in a plain mold, the interior of which is gar- 
 nished with either game, quails, or larks, mixed with 
 pease or mushrooms, etc. 
 
 Compotier, a dish to hold the compote. 
 
 Contise, when small scollops of truffles, red-tongue, 
 etc. are inlaid, as ornaments, by incision in fillets of any 
 kind, they are said to be contises. 
 
 Consomme, clear soup or bouillon, boiled down till 
 very rich, i. e., consumed. 
 
 Court Bouillon, a preparation of wine, water, and 
 savory herbs in which fish is cooked. 
 
 Croquettes and Rissoles, a savory mince of fish 
 or fowl, made with sauce into shapes, and fried. These 
 words both sjgnify something crisp. 
 
 Croustades, Pates-Cliauds, Tourtes, Timbales, 
 C isseroles of Rice, various ornamental pie-cases, 
 made either of paste, or prepared rice. 
 
 Croutons, sippets of bread of various sizes and 
 shapes, fried in clarified butter, and used to garnish 
 salmis, fricassees, dressed vegetables, etc. ; they are also 
 served with certain soups, chiefly with pure'es. 
 
 Cullis. a very rich white or brown gravy. 
 
 En Papillote, cooked in oiled paper. 
 
 Entremets, or second course dishes, consist of four 
 distinct sorts, namely : cold entrees ; dressed vegetables ; 
 scalloped shellfish and dressed eggs ; and lastly, of the 
 infinitely varied class of sweets, consisting of puddings, 
 gateaux', timbales, sweet croquettes, charlottes, cro- 
 quantes, pastries, jellies, creams, fritters, etc. 
 
 Entrees, made dishes for the first course. 
 
 Espagnole and Veloute, the two main sauces from 
 whicn all others are made ; the first is brown, the other 
 white. 
 
 Fanchonettes and Florentines, varieties of small 
 pastry meringued over. 
 
 Farcie, force-meat. 
 
 Feuilletage, puff paste. 
 
 Flans, Darioles, and Mirlitons, varieties of French 
 cheese-cakes. 
 
 Fondant, sugar boiled and beaten to a creamy 
 paste. 
 
 Fondue, a light preparation of melted cheese. 
 
 Force, a coarse kind of force-meat used for raised 
 pies and gratins. 
 
 Fricandeau and Grenadine consist of the primest 
 parts of veal, of fillets of poultry, etc., smoothly trim- 
 med, larded, and brightly glazed with a concentration 
 of their own liquor . they are served as side dishes. 
 
 Fricassee consists of chickens cut in pieces, and pre- 
 pared in a white sauce,with truffles, mushrooms, cock's- 
 combs, etc., as accessories. 
 
 Friture, frying pan. 
 
 Gateau, cake. 
 
 Gauffres, a light, spongy biscuit. 
 
 Glace, anything iced. This word is sometimes used 
 figuratively by French cooks, to signify a smooth, 
 glossy surface. 
 
 Gras, made from meat. 
 
 Gratins, a term applied to consolidated soups and 
 sauces ; also to certain dishes of high character, consist- 
 ing of game, poultry, fish, vegetables, or macaroni, etc., 
 
 improved by great care and finish, through the use of 
 concentrated sauces and gravies. 
 
 Hollandaise Sauce, a rich sauce something like 
 hot mayonnaise. 
 
 Hors d'CEuvres (hot), a species of very light en- 
 trees, such as patties of all kinds, rissoles, croquettes, 
 scolloped fish, shellfish, macaroni, poultry, game, 
 sweetbreads, brains, ox-piths, horjies of fish, poultry, 
 or game, etc. 
 
 Hors d'CEuvres (cold). These should be eaten imme- 
 diately after the soup and fish ; they are considered as 
 appetizers and consist of sardines, anchovies, tunny, 
 Dutch herrings, savory butters, oysters, oiled salads. 
 
 Jardiniere, a mixed preparation of vegetables, 
 stewed down in their own sauce. 
 
 Liaison, a thickening of yolk of eggs diluted. 
 
 Macedoine of Vegetables is a jardiniere, with the 
 addition of some kind of white sauce. 
 
 Macedoine of Fruit, a kind of jelly. 
 
 Maigre, made without meat. 
 
 Marinade, a preparation for enriching the flavor of 
 meat, fish, etc., made of wine, vinegar, water, herbs, 
 vegetables, oil, liquor, sugar, and spices. 
 
 Matelote, a ricn fish stew, with wine. 
 
 Mayonnaise, a rich salad dressing. 
 
 Miroton, a rechaujft, very nicely prepared. 
 
 Meringue, sugar and white of egg beaten to a 
 sauce. 
 
 Nougat, a mixture of almonds and sugar. 
 NO ui lies, a paste of flour, cream, and eggs. 
 Noix de Veau, technical term meaning cushion ; that 
 part of the leg of veal next the udder. 
 
 Paner, to bread-crumb. 
 
 Panierer, to cover with bread crumbs. 
 
 Passer, to fry lightly. 
 
 Pigiie, to lard on the surface only. 
 
 Poelee, a braise to enrich game, etc. 
 
 Potage, soup or light broth. 
 
 Profltrolles, alight pastry used as an entremet. 
 
 Puree, a kind of pulpy maceration of roasted meats, 
 and of vegetables, or fruits, finished by being passed 
 through a tammy or sieve 
 
 Quenelles, a rich farcie molded in forms and poached 
 in broth. 
 
 Ragout, a rich compound, consisting of quenelles, 
 mushrooms, truffles, fat livers, etc., mixed in a sauce, 
 and used for garnished removes and entrees. 
 
 Releves or Removes, the top and bottom dishes 
 (as they are designated in England), serve to replace the 
 soup and fish on ordinary tables. These usually consist 
 of roast joints, turkeys, capons, fillets, etc. 
 
 Rissoles, small pastry, either of savory or sweets, 
 fried. 
 
 Roux, a thickening of flour and butter. 
 
 Salmis, a highly finished hash, made with game or 
 wild fowl, cut up and prepared in either a rich gravy or 
 sauce. 
 
 Salpicon, a preparation of red tongue, ham, mush- 
 rooms, and chicken or game, chiefly used to fill boudins, 
 croquettes, bouch^es, etc. 
 
 Saute, to cook quickly over a sharp fire with just 
 enough oil or butter to prevent sticking. 
 
 Sautoir, saute-pan. 
 
 Souffle, a very light, much whipped-up pudding or 
 omelette. 
 
 Tamis, a sieve of fine cloth wire, also of coarse woolen 
 cloth. 
 
 Timbale, a pie raised in a mold. 
 
 Toppot, the surface fat from the common stock pot. 
 Tourte, a tart of fresh or preserved fruit. 
 
 Vanner, to use sauce with a small ladle in peculiar 
 manner. 
 
 Veloute, the stock for u-hite sauce, as Espagnoli is 
 for brown. 
 
 Vol au Vents, patties of very light puff paste, made 
 without a dish or mold, and tilled with meat or pre- 
 serves.
 
 410 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 HOUSEKEEPERS' TIME-TABLE. 
 
 
 Mode of 
 Prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 i 
 
 Time of 
 Cooking. ( 
 
 
 raw 
 raw 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 roasted 
 broiled 
 friedi 
 boiled 
 broiled 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 baked 
 baked 
 melted 
 raw 
 raw 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 baked 
 boiled 
 raw 
 fricasseed 
 boiled I 
 baked 
 roasted 
 roasted 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 fried 
 raw 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 roasted 
 boiled 
 hashed 
 raw 
 boiled 
 roast 
 broiled 
 boiled 
 roasted 
 stewed 
 boiled 
 soused 
 roast 
 boiled 
 fried 
 broiled 
 boiled 
 baked 
 roasted 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 fried 
 broiled 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 boiled 
 fresh 
 canned 
 fried 
 roasted 
 boiled 
 broiled 
 broiled 
 
 H. M. * 
 
 Z 1 
 15 to 30 , 
 1 00 
 - 45 
 - 25 
 15 ] 
 
 # - 35 ] 
 - 20 
 2 00 J 
 4 30 . 
 - 45 
 1 00 
 
 ~~ ] 
 1. __ 1 
 1 00 
 1-2 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 01 
 * 15 
 - 30 
 1 30 
 1 00 
 1 00 
 - 10 
 3 
 5 
 
 1 00 
 
 * 20 
 * 20 
 30 
 
 * 25 
 20 
 1-2 00 
 
 5 
 1 00 
 
 * 30 
 * 25 
 
 20 
 30 
 45 
 45 
 20 
 8 
 25 
 20 
 1 00 
 2 00 
 t 3 30 
 12 00 
 1 30 
 1 00 
 30 
 30 
 * 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beef 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Butter 
 
 
 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 
 
 
 
 Codfish, dry and whole 
 Custard (one quart) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fowls, domestic, roasted, or 
 
 
 
 Meat and vegetables 
 
 Milk 
 
 Milk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pigs' feet 
 
 Pork 
 
 Pork 
 
 
 Pork 
 
 
 
 
 jtice 
 
 
 
 
 
 Soup chicken 
 
 
 Spinach 
 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 Trout, salmon, fresh, boiled or.. 
 
 
 45 
 20 
 20 
 
 Veal 
 
 Venison steak 
 
 Minutes to the pound. 
 
 t Mutton soup. The time given is the genera 1 average ; 
 the time will vary slightly with the quality of the 
 article. 
 
 FRENCH-ENGLISH DISHES. 
 
 Potages (po-ta-j). Soups. 
 
 Consomme' de boeuf clair (kon-so-me de beuf kle>). 
 
 Amber, or clear soup, 
 legumes (kon-so-me 6 le-gu-m). 
 
 Soup, with vegetables. 
 
 Consomme au macaroni (kon-so-im'' <"> ma-ka-ro-ni). 
 
 Macaroni soup 
 Consonant' aux nouilles (kon-so me o nou-i). 
 
 Noodle soup 
 Consomme aux vcrniicelles(kon-so-nu'' o ver-mi-she-1). 
 
 Vermicelli soup. 
 Consomme^ de volaillc (kon-so-me de vo-la-i). 
 
 Chicken soup. 
 Potage aux croutons (po-ta-j <" krou-ton). 
 
 Soup, with bread. 
 
 Potage printanier (po-ta-j prin-ta-nie). Spring soup. 
 Potage 'A la julienne (po-ta-j ala ju-lie-n). Julienne soup. 
 Potage d' asperge (po-ta-j das-per-j). Asparagus soup. 
 Potage aux queues de bosuf (po-ta-j o keu de beuf). 
 
 Ox-tail soup. 
 
 Potage k la pur^e de volaillc (po-ta-j a la \m-r6 de vo-la-i). 
 
 Chicken puree. 
 Potage a la fausse tortue (po-ta-j a la fo-se tor-tu). 
 
 Mock-turtle soup. 
 
 Potage aux hfiitres (po-ta-j o ui-tr). Oyster soup. 
 
 Potage a la puree d'haricots {po-ta-j a la pu-re da-ri-ko). 
 
 Bean soup. 
 
 Potage aux tomates (po-ta-j 6 to-ma-t). Tomato sou]). 
 Potage a la puree de pommes de terre (po-ta-j a la pu-r6 
 po-m de te-r). Potato soup. 
 
 Puree de legumes (pu-r<$ de le-gu-m). Vegetable puree. 
 Soupe a 1'oignon (soup a lo-gnon). Onion soup. 
 
 Soupe & 1'oseille (soup a 16-ze-i). Sorrel soup. 
 
 Poissons (poa-son). Fish. 
 
 Saumon, sauce Hollandaise (so-mon, so-s ho-lan-di-z). 
 
 Salmon, Hollandaise sauce. 
 Saumon, sauce homard (so-mon, so-s ho-mar). 
 
 Salmon, with lobster sauce. 
 Saumon, sauce au persil (so-mon, so-s 6 per-si). 
 
 Salmon, with parsley sauce. 
 Saumon, sauce aux oeufs (s6-mon, so-s 6 euf). 
 
 Salmon, with egg sauce. 
 Saumon, aux pommes de terre (so-mon o po-m de te-r) 
 
 Salmon, with potatoes. 
 Tranches de saumon (tran-sh de so-mon). 
 
 Slices of salmon. 
 Tron9on de saumon (tron-son de so-mon). 
 
 Middle cut of salmon 
 
 Cotelettes de saumon auxcornichons(ke-t-le-t de so-mon 
 6 kSr-ni-shon). Salmon cutlets, with pickles 
 
 Saumon aux concombres (so-mon 6 kon-kpn-br). 
 
 Salmon, with cucumbers. 
 
 Sardines grillees (sar-di-n gri-ie). Sardines, broiled. 
 
 Eperlans frits (e-per-lan free-t). Smelts, Tried. 
 
 Petites truites f rites (p6-ti trui-t free-t). 
 
 Little trout fried. 
 
 Truite en coquilles (,trui-t an ko-ki-i). Trout in shells. 
 Truite saumonee (trui-t so-mo-n*). Salmon trout. 
 
 Morue a la sauce aux capres (mo-ru k la so-s o ka-pr). 
 
 Codfish, with caper sauce. 
 Morue a la Bechamel (mo-ru & la be-sha-mel). 
 
 Codfish, with Bechamel sauce. 
 Morue aux pommes de terre (mo-ru o po-m de te-r). 
 
 Codfish, with potatoes. 
 Gratin d'anguilles (gra-tin dan-ghi-i). 
 
 Eels an (/ret fin (with crumbs). 
 Matelote d'anguilles (ma-t-lo-t dan-ghi-i). 
 
 Eels en matelote (sailor fashion). 
 
 Maquereau frais a la maitre d'hotel (ma-k-ro fre a la 
 me-tr do-tel). Fresh mackerel, with maitre d'hotel 
 butter. 
 
 Hwitres (ui-tr). Oysters. 
 
 Huitres en coquille (ui-tr an ko-ki-i). Oysters in shells. 
 Huitres frites (ui-tr free-t). Oysters fried. 
 
 Beignets d'hftitres (be-gne dui-tr). Oyster fritters. 
 
 Petite vol-au-vent d'hftitres (pe-ti vol o van dui-tr). 
 
 Oyster patties. 
 Bouchees d'hftitres (bou-she dui-tr). Oyster patties. 
 
 Sauces (so-s). Sauces. 
 Sauce k la Bechamel (so-s a la be-sha-mel). 
 
 White sauce (made with stock). 
 Sauce aux cornichons (so-s o kor-ni-shon). Pickle sauce. 
 
 Sauce aux reufs (so-s 6 euf). Egg sauce. 
 
 Sauce aux capres (so-s 6 ca-prt. Caper sauce. 
 
 Sauce aux anchois (so-s (> fui-shoa), Anchovy sauce. 
 
 Suuce aux crevettes (so-s o krC-ve-t). Shrimp sauce. 
 
 Sauce homnrd (so-s ho-mar). Lobster sauce. 
 
 Sauce aux huitres (so-s o ui-tr). Oyster sauce. 
 
 Sauce au persil (so-s o per-si). Parsley sauce. 
 
 Sauce au chou-fleur (so-s 6 shou-fleflr). 
 
 Cauliflower sauce. 
 Sauce au vin de Madere (so-s 6 vin de ma-de-r). 
 
 Madeira wine sauce.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 411 
 
 Sauce aux groseilles (so-s 6 gro-ze-i). 
 
 Currant jelly sauce. 
 
 Sauce tomate (so-s to-ma-t). Tomato sauce. 
 
 Sauce aux champignons (so-s 6 chan-pi-gnon). 
 
 Mushroom sauce. 
 
 Viandes (vian-cl). Meats. 
 
 Filet de bo3iif roti (fi-le de beuf ro-ti). 
 
 Roast fillet of beef. 
 Filet tie boeuf pigue (fi-le tie beuf pi-k). 
 
 Fillet of beef, larded. 
 
 Filet de boeuf aux cham])ignons (fi-le de beuf A chan- 
 pi-gnon). Fillet of beef, with mushrooms. 
 Boeuf braise (beuf bra-ze'). Braised beef . 
 Bojuf braise & la jardiniere (beuf bra-z6 a la jar-di- 
 nie-r). Braised beef, with vegetables. 
 Hacliis de boeuf (ha-shi de beuf). Beef hash. 
 Bifteck aux champignons (bif tek o chan-pi-gnon). 
 
 Beefsteak, with mushrooms. 
 
 Pate' de biftecks (pa-to de bif-tek). Beefsteak pie. 
 
 Boeuf a la mode (beuf a la mod). A-la-mode beef. 
 
 Langue de bosuf a 1'ecarlate (lan-g de beuf a le-kar-la-t). 
 
 Pickled tongue. 
 Langues de mouton (lan-g de mou-ton). 
 
 Mutton tongue. 
 Selle de mouton rotic (se-1 de mou-ton ro-ti). 
 
 Saddle of mutton, roast. 
 
 Poitrine de mouton farcie (poa-tri-n de mou-ton far-se). 
 Shoulder of mutton, stuffed. 
 
 Ragout de mouton (ra-gou de mou-ton). Mutton stew. 
 
 C6telettes de mouton grillees (ko-t-le-t de mou-ton gri-i). 
 
 Mutton cutlets, broiled. 
 
 Cotelettes de mouton panees (ko-t-le-t de mou-ton pa-ne >. 
 Mutton cutlets, breaded. 
 
 Cotelettes de mouton aux petits pois (ko-t-le-t de mou- 
 ton o pe-ti-poa). Mutton cutlets, with peas. 
 Rognons de mouton (ro-gnon de mou-ton). 
 
 Sheep's kidneys. 
 
 Cotelettes d'agneau (ko-t-le-t da-gno). Lamb cutlets. 
 Croquettes d'agneau (kro-ke-t da-gno). 
 
 Lamb croquettes. 
 
 Cotelettes de veaii, sauce tomate (ko-t-le-t de vo so-s to- 
 ma-t. Veal ciitlets, with tomato sauce. 
 Fricahdeau de veau (f ri-kan-do de vo). 
 
 Fricandeau of veal. 
 
 Foic de veau grille (foa de vo gri-i). Liver, broiled. 
 
 Cotelettes de pore aux cornichons (ko-t-le-t de por o kor- 
 ni-shon). Pork cutlets, with pickles. 
 
 Jambon froid (jan-bon froa). Cold ham. 
 
 Blanquette de veau (blan-ke-t de vo). 
 
 Blanquette of veal. 
 
 Ris de veait (ri de vo). Sweetbreads. 
 Ris de veau a la Mihinaise (ri de vo a la mi-la-ne-z). 
 
 Sweetbreads, with macaroni. 
 
 Ris de veau a la sauce tomate (ri de vo a la so-s to-ma-t). 
 Sweetbreads, with tomato sauce. 
 Ris de veau aux petits pois (ri de vo o pe-ti poa). 
 
 Sweetbreads, with peas. 
 
 Ris de veau pique (ri de vo pi-k). Sweetbreads, larded. 
 Beignets de ris de veau (be-gne de ri de vo). 
 
 Sweetbread fritters. 
 Croquettes de ris de veau (kro-ke-t de ri de v6). 
 
 Sweetbread croquettes. 
 
 Volaille et Gibier (vo-la-i e ji-bie). Poultry and 
 Game. 
 
 Dinde farcie (diu-d far-se). Stuffed turkey. 
 
 Dinile piquee (dm-d pi-ke). Larded turkey. 
 
 Dinde, sauce celeri (din-d, so-s se-l-ri). 
 
 Turkey, celery sauce. 
 Dinde, sauvage rotie (dln-d, so-va-j ro-ti). 
 
 Roast wild turkey. 
 
 Galantine de dinde (ga-lan-ti-n de din-d). Boned turkey. 
 Fricassee de poulet (fri-ka-se tie pou-le). 
 
 Fricassee of chicken. 
 
 Filets de poulet aux petits pois (fi-le de pou-le o pc-ti 
 poa). Chicken breasts with peas. 
 
 Poulets nouveaux rotis (pou-le nou-vo ro-ti). 
 
 Roast spring chicken. 
 Poulets aux tomatcs (pou-le 6 to-ma-t). 
 
 Chickens, with tomatoes. 
 
 Poulets au ris (])ou-le o ri). Chickens, with rice. 
 
 Poulets aux choux-Heurs (pou-le o sho-fleur). 
 
 Chickens, with cauliflowers. 
 
 Poulets sautes (pou-le so-te). Fried chickens. 
 
 Croquettes de volaille (kro-ke-t de vo-la-i). 
 
 Chicken crtxjuettes. 
 
 Canard sauvage (ka-nar so-va-j). Wild duck. 
 
 Pate chaud de pigeons (pa-te sho de pi-jon). Pigeon pie. 
 
 Compote de pigeons (con-po-t de pi-jon). Pigeon stew. 
 Pigeons rotis aux espinards (pi-jon 'ro-ti o e-pi-nar). 
 
 Roast pigeons, with spinach. 
 Pigeons a 1'escarlate (pi-jon le-kar-la-t). 
 
 Braised pigeons, with spinach. 
 
 Becasses roties (be-ka-s r6-ti). Roast woodcock. 
 
 Cailles roties (ka-i ro-ti). Roast quails. 
 
 Cotelettes de perdreux (ko-t-le-t de per-dro). 
 
 Partridge cutlets 
 
 Selle de venaison (se-1 de ye-ne-zon). Saddle of venison. 
 Pigeonnaux au cresson (pi-jo-noo kre-son). 
 
 Squabs, with water-cress. 
 Faisan pique (fe-zan pi-ke). Pheasant, larded. 
 
 Legumes (le-gu-m). Vegetables. 
 
 Pommes de terre a la sauce blanche (po-m de te-r a la 
 
 so-s blan-sh). Potatoes, with white sauce. 
 
 Pommes de terre a la Lyonnaise (po-m de te-r a la li-o- 
 
 nez). Lyonnaise potatoes. 
 
 Pcmmes de terre farcies (po-m de te-r far-se). 
 
 Potatoes in cases. 
 Pommes de terre f rites (po-m de te-r free-t). 
 
 Fried potatoes. 
 
 Beignets de panais be-gne de pa-ne). Parsnip fritters. 
 Aspergcs (as-per-j). Asparagus. 
 
 Choux-fleurs a la creme (sliou-fleiir a la kre-m). 
 
 Cauliflowers, with cream dressing. 
 
 Epinards (e-pi-nar). Spinach. 
 
 Haricots verts (ha-ri-ko-ver). String beans. 
 
 Puree de pommes cle terre (pu-re de po-m de te-r). 
 
 Mashed potatoes. 
 Petits pois au beurre (pe'ti poa o beu-r). 
 
 Peas, with butter. 
 Tomates farcies (to-ma-t far-si). Stuffed tomatoes. 
 
 CEufs (euf). Eggs. 
 
 (Kuf s farcis (euf far-si). Stuffed eggs. 
 
 CEufs poches (euf po-she'). Poached eggs. 
 
 CEufs pjDohes aux croutes d'anchois (euf po-she 6 krou-t 
 dan-shoa). Poached eggs on anchovy toast. 
 
 Omelette aux fines herbes (om-le-t 6 fi-n er-b). 
 
 Omelet, with fine herbs. 
 Omelette aux champignons (om-le-t 6 shan-pi-gnon). 
 
 Omelet, with mushrooms. 
 Omelette au jambon (om-le-t 6 jan-bon). 
 
 Omelet, with ham. 
 
 Omelette au rhum (om-le-t 6 rom). Omelet, with rum. 
 Omelette aux confitures (om-le-t o k5n-fi-tu-r). 
 
 Omelet, with preserves. 
 
 Omelette souffle's aux confitures (om-le-t sou-fle' n kon- 
 fi-tu-r). Omelet souffle', with preserves. 
 
 Salades (sa-la-d). Salads. 
 
 Mayonnaise de volaille (mi-on-ne-z de vo-la-i). 
 
 Chicken mayonnaise. 
 
 Mayonnaise de choux-fleurs (mi-on-ne-z de shou-flepr). 
 Cauliflower mayonnaise. 
 Mayonnaise de tomates (mi-on-ne,-z de to-ma-t). 
 
 Tomato mayonnaise. 
 Salade de legumes (sa-la-d de le-gu-m). 
 
 Salad of vegetables. 
 Salade de laitue (sa-la-d de le-tii). Lettuce salad. 
 
 Beignets (be-gne). Fritters. 
 
 Beignets de peches (be-gne de pe-sh). Peach fritters. 
 Beignets de bouilie (be-gne de bou-i). ) rrpam friftpr<s 
 ( -ivme frite (kre-m free-t). } Ll 
 
 Beignets d'huitres (be-gne dfli-tr). Oyster fritters. 
 
 Bouchees au poulet (bou-she 6 pou-le). Chicken patties. 
 Bouchees a la reine (bou-she a la re-n). Any kind of 
 
 meat jiatties. 
 Bouchees aux f raises (bou-she 6 fre-z>. 
 
 Strawberry patties. 
 Bouchees au citron (bou-she 6 si-tron). 
 
 Patties, with lemon paste. 
 Tartelettes aux confitures (tar-t-le-t o kou-fi-tu-r). 
 
 Little tarts of preserves. 
 Tartelettes aux pommes- (tar-t-le-t 6 po-m). 
 
 Little apple tarts. 
 
 Poudings (pou-din-g). Puddings. 
 
 Ponding de cabinet (pou-din-g de ka-bi-ne). 
 
 Cabinet pudding. 
 
 Ponding au riz (pou-din-g o ri). Rice pudding. 
 
 Ponding roule (pou-din-g rou-U''). Roly-poly pudding. 
 Ponding au pain (pou-din-g o j>an-g). Bread pudding. 
 Ponding de riz aux peches (pou-din-g de ri o pe-sh). 
 Rice pudding, with peaches. 
 Souffle de pommes (sou-fle de po-m). Apple souffle.
 
 412 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Tarte aux pommes (tar-t 6 po-ra). Apple pie. 
 
 Bavaroise au chocolat (ba-va-roa-z 6 sho-ko-la). 
 
 Chocolate Bavarian cream. 
 Bavaroise au cafe (ba-va-roa-z 6 ka-f^). 
 
 Coffee Bavarian cream. 
 Bavaroise a 1'ananas (ba-va-roa-z a la-na-na). 
 
 Pineapple Bavarian cream. 
 
 Desserts (de-ser). 'Desserts. 
 
 Blanc-manger (blan-raan-je). Blanc-mange. 
 
 Compote de peches (kon-po-t de pe-sh) Peach compote. 
 Compote de pommes (kon-po-t de po-m). 
 
 Apple compote. 
 Champagne frapp6 (shan-pa-gn f ra-pe). 
 
 Iced champagne. 
 Creme glacee a la vanille (krfe-m gla-se 1 & la va-ni-i). 
 
 Ice cream, vanilla. 
 
 Glaces (gla-se). Ices of any kind. 
 
 Glace de creme au chocolat (gla-s de kre-m 6 sho-ka-la). 
 
 Chocolate ice cream. 
 
 Gelee au Madere (je-l 6 ma-de-r). Madeira wine jelly. 
 Gelee f ouettee aux fruits (je-le foue-te 1 o f rui). 
 
 Whipped jelly with fruits. 
 Gelee au vin de champagne (je-le 6 vin de shan-pa-gn). 
 
 Champagne jelly. 
 Gelee a la mac^doine (jS-le' a la ma-se-doa-n). 
 
 Jelly, with fruits. 
 Macarons aux amandes (ma-ka-ron 6 a-man-de). 
 
 Macaroons. 
 Marmelade d'abricots (mar-m6-la-d d-abri-ko). 
 
 Peach marmalade. 
 
 Miscellaneous Dishes. 
 
 Celeri (se-l-ri). Celery. 
 
 Fromage (f ro-ma-j). Cheese. 
 
 Macaroni au fromage (ma-ka-ro-ni o fro-ma-j). 
 
 Macaroni, with cheese. 
 Macaroni, sauce tomate (ma-ka-ro-ni so-s to-mat). 
 
 Macaroni, tomato sauce. 
 Coquilles de volaille (ko-ki-i de vo-la-i). 
 
 Chickens in shells. 
 Coquilles de homard (ko-ki-i de ho-mar). 
 
 Lobster in shells. 
 
 Coquilles de poisson (ko-ki-i de poa-son). Fish in shells. 
 Coquilles de champignons (ko-ki-i de shan-pi-gnon). 
 
 Mushrooms in shells. 
 
 Caf (ka-f e). Coffee. 
 
 Caf 6 noir (ka-f 6 no-ar). Black coffee. 
 
 Fromage de Brie (fro-ma-j de bri). Brie cheese. 
 
 Fromage de Roquefort (fro-ma-j de ro-k-for). 
 
 Roquefort cheese. 
 
 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS IN 
 ORDINARY USE AMONG 
 HOUSEKEEPERS. 
 
 4 Teaspoonfuls equal 1 tablespoonful liquid. 
 
 4: Tablespoonfuls equal 1 wine-glass, or half 
 a gill. 
 
 2 Wine-glasses equal one gill, or half a cup. 
 
 2 Gills equal 1 coffeecupful, or 16 table- 
 spoonfuls. 
 
 2 Coffeecupfuls equal 1 pint. 
 
 2 Pints equal 1 quart. 
 
 4 Quarts equal 1 gallon. 
 
 2 Tablespoonfuls equal 1 ounce, liquid. 
 
 1 Tablespoonful of salt equals 1 ounce. 
 16 Ounces equal 1 pound, or a pint of liquid. 
 
 4 Coffeecupfuls of sifted flour equal 1 pound. 
 
 1 Quart of unsifted flour equals 1 pound. 
 
 8 or 10 ordinary sized eggs equal 1 pound. 
 
 1 Pint of sugar equals 1 pound. (White 
 
 granulated.) 
 
 2 Coffeecupfuls of powdered sugar equal 1 
 
 pound. 
 
 1 Coffeecupful of cold butter, pressed down, 
 is one half pound. 
 
 1 Tablespoonful of soft butter, well rounded, 
 equals 1 ounce. 
 
 An ordinary tumblerful equals one coffeecup- 
 ful, or half a pint. 
 
 About twenty-five drops of any thin liquid 
 will fill a common sized teaspoon. 
 
 One pint of finely-chopped meat, packed 
 solidly, equals one pound. 
 
 A set of tin measures (with small spouts or 
 lips), from a gallon down to half a gill, will be 
 found very convenient in every kitchen, 
 though common pitchers, bowls, glasses, etc., 
 may be substituted. 
 
 BEDS AND BEDDING. 
 
 For beds an elastic material is required, 
 with a variation in its heat conducting powers 
 according to the season of the year and the age 
 of the individual. Thus the infant and the 
 aged, in both of whom vitality is low, require 
 the slowest conductor that can be procured, 
 especially in the winter season. For the mid- 
 dle-aged, on the other hand, the same material 
 which is desirable for the first and last periods 
 of life would be much too warm and relaxing. 
 In the order of their conducting powers, the 
 various materials for beds stand as follows, 
 beginning with the warmest or slowest con- 
 ductor : First, down ; second, feathers ; third, 
 wool; fourth, wool-flock; fifth, hair; sixth, 
 cotton-flock; seventh, "excelsior"; eighth, 
 sea moss; ninth, paper shavings; and tenth, 
 straw. Hence it follows that the first two are 
 peculiarly fitted for the very young and the 
 old ; while wool and hair, holding an interme- 
 diate position, are best adapted for healthy 
 persons of middle age. Where a particularly 
 cool mattress is required, as for those who 
 perspire freely, or for warm weather, the sea 
 moss and paper shavings are the best materials, 
 and as the latter can be obtained everywhere, 
 a mattress made of it is often a very grateful 
 addition to the furniture of a bed. Feathers 
 and down were formerly almost universally 
 employed for beds in this country, but their 
 place is now largely supplied by wool and hair, 
 which are sufficiently soft for comfort and not 
 hot enough to promote perspiration. Wool 
 mattresses are very healthy and pleasant to lie 
 upon, though at first they feel rather hard and 
 unyielding to those accustomed to feathers ; 
 by placing a spring mattress under them, they 
 are rendered yielding enough for anyone. 
 The best of all materials for beds, however, is 
 hair. It is more healthful than feathers, more 
 comfortable than any of the cheaper materials, 
 and is equally serviceable in summer and win- 
 ter. Mattresses of it can be made thick or 
 otherwise, according as springs or other mat- 
 tresses are used ; and though expensive, the
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 413 
 
 same hair can be made over several times, and 
 so made to do many years' service. Straw 
 mattresses are seldom used except for putting 
 under hair or feather beds ; where used for a 
 top mattress, the straw is generally mixed with 
 moss or cotton. For the cheaper kinds of beds 
 the material called " excelsior " is superior to 
 any other. 
 
 Springs add greatly to the comfort of a bed, 
 and they can be had now in any style and at 
 almost any price. Their cost is but little more 
 than that of an under mattress, which can then 
 be dispensed with. But the " spring mattress " 
 should never be used ; it almost inevitably 
 becomes the harbor of bedbugs and other ver- 
 min which cannot be got at without destroy- 
 ing the mattress. The ' ' woven-wire mattress, ' ' 
 a recent invention, is probably the most perfect 
 apparatus of the kind ever devised, and though 
 expensive, will stand many years of ordinary 
 use. The only objection to it we have heard 
 is that when used long by heavy people it is 
 liable to ' ' sag. ' ' 
 
 Pillows are seldom made of any other 
 material than feathers, though hair, sponge, 
 or chipped cork is occasionally used. Feather 
 pillows should never be stuffed very full, as 
 this gives them a hardness and inelasticity 
 which is peculiarly disagreeable and also in- 
 jurious. In buying them it is best to choose 
 the feathers first and have them made up to 
 suit ; select goose or chicken feathers of the 
 softest and most downy kind. Hair pillows 
 are cooler than feather, though not so soft 
 and yielding. They are recommended for per- 
 sons with a tendency to fullness in the head, 
 and for all young children. It is necessary to 
 make them lower than those made of feathers. 
 An excellent pillow for invalids or feeble per- 
 sons is sold at the drug stores in the shape 
 of an india-rubber sack, which can be inflated 
 with air to any desired degree of flexibility. 
 
 Sheets were formerly almost universally 
 made of linen, but experience has proved that 
 cotton is much better. Linen in any shape, 
 when brought into contact with the skin, con- 
 ducts away the heat of the body very rapidly. 
 In winter in our climate linen sheets are 
 scarcely endurable on account of their cold- 
 ness ; and, being comparatively impervious to 
 air, and thqjjefore confining perspiration, are 
 inferior at all times to cotton. 
 
 The best material for sheets is ' ' Russian 
 sheeting"; it will last twice as long as any 
 other, and though yellow at first, will soon 
 bleach. It is a mistake to make sheets exactly 
 to fit the bed. They should be about a yard 
 larger each way than the bed. 
 
 Pillow Cases of linen are very pleasant 
 to the head, and may be appropriately used 
 
 with cotton sheets. They are a luxury at best, 
 however, rumpling easily and requiring more 
 frequent change than cleanliness alone would 
 call for. A popular method of arrangement is 
 to make the pillow cases of cotton and cover 
 the pillows during the day, while they are not 
 in use, with linen "shams" simple squares 
 of linen which may be tastefully ornamented. 
 
 STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS. 
 
 Stimulants, such as wine, beer, whisky, rum, 
 gin, brandy, etc., are not food; but they are- 
 good medicines, when properly administered. 
 
 Stimulants exalt nervous action temporarily, 
 and compel the wheels to revolve rapidly ; 
 but they supply no threads to either the woof 
 or warp, and, sooner or later, break the shuttle. 
 
 The man who has eaten one pound of beef 
 daily, for one year, does not find it necessary, 
 in order to obtain the same effect, to eat two 
 pounds daily for the next year ; but he who 
 drinks one pint of whisky daily for one year, 
 must take two pints daily the second year to 
 obtain the same effect. 
 
 Any article of food or of drink, the use of 
 which creates the necessity for larger quanti- 
 ties, and at shorter intervals, in order to attain 
 the same mental and physical elevation, by 
 that fact proves itself pernicious. 
 
 Stimulants may be employed as medicines, 
 to encourage digestion temporarily, to sustain 
 life until nourishment can be introduced ; or, 
 in declining life, to enliven an existence which 
 nature has limited, but which she will not 
 longer attempt to repair or prolong. 
 
 Stimulants, habitually used, cause indiges- 
 tion, inflammation of the stomach, disease of 
 the liver, of the kidneys, and of the bladder, 
 chronic diarrhosa, piles, neuralgia, nervous 
 tremors, paralysis, insanity, idiocy, rheuma- 
 tism, gout, dropsy, sore eyes, eruptions, car- 
 buncles, boils, tubercles on the nose, ulcers on 
 the legs. They fill the almshouses, dispen- 
 saries, and prisons ; they supply the gallows 
 with most of its victims, and occasion, directly 
 or indirectly, one half of all the poverty, suf- 
 fering, and sadness which clouds this world. 
 
 It is no proof because a man grows fat, and 
 his face becomes red under the use of stimu- 
 lants, that he is improving in health. 
 
 Cholera, and all other pestilential diseases, 
 make their first visits to those who use, habitu- 
 ally, stimulating drinks. 
 
 Dirt, debauchery, disease, and death are links 
 of the same chain. 
 
 If stimulants must be used by those " who, 
 being well, would wish to be better," no doubt 
 ales and wines are to be preferred to alcoholic 
 drinks. 
 
 Coffee and tea are modified stimulants, whose
 
 414 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK. OF FACTS. 
 
 influences are more exactly limited to the ner- 
 vous system than alcoholic stimulants. Habit- 
 ually used in excess, they cause indigestion, 
 emaciation, neuralgia, paralysis, impaired vis- 
 ion, wakefulness, restlessness, palpitation of 
 the heart, etc. They are, however, sometimes 
 excellent medicines ; ar.d may be drunk in 
 moderate quantities by most persons who are 
 in health without doing appreciable harm. 
 
 Of tobacco, Franklin has said that "he 
 could not think it had ever done much good in 
 the world, since he never knew a person who 
 used it habitually who would recommend an- 
 other to do the same." 
 
 Tobacco is certainly not food for man, nor 
 has it much value as a medicine. The tobacco 
 worm is the only animal known to thrive upon 
 its use. 
 
 Tobacco causes neuralgia, paralysis, espe- 
 cially of the nerve of vision, tremors, etc. It 
 impairs the appetite, dries up the fluids, gives 
 a dirty, parchment color to the skin, stains 
 the teeth, makes the gums spongy and tender, 
 renders the breath foul, and causes not un- 
 frequently cancer of the mouth, lips, and 
 tongue. 
 
 The habitual use of opium and other narcot- 
 ics causes neuralgia, restlessness, wakeful- 
 ness, paralysis, indigestion, innutrition, and 
 dropsy. 
 
 COFFEE ITS USES AND MEDI- 
 CINAL QUALITIES, 
 
 Dr. Bock of Leipsic says : ' The nervous- 
 ness and peevishness of our times are chiefly 
 attributable to tea and coffee ; " he says that 
 "the digestive organs of confirmed coffee 
 drinkers are in a state of chronic derangement, 
 which reacts on the brain, producing fretful 
 and lachrymose moods. Ladies addicted to 
 strong coffee have a characteristic temper, 
 which may be described as a mania for acting 
 the persecuted saint," etc. 
 
 I cannot agree with Dr. Bock that the ner- 
 vousness and peevishness of the present time 
 are to be attributed to the use of coffee. If 
 people are more nervous or in worse humor 
 now than formerly, we may find other causes 
 arising from the customs and habits of society 
 much more likely to produce such a state of 
 things than the use of this particular article of 
 diet. I have no intention of pointing out 
 many changes and peculiarities in the habits 
 of the age, to show many other more promi- 
 nent reasons for people being in bad humor 
 besides the use of coffee. My object is to de- 
 fend coffee from a slander aimed at one of our 
 best friends a friend more likely to relieve 
 the morbid state of things complained of, than 
 to produce it. Who that has experienced the 
 
 good effects of coffee can sit quietly and hear 
 it abused ? Especially by an estimable phy- 
 sician who has written learned books on the 
 nervous system. The nerves of every honest 
 friend of coffee tremble with the shock of an 
 attack from such a quarter. 
 
 Let us examine the effects of coffee on the 
 economy. Taken in moderation it is a mental 
 and bodily stimulant of a most agreeable 
 nature ; and, followed by no harmful reaction, 
 it produces contentment of mind, allays hun- 
 ger and bodily weakness, and increases the in- 
 centive and capacity for work, makes man 
 forget his misfortunes, and enables those who 
 use it to remain a long time without food or 
 sleep, to endure unusual fatigue, and preserve 
 their cheerfulness and contentment. 
 
 Jomand says : " An infusion made with ten 
 ounces of coffee enabled me to live without 
 other food for five consecutive days, without 
 lessening my ordinary occupations, and to use 
 more and more prolonged muscular exercise 
 than I was accustomed to, without any other 
 physical injury than a slight degree of fatigue 
 and a little loss of flesh." 
 
 The mental exhilaration, physical activity, 
 and wakefulness it causes, explain the fond- 
 ness for it which has been shown by so many 
 men of science, poets, scholars, and others 
 devoted to thinking. It has, indeed, been 
 called " the intellectual beverage." 
 
 It supported the old age of Voltaire, and 
 enabled Fontenelle to pass his hundred years. 
 The action of coffee is directed chiefly to 
 the nervous system. It produces a warming, 
 cordial impression on the stomach, quickly 
 followed by a diffused, agreeable nervous ex- 
 citement, which extends itself to the cerebral 
 functions, giving rise to increased vigor of 
 imagination and intellect, without any subse- 
 quent confusion or stupor, such as are char- 
 acteristic of narcotics. 
 
 Coffee contains essential principles of nu- 
 trition far exceeding in importance its exhila- 
 rating properties, and is one of the most 
 desirable articles for sustaining the system in 
 certain prostrating diseases ; as compared with 
 the nutrition to be derived from the best of 
 soups, coffee has decidedly the advantage, an<' 
 to be preferred in many instances. 
 
 Liebig says: "We shall nev^- know how 
 men were first led to the use of coffee, but that 
 we may consider the article as remarkable for 
 its action on the brain and the substance of 
 the organs of motion, and as an element of 
 food for organs as yet unknown, which are 
 destined to convert the blood into nervous 
 substance, and thus recruit the energy and the 
 nervous moving and thinking faculties." 
 The medicinal effects of coffee are very
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 415 
 
 great. In intermittent fever I have used it 
 with the happiest effect in cutting short the 
 attack, and if properly managed is better in 
 many cases than the sulphate of quinine. In 
 that low state of intermittent, as found on the 
 banks of the Mississippi river and other ma- 
 larial districts, accompanied with enlarged 
 spleen and torpid liver, when judiciously admin- 
 istered it is one of the surest remedies. In 
 these cases it should be given in decoction made 
 with four ounces of well roasted and ground 
 coffee, boiled in a quart (10 ounces) of water 
 in a covered vessel, down to half a pint (4 
 ounces), and two tablespoonfuls given hotevery 
 two hours, commencing six hours before the 
 expected attack, and keeping the patient well 
 covered in bed. 
 
 It has been found that in typhus fever coffee 
 increases the elimination of urea, and so far 
 purifies the blood without increasing the de- 
 structive metamorphosis of tissue, and that it 
 lessens coma and low delirium. 
 
 In yellow fever, from a long experience, I 
 consider coffee as my chief reliance, after other 
 necessary remedies have been administered ; it 
 restrains tissue change, and thus becomes a 
 conservator -of force, in that state in which 
 the nervous system tends to collapse, because 
 the blood has become impure ; it sustains the 
 nervous power until the depuration and re- 
 organization of the blood are accomplished, and 
 has the advantage over other stimulants in in- 
 ducing no injurious secondary effects. 
 
 In spasmodic asthma its utility is well es- 
 tablished, and in whooping cough, stupor, 
 lethargy, etc. 
 
 In the hysterical attacks of some females, 
 for which the physician can form no diagnosis 
 or cause for the peculiar and eccentric symp- 
 toms manifested ; a screaming, crying, staring, 
 kicking patient, with no coherent answer for 
 the medical adviser, at the same time with an 
 evident tendency to act the persecuted saint 
 give her a cup of well made, strong, black 
 coffee, she becomes quiet, revives, smiles be- 
 nignly, as if she had swallowed a panacea that 
 had suddenly delivered her from the clutches 
 of the imps of Satan and wafted her from all 
 the miseries of a condemned and tortured spirit 
 to the elysian fields of houris. 
 
 We have used it as a remedy in croup, 
 diphtheria, nephritis, chronic diarrhoea, etc. 
 In poisoning from opium it is well known as 
 the best remedy, and always on hand. 
 
 Ilayne says: "That in a case of violent 
 spasmodic disease, attended with short breath, 
 palpitation of heart, and a pulse so much 
 increased in frequency thnt it could scarcely 
 be counted, immediate relief was obtained from 
 ? cup of coffee, after the most powerful anti- 
 
 spasrnodics had been used in vain for several 
 hours," etc. 
 
 After a hearty meal a cup of coffee will re- 
 lieve that sense of oppression so apt to be ex- 
 perienced, and enable the stomach to perform 
 its offices with comparative facility. 
 
 In fact, coffee carries healing on its wings. 
 It is opposed to malaria, to all noxious vapors ; 
 as a disinfectant it has wonderful powers ; 
 as an instantaneous deodorizer it has no equal ; 
 for the sick room, the fetid odors arising 
 from cutaneous exhalations are immediately 
 j neutralized by simply passing a chafing dish 
 with burning coffee grains through the room. 
 
 It may be urged that an article possessing 
 such powers and capacity for such energetic 
 action must be injurious as an article of diet 
 of habitual employment, and not without del- 
 eterious properties ; but I have never noticed 
 any corresponding nervous derangement after 
 its effects have disappeared, as is seen in nar- 
 cotics and other stimulants. The action im- 
 parted to the nerves is natural and healthy, 
 and I must positively deny that the habitual 
 | use of the article is injurious. 
 
 Habitual coffee drinkers generally enjoy 
 good health and live to a good old age. Some 
 of the Oldest persons I have ever known have 
 used it from earliest infancy without feeling 
 any depressing reaction, such as is produced 
 by alcoholic stimulants. 
 
 In Porto Rico our fairest part of creation, at 
 the tenderest age, have been induced to forget 
 the delicious draught from the maternal foun- 
 tain by the substitution of a decoction of 
 coffee, which soon becomes the daily beverage. 
 Henry Segur, M. D. 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 Coffee is said to be a native of Arabia, but 
 is has spread from thence throughout the trop- 
 ical portions of the world and parts of the 
 temperate zone ; it will grow in any climate 
 where the temperature does not fall below 
 fifty-five degrees. The best coffee of com- 
 merce comes from Arabia, and is known as 
 Mocha, the next best is the Java, and after 
 that the Ceylon, Bourbon, and Martinique. 
 The principal supply of the United States, 
 however, is derived from Brazil, which fur- 
 nishes three fourths of the whole import. This 
 is known as the Rio, and is the kind always 
 supplied unless another variety is asked for. 
 
 The only way to secure pure coffee is to buy 
 the raw beans, roast, and grind them at home. 
 When coffee is bought already roasted, the dis- 
 advantage is in its losing its delicate aroma 
 very rapidly : when it is ""both roasted and 
 ground, it very generally is adulterated with 
 chicory, pease, or potatoes. Good coffee can-
 
 416 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 not by any means be made from it, and in 
 many cases dangerous decoctions have been 
 made from adulterated coffee. In buying raw 
 coffee, choose that which is dry and light ; the 
 coffee which feels dense and weighty is green. 
 Coffee which is from eight to ten months old is 
 the best selection. 
 
 The roasting of coffee in a proper manner 
 requires great nicety, and cannot be done suc- 
 cessfully without the aid of some such appa- 
 ratus as those to be had for that purpose in 
 the better class of furnishing stores. They 
 are inexpensive, and the supply' of charcoal 
 needed for them is very trifling indeed ; not 
 sufficient to justify their disuse. The cylinder 
 which contains the coffee should be only half 
 filled, and it should be turned rather slowly 
 over the fire, which should never be very 
 fierce, until a strong aromatic smell is emit- 
 ted ; the movement should then be quick- 
 ened, as the bean is in that case quite heated 
 and it will scorch before it is roasted through 
 if slowly finished. When the coffee is of a 
 light, chestnut brown color, which can be as- 
 certained by sliding back the door of the 
 cylinder and looking at it occasionally towards 
 the end of the process, spread it quickly over 
 a large dish, beat up the white of an egg with 
 a tablespoonful of melted butter, and stir up 
 well with it, and then cover it over with a 
 thickly folded cloth. Let it remain thus until 
 it is quite cold ; then put it into canisters or 
 bottles where the air cannot get at it. 
 
 For grinding coffee there are two kinds of 
 coffee mills, those which are portable and 
 others for fixing against the walls. It should 
 be ground to a moderately fine powder ; if it 
 is too coarse the essence will be only partially 
 extracted from it in making, while if it is too 
 fine the water will not percolate through it 
 and it will not be clear. No more should be 
 ground at a time than will suffice for a single 
 making. 
 
 Coffee (boiled). Allow a tablespoonful of 
 ground coffee to each person ; and for each 
 tablespoonful a coffeecupf ul of water. Let the 
 water boil, and while it is boiling stir in 
 the coffee ; allow it to boil hard five minutes, 
 then set it where it will simmer for ten min- 
 utes ; pour out a large cupful, hold it high 
 over the coffeepot, and pour it in again ; re- 
 peat this, and then set it on the stove where 
 it will keep hot without simmering for five or 
 ten minutes longer. Coffee made thus will 
 be perfectly clear unless it is mismanaged. 
 Should fining be necessary, however, use a 
 pinch of isinglass, or a small piece of the skin 
 of salt codfish, or, better still, the shell of a 
 raw egg with a little of the white adhering to it. 
 
 Coffee (filtered). There are a great num- 
 
 ber of patent coffeepots designed to make 
 coffee after the Continental method without 
 boiling, and as minute directions for using ac- 
 company each one we will only mention that 
 the principle involved in each is very simple, 
 and consists in allowing hot water to percolate 
 slowly through ground coffee into a receptacle 
 below. Some of them are good, though need- 
 lessly expensive ; but a simple filter or per- 
 colator, as it is called, will answer perfectly well, 
 and it can be obtained to fit any coffeepot. 
 
 In making coffee by this method allow rather 
 more coffee than when it is to be boiled ; 
 spread the grounds over the percolator ; and 
 pour on the boiling water, slowly till the coffee 
 is saturated and then more rapidly. Should 
 the coffee not be strong enough, run it through 
 the filters again. Coffee made thus is thought 
 to have a more delicate and aromatic flavor 
 than when boiled ; but on the other hand, Mr. 
 Donovan, a prominent English chemist, who 
 has made a special study of the matter, thinks 
 that it requires boiling for a little time to ex- 
 tract the bitter principle in which much of the 
 exhilarating quality of coffee resides. 
 
 ALLSPICE. 
 
 So called because it is thought to combine 
 the flavor of -cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. 
 It is the berry of a handsome tree that grows 
 to the height of twenty feet in the West Indies 
 and South America. The fruit is not allowed 
 to ripen, but is gathered while yet green ; 
 when dried in the sun it becomes black. 
 It is less expensive than the Oriental spices, is 
 agreeably aromatic, and is considered the most 
 mild and harmless of the common spices ; 
 hence it is much used in cookery. The best 
 comes from Jamaica. The essential oil of all- 
 spice is of a deep reddish brown color, and ex- 
 tremely pungent ; and a few drops is sufficient 
 to give a flavor to gravy or to mulled wine. 
 
 TO MAKE TEA. 
 
 Allow two teaspoonfuls of tea to one large 
 cupful of boiling water. Scald the teapot, put 
 in the tea, pour on about a cupful of boiling 
 water, set it on the fire in a warm place where 
 it will not boil, but keep very hot, to almost 
 boiling ; let it steep or " draw " ten or twelve 
 minutes. Now fill up with as much boiling 
 water as is required. Send hot to the table. 
 It is better to use a china or porcelain teapot, 
 but if you do use metal let it be tin, new, 
 bright, and clean ; never use it when the tin is 
 worn off and the iron exposed. If you do you 
 are drinking tea-ate of iron. 
 
 To make tea to perfection, boiling water 
 must be poured on the leaves directly it boils. 
 Water which has been boiling more than five
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 417 
 
 minutes, or which has previously boiled, should 
 on no account be used. If the water does not 
 boil, or if it be allowed to overboil, the leaves 
 of the tea will be only half-opened and the tea 
 itself will be quite spoiled. The water should 
 be allowed to remain on the leaves from ten to 
 fifteen minutes. 
 
 A Chinese being interviewed for the Coot, 
 says: Drink your tea plain. Don't add milk 
 or sugar. Tea brokers and tea tasters never 
 do ; epicures never do ; the Chinese never do. 
 Milk contains fibrin, albumen, or some other 
 stuff, and the tea a delicate amount of tannin. 
 Mixing the two makes the liquid turbid. This 
 turbidity, if I remember the cyclopaedia aright, 
 is tannate of fibrin, or leather. People who 
 put milk in tea are therefore drinking boots 
 and shoes in mild disguise. 
 
 TEA. 
 
 As sold in the shops, tea is the leaf of the 
 tea-tree, dried and stored for use. These leaves 
 are gathered at three or four different seasons, 
 by which in some measure the different quali- 
 ties of tea are produced, those first picked be- 
 ing the most valuable and the last coarse and 
 large. The young leaves are narrow, convo- 
 luted, and downy ; the middle-aged have their 
 edges serrated and veined with more or less 
 delicacy, while in the old leaves the serration 
 and veining are more marked, and, in addition, 
 some peculiar hoops are developed along the 
 margins, which are readily seen when the 
 leaves are closely examined. All teas are 
 classed as black and green, depending partly 
 on the age of the leaves, partly upon the locality 
 where they are grown, and partly upon the 
 method of drying. Thus the black tea is not 
 only roasted in a shallow iron vessel, called 
 the Kus, but it is also again submitted to the 
 action of a charcoal fire, in sieves. Green tea, 
 on the other hand, escapes the second process. 
 As the names of the different teas relate to 
 the time of their being gathered, or to some 
 peculiarity in their manufacture, consumers 
 should know something about them. 
 
 Black Teas. As soon as the leaf-bud be- 
 gins to expand, it is gathered to make Pekoe. 
 A few days' later growth produces what here is 
 called Black-leaved Pekoe. The next picking 
 is called Souchong. As the leaves grow larger 
 and more mature they form Congou ; and the 
 last and latest picking is called Bohea. 
 
 Bohea is called by the Chinese Ta-che (large 
 tea), on account of the maturity and size of the 
 leaves. It contains a larger proportion of 
 woody fiber than other teas, and its infusion 
 is of a darker color and coarser flavor. 
 
 Congou, the next higherkind, is named from 
 a corruption of the Chinese Konngfoo (great 
 
 | care, or assiduity). This forms the bulk of 
 , the black imported, and is most valued for its 
 j strength. 
 
 Souchong, Seaon-chong (small, scarce sort), 
 ; is the finest of the stronger black tea, with a 
 ; leaf that is generally entire and curly. It is 
 much esteemed for its fragrance and fine flavor. 
 Pekoe is a corruption of the Canton name 
 Pak-ho (white down), being the first sprouts 
 of leaf-buds ; they are covered with a white 
 silky down. It is a delicate tea, rather defi- 
 cient in strength, and it is principally used for 
 flavoring other teas. 
 
 Green Teas. The following are the prin- 
 cipal kinds: Twankay, Hyson-Skin, Hyson, 
 Gunpowder, and Young Hyson. 
 
 Young Hyson (when genuine) is a delicate 
 young leaf, called in the original language, 
 Yu-titlen (before the rains), because gathered 
 in the early spring. 
 
 Hyson, from the Chinese word, Hich'un, 
 which signifies flourishing spring. This fine 
 sort of tea is gathered in the early part of the 
 season. There is extreme care and labor used 
 in the preparation of this tea ; each leaf is 
 picked separately, and nipped off above the 
 foot stalk, and every separate leaf is twisted 
 and rolled by the hand. It is much esteemed 
 for its agreeable flavor. 
 
 Gunpowder, as it is called, is nothing but 
 Hyson rolled and rounded to give it the gran- 
 ular appearance whence it derives its name. 
 The Chinese call it Choo-cJia (pearl-tea). 
 
 Hyson-Skin is so named from the original 
 Chinese term in which connection the skin 
 means the refuse or inferior portion . In pre- 
 paring Hyson, all those leaves that are of a 
 coarse yellow, or imperfectly twisted appear- 
 ance, are separated and sold as skin tea, at an 
 inferior price. 
 
 CHOCOLATE. 
 
 A substance made from the seeds of the 
 cocoa tree which grows extensively in the 
 West Indies and South America. The seeds 
 are about the size of an almond, and when 
 broken into small pieces are subjected to 
 great pressure until they are reduced to a 
 rough powder, after which they are mixed 
 with sugar and rolled into a very thick paste, 
 or into a very fine powder, called chocolate. 
 Chocolate is less exciting to the nervous sys- 
 tem than tea or coffee, and at the same time 
 it contains a much larger proportion of nutri- 
 tive matter. Its flavor, moreover, is not les- 
 sened by the addition of milk, so that it may 
 be boiled in milk only and thus produce a most 
 agreeable and nutritive food. " There are, 
 therefore," says Dr. Edward Smith, " many 
 persons, states of system, and circumstances,
 
 418 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF *A<JTS. 
 
 ni which its use is to be preferred to either tea 
 or coffee." 
 
 CHEESE. 
 
 Cheese is obtained exclusively from the milk 
 of animals, and its quality varies with the 
 class, breed, and food of the animal, and the 
 process of manufacture. The most ordinary 
 source of cheese is the milk of the cow, and 
 there are certain varieties of cows which pro- 
 duce much cheese and little butter, as there are 
 others which produce much butter and little 
 cheese. The kind of food given to the cows is 
 very important, for just in proportion to the 
 richness of the milk in casein and cream is the 
 richness of the cheese. The value of cheese 
 as an article of diet has not been entirely es- 
 tablished. If we consider its chemical compo- 
 sition, it is one of the richest of foods in nutri- 
 tive elements ; but Dr. Smith has found that 
 the popular belief that it is not easily digested 
 is true. This objection, however, applies only 
 to the new and poor cheese ; those that are old 
 and rich not only digest easily, but promote 
 the digestion of other food. That which is 
 old and dry (but not decayed) may be given to 
 children to relieve constipation. 
 
 VARIETIES IN MARKET. 
 
 The following cheeses can generally be 
 found in American markets. It is best to take 
 the advice of a reliable dealer regarding the 
 quantity of any cheese that it is wise to lay in 
 at a time. 
 
 Strong, in this list, means of a high flavor 
 and odor, but not necessarily sharp. Most 
 new cheeses are relatively mild, and develop 
 their characteristics, especially sharpness, with 
 age. 
 
 American and Canadian Cheeses. 
 Pineapple, English Dairy (imitations of), Fac- 
 tory, and the homemade Cottage cheese, like the 
 Schmeer Kiise of the Germans. None of these 
 are classed among strong cheeses. They are 
 good all the year around, but the Cottage is 
 best in summer. 
 
 English Cheeses (Of variable strength, 
 sometimes sharp). Slillon comes first in fame 
 and price. It is so named from the place 
 where it was first sold. The cheeses are mostly 
 manufactured in Leicestershire. It takes two 
 years to properly mature the cheese for use ; 
 then it becomes decayed, blue, and moist. It 
 is a common trick to hasten its maturity by 
 putting each separate cheese in a bucket and 
 covering it with horse dung. This rapidly 
 gives the required appearance of maturity. 
 
 In a district of Ross-shire they ripen their 
 cheeses to make them like Stilton, by burying 
 them below high water mark. 
 
 Cottenham A strong kind of Stilton. 
 
 Cheddar (Mild) .- Made from new milk, re- 
 taining its natural cream. 
 
 English Dairy (Medium). 
 
 Dutch Cheese.- Dutchman's Head or 
 Edam (Medium). Not equal to the best 
 cheeses of England, being hard. 
 
 French Cheeses are generally for winter 
 consumption, and come to us only from Octo- 
 ber to May. 
 
 Brie Cheeses (Mild). Are made from cream. 
 
 Camembert (Strong). A little like the Swiss. 
 
 Mont d' Or (Mild). From Central France. 
 Made from goats' milk. 
 
 Pont de Salu (Very strong). 
 
 Pont d'Eveque (Mild). A very pleasant 
 cheese. More flavor than Brie. 
 
 Roquefort (Medium and sharp). Made from 
 the milk of goats and sheep, and ripened with 
 great care in caverns. 
 
 Solferino (Strong). 
 
 German Cheeses. Limburyer (very 
 strong). Not considered ready for consump- 
 tion until partly putrefied. 
 
 Schabzieger or Sap Sago Which gets its 
 
 green color from melilot leaves. 
 
 Italian Cheeses. Lirarno (Strong), Par- 
 mesan (Medium slightly sharp). From the 
 most fertile Milanese territory ; they are so full 
 of oil that it has been erroneously supposed that 
 oil was added to the curd. It was formerly 
 supposed to be made from goat's milk, but it 
 is made merely of skimmed cow's milk manip- 
 ulated in a peculiar way. The best Parmesan 
 is kept three or four years, and none is sent to 
 market until it is at least six months old. 
 
 Scotch Cheese. (Dunlop.) Which gets 
 its flavor from lovage leaves, is the only one 
 known here. 
 
 Swiss Cheeses. Gruyere is the best of the 
 Swiss cheeses, many of which are celebrated. 
 It is made in the canton of Fribourg. Its pecul- 
 iar flavor is said to be owing to the herbage of 
 the mountain pastures on which the cows feed. 
 
 Ncufchatel (Variable). Is sold in small 
 rolls, covered with tin foil ; it is simply a 
 cream cheese such as is described above. 
 
 CARE OF THE EYES. 
 
 A writer on the care of the eyes, in an Eng- 
 lish paper, says : " All are anxious to do this, 
 but few know how effectually to do so, and 
 many never think of the matter till failing 
 eyesight warns them that it is absolutely neces- 
 sary. By the latter," says the same writer, 
 " the following suggestions will be read with 
 interest : 
 
 " The sight in most persons begins to fail 
 from forty to fifty years of age, as is evidenced 
 by an instinctive preference for large print ; a 
 seat near the window for reading is selected :
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 419 
 
 there is an effort to place the paper at a con- 
 venient distance from the eye, or to turn it so 
 as to get a particular reflection of the light ; 
 next the finger begins to be placed under the 
 line read, and there is a winking of the eye .as 
 if to clear it, or a looking away at some dis- 
 tant object to rest it ; or the fingers are pressed 
 over the closed lids in the direction of the 
 nose, to remove the tears caused by straining. 
 
 "Favor the failing sight as much as pos- 
 sible. Looking into a bright fire, especially a 
 coal fire, is very injurious to the eyes. Look- 
 ing at molten iron will soon destroy the sight ; 
 reading in the twilight is injurious to the eyes, 
 as they are obliged to make great exertion. 
 Reading or sewing with a side light injures 
 the eyes, as both eyes should be exposed to an 
 equal degree of light. The reason is, the 
 sympathy between the eyes is so great that if 
 the pupil of one is dilated by being kept par- 
 tially in the shade, the one that is most exposed 
 cannot contract itself sufficiently for protec- 
 tion, and will ultimately be injured. Those 
 who wish to preserve their sight should ob- 
 serve the following rules, and preserve their 
 general health by correct habits : 
 
 " 1. By sitting in such a position as will 
 allow the light to fall obliquely over the shoul- 
 der upon the page or sewing. 
 
 "2. By not using the eyes for such pur- 
 poses by any artificial light. 
 
 ' 3. By avoiding the special use of the 
 3yes in the morning before breakfast. 
 
 " 4. By resting them for a half minute or j 
 so while reading or sewing, or looking at small 
 objects ; and by looking at things at a distance 
 or up to the sky ; relief is immediately felt by 
 so doing. 
 
 " o. Never pick any collected matter from 
 the eyelashes or corners of the eyes with the 
 finger nails ; rather moisten it with the saliva 
 and rub it away with the ball of the finger. 
 
 " 6. Frequently pass the ball of the finger 
 over the closed eyelids toward the nose ; this 
 carries off an excess of water into the nose it- I 
 self by means of the little canal which leads I 
 into the nostril from each inner corner of the j 
 eye, this canal having a tendency to close up 
 in consequence of the slight inflammation 
 which attends weakness of eyes. 
 
 " 7. Keep the feet always dry and warm, 
 so as to draw any excess of blood from the 
 other end of the body. 
 
 " 8. Use eyeglasses at first, carried in the 
 vest pocket attached to a guard, for they are 
 instantly adjusted to the eye with very little 
 trouble, whereas, if common spectacles are 
 used, such a process is required to get them 
 ready that to save trouble the eyes are often 
 strained to answer a purpose. 
 
 *" 9. Wash the eyes abundantly every 
 
 morning. If cold water is used, let it be 
 
 flapped against the closed eyes with the fingers, 
 
 not striking hard against the balls of the eyes. 
 
 " 10. The moment the eyes feel tired, the 
 
 very moment you are conscious of an effort to 
 
 | read or sew, lay aside the book or needle and 
 
 take a walk for an hour, or employ yourself in 
 
 some active exercise not requiring the close use 
 
 of the eyes." 
 
 CARPETS. 
 
 Before describing the various kinds of car- 
 pets there are one or two points to be con- 
 sidered. And first the material, colors, and 
 pattern of the carpet must be adapted to 
 the room into which it is to be put, and the 
 other furniture of the room. Large patterns 
 will not look well in small rooms, nor will very 
 small patterns look well in large ones ; an ex- 
 pensive carpet renders it necessary to have 
 expensive furniture ; and every bit of color in 
 the room, from the carpet to the ceiling, must 
 have some harmony with every other. At the 
 same time it must be borne in mind that there is 
 harmony in contrasted colors as well as in those 
 which are similar, and if the furniture is either 
 very dark or very gay, the carpet should be 
 either gay or neutral, in order to relieve the 
 general effect. The large patterns which used 
 to prevail have been discarded of late years ; 
 and patterns as small as the room will bear are 
 considered most desirable. Medallion carpets, 
 or those with figures of animals, bouquets of 
 flowers, baskets of roses, or stripes, should 
 never be chosen : the most pleasing figures 
 are simple geometrical designs, a tracery of 
 vines, arabesques, or an almost solid neutral 
 groundwork of broken lines. A carpet with 
 much white in it -is objectionable anywhere 
 unless the furniture is very dark, but it should 
 never be laid in a room that is much used ; on 
 the other hand, a very dark carpet is almost as 
 hard to keep clean. Carpets with blue or 
 green, or any "delicate" color, fade on ex- 
 posure to sunlight. A bordered carpet makes 
 a room look smaller than it is ; and a small 
 room will look larger if the floor is covered 
 with a carpet of neutral tint and small figures. 
 
 Axniiiister Carpet is expensive, but wears 
 almost well enough to make up for it. There are 
 French. English, and American Axminsters in 
 the market ; they do not differ much from each 
 other in cost, the price being from $2 to $5 a 
 yard. 
 
 Brussels Carpet, on account of its dura- 
 bility, is probably the cheapest for general use. 
 The basis is a warp and woof of linen thread ; 
 worsted threads are also interwoven, which are 
 formed into loops by means of wires and form
 
 420 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the patterns, the linen threads not being visible 
 on the surface. When well made they are 
 very durable, and, being at the same time ele- 
 gant, are among the most desirable of all car- 
 pets. Good English 'Brussels is worth about 
 $1.25 to $1.75 per yard, three quarters of a 
 yard wide. American about $1.00 to $1.50. 
 (See TAPKSTRY CARPET.) 
 
 Dutch Carpet. A cheap carpet woven in 
 pieces about a yard wide. The warp is of wool 
 and the filling of wool, hemp, or cotton; and 
 the only patterns are stripes and checks. This 
 is very good for stairs. Price 75 cts. to $1.10. 
 
 Ingrain Carpet is, perhaps, most fre- 
 quently used in bedrooms and the like. It is 
 made of two threads only, and the colors are 
 reversed on either side ; in the best both threads 
 are wool, in the cheaper kinds the warp is of 
 cotton. The English Ingrain costs about $1 .25 
 per yard ; the American from 85 cts. to $1.10 ; 
 yard wide. 
 
 Kidderminster Carpet. This is made 
 of two woolen webs which intersect each other 
 at various points to produce the pattern, which 
 is the same on both sides with the color re- 
 versed. They are woven in large squares to fit 
 the room, and are of various qualities. A good 
 article is worth about $1.25 per square yard. 
 
 Moquette Carpet is a very rich and 
 beautiful French carpet made on same princi- 
 ple as Wilton. Price $1.25 to $1.75. 
 
 Persian and Turkish Carpets. 
 These are unequaled for richness of fabric and 
 patterns ; they are woven with a soft pile like 
 that of velvet, and some of the costliest of the 
 Persian have floss silk mixed with the wool. 
 The colors are indescribably rich and brilliant, 
 and one of them spread upon the floor bright- 
 ens up the most cheerless room. They are 
 woven in one piece, and are from five to ten 
 yards long, and from five to six wide. They 
 are very expensive, and the finer qualities are 
 appropriate only in elaborately furnished 
 rooms. 
 
 Printed Felt is made of coarse wools 
 brought together by the process of felting, 
 and the patterns are imprinted in colors by 
 means of the rollers on which they are cut. 
 It is bright colored but rather flimsy, and only 
 appropriate for rugs, druggets, or table covers. 
 It is of various widths. Price about $1.00 
 per square yard. 
 
 Rag Carpet is the lowest in price of all, 
 and can readily be made at home on a hand 
 loom. Use a warp of strong cotton threads, 
 and weave in any kind of rags by twisting 
 them up into small rolls. It is thick, and serv- 
 iceable to spread over kitchen floors in winter. 
 Price in the shops about 50 cents a yard ; 
 yard wide. 
 
 Tapestry Carpet is an imitation of Brus- 
 sels, but only one woolen thread is used instead 
 of four or five different colors. The warp is 
 of coarse linen threads, and the pattern ap- 
 pears only on one side. Tapestry is very 
 pretty, and in the best patterns is hard to dis- 
 tinguish from Brussels ; but it is not durable, 
 and is liable to fade. It is woven in pieces 
 three fourths of a yard wide, and costs 50 
 cents to $1.25 per yard. Brussels is cheaper 
 at twice the price. 
 
 Three-Ply Carpets are the same as in- 
 grain, except that a third thread is added, and 
 this makes the pattern on the right side. It 
 is the prettiest of the cheaper all-wool carpets ; 
 but as the single layer of threads on the sur- 
 face is liable to wear off, it is not so durable 
 as ingrain, and cannot be turned like the lat- 
 ter. Price, about $1.00 per yard ; yard wide. 
 
 Velvet Carpet is an English material, hi 
 which the weaving is the same as tapestry ; 
 only the loops are cut, thus giving it a high 
 pile, like velvet. It has a rich and soft effect, 
 and wears better than tapestry. Price, about 
 $1.50 per yard; three quarters yard wide. 
 
 Wilton Carpet differs from Brussels jusi 
 as velvet differs from tapestry ; after weaving, 
 the loops are cut with a sharp knife, and a 
 pile like that of velvet produced. Wilton is, 
 perhaps, the most beautiful and durable of all 
 carpets. Price, about $3.25 per yard ; three 
 quarters wide. In Royal Wilton the pile is 
 raised higher than in the common kind. 
 
 Wood Carpet. This is a late invention. 
 It is made of well-seasoned and kiln-dried hard 
 woods, cut into strips one and one eighth to 
 one and three eighths inches wide, and a 
 quarter of an inch thick, and j?lued on to 
 heavy cotton drill. The wood is then planed 
 smooth and oiled. It rolls up like an oilcloth, 
 can be sent anywhere, and can be put down by 
 any good carpenter. It can be laid to look 
 like ordinary flooring of one kind of wood, or 
 in fancy designs, center pieces, etc. That of 
 one kind of wood, or of alternate strips of dif- 
 ferent kinds, is a yard wide, at $1.25 to $2.50 
 a yard. The fancy styles cost from 35 cents 
 to $1.25 per square foot. It is claimed for 
 this carpeting that it is insect proof, that dust 
 cannot penetrate it, that it is so thin as not to 
 interfere with door sills, etc., and that it is 
 very durable ; but it needs to be more thor- 
 oughly tested. 
 
 CARE OF THE TEETH. DUTY 
 OF DENTISTS. 
 
 There is, perhaps, as much oversight or neg- 
 lect by the average dentist, in the matter of 
 cleansing the teeth, in the ordinary cases that 
 come to his care, as in any other particular
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 421 
 
 in practice. How often it is that teeth that 
 have been recently filled will exhibit upon their 
 surfaces more or less of foreign matter, usually 
 salivary calculus ! This is sometimes removed 
 from the exposed surfaces, while it is permitted 
 to remain iu considerable quantities beneath 
 the margin of the gums. 
 
 When the care of a set of teeth and the 
 mouth is committed to the dentist, the first 
 step, so far as treatment and manipulation is 
 concerned, is to render all the teeth thoroughly 
 clean, removing every particle of foreign mat- 
 ter, and polishing the surfaces as perfectly as 
 possible ; giving particular attention to all 
 rough and abraded places. The gums should 
 be rendered healthy and freed from all irritants. 
 In proper and systematic treatment this should 
 precede the operation of iilling. Still, in some 
 cases, it will be necessary that all go on to- 
 gether, but the rule should be that thorough 
 cleansing precede the operation of filling. 
 
 Cleaning the teeth and making the mouth 
 healthy is as important as, and, indeed, more 
 so in some respects, than the operation of filling 
 decayed teeth. 
 
 If the profession could feel the full impor- 
 tance of this, better success would attend the 
 operation of filling. 
 
 He who neglects the condition of the mouth 
 in respect to health and purity, and simply 
 fills teeth, irrespective of these conditions, 
 does both himself and patient great injustice. 
 Such operations, however well performed, are 
 far less efficient than they would be if the 
 mouth were kept clean and free from disease. 
 Nor is it enough that the mouth be made 
 healthy and pure, but it must be kept so, if 
 the work of the dentist is to be of permanent 
 service. And in order that this good condi- 
 tion of the mouth be maintained the patient 
 should have a clear understanding of its im- 
 portance, and of the means by which it is ac- 
 complished, and be made to feel that it is 
 mainly dependent upon himself. It is the 
 duty of the dentist, not only to fully impress 
 this fact upon the mind of his patient, but also 
 to give him all needed information as to the 
 means to be used. 
 
 In order that the mouth be kept in proper 
 condition, it should be examined thoroughly 
 once in from four to twelve months ; with 
 some as often as every four months ; with others 
 once in twelve months will suffice. The denti.-t 
 who has the best interest of his patients at 
 heart, and a just appreciation of his own repu- 
 tation, cannot afford to dismiss them indefi- 
 nitely, or until the patient finds something 
 breaking down, or is admonished by the pain 
 of some active disease. 
 
 It is very often that quite faulty filling in 
 
 mouths kept healthy and clean seem entirely 
 to arrest decay of the teeth in which they are ; 
 while in mouths that are neglected, impure, 
 and diseased, the most perfect fillings utterly 
 fail to save the teetli for any considerable time. 
 
 Were dentists as careful in this matter as 
 they ought to be, there would be far less of 
 failure in operating upon the natural teeth than 
 is at present realized ; and the appreciation of 
 the service of the dentist \vould be much 
 greater, and his reputation of a higher order 
 than at present, a result to be greatly desired. 
 
 Toothpicks. At the temperature of the 
 mouth, only a few hours is sufficient to induce 
 a putrefactive change of particles of food left 
 between the teeth. They should be removed 
 with the quill or wooden toothpick, or with 
 floss silk. Silk is preferable, as it can be 
 passed between teeth that stand in contact, and 
 effectually cleanses the surface that cannot be 
 reached by the pick or the brush. If this be 
 too expensive, linen threads, such as are used 
 by shoemakers, may be substituted. 
 
 Toothbrushes should be used with great 
 thoroughness every night and morning, and, if 
 practicable, after every meal. Great care 
 should be taken, however, to select brushes 
 not too harsh and stiff, as they may do much 
 harm to the gums. On the other hand, if 
 brushes are too soft, the teetli will not be well 
 cleansed. 
 
 Powders should always be used, as by 
 their help the sticky mucus is more thoroughly 
 removed and the surface kept smooth and pol- 
 ished. The chalk of which they are mostly 
 made, has also an affinity for the acids, thereby 
 protecting the teeth. Soap is very cleansing, 
 and may be always used to advantage. Most 
 of the powders before the public may be con- 
 sidered reliable. The chalk and orris, of 
 which they are chiefly made, are so cheap that 
 there is no inducement for adulteration. 
 
 Washes for the teeth and gums may be 
 used, but care should be taken to avoid those 
 which are astringent. Such may be used to 
 advantage in case of diseased gums, but in a 
 state of health the teeth and gums need to be 
 cleansed, not medicated. 
 
 BALDXESS. 
 
 In an article recently contributed to the 
 Gcsundheit a paper, as its name imports, de- 
 voted to sanitary subjects Professor Reclam, 
 a German Gelehrter, makes some timely and 
 useful observations on the subject of baldness. 
 After describing, in a vein of pleasantry, the 
 vast array of bare polls which may be seen any 
 evening in the pit of a theater or the body of 
 a lecture room, he discusses the causes of bald- 
 ness. He does not think, as is sometimes said,
 
 422 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 that loss of hair is the result either of impaired 
 health or of much study. The strongest men 
 are often bareheaded, and German professors, 
 who are nothing if not studious, are distin- 
 guished above all men by the profusion of 
 their locks. On the other hand, soldiers and 
 postilions, who wear heavy helmets and leather 
 caps, and wear them a good deal, are fre- 
 quently as bald as billiard balls. From these 
 facts Herr Reclam draws the conclusion that 
 baldness is chiefly due to the artificial deter- 
 mination of blood to the head, and to the heat 
 and perspiration thence arising. The result is 
 a relaxed condition of the scalp and loss of 
 hair. If the skin of the head be kept in a 
 healthy state, contends the professor, the hair 
 will not fall off. To keep it healthy, the head- 
 covering should be light and porous, the head 
 kept clean by washings with water, and the 
 hair cut short. The nostrums vended as hair 
 restorers, and on which a fabulous amount of 
 money is wasted by the ignorant for the bene- 
 fit of quacks, he denounced as worse than 
 useless. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred 
 they are worse than useless. Cleanliness and 
 cold water are the sole trustworthy specifics ; 
 but when once the hair roots are destroyed, 
 not all the oil of Macassar, the bear's grease 
 of Siberia, nor the cantharides of Spain will 
 woo back the vanished locks. 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE HATR. 
 
 How to preserve the hair is a subject which 
 seems to interest almost everybody, if we may 
 judge from the frequent inquiries from every 
 direction which come to our attention. One 
 wishes to know what will prevent baldness, 
 another how to preserve his hair from turn- 
 ing gray, another how to eradicate dandruff, 
 etc. Now it is a delicate matter to recommend 
 any special treatment, but Professor Wilson, 
 of England, who is deemed high authority on 
 the hair, condemns washing it, and advises, 
 instead, thorough brushing. This promotes 
 circulation, removes scurf, and is in all respects, 
 he says, better than water. 
 
 Cutting the hair does not, as commonly 
 thought, promote its growth. Most of the 
 specifics recommended for baldness, not ex- 
 cepting petroleum, are mere stimulants, and 
 are seldom or never permanently successful. 
 Some of them give rise to congestion of the 
 scalp. When a stimulant is desirable, ammo- 
 nia is the best. It is safe. 
 
 For falling out of the hair, Dr. Wilson pre- 
 scribes a lotion composed of water of ammonia, 
 almond oil, and chloroform, one part each, 
 diluted with five parts alcohol, or spirits of 
 rosemary, the whole made fragrant with a 
 drachm of oil of lemon. Dab it on the skin, 
 
 after thorough friction with the hair brush. 
 It may be used sparingly or abundantly, daily 
 or otherwise. 
 
 For a cooling lotion, one made of two 
 drachms of borax and glycerine to eight ounces 
 of distilled water is effective, allaying dryness, 
 subduing irritability, and removing dandrulr. 
 
 Both baldness and grayness depend on de- 
 fective powers of the scalp skin, and are to be 
 treated alike. What is needed is moderate 
 stimulation, without any irritation. The fol- 
 lowing is good : Rub into the bare places 
 daily, or even twice a day, a liniment of cam- 
 phor, ammonia, chloroform, and aconite, equal 
 parts each . The friction should be very gentle. 
 
 SPECTACLES (Hints on the use of). 
 
 From a valuable little book, " Practical Re- 
 marks on Impaired Vision," by Mr. Cooper, 
 the well-known London optician, we extract 
 the following: "It cannot be too strongly 
 urged upon anyone about to use spectacles for 
 the first time that that power which will enable 
 him to read without much exertion by candle- 
 light is the only power suitable for him. It is 
 by candlelight only that he should use glasses 
 at first, and as soon as he finds that he stands 
 in need of glasses by day as well as by candle- 
 light, and that the glasses he uses no longer 
 afford him sufficient assistance by candlelight, 
 it will be proper to use the next power for the 
 evening, but for the evening only, and to al- 
 low himself the use of the others and their 
 use only during the day. 
 
 " The greatest caution as to increasing the 
 power of glasses should be observed ; for per- 
 sons who change their glasses, unnecessarily 
 increasing their power each time, are exhausting 
 the resources of art, instead of economizing 
 them as much as possible. Optical aid can 
 only be extended to a certain point, and the 
 steps to that point should be as slow and 
 as numerous as possible. By exercising prudent 
 precautions, persons may often attain great age, 
 and yet never require the aid of glasses beyond 
 a very moderate power ; others, on the contrary, 
 who from ignorance frequently increase the 
 power of their glasses, may run through the 
 whole assortment, and leave themselves only 
 the most inconvenient resources to fall back 
 upon viz., the very highest powers." 
 
 Common, cheap spectacles sometimes appear 
 to answer as well as those which cost three or 
 four times as much ; but cheap glasses are not 
 to be depended upon ; they are sometimes 
 ground irregularly and imperfectly, and then 
 they i p. jure the eyes. It is better, therefore, to 
 have spectacles from a respectable optician, 
 who has a character to maintain. Spectacles 
 having lenses called pebbles, which is rock
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE DIETETICS. 
 
 423 
 
 crystal, are not liable to be scratched like glass ; 
 but they are not in any degree better than those 
 of glass for the eyesight ; and if care be taken 
 of the latter- they do just as well. 
 
 There are three kinds of spectacle glasses, 
 the convex, the concave, and the periscopic. 
 The first are to correct short sight, the second 
 to correct long sight, while the periscopic are 
 for either. This last description of lens is 
 both concave and convex, the former on the 
 side nearest the eye, the latter on the side 
 furthest from it. For long sight, as well as 
 short, the convexity and concavity are made to 
 differ so as to furnish any required focus. It 
 is to be observed that in glasses of this form 
 the aberration of light is greater than in any 
 other lenses, and that periscopic glasses are 
 liable to be scratched. They have, however, 
 one very great advantage, which is this : 
 With common glasses, especially concave, the 
 wearer can see only through the exact middle 
 of the lens ; he must, therefore, turn his head 
 whenever he directs his view to any lateral 
 object. With periscopic glasses he may see 
 through any part of them, and can observe 
 objects by his side without turning his head. 
 If, however, periscopic glasses be defectively 
 made, they are injurious to the eyes. They 
 should be gauged and examined before they 
 are purchased, to be assured of their accuracy. 
 
 HAIR. 
 
 The proper management of the hair is very 
 simple. It should be kept as clean as possible 
 by daily brushing with a stiff brush, by re- ; 
 moval of the scurf that forms upon the skin 
 (See DANDRUFF), and by occasionally washing 
 it with pure cold water, which will have no j 
 injurious effect upon the health, provided the 
 hair is not so long as to make its drying diffi- 
 cult. To assist in drying it thoroughly, dip 
 the brush into a very little hair powder or 
 starch, brush it into the hair, and then brush 
 it out. After this a little perfumed pomatum 
 may be brushed in too much not only makes 
 the hair greasy, but injures it. There is a 
 natural oil secreted by the hair which ought 
 to be sufficient for keeping it in good order, 
 but this is often deficient, and the hair be- 
 comes dry and harsh ; then it is that the defi- 
 ciency may be supplied by a little pomatum or 
 oil. A multitude of hair oils are sold by 
 perfumers, their compositions being kejt 
 secret, and each being represented as having 
 extraordinary qualities. It is best to have 
 nothing to do with any of them, for when they j 
 are not injurious they are no better than prep- 
 arations which can be made at home with 
 little trouble, and for which we shall give a 
 receipt or iwo further along. When hair has 
 
 become too greasy from too free use of oil or 
 pomatum, it is proper to remove the unctuous 
 matter by persistent brushing. Occasionally 
 soap is resorted to for this purpose, but soap 
 will change the color of the hair, and should 
 be used cautiously. A little white soap dis- 
 solved in spirits of wine is most effectual and 
 less injurious than soap alone. After using it 
 the hair must be well washed with water. 
 
 It is very doubtful whether frequent cutting 
 of the hair is favorable to its growth and 
 beauty, as is generally assumed. It always 
 renders the hair coarse and stubby, and it is 
 certain that the common practice of cropping or 
 shaving the head, for the purpose of strength- 
 ening the growth of the hair, not only fails of 
 this effect, but often produces total baldness. 
 
 The loosening and falling out of the hair is 
 frequently the direct result of fever or derange- 
 ment of the system, but is more often the con- 
 sequence of weakness of the nervous power. 
 It may be checked by improvement of the 
 general health and the use of proper local rem- 
 edies. A useful practice, when the hair is 
 sufficiently short, is to plunge the head into 
 cold water every morning and nighfc; and, 
 after thoroughly drying, to brush it briskly 
 until the scalp is warmed to a glow. A sim- 
 ple lotion composed of 2 drachms of tincture 
 of cantharides, 6 drachms of essence of rose- 
 mary, and 11 ounces of elder-flower water may 
 be effectually employed as a tonic. In cases 
 of baldness the scalp may be advantageously 
 shaved and the secretion of the hair stimulated 
 by dry friction, tonic lotions (rum for exam- 
 ple), and by a stimulating diet. There is a 
 premature grayness which sometimes occurs in 
 the young, chiefly in those of light complexion 
 and light colored hair. It comes from the 
 same causes as the loosening or falling out of 
 the hair. 
 
 Dyeing the hair is the most absurd of all at- 
 tempts at human deceit, since it never is suc- 
 cessful, and deceives no one but the deceiver 
 himself. The practice is generally begun with 
 the idea that a single application will be suffi- 
 cient for all time ; but the dye only discolors 
 that portion of the hair above the surface of 
 the scalp. The new growth, which is con- 
 stantly taking place from the roots, appears 
 always with the natural tint. Moreover, there 
 is no dye which does not in jure the hair itself ; 
 and many of them those containing lead or 
 arsenic tend to paralyze the brain and ner- 
 vous system. 
 
 WINE. 
 
 This term is usually applied only to the 
 fermented juice of the grape : when other 
 fruits, as currants, blackberries, gooseberries,
 
 424 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 elderberries, etc., are used instead of grapes 
 in making it, the product is generally distin- 
 guished as domestic or homemade wine. Di- 
 rections for making all the different kinds of 
 homemade wines are given under the special 
 fruit from which each is made ; and informa- 
 tion as to the choice and serving of the various 
 wines commonly used in this country is given 
 under the name of each. We shall confine 
 ourselves here, therefore, to a few general ob- 
 servations which will apply equally to all 
 wines. 
 
 The quantity of alcohol is the first element 
 which determines their price. A duty islevied 
 on all wines coming into this country, and 
 those containing less than a certain percentage 
 of alcohol pay less than those containing more. 
 The proportion of alcohol in the stronger 
 wines has been determined by Brande as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Alcohol, 
 per cent. 
 
 Roussillon 15.96 
 
 Hermitage, White.... 16.14 
 Lisbon 17.45 
 
 Alcohol, 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Tokay 9.15 
 
 Hermitage, Red 11.40 
 
 Champagne 11.P5 
 
 VindeGrave 11.84 i Sherry 17.63 
 
 Burgundy 12.20 Constantia 18.2!) 
 
 Hock 13.31 Madeira 20.31 
 
 Bordeaux Claret 13.53 ! Port 21.75 
 
 Marsala 15.14 | 
 
 Wines, however, are not consumed for their 
 alcohol alone ; they contain other ingredients 
 which they derive from the grape juice, which 
 give them taste and flavor. Thus, when fer- 
 mentation of the grape juice is not complete, a 
 certain quantity of sugar is left, and according 
 to the quantity of sugar left wines are said to 
 be "sweet" or " dry." While hocks, clarets, 
 and other light wines contain little or no sugar, 
 port, sherry, and champagne always contain a 
 large amount. In the case of port and sherry 
 this sugar is added during the manufacture, in 
 order to enable them to bear exportation. 
 
 There are three other qualities in wines 
 which demand some consideration. The first 
 is what is called the bow/uet and the flavor. 
 These things are sometimes confounded, but 
 they are really different. The vinous flavor is 
 common to all wines, but the bouquet is pecul- 
 iar to certain wines. The substance which 
 gives flavor to all wines is cenantliic ether, and 
 it is formed during the fermentation of the 
 grape juice. The bouquet of wines is formed in 
 the same way by some of the acids found in the 
 grape juice after fermentation combining with 
 the ethyl of the alcohol, and forming ethers. 
 These are the things which make one wine more 
 pleasant to drink than another, and which 
 give their high prices to the best wines. They 
 are not detectable by any chemical agency ; 
 but it is the taste of these f>r>nt/uetx, and noth- 
 ing else, which gives to one wine the value of 
 five dollars a bottle, and to another fifty cents, 
 
 when all other qualities are precisely the same. 
 The second point in the nature of wines is 
 their color. Some wines are what is called 
 " red " and others are "white." Ports, clar- 
 ets, burgundies, are all red; also many, other 
 wines. The red colors of these wines have 
 been analyzed with some care, but they do not 
 seem to exert any influence upon the system. 
 I The most important agent in them is tannic 
 acid, or tannin, which exists in some wines to 
 a very large extent, and which is produced by 
 the skins of the grapes used in making the 
 wine. It gives an astringency to red wines 
 which is not found in white. The other color- 
 ing matters described by chemists are blue and 
 brown. These also come from the skins of the 
 grapes, and the latter is found in dark white 
 wines as well as in red. 
 
 The other matters which give a character to 
 wines are the saline compounds. These sub- 
 stances, which constitute the ashes of all vege- 
 table tissues, exist in a varying quantity in all 
 fruits, and are found dissolved in the juices of 
 fruit ; hence we find them remaining in wine 
 after fermentation of the juice. The most 
 abundant of these salts is bi tartrate of potash 
 (cream of tartar) . Besides this, wines contain 
 tartrate of lime, tartrate of alumina, tartrate of 
 iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of potassium, 
 sulphate of potash, and phosphate of alumina. 
 These salts occur in the proportion of from 
 one to four parts in the one thousand of wine. 
 They do not make much difference in the 
 flavor or action of wines ; but their presence 
 or absence is one of the surest indications of 
 the genuineness of a wine. Those who manu- 
 facture wines with alcohol and water and add 
 a certain quantity of good wine to give a flavor, 
 do not usually add these mineral constituents, 
 which are always the best test of a pure wine. 
 
 Champagne. The most celebrated of 
 the French wines, chiefly produced in the prov- 
 ince of that name. It is generally understood 
 in this country to be a brisk, effervescing, 
 sparkling white wine of a peculiar flavor ; but 
 this is only one of several varieties. There 
 are both red and white champagnes, and both 
 of them may be either sparkling or still ; the 
 sparkling wines are called monsxeux, and the 
 still non-mousseux. The sparkling are most 
 highly esteemed, on account of their delicate 
 flavor, and the agreeable pungency w r hich is 
 given them by the carbonic acid they contain. 
 There is a great difference in the quality of 
 champagne wines, according to the particular 
 vineyards at which they have been made. The 
 finest are produced in the sloping grounds on 
 the north bank of the river Marne ; and they 
 are mostly white wines. Dry champagnes 
 (i. e., not sweet) are growing in favor, espe-
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 425 
 
 cially among those with whom sugar disagrees. 
 There is no wine, with the possible exception 
 of sherry, that is more extensively adulterated 
 and imitated by artificial combinations than 
 sparkling champagne. The sparkling of cham- 
 pagne is properly caused by the fermentation 
 of rock candy introduced into still wine. In- 
 ferior wines have carbonic acid pumped in ; in 
 either case the sparkle cannot be depended 
 upon for more than two years. The red cham- 
 pagnes are not used much in this country ; 
 they seldom equal Burgundy, which they 
 much resemble. That of Clos de St. Thierry 
 is considered the best. 
 
 In selecting champagne, many consider the 
 briskness and effervescence as a test of their 
 excellence ; but a good judge will prefer a 
 liquor of moderate briskness, as much of the 
 aroma evaporates with the froth. Champagne 
 must be kept in an equable temperature, and 
 cooled by ice, outside of the bottle, never in 
 the wine. It intoxicates quickly and the ex- 
 citement it produces is of a more vivacious 
 and agreeable character than that which comes 
 from any other wine, but its duration is 
 shorter, and the reaction less. For this rea- 
 son it is an admirable tonic for invalids and 
 for all who are suffering from a low state of 
 the system. Tho best brands are : Pommery 
 and Greno, Roederer, Mumm, Due de Monte- 
 bello, Krug, Geisler, and Heidsieck. Veuve 
 Clicquot is highly prized as one of the best of 
 the sweet wines. 
 
 Claret. -Those wines which are. known 
 to us as claret are the product of the country 
 around Bordeaux ; but in France there is no 
 wine known as claret, which is simply a cor- 
 ruption of clariet, a term applied there to any 
 red or rose-colored wine. The genuine wines 
 of Bordeaux are of great variety, that being one 
 of the most famous wine districts of France, 
 and a number of them are of the first quality. 
 The principal vineyards are those of Medoc. 
 Palus, Graves, and Blanche, the produce of 
 each being different in character. The red 
 Medoc wines are the best, and are known as 
 Ln/onr, Lt/fitte. Chateau M<trr/aux, etc. When 
 in perfection, they are of a rich red color, 
 have a most agreeable bouquet, and are strong 
 without being intoxicating. The Lafitte is 
 considered to have the finest flavor ; the Chateau 
 Marrftnu: is next in rank ; the Latour is the 
 strongest, and has the fullest body, but lacks 
 the softness of the others. Besides these there 
 are vast quantities of second and third rate 
 Medoc wines, which seldom find their way out 
 of France in a pure state. All the Medoc 
 wines are improved by a sea voyage. 
 
 The wines of Graves are so called from the 
 gravelly soil on which they are produced ; they 
 
 are both red and white, but the latter is most 
 celebrated. Some of the red resemble Bur- 
 gundy in flavor, but .are inferior to good Me- 
 doc wines. 
 
 Another class of white Bordeaux wines well 
 known in this country are Zfc/ow,- S<nilcrne, 
 and Beaume, which have the advantage of 
 keeping long and having considerable dryness. 
 
 The Palus wines are inferior to the Medoc 
 and Graves. They are strong and rough when 
 new, and are often used to mix with Medoc 
 wines to give them additional strength and 
 body ; when old, some of them have a fine 
 bouquet. 
 
 The Bordeaux wines, when genuine, are 
 among the best that France produces; but 
 they seldom reach us in a pure state. The in- 
 ferior are mixed with the better kind for ex- 
 portation ; and very often they ai-e adulterated 
 with the cheap Spanish wines of Alicant, or 
 with brandy. 
 
 Claret should usually be drunk a little 
 warmer than the temperature of the room, but 
 in warm weather it is good iced. The highest 
 grades of claret will keep for from fifteen to 
 eighteen years, constantly improving in deli- 
 cacy. After that time they rapidly deteriorate. 
 
 Madeira. A white wine made in the 
 island of Madeira, which, when genuine, is 
 one of the richest wines in the world, hav- 
 ing great strength, dryness, and delicacy of 
 flavor. It is extremely durable in all cli- 
 mates, and improves with age. Madeira, be- 
 ing a strong wine naturally, has, least of 
 all, occasion for the addition of brandy ; 
 yet it is the constant practice to add 
 some of this spirit previous to exportation, 
 which is incorporated in time. The inferior 
 kinds are made up with almonds and various 
 additions; and, in fact, the adulterations are 
 so numerous that the wine has lately fallen 
 into comparative disrepute. The prejudice 
 against Madeira has been considerably in- 
 creased by the supposed discovery that it con- 
 tains a little more acid than sherry, but this 
 opinion has been disputed, and seems to have 
 been derived from the inferior Madeiras. 
 
 Several years ago, the vines failed in the 
 
 island of Madeira, and the best Madeira is 
 
 ' now very old. The new wine made from vines 
 
 planted in the island within a few years is 
 
 excellent for its age, and is of great promise. 
 
 Madeira keeps best in demijohns in a mod- 
 erately warm place, though it keeps quite well 
 in bottles. Warmth seems to ripen it and bring 
 out its best qualities. It should be drunk 
 about the temperature of the room. 
 
 Burgundy. The choicest wines of the 
 ancient province of Burgundy in France are 
 among the richest, most aromatic, and deli-
 
 426 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 cately flavored in the world. They are im- 
 perfectly known in this country, but if properly 
 bottled they can be brought over in good con- 
 dition, and it is to be hoped they will become 
 better known, especially in our sick rooms. 
 The Burgundy wines are of two kinds, white 
 and red. The red is much the finer of the 
 two, but the best of these rarely leave France. 
 The first in quality of the red wines is the 
 Romance Conti, but this is not easy to get even 
 in France ; the next in order of excellence are 
 Clos Vouqeot, CJiambertin, Pommard, Nuits, Vol- 
 nay, and Beaune. The Macon wines are lighter 
 and of a lower grade. The higher grades of 
 Burgundy should be drunk at the temperature 
 of the room, never iced. High grade Burgun- 
 dies will keep for from twenty to thirty years, or 
 even longer, while the lower grades are best at 
 the age of from five to ten years. Burgundies 
 are often served in a cradle. 
 
 The white Burgundies are smaller in num- 
 ber and inferior in quality to the red ; but 
 some of them rank very high for their fine 
 flavor, as the Chablis, Mont Racket, La Goutte 
 a" Or, and Lex Charmes. 
 
 Burgundy is recommended to invalids as a 
 light, mildly stimulating, but highly tonic 
 drink. It should always be drunk a trifle 
 warmer than the temperature of the room ; and 
 should be served in a cradle. 
 
 Catawba Wine. One of the best and 
 most popular of the native -American wines, 
 considered by many to be superior to most of 
 the French and German wines, at least such 
 of them as are to be had in our markets. Jt 
 is made from the Catawba grapes, which 
 grow abundantly in the valley of the Ohio and 
 in other parts of the country. It is a sweet 
 wine, containing in its pure state from ten to 
 twelve per cent, of alcohol, and is made either 
 into still or sparkling wine ; the latter, which 
 is most in demand, contains an addition of al- 
 cohol and consequently is stronger. Catawba 
 wine is mostly white, though some red wine is 
 made. It is fit for use two years from the 
 time the grapes are pressed, but reaches per- 
 fection, according to Mr. Longworth, when 
 about seven years old. 
 
 DANDRUFF. 
 
 There is no permanent remedy for dandruff 
 except frequent and regular brushing of the 
 hair and keeping the head as clean as possible. 
 The use of pomades or grease of any kind must 
 be abandoned or kept within the most rigid 
 limits ; and about once a week the head should 
 be washed with clean cold water with a few 
 drops of ammonia in it. rubbing the scalp vig- 
 orously with the fingers, and brushing the 
 hair out dry. The hair washes and other 
 
 preparations sold for this purpose are generally 
 worthless, and, even when they afford tempo- 
 rary relief, they always aggravate the evil 
 in the end. The cause of dandruff is the 
 failure of the skin on the scalp to perform its 
 functions properly, usually on account of the 
 pores being stopped up with grease ; and the 
 only remedy is to bring the skin back to its 
 normal condition, which can be done only by 
 cleanliness, local friction, and attention to the 
 general health. 
 
 PROPER TEMPERATURE IN 
 WHICH WINES SHOULD BE 
 SERVED. 
 
 Sherry should be served thoroughly chilled. 
 
 Madeira should be neither warm nor cold, 
 but of about the same temperature as the 
 room 
 
 Claret should be served at the same temper- 
 ature as madeira, never with ice ; it should 
 remain about forty-eight hours standing, then 
 decanted, care being observed that no sedi- 
 ment enter the decanter. 
 
 Champagne should either be kept on ice for 
 several hours previous to serving, or it should 
 be half frozen ; it is then called champagne 
 frappe 1 . It is frozen with some difficulty. 
 The ice should be pounded quite fine, then an 
 equal amount of salt mixed with it. A quart 
 bottle of champagne well surrounded by this 
 mixture should be frozen in two hours, or, 
 rather, frozen to the degree when it may be 
 poured from the bottle. 
 
 Treatment of AViiies. Connoisseurs 
 on the subject of wine say much depends upon 
 its treatment before it is served ; that it is in- 
 variably much impaired in . flavor through 
 ignorance of proper treatment in the cellar, 
 and that a wine of ordinary grade will be more 
 palatable than one of better quality less care- 
 fully managed. They say wine should never 
 be allowed to remain in case, but be unpacked 
 and laid on its side. Above all, wine should 
 be stored where it is least exposed to the 
 changes of temperature. 
 
 All red wines should be kept dry and warm, 
 especially clarets, which are more easily in- 
 jured by cold than by heat. Consequently, on 
 account of the rigor of our winters, clarets are 
 better stored in a closet on the second floor 
 (not too near a register) than in a cellar. 
 Champagne and Rhine wines stand cold bet- 
 ter than heat, which frequently causes fermen- 
 tation. The warmer sherry, madeira, and all 
 spirits are kept, the better. 
 
 Choice of Brands. Champagne. Per- 
 haps the choicest brands of champagne are 
 Pommerv (dry, supposed to mean less sweet), 
 Geisler (sweet), Veuve Clicquot (sweet), and
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 427 
 
 Roederer (sweet). The best of the cheaper 
 champagnes are Charles Roederer, Heidsick, 
 Montebello, and Krug. 
 
 Claret. Choicest brands : Chateau La Rose, 
 Chateau La Tour, Chateau Lafitte, or Chateau 
 Margaux. Best cheaper brand, St. Julien. 
 
 Sauterne. Best : Chateau Yquem. La Tour 
 Blanche. Bevt cheaper, Haut-Sauterne. 
 
 Burgundy. Best brands : Clos Vougeot, 
 Chambertin, Chablis, and Red Hermitage. 
 
 Sherry. Best brand, Amontillado. 
 
 Hock. Best brands : Steinberg Cabinet and 
 Marcobrunner. Best sparkling wine, Hoch- 
 heimer. 
 
 The American dry wines are most excellent, 
 and might be more patronized by those who 
 know no other wine than that of foreign man- 
 ufacture. The Missouri Catawba and Concord 
 wines are especially good ; so are some of the 
 California wines. The Ohio Catawba is quite 
 noted. 
 
 ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS. 
 
 The following list gives some of the more 
 common poisons and the remedies most likely 
 to be on hand in case<of need : 
 
 Acids These cause great heat and sensa- 
 tion of burning pain from the mouth down to 
 the stomach. The remedies are : Magnesia, 
 soda, pearl ash, or soap dissolved in water, 
 every two minutes ; then use the stomach 
 pump or an emetic. 
 
 Alkali. Drink freely of water with vinegar 
 or lemon juice in it, made very strong of the 
 sour. 
 
 Ammonia. Remedy is lemon juice or vin- 
 egar. 
 
 Arsenic Remedies. Give prompt emetic of 
 mustard and salt, a tablespoonful of each, in 
 a coffeecup of warm water ; then follow with 
 sweet oil, butter made warm, or milk. Also 
 may use the white of an egg in half a cupful 
 of milk or lime water. Chalk and water is 
 good, and the preparation of iron, ten drops 
 in water every half hour ; hydrated magnesia. 
 
 Alcohol. First cleanse out the stomach by 
 an emetic, then dash cold water on the head, 
 and give ammonia (spirits of hartshorn). 
 
 Laudanum, Morphine, Ojiium. First give a 
 strong emetic of mustard and water, then very 
 strong coffee and acid drinks ; dash cold water 
 on the head, then keep in motion. 
 
 Belladona. Give an emetic of mustard, salt 
 and water ; then drink plenty of vinegar and 
 water or lemonade. 
 
 Charcoal. In poisons, by carbonic gas, re- 
 move the patient to the open air, dash cold 
 water on the head and body, and stimulate the 
 nostrils and lungs with hartshorn, at the same 
 time rubbing the chest briskly. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate, Saltpetre, Blue Vitriol, 
 Bedbug Poison. Give white of egg, freshly 
 mixed with water, in large quantities ; or give 
 wheat flour and water, or soap and water freely, 
 or salt and water, or large draughts of milk. 
 
 Lead. White lead and sugar of lead. Give 
 an emetic, then follow with cathartics, such 
 as castor oil, and Epsom salts especially. 
 
 Nux Vomica. - First emetics, and then 
 brandy. 
 
 Oxalic Acid (frequently taken for Epsom 
 salts) . First give soap and water, or chalk or 
 magnesia and water. Give every two min- 
 utes. 
 
 White Vitriol. Give plenty of milk and 
 water. 
 
 Tartar Emetic. Take large doses of tea 
 made of white oak bark, or peruvian bark. 
 Drink plenty of warm water to encourage vom- 
 iting ; then, if the vomiting should not stop, 
 give a grain of opium in water. 
 
 Nitrate ofSi/cer (lunar caustic). Give a 
 strong solution of common salt and water, and 
 then an emetic. 
 
 Verdigri?* Give plenty of white of egg and 
 water. 
 
 Tobacco. Emetics, frequent draughts of 
 cold water ; camphor and brandy. 
 
 COSMETICS. 
 
 This term is usually applied to substances 
 used for the purpose of beautifying the skin. 
 They may be divided into two kinds : those 
 which are injurious and even dangerous by rea- 
 son of some of the ingredients of which they 
 are really composed ; and those which, though 
 harmless in themselves, are highly injurious 
 when applied to the skin, because they arrest 
 that insensible perspiration through the pores 
 by which the temperature of the body is pre- 
 served and a large part of its refuse matter 
 thrown off. Under the first class fall nearly 
 all those French preparations, so often used in 
 the toilet, such as pearl-white, heruse, rouge, 
 and the like ; these are never composed of the 
 harmless materials which are claimed to be 
 employed, and in rouge arsenic has repeatedly 
 been detected. The least objectionable article 
 used as a cosmetic is the mixture of hydrated 
 oxide of bismuth with the subnitrate of the 
 same metal, known as the magister of bismuth. 
 Applied to the skin, its only injurious effects 
 appear to be the interruption of the insensible 
 perspiration referred to above, which after 
 long-continued use produces a tendency to 
 clamminess ; a slight nausea, too, is sometimes 
 experienced in consequence of its use, accom- 
 panied with spasms and flatulence. It has the 
 disagreeable quality, however, of turning black 
 on the face when exposed to sulphureted hy-
 
 428 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 drogen, a gas frequently met with in badly- 
 ventilated rooms, and, indeed, everywhere that 
 gas or sewers exist. The perfume of onion 
 also has a tendency to turn it black. There is 
 nothing, it must be borne in mind, that can 
 really beautify the skin except bathing, exer- 
 cise, and a regular compliance with the laws 
 of health. 
 
 EARTHENWARE . 
 
 The various wares known as earthenware, 
 china, or porcelain, are all compounds of clay, 
 with bone earth, flint, and other similar ma- 
 terials, ground together and baked. Accord- 
 ing to the proportion of clay will be the 
 toughness of the china, and the capability of 
 being molded, while the flint and bone earth 
 give hardness, whiteness, and transparency. 
 
 There are two main divisions of table- 
 ware glazed earthenware and china or porce- 
 lain. Nearly all are originally white, and 
 sorted after baking. The finer only are then 
 decorated and re-baked. When glazed earth- 
 enware chips, the exposed surface becomes 
 dark ; in porcelain it remains white. 
 
 The finer Oriental china, and that of Sevres 
 and Dresden, cost from $300 up, for a set for 
 twelve persons. The sets generally are for 
 eighteen. The ordinary decorated French 
 china costs from $45 to $500 per set. The 
 white French china costs from $35 to $300, 
 depending on quality. The decorated English 
 china costs from $150 up. Broken pieces can- 
 not be duplicated here, as the decoration is 
 printed on, from designs more elaborate than 
 the handwork of the average French sets. The 
 French can be duplicated here at a few weeks' 
 notice. The English is heavier and much 
 more durable. Both the French and the Eng- 
 lish make a decorated glazed earthenware that 
 is very durable more so than French china, 
 and possibly than English china. It costs 
 from $30 to $125 per set; the various pieces 
 can generally be bought separately, which is 
 not the case with decorated china. For econ- 
 omy, plates and cups of this ware, with tureen, j 
 vegetable dishes, etc., of plated silver, is prob- 
 ably the best possible arrangement. Still fur- 
 ther variety in this or any service is desirable, j 
 and may be had through pickle dishes, compo- 
 tiers, etc., of other kinds of ware. 
 
 The so-called Ironstone and Stone China are 
 merely glazed earthenware undecorated. Sets 
 cost from $20 to $40. As regards the finer 
 porcelain, the following remarks may be of 
 service : 
 
 Oriental f'/iinn is remarkable for its close 
 texture, its flinty hardness, fine surface, and 
 capacity for bearing heat. It is supposed to 
 take from ten to twenty years to get some of 
 
 these wares into a state fit for baking. They 
 are generally very expensive, but extremely 
 durable. 
 
 Dresden China is finer in outline than the 
 Oriental, and the best kinds are fully as dura- 
 ble. 
 
 Sevres China is of French manufacture and 
 is not so close or fine in the jfhiin as those 
 above alluded to ; but it has a superior glaze, 
 and is generally of elegant shape, with beauti- 
 ful colors and magnificent gilding. 
 
 The common Red Earthenware is that used 
 most extensively for cooking, dairy, and other 
 purposes. It does not stand the heat well, 
 and is very easily broken. Acids should never 
 be put into any vessels made of this ware, as 
 there is a poisonous ingredient in the glazing 
 which the acid takes off. The common stone- 
 ware is stronger and cleaner and better every 
 way than any other kind. 
 
 CATHARTICS. 
 
 A class of medicines that act strongly on the 
 bowels as purgatives. Their number is very 
 large, and they may be divided into several 
 classes: mechanical, including unbolted meal 
 of various kinds, fruits, and mustard seed ; 
 oily, as castor and croton oil ; saline, as mag- 
 nesia and its carbonate, sulphate, and citrate, 
 sulphate, and phosphate of soda, etc. ; acid or 
 bitter, as rhubarb, senna, colocynth, and aloes ; 
 resinous, as jalap, gamboge, scammony ; and 
 mercurial, as calomel and blue pill. Their 
 action varies greatly, from the mild and almost 
 natural effect of magnesia and aloes, to the 
 violent purging of jalap and gamboge. Cathar- 
 tics are very commonly used in domestic medi- 
 cine, and probably no class of drugs is so fre- 
 quently abused ; a resort to them being so easy 
 as to lead in many instances to the neglect of 
 highly important hygienic rules. A due atten- 
 tion to diet, exercise, and bathing would be a 
 far more effective remedy than any cathartics 
 for a majority of the difficulties for which the 
 latter are used. In many cases, however, 
 their use is necessary, and directions for them 
 are given under the various diseases. Castor 
 oil, Epsom salts, magnesia, aloes, rhubarb, and 
 senna are the only cathartics that should be 
 used without medical advice ; the most violent 
 ones may produce serious results. No cathar- 
 tics, however, either should or can be relied 
 upon to cure constipation, to "work off a 
 cold," or to relieve dyspepsia ; in all such cases 
 a cure can be looked for only in a due ob- 
 servance of hygienic laws. 
 
 CRABS. 
 
 Though not so popular as lobsters, crabs are 
 among the most pleasantly flavored fish of
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 429 
 
 their class. They are in season from June to 
 January, but are considered to be more whole- 
 some in the cold months. The middling sized, 
 when heavy,' lively, and possessed of large 
 claws, are the best and sweetest ; if light, they 
 are poor and watery. When crabs are stale, 
 the eyes look dead, the claws hang down, and 
 there is no muscular activity ; in this condi- 
 tion they are not fit to eat. The female is 
 considered inferior to the male, and may be 
 distinguished by the claws being smaller, and 
 the apron, which appears on the white or un- 
 der side, larger. Soft shell crabs are deemed 
 a great luxury ; but they must not be kept 
 over night, as the shells harden in twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 CANCER. 
 
 (1) The following is said to be -a sure cure 
 for cancer : A piece of sticking plaster is put 
 over the cancer, with a circular piece cut out 
 of the center, a little larger than the cancer, 
 so that the cancer and a small circular rim of 
 healthy skin next to it is exposed. Then a 
 plaster, made of chloride of zinc, bloodroot, 
 and wheat flour, is spread on a piece of muslin, 
 the size of this circular opening, and applied 
 to the cancer for twenty-four hours. On re- 
 moving it, the cancer will be found burned 
 into, and appear of the color and hardness of 
 an old shoe sole, and the circular rim outside 
 of it will appear white and parboiled, as if 
 scalded by hot steam. The wound is now 
 dressed, and the outside rim soon separates, 
 and the cancer comes out in a hard lump, and 
 the place heals up. The plaster kills the can- 
 cer, so that it sloughs like dead flesh, and 
 never grows again. The remedy was dis- 
 covered by Dr. King, of London, and has been 
 used by him for several years with unfailing 
 success, and not a case has been known of the 
 reappearance of the cancer when this remedy 
 has been applied. 
 
 (2) An old Indian cancer doctor in Oregon 
 pronounces this a sure cure : Take common 
 wood sorrel, bruise it on brass, spread it in the 
 form of a poultice, and apply as long as the 
 patient can bear ; then apply bread and milk 
 poultice until the patient can bear the wood 
 sorrel again. Continue this until the cancer 
 is drawn out by the roots. 
 
 (3) Take the blossoms of red clover and 
 make tea of them, and drink freely. It will 
 cure cancer in the stomach as well as on the 
 surface. 
 
 EMBROCATIONS. 
 
 Applications intended to relieve local pains, 
 either by counter-irritation, or by the anodyne 
 effects of their ingredients, or by aiding the 
 
 friction,which cannot long be maintained with- 
 out some such application. 
 
 (a) Liquor of ammonia, tincture of opium, 
 spirits of turpentine, and olive oil, of each 
 equal parts. Useful for rheumatism or any 
 local pains. 
 
 (ft) Flour of mustard, one half ounce ; vin- 
 egar, boiling, three ounces. Mix, and rub 
 into the parts to produce counter-irritation. 
 
 (c) Laudanum, chloroform, and soap lini- 
 ment, in equal proportions, will often relieve 
 local pains. 
 
 (</) Chloroform alone may be applied, 
 sprinkled on a piece of spongiopiline (to be 
 had at the drug stores), and applied to the 
 parts affected with neuralgia. Care must be 
 taken not to inhale the vapor too long. 
 
 (e) All embrocations may be applied with 
 good effect by wetting with them the inner 
 surface of spongiopiline, and keeping it to the 
 part. In this way, as the ammonia cannot 
 evaporate, embrocations made with it arc much 
 more active. 
 
 WHISKY. 
 
 An ardent spirit distilled from barley, rye, 
 Indian corn, wheat, etc. It is the cheapest 
 and the most common form of intoxicating 
 liquor made in the United States, where its 
 production is very large. The whisky of Penn- 
 sylvania and Kentucky, and the better quali- 
 ties of that manufactured in New York, are 
 distilled chiefly from rye ; most of that pro- 
 duced in the Western states is from Indian 
 corn, which contains a large quantity of fusel 
 oil. The peach whisky, the Monongahela of 
 Pennsylvania, and the Bourbon from Kentucky 
 are accounted the best. The peculiar and 
 much liked flavor of Scotch and Irish whisky 
 is said to be due to the peaty water which is 
 obtained in the mountains for the use of the 
 stills, or to the smoke of the fuel which is 
 used. New whisky is rough and fiery, quickly 
 intoxicates, and produces disease of the mu- 
 cous membrane of the stomach, of the liver, 
 spleen, and kidneys. It is desirable, there- 
 fore, that it should be kept some years, that 
 it may generate volatile oils, and obtain mel- 
 lowness. The most approved course is to fill 
 a sherry cask with it and leave it quiet ; it 
 will thus acquire color and flavor. 
 
 AMMOXIA (Spirits of Hartshorn). 
 
 An alkali which is the result of decomposi- 
 tion in animal and vegetable substances. It 
 exists almost universally in the air, and can be 
 obtained in many ways ; but the article of 
 commerce usually comes from the distillation 
 of coal in making gas. Ammonia has proper- 
 ties which are very injurious as food, but it is
 
 430 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 probably for household purposes the most use- 
 ful o*' drugs. It isvery powerful, and dissolves 
 grease and dirt with the greatest ease. For 
 washing paint, put a tablespoonful in a quart 
 of moderately hot water, dip in a flannel cloth, 
 and then wipe the woodwork ; no scrubbing 
 will be necessary. For taking grease spots 
 from any fabric, apply ammonia nearly pure, 
 then lay white blotting paper over them, and 
 iron lightly. In washing lace, put about 
 twelve drops in a pint of warm suds. To 
 clean silver, mix two teaspoonfuls of ammonia 
 in a quart of hot suds ; put in the silverware 
 and wash, using an old nail brush or tooth 
 brush for the purpose. For cleaning hair 
 brushes, etc., simply shake the brushes up and 
 down in a mixture of one tablespoonful of 
 ammonia to one pint of hot water ; when they 
 are cleansed, rinse them in cold water and 
 stand them in the wind or in a hot place to 
 dry. For washing finger marks from looking 
 glasses or windows, put a few drops on a moist 
 rag and make quick work of it. House plants 
 will flourish surprisingly if a few d^ops of am- 
 monia are added to each pint of water used in 
 watering. A teaspoonful will add much to the 
 refreshing effect of a bath. Nothing is better 
 than ammonia water for cleaning the hair ; in 
 every case rinse off the ammonia with clear 
 water. For removing grease spots from cloth- 
 ing, a mixture of equal parts of ammonia and 
 alcohol is better than alcohol alone : and for 
 taking out the red stain produced by acids in 
 blue and black cloth, nothing is so effective as 
 ammonia. 
 
 OYSTERS. 
 
 When spawning, oysters are milky, watery, 
 and poor; and are unwholesome food. The 
 months of spawning are May, June, and July ; 
 but they require a month longer to fatten, 
 and are seldom in good condition before Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 Wholesale dealers usually have four quali- 
 ties or sizes of oysters for sale. The best are 
 known as extras, the second best as box, and 
 then follow cullings and bushels. Retail deal- 
 ers usually open them and sell them by the 
 hundred, gallon, or quart, in any quantity de- 
 sired. Other dealers make a large business 
 of pickling them for home and foreign con- 
 sumption, and packing them for inland places. 
 
 The largest oysters are not always the best, 
 especfally for eating raw and for stewing ; 
 those of medium size are generally preferred 
 by epicures. Nor are those found in clusters 
 as good as the single oysters. Oysters are 
 not good when dead. To ascertain whether 
 they are or not, as soon as opened and when 
 one of the shells is removed, touch the edge 
 
 of the oyster gently, and, if alive, it will con- 
 tract. 
 
 COCOA. 
 
 Cocoa is generally purer than chocolate, 
 which is a preparation of the same bean, and 
 is also more nutritious. The best comes from 
 Trinidad, and may be had in the original seed 
 or nibs, flaked, or ground and prepared like 
 chocolate in small, square packets. The latter 
 is a mixture of cocoa and arrowroot. The 
 surest way of getting cocoa pure is to buy the 
 beans and roast them, afterwards grinding 
 them like coffee, or simply bruising them. It 
 deteriorates by keeping, and it is best to buy 
 it in small quantities at a time. 
 
 BEDROOMS. 
 
 Rooms devoted to sleeping purposes should 
 above all things be light, cheerful, and thor- 
 oughly ventilated. A third of our lives is nec- 
 essarily spent in these rooms, and where the 
 current practice of reserving the parlor for 
 " company " obtains, a great deal more. An 
 ample supply of fresh air should be secured at 
 all times and everywhere, but its necessity is 
 peculiarly urgent in the case of bedrooms. We 
 are much more susceptible to injurious influ- 
 ences when asleep than when awake, and these 
 accumulate with startling rapidity in an un- 
 ventilated chamber in which two or more per- 
 sons spend the night. An excellent plan is to 
 open the window above and below ; lowering 
 the upper sash, with an opening over the door, 
 is also very effective. But if the bedroom have 
 no fireplace, it should be connected by tubes 
 with the chimney- flue. At the same time the 
 prevalent notion that a bedroom to be health- 
 ful must be cold, is altogether mistaken. No 
 room should be slept in in winter that has not 
 had a fire in it at least three times a week, and it 
 is all the more wholesome if it have one every 
 day. Warmth is in itself necessary to any 
 thorough ventilation ; and the temperature of 
 a bedroom should not be suffered to fall below 
 40. 
 
 SUBSTITUTE FOR CARPETS. 
 
 The carpets of a house claim a special men- 
 tion from us. The plan of carpeting floors to 
 which we are accustomed is a decidedly un- 
 healthful one. When the carpets are nailed to 
 the floor in such a way that every portion is 
 covered, the dust which settles upon them can 
 be only partially removed by sweeping, and 
 accumulates in increasing quantity upon the 
 planking below, as well as in trie meshes of 
 the carpet itself. This dust, continually raised 
 by every footstep, inevitably renders the aii 
 unhealthful ; and the evil is increased by the
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 431 
 
 layers of thick paper and cotton wadding 
 usually interposed between the floor and the 
 carpet by way of lining. 
 
 The floor should be inlaid, or at any rate 
 laid in hard woods, and should be frequently 
 polished with wax. One large carpet is used 
 fco cover the greater part of the room, or per- 
 haps rugs are spread in different places, be- 
 neath tables, and before sofas, pianos, book- 
 cases, and other articles of furniture, much 
 as we are accustomed to lay them upon our 
 carpets. This insures much greater cleanli- 
 ness and a remarkable absence of dust. 
 
 BENZINE. 
 
 A colorless liquid, lighter than petroleum, 
 and obtained from that oil in process of re- 
 finement. It is sometimes used as a burning 
 fluid, but is extremely dangerous ; also as a 
 substitute for turpentine in mixing paints, but 
 its chief value in the household comes from its 
 power of dissolving fats, wax, and paraffine ; 
 every kind of grease spot on clothes may be 
 removed by it. In using, saturate a woolen rag 
 and rub over the spot, renewing several times. 
 Benzine must never be used near a fire or light 
 of any kind ; for it is so inflammable as to take 
 fire at a considerable distance. Keep it in a 
 dark, cool place. 
 
 OLIVES. 
 
 The fruit of the olive tree, which is exten- 
 sively cultivated in Italy, Spain, and the South 
 of France, partly for the green fruit, and partly 
 for the oil which it yields when mature. 
 Olives are oval in shape, with a smooth rind, 
 and closely resemble a small half ripe plum. 
 For the purposes of the table they are gathered 
 when immature, and are then pickled in salt 
 and water, and barreled for exportation. The 
 Italian olives are the best, then the French, 
 and lastly the Spanish, which, though large, 
 are not so well flavored. In choosing, select 
 the light colored and bright looking ones; 
 those which have a blackish cast are unfit to 
 eat. 
 
 Pickled olives are supposed to have pecul- 
 iarly appetizing properties, but they are eaten 
 chiefly with a view to remove the taste of food 
 from the mouth, previously to enjoying the 
 flavor of wine. They should be passed round 
 after the soup. 
 
 OLIVE OIL. 
 
 This oil, sometimes called salad oil, is ex- 
 pressed from ripe olives. It is largely used in 
 the moro delicate kinds of cookery, instead of 
 butter, and is a useful addition to salads, pre- 
 venting them from fermenting and from caus- 
 ing flatulency. When it is fresh and pure it 
 
 has only a very slight yellowish-green color, 
 and but little smell or flavor, so that it may 
 even be drunk by those who like oil ; and it 
 cannot be doubted that it is one of the most 
 easily digested fats in food. Its use in cook- 
 ery might properly be extended in this country, 
 notwithstanding our excellent animal fats. 
 
 The best quality of oil is that produced by 
 the first gentle pressure of the olives, and this 
 is at once bottled in the flasks peculiar to the 
 article. Stronger pressure on the fruit breaks 
 the kernels and produces an inferior grade of 
 oil, which is exported in jars and barrels. 
 Italian oil is superior to either French or Span- 
 ish, and is distinguished as Florence, Lucca, 
 and Gallipoli oil. The first is most desirable. 
 
 CURTAINS. 
 
 Window curtains should be selected in ac- 
 cordance with the general principles of taste 
 laid down in the article on DECORATION. Ac- 
 cording to their several purposes, and the na- 
 ture of the apartments, the quality of the 
 materials and the manner of hanging them 
 must be determined. In this country partic- 
 ularly, window curtains are necessary to ex- 
 clude the cold air which presses in from the 
 windows in winter when the fires are burning, 
 however closely the sashes may be fitted. But 
 there is another cause for this which- is not 
 generally thought of. The warm air in a room, 
 which always occupies the upper part near the 
 ceiling, coming into contact with the glass, i.s 
 cooled by it, and, descending immediately in 
 consequence, diffuses itself through the lower 
 part of the room and is felt as a cold current 
 coming from the windows, though no outside 
 air may actually have entered them. Curtains 
 check this partly by preventing the warm air 
 from reaching the glass, and partly by turning 
 the current sideways. 
 
 But though curtains help to keep air out, 
 heavy ones may exclude ib too much and also 
 keep bad air in. They should therefore be 
 hung on rings sliding on rods so that they can 
 be drawn entirely away from the window. For 
 the same reason lambrequins are very objec- 
 tionable, more so even than curtains, as they 
 have no opening in the center, and are fixed 
 obstacles to ventilating the upper part of the 
 room where the air is most heated. As to 
 taste, too, this arrangement is certainly inferio. 
 to others. The rod and rings are more " con- 
 structive " than the cornice, and the general 
 effect conforms to the purpose in view. It is 
 well that curtains are now so seldom used for 
 shutting ventilation away from beds. In low- 
 priced materials curtains are apt to be cheaper 
 than lambrequins because the latter require 
 more fringe.
 
 432 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 ORANGE. 
 
 There are many varieties of this most deli- 
 cious, wholesome, and refreshing fruit. The 
 largest and best are from Florida and Cali- 
 fornia, and sell at the highest prices. The 
 Havana oranges are equal in flavor, but have 
 a thick and rough rind ; the pulp of either is 
 very juicy and delicious. The Maltese oranges 
 have also a very thick and spongy rind, and 
 are sometimes almost juiceless. The Sicilian 
 fruit, commonly called Messina oranges, have 
 a thin rind and a sour taste, but are usually 
 most abundant and cheap. The Florida and 
 West India oranges are in market from October 
 till April, and those from the Mediterranean 
 from January until May. California oranges 
 possess a delicious flavor. 
 
 The Seville or bitter orange is of the same 
 variety as tlie sweet, but it cannot be eaten 
 raw, and is used only in marmalades, candy, 
 etc., and for the same purpose as the lemon. 
 It is not brought to this country to any con- 
 siderable extent. 
 
 FURNISHING. 
 
 The reader, if impecunious, need not be dis- 
 couraged by the discussion here of points in- 
 volving considerable outlay, for, in addition to 
 these, the article contains much for his special 
 benefit. 
 
 The Hall determines the first impression on 
 entering the house, and it is well worth while 
 to economize elsewhere ior the sake of effect 
 here. Probably the worst possible step is to 
 buy the stereotyped hat and umbrella rack. 
 3fo matter how elaborate, they are always the 
 same thing over again, and generally very ugly. 
 If, however, one is needed, some simple ar- 
 rangement honestly made of good wood, with 
 "dead" finish, will probably give more sat- 
 isfaction, in the long run, than the more 
 elaborate designs in which the cabinetmakers 
 delight. A mirror, large or small, of some 
 original shape, framed in some durable way, 
 with pegs for the hats and coats, can be made 
 very effective. Under it, may stand a chair 
 or table, either having a drawer ; or a table 
 alone will do, for hats and coats can be kept 
 on plain hooks back under the stairs. Sticks 
 or umbrellas can be disposed of in a cheap 
 stand behind the door. If the hall be rather 
 dark, a white cast or bust at the end will be 
 very effective. A pair of horns, or several 
 pair, can never be amiss, nor can any other 
 decoration suggesting out of doors and the 
 storied halls of the olden time. 
 
 Where there is room for them, one should 
 try to have the broad table, the clock, and the 
 little cupboard for brushes, gloves, and other 
 things that one needs on going out and com- 
 
 ing in. A hall should look as large as it can 
 be made to look. 
 
 Stair rods seem a ridiculous superfluity for 
 poor folks. Let the stair carpet be long 
 enough to shift as often as it wears out on the 
 edges of the steps. 
 
 The Parlor is usually the most Philistine 
 of all Philistine A merican institutions. Where 
 there is the iisual ill-spent wealth, the room is 
 filled with gorgeous upholstery in the cabinet- 
 maker's style of art, has the horrible "cabinet 
 rich and stylish," which usually figures on the 
 furniture man's bills for enough to buy two 
 respectable paintings, is either utterly inno- 
 cent of all works of art but a few china or 
 parian dolls and a French clock of a pattern 
 turned out by the dozen, or has the walls cov- 
 ered with paintings which are simply good 
 canvas spoiled. If such parlors were fur- 
 nished in honest pine, and one tenth of the 
 saving devoted to a few good engravings on 
 the walls, their refinement would be vastly in- 
 creased. There is no need of extremes, how- 
 ever, for the money usually spent would give 
 honest hard wood furniture, luxuriously fash- 
 ioned and cushioned, covered with good worsted 
 reps or satines, and good photographs, en- 
 gravings, or even, in many cases, paintings by 
 deserving artists. 
 
 In the few well-furnished parlors that we 
 have, the most frequent lack is the suggestion 
 of ease. There is generally too much wood 
 shown in chairs and sofas, and too little 
 cushion. Ladies are always complaining that 
 sofa seats are too broad. Hence the advantage 
 of cushions that can be piled against each other, 
 or laid against the back of a deep easy chair. 
 
 A good table is desirable, and a fitly colored 
 jar, contrasted with the wood, in graceful posi- 
 tion, is always very agreeable. There seems, 
 in most parlors, too much reluctance to have 
 anything around to indicate that Ihe room is 
 used. The parlor should suggest festivity 
 rather than meditation. Jf colors be well 
 chosen, Brussels carpet and worsted reps will 
 produce really as good effects as richer mate- 
 rial ; though on account of the danger from 
 moths, woolen upholstery and Brussels carpets 
 are less economical for people upon whom the 
 first outlay does not bear too heavily than 
 silk fabrics, and the higher grades of carpet. 
 
 Most parlors are oblong, with two windows 
 at one end. The spot between them is the 
 point in the whole room for effect ; all living 
 things turn toward the light. People of taste, 
 if they have plenty of money for more impor- 
 tant things, sometimes put mirrors in this 
 spot ; Philistines always do. Something bright 
 and effective should go there always. There 
 aue worse things for the purpose than a light
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 433 
 
 cabinet (if it is tasteful, which not one in a 
 hundred is), laden with good bric-a-brac. What- 
 ever is done, don't let the piano stand in front 
 of this spot and obliterate it. 
 
 The Library. The main economical 
 question is, doors or no doors to the bookcases. 
 -Doors nearly double the cost, and the books 
 will do very well without them, especially if 
 a strip of leather depend over their tops from 
 the shelf above. " Pinked " edges on this 
 strip will curl up, but gilt lines have a pleasant 
 effect. Library furniture is best covered in 
 leather green or dark brown. Here one 
 conies to read, and the eye should not -be 
 wooed from its work by any dashes of impor- 
 tunate color. 
 
 The Dining 1 Room. Probably there is 
 no better test of the refinement of a family 
 than the relation of its dining room to the rest 
 of the house. If the family meal is regarded 
 as a mere feeding, the place where it is taken 
 will plainly show the fact. If the meal be a 
 cheerful household ceremony, where the best 
 qualities of head and heart engage, and to 
 which the most honored friends are gathered, 
 these facts, too, will be indicated by the room. 
 The piece of furniture that makes or mars the 
 dining room is the sideboard, or buffet, as we 
 seem to be in the way of calling it now. 
 With a good substantial table and chairs (the 
 latter cushioned if it can possibly be afforded), 
 any amount of effect can be added to the buffet 
 without its appearing to overshadow the rest, 
 and every feature will tell. If you cannot have 
 an elaborate one, you will not be in bad taste 
 with one of simple outline. When people are 
 at table, they see neither the table nor the 
 chairs, but they do see the buffet. If you 
 can cover it with ancestral plate, very good ; 
 but if you cannot, it may, perhaps, be made to 
 look as well with bright china, glass, Japanese 
 lacquer-work, and flowers (never artificial 
 ones). Don't have a marble top, it will 
 "chip" glass articles with angular bottoms. 
 Many a fine piece has been thus gradually 
 spoiled, and the cause not realized. 
 
 Bedrooms. As far as decorative effect 
 goes, the thing of least importance in a bed- 
 room is the bed. Generally, the more the 
 cabinetmaker does to it, the uglier he gets it, 
 and, even if he gets ?t pretty, those who lie 
 upon it do not see it, and when not lying upon 
 it. their attention is more apt to he directed to 
 another article, which is the real center of bed- 
 room effect, namely, the dressing bureau. This 
 generally stands in the same important spot 
 between the windows that has been enlarged 
 upon in treating of the parlor. Hence, if you 
 are not rich, get a plain bedstead and spend 
 your spare money on the bureau. Don't over- 
 
 look brass bedsteads. It is to be hoped that 
 they will soon be cheaper than at this writing. 
 Nothing need be better. 
 
 Wardrobes are not generally included in 
 ; bedroom suites ; but if they cannot be found 
 ; to match, may be made to order. 
 
 Nursery. Don 't have a carpet. It always 
 will smell. Lay the floor in hard wood if you 
 can possibly afford it ; the cheaper wood car- 
 peting can be made to do. In the middle of 
 the room have a woolen drugget, fastened at 
 the corners by movable nails, so it can be 
 taken up and shaken daily, and washed often. 
 
 Don't have curtains to the windows. The 
 children while awake need every ray of light 
 they can get. Have thick, dark-green shades, 
 though, to shut out all light w r hile they are 
 napping, A low table, six or eight feet long 
 by two wide, is a grand thing for a nursery. 
 The children will handle many toys on it 
 instead of cultivating round shoulders on the 
 floor. Let its legs fold against it so that it 
 can be laid against the wall when room for 
 romping is needed. The height of your chair 
 seats regulates the distance your children shall 
 tumble from. 
 
 Servants' Rooms. Iron bedsteads are 
 the thing. They are durable and do not 
 make good nests for bugs. Bureau washstands 
 economize space. The room is not to be oc- 
 cupied much ; it ought to be comfortable 
 though, and decent enough to attract servants 
 who are decent. Bright, broad coloring in 
 the carpet will do much to obviate a cheerless 
 look. 
 
 Gas Fixtures do more to make or mar a 
 room than almost anything else. We do not 
 mean that the chandelier should be so gaudy 
 as to be the only thing visible in the room, 
 but that it should cost enough to be good. 
 This is too often lost sight of, and some people 
 even economize on the gas fixtures which 
 never wear out, rather than on the carpets and 
 upholstery, which do. Most people do worse, 
 however, by buying abominable angular cast 
 metal concerns, or those with curved glass 
 tubes which threaten breakage if you look at 
 them. The basis of most good metal chande- 
 liers is wrought tubing, and of most good glass 
 or earthenware ones, vases, or plates around 
 or through which the gas is conveyed in 
 metal tubes. A room in Brussels and worsted 
 reps with a good chandelier will have treble 
 the effect of a room in moquette and brocatelle 
 with a poor chandelier. 
 
 Common gas fixtures can be refinished for 
 about one third of their cost, and changed 
 from gilt to bronze or steel or oxidized silver, 
 if desirable. The better ones of honest brass 
 are generally covered with lacquer, and need
 
 434 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 relacquering not oftener than once in ten or 
 twelve years. 
 
 DECORATION. 
 
 With special reference to walls, floors, and 
 furniture. 
 
 It is always best to begin by first consider- 
 ing those things in which we have least room 
 for choice. On account of the change and 
 want of aim of " fashion," the least variety is 
 to be found in floor covering, and the greatest 
 in wall covering supposing we use wall paper, 
 which is almost always the best where econ- 
 omy is a motive. 
 
 The first step, it is true, that time dictates 
 in preparing the house, is to color the wood- 
 work and the walls. But this being done to 
 suit the taste as far as it alone is concerned, 
 trouble is apt to come in finding carpets to cor- 
 respond. As the accessible variety of wall 
 paper and tints for painting is so much greater 
 than that of upholstery and carpets, it is best to 
 select the carpets at the very outset. Then it 
 will be comparatively easy to find appropriate 
 furniture and, that being selected, to find ap- 
 propriate wall paper and to paint appropri- 
 ately, if the woodwork is to be painted. 
 
 One strong argument in favor of unpainted 
 woodwork, especially as compared with that 
 painted white, is that it will tone in with a 
 variably greater variety of carpets and wall 
 decorations. White woodwork is constantly 
 bringing to grief the best laid plans of wall 
 and floor decoration. Pretty papers and car- 
 pets have more than once been sent home, 
 .and even put in place, before it hns been real- 
 ized that the uncompromising woodwork must 
 kill them. 
 
 For the floor of the entrance or hall, encaus- 
 tic tiles are best in durability as well as in ap- 
 pearance. Combinations of these may be 
 made good and harmonious in color if we will 
 but be simple and not attempt display. Mar- 
 ble tiling, to be satisfactory, must be expen- 
 sive, and demands the exercise of great taste 
 and judgment. Next to tiling, hard wood, 
 paint, or even oilcloth, if it can be had of 
 moderately fair design and color, should be 
 preferred to carpet. 
 
 For other floors in the house a large rug, 
 reaching to within ;il>out a foot and a half or 
 two feet of the walls, is, for many reasons, to 
 be preferred to a nailed-down carpet covering 
 the entire floor. This maybe made up of car- 
 peting sold by the yard, with a border ; or may 
 be an Eastern carpet in one piece, which of 
 course is very greatly to be preferred. For ! 
 the floor itself hard wood is best. If it have 
 ;i Border, om-of simple design should be chosen, 
 avoiding conspicuous spots or zigzags, or 
 
 sharply contrasted stripes. If it is to be 
 painted, the carpet, furniture, and wall paper 
 should first be chosen, then the floor color 
 agreeably to all of these, contrasting not too 
 strongly with the carpet, or the effect of 
 breadth over the whole floor maybe destroyed. 
 
 In the carpet the contrasts and colors should 
 generally be not too striking, because it is the 
 thing most under our eyes when they ofter. 
 need rest. If the texture be a deep velvety 
 pile, the contrasts of lights and darks and 
 separate colors may be greater. Generally, it 
 had better be inclined to the dark and warm 
 in tone. Aggravating lessons in geometry, as 
 well as roses, scroll, and pictures, as subjects 
 of design in carpet, are things to be tabooed. 
 There are to be found carpets of fair design 
 copied from Eastern patterns, but their over 
 preciseness and painfully small accuracies, and 
 their inferiority of color, leave them far be- 
 hind a genuine Oriental carpet, with its slight 
 pleasing waywardness. 
 
 In choosing furniture, consider the colors of 
 the woods. Against a wall of dull red, black 
 or dark oak will generally look well. And 
 with a wall of sage or olive green, greenish 
 blue or dull gray blue ; mahogany, oak, wal- 
 nut, or rosewood. Yellow with black and 
 some kinds of gray always looks well. Rarely 
 choose any wood lighter than oak. If the 
 articles be of somewhat light construction, 
 ; they may contrast rather strongly with the 
 floor and walls ; if large enough to make im- 
 portant masses in the room, the contrast 
 should not be of a sudden and violent kind. 
 1 The introduction of black in furniture is often 
 of great value. Generally take the plainest 
 and most reasonably constructed furniture 
 that you can find. Avoid in it extravagance 
 of shape ; curving fronts to drawers, things 
 made to imitate drawers, and doors, and 
 lumps of carving glued on. Do not lightly, 
 and without consideration, choose adjustable 
 chairs, extension tables, and shutting beds. 
 Avoid having a piece of furniture which is not 
 quite sufficient for its uses, and so has to be 
 eked out by other insufficient things ; such as 
 twoorthree inconvenient makeshifts for book- 
 cases, cabinets, etc. 
 
 Upholstery of chairs and sofas may con- 
 trast with floors or walls; there can be no 
 rule ; sometimes one plan will be found the 
 best and sometimes the other ; or a partial 
 adoption of both. The larger the pattern in 
 furniture, coverings, and curtains, the less 
 conspicxious should be their colors. 
 
 Curtains may generally harmonize pretty 
 closely with the furniture upholstery. They 
 may often be somewhat more lively, as, in the 
 daytime the light doet; not fa.ll on the surface
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 435 
 
 the most in view, and at night they should not 
 break too suddenly the general effect of pic- 
 tures and furniture against the walls. They 
 should always be suspended from rings on rods. 
 Lace curtains, except where mere screens 
 against the inside of the window sash, are not 
 to be commended on any account, to say the 
 least. 
 
 The carpets being selected little difficulty 
 need be experienced in properly coloring the 
 walls and woodwork. 
 
 If the doors and casings in a room be of hard 
 wood, their color is of importance in connec- 
 tion with floor and walls. If they be painted, 
 the colors may well be of such tones as will 
 more strongly contrast with the walls than 
 with the carpet, the doors themselves being 
 more nearly like the wall than the casings 
 around them are. - 
 
 Ceilings cannot be left plain, unbroken 
 surfaces of white plaster without sacrificing the 
 harmony of the room, if the least degree of 
 fullness of coloring be attempted in other parts. 
 They may generally be made lighter than the 
 side walls, and slightly contrasting with them. 
 With the walls very light, they may be darker. 
 In any case they should have as much gentle 
 variation of light and dark and color as may 
 ne. A fashion of showing the construction of 
 the floors and roofs above, is a thing to be 
 wished by all decorators. It would add more 
 to the effect of the rooms we live in than one 
 half of what we now take pains to do to them. 
 
 Papers. In choosing wall papers avoid 
 over- brightness, display, sharpness, or angu- 
 larity of pattern. It is not necessary that they 
 should be precisely and accurately " made out." 
 It is as well that something should be left to 
 the imagination. Prefer those of a general 
 tone of warm gray, and but few detached 
 broken colors ; or creamy ocherish yellows ; 
 or sage, citron, olive, and tea greens ; or dusky 
 reds. Blues are the hardest to choose ; they 
 should generally incline to green or greenish- 
 gray, or to the quality of blue of some kinds 
 of old china. Rarely or never choose stripes, 
 whatever your friends may say about their mak- 
 ingyour rooms look higher. Sometimes they do 
 so, and sometimes they do exactly the reverse 
 l>y calling attention to the shortness of the 
 space they have to run. They more often 
 than not produce a bad effect on a wall. 
 
 Dado. It will often be of advantage to 
 have a plinth or dado around the room varying 
 in height from one and a half to four feet, of 
 a color of about the same degree of force as 
 the color of the floor. It should be plainer in 
 design than the wall above ; and may often 
 with advantage be absolutely plain. The line 
 is invaluable where there are pictures. Dadoes \ 
 
 to passages and staircases, where there is no 
 ; wainscot, are good on account of their use- 
 j fulness as well as appearance. They had 
 i best be made of paper of such a pattern that, 
 where a piece is rubbed off, another may be 
 substituted. It is not always the case, as is 
 constantly said, that a wainscot or dado makes 
 a low room look lower ; for it is interrupted 
 by doors and windows and large pieces of fur- 
 niture. Entire blankn'ess and absence of de- 
 tail never make a space look larger. Detail is 
 always good when sufficiently subordinated, 
 and always bad when obtrusive. Simple treat- 
 ment is what is required, that the space shall 
 not be so cut up as to leave no leading feature. 
 Border. A border or frieze does often 
 make a room look lower. It arrests the eye at 
 a lower point than the top of the wall, and by 
 its uninterrupted line carries it around* "the 
 room at that level. 
 
 Pictures. The walls may properly be al- 
 lowed to furnish the koy for the whole scheme 
 of color ; a not necessarily namable color, as 
 ! red, green, or blue ; but hue, tone, what might 
 be called atmosphere. In proportion to the 
 absence of pictures walls require a strong and 
 I elaborated treatment. If slight water-color 
 1 drawings or prints are to be hung on them, 
 i walls should be light and delicate. If oil 
 | paintings are to be hung, the particular pic- 
 I tures should be consulted, as far as possible 
 j beforehand. It is often said that water-color 
 ! and oil-color pictures, or either of them with 
 photographs and prints, should never be hung 
 together on the same wall. But it is as well not 
 i to make quite so broad a rule. We have seen 
 ' a water-color drawing which erred by having 
 \ too much of one particular color hung with 
 good effect by a cool brown Liber Studiorum 
 print, and a photograph of a painting made to 
 glow with a warm hue by a neighboring blue. 
 Remarks on the Various Rooms. 
 I The Hall it is well to have rather darker than 
 the rooms opening from it, on account of the 
 agreeable contrast. It is also well to have the 
 coloring quiet and grave, without strong con- 
 trasts and never rising to positive color. The 
 ornamental details should be very restrained, 
 it being rather out of order in a place which 
 is principally a passage, and more telling if 
 kept for other parts of the house. Largo, 
 comparatively blank spaces are in place here, 
 the incidents of light and shade often giving 
 enough variation. 
 
 Dining Room. Probably the fashion of hav- 
 ing a dining room sober and rather dark in its 
 coloring came about because of the table and 
 those around it being the chief point of inter- 
 est, and also of the pleasant contrast of the 
 drawing room.
 
 436 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 When the sideboard is simple in its lines 
 and dark and subdued in color, -whatever is 
 put on it will show to better advantage. 
 
 The Drawing Room of course should be some- 
 what light and gay; fitted to be bright at 
 night, and should not have any point of con- 
 . centration, or be too decided in any way. 
 
 The Library, where it is a library, should 
 contain nothing to distract the attention ; the 
 ornament and coloring should be of the most 
 quiet kind. Instead of things being so ar- 
 ranged as to appeal to the eye, the eye should 
 have to search for things. 
 
 v Bedrooms ought to be airy and rather light ; 
 but curtains hung so as to be easily drawn to 
 shut off draughts and light are desirable. If 
 the furniture is to be bought in the shops, the 
 plainer it is, the better. 
 
 General Advice. Advice in these things 
 can only be of value so long as we remember 
 that it is but advice ; but the occasion would 
 probably be rare when we could not let the 
 following have the force of rules : - 
 
 North rooms, south rooms, poorly or fully 
 lighted rooms, whatever their uses may be, 
 should have some attention given to making 
 their coloring suit their respective quantities 
 and qualities of light. In doing this, that 
 kind of contrast between different rooms in a 
 house which is always pleasant, is secured. 
 
 Adhere as much as possible to simplicity of 
 general arrangement. Avoid on the one hand 
 meagerness, and on the other hand what is 
 perhaps worse, overcrowding. 
 
 Beware of " hard finish " and white paint, 
 and all large spaces of plain white in carpet, 
 curtains, walls, or ceilings ; of brilliant things, 
 large mirrors, displays of gilding and marble, 
 and elaborate cast metal gas fixtures, long lace 
 curtains, sentimental statuettes and bronzes, 
 and an undue abundance of small " artistic" 
 things. 
 
 It is better not to indulge a fondness for 
 that useless order of things which includes 
 " tidies," "mats," worsted emb.oideries, etc. 
 As we usually see them, they are harsh spots 
 of white or inharmonious vivid color, and not 
 untrying to the nerves of those who do not feel 
 at liberty to treat them with disrespect, and 
 who do not like " fancy things," although 
 they may care for art. 
 
 Finally, do not be disturbed if your house 
 be simple, inexpensive, and unpretending ; 
 but do be disturbed if it be " cheap " ; that 
 is, if it be evidently not a fine thjng, while it 
 makes a shallow pretense by being dressed up 
 in the fashion of a fine thing. Extreme sim- 
 plicity and great dignity may go together 
 dignity and cheapness, never. Remember that 
 a quiet harmony of colors, and the simplest 
 
 mode of arranging simple things, are always 
 good, and that brilliance, abundance, and ex- 
 travagance are always at least near the perilous 
 borders of no-land. 
 
 Woods. An account of the qualities of 
 the different woods may be of use to the pur- 
 chaser. 
 
 Ash is rather lighter colored than oak, but 
 is sometimes used in connection with it. It is 
 less likely to split. 
 
 Beech, a very close and tough wood, is chiefly 
 used for the framework of chairs, tables, and 
 bedsteads. It is nearly of the color of birch, 
 but rather paler, and it may be known by the 
 presence of those peculiar little specks of darker 
 brown, which are easily seen in a carpenter's 
 plane . 
 
 Birch is very close-grained, strong, and 
 easily worked. It is of a pale yellowish brown. 
 If polished or varnished, it somewhat 1-eseni- 
 bles satinwood, but is darker, and by staining 
 is capable of being made to closely resemble 
 Honduras mahogany. It is used in the better 
 kinds of low-priced furniture. 
 
 Cedar somewhat resembles mahogany, 
 though more purplish. It has no "curl," 
 and is free from tendency to warp or " cast." 
 The best varieties have a peculiarly pleasant 
 aroma, which is offensive to moths ; hence it is 
 highly valued for making drawers and chests 
 for clothing. 
 
 Chestnut is coarse-grained, strong, elastic, 
 light, and very durable. Some of the best of 
 the cheaper furniture is made of it. It looks 
 so much like white oak as to be frequently used 
 in combination with it. 
 
 Ebony is of a deep black color, and highly 
 prized for several purposes, particularly inlay- 
 ing. It is exceedingly hard, heavy, and dura- 
 ble, but expensive. Pear and other woods 
 dyed black are often substituted for it ; but are 
 not so susceptible of good polish and luster, 
 or so permanent in color. The best conies 
 from Africa ; a kind variegated with brown is 
 brought from Mauritius and Ceylon. 
 
 Mahogany is imported of two kinds Hon- 
 duras and Spanish. The former has a coarse, 
 loose, and straight grain, without much curl or 
 wave. The latter is darker, with curl, by which 
 in great measure its price is regulated, and 
 with a very fine, close texture. Spanish ma- 
 hogany will bear great violence ; it is also free 
 from any tendency to warp. When, how- 
 ever, it is very much curled, it is not nearly 
 so strong or so free from twist ; but this is of 
 little consequence, as its value is so great that 
 it is generally veneered on to some less valu- 
 able wood, as Honduras or cedar. The heavi- 
 est mahogany is generally the best. 
 
 Maple is of several qualities, the bird's-eye
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 437 
 
 maple being most highly valued. It somewhat 
 resembles satinwood, but is more buff than 
 yellow, has more curl, and more " bird's- 
 eye." Maple is light and not very durable, and 
 is used only in the cheaper kinds of furni- 
 ture. 
 
 Oak. There are several varieties, of which 
 the white oak, the red oak, and the live oak 
 are the most important. The first is most used. 
 Oak takes long to season, and is worse than 
 most woods if used green. It is very hard to 
 work. Its appearance improves with age. On 
 account of its tendency to warp, a great deal 
 of so-called oak work is paneled with chest- 
 nut. 
 
 Peanrood is of a light yellow color, and, on 
 account of its even grain, a favorite wood for 
 carving. It is often stained to imitate ebony. 
 Pine is used in two varieties, the white and 
 the yellow. When thoroughly dry, these 
 woods are very free from all tendency to warp 
 or shrink ; but in a half-seasoned state articles 
 made of them fall to pieces. They are readily 
 distinguished from one another by the differ- 
 ence of color, and from deals by the absence 
 of turpentine veins. When oiled and varnished, 
 both kinds of pine look very well. It seems a 
 sin to stain it. 
 
 Rattan, from strips of which the seats of 
 cane chairs are made, is a small sort of cane, 
 brought from China, Japan, and Sumatra. A 
 very pretty and durable style of summer-chairs, 
 lounges, tables, baskets, etc., is now made 
 wholly of rattan. 
 
 Rosewood is hard and dark, with some little 
 curl, intermediate in this respect between 
 Spanish and Honduras mahogany, and of a 
 very open grain. Most articles of rosewood 
 furniture are veneered, but the best are of solid 
 wood. The color, which consists of large elon- 
 gated dark zones on a reddish-brown ground, 
 is permanent, unless it be much exposed to the 
 direct rays of the sun ; and it takes a fine pol- 
 ish, which is improved by slight waxing, or, 
 better, by the French polish, which brings out 
 the color of the wood admirably. 
 
 Satinirood is now used chiefly for inlaying, 
 lining, and veneers. It is of a full yellowish 
 color, with a fine grain, little curl, and a silky 
 luster. Its toughness fits it well for furniture. 
 Walnut is a native wood, but is used in such 
 prodigious quantity that it is also imported. 
 Well seasoned it is exceedingly tough and lit- 
 tle inclined to warp. 
 
 MEDICAL DICTIONARY 
 
 Abatement. Decrease of fever. 
 Abdomen. The belly. 
 Abnormal. Unnatural, irregular. 
 Abscess. A collection of purulent matter. 
 Absorption, absorptive. Taking up or soaking up. 
 
 ! Acephalous. Without a head. 
 
 I Acid. Sour ; a substance which neutralizes alkalies. 
 
 Adhesive strips, adhesive plaster. Cloth or other 
 material coated on one side with sticking composi- 
 tion. 
 
 Afterbirth. A body attached to the womb and by a 
 cord to the child, supplying blood and nourishment 
 before birth. 
 
 Albumen, albuminous. One of the elements of the 
 body that hardens with heat. The white of an egg. 
 
 Aliment, alimentary. Food. The alimentary canal 
 begins with the mouth and ends with the rectum. 
 
 Alkali. Caustic ; a substance which neutralizes acids. 
 
 Alterative. Altering or purifying the blood. 
 
 Alternating. One medicine following another after 
 an interval. 
 
 Altruism. Regard for another. 
 
 Alveoli. The bony sockets to the teeth. 
 
 Alvine. Pertaining to the intestines. 
 
 Anaemia. Deficiency in blood. The want of red cor- 
 puscles gives the pallid appearance to the skin. 
 
 Anaesthesia. Deprived of sensation. 
 
 Anaphrodisiac. An agent to blunt sexual appetite. 
 
 Anastomosis. Communication between blood ves- 
 sels. 
 
 Anatomy. A description of the organs of the body. 
 
 Anodyne. Relieving pain. 
 
 Antacid. Neutralizing acid. 
 
 Antibilious. A term applied to active cathartics. 
 
 Antidote. Medicines counteracting poisons and ren- 
 dering them inert. 
 
 Anti-malarial. Preventing an attack of malaria. 
 
 Antiperiodic. Breaking up periodicity or appearance 
 at regular intervals.. 
 
 Antiperistaltic. Forcing the contents of the bowels 
 backward into the stomach. 
 
 Antiseptic. Destroying poison. 
 
 Antispasmodic. Stopping spasms. 
 
 Antrum. A cavity in the superior maxillary bone, con 
 nected with the nose. 
 
 Aims. The lower opening of the bowel. 
 
 Aorta. A large artery arising from the heart. 
 
 Aperient. A gentle laxative or purge. 
 
 Aphonia. Loss of voice. 
 
 Aphthous. Affected with aphthae ; a curd-like covered 
 sore. 
 
 Areola, areolar. The connecting tissue between fibers 
 and vessels. Pertaining to areolae. 
 
 Artery. A blood vessel which (with one exception) 
 carries the red blood. 
 
 Asphyxia. Suspended animation. 
 
 Aspirator. A pumping apparatus with a long, fine, 
 sharp-pointed tube for removing fluids from inter- 
 nal parts. 
 
 Assimilation. The act of transforming the food into 
 various parts of the body. 
 
 Asthenic. Debilitated. 
 
 Atrophy, atrophied. Wasting away. Withered. 
 
 Auscultation. Discovering chest diseases by listening. 
 
 Axillary. Arising from a depression between the stem 
 and leaf -stock. 
 
 Bandage. A long piece of cloth, of variable width, 
 used for binding. 
 
 Benumb. To deprive of sensibility. 
 
 Bicuspid teeth. The fourth and fifth teeth from the 
 center of the lips. 
 
 Bile, bilious. A fluid secreted by the liver. Pertain- 
 ing to bile ; a peculiar temperament. 
 
 Blastema. A germ. 
 
 Bloodletting. Opening a vein in the arm to let out 
 blood. 
 
 Bolus. A large pill or anything of its size. 
 
 Bougie. A flexible instrument for dilating the urethra. 
 
 Bronchial tubes. Vessels carrying air to the lungs. 
 Bronchi. 
 
 Bronchus, bronchi. The lower air-passage. 
 
 Buccal walls. Inner surface of the cheeks. 
 
 Cacoplasm. Bad or low form of organization. 
 Caecum. A part of the intestines emptying into the 
 
 colon ; the blind gut. 
 Calcareous. Of the nature of lime. 
 Calculus, calculous. A stony formation. Pertaining 
 
 to calculus. 
 
 Capillary. Blood vessels, hair-like in size. 
 Capsule. A covering or case. . 
 
 Carbon. One of the elementary bodies or metalloids. 
 Cardiac. Pertaining to the heart.
 
 438 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Carnivora. Flesh-eating animals. 
 
 Cartilage, cartilaginous. A white, elastic solid part 
 
 of the body. Gristle. Gristly. 
 Caseous. Like cheese. 
 Castration. Removing the testicles. 
 Catamenial. Relating to the monthly flow. 
 Cathartics. Agents that produce evacuation of the 
 
 bowels. 
 Catheter. A tube with an eyelet near its end, used 
 
 for conveying fluids. 
 
 Caustics. Corrosive or burning substances. 
 Celibate. A bachelor. 
 Cell. The smallest particle of living matter. The 
 
 body and all of its parts are made up of cells. 
 Cellular tissue. The tissue uniting all parts of the 
 
 body. 
 
 Cerebellum. The small or lower brain. 
 Cerebrum. The great or upper brain. 
 Cerumen, ceruminong. Ear-wax. Waxy. 
 Choiesterine. A crystallizable substance formed in 
 
 the bile. 
 
 Chrouic. Long standing, seated. 
 Chyle. The milky fluid formed from digested food, 
 
 'and which is emptied directly into the blood vessels. 
 Chyme. Digested food. 
 
 Cicatrix, cicatrices. The scar from a wound. Scars. 
 Circulation. The flow of blood from the heart to the 
 
 extremities and back again. 
 Circumcision. The act of cutting off the foreskin or 
 
 prepuce of males. 
 
 Clonic. Rigid, with occasional relaxation of the mus- 
 cles. 
 Coagulate. To harden, as the white of an egg, by 
 
 boiling. 
 
 Coitus. Sexual connection. 
 Colin pse. Complete prostration or inaction. 
 Colliquative. Exhaustive. 
 Coma. Comatose, profound sleep. 
 Conception. Being with child in the womb. 
 Congenital. Bating from birth. 
 Congestion. The flow of blood to a part. Stagnant 
 
 circulation. 
 Conjunctiva. The membrane covering the ball of the 
 
 eye and inner surface of the eyelids. 
 Contagion. Communication of disease from one to 
 
 another by touch, food, drink, or the atmosphere. 
 Continence. Abstinence from sexual congress. 
 Convalesce, convalescence. To recover health and 
 
 strength. Period of recovery. 
 Convulsions. Spasms. 
 Cornea. The tough transparent membrane in the front 
 
 of the eyeball. 
 
 Corpuscle. A minute body. A particle. 
 Corroborant. A remedy which gives strength ; tonic. 
 Corrosive, Burning. 
 Cortical. The bark- or external portion. 
 Costiveness. Irregular and delayed motion of the 
 
 bowels. Constipation. 
 Counter-irritation. Irritating one part to relieve 
 
 irritation in another. 
 
 Cramps. Sudden and painful contractions of muscles. 
 Cranial. Belonging to the skull. 
 Crisis. The period of change ; it may be to worse or 
 
 to better. 
 
 Cul-de-sac. A pouch. 
 
 Cupping. Drawing blood by lancing, and the applica- 
 tion of a heated cup. 
 
 Decussate. To cross each other. 
 
 Defecation. Evacuation of the bowels. 
 
 Dejections. Matter voided from the bowel. 
 
 Delirium. Mental aberration. 
 
 Deltoid muscle. A muscle passing over the shoulder 
 
 and terminating at the center and outer part of the 
 
 upper arm. 
 
 Depurative. Purifying. Removing impurities. 
 Dextrine. A substance obtained from starch. 
 Diagnosis. Discovery of a disease by its symptoms; 
 
 discriminating between a disease and others with 
 
 which it may be confounded. 
 
 Diaphoretic. Inducing perspiration; sweating. 
 Diaphragm. The muscle separating the chest and its 
 
 contents from the abdomen and its contents. 
 Diastaltic. Reflex action induced by the spinal 
 
 marrow. 
 Diathesis. Tendency of the constitution to a particular 
 
 disease. 
 
 Diathetic. Relating to predisposition to disease. 
 Dietlc, dietetic. Relating to the food and drink. 
 
 Digestion. Conversion of the food into form suitable 
 for nourishment and into refuse or excrement. 
 
 Disinfectant. Purifying or cleansing from infection. 
 
 Diuretic. Increasing by secretion the quantity of 
 urine. 
 
 Dram. One-eighth of an ounce, or a teaspoonful of 
 fluid. 
 
 Drastic. Very powerful cathartic action. 
 
 Due. Canal. 
 
 Duodenum. The first part of the intestines. 
 
 Dysmenorrheea. Painful menstruation. 
 
 Dyspnoea. Difficult breathing. 
 
 Economy. The parts constituting the body or the 
 laws governing them. 
 
 Effete. Worn out ; useless. 
 
 Effusion. Escape of a fluid. 
 
 Elimination. Ejection by stimulating the secreting 
 organs. 
 
 Eliminatives. Agents which expel substances from 
 the body, as by the skin, kidneys, etc. 
 
 Emaciation. Loss of flesh. 
 
 Embryo. The animal in its earliest existence in the 
 uterus. 
 
 Emesis. Vomiting. 
 
 Emission. A discharge. 
 
 Emulsion. A pharmacal compound of oil and water. 
 
 Emunctory. Any organ of the body acting as the 
 outlet of effete and worn-out matter. 
 
 Enciente. Pregnant. 
 
 Encephalon. The head ; all within the head. 
 
 Encysted. 1'overed with a membrane or sac. 
 
 Endosmosis. Fluids passing through membranes into 
 structures. 
 
 Enema. Liquid injections inio the bowel. 
 
 Enervation. Weakness. 
 
 Enteric. Intestinal. 
 
 Entozoa. Worms. 
 
 Epidemic. A disease attacking many individuals in 
 a locality at the same time. 
 
 Epithelial. Relating to the thin covering to the eyes, 
 lips, rnouth, intestines, and the like. 
 
 Erosion. Corrosion ; eating away. 
 
 Erosis. Amatory passion. 
 
 Eructations. Wind or gases raised from the stomach 
 with some noise. 
 
 Essence, essential. The active principle of plants. A 
 diluted oil. 
 
 Eustachian tube. A canal about two inches in length 
 connecting the ear and back of the mouth (pharynx). 
 
 Exacerbation. Increase in fever. 
 
 Exanthematous. Attended with fever and skin erup- 
 tions. 
 
 Excito-motory. Reflex nervous action. 
 
 Excito-nutrient. Affecting nutrition by reflex ner- 
 vous action. 
 
 Excito-secretory. Affecting secretion by reflex ner- 
 vous action. 
 
 Excrement, excrementitious. Matter ejected from 
 the bowel. 
 
 Excretion, excretive. The faculty of selecting and 
 discharging from the system fluids, as in sweating 
 and in urine, useless matter as in feces, and im- 
 purities by either. 
 
 Exhaling. Breathing out ; throwing off vapor. 
 
 Expectorant. Remedies which loosen phlegm in the 
 air-passages, and hence facilitate its discharge and 
 relieve oppressed breathing. 
 
 Expectorate. To discharge mucosities by coughing 
 and spitting. 
 
 Expiration. Exhaling air by the lungs. 
 
 Extravasate. To escape from the containing vessel 
 and permeate the surrounding textures. 
 
 Kxudatioii. Escaping or discharging through pores. 
 
 Farinaceous. Containing farina or flour. 
 
 Fascicles. Little bundles of fibers. 
 
 Fauces. The back of the mouth and upper part of the 
 
 throat. 
 Feces, fecal. That part of the food remaining after 
 
 digestion and which is ejected at intervals from the 
 
 bowels. 
 
 Feculent. Foul. 
 Fermentation. Chemical action and combination by 
 
 which new substances are formed. 
 Fiber, fibrous. The hard, elastic, organic particle 
 
 which, aggregated, forms muscle and other tissues. 
 Fibrine. An organic substance, fluid, coagulable, 
 
 found in the blood, lymph, etc.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 439 
 
 Filaments. A thready fiber. 
 
 Flagellation. Flapping the body with the corner of 
 a wet towel or the snap of a whip. 
 
 Flatulence. Wind in the stomach and bowels. 
 
 Foetus, foetal. The young of any animal during ute- 
 rine existence. Pertaining to the unborn. 
 
 Follicle. A little depression throwing off moisture to 
 keep the contiguous part soft and supple. 
 
 Foreskin. The prolonged skin of the penis, which 
 covers the glans or head. 
 
 Fumigation. Disinfection by gas, smoke, or vapor. 
 
 Functiop. The normal or healthy action of an organ. 
 
 Fundament. The seat ; anus. 
 
 Fungus. Parasitical plant. 
 
 Ganglion. Masses of nerves resembling brain. 
 
 Ganglionic. Composed of ganglia. 
 
 Gangrene. Mortification; local death. 
 
 Gastric juice. The digestive fluid secreted by the 
 stomach. 
 
 Generative. Productive. 
 
 Genetic. Pertaining to the genital organs. 
 
 Genitals. The generative organs. 
 
 Germ theory. The theory of the propagation of disease 
 by germs floating in the atmosphere. 
 
 Gestation. The period of carrying the young in the 
 womb. 
 
 Glands, Glandular. Organs of the body, each pos- 
 sessing vital properties peculiar to itself, as secre- 
 tion of tears, milk, saliva, urine, excretion, etc. 
 
 Glans. The conical end of the penis, covered by the 
 foreskin. 
 
 Gluten. The ingredient in flour (farina;) which gives it 
 adhesiveness. 
 
 Grain. One sixtieth of a drachm. 
 
 Graminivora. Grain-eating animals. 
 
 Granular. Consisting of little grains. 
 
 Granules. Little grains. 
 
 Griping. The pains of colic. 
 
 Gullet. The canal for food leading from the throat to 
 the stomach. 
 
 Gynaecology. That part of the science of medicine 
 devoted to the diseases of women. 
 
 Hectic. Debilitated : exhausted. 
 
 Hereditary. Transmitted from parent to child. 
 
 Hibernate, hibernation. A partial suspension of ani- 
 mation. Animals that sleep through the winter 
 hibernate. 
 
 Histogenetic. Tissue-forming. 
 
 Hydragogues. Medicines producing copious, watery, 
 alvine discharges. 
 
 Hydrocarbons. Starch, sugar, and oils. 
 
 Hydrogen. A light, inflammable gas, forming, by 
 chemical combination, water and animal and vege- 
 table matter. 
 
 Hygiene, hygienic. The science of the preservation of 
 " health. 
 
 Hymen. A fold of membrane at the outer orifice of 
 the vagina, found sometimes, but not always, in 
 virgins. 
 
 Hypertrophy. Increased nutrition and consequent 
 growth. 
 
 Hypnotic. Producing sleep. 
 
 Hypochondriasis. Belief in the possession of an 
 imaginary disease. 
 
 Hypodermic. Under the skin. 
 
 Hypodermic syringe. An instrument for injecting 
 liquid remedies under the skin. 
 
 Ileum. The convoluted portion of the intestines. 
 Impotence. Loss of sexual power; inability to 
 
 copulate. 
 Indications. The symptoms or conditions needing 
 
 medication. 
 Infection, infecting. The communication of disease 
 
 by touch, food, drink, or the breath. 
 Infecundity. Unfruitfulness. 
 Inlilt rate. To penetrate the pores of a part. 
 Inflammation. A condition attended with heat, pain, 
 
 redness, and swelling. 
 Injection. Passing a liquid into a cavity of the body, 
 
 through and by means of a syringe. 
 Innocuous. Harmless. 
 Inoculation. Taking a disease by contact with an 
 
 abraded surface. 
 Insolation. Sunstroke. 
 Insomnia. Inability to sleep. 
 Inspiration. Inhaling air by the lungs. 
 Inspissated. Thickened by evaporation. 
 
 Instinct. An inborn principle directing to health and 
 
 self-preservation. 
 Intercostal. Between the ribs. 
 Intestine, intestinal. The canal from the stomach to 
 
 the anus ; the bowels. Relating to the intestines. 
 Invermination. Infested with worms. 
 Iris. The colored membrane seen in the eyeball; it is 
 
 blue in blue eyes, gray in gray eyes, etc. 
 Irritation. Local excitement, or excess of vital action. 
 
 Kidneys. Two organs, one on each side of the spine, 
 internally and above the small of the back, which 
 secrete the urine from the blood. 
 
 Lachrymal gland. Organ for forming tears. 
 
 l.iM'liryinatioii. Weeping. 
 
 Lacteal. Milky. Vessels containing chyle. 
 
 Larynx. The Adam's apple of the neck ; the upper part 
 of the windpipe which contains the organs of voice. 
 
 Lancinating. A deep and sudden pain, compared to 
 the stab of a lance. 
 
 Leeching. Removing blood by the application of a 
 leech. 
 
 Lesion. A diseased change. 
 
 Leucocytes. White corpuscles of the blood. 
 
 Leucorrhrea. Whites. 
 
 Liquor sanguinis. The fluid part of the blood, hold- 
 ing in solution fibrine, albumen, etc. 
 
 Liver. The great assimilating gland of the body. It is 
 situated below the diaphragm or midriff, and above 
 the stomach, bowels, and kidney, and extends from 
 the base of the chest to the spine, and from side to 
 side. 
 
 Lobe. A rounded, projecting part. 
 
 Loins. The small of the back, between the ribs and 
 pelvis. 
 
 Lungs. Two organs situated in the chest, one on each 
 side, with the heart between ; the organs of respi- 
 ration. 
 
 Lymph, lymphatic. The fluid secretion of the lym- 
 phatic glands, which is emptied into the circulation. 
 
 Mackintosh. Cloth covered with waterproof material. 
 Malaria. Poisoning emanations in the air, producing 
 
 disease. 
 
 Mammary gland. The female breast. 
 Mastication. Chewing the food. 
 Masterbation. Personal excitement of the sexual 
 
 organs. 
 Median line. An imaginary line dividing the body 
 
 into the right and len side. 
 Medulla oblongata. An organ, marrow-like, lying at 
 
 the base of the skull. 
 Medullary. Pertaining to the marrow. 
 Membrane, membranous. A thin, web-like struc- 
 ture covering parts and organs, and lining cavities. 
 Meninges. Coverings of the brain and spinal cord. 
 Meiisis, menses. The monthly uterine flow during the 
 
 middle age of women. 
 
 Menstrual. Pertaining to the monthly flow. 
 Mesentery. The folds of the peritoneum which hold 
 
 the intestines in place. 
 Metamorphosis. Transformation. 
 Metastasis. Change in the seat of a disease. 
 Miasm, miasmatic. The germs of disease floating in 
 
 the air, which produce infection. 
 Microscope. An instrument for magnifying minute 
 
 objects. 
 
 Micturate. To evacuate the bladder. 
 Molar teeth. The sixth, seventh, and eighth teeth 
 
 from the center of the lips. 
 Molecule. A little portion of any body. 
 Morbid. Diseased. 
 Motor. Moving. 
 
 Mucilages. The gummy principle of plants. 
 Mucoid. Like mucus. 
 Mucus, mucous. A viscid fluid, which in health keeps 
 
 the membranes in their proper condition. 
 Myopic. Near-sighted. 
 
 Narcotic. A stupefying remedy; in large doses de- 
 stroying life. 
 
 Nausea. Sickness at the stomach; ineffectual effort 
 to vomit. 
 
 "Navel. The round scar at the center of the abdomen, 
 marking the place of attachment of the cord pre- 
 vious to and at birth. 
 
 Neuralgia. Nerve-pain. 
 
 Neurine. The substance of which the brain is com- 
 posed.
 
 440 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Nitrogen, nitrogenous. The gas constituting four 
 fifths of the volume of the atmosphere. 
 
 Noxious. Poisonous ; harmful. 
 
 Nucleus, nuclei. The germinal point in a cell ; kernel. 
 
 Nutrition. Increasing in growth, or supplying the 
 materials for growth. 
 
 Obcordate. Half egg-shape and half heart-shape. 
 
 Obesity. Excessively fat. 
 
 (Esophagus. The food-passage from the throat to the 
 
 stomach. 
 
 CEstruation. Periodical sexual desire ; heat. 
 Oleaginous. Oily. 
 Ophthalmoscope. An instrument for examining the 
 
 interior of the eye by concentrated and reflected 
 
 light. 
 Optic nerve. The nerve conveying visual impressions 
 
 from the eye to the brain. 
 Osmosis. Attraction of fluids for each other through 
 
 moist membranes and their motion. 
 Occicles. Little bones. 
 Ounce. One sixteenth of a pound ; in fluids, eight 
 
 drachms or teaspoonfuls. 
 Oxygen. The gas constituting one flfth the volume of 
 
 the atmosphere. It supports combustion. 
 
 Pad. A folded cloth used as a support. 
 
 Palate. Roof of the mouth. 
 
 Palatine arch. The arch in the rear of the mouth, 
 
 formed by the palate bone. 
 
 Palsy. Loss of sensation or motion, or both ; paralysis. 
 Pancreas, pancreatic juice. A large gland in the 
 
 abdomen, beneath and behind the stomach. Its 
 
 secretion. 
 Papillae. Little raised points upon the surface ; they 
 
 can be seen upon the tongue. 
 Papulose, papular. With dry pimples. 
 Paralysis. To lose the power of motion in a part, or 
 
 sensation, or both. 
 
 Parasites. Animals or plants that subsist upon others. 
 Parenchyma. The texture of organs like the liver, 
 
 kidneys, etc. 
 Parotid gland. A gland at the angle of the lower 
 
 jaw which secretes saliva and discharges it by a 
 
 short tube upon the cheek near an upper molar 
 
 (back) tooth. 
 Paroxysm. The period of more aggravated symptoms, 
 
 following an interval of comparative freedom. 
 Parturition. Childbirth. 
 Pathology. That department of medical science 
 
 whose object is the knowledge of disease. 
 Pelvis. The bony structure at the termination of the 
 
 spine, enveloping and protecting the lower intes- 
 tines, bladder, genitals, etc. 
 Pentandria Monogynia. A name given to a class of 
 
 plants having five stamens and one style. 
 Percussion. Striking with the finger-tips to discover 
 
 by the resonance the condition of internal parts. 
 Perineum. The part between the genitals and the 
 
 anus or tip of the spine. 
 Periodicity. Occurring at regular periods, as a chill 
 
 every other day, etc. 
 
 Periosteum. The tough membrane covering all bones. 
 Peristaltic. The peculiar motion of the intestines 
 
 which propels its contents forward, somewhat like 
 
 the crawling of a worm. 
 Peritoneum. The membrane lining the abdominal 
 
 walls and covering the intestines. 
 Petaloid. Resembling a leaf-stock. 
 Petals. The colored leaves of a flower. 
 Pharmacist, pharmaceutist. One who manufactures 
 
 drugs. 
 
 Pharmacy. The manufacture of drugs. 
 Pharynx. The posterior portion of the cavity of the 
 
 mouth, behind the palate, above the windpipe and 
 
 gullet. The breath and food pass through it. 
 Phosphorus, phosphates. A substance familiar to 
 
 us in matches. It is a constituent of the brain and 
 
 nerves. 
 Phrenic nerve. The respiratory nerve. It arises in 
 
 the neck, passes through it and the chest, and is 
 
 mainly distributed to the diaphragm. 
 Physiology. The functions of the organs of the body ; 
 
 the phenomena of life. 
 
 Pile-compressor. An instrument supporting the rec- 
 tum and anus. 
 Placenta. A fleshy body attached to the womb and by 
 
 a cord to the child, supplying blood and.nourish- 
 
 ment before birth. 
 
 Plasma. The fluid portion of the blood holding in 
 
 solution fibrine, albumen, etc. 
 Plastic. Formative. 
 
 Plethora. Abounding in blood; full-blooded. 
 Pleura. A wetted membrane lining the walls of the 
 
 chest and covering the outer surface of the lung. 
 
 There are two. 
 
 Plexus. A network of Wood- vessels or nerves. 
 Pneumogastric nerve. The great nerve distributed 
 
 to the chest and stomach. 
 Polypus. A kind of tumor. 
 Post-mortem. After death. 
 Prepuce. The prolonged skin of the penis which 
 
 covers the glans or head. 
 
 Probang. A whalebone rod with a sponge on one end. 
 Probe. A wire for examining wounds, canals, etc. 
 Prophylactic. Preventive. 
 Prostate gland. A gland at the upper portion-of the 
 
 urethra surrounding it and touching the bladder. 
 Psoas muscle. The great muscle which draws the 
 
 thigh up to the abdomen. 
 Puberty. That period of life, about the age of 13, 
 
 when the procreative organs most rapidly develop; 
 
 hair grows about them and upon the face of the 
 
 male, the breasts of the female enlarge, and, in fact, 
 
 the period of youth has passed and that of manhood 
 
 or womanhood 'arrived. 
 
 Pubic bone. A bone in the lower abdomen immedi- 
 ately under that part of the surface covered with 
 
 hair. 
 Pulse. The beating or throbbing of arteries produced 
 
 by afflux of blood from heart. 
 Pupil. The circular opening in the colored part of the 
 
 eye (iris). 
 
 Purgative. A medicine causing free alvine discharges. 
 Pus. Matter discharged from inflamed tissue. 
 Pustules. Mattery pimples. 
 
 Receptaculum chyli. A hollow organ for holding 
 
 Rectum, rectal. That portion of the bowels nearest 
 
 the outlet. 
 
 Recuperate. To regain health and strength. 
 Regurgitate. To flow backward. 
 Remission. Decrease in fever. 
 Renal. Pertaining to the kidney. 
 Respiration. Breathing. 
 Retching. Ineffectual effort to vomit. 
 Retina. The lining of the eye. 
 Revulsive. Agents which create diseased action on 
 
 the surface to relieve internal disorder. 
 Roboraut. Strengthening ; tonic. 
 R, recipe. Take the articles following. 
 
 Saccharine. Of the nature of sugar. 
 
 Saliva. One of the digestive fluids which is mixed 
 with the food during mastication. 
 
 Sanitarium. A remedial institute. 
 
 Schneiderian membrane. The lining of the nasal 
 cavity. 
 
 Scrofulous. Of the nature of scrofula. 
 
 Scrotum. The skin covering the testicles. 
 
 Sebaceous. A name givan to the oil-glands of the 
 skin. 
 
 Secernent. Secreting. 
 
 Secrete, secretion. Drawing out fluids from the 
 blood; each gland absorbs material peculiar to it- 
 self. 
 
 Sedatives. Remedies which control or depress exces- 
 sive vital action. 
 
 Self-pollution. Personal excitement of the sexual 
 organs. 
 
 Semen. The fecundating fluid of the male which is 
 secreted by the testicles. 
 
 Seminal. Pertaining to semen or sperm. 
 
 Sensorium. The center of sensations. 
 
 Sepals. The leaves of the envelope of a flower. 
 
 Serum, serous. The watery portion of animal fluids. 
 
 Sigmoid flexure. A bend in the iutestines just above 
 the rectum. 
 
 Sinapism. An irritating plaster. 
 
 Sound. A solid rod, catheter shape. 
 
 Spasms. Violent and involuntary muscular move- 
 ments. 
 
 Specific disease. Syphilitic diseases ; private diseases. 
 
 Speculum. An Instrument for dilating the orifice to 
 internal canals or cavities. 
 
 Spermatic. Pertaining to sperm or the organs of gen- 
 eration.
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, HYGIENE, DIETETICS. 
 
 441 
 
 Spermatic cord. A cord consisting of blood-vessels, 
 nerves, and the canal of the sperm, which supports 
 the testicle. 
 
 Spermatozoa. The formative agents in generation 
 found in the semen of the male. 
 
 Sphincter. A round muscle closing an outlet. 
 
 Spicula. A splinter of bone. 
 
 Spleen. A spongy organ situated deep in the upper 
 abdomen, between the kidney and stomach. 
 
 Sputa. Expectorated matter. 
 
 Squamous. Scalv. 
 
 Stercoraceous. Excrementitious. 
 
 Sternutatives. Remedies which provoke sneezing. 
 
 Stethoscope. An instrument for exploring the chest. 
 
 Sthenic. Possessing excessive strength. 
 
 Stun. Unconsciousness produced by a blow or fall. 
 
 Stupor. Diminished sensibility or exercise of the in- 
 tellectual faculties. 
 
 Styptic. Arresting hemorrhage ; astringent. 
 
 Subliiisual gland. A salivary gland under the tongue. 
 
 Sudoriferous. A name given to the sweat glands of 
 the skin. 
 
 Suppository. A semi-solid medicine deposited in the 
 rectum. 
 
 Suppurate. To discharge matter or pus. 
 
 Suspensory bandage. A bandage for supporting the 
 scrotum. 
 
 Sympathetic nerves. The nervous system of the auto- 
 matic functions. 
 
 Symptom. A sign of disease. 
 
 Syncope. Fainting. 
 
 Tampon. A plug made of lint or cotton. 
 
 Tapping. Drawingoff fluids in cavities by puncturing 
 
 the surface. 
 
 Tenesmus. Violent contractions. 
 Testes. The male organs contained in the scrotum. 
 Testicles. Testes. 
 
 Tetanus. Permanent contraction of muscles. 
 Therapeutics. The department of medical science 
 
 concerned in the treatment of disease. 
 Thoracic. Pertaining to the chest. 
 Thyroid glands. Throat glands. 
 Tissues. The anatomical elements cf organs. 
 Tonics. Remedies which improve the health and 
 
 strength. 
 Tonsil. A gland at the side of the tfiroat near the soft 
 
 palate. 
 
 Toxic. Poisonous. 
 Trachea. That part of thewindpipe between the larynx 
 
 or vocal organs and the bronchial tubes. 
 Traumatic. Pertaining to a wound. 
 Tubercle. Concretions of degenerated matter. 
 Tubule. A little tube or canal. 
 Tympanitic. Having a drum-like sound from the 
 
 accumulation of air. 
 Tympanum. The drum of the ear. 
 
 Ulcer, ulceration. A chronic sore situated in the soft 
 
 parts. A diseased action resulting in ulcer. 
 Umbilicus. The navel. 
 l"r;i>mic. Pertaining to urine. 
 Urea. A constituent of urine. 
 Ureters. The canals, two in number, carrying the 
 
 urine from the kidneys to the bladder. 
 Urethra. The can? 1 or "pipe leading from the bladder 
 
 for the conveyance of urine from the body. 
 Uric acid. A constituent of urine; in excess it forms 
 
 combinations, producing calculus or stone. 
 Urine. The secretion of the kidneys which collects in 
 
 the bladder and is discharged through the urethra. 
 Uterus. An organ situated between the bladder and 
 
 rectum and above the vagina, which holds the foetus 
 
 during gestation. 
 Uvula. A fleshy organ, hanging from the center of the 
 
 soft palate. 
 
 Vaccine. Pertaining to smallpox. 
 
 Vagina. The canal, five or six inches in length, lead- 
 ing to the uterus or womb. 
 
 Varicose. Pertaining to a dilated vein. 
 
 Vascular. Full of blood-vessels. 
 
 Vaso-motor. Affecting vessels by reflex nervous 
 action. 
 
 Vein. A blood-vessel which, with one exception, car- 
 ries the blue or venous blood. 
 
 Ventricle. A chamber in the heart. 
 
 Vertigo. Dizziness. 
 
 Vesicle. A bladder-like sac. 
 
 Vesicular. Full of little vessels. 
 
 Vicarious. In place of another ; a function performed 
 
 through other than the natural channels. 
 Virus. The poison transmitting infectious disease, 
 i Viscus, viscera. An organ of the body. Organs. 
 Vitality. The vital principle. 
 Void. To evacuate. 
 Vomiting. Emptying the stomach upward. 
 
 Water-brash. A profuse flow of saliva. 
 
 Womb. An organ situated between the bladder and 
 
 rectum and above the vagina, which holds the foetus 
 
 during gestation. 
 
 Zoon, Zoa. Animal. Animals. 
 Zymotic. Epidemic and contagious. 
 
 SICK ROOM. 
 
 In preparing a meal for anyone whose appe- 
 tite is delicate, it should be made to look as 
 tempting as possible. The tray should be 
 covered with the whitest napkin, and the sil- 
 ver, glass, and china should shine with clean- 
 liness. There should not be too great a 
 variety of viands, and but a very small portion 
 of each one. Nothing more quickly disgusts 
 a feeble appetite than a quantity of food pre- 
 sented at one time. 
 
 The patient should never be consulted be- 
 forehand as to what he will eat or what he 
 will drink. If he asks for anything, give it to 
 him, with the doctor's permission ; otherwise 
 prepare something he is known to like, and 
 offer it without previous comment. One of 
 the chief offices of a good nurse is to think for 
 her patient. His slightest want should be an- 
 ticipated and gratified before he has had time 
 to express it. Quick observation will enable 
 her to detect the first symptom of worry or 
 excitement, and to remove the cause. An in- 
 valid should never be teased with the exertion 
 of making a decision. Whether the room is 
 too hot or too cold ; whether chicken broth, or 
 beef tea, or gruel is best for his luncheon, and 
 all similar matters, are questions which should 
 be decided without appealing to him. 
 
 Household troubles should be kept as far as 
 possible from the sick room. Squabbles of 
 children or servants should never find an echo 
 there. In the event of some calamity occur- 
 ring, for which it is absolutely necessary the 
 sufferer should be informed, the ill news 
 should be broken as gently as possible, and 
 every soothing device employed to help him 
 to bear the shock. 
 
 Above all, an invalid, or even a person 
 apparently convalescent, should be saved from 
 his friends. One garrulous acquaintance ad- 
 mitted for half an hour will undo the good 
 done by a week of tender nursing. Whoever 
 is the responsible person should know how 
 much her patient can bear ; she should keep 
 a careful watch on visitors of whose discretion 
 she is uncertain, and the moment she preceives 
 it to be necessary, politely but firmly dismiss 
 them.
 
 442 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 She must carry out implicitly the doctor's 
 directions, particularly those regarding medi- 
 cine and diet. Strict obedience to his orders, 
 a faithful, diligent, painstaking following of 
 his instructions, will insure to the sufferer the 
 best results from his skill, and bring order, 
 method, and regularity into domestic nursing. 
 
 Temperature. Excessive heat, long con- 
 tinued, is detrimental to health. It causes in 
 man, enlargement of the liver, jaundice, indi- 
 gestion, diarrhoea, dysentery, dropsy, etc., 
 and hastens the fatal termination of a majority 
 of human maladies. In geese it causes the 
 enlarged liver, employed in making the cele- 
 brated pate de foie gras. 
 
 Excessive cold, long continued, is less prej- 
 udicial than excessive heat, except to the old 
 and feeble. 
 
 Exposure of a limited portion of the body to 
 cold disturbs the equilibrium of both the nerv- 
 ous and vascular systems, causing local con- 
 gestions, or "colds." 
 
 " If the wind strikes you through a hole, 
 Go count your beads and mind your soul." 
 
 Old Proverb. 
 
 Do not stand long upon the cold ground on 
 a warm spring day. It is equally dangerous 
 to sit upon anything cold on a warm day. 
 
 Keep the head cool and the feet warm. 
 
 Sudden changes of extreme temperature are 
 not necessarily injurious. If the heat or the 
 cold is applied only for a few minutes, as in 
 certain baths, etc., it often proves invigorating. 
 
 The most perfect examples of physical and 
 mental development are not usually found in 
 regions having the most uniform temperature, 
 but in those which have a considerable range 
 of temperature. 
 
 Exercise in the cold air contracts and 
 strengthens the muscles and toughens the 
 sinews. 
 
 In general, the best temperature for health 
 is that in which one cannot be comfortable for 
 any length of time without exercise. With 
 most persons this is a temperature of from 58 
 to 63 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Radiated heat is better than heated columns 
 of air. The sun, and an open fireplace or 
 grate furnish radiated heat. 
 
 Hot air furnaces, with registers opening 
 directly into the rooms, supply only heated 
 columns of air ; which are generally dry and 
 impure. Rooms thus warmed are first and 
 most heated near the ceiling. 
 
 Air heated by red hot, or very hot iron, is 
 rendered in a great measure unfit for respira- 
 tion. 
 
 Light. Light is essential to the perfect 
 life of most vegetables and of most animals. 
 
 To render a plant brittle and watery, the 
 gardener excludes from it completely the rays 
 of the sun. Etiolation has the same effect 
 upon man and other animals. 
 
 Without light, man becomes scrofulous, 
 rickety, goitrous, consumptive, and dies in a 
 state of premature decrepitude. 
 
 Children reared without light and air are 
 in the animal kingdom what good celery is in 
 the vegetable kingdom, white and succulent ; 
 but they wilt under the slightest touch of frost, 
 and are broken under the slightest pressure. 
 
 Children should not be sent into parks with 
 their faces veiled. Patients on the sunny side 
 of a hospital ward recover the soonest. 
 
 Light gives a bronzed, or "tan " color to 
 the skin ; but where it uproots the lily, it 
 plants the rose. 
 
 Light is one of the most valuable disin- 
 fectants. 
 
 Air and light, are among the best medi- 
 cines known to man.
 
 Book VI. 
 
 Finance, Industry, Trans- 
 portation.
 
 EARLY FORMS OF CURRENCY. 
 
 Skins of wild animals cured constitute one 
 of the earliest forms of currency known, and 
 while employed in the most ancient times, are 
 not yet disused in some portions of the world. 
 Such a medium seems appropriate among those 
 who subsist by the chase, as all primeval peo- 
 ples must in some degree, and it is not, there- 
 fore, surprising to find that in the transactions 
 of the Hudson Bay Fur Company with the 
 Indians, the unit of value by which the price 
 of other articles was reckoned was the beaver 
 skin. 
 
 Pastoral people employ similarly the skins 
 of tame animals, originally delivering the en- 
 tire skin, a cumbrous process deficient in con- 
 venience and economy, but finally employing a 
 small disc cut from the leather as a represent- 
 ative of its value. Live stock is also widely 
 employed, as it has been from the days of 
 Abraham, and though a rude, it is still a sub- 
 stantially uniform, denominator of value. The 
 Greeks stamped the image of an ox on a piece 
 of leather, and the image had thence the cur- 
 rent value of the animal represented. In the 
 East, the camel, the ass, and the sheep have 
 been, ever since they were subdued to the uses 
 of mankind, employed to reckon possessions 
 or determine the amount of tribute or marriage 
 portions. In Lapland and some portions of 
 Sweden and Norway, the amount of wealth 
 possessed by a person is denominated in rein- 
 deer. Among the Tartars the number of mares 
 similarly determines the opulence of their pos- 
 sessors. Among the Esquimaux it is custom- 
 ary to speak of one another as worth so many 
 dogs. 
 
 Slaves have been employed to determine 
 ratios of value since the state of bondage was 
 first established among men. In New Guinea 
 the slave is still the unit by which the value of 
 other possessions is recorded, as he used to be 
 among the Portuguese traders of the Gold 
 Coast. The Portuguese also found small mats 
 called libongoes, valued at about one and one 
 halfpence each, employed as currency on the 
 African coast, and bunches of red feathers 
 serve by their comparative stability to mark 
 the fluctuations of yams and breech-clouts in 
 some of the tropical islands of the Pacific. 
 Some tribes of North American Indians found 
 wampum as useful in their rather limited mer- 
 cantile transactions as the merchant of South 
 street or Burling slip finds greenbacks or bills 
 of exchange. 
 
 Cowry shells are still extensively used in 
 
 East India, Siam, and among some of the 
 islands of the Indian Archipelago. Among 
 the Fijians whales' teeth pass readily from 
 hand to hand, effecting all necessary inter- 
 changes, the red teeth being taken at about 
 twenty times the value of the white ones. 
 
 Ornaments of all kinds have in all times 
 constituted measures of value. In Egypt, 
 Phoenicia, Etruria, and many other ancient 
 countries, as well as in Ireland and Northum- 
 bria, rings have been found which were de- 
 signed to serve the double purpose of orna- 
 ment and currency, and the same dual function 
 may be ascribed to the anklets, armlets, and 
 earrings which are worn throughout British 
 India, Persia, Egypt, and Abyssinia. The 
 Goths and Celts fashioned their rings of thick 
 golden wire wound in spirals, from which va- 
 rious lengths could be broken to accommodate 
 the varying needs of traffic. Gold chains have 
 been similarly employed. In many countries 
 golden beads are yet hoarded, worn, and circu- 
 lated, fulfilling thus the triple functions of 
 money, inasmuch as they constitute at once 
 a store of value, a standard of value, and 
 an instrument of exchange. Amber was 
 used as currency by the savage races of 
 the Baltic in the period of the Roman do- 
 minion, as it still is in some of the regions 
 of the East. The Egyptian scarabee carved 
 on sard or nephrite or other precious stones, 
 circulated freely through out the Mediterranean 
 coasts and islands probably before the first 
 Phoenician coin was impressed, ; and engraved 
 gems and precious stones were employed to 
 transfer wealth as well from one country to 
 another as from hand to hand until a compar- 
 atively recent period. In Africa ivory tusks 
 pass to and fro in the processes of trade, rudely 
 defining the ratio of value of other articles. 
 Among the Tartars, bricks of tea, or cubes of 
 that herb pressed into a solid form, pass from 
 hand to hand as freely as beaver skins do at 
 the trading posts of Hudson Bay or the Sas- 
 katchewan. Among the Malayans the only 
 currency entirely equal to the requirements of 
 trade consists of rough hardware, such as hoes, 
 shovels, and the like. Pieces of cotton cloth 
 of a fixed length, called Guinea cloth, for a 
 long period constituted the unit of value in 
 Senegal, Abyssinia, Mexico, Peru, Siberia, and 
 some of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. In 
 Sumatra, cubes of beeswax of a fixed weight ; 
 in Scotland handmade nails ; in Switzerland, 
 eggs; in Newfoundland, dried codfishljdn Vir- 
 ginia, tobacco; in Yucatan, cacao nuts; in
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 445 
 
 the Greek Islands and the Levant, olive oil ; 
 in the regions of the Upper Nile, salt, have all, 
 at one time or another, served the purposes of 
 commercial interchange. In agricultural coun- 
 tries it is not strange that corn should have 
 early been adopted as a measure of value. The 
 leasesof the great school foundations of Britain, 
 Cambridge, Oxford, and Eton, with probably 
 many others, were "corn leases," that is, 
 specifying that the rental should consist of so 
 many quarters of corn. In Norway, corn is 
 deposited in banks and lent and borrowed on 
 time or call loans, as money is with us. In 
 Central America and Mexico, maize was long 
 employed to serve the uses of currency. 
 
 In New England, in the early colonial days, 
 leaden bullets were employed to indicate value, 
 and that metal is still coined and circulated in 
 Burmah. Pewter has often been coined, and 
 iu many countries, though not to the same ex- 
 tent as tin. In fact, tin coins are not only of 
 immense antiquity, but their impress has been 
 sanctioned by government authority down to 
 a recent period. The Phoenician mariners 
 freighted their galleys with the tin of Britain 
 before Carthage was founded, and coins of the 
 same oiled the wheels of commerce in the marts 
 of Tyre and Sidon before Solomon built the 
 temple at Jerusalem. In England, as late as 
 the period of William and Mary, tin half-pence 
 and farthings were struck, though they failed 
 to become a permanent part of the circulation. 
 In numismatical collections, series of tin coins 
 stamped with the effigy and legend of sev- 
 eral of the Roman emperors are abundant. 
 In Java as well as Mexico, tin coins were once 
 current, and the metal, measured by weight, is 
 still a sort of legal tender in the Straits of 
 Malacca. 
 
 METALLIC COIXS. 
 
 In all civilized countries, gold, silver, and 
 copper have always constituted the main ele- 
 ments of coinage and the most familiar forms 
 of currency. The ratio of value between the 
 first two has probably varied less during the last 
 2,500 years than that between any other known 
 substances. Copper has fluctuated more, but 
 its function has always been subsidiary and 
 limited to small transactions. In the hierarchy 
 of the metals used as coins, gold may repre- 
 sent the king, silver the lord, and copper the 
 slave. The latter is now practically emanci- 
 pated, bronze and nickel taking its place. In- 
 dium, osmium, and palladium have been pro- 
 posed as substitutes for gold, and aluminum and 
 manganese for silver, but without any practi- 
 cal result thus far. Platinum, which is mainly 
 found in the Ural Mountains, has been coined 
 to some extent by the Russian government ; 
 
 but, although a beautiful and valuable metal, 
 possessing many of the qualities- to render it 
 acceptable as coin, its employment as money 
 has been found to be impracticable. 
 
 Great numbers of alloys have been employed 
 in coinage, and indeed it may be said that al- 
 most the entire system of metallic currency 
 throughout the world is composed of alloys. 
 The Tuscan sequin, the purest coin known in 
 history, contained 999 parts of gold in 1,000. 
 The six ducat piece of Naples was next in pu- 
 rity, having only an alloy of 4, while old By- 
 zantine coins called bezants contained an alloy 
 of 14 parts in 1000. Pure gold and silver, 
 however, are soft metals, and untempered by 
 others are subject to serious loss by abrasion. 
 They are, therefore, rendered more useful by 
 the admixture of a small portion of copper 
 which, in the English system, in the case of 
 gold, may be expressed decimally by 916.60, 
 and of silver 925 parts in 1,000. Nickel is 
 usually alloyed with three parts of copper, and 
 it is noteworthy that its adoption as a subsid- 
 iary coinage in Germany, coincident with the 
 demonetization of silver, caused it to advance 
 rapidly in price, while the latter was as rapidly 
 declining. The old Roman as was made of the 
 mixed metal called ces, a compound of copper 
 and tin, and in quality and value not unlike 
 bronze. Brass was also extensively used from 
 the time of Hiram of Tyre to that of the Em- 
 peror Otho. The old Kings of Northumbria 
 coined a small money called stycas out of a 
 natural alloy, composed of copper, zinc, gold, 
 silver, lead, and .tin, which the metallurgists 
 of that rude northern coast had not enough 
 chemical skill to separate. 
 
 Lycurgus established an iron coinage for 
 Lacedsemon, not only making the coins of such 
 weight and bulk as to forbid their export, but 
 depriving them of their metallic value by caus- 
 ing them while heated to be plunged into vin- 
 egar, thereby destroying their malleability. 
 
 While these coins were the largest of which 
 historic mention is made, the Portuguese rei, 
 too small to be actually coined, is doubtless the 
 smallest unit of value in the money systems of 
 the world. It is only about the nineteenth 
 part of an English penny, and is considerably 
 smaller than the Chinese cash, which, of actual 
 coins, is perhaps of the lowest value known. 
 In Sweden, during the last century, huge 
 squares of copper, weighing between three and 
 four pounds, with a stamp in each corner and 
 one in the center, were issued as coin, and curi- 
 ous specimens of them may still be seen iu 
 mimismatical collections. These, with the 
 Maundy money, a small portion of which is 
 still annually struck at the British Mint, and 
 distributed by Her Majesty in alms, probably
 
 446 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 represent the extremest variation of dimen- 
 sions known among modern systems of coin- 
 age, the smallest piece of the Maundy money 
 being a silver penny. 
 
 The Chinese probably illustrate in the most 
 extreme manner the length to which loose 
 views concerning currency can be carried. The 
 history of their currency presents that mingling 
 of the grotesque with the tragic which most of 
 their actions have when viewed through West- 
 ern eyes. Coined money was known among 
 them as early as the eleventh century before 
 Christ, but their inability to comprehend the 
 principles upon which a currency should be 
 based has led them into all sorts of extrava- 
 gances, which have been attended by dis- 
 order, famine, and bloodshed. Coins came at 
 last to be made so thin that one thousand of 
 them piled together were only three inches 
 high ; then gold and silver were abandoned, and 
 copper, tin, shells, skins, stones, and paper were 
 given a fixed value and used until, by abuse, 
 all the advantages to be derived from the use 
 of money were lost, and there was nothing left 
 for the people to do but to go back to barter, 
 and this they did more than once. They can- 
 not be said now to have a coinage ; 2900 
 years ago they made round coins with a 
 square hole in the middle, and they have since 
 made no advance beyond that. The well- 
 known cash is a cast brass coin of that descrip- 
 tion, and although it is valued at about one 
 mill and a half of United States money, and 
 has to be strung in lots of one thousand to 
 be computed with any ease, it is the sole meas- 
 ure of value and legal tender of the country. 
 Spanish, Mexican, and the new trade dollars 
 of the United States are employed in China ; 
 they pass because they are necessary for larger 
 operations, and because faith in their standard 
 value has become established ; but they are 
 current simply as stamped ingots, with their 
 weight and fineness indicated. 
 
 The coined money of Great Britain is the 
 most elegantly executed, and among the purest 
 in the world. The greater part of the conti- 
 nental coinage is poorly executed and basely 
 alloyed. In Holland, and most of the German 
 states, the coins legally current as silver money 
 are apparently one third brass, and resemble 
 the counterfeit shillings and sixpences of a 
 former period in England. In France and 
 Belgium, the new gold and silver coins are 
 handsome, and so likewise are the large gold 
 and silver pieces of Prussia. The coins and 
 medals executed by direction of Napoleon in 
 France are in a high style of art. 
 
 The Latin Monetary Union was established 
 in December, 1865, for the purpose of main- 
 taining the double standard of metallic cur- 
 
 rency, or keeping silver at a constant ratio 
 with gold. The combination was formed by 
 a union of France, Italy, Belgium, and Swit- 
 zerland. 
 
 The possible depreciation of silver was fore- 
 seen, and some of its fluctuations had been 
 experienced, but it was thought that, by a 
 close union of silver-using powers rating silver 
 at a common value, its price could be made 
 permanent. At first the combination proceeded 
 boldly. It threw open the mints of the Union 
 to bullion owners, declaring' that it would coin 
 silver at the ratio to gold that it had estab- 
 lished of fifteen and one half to one, and pro- 
 claimed that the coins thus issued should have 
 in the markets both a legal tender efficiency 
 and an intrinsic efficiency in exchange exactly 
 represented by that proportion. 
 
 The plan worked well until the year 1873, 
 when Germany demonetized silver. But in the 
 meantime it was sought to give the double 
 standard a broader foundation by bringing 
 other nations into the combination. For 
 this purpose, at the invitation of the French 
 government, forty-five representatives of twen- 
 ty-three countries met at Paris, in 1867. 
 The proposed double standard was examined 
 and discussed from every point of view by 
 men skilled in financial science, and was at 
 last rejected by a vote of forty-three to 
 two. In 1870, there was a second gathering 
 of the same kind, which, by a smaller majority, 
 arrived at the same conclusion. Meantime 
 | silver had begun to accumulate, and deprecia- 
 tion to foreshadow itself more clearly. The 
 demonetization of the metal by Germany gave 
 the first sharp alarm. The Union was imme- 
 diately forced to limit the coinage for 1874 to 
 $24,000.000. This was increased to $30,000,- 
 000 in 1875, but again reduced in 1876 to 
 $24,000,000, and in 1877, to $11,600,000. In 
 the meantime, also, France, Belgium, and 
 Switzerland stopped the coinage of five-franc 
 pieces, thus reducing what silver they had to a 
 large subsidiary currency. Later signs of the 
 dissolution of the Union with the defeat of its 
 objects were supplied by the failure of the 
 monetary conference at Paris, and by the with- 
 drawal of Switzerland from the Union. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, COINED MONEY 
 OF. 
 
 In Great Britain, money of the current and 
 standard coinage is frequently signified by the 
 term sterling, as "one pound sterling," etc. 
 With respect to the origin of the word ster- 
 ling there are three opinions. The first is that it 
 is derived from Stirling Castle, and that Ed- 
 ward I., having penetrated so far into Scotland, 
 caused a coin to be struck there, which he
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 447 
 
 called Stirling. The second opinion derives 
 it from the figure of a bird called starling, 
 which appears about the cross in the ancient 
 arms of England. The third most probably 
 assigns its true origin, by deducing it from 
 Esterling; for in the time of Henry III., it is 
 called Moneta Esterlingorum, the money of 
 the Esterlings or people of the East, who came 
 hither to refine the silver of which it was made, 
 and hence it was valued more than any other 
 coin, on account of the purity of its substance. 
 The denomination of the weights and their 
 parts is of the Saxon or Esterling tongue, as 
 pound, shilling, penny, and farthing, which 
 are so called in their language to the present 
 day. The term sterling is now disused in Eng- 
 land in all ordinary transactions, but is still 
 used in Scotland to distinguish sums from the 
 ancient money of the country, as referred to 
 in old deeds and notices of pecuniary transac- 
 tions. The old Scots' money, previous to the 
 Union of 1707, was in pounds, shillings, and 
 pence, but these were only a twelfth of the 
 value of sterling money of the same denomina- 
 tion ; thus a pound Scots was only twenty 
 pence sterling. The word sterling is also in 
 use in the colonies, to distinguish the legal 
 standard of Great Britain from the currency 
 money in these places. 
 
 It is customary to estimate the purity of 
 gold by an imaginary standard of 24 carats. 
 If in a piece of gold weighing 24 carats there 
 be l-24th of alloy, then the piece is one be- 
 low the standard. What is called jewelers' 
 gold is seldom purer than 20 fine to 4 of alloy 
 the alloy being usually silver, but some- 
 times copper, which gives a deeper red tinge 
 to the metal. Perfectly pure gold is never 
 seen either in trinkets or coins, for it is too 
 ductile, and for that and other reasons requires 
 a certain quantity of alloy. Sovereigns, and 
 other modern English gold coins, contain one 
 twelfth of alloy, but this twelfth is not reck- 
 oned as gold in point of value. At present 
 the gold coin of Great Britain is issued at very 
 nearly its precise market value as bullion. A 
 pound weight of gold of 22 carats fineness 
 produces coins to the amount of 46 pounds, 34 
 shillings, and 6 pence, which is about the price 
 at which bullion sells for in the market. Thus ! 
 the gold of that country is coined free of ex- | 
 pense. In coining silver, the government is ' 
 allowed by the Act of 56, George III., a profit I 
 or seigniorage of about 6 per cent. ; the pound | 
 weight of silver, which should produce 62 
 shillings, being coined into 66 shillings. The ; 
 silver coins being therefore of a little less real 
 value than the sums they represent, they are 
 not liable to be melted down by silversmiths 
 for the manufacture of articles in their trade. 
 
 AMERICAN COINAGE, EARLY. 
 
 The earliest coinage that can be called Amer- 
 | ican, in the sense of Anglo-American, was 
 ! ordered by the original Virginia Company only 
 five years after the founding of Jamestown. 
 The coin was minted at Somers Island, now 
 known as the Bermudas. For a long while 
 the standard currency of Virginia was tobacco, 
 , as in many of the early settlements of the 
 I Northwest it was beaver skins, and other pelts 
 I reckoned as worth such a fraction of a beaver 
 i skin or so many beaver skins. In 1645 the 
 Assembly of the Virginia Colony, after a pre- 
 , amble reciting that ' ' It had maturely weighed 
 ! and considered how advantageous a quoine 
 | would be to this colony, and the great wants 
 ' and miseries which do daily happen unto it by 
 | the sole dependency upon tobacco," provided 
 for the issue of copper coins of the denomina- 
 tion of twopence, threepence, sixpence, and 
 ninepence ; but this law was never carried 
 into effect, so that the first colonial coinage of 
 \ America was that struck off by Massachusetts 
 under the order of the General Court of that 
 colony, passed May 27, 1652, creating a " mint 
 house " at Boston, and providing for the mint- 
 age of " twelvepence, sixpence, and threepence 
 pieces, which shall be for forme flatt, and 
 stamped on the one side with N. E., and on 
 the other side with xiid., vid., and iiid., ac- 
 cording to the value of each pence." In 1662 
 from this same mint appeared the famous 
 "pine tree shillings," which were twopenny 
 pieces, having a pine tree on one side. This 
 mint was maintained for thirty-four years. In 
 the reign of William and Mary copper coins 
 were struck in England for New England and 
 Carolina. Lord Baltimore had silver shillings, 
 sixpences, and fourpences made in England to 
 supply the demand of his province in Mary- 
 land. Vermont and Connecticut established 
 mints in 1785 for the issue of copper coin. 
 New Jersey followed a year later. But Con- 
 gress had the establishment of a mint for the 
 confederated States under advisement, and in 
 this same year agreed upon apian submitted by 
 Thomas Jefferson, and the act went into opera- 
 tion on a small scale in 1787. After the adop- 
 tion of the Constitution of the United States in 
 1789 all the state mints were closed, as the 
 Constitution specifically places the sole power 
 of coining money in the Federal Government. 
 
 The gold pieces are : 
 
 1. The double eagle, or $20 piece. Coin- 
 age of the double eagle was authorized by the 
 Act of March 3, 1849. Its weight is 516 
 grains. Its fineness is 900. (This technical 
 form of expression means that 900 parts in 
 1,000 are pure metal, the other 100 parts are 
 alloy.) The amount of coinage of the double
 
 446 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 agle is far greater than that of all the other 
 gold pieces of the country. 
 
 2. The eagle, or $10 piece. Its coinage 
 was authorized by the Act of April 2, 1792. 
 The weight was first established by law at 
 270 grains, bat was changed forty-two years 
 afterward, by the Act of June 28, 1834, to 258 
 grains, where it has remained ever since. Its 
 fineness was in the beginning made 916, 
 but was changed by the Act of June 28, 
 1834, the same act that lowered its weight, to 
 899.225. Two years and a half subsequently 
 its fineness was increased less than one part 
 in a thousand to 900. Its weight and fine- 
 ness have remained thus fixed to the present 
 day. 
 
 3. The half eagle, or $5 piece. This ele- 
 gant coin has undergone the same vicissitudes 
 as the eagle. Its coinage was authorized by 
 the same Act of April 2, 1792. Its weight 
 was 135 grains, and its fineness 916. By the 
 Act of June 28, 1834, its weight was reduced 
 to 129 grains, and its fineness to 899.225. By 
 the Act of January 16, 1857, its fineness was 
 slightly raised to the uniform standard of 900. 
 Its weight and fineness have thus remained to 
 our time. 
 
 4. The quarter eagle, or $2. 50 piece. This 
 fine coin belongs to the same family with the 
 eagle and half eagle. Its coinage was author- 
 ized, its weight and fineness correspondingly 
 altered, by the same acts. The statute of 1792 
 made its weight 67.5 grains and its fineness 
 916. Its weight was reduced to 64.5 grains 
 and its fineness to 800.225 by the Act of 1834. 
 The Act of 1837 raised its fineness to 900. 
 
 5. The dollar. This pretty little gold piece 
 was created by the Act of March 3, 1849, the 
 same act that authorized the coinage of the 
 double eagle. It has remained unchanged. 
 Its weight is 25.8 grains and its fineness 900. 
 
 6. Three-dollar piece. An Act of February 
 21, 1853, established this irregular coin. Its 
 weight, 77.4 grains, and its fineness 900, are 
 of the normal standard, and have not been 
 changed by subsequent acts. 
 
 In gold coin the alloy was at first a com- 
 pound of silver and copper. It was forbidden 
 by statute that the alloy should be more than 
 half silver. It is now nearly all copper, owing 
 to advances in the art of assaying and im- 
 proved methods in coinage. 
 
 There are four coining mints, located at 
 Philadelphia, Pa. ; San Francisco, Cal. ; Car- 
 son City, Nev. ; and New Orleans, La., the 
 last one being put in operation on January 20, 
 1879. The largest proportion of assaying and 
 refining is done at New York city ; Helena, 
 Montana ; Bois6 City, Idaho ; and Denver, 
 Colorado. 
 
 The Philadelphia Mint is capable of turning 
 out aboutf 1,500,000 in coined money a month ; 
 the San Francisco Mint, $1,000,000 ; the Car- 
 son City Mint, $500,000 ; and the New Or- 
 leans Mint about 500,000 pieces of various 
 denominations. Under the law of February 28, 
 1878, which required that between 2,000,000 
 and 4,000,000 of the new (" Bland ") dollars 
 should be turned out by the mints every 
 month, the coining facilities of the govern- 
 ment were severely tested to produce this par- 
 ticular silver coin, and maintain the usual 
 supply of gold and subsidiary coins. Silver is 
 sent from the assay offices to the mints pure, 
 or 999 fine, which is about as pure as silver 
 can be. It is sent in large bars, and, when 
 received at the mint, is melted and alloyed 
 with copper. Coin silver is 900 fine. 
 
 The first silver coins were struck in 1794 
 (authorized in 1792), at the Philadelphia Mint, 
 and consisted of 1,758 dollars, and 10,600 half 
 dollars, and a few half dimes (5 cents), more 
 for curiosities than use. In the succeeding 
 year the issue was 203,033 dollars, 323,038 
 half dollai-s, no quarters, no dimes, and 86,416 
 half dimes. In 1796 the mint coined only 
 72,920 dollars, and 3,918 half dollars, with 
 2,948 quarters. In 1797 the number of dol- 
 lars issued was 2,776, and the mint records 
 state that there were no half dollars and only 
 252 quarters. Dollars only were coined in 
 1798. In 1796 the head of Liberty was 
 changed, and a new head, inferior in point of 
 comeliness, substituted. This also had flow- 
 ing locks, but these were bound by a broad 
 fillet, and hence the name " fillet dollars." 
 In 1798 there were no halves nor quarters, 
 and there were none in 1799, nor again in 
 1800. But in the following year the half 
 dollars were commenced again, being of the 
 fillet series, with the heraldic eagle on the 
 reverse. 
 
 1804 is the annus mir<i7>i/i.* of the American 
 silver coins. According to the records, 19,570 
 dollars were issued, 156,519 halves, and 6.738 
 quarters. There are but two dollars of 1804 
 known to exist, and these are said to have been 
 struck surreptitiously from the original die at 
 the Philadelphia mint in 1827. The value of 
 these two to numismaticians is enormous; as 
 high as $1,000 has been refused for one of 
 them. 
 
 The first dollar pieces (1792) contained 416 
 grains of silver of 892.7 fineness, and this pro- 
 portion was maintained until 1873, when the 
 quantity of silver was reduced to 412.5 grains, 
 and the fineness increased to 900. The fifty- 
 cent pieces, from 1792 to 1837, contained 208 
 grains, 892.7 fineness, and the twenty-five cent 
 pieces a proportionate amount ; and both were
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 subjected to a reduction in number of grains 
 and increase in fineness in 1873. The ten- 
 cent pieces contained 41.6 grains, of standard 
 fineness, and now bear 38.58 grains under the 
 new standard of fineness. From 1 51 to 1853, 
 the five-cent pieces were composed of 12.375 
 grains, 750 fine, and from 1853 to 1873, when 
 their coinage was abolished, 11.52 grains, 900 
 fine. The old copper cents, authorized in 
 1792, contained 264 grains ; the next year the 
 amount was reduced to 208, and three years 
 later to 168. As a purely copper token this 
 coin was abolished shortly after the last reduc- 
 tion in the number of grains. The two-cent 
 piece of April, 1864, contained 96 grains of 
 copper, zinc, and tin, and was discontinued in 
 1873. The half-cent pieces were established 
 in 1792, containing 132 grains ; this amount 
 was reduced in 1793 to 104, and in 1796 to 84. 
 None are coined now. An act of March, 1875, 
 authorized the coinage of a silver twenty-cent 
 piece, containing 77. 16 grains, 900 fine. This 
 coin being but a trifle smaller than the twenty- 
 five cent piece, led to such a general confusion 
 of the two, that in 1878 its coinage was 
 stopped. But few are now found in circula- 
 tion. The one-cent piece of present use was 
 authorized in 1857, and consisted of 72 grains 
 of copper and nickel, and in 1864 this compo- 
 sition was changed to 48 grains of copper, 
 zinc, and tin. Finally, the five and three cent 
 nickel pieces were authorized in 1866 and 1865 
 respectively; the latter has a comparatively 
 small circulation. 
 
 The amount of standard silver dollars coined 
 from February 28, 1878, to October 31, 1882, 
 was *128,329",880, cf which $93,006,382 re- 
 mained in the Treasury, and $35,323,498 was 
 placed in circulation." Of the $30,007,175 
 coined in the thirteen months preceding Octo- 
 ber 31, 1882, 2,950,072 went into circulation, 
 and (27,057,103 remained in the Treasury. 
 
 The total value of the minor coin in the 
 Treasury on September 1, 1882, was $504,- 
 515.29. The supply of five-cent nickel coins 
 in the Treasury, which three years previous 
 reached the sum of $1,184,252.95, had been 
 exhausted, and their coinage was resumed by 
 the mint. None of these coins are supplied 
 by the Treasury, but the one-cent and five-cent 
 pieces are furnished in multiples of 20 by the 
 mint, which bears the expense of their trans- 
 portation . 
 
 BANKS. 
 
 The term bank, in reference to commerce, 
 signifies a place of deposit of money, and is 
 derived from the Italian banco, a seat or bench, 
 because the early custodians and dealers in 
 money in Italy were accustomed to sit on 
 
 benches in the market places of the principal 
 towns. During the middle ages, in which 
 commerce was but little developed, there could 
 be no field open for banking as a business ; 
 but on the revival of business in the twelfth 
 century, and when the cities of Italy engrossed 
 nearly all the trade of Europe, the necessity 
 arose again for the employment of bankers. 
 The successful manufacturing efforts of the 
 Florentines brought them into commercial 
 dealings with different countries in Europe, 
 and thence arose the establishment of banks as 
 private concerns. The earliest public bank 
 established in modern Europe was that of 
 Venice, which was founded in 1157. About 
 the year 1350, the cloth merchants of Barce- 
 lona, then a wealthy body, added the business 
 of banking to their other commercial pursuits ; 
 being authorized so to do by an ordinance of 
 the King of Aragon, which contained the im- 
 portant stipulation that they should be re- 
 stricted from acting as bankers until they 
 should have given sufficient security for the 
 liquidation of their engagements. In 1401 a 
 bank was opened by the functionaries of the 
 city, which was both a bank of deposit and of 
 circulation, the first of the kind ever estab- 
 lished in Europe. 
 
 The Bank of Genoa was planned and par- 
 tially organized in 1345, but was not brought 
 into. operation until 1407, when the numerous 
 loans which the Republic had contracted with 
 its citizens were consolidated, and formed the 
 nominal capital stock of the bank. As secu- 
 rity for its capital in the hands of the Republic, 
 this bank, which was given the name of the 
 Chamber of St. George, received in pledge the 
 Island of Corsica, and several other depend- 
 encies of Genoa. Since 1800, when the French, 
 besieged in Genoa, appropriated its treasure to 
 the payment of their troops, the bank has had 
 little other than a nominal existence. 
 
 The banks of note next established, of which 
 records remain, were opened in Holland and 
 in Hamburg. The most celebrated of these 
 was the Bank of Amsterdam, established in 
 1609, simply as a bank of deposit, under the 
 guaranty of the city. The credit given in 
 the bank for foreign coin and the worn coin of 
 the country was called bank money, to distin- 
 guish it from current money of the place ; 
 and as the regulations directed that all bills 
 drawn upon or negotiated at Amsterdam, of 
 the value of 600 guilders and iipwards, must 
 be paid in bank-money, every merchant was 
 obliged to keep an account with the bank, in 
 order to make his ordinary payments. The 
 Bank of Hamburg was established in 1619, on 
 the model of that of Amsterdam originally. 
 Deposits are received only in bullion, and a
 
 450 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 charge is made for their safe keeping. It ad- 
 vances money on jewels up to three fourths of 
 their value. The city is responsible for all 
 deposits, which may be sold at auction if they 
 remain eighteen months without payment of 
 charges. If the value is not claimed within 
 three years, the property in the deposits is lost, 
 and passes to the poor fund of the city. 
 
 Next in point of date among these establish- 
 ments is the Bank of England, which was 
 opened in 1694. It was originally chartered 
 for ten years, and the charter has since been 
 prolonged, by various renewals, till August 1, 
 1879, and, from that date, subject to a year's 
 notice. The Bank of England is, and always 
 has been, the government bank, transacting 
 for it all the banking business of the nation, 
 receiving the produce of the taxes, loans, etc., 
 and paying the interest of the public debt, the 
 drafts of the Treasury, and other public de- 
 partments, transferring stock, etc. For this 
 service the bank receives, exclusive of the -use 
 of the balances of the public money in its 
 hands, about 95,000 a year. 
 
 Down to 1797 the bank always had paid its 
 notes on demand. But in 1796 and the early 
 part of 1797, owing to rumors of a French in- 
 vasion, there was a run made on the bank, 
 and it was feared that a suspension was inevi- 
 table. In February, 1797, Mr. Pitt, appre- 
 hensive that he might not be able to obtain 
 sufficient specie for foreign payments, in con- 
 sequence of the low state of the bank reserve, 
 procured the issue of an order in council, re- 
 quiring the bank to suspend specie payments. 
 The suspension lasted till 1819, and is known 
 to writers on finance as "the period of the 
 bank restriction." The bank's notes, how- 
 ever, continued to circulate, and a committee 
 of the House of Commons reported soon after 
 the suspension that the bank was not merely 
 possessed of the most ample funds to meet all 
 its engagements, but that it had a surplus 
 stock, after the deduction of all demands, of 
 no less than 15,513,000. 
 
 The Bank of England is the custodian of the 
 reserves of the several London banks and pri- 
 vate bankers. These deposited reserves are, 
 for the most part, loaned out by the bank. 
 Then, again, the reserves of the country banks, 
 and of the Scotch and Irish bankers as well, 
 are deposited with the great English banks, 
 which, in their turn, keep their reserves at the 
 Bank of England. Therefore the reserve in 
 the banking department of the Bank of Eng- 
 land is the banking reserve not only of the 
 Bank of England but of all London, and not 
 only of all London, but of all England, Ire- 
 land, and Scotland. The credit system of Great 
 Britain depends upon the security of the Bank 
 of England. 
 
 The Bank of Vienna, established in 1703 
 as a bank of deposit and circulation, became a 
 bank of issue in 1793. This institution now 
 does comparatively little commercial business : 
 being recognized as a means of the govern- 
 ment for managing the public debt and fi- 
 nances. 
 
 The Banks of Berlin and Breslau were 
 founded in 1765 under the direct authority of 
 the government. They are banks of deposit 
 and issue, and also discount bills of exchange. 
 In some important particulars the banking 
 system of Germany resembles that of the 
 United States, the Imperial Bank and its 
 branches in nearly every town corresponding 
 to the American chain of National Banks. 
 The Imperial Bank enjoys an enormous monop- 
 oly of immunities and powers. 
 
 Russian Banks. During the reign of the 
 Empress Catharine, three different banks were 
 established in St. Petersburg : the Loan Bank, 
 the Assignation Bank, and the Loan Bank 
 for the nobility and towns. The first, opened 
 in 1772, made advances upon deposits of bul- 
 lion and jewels, and allowed interest upon all 
 sums remaining for one year and over. At 
 present the operations of this bank are carried 
 on for the benefit of the Foundling Hospital in 
 St. Petersburg. The Assignation Bank was 
 opened in St. Petersburg in 1768, and in Mos- 
 cow in 1770. It issues paper money, and is 
 really an imperial institution. The Loan Bank, 
 for the nobility and towns, advances money on 
 real security, discounts commercial paper, and 
 carries on an insurance business. In 1797 the 
 Aid Bank was established for the purpose of 
 advancing money to relieve estates from mort- 
 gages, and to provide for their improvement. 
 There is also the Commercial Bank of Russia, 
 whose capital is declared to be sacred by the 
 government, and free from all taxes, attach- 
 ments, and calls from the State. It has 
 numerous branches throughout the empire, re- 
 ceives deposits of coin and bullion, discounts 
 paper, and makes advances upon merchandise 
 of domestic production. 
 
 The Bank of Stockholm was founded in 
 1688, when its direction was assumed by the 
 Assembly of the States of the Kingdom of 
 Sweden, and it became a bank of deposit, dis- 
 count, and circulation. Since 1766, when the 
 affairs of the bank fell to a very low state, and 
 the Assembly assisted it with a large loan, a 
 committee, composed of members of each of 
 the three States, nobles, clergy, and burghers, 
 is appointed triennially to inspect its condition, 
 securities, and prospects. 
 
 The Bank of France, originally formed 
 in 1800, was placed on a solid basis in 1806, 
 when its capital was raised to 90,000,000
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 451 
 
 francs. The bank is now the only authorized 
 source of paper money in France. Its charter 
 and exclusive privileges have been conferred, 
 varied, or continued by different governments 
 and under various laws; the year 1897 was 
 the time fixed at which the terms made 
 with the bank by the public might be ended. 
 The bank has branches scattered throughout 
 all the departments. Besides discounting, 
 the Bank of France advances-upon deposits of 
 stock and pledges of a miscellaneous kind. It 
 also undertakes the safe custody of valuables. 
 A council of twenty-one members conducts the 
 direction of affairs, viz. : a governor and two 
 sub-governors, who are to be nominees of the 
 head of the government ; fifteen directors and 
 three censors, nominated by the shareholders. 
 
 UNITED STATES BANKS. 
 
 The first United States bank was established 
 by Act of Congress, approved July 25, 1791. 
 It was organized at Philadelphia, with a capi- 
 tal of $10,000,000, divided into 25,000 shares 
 of $400 each. The act prescribed that any 
 person, copartnership, or body politic might 
 subscribe for any number of shares not exceed- 
 ing 1,000 only the United States could sub- 
 scribe for more than this number of shares ; 
 that with the exception of the United States 
 the subscriptions should be payable one fourth 
 in gold and silver, and the remaining three 
 fourths in certain six per cent, bonds of the 
 United States ; that the subscribers should be 
 incorporated under the name of " The Presi- 
 dent, Directors, and Company of the Bank of 
 the United States, " and the organization should 
 continue until March 4, 1811 ; that the bank 
 could hold property of all kinds, inclusive of 
 its capital, to the amount of $15,000,000 ; 
 that twenty-five directors should be chosen, 
 who in turn should choose from their number 
 a President ; that as soon as $400,000 in gold 
 and silver was received on subscription, the 
 bank could organize, after giving a notice of 
 its intention. The general effect of this insti- 
 tution was very salutary. The credit of the 
 United States became firmly established. The 
 bank notes stood at par with gold and silver. 
 The large deposits made the money available 
 for the use of the Treasury, and the State bank 
 currency, which had flooded the country with 
 no prospects of redemption, was greatly re- 
 duced. But with all its recognized advantages, 
 the act to recharter was defeated in 1811 by 
 the casting vote of the Vice-President, George 
 Clinton. Its loss, however, was immediately 
 felt in the sudden and rapid increase of the 
 currency of the State banks. To ward off an 
 impending crisis, a second bank was estab- 
 lished by an act approved by President Madi- 
 
 son, April 10, .1816, at Philadelphia. A 
 capital of $35,000,000 was required, which 
 ! was to be equally divided into 350,000 shares, 
 of which the United States took 70,000. The 
 charter extended to March 3, 1836. The bank 
 was prohibited from lending, on account of the 
 United States, more than $500,000, or to any 
 prince or foreign power any sum whatever, 
 without the sanction of law first obtained ; and 
 j it was also prohibited from issuing bills of less 
 denomination than $5. In time, to facilitate 
 business, branch offices were established in 
 every state. In December, 1829, however, the 
 bank met strenuous opposition in the message 
 of President Jackson, who argued, as did Jeffer- 
 son when the first bank was started, against 
 the constitutionality of its charter ; and when 
 Congress, in 1832, passed a bill to recharter the 
 institution he imposed his veto, and soon after 
 removed from the bank the United States depos- 
 its. The bank corporation, however, continued 
 to exist until 1836, when the charter terminated. 
 
 The National Banking System was 
 created by Congress in the belief that it was 
 the best permanent method of securing paper 
 money absolutely safe from loss to the holder 
 and readily convertible into coin. Under the 
 laws of the United States any number of per- 
 sons not less than five may form an association 
 and obtain a charter for the purpose of carry- 
 ing on the business of a national bank. The 
 capital stock of a national banking association 
 is divided into shares of $100 each, and in cit- 
 ies of 50,000 population, or over, no associa- 
 tion can be organized with a less capital than 
 $200,000 ; in cities of less than 50,000, $100,- 
 000 capital is required, but, with the approval 
 of the Secretary of the Treasury, national 
 banks may be organized in places of less than 
 6,000 inhabitants \vith a capital of $50,000. 
 
 National banks are authorized to discount 
 and negotiate notes, drafts, etc. ; to receive 
 deposits; to buy and sell exchange, coin, and 
 bullion ; to loan money on personal security, 
 and to issue circulating notes. They are pro- 
 hibited from making loans on real estate, or 
 on security of their own shares of capital, ex- 
 cept to secure debts previously contracted, and 
 real estate purchased or mortgaged to secure 
 a pre-existing debt cannot be held for a longer 
 period than five years 
 
 Every national bank, before it is authorized 
 to comniBHce business, must transfer to the 
 Treasurer of the United States registered bonds, 
 bearing interest, to an amount not less than 
 one fourth of the capital stock paid in, as 
 security for its circulating notes. Banks hav- 
 ing a capital of more than $150,000 shall be 
 required to deposit bonds to the amount of 
 one third of their capital stock.
 
 452 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Upon a deposit of registered bonds, the as- 
 sociation making the same will receive from 
 the Comptroller of the Currency circulating 
 notes of different denominations, in blank, 
 equal in amount to ninety per cent, of the cur- 
 rent market value, not exceeding par, of the 
 bonds so deposited. 
 
 The national banks pay to the United States 
 a tax of one per cent, annually upon the average 
 amount of their notes in circulation, one half 
 per cent, annually upon the average amount of 
 their deposits, and one half per cent, annually 
 upon the average amount of capital not in- 
 vested in United States bonds. Banks other 
 than national pay taxes to the United States on 
 account of their circulation, deposits, and capi- 
 tal at the same rates as are paid by the na- 
 tional banks. 
 
 Saving's Banks. These are banks for 
 receiving and taking charge of small sums, the 
 savings of industry, and were instituted for 
 the benefit of workmen and others, who were 
 able to spare a little from their earnings. It 
 is believed that Quaker thrift in Philadelphia, 
 Pa. , led to the inception of the idea, and that 
 the first savings bank in the world was founded 
 in that city in 1816. As the scheme grew in 
 popularity throughout the United States, 
 guardians of minor children, administrators 
 of estates of deceased persons, and other hold- 
 ers of trust funds, found the savings banks 
 very serviceable as places of deposit for money 
 that had to be laid away for a specified period of 
 time . Hence , the exigencies of b usiness transac- 
 tions forced an innovation upon the original 
 plan. In the United States this use of savings 
 banks is still maintained ; but during the past 
 fifteen years Safe Deposit and Trust Companies 
 have been numerously established for the special 
 purpose of holding funds, both in trust and in 
 legal dispute, besides securities of all kinds, 
 jewelry, diamonds, and articles of like value. 
 Thus a guardian, an administrator, or a society 
 will invest money in Government, State, or 
 City bonds, or, if permitted by the terms of 
 trust, in real estate, or stock of various corpo- 
 rations, and place the bond, certificate of stock, 
 or other acknowledgment of the indebtedness, 
 with a Safe Deposit or Trust Company, for 
 safe-keeping. The savings banks are allowed 
 by law to invest their money in first-class se- 
 curities only, so as to prevent their officers 
 from using the fund in the irregular pursuit of 
 "wild-cat" speculation. 
 
 The average rate of interest allowed by sav- 
 ings banks in the United States on deposits is 
 four per cent. ; it is frequently below that rate. 
 Some of the larger banks will not permit indi- 
 vidual deposits beyond a special amount at one 
 time, while others decrease the rate of interest 
 
 as the amount of deposits increases, claiming 
 that their vast aggregates of deposits cannot be 
 invested, under the law, in a manner that will 
 warrant the maximum rate of interest after 
 paying current expenses. 
 
 From Philadelphia the original conception 
 or plan of the savings bank extended all over 
 the United States, throughout the United 
 Kingdom, France, and other countries. Sev- 
 eral Acts of Parliament were successively 
 passed between 1817 and 1828 for the regula- 
 lation of savings banks in England ; and in 
 the year last mentioned the whole of these 
 were consolidated in one statute (9 Geo. IV. , 
 chap. 92). This Act, together with another 
 passed in 1833, conferring additional and im- 
 portant privileges on savings banks (3 Will. 
 IV., chap. 14), constitutes the existing law 
 relative to these establishments. In 1835 the 
 Act was extended to Scotland. 
 
 SEIGNIORAGE. 
 
 This term, as used in the United States, 
 means the profit arising from the coinage of 
 bullion. The government does not purchase 
 gold bullion, but coins it on private account. 
 There is no profit from the coinage of gold 
 bullion, the face value of gold coins being the 
 same as their bullion value ; but at the present 
 ratio of 16 to 1, the face value of the silver 
 dollar is greater than its bullion value ; there- 
 fore, when silver bullion is purchased and 
 coined into dollars there is a profit arising 
 from such coinage, the amount of which de- 
 pends upon the price paid for the bullion. For 
 example, there are 371 1-4 grains of pure sil- 
 ver in a dollar, and there are 480 grains of pure 
 silver in a fine ounce. The coinage value of a 
 fine ounce is therefore $1.2929 . If the fine 
 ounce can be purchased for seventy cents, the 
 profit of its coinage (the seigniorage) is 
 $0.5929 , and the profit on the 371 1-4 
 grains of pure silver in the single dollar is 
 $0.4586 , which is the difference between 
 the actual cost of the bullion in the dollar and 
 the nominal value of the coin. 
 
 MONEY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 IH 
 :S 
 
 8 
 
 !* 
 
 1860 
 1870 
 1880 
 1890 
 1894 
 1895 
 1896 
 1897 
 1898 
 
 Lii 
 
 r8i 
 
 2 a "3 C 
 
 -3gS 
 43-3 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 P+3 
 
 Pi 
 
 2^3 
 
 2'= 
 
 * 5 
 
 4S< 
 
 f &.-S 
 
 u ,_ a, 
 
 H o$ 
 
 y-B 
 
 $442,102,477 
 722,868,461 
 1,205,929,197 
 2,144,226,159 
 2,420,434,781 
 2,398,607,420 
 2,347,306,006 
 2,497,465,572 
 2,637,433,375 
 
 $435,407,252 
 675,212,794 
 973,382,228 
 1,429,251,270 
 1,660,808.708 
 1,601,968,473 
 1,506,434,966 
 1,640,209,519 
 1,837,859,895 
 
 31,443,321 $14.06 
 38,558,371 18.73 
 50,155,783 24.04 
 62,622,250 34.24 
 68,397,000 35.39 
 69,878,000 34.33 
 71,390,000 32.88 
 72,937,000, 34.24 
 74,522,000 35.39 
 
 13.85 
 17.50 
 19.41 
 22.82 
 24.28 
 22.93 
 21.10 
 22.49 
 24.66
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 453 
 
 VAI^TJE FOREIGN COINS IX UNITED STATES MONEY. 
 
 (Proclaimed by the Secretary of the Treasury October 1, 1898.) 
 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Monetary Unit. 
 
 Value in 
 U. S. Gold 
 Dollar. 
 
 COINS. 
 
 Argentine Rep . . . 
 
 Gold& Sil. 
 
 Peso 
 
 $0.96,5 
 
 Gold : argentine (84 82,4) and % argentine Silver 
 
 A-UStria-Hungarv 
 
 Gold 
 
 Crown 
 
 .20,3 
 
 peso and divisions. 
 Gold former system 4 florins (1 9 9) 8 florins 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Gold & Sil 
 
 Franc . . . 
 
 .19,3 
 
 ($3.85.8), ducat ($2.28,7), and 4 ducats ($9.14,9). 
 Silver : 1 and 2 florins. Gold : present system 
 20 crowns (4.05,2) and 10 crowns ($2.02,6). 
 Gold : 10 and 20 francs Silver 5 francs 
 
 Bolivia 
 Brazil 
 
 Canada 
 
 Silver 
 Gold 
 
 Gold 
 
 Boliviano 
 Milreis 
 
 Dollar 
 
 .43,6 
 .54,6 
 
 1.00 
 
 Silver: boliviano and divisions. 
 Gold : 5, 10, and 20 milreis. Silver : y 2 , 1, and 2' 
 mllreis. 
 
 Central America. 
 Chile 
 
 China 
 
 Colombia 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Silver 
 Gold 
 
 Silver 
 
 Silver 
 Gold 
 
 Peso* 
 Peso 
 
 ('Shanghai.. 
 T^, I Haikwan . . 
 lael -1 Tientsin... 
 tChefoo .... 
 Peso 
 
 Colon 
 
 .43,6 
 .36,5 
 
 .64,5 
 .71,8 
 
 .68,4 
 .67.5 
 .43,6 
 
 .46,5 
 
 Silver : peso and divisions. 
 Gold : escudo ($1.82,5), doubloon ($3.65), and condor 
 ($7.30). Silver : peso and divisions. 
 
 Gold : condor ($9.64,7) and double-condor. Silver : 
 peso. 
 Gold : 2, 5, 10, and 20 colons ($9 30 7) Silver 5 10 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Gold & Sil . 
 
 Peso 
 
 .92,6 
 
 25, and 50 centimes. 
 Gold doubloon ($5 01 7) Silver peso 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Gold 
 
 Crown 
 
 .26,8 
 
 Gold : 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Ecuador 
 Egypt 
 
 Finland 
 France 
 
 Silver 
 Gold 
 
 Gold.... 
 Gold& Sil. 
 
 Sucre 
 Pound (100 piasters). 
 
 Mark 
 Franc . 
 
 .43,6 
 4.94,3 
 
 .19,3 
 193 
 
 Gold : condor ($H.64,7) and double-condor. Silver : 
 Sucre and divisions. 
 Gold: pound (100 piasters), 5, 10, 20, and 50 pias- 
 ters. Silver : 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 piasters. 
 Gold: 20 marks ($3.85.9), 10 marks ($1.93). 
 Gold 5 10 20 50 and 100 francs Silver 5 francs 
 
 Germany 
 Great Britain 
 
 Gold 
 Gold 
 
 Mark 
 Pound sterling 
 
 .23,8 
 
 486 O 1 .') 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, and 20 marks. 
 
 Greece 
 
 Gold & Sil 
 
 
 19 3 
 
 Gold 5 10 20 50 and 100 drachmas Silver 5 
 
 Havti 
 
 Gold & Sil 
 
 Gourde 
 
 96 5 
 
 drachmas. 
 
 India 
 
 Silver 
 
 Rupee 
 
 .20,7 
 
 Gold : mohur ($7.10,5). Silver rupee and divisions 
 
 Italv 
 
 6old<& Sil. 
 
 Lira . . . 
 
 193 
 
 Gold 5 10 20 50 and 100 lire Silver 5 lire 
 
 Japan 
 Liberia 
 
 Gold 
 Gold... 
 
 Yen 
 Dollar 
 
 .49,8 
 1.00 
 
 Gold : 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 yen. Silver : 10, 20, and 50 
 sen. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Silver 
 
 Dollar 
 
 .47-,4 
 
 Gold : dollar ($0.98,3), 2V 2 , 5, 10, and 20 dollars. Sil- 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Gold & Sil 
 
 Florin 
 
 .40,2 
 
 ver: dollar (or peso) and divisions. 
 Gold 10 florins Silver: y s , 1, and 2% florins. 
 
 Newfoundland . . . 
 
 Gold 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1.01,4 
 
 Gold : 2 dollars (2.02,7). 
 
 Norwav 
 
 Gold 
 
 Crown . . . 
 
 .26.8 
 
 Gold : 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Peru 
 
 Silver 
 
 Sol 
 
 .43,6 
 
 Silver : sol and divisions. 
 
 Portugal 
 Russia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Gold 
 Gold 
 
 Gold & Sil 
 
 Milreis 
 Ruble 
 
 Peseta 
 
 1.08 
 .51,5 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold : 1, 2, 5, and 10 milreis. 
 Gold: imperial ($7.71,8) and V 2 imperial ($3.86). 
 Crown and l / 2 crown. Silver : V 4 , %, and 1 ruble. 
 Gold : 25 pesetas. Silver : 5 pesetas. 
 
 Sweden 
 Switzerland 
 
 Gold 
 Gold & Sil. 
 
 Crown 
 Franc 
 
 .26,8 
 .19.3 
 
 Gold : 10 and 20 crowns. 
 Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 francs. Silver : 5 francs. 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Gold 
 
 Piaster 
 
 .04,4 
 
 Gold : 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piasters. 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Gold 
 
 Peso 
 
 1.03.4 
 
 Gold: peso. Silver: peso and divisions. 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Gold & Sil 
 
 Bolivar . 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, ana 100 bolivars. Silver : 5 boli- 
 
 
 
 
 
 vars. 
 
 * Not including Costa Rica. t Value of the rupee to be determined by consular certificate. 
 
 Coinage at United States Mints. 
 
 Total coinage of the mints since their organization, 1792 (Philadelphia), to December 31, 1897, is as follows : 
 
 Gold Coins. 
 
 Silver Coins.* 
 
 Nickel, Copper, and Bronze. 
 
 Double Eagles $l,356,868,80jO.OO Dollars $463.849.360.00 o cent pieces, nickel . . . 
 
 Eagles 281,050,560.00, Trade Dollars 35,965,924.00 3 cent pieces, nickel. .. 
 
 Half Eagles 227 ,393,085.00 1 Half Dollars 135,643.821.00 '$ cent pieces, bronze .. 
 
 3 dollar pieces 1,619.376.^0 Quarter Dollars 54,339,704 00 1 cent pieces, copper .. 
 
 Quarter Eagles 28,819,067.50 20 cent pieces 271,000.00 1 cent pieces, nickel... 
 
 Dollars 19,499,337.00 Dimes 30,441.651 . 90 ; 1 cent pieces, bronze . 
 
 iHalf Dimes 4.88D.219.40 V 2 cent pieces, copper . 
 
 ! 3 cent pieces 1,282,087.20 
 
 ..$15,516,307.45 
 941,349.48 
 912,020.00 
 1,562.887.44 
 
 2,007.720.00 
 8,742,570.85 
 39,926.11 
 
 Total $1,915,250,225.50 Total $726,673,767.50 
 
 Total $29,722,781.33 
 
 Not including $2,501.052.50 Columbian souvenir half dollars and $10,005.75 Columbian souvenir quarter 
 dollars issued in 1893.
 
 454 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 MONETARY STATISTICS. 
 
 (Compiled from the Report of the Director of the Mint.) 
 APPROXIMATE AMOUNT OF MONEY IN THE WORLD, 1897. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Monetary 
 System. 
 
 Ratio Be- 
 tween Gold 
 and Full 
 Legal Ten- 
 der Silver. 
 
 Ratio Be- 
 tween Gold 
 and Limit- 
 ed Tender 
 Silver. 
 
 Gold Stock. 
 
 Silver Stock. 
 
 Uncovered 
 1'aper. 
 
 VER CAPITA. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Total. 
 
 United States*. . . 
 United Kingdom. 
 France 
 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold 
 
 1 to 15.98 
 
 1 to 14.95 
 1 to 14.28 
 1 to 14.38 
 1 to 13.957 
 1 to 14.38 
 1 to 14.38 
 1 to 14.38 
 1 to 14.38 
 1 to 14.38 
 1 to 14.08 
 
 $696,300,000 
 584,000,000 
 772,000,000 
 654,500,000 
 35,000,000 
 96,900,000 
 24,000,000 
 500,000 
 45,000,000 
 5,500,000 
 38,600,000 
 2,700,000 
 178,500,000 
 21,900,000 
 7,500,000 
 10,600,000 
 15,400,000 
 586,900,000 
 50,000,000 
 132.100,000 
 129,300,000 
 8,600,000 
 1,000,000 
 65,000,000 
 80,100,000 
 
 634,500,000 
 121,700,000 
 443,900,000 
 212,800,000 
 57,000,000 
 45,400,000 
 10,700,000 
 1,500,000 
 49,000,000 
 9,500,000 
 10,600,000 
 1,700,000 
 63,700,000 
 56,100,000 
 2,000,000 
 4,900,000 
 5,400,000 
 74,200,000 
 40,000,000 
 7,000,000 
 6,400,000 
 106,000,000 
 18,900,000 
 35,000,00(1 
 94,000,000 
 950,000,000 
 750,000,000 
 242,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 1,500,000 
 4,500,000 
 6,800,000 
 193,400,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 $397,000.000 
 112,100,000 
 119,200,000 
 123,800.000 
 72,500,000 
 161,000.000 
 14,300,000 
 26,000,000 
 103,000,000 
 49,800,000 
 11,800.000 
 2,400,000 
 177,600,000 
 37,900,000 
 3,800,000 
 19,000,000 
 6,400,000 
 467,200,000 
 
 $9.55 
 14.75 
 20.05 
 12.51 
 5.47 
 3.10 
 8.00 
 .23 
 2.50 
 1.08 
 7.15 
 1.18 
 3.97 
 4.47 
 3.75 
 2.12 
 6.70 
 4.66 
 2.27 
 
 $8.70 
 3.07 
 11.53 
 4.07 
 8.91 
 1.45 
 3.56 
 .68 
 2.72 
 1.86 
 1.96 
 2.04 
 1.41 
 11.45 
 1.00 
 .98 
 2.35 
 .59 
 1 82 
 
 $5.45 
 2.83 
 3.10 
 2.37 
 11.32 
 5.14 
 4.77 
 11.81 
 5.72 
 9.76 
 2.19 
 1.04 
 3.95 
 7.73 
 1.90 
 3.80 
 2.78 
 3.70 
 
 23.70 
 20.65 
 34.68 
 18.95 
 25.70 
 9.69 
 16.33 
 12.72 
 10.94 
 12.70 
 11.30 
 4.26 
 9.33 
 23.65 
 6.65 
 6.90 
 11.83 
 8.95 
 4.09 
 32.32 
 17.4') 
 11.89 
 8.57 
 17.33 
 3.87 
 3.33 
 2.08 
 63.68 
 10.56 
 3.61 
 12.60 
 2.36 
 42.68 
 60.00 
 
 Gold & Sil. 
 Gold 
 Gold & Sil. 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold 
 
 1 to 15 1-2 
 
 1 'to 151-2 
 1 to 15 1-2 
 1 to 15 1-2 
 Ito 151-2 
 1 to 15 1-2 
 
 Germany 
 Belgium 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 Greece 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 Roumania 
 
 Servia 
 
 
 
 Austria-Hungary. 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 1 to 13.69 
 1 to 15 
 1 to 14.88 
 1 to 14.88 
 1 to 14.88 
 1 to 12.90 
 1 to 15 7-8 
 1 to 14.28 
 1 to 15.68 
 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold 
 
 1 to 15 5-8 
 
 Norway 
 
 Sweden 
 Denmark 
 Russia 
 Turkey 
 
 Gold 
 Gold 
 Gold 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold 
 Gold 
 
 1 'to 151-2 
 
 1 to 15 7-8 
 
 Australasia 
 EarvDt .. 
 
 22,500,000 
 
 26.42 
 16.58 
 
 1.40 
 82 
 
 4.50 
 
 Mexico 
 Cent. Am. States. 
 South Am. States 
 Japan 
 
 Silver 
 Silver 
 
 1 to 16 1-2 
 
 4,000,000 
 8,400.000 
 550,000,000 
 
 67 
 .30 
 1.73 
 
 1-78 
 
 8.15 
 5.73 
 .93 
 2 09 
 
 3.07 
 2.54 
 14.67 
 
 
 Silver 
 
 1 to 15 1-2 
 1 to 16.18 
 1 to 15 
 
 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold & Sil. 
 Silver 
 
 
 India 
 
 
 37,000,000 
 
 
 3.21 
 2 08 
 63 68 
 
 .12 
 
 China 
 
 
 
 Straits Settlem'ts 
 Canada 
 Cuba 
 
 Silver 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gold 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Gold&Sil. 
 Silver 
 
 1 to '151-2 
 1 to 15 1-2 
 1 to 15 1-2 
 
 1 to 14.28 
 
 16,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 4,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 20,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 
 35,000,000 
 
 3.01 
 
 2.78 
 
 .95 
 83 
 
 6. CO 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 4,100,000 
 
 4.00 
 .30 
 4 00 
 
 4.50 
 2.06 
 
 SS fi 
 
 4.10 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 1 to 14.38 
 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 Gold & Sil. 
 
 1 to 15.98 
 
 1 to 14.95 
 
 
 50.00 10.00 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 $4,292,300,000 
 
 $4,266,100,000 2,565,800,000 
 
 
 * July 1, 1897 ; all other countries January 1, 1897. 
 
 World's Production of Gold and Silver in 1897. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 United States 
 
 Oz., fine. 
 
 2,774,935 
 2,693,723 
 456,481 
 1,124,511 
 66,424 
 108,147 
 4,083 
 
 Dollars. 
 57,363,000 
 55,684,200 
 9,436,360 
 23,245,700 
 1,373,100 
 2,235,600 
 84,400 
 
 194,400 
 
 7',300 
 
 '35,100 
 6,027,100 
 137,600 
 3,000,000 
 750.000 
 132,900 
 928,600 
 1,204,200 
 948,500 
 2,294,600 
 492,200 
 1,537.500 
 628,000 
 38,500 
 470,500 
 713,300 
 2,209,100 
 58,306,600 
 7,247,500 
 73:?, 100 
 45,900 
 
 Oz.,fine. 
 53,860,000 
 15,951 ,546 
 53,903,180 
 284,625 
 5,498,135 
 1,970.332 
 20,728 
 162,198 
 737,163 
 5,779,357 
 1,028,609 
 225,225 
 525,628 
 232,108 
 5,558,446 
 383,470 
 1,687,950 
 15,000,000 
 7,734 
 6,440,569 
 
 9,784,680 
 
 1,546,875 
 2,507,532 
 
 Dollars. 
 69,637.200 
 20,624.200 
 60,693,000 
 368.000 
 7,108,700 
 2,547.500 
 26,800 
 209.70(1 
 953,100 
 7,472.300 
 1.329,900 
 291,200 
 679,600 
 300,100 
 7,186,700 
 495,800 
 2,182,400 
 19,393,900 
 10,000 
 8,327,200 
 
 12,650,900 
 
 2,000,000 
 3,242,100 
 
 Australasia 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Russia 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Italy 
 
 9,404 
 
 Spain 
 
 Greece 
 
 
 Turkey 
 
 353 
 
 " 1,698 
 291,561 
 6,656 
 145,125 
 36,281 
 6,429 
 44,921 
 58,253 
 45,882 
 111,001 
 23,810 
 74,376 
 30,380 
 1,862 
 22,760 
 34,506 
 106,865 
 2,820,582 
 350,598 
 35,464 
 2,220 
 
 France 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Canada 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Chile 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Guiana (British) 
 
 Guiana (Dutch) 
 
 Guiana (French) 
 
 Peru 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Central American States 
 
 Japan 
 
 China * 
 
 Africa 
 
 British India 
 
 Korea 
 
 Borneo 
 
 Total 
 
 11,489,291 
 
 237,504,800 
 
 ls:;.0!;.0!M) 
 
 L':;i;.7:iO,300 
 
 
 Fine oz. of gold, $20.671834 + : of silver, $1.292929-(-, coining rate in U. S. silver dollars.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 455 
 
 STATISTICS OF SAVINGS BANKS. 
 
 M MISER OF DEPOSITORS, AMOUNT OF DEPOSITS, AND AVERAGE TO EACH DEPOSITOR, 1897-1898. 
 
 STATES 
 
 AND 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Number of 
 Depositors. 
 
 Amount of 
 Deposits. 
 
 Average 
 to Each 
 Depositor. 
 
 STATES 
 
 AND 
 
 TEURITORIES. 
 
 Number of 
 Depositors. 
 
 Amount of 
 Deposits. 
 
 Average 
 to Each 
 Depositor. 
 
 
 170,134 
 122,590 
 108,511 
 1,384,329 
 132,042 
 366,661 
 1,805,880 
 170,100 
 307,309 
 3,050 
 168,830 
 2,220 
 5,631 
 a 18,968 
 7,125 
 
 $60,398,760 
 48,155,076 
 34,071,722 
 473,919,094 
 67,910,921 
 155,969,798 
 766,684,916 
 46,5%, 668 
 82,245,532 
 818,126 
 54,769,195 
 426,289 
 296,974 
 916,267 
 2,214,fi08 
 
 $355.01 
 392.81 
 313.99 
 342.35 
 514.31 
 425.37 
 424.69 
 273.94 
 267.fi3 
 278.07 
 324.40 
 192.02 
 52.74 
 48.31 
 310.80 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 9,179 
 1,700 
 17,893 
 84,643 
 18,579 
 a b 146,865 
 1,914 
 47,328 
 101,189 
 230 
 176,241 
 7,205 
 
 $2,425,818 
 374,525 
 2,144,136 
 37,404,341 
 4,455,129 
 38,393,455 
 277.394 
 10,463,399 
 36,655,063 
 67,457 
 136,119.226 
 1,447,409 
 
 $264.28 
 220.31 
 119.83 
 441.91 
 239.79 
 261.42 
 144.93 
 221.0ft 
 362.05 
 293.29 
 772.35 
 200.89 
 
 New Hampshire . . 
 
 Texas 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana -. . . 
 
 Connecticut .. 
 
 Illinois 
 
 New York 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 
 California 
 
 Dist". of Columbia. 
 West Virginia 
 North Carolina 
 South Carolina 
 
 Utah 
 
 Total 
 
 5,385,746 
 
 $2,065,631,298 
 
 $383.54 
 
 
 No returns for 1897-98 from the following States, and returns for previous years are given : Alabama, 1893-94, 
 depositors, 2,500; amount of deposits, $102,347. Florida, 1894-95, depositors, 1,148; amount of deposits, $265,710. 
 New Mexico, 1894-95, depositors, 217; amountof deposits, 37,951. Washington, 1894-95, depositors, 5,512 ; amount 
 of deposits, 1,148,104. Oregon, 1895-96, depositors, 1,631 ; amount of deposits, $972,298. Georgia, 1896-97, deposi- 
 tors, 5,384; amount of deposits, $288,010. 
 
 a Estimated, b Savings deposits in State institutions having savings departments. 
 
 Approximate Value of the Product of Gold and Silver in the United 
 
 States in 1897. 
 
 STATES 
 
 AND 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Gold, 
 Value. 
 
 Silver, 
 Coining 
 Value. 
 
 Total 
 Value. 
 
 STATES 
 
 AND 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Gold, 
 Value. 
 
 Silver, 
 Coining 
 Value. 
 
 Total 
 Value. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 $7,400 
 
 $129 
 
 $7,529 
 
 North Carolina.. .. 
 
 $34600 
 
 $388 
 
 $34,988 
 
 Alaska 
 
 1,778,000 
 
 150,497 
 
 1,928,497; 
 
 Oregon 
 
 1,353 100 
 
 89,212 
 
 1,442,312 
 
 
 2,895,900 
 
 2,896,032 
 
 5,791,932 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 84 700 
 
 259 
 
 84 959 
 
 California 
 
 14,618,300 
 
 613,366 
 
 15,231,666 
 
 South Dakota. . 
 
 5 i ;; 14 900 
 
 190,836 
 
 5 885 736 
 
 Colorado 
 
 19,104,200 
 
 27,974,335 
 
 47,078,535 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 100 
 
 
 100 
 
 Georgia 
 
 149,300 
 
 776 
 
 150,076 
 
 Texas 
 
 7 400 
 
 523,249 
 
 530 649 
 
 Idaho 
 
 1,701,700 
 
 6,336,905 
 
 8,038,605 
 
 Utah 
 
 1 726 100 
 
 8,100,978 
 
 9 827 078 
 
 Iowa 
 
 100 
 
 
 100 
 
 Vermont 
 
 100 
 
 
 100 
 
 Maryland 
 
 100 
 
 
 100 
 
 Virginia 
 
 3 900 
 
 
 3,900 
 
 
 62,700 
 
 77,964 
 
 140,664 
 
 
 419 900 
 
 138214 
 
 658 114 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 Wyoming . 
 
 11,200 
 
 129 
 
 11,329 
 
 
 4 373 400 
 
 20,257,487 
 
 24,630,887 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,976,400 
 
 1,588,881 
 
 4,565,281 ! 
 
 Total 
 
 $57 363 000 
 
 $69,637 172 
 
 $127 000 172- 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 356,500 
 
 697,535 
 
 1,054,0351 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wild-cat Banks. The fraudulent in- 
 stitutions known as wild-cat banks were started 
 principally in the West and South after the 
 closing up of the United States Bank and the 
 transfer of its deposits to State banks in 1832. 
 The scarcity of capital in these regions made 
 it comparatively easy to put in circulation any- 
 thing that purported to be money. Hence, any- 
 one with a very limited capital or, in fact, 
 without any capital at all could open a bank, 
 issue $10,000 or more in small notes, and pass 
 them over in easy loans to land speculators, 
 who, in their turn, paid them out in country 
 villages and among farmers, where the stand- 
 ing of the bank of issue would necessarily be 
 unknown. Hundreds of these banks were 
 started, and immense amounts of so-called 
 money were loaned to build cities in the wil- 
 derness, and to contractors anxious to build rail- 
 roads without material, tools, or means of pay- 
 ing wages." In some cases the real place of 
 issue was, for instance, New Orleans or Buffalo, 
 while the bills purported to be issued and pay- 
 
 able in, say, Georgia or Illinois. This method 
 of doing business lasted four years, when the 
 panic of 1837, one of the mostpainful and pro- 
 longed crises in the financial history of the 
 United States, overtook the country. Fortu- 
 nately this led to the adoption in nearly all the 
 States of such banking laws as rendered similar 
 schemes impossible in the future. These in- 
 stitutions were called wild-cat banks, owing to 
 their utter lawlessness and because their vic- 
 tims were " most awfully clawed." 
 
 Trade Dollars. Previous to the coin- 
 age of this dollar, which was brought into ex- 
 istence through the demand on the Pacific 
 coast for a coin to be used in commercial rela- 
 tions, particularly with China and Japan, the 
 old silver dollar of 37 1 grains was the only 
 one known. The new dollar contained 420 
 grains, and eventually was extensively circu- 
 lated all over the Union, but was retired after 
 the Forty-fourth Congress enacted that it was 
 not a legal tender. 
 
 Clearing' House. The clearing house is
 
 456 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 an institution founded not merely upon tha 
 idea of saving time and trouble in the use of 
 the precious metals, but also of circulating 
 notes. The Clearing House of London, which 
 was the first of the kind, originated among the 
 bankers of that city, whose transactions in the 
 checks, bills, and drafts drawn upon each 
 other became so large as to call for the daily, 
 and even hourly, use of vast sums in bank- 
 notes by all of them. Appreciating how readily 
 the debts and credits respectively due or held 
 by them might be set off, one against the other, 
 they formed the clearing house, where, up to 
 four o'clock each day, all drafts, bills, etc., 
 upon each individual member were taken. 
 This system of the London Clearing House 
 has, however, been much extended and im- 
 proved. Clearing houses exist in New York, 
 Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, and other cities 
 in the United States. A description of the 
 system in use in Philadelphia will, in the main, 
 answer for all. The clearings are made each 
 morning at 8.30, just before which hour a 
 messenger and a clerk from each bank are at 
 the clearing house. The clerks take their seats 
 at a series of desks arranged in the form of a 
 half oval. The messenger brings with him 
 from his bank a sealed package for each other 
 bank, containing all checks or drafts on such 
 banks. The name of the bank sending, and 
 that of the bank to which it is sent, is printed 
 on each package, and the amount sent is writ- 
 ten thereon. The messengers take their places 
 near the desks of their respective banks, and 
 they have with them tabular statements of the 
 amount sent to each bank, and the aggregate. 
 These are exhibited to the respective clerks 
 and noted by them on the blank forms. At 
 8.30 o'clock precisely, the manager calls to 
 order and gives the word, when all the messen- 
 gers move forward from left to right of the 
 clerks, handing in to those clerks the packages 
 addressed to their respective banks, and tak- 
 ing receipts for them on their statements. 
 The several clerks then pass around a memo- 
 randum of the debts', credits, and balances, 
 each of his respective bank. When these 
 memoranda have made the circuit, each clerk 
 has on his statement the debts, credits, and 
 balances, whether debtor or creditor, of each 
 bank. If these debits and credits, or debtor 
 or creditor balances, are found to balance, the 
 clerks now leave he clearing house. If not, they 
 remain until the error or errors are discovered. 
 The balances due by the several banks are paid 
 into the clearing house that day by 11.30 
 o'clock A. M., and are receivable by the cred- 
 itor bank by 12.30 P. M. Each bank is 
 obliged daily to furnish to the clearing house 
 a statement of its condition at the end of the 
 
 business on that day, and tables are daily fur- 
 nished to the several banks of all the banks in 
 the clearing house. 
 
 Freedmaii's Bank was established in 
 March, 1865, as a charitable enterprise, to 
 encourage frugality and thrift among the 
 newly-liberated slaves. The institution was 
 started at first in Washington, but afterward 
 branch banks to the number of thirty-four 
 were located in different parts of the Union. 
 The bank was not intended to be a money-mak- 
 ing concern, either for bankers or for deposi- 
 tors, but as a place of deposit for the savings 
 of negroes, which savings were to be invested 
 in the stocks, bonds, Treasury notes, and other 
 securities of the United States. During the 
 existence of the bank, nine years, it handled 
 no less than $56,000,000 of deposits, the ne- 
 groes being led to believe that the safety of the 
 institution was guaranteed by the Government, 
 which was untrue. The institution was man- 
 aged by a number of trustees of unsavory finan- 
 cial reputation, and, as a consequence, at the 
 expiration of nine years it suspended payment. 
 At the investigation which was made by a com- 
 mittee appointed by Congress a most scandal- 
 ous condition of affairs was discovered. The 
 regulations of the charter had been completely 
 ignored, and the funds had been dissipated by 
 loans made upon inadequate securities. By 
 law the investments of the bank were confined 
 to Government securities alone. Unimproved 
 real estate, unsalable stocks and personal notes, 
 were among the assets of the bank. Deficits 
 and embezzlements at the branch banks also 
 produced many losses. The unsecured debts 
 owed to the depositors amounted to $2,900,000, 
 and the assets yielded about $1,700,000. For 
 some years three bank commissioners were 
 employed, at a salary of $3,000 each, to wind 
 up the affairs of the institution. After $475,- 
 000 had been expended in this " winding-up" 
 process the affairs of the bank were all turned 
 over to the Comptroller of the Currency. Div- 
 idends have been paid at various times ; but 
 many small depositors, through ignorance and 
 despair, forfeited their dividends by not calling 
 for them. In all, 77,000 dividends, amount- 
 ing to $112,000, were thus forfeited. 
 
 Revenues of the Government, year 
 ending June 30, 1898 : 
 
 From internal revenue, 
 
 From customs, 
 
 From profits on coinage, bullion de- 
 posits, etc., 
 
 From District of Columbia, 
 
 From fees consular,letters patent, and 
 land, 
 
 From tax on national banks, 
 
 From sales of public lands, 
 
 From navy pension and navy hospital 
 funds, 
 
 From miscellaneous, 
 
 From sinking fund for Pacific railways, 
 
 $170,900,641.49 
 149,575,062.35 
 
 4,756,469.71 
 3,693,282.98 
 
 2,639.750.54 
 1,97.1,849.28 
 1,243,129.42 
 
 1,146,590.41 
 
 1,007,352.96 
 
 781,986.83
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 457 
 
 From sales of Indian lands, $576,687.41 
 
 From customs fees, fines, penalties, etc., 576,487.50 
 From pavinent of interest by Pacinc 
 
 railways, 526,286.13 
 
 From immigrant fund, 306,992.86 
 
 From sales of Government property, 224,331.32 
 From deposits for surveying public 
 
 lands, 113,049.08 
 
 From Soldiers' Home, permanent fund, 107,612.49 
 
 From donations, 102,394.87 
 
 From sales of lands and buildings, 99,273.15 
 
 From sales of ordnance material, 94,638.59 
 From reimbursement for cost of water 
 
 supply, District Of Columbia, 93.086.9S 
 
 From depredations on public lands, 29.154.30 
 
 From sale of Kansas Pacinc Railroad, 6,303,000.00 
 
 From sale of Union Pacific Railroad, 58,448,223.75 
 
 From Postal Service, 89,012.618.55 
 
 Total receipts, 494,333,953.75 
 
 Expenditures for the same period : 
 
 For the civil establishment, including 
 foreign intercourse, public build- 
 ings, collecting the revenues, Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, and other miscel- 
 laneous expenses, $86,016,464.75 
 For the military establishment, includ- 
 ing rivers" and harbors, forts, 
 arsenals, seacoast defenses, and 
 expenses of the Spanish war, 91,992,000.29 
 For the naval establishment, including 
 construction of new vessels, ma- 
 chinery, armament, equipment im- 
 provement at navv yards and ex- 
 penses of the Spanish" war, 58,823,984.80 
 For Indian Service, 10,994,667.70 
 For pensions, 147,452,368.61 ! 
 For interest on the public debt, 37,585,056.23 
 For deficiency in postal revenues, 10,504,040.42 
 For Postal Se'rvice, 89,012,618.55 j 
 Total expenditures, $532,381,2005 
 Showing a deficit of, $38,047,247.60 ' 
 
 Trades Unions. In one form or another, 
 combinations have always existed since the j 
 employed and employing classes became dis- 
 tinguishable from each other. Trades unions, ' 
 organized for purposes such as those which 
 contemporary unions contend for, have existed 
 for more than three centuries. So early as 
 1548 a statute of Edward VI. is directed, 
 among other culprits, against certain " artific- 
 ers, handicraftsmen, and laborers,'' who had 
 sworn mutual oaths" to do only certain 
 kinds of work, to regulate how much work 
 should be done in a day, and what hours and 
 times they should work. The usual penalties 
 of fines, pillory, and loss of ears were to follow 
 a breach of its enactments. Add the regula- I 
 tion of wages and the employment of union or 1 
 non-union men to the objects enumerated in 
 tins statute, and we have in effect the trades 
 unions of the present day. Many fruitless 
 acts were afterward passed to prevent combi- 
 nations for raising wages ; but since that time : 
 the trades unions have increased in numbers 
 and membership, until .they include nearly all 
 the laboring classes of England and America. 
 The advocates of the unions insist that they 
 are the only means by which workmen can de- I 
 fend themselves against the aggressions of em- 
 ployers. It is argued that the individual 
 laborer has no chance of resisting the capital- j 
 
 ist on equal terms ; that starvation treads too 
 closely on his heels to permit his successfully 
 opposing a reduction of his wages, no matter 
 how arbitrary or unjust. It is urged that 
 associations of employers are practically uni- 
 versal, and that their object is mainly to secure 
 for themselves the largest possible share of the 
 profits which are the product of capital and 
 labor united. Yet it cannot be denied that 
 against these uses may be set many serious evils. 
 Strikes are often determined upon by unions 
 at times when the condition of the market 
 renders success impossible, resulting in severe 
 and prolonged suffering. Unions undoubtedly 
 foster an unfortunate spirit of antagonism. 
 Being constantly and consciously on the defen- 
 sive, they come at last to suspect evil in every 
 movement and to put a sinister interpretation 
 on every action of employers, and in some 
 trades the practice of coercion has grown into 
 systematic terrorism and crime. 
 
 Mississippi Scheme. The gigantic 
 commercial scheme commonly known by this 
 name was projected in France by the celebrated 
 financier John Law of Edinburgh in 1717, 
 and collapsed in 1720. Its primary object was 
 to develop the resources of the Province of 
 Louisiana and the country bordering on the 
 Mississippi, a tract at that time believed to 
 abound in the precious metals. The company 
 was incorporated in August, 1717, under the 
 title of the "Company of the West," and 
 started with a capital of 200,000 shares of 500 
 livreseach. They obtained the exclusive privi- 
 lege of trading to the Mississippi, farming 
 the taxes and coining money. The prospectus 
 was so inviting that shares were eagerly 
 bought; and when, in 1719, the company 
 obtained the monopoly of trading to the East 
 Indies, China, and the South Seas, and all the 
 possessions of the French East India Company, 
 the brilliant vision opened up to the public 
 gaze wqs irresistible. The " Company of the 
 Indies," as it was now called, created 50,000 
 additional shares ; but a rage for speculation 
 had seized all classes, and there were at least 
 300,000 applicants for the new shares, which 
 consequently rose to an enormous premium. 
 Law. as director general, promised an annual 
 dividend of 200 livres per share, which, as the 
 shares were paid for in the depreciated billet* 
 d'etat, amounted to an annual return of 120 
 per cent. The public enthusiasm now rose to 
 absolute frenzy, and Law's house and the 
 street in front of it were daily crowded by ap- 
 plicants of both sexes and of all ranks, who 
 were content to wait for hours nay, for days 
 together in order to obtain an interview with 
 the modern Plutus. While confidence lasted 
 a factitious impulse ^vas given to trade in
 
 458 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Paris, the value of manufactures was increased 
 fourfold, and the demand far exceeded the 
 supply. The population is said to have been 
 increased by hundreds of thousands, many of 
 whom were glad to take shelter in garrets, 
 kitchens, and stables. But the Regent had 
 meanwhile caused the paper circulation of the 
 National Bank to be increased as the Missis- 
 sippi scheme stock rose in value, and many 
 wary speculators, foreseeing a crisis, had se- 
 cretly converted their paper and shares into gold, 
 which they transmitted to England or Belgium 
 for safety. The increasing scarcity of gold 
 and silver becoming felt, a general run was 
 made on the bank. The Mississippi stock now 
 fell considerably, and despite all efforts it con- 
 tinued to fall steadily and rapidly. In 1720 
 the National Bank and the Company of the 
 Indies were amalgamated ; but, though this 
 gave an upward turn to the share market, it 
 failed to put the public credit on a sound basis. 
 The crisis came at last. In July, 1720, the bank 
 stopped payment, and Law was compelled to flee 
 the country. The French Government was 
 nearly overthrown, and widespread financial 
 distress and bankruptcy were occasioned. 
 
 Credit Mobilier. The Credit Mobilier 
 of America was a joint stock company organ- 
 ized in 1863 for the purpose of facilitating the 
 construction of public works. In 1867 another 
 company, which had undertaken to build the 
 Union Pacific Railroad, purchased the charter 
 of the Credit Mobilier, and the capital was in- 
 creased to $3,750,000. In 1872 a lawsuit in 
 Pennsylvania developed the startling fact that 
 much of the Credit Mobilier was owned by 
 members of Congress. A suspicion that those 
 members had voted corruptly in the legislation 
 affecting the Pacific Railway at once seized 
 the public mind, and led to a Congressional 
 investigation, in the course of which many 
 scandalous transactions were brought to light, 
 and the reputation of many public servants 
 suffered greatly. The investigation showed 
 that some of the members of Congress who 
 had this stock in their possession had never 
 paid for it ; in other words, that their votes 
 had probably been obtained by giving them 
 stock. In other cases it v as shown that per- 
 sons whose integrity could not be questioned 
 had been reported as stockholders, for the pur- 
 pose of influencing others to subscribe or to 
 regard the project favorably. The report of 
 the committee exonerated many whose names 
 had been used without authority in connection 
 with the scheme. Owing to the profitableness 
 of the work in which the company was en- 
 gaged, the stock rose rapidly in value previous 
 to the investigation, and enormous dividends 
 were paid to the shareholders. 
 
 Boycott and Boycotting. The origin 
 of the term " Boycotting " was as follows : A 
 Captain Boycott was the agent of a land owner 
 in Ireland. His policy proved to be distasteful 
 and offensive to the tenants, and such was 
 their feeling in the matter that they asked the 
 landlord to remove him. This was refused, < 
 and in retaliation the tenants and their friends' 
 refused to work for or under Boycott. They 
 would not harvest his crops, and they made 
 an agreement among themselves that none of 
 them or theirs should assist or woi-k for him 
 in the harvest. His crops were endangered, 
 when relief arrived in the person of certain 
 Ulster men, who, under the protection of 
 troops, harvested the crops of Boycott. The 
 defensive league of the tenantry was much 
 more powerful and effective than might be 
 supposed from the single instance of the com- 
 bination referred to above. The ramifications 
 of their compact were very numerous and ex- 
 tensive. For example, if anyone had dealings 
 with Boycott or those who represented him, 
 then no one was to have any dealings with that 
 person. If a man worked for Boycott he was 
 looked upon by his old friends and neighbors as 
 a stranger no one would sell to or buy of him , 
 no one was to know him. The effect of this 
 agreement when carried to this extent was just 
 what its authors proposed, and "Boycotting" 
 has become a very forcible phrase. 
 
 Debt, Imprisonment for. During late 
 years the laws of most countries bearing upon 
 imprisonment for debt have been greatly modi- 
 fied. In England the old harsh laws concern- 
 ing debtors, which made the issuance of 1 01 , 000 
 writs for debt in one year, 1825, possible, were 
 abolished in 1838 ; and in 1869, by the passage 
 of the " Debtors' Act," still more lenient regu- 
 lations were adopted. Imprisonment is still 
 i possible there, in certain cases, as when it is 
 believed a debtor intends leaving the country, 
 or when a debtor refuses, when he is able, to 
 settle aclaim decided against him by the courts, 
 or when there is palpable evidence of premedi- 
 tated fraud. The imprisonment cannot con- 
 tinue, however, longer than a specified time- 
 usually one yar. Imprisonment for debt was 
 abolished in France by a decree of March 9, 
 1793, was re-enacted several years later, was 
 again abolished in 1848, and was again re- 
 established the same year. Since that time, 
 however, the law has been greatly modified, 
 and now imprisonment is permitted for a lim- 
 ited period only, and certain classes are ex- 
 empted from the law ; as, for instance, those 
 j under twenty "years or over seventy years of 
 | age, ecclesiastics, and women not engaged in 
 i commerce. In France, as in most all conti- 
 l nental countries, the entire cession of the prop-
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 459 
 
 erty of the debtor to his creditors will procure 
 immunity from personal process, even though 
 it may not cover the amount owed. Xew York 
 was the first state in the United States to abol- 
 ish imprisonment for debt. This was done 
 in 1831, and the example was shortly followed 
 by the other states ; and though there is great 
 difference in the insolvent laws of the several 
 states, they all permit debtors their freedom, 
 except in cases wherein dishonesty or pecula- 
 tion render the debtor also amenable to the 
 Penal Code. Both in Greece and in Rome, in 
 ancient times, the creditor had a claim to the 
 person of the debtor. In Rome, thirty days 
 after judgment was pronounced against the 
 debtor, he was given into the hands of his 
 creditor, who kept him sixty days in chains, 
 exposing him on three market-days, and pro- 
 claiming his debt. If no one stepped in to re- 
 lease him, the debtor, at the end of that time, 
 might be sold for a slave or put to death. If 
 there were several creditors, the letter of the 
 law permitted them to cut their debtor in 
 pieces, sharing him in proportion to their 
 claims. The common practice', however, was 
 to treat him as a slave, and make him work out 
 the debt. The children in liis power, in ac- 
 cordance with the constitution of society at 
 Rome, followed his condition. 
 
 Wealth of Principal Xations (1899). 
 
 Holland 84.900,000,000 
 
 Italy 14,815,000.000 
 
 Mexico 3,190.000.000 
 
 Norway 1 ,215,000,000 
 
 Portugal 2,010,000.000 
 
 Russia 25,445,000,000 
 
 Spain 12,580.000,000 
 
 Sweden 3,185,000,000 
 
 S wi tzerland . . . .2,470,000,000 
 U. States fi4,120,0;:0,000 
 
 Argen. Rep ...?2.515,000,000 
 
 Australia 6,836,000,000 
 
 Austria 19.,275,000,000 
 
 Belgium 5,035 000,000 
 
 Canada 4,000,000,000 
 
 Denmark 2.020,000.0 :0 
 
 France 12.990,000,000 
 
 Germany 32.185,000,000 
 
 United Km... 47.000,000,000 
 Greece 1,500,000,00,) 
 
 American Mine, Oldest. The first re- 
 corded account of the discovery of coal in the 
 United States is contained in Ileniiepin'a nar- 
 rative of his explorations in the West, between 
 1073 and 1680, when he sa\v the coal outcrop 
 in the bluffs of the Illinois river, not far from 
 Ottawa and La Salle. In New Mexico and 
 Arizona, there are silver mines which were 
 operated by the Toltecs and Aztecs years be- 
 fore the Spanish invasion. So there are cop- 
 per mines in the Lake Superior region in which 
 the tools and mining marks of ancient miners 
 of prehistoric times were found by the pioneers 
 of the present American mining companies. 
 Where the first colonists of Virginia got, tho 
 shipload of " fool's gold " which they sent 
 back to England, to the great' disgust of the 
 London Company, is not certainly kiiovvi. , 
 but it is known that at the same time, in 100-S, 
 they shipped a quantity of iron fronV James- 
 town, which yielded seventeen tons of metal 
 the first pig-iron ever made from Arneri- 
 
 j can ore. In North and South Carolina, and 
 j Georgia, there are diggings, now overgrown 
 with forests, which are supposed to have been 
 excavated by the followers of De Soto and his 
 immediate successors between 1539 and 1GOO. 
 The oldest mining enterprise of the United 
 States, still active, is generally conceded to be 
 the mine La Motte, in the lead district of 
 Eastern Missouri, which was opened about 
 1720 under Renault, of Law's notorious Missis- 
 sippi Company. It was named after La Motte, 
 the mineralogist of the expedition, and has 
 been worked at intervals ever since it was 
 opened. 
 
 Liverpool Docks. The docks, at Liv- 
 erpool, England, extend on the city side of the 
 river Mersey 6 miles, and have a water area 
 of 333 acres, and a lineal quayage of 22 miles. 
 The great landing stage at Liverpool is the fin- 
 est structure of the kind in the world. It was 
 originally built in 1857, and was greatly en- 
 larged in 1874, but shortly after its completion, 
 July 28, 1874, it accidentally caught fire and 
 was entirely consumed. It was again built in 
 the most substantial manner. Its length is 
 2,063 feet, and its breadth is 80 feet. It is 
 supported on floating pontoons, which rise and 
 fall with the tide, and is connected with the 
 quay by seven bridges, beside a floating bridge 
 550 feet in length for heavy traffic. The great 
 system of docks at Liverpool was commenced 
 by the corporation in 1709, and was for a cen- 
 tury under the control of the City Council, but 
 since 1856 their management has been in the 
 hands of a board. The amount of capital in- 
 vested in these docks is 10,000,000, of which 
 7,000,000 is in Liverpool proper, and the rev- 
 enue derived from them is over 1,250,000 an- 
 nually. They are constructed as water-tight 
 inclosures, with flood gates, which are opened 
 during the flowing and closed during the ebb- 
 ing of the tide, so that vessels within can be 
 kept afloat and at the same level while being 
 loaded and unloaded 
 
 Communism and Socialism. Commu- 
 nism is the doctrine that society should be re- 
 organized on the basis of abolishing individual 
 ownership of property and control of wages, 
 and most of the no<v generally admitted rights 
 of individuals in their private and domestic re- 
 lations, and substituting therefor community 
 ownership and control of every person and 
 everything. Attempts to realize Communism 
 have been made in both England and France, 
 but in all cases resulted in disaster to the com- 
 iininities. The communistic leader in Eng- 
 land was RobertOwen, who made two attempts 
 to carry out his views in that country. Fou- 
 rier and St. Simon, French Communists, made 
 similar efforts in France, but the. results were
 
 460 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 not more fortunate. A community of St. 
 Simonians established a college or corporation 
 at Menilmontant, with a "supreme father" 
 at their head. The leaders were brought to 
 trial by Louis Philippe on a charge of under- 
 mining morality and religion. They were 
 subjected to imprisonment, and not having 
 public feeling with them, they were unable to 
 bear up against contumely thus thrown on 
 them. Socialism is a sort of limited Commu- 
 nism. It would not entirely abolish individ- 
 ual rights of all, but would make such rights 
 subordinate to the common good, and in a 
 manner limit them to it. 
 
 Locomotives, Weight and Cost. 
 The average weight of the locomotive engines 
 now on the standard gauge roads is from 
 twenty-five to thirty-five tons. As locomotives 
 are now built, anything above thirty-five tons 
 would be considered' heavy, although there 
 have been locomotives built weighing seventy 
 tons. The cost of a locomotive for the stand- 
 ard gauge roads is about $10,500. It is usu- 
 ally computed by railroad men that in weight 
 and cost the locomotives on the narrow gauge 
 roads are from one third to one half less than 
 those of the standard gauge lines. 
 
 Fur Trade, American. The North- 
 west Fur Company, a British organization, 
 practically controlled the fur industry along 
 the great lakes and westward at the beginning 
 of this century. A rival company, composed 
 of American and French, and called the Mack- 
 inaw Fur Company, was formed about that 
 time ; but the importance of the American fur 
 trade is undoubtedly due to the commercial 
 genius of John Jacob Astor. In 1783 Mr. 
 Astor landed in America with a few hundred 
 dollars' worth of musical instruments, which 
 he immediately exchanged for furs. This 
 action was brought about through a conversa- 
 tion with a furrier during the voyage, who im- 
 pressed upon the young emigrant the great 
 profit to be gained in the fur traffic. From 
 that time until 1809 he made repeated visits 
 to the scattered settlements of western New 
 York and Canada for the purchase of furs, and 
 did much business with the Northwest Fur 
 Company. All direct trade between the United 
 States and Canada was then forbidden by laws 
 of the British Government ; hence furs pur- 
 chased in the latter had first to be taken to 
 London before they could be brought to New 
 York. These restrictions on trade with Can- 
 ada were removed by treaty in 1794. In 1809 
 the American Fur Company, an organization 
 with $1,000,000 capital, was granted a charter 
 by the New York Legislature, and it was gen- 
 erally understood that the capital for this 
 enterprise waf furnished by Mr. Astor in 
 
 fact that he was the company. In 1811 Mr. 
 Astor, in connection with certain parties for- 
 merly connected with the Northwest Fur Com- 
 pany, purchased the Mackinaw Fur Company 
 and merged it, with the American Fur Com- 
 pany, in another organization known as the 
 Southwest Fur Company. Four years later, 
 1815, Mr. Astor bought all the shares of this 
 company and pushed the American Fur Com- 
 pany to the front again, and in the same year 
 succeeded in having a bill passed through Con- 
 gress excluding all foreigners from taking any 
 part in the fur trade of the United States 
 thus securing at one stroke a monopoly of the 
 business. From that time he accumulated 
 enormous wealth. 
 
 Gold Exports. When this country buys 
 abroad more tha-n it sells abroad it must pay 
 the difference, which is called the balance of 
 trade, in sterling exchange. The par value 
 of sterling exchange is $4.867, that is, a 
 pound sterling is worth $4.867 in United 
 States gold. The price or demand of sterling 
 exchange varies according to the supply and 
 demand of bills drawn against London. If we 
 have made heavy shipments to London, or if 
 Europe has been a heavy buyer of our securi- 
 ties, there is plenty of sterling exchange in the 
 market, and it can be bought below its par 
 value. When we have made heavy imports 
 from Europe, or when Europe has been a 
 heavy seller of our securities, or when Ameri- 
 can travelers have spent a large amount of 
 money in Europe, the supply of sterling ex- 
 change is limited and its price rises. If the 
 price of sterling bills is as high as $4.88^ it is 
 just as cheap to ship gold bars to London and 
 pay the expenses of the shipment as it is to 
 buy the exchange. If sterling exchange is 
 $4.89^ gold coin can be shipped without loss. 
 If rates go higher, as, for instance, to $4.90, 
 gold coin or bars can be shipped at a good 
 profit and exchange sold against them. When 
 the rate of sterling exchange falls to $4.83 
 gold can be imported from London without 
 loss, and if it goes lower it can be imported 
 with a profit. 
 
 The South Sea Buhhle The " South 
 Sea Bubble," as it is generally called, was a 
 financial scheme which occupied the attention 
 of prominent politicians, communities, and 
 even nations in the early part of the eight- 
 eenth century. Briefly, the facts are : In 1711, 
 Robert Hartley,. Earl of Oxford, then Lord 
 Treasurer, proposed to fund a floating debt of 
 about 10,000,000, sterling, the interest, about 
 $600,000, to be secured by rendering perma- 
 nent the duties upon wines, tobacco, wrought 
 silks, etc. Purchasers of this fund were to 
 become also shareholders in the " South Sea
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 4-61 
 
 Company," a corporation to have the monop- 
 oly of the trade with Spanish South America, 
 a part of the capital stock of which was to be 
 the new fund. But Spain, after the treaty of 
 Utrecht, refused to open her commerce to 
 England, and the privileges of the " South 
 Sea Company " became worthless. There were 
 many men of wealth who were stockholders, 
 and the company continued to nourish, while 
 the ill success of its trading operations was 
 concealed. Even the Spanish war of 1718 did 
 not shake the popular confidence. Then in 
 April, 1720, Parliament, by large majorities 
 in both houses, accepted the company's plan 
 for paying the national debt, and after that a 
 frenzy of speculation seized the nation, and the 
 stock rose to 300 a share, and by August had 
 reached 1,000 a share. Then Sir John Blunt, 
 one of the leaders, sold out, others followed, 
 and the stock began to fall. By the close of 
 September the company stopped payment, and 
 thousands were beggared. An investigation 
 ordered by Parliament disclosed much fraud 
 and corruption, and many prominent persons 
 were implicated, some of the directors were 
 imprisoned, and all of them were fined to an 
 aggregate amount of 2,000,000 for the bene- 
 fit of the stockholders. A great part of the 
 valid assets was distributed among them, yield- 
 ing a dividend of about 33 per cent. 
 
 Trusts. A " Trust," in its broad sense, 
 is a combination of individuals or corpora- 
 tions for controlling the price of a commodity. 
 It seeks to do this by restricting production or 
 by "cornering" the market, and strives to 
 accomplish its end without incurring the pen- ' 
 alties of the law. This endeavor to keep within | 
 the law has given rise to many forms of 
 "trust " agreements. The simplest is a mere 
 naked contract between manufacturers or deal- 
 ers that each shall carry on his business in his 
 own way, but that none shall sell below an 
 agreed minimum price. Examples of this are 
 agreements between the coal producers of 
 Pennsylvania and the trades union agreements. 
 Another simple form of combination is an 
 agreement that all shall carry on their business j 
 independently, but that profits shall all be 
 turned into a common fund and divided in a 
 definitely agreed on ratio, no matter what the 
 profits of each individual may actually have 
 been. Of such a nature are railroad pools, j 
 Another kind occurs when a corporation leases ' 
 the works, or contracts to take all the products ' 
 of other corporations, or enters into partner- | 
 ship with them. In all of these cases, how- 
 ever, there is a danger of overstepping the 
 bounds of legality. Courts in all parts of the 
 country have repeatedly refused to enforce such 
 contracts if deemed to be injurious to the pub- 
 
 lic , Stnd some authorities have declared them 
 criminal, if dangerous to the common good. 
 This has led to the invention of a subtile and 
 elusive form which we may call the " Trust " 
 proper. In this, the stock of all the stock- 
 holders of all the corporations comprising it is 
 placed in the hands of a few men as trustees, 
 thus securing to a dozen or so persons the 
 absolute control of stock representing many 
 millions of dollars and possibly thousands of 
 owners. The Standard Oil Trust and the 
 Sugar Trust illustrate this form, the Standard 
 Oil being probably the pioneer in this line, 
 and now one of the most powerful moneyed 
 institutions in the world. Whether this 
 ' ' Trust ' ' will stand the attacks of its enemies 
 or, in its turn, will be decided to be illegal, it 
 is too soon to judge. In a recent case the New 
 York Supreme Court has declared it illegal 
 and the charters of its constituent corporations 
 liable to forfeiture. As has been said, a 
 " Trust " is not a corporation, nor subject to 
 the restrictions placed by law on incorporated 
 companies. 
 
 Strikes, Statistics. The plan of settling 
 labor difficulties by strikes is a very old one. 
 The first strike in the United States occurred 
 in New York city in 1803, when a number of 
 sailors struck for an advance of wages. Ac- 
 cording to " Bradstreet's Commercial Reports " 
 there were 697 strikes in 1888, involving 211,- 
 841 employees a decline from 1887 of 23 
 per cent, in the number of strikes and of 38 
 per cent, in strikers. Against 1886 the de- 
 crease in number of strikers is 52 per cent. 
 Higher wages or fewer hours were the cause of 
 strikes by 68 per cent, of the strikers in 1888, 
 against 62 per cent, in 1887. Trades union 
 questions were behind the strike of 17 per 
 cent, of the men involved in 1888, against 22 
 per cent, of the year before. About 45 per 
 cent, of striking was in Pennsylvania in 1888, 
 against 32 per cent, in 1887. Only 38 per 
 cent, of the strikers of 1888, involving 50 per 
 cent, of the whole number who went out, re- 
 sulted in favor of the employees, against 42 
 per cent, of the strikes and 38 per cent, of 
 those involved in 1887. In 1888 there were 
 74,837 employees locked out, against 46,000 
 in 1887. The number of days' labor lost by 
 striking and locked out employees in 1888 was 
 7,562,480, against 10,250,921 in 1887. If the 
 labor be placed at $1.50 per man, the estimated 
 loss of wages to striking and locked out em- 
 ployees in 1888 would be $11,343,720, against 
 $15,380,881 in 1887 a decline of 25 per 
 cent. 
 
 Watering Stock. The credit of having 
 originated the process of watering the stock of 
 railroad companies belongs unquestionably to
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the late Commodore Vanderbilt. The plan of 
 operation is simple, and consists only in esti- 
 mating the stock of the road at a figure greatly 
 above its real value. For instance, when Com- 
 modore Vanderbilt secured control of the New 
 York Central as well as the Hudson River Rail- 
 road in 1868, the combined stock of the two 
 roads was only about $36,000,000. Early in 
 the following year he declared a tremendous 
 dividend of new stock to the stockholders, and 
 raised the estimated value of the two roads to 
 $90,000,000. This action of Vanderbilt was for 
 the purpose of evading a law of the State of 
 New York which provided that when the divi- 
 dends of any railroad corporation should reach 
 10 per cent, the state could declare how the 
 surplus above the 10 per cent, should be ap- 
 plied. This provision, it is plain, was ren- 
 dered nugatory by Vanderbilt's scheme, as, if a 
 railroad can at any time declare stock divi- 
 dends with no reference whatever to the costs of 
 construction and repair, a dividend of 10 per 
 cent, may never be declared, though the road 
 may be actually earning 30 or 40 per cent, 
 upon its actual cost. 
 
 India Rubber. This is mostly obtained 
 from the Serin gueros of the Amazon, who 
 sell it for about 12 cents a pound to the mer- 
 chants of Para, but its value on reaching 
 England or the United States is over 50 cents 
 a pound. The number of tons imported into 
 Great Britain and the United States has been 
 as follows : 
 
 ISfiO. 1870. 1880. 1887. 
 
 United States 1,610 4,316 7,529 12,900 
 
 Great, Britain 2,150 7,606 8,479 11,800 
 
 The best rubber forests in Brazil will ulti- 
 mately be exhausted, owing to the reckless 
 mode followed by the Serin gueros or tappers. 
 The ordinary product of a tapper's work is 
 from 10 to 16 pounds daily. There are 120 
 india rubber manufacturers in the United 
 States, employing 15,000 operatives, who pro- 
 duce 280,000 tons of goods, valued at $260,- 
 000,000, per annum. 
 
 How the Price of Southern Con- 
 federate Money Dropped. When the 
 first issue of the Confederate money was scat- 
 tered among the people, it commanded a slight 
 premium. It then scaled down as follows : 
 June, 1861, 90c. ; December 1, 1861, 80c. ; 
 December 15, 1861, 75c. ; February 1, 1862, 
 60c. ; February 1, 1863, 20c. ; June, 1863, 
 8c. ; January, 18G4, 2c. ; November, 1864, 
 4c. ; January, 1865, 2|c. ; April 1, 1865, lc. 
 After that date, it took from $800 to f 1,000 in 
 Confederate money to buy a one-dollar green- 
 back. 
 
 Facts About Gold and Silver A 
 
 ton of gold or silver contains 29,166.66 ounces. 
 
 A ton of gold is worth $602,875 ; silver, 
 $37,704.84. 
 
 The United States money standard for gold 
 and silver is 900 parts pure metal and 100 parts 
 of alloy in 1,000 parts of coin. 
 
 The value of an ounce of pure gold is 
 $20.67 ; 23.22 grains of pure gold equals $1. 
 
 The term carat when used to distinguish 
 fineness of gold means one twenty-fourth , 
 pure gold is 24-carat gold. 
 
 A cubic foot of gold weighs 1,203 pounds, 
 and is worth about $300,000. 
 
 In round numbers the weight of $1,000,- 
 000 in standard gold coin is If tons (3,685 
 Ibs.) ; standard coin, 26? tons ; subsidiary 
 silver coin, 25 tons ; minor coin, 5-cent nickel, 
 100 tons. 
 
 Glossary of Mining and Milling 
 Terms. 
 
 Battery Generally applied to a set of five stamps. 
 Bullion Ingots of gold or silver ready for the mint. 
 Bumping-table A concentrating table with a jolting 
 motion. Cage A mine elevator. Chute A body of 
 ore, usually elongated, extending downward within a 
 vein ; a slide for ore or waste rock. Cobbing Breaking 
 ore for sorting. Concentrator Machine for removing 
 waste matter from mineral. Coji/ir-f /j/ntes Plates of 
 copper coated with quicksilver, upon which the gold is 
 caught as the ore flows from the stamps. Cord A cord 
 weighs about eight tons. Country-rock The rock on 
 each side of a vein. Crevice A fissure, split, or crack ; 
 the vein is called " the crevice." Cribbing The tim- 
 bers used to confine wall rock. Cross-cut Alevel driven 
 across the course of a vein. Deposit Ore bodies not 
 confined to a lode. Drift A tunnel; a horizontal pas- 
 sage underground. Dump A place of deposit for ore 
 or refuse. Feeder A small vein joining a larger one. 
 Fissure-rein A. crack or cleft in the earth's crust filled 
 with mineral matter. Float- Loose ore or rock de- 
 tached from the original formation. Flume A pipe or 
 trough to convey water. Foot-wall Layer of rock be- 
 neath the vein. Free milling Ores containing min- 
 eral that will separate from the gangue by simple meth- 
 ods. Hanging-iraU The layer, or rock, or wall, over a 
 lode. Laddencay That part of mine shaft containing 
 the ladders. Lagging Timbers over and upon the 
 sides of adrift. Ledge or Lead Mineral ores or gangue 
 within fissure veins. Mill-run A test of the value of a 
 given quantity of ore. Ores Compound of metals with 
 oxygen, sulphur, arsenic, etc. Paystreak The richest 
 streak in the vein. Pocket A rich spot in the vein or 
 deposit. Refractory Resisting the action of heat and 
 chemical re-agents. Shaft A well-like passage into a 
 mine. Sluices Troughs in which ore is washed. Smelt- 
 ing Reduction of ores in furnaces. Spur A branch 
 of a vein. Stamps Weights for crushing ores. Slope 
 
 The part of a vein above or below the drift from 
 which the ore lias been removed. St oping Excavat- 
 ing the ore from the roof or floor of a drift. Stratum 
 
 A bed or layer. Stulls A framework to support the 
 rubbish when sloping. Sump A well at the bottom 
 of a shaft to collect water. Tailings The refuse left 
 after washing ores containing metals not saved in the 
 first treatment. Tunnel Alevel driven across a vein. 
 Whim A machine used for raising ore or refuse. 
 Winze An interior shaft sunk from one level to an- 
 other. 
 
 Harvest Months of the World. 
 
 JANUARY. The greater part of Chile, por- 
 tions of the Argentine Republic, Australia, 
 and New Guinea. 
 
 FEBRUARY to MARCH. The East Indies. 
 
 APRIL. Mexico, Egypt, Persia, and Syria. 
 
 MAY. Japan, China, Northern Asia Minor, 
 Tunis, Algiers, Morocco, and Texas.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 463 
 
 JUNE. California, Spain, Portugal, Italy, 
 Sicily, Greece, and some of the southern de- 
 partments of France. 
 
 JULY. The larger part of France, Austria, 
 Southern Russia, and the larger part of the 
 United States of America. 
 
 AUGUST. Germany, England, Belgium, 
 Netherlands, part of Russia, Denmark, part of 
 Canada, and the Northeastern States of 
 America. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. Scotland, the larger part of 
 Canada, Sweden, Norway, and the north mid- 
 lands of Russia. 
 
 OCTOBER. The northern parts of Russia 
 and the northern parts of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula. 
 
 Wine Production of the World. 
 The average production of wine in the princi- 
 
 pal vine-growing countries of the world is as 
 follows: France, 705,175,972 imperial gal- 
 lons ; Algeria, 722,000,000 imperial gallons ; 
 Italy, 605,000,000 imperial gallons ; Spain, 
 484,000,000 imperial gallons ; Austria-Hun- 
 gary, 187,000,000 imperial gallons; Portugal 
 88,000,000 imperial gallons; Germany, 81,- 
 290,000 imperial gallons; Russia, 77,000,000 
 imperial gallons ; Cyprus, 35, 200, 000 imperial 
 gallons ; Switzerland, 28,600,000 imperial gal- 
 lons ; Greece, 28,600,000 imperial gallons ; 
 United States, 18,000,000 imperial gallons ; 
 Turkey, 22,000,000 imperial gallons ; Cape of 
 Good Hope, 15, 400, 000 imperial gallons; Rou- 
 mania, 15,400,000 imperial gallons ; Servia, 
 11, 000, 000 imperial gallons ; Australia, 1,933, - 
 800 imperial gallons; total, 2,485j599,772 
 imperial gallons. 
 
 CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICAN TRADE. 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 1897 
 1894 
 1893 
 18B6 
 1895 
 1896 
 1893 
 1897 
 1895 
 
 98,288,948 
 3,01)0,000 
 146,468,936 
 74,082,805 
 11,528 .:!6.-, 
 4,748,812 
 6,400,104 
 6,868,858 
 6,232,335 
 
 101,169,299 
 9,600,000 
 124,572,907 
 74,359,414 
 15,088,405 
 5,597,727 
 8,785,215 
 19.775,860 
 13,788,562 
 
 Honduras 
 
 1896 
 1897 
 1895 
 1897 
 1896 
 1895 
 1897 
 1896 
 1896 
 
 $676,716 
 42,204,095 
 4,116,855 
 2,203,359 
 12,000,000 
 1,650,424 
 1,824,375 
 25,530,185 
 13,989,342 
 
 $1,253,151 
 111,340,494 
 4,994,519 
 1,955,803 
 12,736.830 
 3,690,294 
 2,709,805 
 30,403,084 
 21,433,682 
 
 Bolivia . . 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 Chile 
 
 ; Paraguay 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Peru 
 
 Costa Rica. . 
 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 
 Hayti , 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Population According to Latest Estimates. 
 
 Argentine Republic (official) 4,000,000 
 
 Bolivia (estimate) 2,500,000 
 
 Brazil 1 (official) 18,000,000 
 
 Chile (official) 3,500,000 
 
 Colombia (estimate) 4,600,000 
 
 Costa Rica (official) 285,003 
 
 Honduras (estimate) 420,000 
 
 Mexico (official) 12,570,195 
 
 Nicaragua (estimate) 420,000 
 
 Paraguay (estimate) 500,000 
 
 Peru (estimate) 3,000,000 
 
 Salvador (official) 800,500 
 
 Ecuador (estimate) 1,300,000 I Santo Domingo (estimate) 600,005 
 
 Guatemala (official, 1890) 1,470,000 I Uruguay (official) 818,843 
 
 Hayti (estimate) 1,211,625 I Venezuela (official) 2,444,816 
 
 TELEGRAPH RATES TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 These rates are from New York city. The address and signature are included in the chargeable matter, and 
 the length of words is limited to fifteen letters. When a word is composed of more than fifteen letters, every 
 additional fifteen or the fraction of fifteen letters will be counted as a word. 
 
 Per Word. 
 
 Per Word. 
 
 Per Word. 
 
 Per Word. 
 
 Algeria $0.32 Demerara. 
 
 $1 49 
 
 
 $044 
 
 
 $1 32 
 
 Alexandria (Egypt) 
 Antigua 
 
 .56 Denmark 
 .86 Ecuador 
 1.00 England 
 .34 France 
 .96 Germany 
 
 . . . . . . . . . 1^25 
 25 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 Melbourne, Vic 
 
 1.43 
 
 Scotland. . . 
 
 25 
 
 Mexico Citv.. $1.75. 10 
 Nassau, Bahamas 
 Natal (South Africa) . 
 Netherlands 
 
 words 
 .. .35 
 .. 1.52 
 32 
 
 Servia 
 
 36 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 Austria 
 Barbadoes 
 
 Sicily 
 
 32 
 
 Siam 
 
 1.19 
 1 35 
 
 Belgium 
 Bermuda 
 Bolivia 
 
 .30 Gibraltar 
 .42 Greece 
 1.25 Guatemala 
 1.35 Havana 
 .38 Hayti : .. 
 
 43 
 38 
 C5 
 40 
 1 .55 
 
 New South Wales 
 New Zealand 
 Norway 
 Orange Free State. . . . 
 Panama 
 
 . 1.45 
 . 1.52 
 .. .35 
 .. 1.52 
 . .97 
 
 Spain 
 St. Thomas 
 Sweden 
 Switzerland 
 Svdnev. N. S. W. 
 
 40 
 1.01 
 39 
 30 
 1.45 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Burmah 
 Callao (Peru) 
 
 l.L'7 Hungary 
 1.25 India..." 
 .61 Ireland 
 1.52 Italy 
 
 34 
 1.23 
 25 
 
 32 
 
 Paraguav 
 
 . . 1.00 Ta.np-ier 
 
 45 
 
 Penang 
 Peru 
 
 Porto Rin 
 
 .. 1.35 
 .. 1.25 
 1 17 
 
 
 1 58 
 
 Cairo (Egypt) 
 Cape Colony (S. Africa) 
 Ceylon 
 Chile 
 China 
 
 Transvaal 
 
 . 1 52 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 1 03 
 
 1.25 Jamaica 
 1.25 Japan 
 1 .60 Java 
 
 48 Portugal 
 1.76 Queensland 
 
 . . .39 
 . . 1.50 
 36 
 
 Turkey (Europe). 
 Turkey (Asia) . . . 
 
 37 
 47 
 
 TTriifriiJiv' . . 
 
 .. 1.00 
 
 Cochin China 
 
 1.35 Korea (Seoul) 
 
 1 96 
 
 Russia (Europe) 
 Russia (Asia, West) . . 
 Russia (Asia, East). .. 
 
 . . .43 Venezuela 1.70 
 . . .50 Vera Cruz. ... $1 .75, 10 words 
 . . .56 Victoria (Aus.) 1.43 
 
 Colon 
 
 .97 Malta 
 
 . . . 36 
 
 Cypress 
 
 .56 Martinique 
 
 1.32
 
 464 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 FOREIGN TRADE OF THE UNITED STATE*. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE AND SPECIE EXPORTED FROM THE UNITED STATES DURING THE 
 
 FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1898. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 . Values. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 Agricultural Implements... 
 
 
 $7,609,732 
 46,243,406; 
 
 2,434,325, 
 74,196,850 
 145,684,<i59 
 69,263,718 
 
 3,424,419 
 
 9,441,703 
 1,727,469 
 5,906,171 
 5,717,578 
 824,165: 
 32,180,872 : 
 230,442.215 
 17,024,0<I2 
 6,846,529 
 
 2,557,465 
 4,674,659 
 
 1,684,717 
 7,328,593 
 2,986,970 
 2,642,779 
 
 2,770,803 
 70,406,885 
 
 21,113,640 
 1.383,867 
 
 Merchandise. 
 Naval Stores 
 
 
 $9,155,144 
 12,581.534 
 502,332 
 4,343,262 
 
 51,782,316 
 12,019,069 
 5,494,564 
 6,030,292 
 
 31,906,384 
 110,801,151 
 8,290,710 
 7,246,956 
 9,095,759 
 1.892,101 
 1,062,622 
 1,850,353 
 
 1,061,929 
 301,511 
 22,171,580 
 4,818,493 
 2,381,788 
 37,513,252 
 98,256,999 
 
 Oil Cake, Oil Cake Meal.. Ibs. 
 Oils: Animal galls. 
 
 1,355,934.022 
 1,568,040 
 113,297,397 
 
 Books, Maps, Engravings, 
 and other printed matter.. 
 Breadstuffs: Corn bbls. 
 " Wheat.. bush. 
 ' ' Wheat Flour . . bbls. 
 Carriages, Horse and Rail- 
 
 208',744,939 
 148,231,261 
 15,349,943 
 
 " Mineral, Crude., galls. 
 " Mineral, Refined or 
 Manufactured 
 ' ' Vegetable 
 
 Paper, and Manufactures of. 
 Parafttne, Parafh'ne Wax .Ibs. 
 Provisions : 
 Beef Products Ibs. 
 
 154,628,460 
 
 439,525,984 
 1,659.996,20-..' 
 136,907,813 
 
 Chemicals, Drugs, Dyes, and 
 
 
 
 
 Hog Products Ibs. 
 
 
 1,326,682 
 2,682,414 
 8,395 
 
 3,850,264,295 
 
 Oleomargarine Ibs. 
 
 " Bituminous tons 
 
 Other Meat Products 
 Dairy Products 
 
 " Manufactures of 
 Cotton,Unmanuf actured . Ibs 
 ' ' Manufactures of . . Ibs 
 Cycles, and parts of 
 
 Seeds Clover Ibs. 
 
 31,155,381 
 2,978,651 
 
 11,391,370 
 6,047,608 
 263,020,214 
 
 " All other Ibs. 
 Spirits, Distilled, proof galls. 
 Sugar, Molasses, and 
 Syrup galls. 
 
 Fibers, Vegetable, and Tex- 
 
 
 " Refined Ibs. 
 
 Fish . . . 
 
 
 Tobacco, Unmanufactured " 
 " Manufactures of. . 
 Vegetables 
 
 Fruits, Apples, Green or 
 
 605,390 
 
 Fruits and Nuts, ail other. . . 
 Furs and Fur Skins 
 
 Wood, and Manufactures of 
 All other articles 
 
 
 Hops Ibs. 
 
 17,161,669 
 
 Total Exports, Domestic 
 Merchandise 
 
 
 $1,210,291,913 
 
 Instruments for Scientific 
 
 Ironand Steel, Manufactures 
 of 
 
 
 Specie: Gold 
 
 
 $15,40(i,391 
 
 Leather, and Manufactures 
 
 o f 
 
 
 Total Domestic Exports. . . 
 
 
 
 $1,280,803,543 
 
 Musical Instruments . . . 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 MERCHANDISE AND SPECIE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED STATES DURING THE FISCAL 
 
 YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1898. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 
 $4,674,125 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 
 
 Art Works 
 
 
 2,263,427 
 
 of 
 
 
 $11,414,125 
 
 
 
 2,883,992 
 
 
 
 
 Bristles Ibs. 
 
 $1,535,090 
 
 1,249,119 
 
 Malt 
 
 
 3,336,324 
 
 Breadstuffs 
 
 
 3,152,067 
 
 Molasses galls 
 
 3,603,547 
 
 564,016 
 
 Chemicals, Drugs, Dves, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 920,094 
 
 
 
 41,471,291 
 
 
 
 1,065,088 
 
 
 
 966,422 
 
 
 
 2,838,738 
 
 Coal, Bituminous tons 
 
 1,273,311 
 
 3,401,30li 
 
 
 
 2,870,323 
 
 Coffee Ibs. 
 
 870,514,455 
 
 65,067,631 
 
 Salt Ibs 
 
 342,254,106 
 
 524,661 
 
 Cotton, and Manufactures of 
 
 
 37,873,708 
 
 Seeds. . 
 
 
 1,231,766 
 
 Earthenware and China 
 
 
 6,687,360 
 
 Silk, Manufactures of 
 
 
 23,523.665 
 
 Fibers, Vegetable, and Man- 
 ufactures of 
 
 
 35,345,980 
 
 " Unmanufactured 
 
 
 32,110.066 
 2,404.62!) 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 6,076,690 
 
 Sugar ll)s 
 
 2,689,920,851 
 
 60,472,7-19 
 
 Fruits and Nuts 
 
 
 14,566 9">() 
 
 Tea His 
 
 70,957,715 
 
 10,054,283 
 
 Furs, and Manufactures of. . 
 Glass and Glassware 
 
 
 7,881,172 
 3,782,617 
 
 Tin, in Bars, Blocks, Pigs, or 
 
 63,938,889 
 
 8,776,151 
 
 Hats and Bonnets, Materials 
 for 
 
 
 2,244,349 
 
 Tobacco, and Manufactures 
 of 
 
 
 9,092.114 
 
 Hides and Skins 
 
 
 37,068 !I3' 
 
 Toys 
 
 
 2,214,482 
 
 Hops Ibs. 
 
 2,375,922 
 
 648 155 
 
 
 
 5,969,180 
 
 India Rubber and Gutta- 
 percha, and Manufactures 
 of : 
 
 
 26,011,635 
 
 Wood, and Manufactures of. 
 Wool, and Manufactures of. 
 All other articles 
 
 
 13.861, 92,'i 
 31,607,463 
 62,264,801 
 
 Iron and Steel, and Manu- 
 tures of 
 
 
 12,626,431 
 
 Total Merchandise 
 
 
 $616,049,654 
 
 Jewelry and Precious Stones, 
 
 
 
 Specie: Gold 
 
 
 $120 391 674 
 
 
 
 10 388 RSO 
 
 " Silver 
 
 
 30,927,781 
 
 Lead, and Manufactures of. 
 
 
 2,600,779 
 
 Total Imports 
 
 
 
 $767,365,909
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 465 
 
 VALUE OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF MERCHANDISE, 1873-98. 
 
 YEAR ENDING 
 ,TrxE30. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Total 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Teta] Exports 
 and Imports. 
 
 Excess of 
 Exports. 
 
 Excess of 
 Imports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 1873. . . 
 
 $505,033,439 
 569,433,421 
 499,284,100 
 525,582,247 
 589,670,224 
 680,709,268 
 698,340,790 
 823,946,353 
 883.925,947 
 733,239,732 
 804,223,632 
 724,964,852 
 726,682.946 
 665,964,529 
 703,022, !>23 
 683,862,104 
 730,282,609 
 845,293,828 
 872,270,283 
 1,015,732,011 
 831,030,785 
 869,204,937 
 793.392,599 
 863,200,487 
 1,032,007,603 
 1.210,291.913 
 
 17,446.483 
 16,849,619 
 14,158,611 
 14,802,424 
 12,804.996 
 14,156,498 
 12,098,651 
 11,692,305 
 18,451,399 
 17,302,525 
 19,615,770 
 15,548,757 
 15,506,809 
 13,560,301 
 13,160,288 
 12,092,403 
 12,118,766 
 12,534.856 
 12.210,527 
 14.546.137 
 16,634,409 
 22,935,635 
 14,145,566 
 19,406,451 
 18,985.953 
 21,190.417 
 
 $622,479,922 
 686,283,040 
 513,442,711 
 540,384.671 
 602,475.220 
 694,865,766 
 710,439,441 
 835,638,658 
 902,377,346 
 750,542,257 
 823,839,402 
 740,513,609 
 742,189,755 
 679,524,830 
 716,183,211 
 695,954,507 
 742,401,375 
 857,828,684 
 884,480,810 
 1,030,278.148 
 847,665.194 
 892,140,572 
 807,538,165 
 882,606,938 
 1,050,993,556 
 1.231,482,330 
 
 $642,136,210 
 567,406,342 
 533,005,436 
 460,741,190 
 451,323.126 
 437,051,532 
 445,777,775 
 667,954,746 
 642,664,628 
 724,639,574 
 723,180,914 
 667,697,693 
 577,527,329 
 635,436,136 
 692,319,768 
 723,957,114 
 745,131,652 
 789,310.409 
 844.916,196 
 827,402,462 
 866,400,922 
 654,994.622 
 731,969,965 
 779,724,674 
 764.730,412 
 616.050.654 
 
 $1,104.616.132 
 1,153,689,382 
 1,046,448,147 
 1,001,125,861 
 1,053.798.346 
 1,131.917,298 
 1,156,217,216 
 1,503,593,404 
 1,545,041,974 
 1,475,181,831 
 1,547,020,316 
 1,408,211,302 
 1,319,717,084 
 1,314,960,966 
 1,408,502,979 
 1,419,911,621 
 1,487 ,533,027 
 1,647,139,093 
 1,729,397,006 
 1357,680,610 
 1,714,066.116 
 1,547.135194 
 1,539.508,130 
 1,662,331,612 
 1,815,723,968 
 
 
 119,656,000 
 
 1874.. .. 
 
 18,875,698 
 
 1875 
 
 19,562,725 
 
 1876 
 
 79,643,481 
 151,152,094 
 257,814,234 
 264,661,666 
 167,683,912 
 259,712,718 
 25,902,683 
 100,658.488 
 72.815.916 
 164,662.426 
 44,088,694 
 23,863,443 
 
 1S77. 
 
 
 1878 
 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 1*81 
 
 
 1882 
 
 
 1883.. . 
 
 
 1884 
 
 
 1885 
 
 
 1886. . . 
 
 
 1887 
 
 
 1888 
 
 28,002,607 
 2,730,277 
 
 1889 
 
 
 1890 
 
 68,518,275 
 39,564.614 
 202,875,686 
 
 1891 
 
 
 1892 
 
 
 1893 
 
 18,7^5,728 
 
 1894 
 
 237,145,950 
 75,568.200 
 102,882.264 
 286,263,144 
 615,431,676 
 
 1895 
 
 
 1896 . 
 
 
 1897 
 
 
 1898 
 
 
 The imports and exports of specie are not included in the above table. 
 
 VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO AND EXPOBTS FROM THE UNITED STATES OF MERCHANDISE, 
 
 YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1898. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Domestic. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 Azores & Madeira Isles. 
 Belgium 
 
 $5,469,853 
 364,529 
 47,466,600 
 12,680,619 
 93,790,717 
 153,171,100 
 304,332 
 127,559 
 225 
 23,067,997 
 64,352 
 63.417.547 
 3,532,057 
 111,154 
 6,234.128 
 1,084,880 
 
 $238^60 
 
 299 
 152.601 
 16,802 
 1,668,573 
 
 l.H'.S.NTL' 
 497 
 
 4,716,510 
 23,797 
 8,741,826 
 211,877 
 52,730,848 
 69,697,378 
 32,519 
 910,390 
 144,227 
 20,332637! 
 13.476, 
 12,525,065 
 2,605,370 
 12 
 2,825,608 
 1,714.081 
 12.095 
 3.575,565 
 2,675,053 
 11,380,835 
 2,119.337 
 10S.945.185 
 459,282 
 171,920 
 
 4,095.331 
 23.143.411 
 4,631,744 
 
 372,115 
 
 2,732.426 
 1,854,303 
 784.741 
 1,095.865 
 799.145 
 19,004,863 
 161,030 
 
 10,632.187 
 327.759 
 174,243 
 30,888 
 876,582 
 2.382,139 
 15,232,477 
 
 West Indies Con'd : 
 Porto Rico 
 
 $1,481,629 
 5,948.846 
 20,451 
 13,262,951 
 2,349,955 
 3,204.440 
 853,772 
 
 1,703,071 
 406,030 
 149,023 
 699 
 1,298,570 
 1,130,239 
 2,704,908 
 593.345 
 9,992,070 
 
 4,694,663 
 1,201,405 
 152,265 
 6,233,607 
 20,354,689 
 125,936 
 618,015 
 242,992 
 433,626 
 15.520,987 
 289,285 
 5,773,672 
 39,982 
 127,787 
 12,013.037 
 272,289 
 664,800 
 12,553 
 226,738 
 2,897,657 
 29,674 
 816,605 
 
 $24,317 
 480,224 
 224 
 54,085 
 1,772 
 72,817 
 1,421 
 
 44,304 
 2,384 
 1,018 
 
 $2,414,356 
 5,915,879 
 
 Argentine Republic. 
 Bolivia 
 
 Denmark 
 
 France 
 
 Brazil 
 
 61,750,369 
 3,736,307 
 5,183,604 
 765,590 
 
 3,060,968 
 1,457,135 
 12,551 
 
 Germany .... 
 
 Chile 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Greece. . 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Greenland, Iceland, etc. 
 Italy 
 
 
 Guianas : 
 British 
 
 222,861 
 
 Malta, Gozo etc 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 856,977 
 17,074 
 
 French 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Peru. ..". 
 
 4,125 
 84,009 
 41,353 
 
 714,247 
 1,772,480 
 7,722.564 
 2,017,756 
 20,326,436 
 
 27,238,459 
 14,529,335 
 
 Russia, Baltic, etc 
 Russia, Black Sea 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Servia 
 
 Aden 
 
 
 10,202,389 
 6,311,393 
 263,970 
 139,075 
 534,398,302 
 962.200 
 563,399 
 
 4,269,437 
 69.074.33'J 
 4,106,689 
 
 1,170,900 
 
 1,259,268 
 1,162.572 
 706,793 
 910.200 
 780,634 
 20,405.952 
 195,764 
 
 8,236,678 
 704,034 
 541,295 
 1,605,044 
 2,691,550 
 1,087,179 
 9,233,894 
 
 26.156 
 2,393 
 
 6,542,303 
 
 J4.715 
 12.712 
 
 269.531 
 5,843,455 
 150,635 
 
 4,833 
 
 260,893 
 39,142 
 45.410 
 139,305 
 15.941 
 800,987 
 9,241 
 
 150.562 
 3.588 
 3,168 
 12,086 
 277,029 
 64,079 
 327,762 
 
 China 
 
 824 
 
 1,350 
 11 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 East Indies : 
 British 
 
 Turkey in Europe . 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Gt. Britain aud Ireland. 
 
 French 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 31,593 
 30,852 
 
 746,517 
 25,223,610 
 
 
 Japan 
 
 British North America : 
 Nova Scotia, N. Bruns- 
 
 
 Russia, Asiatic 
 Turkey in Asia 
 All other Asia 
 
 
 111,050 
 2,325.078 
 76,352 
 5,578,898 
 185,121 
 17,187,380 
 68,605 
 3,830,415 
 876.338 
 26,283 
 476,836 
 6,670 
 16,772 
 15,343 
 33 
 5,017,707 
 65,810 
 692,847 
 
 8,844 
 
 198 
 350 
 88,876 
 11,399 
 133,483 
 
 Quebec, Ontario, etc.. 
 British Columbia 
 Newfoundland it Lab- 
 rador 
 
 British Australasia . 
 French Oceanica 
 Hawaiian Islands... 
 Tonga, Samoa, etc... 
 Philippine Islands.. 
 British Africa 
 Canary Islands 
 French Africa 
 
 Cent'l American States : 
 Costa Rica ... 
 
 17 
 
 14,105 
 2,538 
 3,386 
 130 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Honduras 
 
 
 Salvador 
 
 Liberia 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 Miquelon. Langlev. etc. 
 West Indies: 
 British 
 
 Portuguese Africa.. 
 Spanish Africa 
 Eevpt 
 
 401 
 
 310 
 
 Danish 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Dutch 
 
 All other Africa 
 All other Islands and 
 Ports 
 
 559,188 
 50,537 
 
 
 French 
 
 
 Havti 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Cuba 
 
 1,210,291,913 
 
 $21,190,417 $616,060,054
 
 466 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 THE WHEAT CROP OF THE WORLD, IN BUSHELS, 1898. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 COUNTKIKS. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 United States 
 
 597,294,000 
 58,16!>,<)00 
 63,844,000 
 18,444,000 
 41,144.000 
 130,525,000 
 69,51!).(M>0 
 102,150,000 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 45,978,000 
 116,337,000 
 
 British India 
 
 242,8510,000 
 17,020,000 
 24,118,000 
 36,887,000 
 57,551,000 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 Egypt 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 97,042,000 
 350,431,000 
 
 111,79X.O()0 
 51,281,000 
 (i.'!,S44,000 
 
 :!74,r>. r >o,ooo 
 
 
 Chile 
 
 France 
 
 
 Austria . 
 
 Germany 
 
 Other countries 
 
 
 
 The World 
 
 Roumania 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 C, rent Britain 
 Russiat 
 
 2,670,822,000 
 
 
 * With Croatia and Slavonia. t With Siberia and Asia Minor. 
 
 The above estimate of production of wheat in 1898 was made by the Hungarian Minister of Agriculture in his 
 annual report, August, 1898. 
 
 The rye crop of principal countries in 1890-91 was: Austria, 63,000,000 bushels ; Hungary, 32,760,000 bushels; 
 United States, 33,000,000 bushels; Russia, 539,000,000 bushels. 
 
 ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND 
 MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. 
 
 With the Names of the Countries Producing Them. 
 
 Agates Africa and several parts of Europe, but 
 chiefly Iceland, Saxony, and Tuscany. 
 
 Alabaster Spain, Italy, England, America. 
 
 Alcanet (root) Imported from the Levant, or the 
 neighborhood of Montpellier in France. 
 
 Alligator North America, South America, and the 
 northern parts of Africa. 
 
 Almonds Spain, France, Italy, the Levant, Arabia, 
 Isia, Africa. Indigenous to Greece. 
 
 Aloes America, the West Indies. The medicinal 
 Aloes are indigenous to India, Africa, and Italy. 
 
 Amber IH mines in Prussia, near the seacoast ; on 
 the shores of Sicily and the Adriatic ; on the south- 
 ern shores of the Baltic and eastern shores of England ; 
 Mexico. 
 
 Amethyst Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony, and other 
 parts of Europe; Siberia, India ( Ceylon), Mexico, 
 Brazil. 
 
 Anchovy The Mediterranean (chiefly off Gorgona), 
 off the coast of Spain, France, and Italy ; and occasion- 
 ally off those of England. 
 
 Anise Seeds Egypt, to which they are indigenous; 
 Syria and other Eastern countries; Spain, Malta, 
 America. 
 
 Ant-Bear South America (Brazil, Guiana), East 
 Indies, and Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Antelope Europe, Asia, Africa, Arabia. 
 
 Apes Asia (the East Indies), and Africa. 
 
 Armadillo Mexico, South America. 
 
 Arnotto South America, East Indies, West Indies. 
 
 Arrack (a spirituous liquor) Batavia, from rice; 
 Goa, from the juice of the cocoa tree. 
 
 Arrowroot East Indies, South America, West 
 Indies. 
 
 Arsenic Great Britain, Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary. 
 Mexico. 
 
 Asafo3tida (a kind of gum) Persia. 
 
 Asbestos (an incombustible kind of earth) The 
 Ural and some other European mountains ; Swedish 
 Lapland, Candia, China, North America. 
 
 Asphaltum (a friable kind of bitumen ) The Dead 
 Sea, many parts of Europe and America, the Island of 
 Trinidad. 
 
 Baboons Asia (Borneo and the Philippine Islands), 
 and the hot parts of Africa. 
 
 Bamboo Cane The East Indies, China, West Indies 
 and America. 
 
 Banana Egypt and the West Indies, and other 
 tropical countries. 
 
 Barilla (an alkaline salt, used in making glass) 
 Spain and other parts of Europe, South America, West 
 Indies. 
 
 Bear The northern parts of Europe, Asia, Arabia. 
 Egypt, Barbary, Japan, Ceylon, North America, Peru. 
 
 Beaver The north part of Europe, Asia, and America. 
 
 Bergamot (a perfume) Bergamo, in Italy. 
 
 Beryl(a gem) Siberia, Dfturia, on the frontiers of 
 China, Saxony, south of France, North America, Brazil. 
 
 Betel (a shrub, whose leaf is chewed) The East In- 
 dies. 
 
 Bird of Paradise The islands of Papua and Droo. 
 
 Bison Poland, Lithuania and North America. 
 
 Black Bear India, Africa, America, Kamchatka. 
 
 Black Kagle Abyssinia. 
 
 Black Fox The north of Europe, Siberia, North 
 America. 
 
 Black Swan Botany Bay. 
 
 Boa Constrictor Africa, South America, India. 
 
 Box Wood Spain, Turkey, America. 
 
 Brandy France, (chiefly in Cognac and Nantes); 
 also in England, Spain, and the United States, but of in- 
 ferior quality. 
 
 Brazil- Wood Brazil (Pernambuco) and other parts 
 of America ; the East Indies. 
 
 Bread-Fruit Otaheite and other South Sea Islands. 
 
 Buffalo Asia, Africa, America. 
 
 Burgundy \Vine France. 
 
 Calabash Tree The East Indies, America, West 
 Indies. 
 
 Camel Tar tary, Siberia, Thibet, China. 
 
 <':i n H-II > pa n ! Africa, Senaar, Abyssinia, Ethiopia, 
 and the neighborhood of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Camphor (a vegetable product) China, Japan, and 
 the East India Islands, Borneo, and Ceylon. 
 
 Canary Birds Africa, the Canary Islands, Italy, and 
 Greece. 
 
 Cantharides (a kind of beetle used in making blis- 
 ters) Spain, Italy, and south of France. 
 
 Cape Madeira Wine The Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Capers (the buds of a plant) The south of France, 
 Italy, and the Levant. 
 
 Capsicum (a pepper plant) East Indies, Mexico, 
 South America, West Indies. 
 
 Caraway Seeds England, America. 
 
 Cardamom Seeds East Indies (Malabar). 
 
 Carmine (a color prepared from cochineal) East 
 Indies, Mexico, South America. 
 
 Cassada (an edible root) South America and the 
 West Indies. 
 
 Cassia(an aromatic bark) China, East Indies, South 
 America, West Indies. 
 
 Castor Oil (from the seeds of a species of palm) 
 The East Indies, South America, West Indies. 
 
 Cat's-Eye(akindof gem) Ceylon, Siberia, America. 
 
 Catecliu(a vegetable extract) East Indies, Bombay, 
 Bengal. 
 
 Caviare (a food made from the roes of sturgeon) 
 Russia. 
 
 Cedar Syria, chiefly about Mt. Libanus ; America. 
 
 Cayenne Pepper East Indies, South America, West 
 Indies. 
 
 Chameleon Egypt and Barbary, India, Mexico, 
 Guiana. 
 
 Cbamois Goat The Alps and Pyrenees. 
 
 Champagne Wine France, United States. 
 
 Chestnut Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, America. 
 
 Chigger (a species of flea that breeds under the skin) 
 South America. 
 
 Chinchilla (i'ur) Chile. 
 
 Chocolate (Cacao) Mexico, South America, West 
 Indies. 
 
 Cinnabar (a red paint) The palatinate of Germany, 
 Bohemia, Almaden in Spain, and India. 
 
 Cinnamon The East Indies, chiefly Ceylon; South 
 America (Guiana). 
 
 Citron Europe (Italy), Asia, West Indies. 
 
 Civet (an animal perfume) Africa (coast of Guinea), 
 India, Brazil.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 467 
 
 Claret Wine The neighborhood of Garonne on the 
 western coast of France : I'niteil States. 
 
 Cloves The Molucca Islands (chiefly Amboyna) ; the 
 isles of France and Bourbon ; South America (Cayenne). 
 
 Cochineal (an insect used in dyeing and painting* 
 The East Indies. Mexico. South America. 
 
 < 'in 1 kat on East Indies, and the islands of the Indian 
 Ocean; Banda, Ceram, the Philippines, and Sunda 
 Isles. 
 
 Cocoanut The East Indies, Arabia, Africa, South 
 America, West Indies. 
 
 Cockroach (a kind of beetle) Asia, America, "West 
 Indies. 
 
 Coffee Arabia (Mocha), East Indies, West Indies, 
 South America. 
 
 Condor (a bird of prey) South America. 
 
 Conatantia Wine Constantia Farm, at the Cape of 
 Good Hope. 
 
 Copal (a kind of resin) Africa (Guinea), and 
 America. 
 
 Copper Anglesea and Cornwall, Sweden, Norway, 
 Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and various parts of the con- 
 tinent of Europe, China, and Japan ; Southern Africa, 
 United States, Peru, and Chili. 
 
 Coral (a marine animal production) The Mediter- 
 ranean (about Sicily, Majorca, and Minorca), the Red 
 Sea ; off the coasts of Africa and America ; in the South 
 Seas. 
 
 Coriander Seed South of Europe; England and 
 America. 
 
 Cork Portugal, Spain, and other parts in the south 
 of Europe ; Sicily (on Mt. Etna), the shores of the Medi- 
 terranean, South America. 
 
 Cornelian The East Indies, Arabia, Egypt, various 
 parts of Europe, several of the British shores, America. 
 
 Cotton The Levant, Eerypt, the East Indies, South 
 America. United States, West Indies. The finest now 
 produced is the Sea Island Cotton of Georgia, South 
 Carolina, anil Florida. 
 
 Crocodile Africa (the rivers Nile and Senegal, and 
 all the rivers of Guinea); India (the Ganges). 
 
 Crystal (a kind of gem) Madagascar, South Amer- 
 ica (Brazil, Guiana), North America, Norway, the Alps, 
 Scotland. 
 
 Currants The islands of the Grecian Archipelago, 
 England, and the United States. 
 
 Cypress The east of Europe, the Levant, Asia, 
 America. 
 
 Dates Egypt, the African coast of the Mediterra- 
 nean, Arabia, the East Indies, Persia, Spain, and Italy. 
 
 Diamonds The East Indies (Golconda, Raolconda, 
 Borneo), Mexico, Brazil, South Africa. 
 
 Dolphin The Atlantic and Pacific seas. 
 
 Dragon's-Blood(a kind of resin) Japan, Cochin- 
 China, Java, and other parts of the East. 
 
 Dromedary The deserts of Arabia and other parts of 
 Asia, and of Africa. 
 
 Ebony The East Indies (chiefly Ceylon), and West 
 Indies. 
 
 Kider Down (from the Eider Duck) The north of 
 Europe (chiefly Iceland), Asia, America. 
 
 Elephant Africa and the East Indies. The most 
 esteemed are those of Ceylon. 
 
 Elk or Moose Deer North America, some parts of 
 Europe and Asia, as far south as Japan. 
 
 Emerald Egypt and Ethiopia, Russia, the confines 
 of Persia, Mexico, Peru. 
 
 Emery (mineral used in polishing steel) The Le- 
 vant, Naxos, and other Grecian Islands, Germany, Guern- 
 sey, Spain, Italy, United States. 
 
 Ermine (a species of ferret) Norway, Lapland, Fin- 
 land, North America, Siberia, China. 
 
 Fan Palm The south of Europe, the East Indies 
 (Malabar and Ceylon), Japan, Cochin China. 
 
 Figs Italy, the Levant, Turkey, the Grecian Islands, 
 Portugal. Spain, and south of France. 
 
 Fire-fly America, India. Japan. 
 
 Fitchet (a species of weasel) India, New South Wales. 
 
 Flamingo Africa, South America, West Indies. 
 
 Flax Every quarter of the globe. 
 
 Flying-fish Inhabits the European, Red, and Amer- 
 ican seas, but is found chiefly between the tropics. 
 
 Flying squirrel North America. 
 
 Frankincense (a kind of gum) Arabia. 
 
 French Plums Chiefly from Bordeaux. 
 
 Frontignac wine Languedoc, France. 
 
 Fuller's Earth. Sweden, Saxony, Portugal, Eng- i 
 
 land; the finest and most plentiful found at Warden, 
 near Woburn. 
 
 Galls (a vegetable excrescence) Asia Minor, and 
 Syria, the best from Aleppo. 
 
 Gamboge (a resinous gum) Tonquin, the East In- 
 dies. 
 
 Garnet Bohemia, and other parts of Europe, Mada- 
 gascar, Ethiopia, India, Syria. 
 
 Gazelle India, Persia", Egypt. Ethiopia. 
 
 Gentian (a kind of bitter root) The Alps, and other 
 mountainous parts of the continent of Europe. 
 
 Gin Originally Schiedam, a village near Rotterdam 
 in Holland, and hence sometimes called Holland (Jin. 
 Common gin, a deleterious mixture, made in great quan- 
 tities in England and the United States. 
 
 Ginger (an aromatic root) The East Indies, West 
 Indies, Abyssinia, coasts of Guinea. 
 
 Gold Asia (Arania), India, Java, Sumatra, Peru, 
 China, Japan, Siberia, Africa, Mexico, Brazil, Chile, 
 United States. 
 
 Golden Eagle Europe, Siberia, Abyssinia. 
 
 Golden Pheasant China. 
 
 Gourd America, south of Europe. 
 
 Grapes France, Portugal, America, in great per- 
 fection ; not so in England and other less genial cli- 
 mates. 
 
 Guava (a fruit) The West Indies. 
 
 Guaiacum (the resin of the Lignum Vitae tree) South 
 America and West Indies. 
 
 Guinea Fowl Africa. 
 
 Gum Arabic Egypt, Barbary, Turkey, Persian 
 Gulf. 
 
 Gypsum (or Plaster of Paris) America, Spain, Italy, 
 England. 
 
 Heliotrope (or blood-stone) Siberia, Persia, Buk- 
 haria. 
 
 Hemp Russia and other parts of Europe (the best 
 from Riga), America, the East Indies, and some parts of 
 England. 
 
 Hickory Nut North America. 
 
 Hippopotamus All the lakes and a number of 
 rivers of Africa. 
 
 Hock Wine Hockstedt in Suabia. 
 
 Humming IJird South America (Guiana), West 
 Indies, and United States. 
 
 Hyeifa (a species of wild dog) India, Persia, Africa. 
 
 Ichneumon (a species of weasel) Egypt, Barbary, 
 the south of Asia, and the Indian Islands. 
 
 Incense (a resinous perfume) America. 
 
 India Rubber (the inspissated resinous juice of a 
 tree) Guiana, and other parts of South America. 
 
 Indigo (a deep blue vegetable dye) East Indies, 
 Africa, America, West Indies. 
 
 Ipecacuanha (a kind of root used chiefly as an 
 emetic) South America (Brazil), and the West Indies. 
 
 Iron Sweden, Norway, Russia, England, Scotland, 
 North America, Africa. 
 
 Isinglass (fish glue) Russia. 
 
 Ivory Asia (Achem and Ceylon), Africa (Guinea 
 and the Cape of Good Hope). 
 
 Jackal (a species of wild dog) Africa and the warm 
 parts of Asia. 
 
 Jalap (a purgative root) Chiefly from Xalapa in 
 Mexico. . 
 
 Jasper Egypt, Siberia, Spain, Sicily, Hungary, 
 Bohemia, Saxony, Silesia, Mexico. 
 
 Jet Great Britain, Germany, France, and Spain. 
 
 Juniper Berries (from which Holland gin is dis- 
 tilled) Sweden, Holland, Germany, the south of Eu- 
 rope, Asia, America. 
 
 Kangaroo Australasia. 
 
 Lac (a vegetable substance prepared by an insect) 
 The Kast Indies, Bengal. 
 
 Llama (a species of camel) Peru and Chile. 
 
 Lantern Fly Surinam, and other parts of South 
 America. 
 
 I. apis Lazuli (a kind of siliceous earth) Siberia, 
 China, Tartary. America, and various parts of Europe. 
 
 Lemons Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, the Levant, 
 Arabia, Jamaica, Mexico, and Florida. 
 
 Leopard Senegal, Guinea, and other parts of 
 Africa. 
 
 Lignum Vita? West Indies, chiefly Jamaica. 
 
 Limes America, West Indies.
 
 468 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Lion Africa, India, Persia, Japan. 
 
 Lodestone Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Lapland. 
 
 Locust Inhabits Tartary, and migrates in great 
 swarms into various parts* of Europe, Africa, and 
 America. 
 
 Logwood Honduras and the West Indies. 
 
 Lory (a beautiful species of parrot) The Molucca 
 Islands, Java, and New Guinea. 
 
 Lotus (a species of water lily) The hot parts of 
 Africa, East Indies, America. 
 
 Lynx (a species of cat) The north of Europe, Asia, 
 and America. 
 
 Macaroni Italy, Sicily, Germany. 
 
 Mace Banda Isle and other East Indies. 
 
 Madder (a root used in dyeing) The south of Europe, 
 Holland, and England. 
 
 Madeira Wine The Island of Madeira. 
 
 Mahogany Jamaica (the best), Cuba, Hayti, the 
 Bahama Islands, Honduras, Panama, South America. 
 
 Maize or Indian Corn America. 
 
 Malmsey Wine Malvesia, one of the Grecian 
 Islands. 
 
 Manganese (a species of calcareous earth) Sweden, 
 Germany, France, England. 
 
 Mangrove Asia, Africa, and South America, be- 
 tween the tropics. 
 
 Manna (a vegetable product) The south of Europe, 
 particularly Sicily and Calabria. 
 
 Maple Sugar Europe and North America. 
 
 Marble Spain, France, Italy, Sweden, Norway, the 
 Island of Paros, England, Scotland, America. The 
 Statuary Marble is from Paros and Carrara. 
 
 Melons Asia, South of Europe, Egypt, Arabia, 
 America, West Indies. 
 
 Mica (a kind of argillaceous earth) Siberia, Ben- 
 gal, Malabar, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Saxony. 
 
 Millet Seed The south of Europe, Africa, East In- 
 dies, and America. 
 
 Mocho Stone East Indies, Iceland, the palatinate 
 of the Rhine and other parts of Europe. 
 
 Monkeys South America and the hottest regions of 
 Asia and Africa. 
 
 Molasses West Indies, United States (Louisiana). 
 
 Morocco Leather The Levant, Barbary, Spain, 
 France, Flanders, England, and America. 
 
 Mosquito (a species of gnat) The hot parts of 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. 
 
 Mother of Pearl (the lining of the pearl mussel's 
 shell) The Red Sea, East Indies, America. 
 
 Mulberry Italy (black), China, (white), United 
 States (white and red), East Indies, Japan, Siberia, 
 Russia. 
 
 Muscatel Wine Languedoc in France. 
 
 Musk (an animal odoriferous substance) Siberia, 
 Persia, Thibet, Tonquin, Cochin China. 
 
 Musk Ox North America. 
 
 Myrrh (a gum resin) The coast of the Red Sea. 
 
 Naphtha (a highly inflammable fluid bitumen) 
 Baku, on the shore of the Caspian Sea, Persia, Media, 
 Tartary, China, Italy, Pent. 
 
 Natron (soda) Denmark, Hungary, Switzerland, 
 Egypt, China, Bengal, Persia, Syria, South America. 
 
 Nautilus Argonauta The Mediterranean, African, 
 and Indian Seas. 
 
 Nitre (a neutral salt, the chief ingredient in gun- 
 powder) Spain, France, Naples, Egypt, East Indies, 
 America. 
 
 Nutmegs The East Indies, South America. 
 
 Olives Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Northern 
 Africa, Mexico. 
 
 Onyx East Indies, Siberia, Bohemia, Saxony, Portu- 
 gal, Mexico. 
 
 Opium (a concreted juice, obtained from a species of 
 poppy) Arabia, Persia, and other warm regions of 
 Asia, especially the East Indies. 
 
 Opossum America. 
 
 Orang-outang Africa. 
 
 Oranges Spain, Majorca, Portugal, Italy, Genoa, 
 Nice, the Azores, America, West Indies. Oranges for 
 wine from Seville in Spain. 
 
 Orpiment (yellow arsenic) Hungary, Georgia, Tur- 
 key, the Levant, England. 
 
 Orrig Hoot Italy and other parts of the south of 
 Europe. 
 
 Ostrich The torrid regions of Asia and Africa, South 
 America. 
 
 Attar of Hoses Arabia, Persia, Turkey, East In- 
 dies, 
 
 Ounce The torrid parts of Africa and Asia. 
 
 Palm Oil Tree South America. 
 Panther Africa and the hot parts of Asia. 
 
 Papyrus (a plant which formed the paper of the earlv 
 " yssinia, Ethiopia, Syria, Sicily, Mad- 
 
 times) Egypt, Abyssi 
 agascar. 
 
 Parrots Africa, East Indies, South America, West 
 Indies. 
 
 Pearl (a gem produced by a species of oyster or mus- 
 sel) Arabia, Persia, the East Indies, America. 
 
 Pearl Ashes America. 
 
 Pelican South America, all the warm latitudes of 
 the old and new continents, the lakes of Judea and 
 Egypt, and the rivers Nile and Strymon. 
 
 Penguin The South Islands, Europe, America. 
 
 Pepper The East Indies, America, West Indies, Cape 
 of Good Hope. 
 
 Peruvian Bark South America (Peru and Quito). 
 
 Petroleum The East Indies, Persia, Media, Siberia. 
 France, England, Germany, Spain, Italy, and the United 
 States. 
 
 Pimento The West Indies, particularly Jamaica. 
 
 Pineapple Mexico, South America, the hot parts of 
 Africa, India, the West Indies. 
 
 Pitch United States, Sweden, Norway. 
 
 Plantain (a fruit) Africa, South America, West In- 
 dies. 
 
 Platina South America (near Quito, Santa Fe', and 
 Choco). 
 
 Plumbago England, and several countries on the 
 continent of Europe, America. 
 
 Pomegranate Spain, Italy, Africa, West Indies. 
 
 Porcupine Spain, Italy, India, Persia, South Tar- 
 tary, Africa, America. 
 
 Porphyry Egypt, Italy, Germany, and other parts 
 of the continent. 
 
 Potash Russia'and America. 
 
 Prunes France (chiefly from the neighborhood of 
 Marseilles). 
 
 Ptarmigan (white grouse) The mountainous parts 
 of Europe and Siberia. 
 
 Pomace Stone The neighborhood of Vesuvius and 
 other volcanoes. 
 
 Pumpkin Germany and America. 
 
 Quagga (a quadruped of the horse species) South 
 America. 
 
 Quassia (the root, bark, and wood, of a tree) South 
 America, and the West Indies. 
 
 Quicksilver Ionia, Hungary, Spain, Italy, East 
 Indies, South America.' 
 
 Raccoon (a species of badger) North America, 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Raisins Spain and Turkey, Asia Minor, California. 
 
 Rattan Cane The East India Islands. 
 
 Red Port Wine Oporto in Portugal. 
 
 Reindeer Lapland, British America, Greenland. 
 
 Resin (the residuum from the distillation of the oil of 
 turpentine) Sweden and Norway, United States. 
 
 Rhenish Wine The banks of the Rhine. 
 
 Rhinoceros Africa, East Indies (Bengal, Java, 
 Sumatra, Ceylon). 
 
 Rhubarb Asiatic Turkey, Russia, China, Persia. 
 Tartary, East Indies, and America. 
 
 Rice' Asia (the East Indies and China), Egypt, north 
 of Africa, America (the best from Carolina), Spain, 
 Italy, Turkey. 
 
 Rock Salt England, Italy, Poland, America. 
 
 Rosewood Jamaica. the'Canary Islands. 
 
 Ruby The East Indies, Peru, Brazil. 
 
 Rum Jamaica, and other West India Islands. 
 
 Sable (a species of ferret) Siberia, Kamchatka, 
 and the northern parts of Europe and America. 
 
 Saffron (the flower of a plant) Egypt, Europe, 
 America. 
 
 Sago (a fecula obtained from the pith of a species of 
 palm) Africa, Malabar, and the East Indian Islands. 
 
 Sal Ammoniac India, Persia, Isle of Bourbon, 
 Egypt, the neighborhood of .Etna, Vesuvius, Hecla.and 
 other volcanoes, the Lapiri Islands. 
 
 Sandal Wood The East Indies, and Sandwich 
 Islands. 
 
 Sapphire Brazil, East Indies, Persia, Bohemia 
 France. 
 
 Sardonyx Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Bohemia, Sax- 
 ony, Ceylon. 
 
 Sarsaparilla (root of a plant) North America.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 469 
 
 Sassafras (the root, bark, and wood of a tree) North 
 America. 
 
 Scorpion Africa, India, Persia, America. 
 
 Seal The north of Europe, Greenland, and the Arc- 
 tic Sea, the lower parts of South America, in both 
 oceans. 
 
 Senna (the leaves of a plant) Arabia, Persia, and 
 Upper Egypt. 
 
 Shaddock (a species of citron) East Indies, West 
 Indies. 
 
 Shagreen (a grained leather prepared from the skin 
 of a species of shark) Constantinople,Tripoli, Algiers, 
 and some parts of Poland. 
 
 Sherry Wine Xeres in Spain. 
 
 Silk Spain, the south of France, Italy, the Levant, 
 Persia, China, East Indies, and United States. 
 
 Silver Africa, Mexico, Peru, United, States, Spain, 
 Germany, Siberia, Sweden, Norway, and England. 
 
 Silver Bear The confines of Russia. 
 
 Soy (a liquid condiment prepared from a kind of 
 pulse) China and Japan. 
 
 Spermaceti The produce .of the Cachalot, a whale, 
 inhabiting the European seas, the coasts of America, 
 and Davis Straits. 
 
 Sponge (a marine animal production) The Archi- 
 pelago, the Mediterranean and Indian Seas. 
 
 Spoonbill South America, Mexico, Jamaica. 
 
 Stork Abyssinia, Arabia, Asia. 
 
 Sturgeon European and American seas and rivers. 
 
 Sugar East India Islands, China, West Indies, 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Sulphur Italy, Sicily, Naples, Spain, Norway, 
 Siberia. 
 
 Sumach (a plant used in dyeing and tanning) Spain, 
 Portugal, the Levant, and United States. 
 
 Swordfish The Mediterranean, Atlantic and East 
 Indian Seas. 
 
 Tamarinds Arabia, the East Indies, America, 
 West Indies. 
 
 Tapir (an animal of the class mammalia) South 
 America. 
 
 Tar Russia, Sweden, Norway, France, Switzerland, 
 America. 
 
 Tarantula Spider South of Europe, Barbary, East 
 and AVest Indies. 
 
 Tea China, Japan, India. 
 
 Teak Wood East Indies, (Malabar, Pegu). 
 
 Tiger East Indies, China, Japan, Africa. 
 
 Tin England, the Scilly Islands, Bohemia, Saxony, 
 Silesia, Banca, Molucca, Chile, Mexico. 
 
 Timber Norway, Prussia, Russia, America. 
 
 Tobacco United States, Peru, the West Indies, 
 Asiatic Turkey, China, Philippine Islands. 
 
 Tokay Wine Hungary. 
 
 Tolu Balsam (a fragrant concreted juice) South 
 America. 
 
 Topaz Africa, East Indies, Siberia, Russia, Bohe- 
 I mia, Saxony, Mexico, Brazil. 
 
 Tortoise" Africa, Sardinia, America, and West In- 
 dies. 
 
 Treacle (a gross fluid, obtained in the manufacture 
 of sugar) The West Indies and Louisiana. 
 
 Turpentine (the resinous product of different species 
 of pine, from which an essential oil is distilled) North 
 America, Russia, Norway, France, Switzerland, the Pyr- 
 enees, and Germany. 
 
 Turquoise (a mineral of a pale sky blue color) Per- 
 sia, Mount Caucasus, Egypt, Arabia, Hungary, France. 
 
 Vampire Bat East Indian Islands, South America, 
 Guinea, Madagascar, New Holland, New Hebrides, 
 Friendly Islands, New Caledonia. 
 
 Vanilla (a plant whose aromatic pods are used in the 
 manufacture of chocolate) South America, West In- 
 dies. 
 
 Vulture Egypt, Abyssinia, Arabia, Syria, Persia, 
 ! South America, West Indies. 
 
 Walrus The coast of Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, 
 Hudson's Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the Icy Sea. 
 
 Whale Greenland, Davis Straits, the Arctic and 
 Antarctic Seas. 
 
 Whisky (a spirit drawn from barley, rye, corn) 
 United States, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 
 White Bear Tartary. 
 
 Wolf Europe, Asia, Africa, America. 
 
 Yams (the edible roots of a creeping plant) Amer- 
 ica, West Indies, East Indies, Africa. 
 
 Zebra (a species of horse) The plains of Southern 
 Africa. 
 Zinc Germany, United States, and South America. 
 
 RAILWAY MILEAGE IX THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 BY STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 STATE OR TERRITORY. 
 
 MILEAGE ON JUNE 30, 1897. 
 
 STATE OR TERRITORY. 
 
 MILEAGE ox JUNE 30, 1897. 
 
 Official. 
 
 Unofficial. 
 
 Total 
 Mileage. 
 
 Official. 
 
 Unofficial. 
 
 Total 
 Mileage. 
 
 
 3,752.66 
 
 93.75 
 
 3,846.41 
 
 1,320.07 
 2,747.23 
 5,274 48 
 4,572.19 
 1,009.05 
 317.36 
 29.75 
 3,182.85 
 5,403.43 
 1,106.91 
 10,775.58 
 6,384.25 
 1,230 44 
 8,510.85 
 8,791 38 
 3.04055 
 2,397.51 
 1.741.68 
 1,341.25 
 2,1 19.4*5 
 7.942.17 
 6,198.10 
 2,594.77 
 6,649.30 
 2,907.45 
 5,589.05 
 908.37 
 1,225.51 
 
 New Jersev 
 
 2,202.36 18.00 
 1,487.03 
 8,131.07 12.88 
 3,500.48 34.00 
 2,547.00] 
 8,719.25 10.00 
 454.20 5.00 
 1,529.59 
 9,886.33 81.79 
 220.56 : 
 2,596.82: 3350 
 2,782.58 16.84 
 3,009.96 82.00 
 9,503.53 61.40 
 1,415.841 
 988.56! 
 3,574.95 s 70.60 
 2,691.08 138.70 
 2,070.27| 10.00 
 2,231.94 
 
 2,m36 
 1,487.03 
 8,143.90 
 3.534.45 
 2,547.00 
 8,729.25 
 45920 
 1,529.59 
 9,968.12 
 220.56 
 2.630.32 
 2,799.42 
 3,091.96 
 9,564.93 
 1,415.84 
 988.56 
 3.64555 
 2,829.78 
 2,080.27 
 6,231.94 
 1,179.97 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Arizona 
 
 1,320.07 
 2,706.45 
 5.218.89 
 4,535.09 
 1,009.05 
 
 ' 40.78 
 55.59 
 37.10 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 California 
 
 North Dakota 
 Ohio ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 317.36 
 29.75 
 3,127.85 
 5,2H3.43 
 1,106.91 
 
 ' 55.00 
 200.00 
 
 Oregon 
 Pennsvl vania 
 
 District of Columbia.... 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Idaho 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Illinois 
 
 10,752.27 23.31 
 6,383.25 1.00 
 1,200.44 
 8,508.98, 1.87 
 8,79438 
 3,022.491 18.06 
 2.352.26 45.25 
 1,707.36 34.32 
 1,253.19 88.06 
 2,089.65 29.80 
 7,808.42 133.75 
 6,198.10 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 Utah 
 Vermont 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 
 Kentuckv 
 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 1,179.97 
 
 
 
 
 Grand total in U. S. 1897 182,919.82 
 Grand total in U. S. 1896 181,153.77 
 Grand total in U. S. 1895 179,175.51 
 Grand total in U. S. 1894 176,602.61 
 Grand total in U. S. 1893 170,332.30 
 Grand total in U. S. 1892 165,690.97 
 Grand total in U. S. 1891 164.602.79 
 Grand total in V. S. 1890 159,271.74 
 
 1,508.65 
 1,622.86 
 1,481.96 
 2,105.94 
 6,128.77 
 5,872.55 
 3,799.95 
 4,325.31 
 
 184.428.47 
 182.776.63 
 180.657.47 
 178,708.55 
 176,461.07 
 171,563.52 
 168,402.74 
 163,597.05 
 
 
 
 2,565.77 
 6,637.33 
 2.907.45 
 
 29.00 
 11.97 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 5,557.05 
 908.37 
 1,222.18 
 
 32.00 
 "3.33 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire
 
 470 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 RAILROAD TRAFFIC OF THE WORLD. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Miles of 
 Railroad. 
 
 Cost of Roads 
 'and Equip- 
 ments. 
 
 Passengers 
 Carried. y 
 
 Tons 
 of Freight 
 Carried. 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Expenditures. 
 
 Europe 
 
 130,000 
 
 15,272,000,000 
 
 1,663,000,000 
 
 765,000,000 
 
 $1,275,000,000 
 
 $075,000,000 
 
 America 
 
 191,010 
 
 11,740,000,000 
 
 507,000,000 
 
 619,000,000 
 
 1,095,000,000 
 
 775,00 J, 000 
 
 Africa 
 
 5,530 
 
 335,000,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 Asia 
 
 17,630 
 
 860,000,000 
 
 121,000,000 
 
 26,000,000 
 
 85,000,000 
 
 45,000 .000 
 
 Australia 
 
 10,140 
 
 470,000,000 
 
 81,000,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 25,000.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 354,310 
 
 $28,677,000,000 
 
 2,384,000,000 
 
 1,431,000,000 
 
 ,*i!.r.i5,oi)o,ooo 
 
 $1,535,0(10.000 
 
 This table of statistics of the railroads of the world is by Mulhall, and represents the business of the year 
 1890. The following statement of the railroad mileage of the world is from the latest bulletin of the International 
 Railway Congress : North America, 203,138 ; South America, 23,779; Europe, 162,423; Asia, 26,078; Africa, 8,141; 
 Australia, 13,795. Total, 427,374. 
 
 Railroad Mileage by Countries. 
 
 From " Archiv fur Eisenbahnwesen," as translated from the original data in metric units by the 
 
 Railroad Gazette: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 All of Germany 
 
 Austro - Hungary (including 
 Bosnia, etc.) 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 France 
 
 Russia (including Finland) 
 
 Italy 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Netherlands (including Lux- 
 embourg) 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Norway 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Servia 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Greece..., 
 
 European Turkey, Bulgaria, 
 and Roumelia 
 
 Malta, Jersey, Man 
 
 Miles. 
 29,422 
 
 19,997 
 
 21,265 
 
 25,585 
 
 24,012 
 
 9,599 
 
 3,590 
 
 1,944 
 2,214 
 7,632 
 1,465 
 1,435 
 1,204 
 6,149 
 
 354 
 1,789 
 
 592 
 
 1,510 
 68 
 
 Total, Europe 159,824 
 
 United States 182,746 
 
 British North America and 
 
 Newfoundland 16,737 
 
 Mexico 7,388 
 
 Countries. 
 Central America. 
 
 Miles. 
 621 
 
 Total, North America 207,493 
 
 United States of Colombia.... 346 
 
 Cuba 1,076 
 
 Venezuela 634 
 
 San Domingo 117 
 
 Brazil 8,092 
 
 Argentine 8,337 
 
 Paraguay 157 
 
 Uruguay 1,119 
 
 Chile 2,505 
 
 Peru 1 ,036 
 
 Bolivar 621 
 
 Ecuador 186 
 
 British Guiana 22 
 
 Jamaica, Barbadoes, Trinidad, 
 
 Martinique, and Porto Rico. 522 
 
 Total, South America 25,370 
 
 British India 20,173 
 
 Ceylon 297 
 
 Asia Minor and Syria 1,559 
 
 Russia (Transcasj)ian District) 940 
 
 Siberia 1,888 
 
 Persia 34 
 
 Dutch India 1,293 
 
 Japan 2,290 
 
 Countries. Jliles. 
 
 Portuguese India 51 
 
 Malay States 101 
 
 China 269 
 
 Siam 89 
 
 Cochin China, Pondicherry, 
 
 Malacca, and Tonquiu 231 
 
 Total, Asia 29,275 
 
 Egypt 1,446 
 
 Algiers and Tunis 2,560 
 
 Cape Colony 2,500 
 
 Natal 402 
 
 South African Republic 627 
 
 Orange Free State 621 
 
 Mauritius, Reunion, Senegal, 
 Angola, Mozambique, and 
 
 Congo 1,044 
 
 Total, Africa 9,200 
 
 Australia 13,902 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 Europe 159,824 
 
 North America 207,493 
 
 South America 25,370 
 
 Asia 29,275 
 
 Africa 9,200 
 
 Australia 13,902 
 
 Total .445,064 
 
 INSURANCE. 
 
 A Stock Insurance Company is one whose cap- 
 ital is owned by stockholders, they alone shar- 
 ing the profits, and they alone being liable for 
 losses. The business of such a company, and also 
 of a mixed company, is managed by directors 
 chosen by the stockholders. Policy holders, un- 
 less at the same time stockholders, have no 
 voice in the management of the company's 
 business or in the election of its officers. 
 
 A Mutual Insurance Company is one in which 
 the profits and losses are shared among the 
 policy holders (the insured). 
 
 Mixed Companies are a combination of the 
 foregoing. In a mixed company all profits 
 above a certain fixed dividend are usually di- 
 vided among the policy holders. 
 
 Some mutual and mixed companies issue 
 what are called non-participating policies. The 
 holders of these do not share in the profits or 
 losses. 
 
 Fire Insurance. Policies for fire insur- 
 
 ance are generally issued for periods of one 
 to five years. Ordinarily, in case of loss by 
 fire, the insured will be paid the extent of his 
 loss up to the amount of insurance, unless the 
 insurance company prefer to replace or repair 
 the damaged property, which privilege is usu- 
 ally reserved. If the policy contains the ' ' aver- 
 age clause " the payment will cover only such 
 portion of the loss as the amount of insurance 
 bears to the value of the property insured. 
 
 A Flniiliiif/ Pnlici/ is one which covers prop- 
 erty stored in several buildings or places. The 
 name is applied more particularly to policies 
 which cover goods whose location may be 
 changed in process of manufacture, or in the 
 ordinary course of business. The "average 
 clause " is a usual condition of policies of this 
 class. 
 
 Short Rates are rates for a term, less than a 
 year. If an insurance policy is terminated at 
 the request of the policy holder, the company 
 retains the customary "short rates" for the
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 471 
 
 time the policy has been in force, as shown by 
 the following table : 
 
 Policy 
 for 
 1 year. 
 
 Policy Policy 
 for' for 
 Jycar*. 3 years. 
 
 Policy 
 for 
 
 4 years. 
 
 Policy 
 for 
 5 years. 
 
 oiarjre 
 propori 
 of wh< 
 Premii 
 
 UII> 
 
 on 
 Je 
 m. 
 
 1 mo. 
 
 2 mo. 
 
 3 mo. 
 
 4 mo. 
 
 5 mo. 
 
 20 per c 
 
 ent. 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 " 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 " 
 
 10 " 
 
 30 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 " 
 
 9 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 15 " 
 
 40 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 " 
 
 12 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 20 " 
 
 50 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 15 
 
 JO 
 
 
 
 25 " 
 
 60 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 12 " 
 
 18 
 
 -'4 
 
 
 
 30 " 
 
 70 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 14 " 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 " 
 
 75 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 16 " L'4 
 
 .' i'J 
 
 
 
 40 " 
 
 80 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 " 27 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 45 " 
 
 85 
 
 
 10 
 
 2(1 
 
 30 
 
 
 40 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 90 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 22 " 
 
 33 
 
 
 44 " 
 
 55 " 
 
 95 
 
 
 When a policy is terminated at the option of 
 the company, a ratable portion of the premium 
 is refunded for the unexpired term. 
 
 Lafe Insurance. In ordinary life poli- 
 cies a certain premium is to be paid every year 
 until the death of the insured, when the policy 
 becomes payable to the beneficiary. There are 
 other kind of policies, however, and these are 
 described below : 
 
 Li //* it* d Payment Life Policy. Conditions: 
 Premiums to be paid annually for a certain 
 fixed number of years, or until the death of the 
 insured, should that occur prior to the expira- 
 tion of this period. Policy payable at death 
 of the insured. Advantages : Payments on 
 this kind of policy may all be made while the 
 insured is best able to make them, and if he 
 live to an old age, the policy will not be a con- 
 tinual burden, but will rather be a source of 
 income, as the yearly dividends may be taken 
 out in cash or added to the amount of insur- 
 ance. 
 
 Term Life Policy. In this method of insur- 
 ance, the insurance company agrees to pay to 
 the beneficiaries a certain sum on the death of 
 the insured, should that event occur within a 
 fixed term. 
 
 Kiidmrment Policy. A combination of a 
 Term Policy and a Pure Endowment. These 
 policies are issued for endowment periods of 
 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, or 35 years, and may 1 it- 
 paid up by a single payment, by an annual 
 premium during the endowment period, or by 
 five or ten annual payments. Conditions: 1. 
 Insurance during a stipulated period, payable 
 at the death of the insured, should that event 
 happen within said period. 2. An endow- 
 ment of the same amount as the policy, paya- 
 ble to the insured, if still living at the end of 
 the period fixed. Advantages : Limited term 
 of payments : insurance during the time when 
 the death of the insured would cause most em- 
 barrassment to his family ; provision for old 
 age, as the amount of the policy will be paid 
 
 to the insured if still living, at a time when 
 advanced age may make it of great benefit. 
 
 Annuity Policies are secured by a single cash 
 payment and insure the holder the yearly pay- 
 ment of a certain sum of money during life. 
 
 Joint Life Policy. An agreement to pay a 
 certain sum on the death of any one of two or 
 more persons thus insured. 
 
 Non-forfeiting Policies do not become void 
 for non-payment of premiums. In some com- 
 panies all limited- payment life policies, and all 
 endowment policies, after premiums for three 
 (or two) years have been paid, and the origi- 
 nal policy is surrendered within a certain time,- 
 provide for paid-up assurance for as many parts 
 of the original amount assured as there shall 
 have been complete annual premiums received 
 in cash by the company. Some companies 
 voluntarily apply all credited dividends to the 
 continuance of the insurance. Others apply 
 | the legal reserve to the purchase of term insur- 
 ance at regular rates. 
 
 Special Forms. The Reserve Endowment, 
 Tontine Investment, and other special policies 
 guarantee to the holder a definite surrender 
 value at the termination of certain periods. 
 The surrender value of a policy is the amount 
 in cash which the company will pay the holder 
 of a policy on its surrender the legal reserve 
 less a certain per cent, for expenses. 
 
 The Reserve of life insurance policies is the 
 ! present value of the amount to be paid at death, 
 1 less the present value of all the net premiums 
 I to be paid in the future. 
 
 The Reserve Fund of a life insurance com- 
 pany is that sum in hand which, invested at a 
 given rate of interest, together with future 
 premiums on existing policies, should be suf- 
 ficient to meet all obligations as they become 
 due. It is the sum of the separate reserves of 
 the several policies outstanding. 
 
 Marine and Transit Insurance. In- 
 surance of vessels and their cargoes against 
 the perils of navigation is termed Marine In- 
 surance. 
 
 Inland and Transit Insurance refer to insur- 
 ance of merchandise while being transported 
 from place to place either by rail or water 
 routes, or both. 
 
 Insurance Certificates, showing that certain 
 property has been insured and stating the 
 amount of the insurance and the name of 
 the party abroad who is authorized to make the 
 settlement, are issued by marine companies. 
 They are negotiable and are usually sent to the 
 consignee of the merchandise to make the loss 
 payable at the port of destination. 
 
 The adjustment of marine policies in case of 
 loss is on the same principle as the adjustment 
 of fire policies containing the " average clause."
 
 472 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Open Policies are such upon which additional 
 insurances may be entered at different times. 
 
 PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED 
 STATES. 
 
 OFFICIAL STATEMENT OF NOVEMBER 1, 1898. 
 CLASSIFICATION OF DEBT NOVEMBER 1,1898. 
 
 Interest-bearing debt $1,026,766,960 00 
 
 Debt on which interest has ceased since 
 
 maturity 1,246,87026 
 
 Debt bearing no interest 383,191,367 64 
 
 Aggregate of interest and non-interest 
 
 Bearing debt $1,411.205.19790 
 
 Certificates and Treasury notes offset 
 
 by an equal amount of cash in the 
 
 Treasury ' 563,631,933 00 
 
 Aggregate of debt, including certificates 
 and Treasury notes fl,964,837,130 90 
 
 CASH IN THE TREASURY. 
 
 Gold certificates $36,940,149 00 
 
 Silver certificates 398,753,604 00 
 
 Certificates of deposit, act 
 
 June 8, 1872 20.105,000 00 
 
 Treasury notes of 1890 97,833,280 00 
 
 Fund for redemption of un- 
 
 current National bank 
 
 notes $9,101,914 43 
 
 Outstanding checks and 
 
 drafts 6,096,687 68 
 
 Disbursing officers' balances.. 58,911,586 64 
 Agency accounts, etc 6,269,000 36 
 
 (Sold reserve 
 
 $100,000,000 00 
 Net cash bal- 
 ance 200,238,275 30 
 
 $553,631,933 00 
 
 79,379,189 01 
 
 Wages and Cost of Living. 
 
 From the report of the Secretary of State on the state 
 of labor in Europe, derived from facts reported by the 
 United States Consuls corrected to 1892, the following 
 tables are gleaned : 
 
 COMPARATIVE RATES OF WEEKLY WAGES PAID 
 IN EUROPE AND IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 V 
 
 B 
 
 i 
 
 
 it Britain. 
 
 u. s. 
 
 
 
 c 
 bo 
 
 cS 
 
 
 
 
 Ej 
 
 ~' 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 $ 
 5.55 
 
 5 4"> 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 $ 
 
 3.90 
 ? 94 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 $ 
 
 3.50 
 3 55 
 
 $ 
 
 6.50- 6.60 
 7.04- 8.12 
 
 5- 8 
 10-14 
 
 8- 12 
 9- 12 
 
 Blacksmiths... 
 
 Bookbinders 
 
 Bricklayers 
 
 Cabinetmakers 
 
 Carpenters & Join- 
 ers 
 
 Farm Laborers 
 
 Laborers, Porters, 
 etc 
 
 Painters 
 
 Plasterers 
 
 Plumbers 
 
 Printers 
 
 Shoemakers 
 
 Tailors 
 
 Tinsmiths 
 
 4.853.823.90 
 
 .50- 7.83 12-18 
 
 4.00,3. 60 ?.45 7. 68- 9.03 12-15 
 0.003. 97 3. ,57.70- 8.48 9-13 
 
 5.424.004.187.33- 8.25 
 3.152.873.503.40- 4.25 
 
 2.922.604 
 4.903.924.607 
 .... 3.804.357 
 5.503.603.907 
 4.704.803.907 
 4.753.124.32 
 5.103.584.305 
 4.403.653.606 
 
 50- 5.00 
 25-8.16 
 68-10.13 
 .13- 8.46| 
 ,52- 7.75 
 7.35 
 00- 7.30 
 ,00-7.30 
 
 9-12 
 
 6- 9 
 10-16 
 10-15 
 12 18 
 
 8-18 
 12-18 
 10-18 
 10-14 
 
 9- 20 
 9- 101 
 7-15 
 
 71-12 
 
 51- 9 
 6- 12 
 9- 15 
 12- 20 
 12- 18 
 9- 18 
 6- 18 
 9- 12 
 
 .300,238,275 30 
 
 Aggregate $933,249,397 31 
 
 Cash balance in the Treasury November 1, 
 1898 $300,238,275 30 
 
 INTEREST-BEARING DEBT. 
 
 Funded loan of 1895 $25,364.500 00 
 
 Funded loan of 1907 559,646,! | 00 00 
 
 Refunding certificates 40,980 00 
 
 Loan of 1904 100,000,000 00 
 
 Loan of 1925 162,315.400 00 
 
 Two-twenties of 1898 179,399,180 00 
 
 Aggregate of Interest-bearing debt, ex- 
 clusive of United States Bonds issued to 
 Pacific railroads $1,026,766,960 00 
 
 DEBT ON WHICH INTEREST HAS CEASED SINCE MA- 
 TURITY. 
 
 Aggregate debt on which interest has 
 ceased since maturity $1,246,870 26 
 
 DEBT BEARING NO INTEREST. 
 
 United States notes $346,681,016 00 
 
 Old demand notes 53,997 50 
 
 National bank notes : 
 
 Redemption account 29,572.380 00 
 
 Fractional currency 6,883,974 14 
 
 Aggregate of debt bearing no interest $383,191,367 64 
 
 CERTIFICATES AND NOTES ISSUED ON DEPOSITS OF 
 COIN AND LEGAL-TENDER NOTES AND PURCHASES 
 OF SILVER BULLION. 
 
 Gold certificates $36,940.149 00 
 
 Silver certificates 398,753.5' 4 00 
 
 Certificates of deposit 20,105.000 (K) 
 
 Treasury notes of 1890 97,833,280 00 
 
 Aggregate of certificates and Treasury 
 notes, offset by cash in the Treasury... ".$553,631 ,933 CO 
 
 Night Signals on Ocean Steamship 
 Lines. 
 
 American Red light, roman candle throwing six red 
 balls. 
 
 Anchor Red and white lights alternately (lanterns). 
 
 Altaic- Three blue lights displayed in form of triangle. 
 
 CunardBlae light and two roman candles, each throw- 
 ing six blue balls. 
 
 Frencii Blue light forward, white light amidships, red 
 light aft simultaneously. 
 
 Guion Blue lights, forward, aft, and on bridge simul- 
 taneously. 
 
 Hamburg Two red, white, blue Coston lights at stern 
 of vessel in succession. 
 
 Inman Blue light forward and aft, and red light on 
 bridge simultaneously. 
 
 Monarch Green, white, green Coston light. 
 
 ^,'iit in/ml Blue light forward and aft, and red light on 
 bridge forming a triangle. 
 
 North German Lloyd Two blue, red Coston lights, one 
 forward and one aft simultaneously. 
 
 Red Star Red light forward, amidships, and aft, to- 
 gether. 
 
 State Blue, red Coston lights. 
 
 White Star Two green lights simultaneously. 
 
 Designating Marks of Ocean 
 Steamship Lines. 
 
 LINES. FCNNEL MARKS. 
 
 American Lower two thirds red, with white keystone, 
 
 black top. 
 Anchor Black. 
 
 Allan Red, with white ring under black top. 
 Cunard Red, with black top. 
 French Red, with black top. 
 Guion Lower two thirds black, a red band and black 
 
 top. 
 
 Hamburg Black. 
 Inman Lower two thirds black, white band and black 
 
 top. 
 
 Monarch French-grav and black top. 
 Xnfional White, with black top. 
 _\<>r//< fierm an Lloyd Black. 
 
 It I'd star Cream color, with black top with red star. 
 Royal Netherlands Black, with band having green 
 
 border. 
 
 State Lower two thirds buff, red band under black top. 
 White Star Cream, black top.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 473 
 
 PRODUCTION OF COAL. 
 
 ARK A OF THE WORLD'S COAL FIELDS, IX 
 SQUARE MILES. 
 
 China and Japan, 200,000; United States, 194,000; 
 India, 3-5.000; Russia, 27.000; Great Britain, 9,000; Ger- 
 many. 3.600; France, 1,800: Belgium, Spain, and other 
 countries, 1.400. Total, 471,800. 
 
 The coal fields of China, Japan, Great Britain, Ger- 
 many. Russia, and India contain apparently 303.000,000,- 
 000 tons, -which is enough for 700 years at present rate 
 of consumption. If to the above be added the coal 
 
 fields in the United States, Canada, and other countries, 
 the supply will be found ample for 1.000 years. Im- 
 proved machinery has greatly increased the yield per 
 miner, and thus produced a fall In price to the advan- 
 tage of all industries. 
 
 The production of the principal coal countries in 1896 
 was: United Kingdom, 195.361.000 tons; United States, 
 186.186,611 tons ; Germany. 85.690,000 tons; France, 28,- 
 750,000 tons: Belgium, 21.252.000 tons; Spain, 1.853,000 
 tons ; Canada, 3 750.000 tons ; New South Wales. 3.750,000 
 tons; India, 3,84^.000 tons; Russia (1894). 7,437,000 tons ; 
 Japan (1894-95), 4,261.218 tons. There is also a large pro- 
 duction of coal in China, but statistics are indefinite. 
 
 COAL PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Compiled from the report of " The Mineral Industry," covering products of 1897. 
 
 tons of 2,000 pounds. 
 
 Weight expressed in short 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 5,868,271 
 82'5,243 
 87.449 
 3,565,640 
 196,268 
 20,072.758 
 4.22<.0*5 
 1,334,795 
 
 Iowa 
 
 4.560,000 
 3.672,195 
 3.340,273 
 4.411.9:52 
 152.850 
 2.429.388 
 1,603,237 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 500 
 733.539 
 20,611 
 120,000 
 12,46-5.533 
 110,929 
 107,035,691 
 
 Tennessee . . 
 
 2,902,341 
 598,987 
 506,455 
 1,418.746 
 1.4*9,815 
 13.762.133 
 2,744,960 
 
 New Mexico 
 North Carolina.. 
 North Dakota... 
 Ohio 
 
 Texas 
 
 California 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Washington 
 West Virginia... 
 Wyoming 
 
 Illinois* 
 
 Missouri* 
 Montana* 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Indian Terrify*. 
 
 
 
 Fiscal year. Total production : Bituminous, 147,5.57.980 tons ; value, 8120,505,982. Anthracite, 52,645,133 tons ; 
 value, S85 8.57.717. Cannel (produced in Kentucky), 56,511 tons; value, 153,145. Grand total, 200,259,624 tons; 
 value, 206,516,844. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF COPPER, TEN, 
 AND ZINC. 
 
 The production of copper in the world in 1897, stated 
 in long tons, was as follows: United States, 227,763: 
 Spain and Portugal. 54,000 : Chile, 21.900; Japan, 23,000; 
 Germany. 20.145: Mexico. 1.5.n:;s : Australia, 17,000; South 
 Africa, 7.440: other countries, 25,704. Total, 412,050. 
 
 The copper production of the United States in 1897, 
 in pounds, was distributed as follows : Arizona, 81,019,- 
 922; California, 14,129,020; Colorado, 9,437,663 ; Michigan, 
 
 145,839,749 ; Montana, 237,158,540 ; Utah, 3,854,821 ; Eastern 
 and Southern States, 3,727,939; all others, 2,018,929; 
 copper in sulphate, 13,003,236. Total, 510,190,719. 
 
 The production of tin in the world in 1897, in long 
 tons, was as follows: England, 4.500; Straits Settle- 
 ments, 44.900; Australia, 3,466; Banka, Billiton, and 
 Singkel, 14,800 ; Bolivia, 5,506. Total, 73,172. 
 
 The production of zinc in the world in 1897, in metric 
 tons, was as follows : Austria, 9,332 ; Belgium, Holland, 
 and the Rhine district of Germany, 187.406; Upper 
 Silesia, 95,550; France and Spain, 32.634: England. 23,- 
 805 ; Russia, 5,852 ; United States, 91,071. Total, 446,650. 
 
 THE FLEET OF TRANSATLANTIC PASSENGER STEAMERS. 
 
 Includes only regular passenger lines from New York. Offices and piers are in Manhattan Borough, unless 
 
 otherwise stated. 
 
 
 BCILT. 
 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Horse 
 Power. 
 
 
 Dimensions 
 in Feet. 
 
 STEAMSHIPS. 
 
 
 
 Builders. 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 J 
 
 Commander. 
 
 
 
 .a 
 
 
 
 
 Place. 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 J.I 
 
 f r 
 
 
 & 
 
 ' 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1" 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 New York and Glasgow, Pier foot I 
 West 21st St. ( 
 
 ALLAN-STATE LINE. 
 (Office, 53 Broadway.) 
 
 State Line Established 1872. 
 
 State of Nebraska. 1880 Glasgow 
 
 Mongolian 18D1 Glasgow 
 
 Numidian 1891 Glasgow 
 
 Laurentian 1872 Glasgow 
 
 Lond. & Gl'gow Co.,Ld. 250 4000! 
 
 Lond. & Gl'gow Co., Ld. 3080! 4838J 
 
 Lond. & Gl'gow Co., Ld. 3080 4838 
 
 Lond. & Gl'gow Co., Ld..... I 4522 
 
 1-650 Brown 
 
 Braes 
 
 .....I. 
 
 38543 
 40045 
 40045 
 
 32 
 
 33.6 
 
 33.6 
 
 40042.535.3 
 
 New York and Southampton, Pier I 
 foot Fulton St., N. R. ( 
 
 StTLouTs 1894 Philadelphia 7. 
 
 St. Paul 1894 Philadelphia . . 
 
 Paris 18S9 Glasgow 
 
 New York 1888 Glasgow 
 
 AMERICAN LINE. 
 (Office, 6 Bowling Green.) 
 
 Established 1892. 
 
 Wm. Cramp & Sons 5894 11629 
 
 Win. Cramp & Sons 5874 11629 
 
 J. & G. Thomson 6289 10795 
 
 J. & G. Thomson 6318 10803 
 
 20000 .... Randle 535.8 63 
 
 20000 Jamison 535.8 63 
 
 20000 2000 Watkins 5SO 63.3i 42 
 
 20000 2000 Passow 580 63.3 42 
 
 New York and Glasgow, Pier foot 
 West 24th 'St. 
 
 ANCHOR LIN?:. 
 (Office, 7 Bowling Green.) 
 
 Established 1852. 
 
 Barrow S. B. Co 2453 SI 44 
 
 BarrowS. B. Co 2713 4168 
 
 R. Duncan & Co 2626 4050 
 
 Barrow S. B. Co 2770 4272 
 
 A. Stephen & Son 2604 4005 
 
 BarrowS. B. Co 2013 5495 
 
 1500 Young. 561 53 37 
 
 C17 John Wilson .. 408 40 34 
 
 11-_'0 Craig.. 400; 40 
 
 600 400 42 
 
 T-'ii Wadsworth ... 402 42 25 
 
 600 Harris 445 46 35 
 
 City of Rome isl Barrow 
 
 Anchoria 1874 Barrow 
 
 Bolivia 1873 Port Glasgow. 
 
 Circassia 1878 Barrow 
 
 Ethiopia 1873 Glasgow 
 
 Fnrnessia 1880 Barrow
 
 474 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The Fleet of Transatlantic Passenger Steamers Continued. 
 
 
 BUILT. 
 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Hotse 
 1'ower. 
 
 
 Dimensions 
 in Feet. 
 
 STEAMSHIPS. 
 
 
 
 Builders. 
 
 
 
 "d 
 
 -a 
 
 Commander, 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i) 
 
 Place. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 eS 
 
 *t 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 f- 
 
 
 
 
 
 fc 
 
 o 
 
 * 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 X 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 New York, Queenstown, and Liver- 
 pool, Pier foot Clarkson St. 
 
 Campania ill 892 Fail-field . 
 
 Lucania (1892 Fairfield. 
 
 Etruria 
 Umbria 
 
 CUNARD LINE. 
 
 (Office, 4 Bowling Green.) 
 
 Established 1840. 
 
 1885 Fairfield 
 
 1884 Fairfield 
 
 Aurania 1883 Glasgow 
 
 Servia jl88l!Glasgow 
 
 Fairfield Co 6000 12950 
 
 Fairfield Co 6000 12950 
 
 John Elder & Co 3257( 7718! 
 
 John Elder & Co 13245 771* 
 
 ,T. & G. Thomson 4029 726* 
 
 !J. & G. Thomson 3971 7391 
 
 30000 * Walker 1120 i;r, :: i:; 
 
 300001 * H. McKay 620 65.3 43 
 
 14500 2500 Ferguson 501.6 57.--' ::s.2 
 
 14500 2500 Dutton 501.C 57.2 38 2 
 
 8500 1500 A. McKay .... 470 .57.2 37.2 
 10000 1000 Watt 515 52.1 37 
 
 New York and Havre, Pier foot I 
 Morton St. 
 
 FRENCH LINE. 
 (Office, 3 Bowling Green.) 
 
 Established I860. 
 
 La Touraine 1890 St. Nazaire . 
 
 La Gascogne 1886!Toulon 
 
 La Champagne 1886 St. Nazaire . 
 
 La Bretagne 1886 St. Nazaire.. 
 
 La Normandie 1882 Barrow, Eng 
 
 New York, Cherbourg, Southamp- 
 ton, Boulogne, and Hamburg, 
 Pier foot 1st St., Hoboken. 
 
 Cie Gle Transatlantique. 
 
 Soc. des Forges, etc 4158 
 
 Cie Gle Transatlantique. 3906 
 
 Cie Gle Transatlantique. 3889 
 
 3475 
 
 9778 
 7416 
 7110 
 7010 
 6112 
 
 12(100 
 9000 
 9000 
 9000 
 fc'500 
 
 Santelli 
 
 Simon 
 
 ..jPoirot. 
 
 ..Rune 
 
 .. Fajolle 
 
 38 
 SB 
 88 
 
 50 34 
 
 HAMBURG-AMERICAN LINE. 
 (Office, 37 Broadway.) 
 
 Established 1847. 
 
 Fiirst Bismarck . . . 1890j Stettin 
 
 Augusta Victoria.. 1889 Stettin 
 
 Pennsylvania 1*97 Belfast 
 
 Pretoria 1897 Hamburg 
 
 Palatia 1894 Stettin 
 
 Patria 1894J Stettin 
 
 Phoenicia 1891 1 Hamburg 
 
 Armenia 1896 Newcastle 
 
 Arcadia 1896J Belfast 
 
 Arabia 1896 Belfast 
 
 Asturia 1896 Newcastle 
 
 Andalusia 1896 Newcastle 
 
 Adria 1896 Newcastle 
 
 Ambria 1896 Flensburg 
 
 Alesia 1 1896 Flensburg 
 
 Aragonia 1898 Flensburg 
 
 Graf Waldersae. . . 11897 Hamburg 
 
 Patricia 1897 Stettin 
 
 Bulgaria 1898 Hamburg 
 
 Brasilia 1898 Belfast 
 
 Deutschlandf I 1 Stettin 
 
 Vulcan S. B. Co 
 
 Vulcan S. B. Co 
 
 Harland & Wolff 12500 
 
 . 'Blohm & Voss 125(10 
 
 .Vulcan S. B. Co .... 8000 
 
 . | Vulcan S. B. Co 8000 
 
 . Blohm & Voss .... 8000; 
 
 . 'Palmers 70:io 
 
 Harland & Wolff .... 7000 
 
 Harland & Wolff 7000 
 
 Palmers 7000 
 
 Palmers .... 7000 
 
 Palmers .... 7000 
 
 . Flensburg S. B. Co 5043 
 
 . Flensburg S. B. Co. 5060 
 
 . Flensburg S. B. Co I 5250| 
 
 . Blohm & Voss . . . . i 13000! 
 
 Vulcan S. B. Co i:nno 
 
 Blohm & Voss 10236 
 
 Harland & Wolff 1 0221 
 
 10000 16400 2*00 Albers. 
 10000 i:!500 2500 Kaempir. 
 
 (1000 
 6000, 
 55 "I 
 5500 
 5500 
 3000 
 3000 
 
 Spliedt 
 
 . Kopff 
 
 . Karlowa 
 
 . Bauer 
 
 . JLeithauser 
 
 Magin 400 
 
 Martens 400 
 
 .-HMO Pietsch 
 
 3000 .... Kuhn 
 
 3000 jSchroeder 
 
 3000 Renter , 
 
 5000 .... Froehlich 
 
 5000 .... Krech 
 
 5000 H. Schmidt... 
 
 6000! . . . . 
 
 60!)0 .... 
 
 4000 .... 
 
 4000 .. 
 
 New York, Boulogne, Amsterdam, ) 
 and Rotterdam, Piers foot 5th ', 
 and 6th Sts., Hoboken. ) 
 
 Rotterdam 1 97 Belfast '. 
 
 Spaarndam 1881 Belfast 
 
 Maasdam 1872 Belfast 
 
 Werkendam 1881 Belfast 
 
 Amsterdam l879|Belfast 
 
 Edam 1878 Belfast 
 
 Statendam 1*98 Belfast 
 
 Vulcan S. B. Co ! . . . . | 16000 3.3000 
 
 HOLLAND-AMERICA LI N E~ 
 NETHERLANDS-AMERICAN LINE. 
 
 (Office, 39 Broadway.) 
 
 4' 10 
 390 
 400 
 
 400 
 404 
 404 
 
 4' 14 
 5T.5 
 
 5(15 
 
 501 
 501 
 
 5840 
 5638 
 6242 
 62 42 
 52 32 
 5232 
 52 32 
 5030 
 4930 
 4930 * 
 5329 
 5030 
 50 30 
 3225 
 3225 
 32 25 
 6242 
 62 42 
 62 341/2 
 6234'." 
 66 42 " 
 
 Established 1874. 
 
 . . Harland & Wolff 5000 
 
 . . Harland & Wolff 3123 
 
 . . Harland & Wolff 2702 
 
 . . Harland & Wolff 2654 
 
 . . 1 1 a rland & Wolff 2681 i 
 
 Harland & Wolff 2361' 
 
 soon 
 4539 
 3984 
 3657 
 3627 1 
 3329 
 
 5000 ....[Van der Zee . 
 
 3500 .... Stenger 
 
 3500 .... Aid. Potjer... 
 2500 Bruinsiua 
 
 Harland & Wolff 7000 10500 
 
 2500 
 210D 
 
 5500 
 
 W. Bakker... 
 S. deVries... 
 Bonjer 
 
 485 
 430 
 4_'0 
 41 i 
 411 
 390 
 525 
 
 New York, Southampton, and Bre- 1 
 men, Pier 2d St., Hoboken. ) 
 
 NORTH GERMAN LLOYD. 
 (Office, 2 Bowling Green.) 
 
 Established 1857. 
 
 Kaiser Wilhelml 
 
 Der Grosse 1897 Stettin 
 
 Kaiser Friedrich . . 1898 Danzig 
 
 Kaiserin Maria Th. 1898 Stettin 
 
 Lahn ' 1887 \ Fairfield 
 
 Saale 1886 Glasgow 
 
 Trave 1886 Glasgow'. 
 
 Friedrich d.Gro.sse 1896 Stettin 
 
 KoniginLuise ....J896 Stettin 
 
 Barbarossa 1896 Hamburg 
 
 Bremen 1896 Danzig 
 
 1 1 . 1 1 . Meier i.s!2 .Newcastle 
 
 New York a.-.d Genoa, Pier foot 2 1 | 
 
 St., Hoboken. ( 
 
 Kaiser \\ ilhelm II 
 
 Aller 
 
 Ems 
 
 Vulcan Shipbuilding Co. .... 13800 
 
 Schic-hauShi|ibuiUrgCo 12800 
 
 Vulcan Shipbuilding Co. 3769 7800 
 Fail-field E. A; S. B. Co. . 2879 5581! 
 
 Elder & Co 2771) 
 
 Elder & Co 2779 
 
 Vulcan Shipbuilding Co 
 
 Vulcan Shipbuilding Co. 
 
 Blohm & Voss 
 
 Schichau Bhiptralld'gCo. 
 
 Mitchell, Armstrong Co. 
 
 NOltTH GERMAN LLOVI). 
 (Office, 2 Bowling Green.) 
 
 | I I 
 
 -7000 .... Englehart 649 
 
 25000 Stormer i 600 
 
 17000 .... Meier 546 
 
 8800 ...Pohle .. 464 
 
 5381 7500 Blanke 455 
 
 5831 7500 -ChristoH'ers . . . 455 
 
 10500 700:1 ....jEichel ! 546 
 
 10500. 7000 v. Schucknfnn 544 
 
 111500 70110 .... Kichter 546 
 
 10500 Mi'io .... Ui-imkaston.... 544 
 6306[ 3800 Steencken | 481 
 
 66 43 
 
 M 41 
 
 52 37 
 
 49 37 
 
 4> ::c, 
 
 48 36 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 60 35 
 60 35 
 
 48 29 
 
 Established 1892. 
 
 ixss Stettin. 
 
 1X86 Glasgow 
 
 18X4 Glasgow 
 
 New York and Antwerp, Pier foot) 
 
 Fulton St., N. R. I 
 
 Friesland 1K*9 Glasgow 
 
 Westernland 1883 Birkenhead . . 
 
 Noordland 1883 Birkenhead . . 
 
 Southwark 1*93 Dumbarton . . 
 
 Kensington 1894 Glasgow 
 
 Vulcan Shipbuilding Co. 
 Elder* Co ............... 
 
 Elder & Co ............... 
 
 4776 
 2779 
 2893 
 
 69! HI 
 
 6500 
 
 
 Hogemann 
 
 465 
 
 52 2 
 
 5381 
 
 7500 
 
 .... 
 
 Nierich 
 
 455 
 
 Is 3 
 
 5192 
 
 7000 
 
 
 Harrassowitz. . 
 
 445 
 
 47 3. 
 
 KF.I) STAR LINE. 
 (Office. 6 Bowling Green.) 
 
 J.d <:. Thomson 502.". 6X24 
 
 Laird Bros 4320 59! 4 
 
 Laird Bros 4019 6898 
 
 W. Denny & Bros 56421 8607 
 
 J. A-G. Thomson 5645J 8669 
 
 F.stablisued 1873. 
 
 son Nickels 455 
 
 700 Mills 456 
 
 500 Loesewitz 419 
 
 1237 Bence 494 
 
 1237 Bond 494 
 
 38 
 38 
 35 
 37 
 81 
 
 * 26,500 registered, t Building.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 475 
 
 The Fleet of Transatlantic Passenger Steamers Continued. 
 
 
 BUILT. 
 
 
 
 Horse 
 
 
 Dimensions 
 
 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Power. 
 
 
 in Feet. 
 
 STEAMSHIPS. 
 
 
 Place. 
 
 Builders. 
 
 
 
 -=' 
 
 13 
 
 Commander. \ a 
 
 .3 
 
 
 
 tt 
 
 
 j-S 
 
 
 o 
 
 J.I 
 
 3 a* 
 
 3D Q) 
 
 gs 
 
 
 tD 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 =. 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 'A 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 (H 
 
 I s 
 
 
 a 
 
 pq 
 
 S 
 
 New York, Christiania, Copenha- 
 gen, and Stettin, Tier foot 4ih 
 
 St.. llobokcn. 
 
 -< A NDIN AVIAN-AMERICAN LINE. 
 (Office, 28 State St.) 
 
 Established 1879. 
 
 Hekla 1884 Greenock. . 
 
 . . Scott & Co 
 
 3258! 2150 
 
 .... Thomsen 
 
 333 41 
 
 99 
 
 
 Burmeister & Wain 
 
 
 2844' 9000 
 
 
 Skjodt 
 
 324 
 
 3! 
 
 J9 
 
 Norge 1881 Glasgow 
 Thingvalla 1874 Copenhagen 
 
 .. Stephens & Son 
 . . Burmeister & Wain 
 
 
 3359 
 2524 
 
 1600! .... 
 
 looo!.... 
 
 Knudsen 
 Laub '. 
 
 340 
 301 
 
 41 
 37 
 
 32 
 21 
 
 New York, ijiu'cnstown. and Liver- 1 
 pool, Pier f >ot West 10th St. | 
 
 WHITE STAR LINE. 
 (Office, 9 Broadway.) 
 
 Established 1870. 
 
 Teutonic 18s<) Belfast 
 
 Harland & Wolff 42691 9984 
 
 16000 1875 Cameron 
 
 565 57 :;9 
 565 57 39 
 455| 45 33 
 4551 45 33 
 585; 64 38 
 685; 68 44 
 
 Majestic Iss'i Belfast 
 
 Harland & Wolff 4269 9965 
 
 16000 1875 E. J. Smith.. . . 
 45:1.1 890 Haddock 
 4500 765 McKinstry 
 6700 1197 Lindsay 
 
 Britannic 1*74 Belfast 
 
 Harland & Wolff 31521 5004 
 Harland & Wolff 2989 5065 
 Harland & Wolff 8000 12340 
 
 Germanic 1874 Belfast 
 
 Cymric- 18'is Belfast 
 
 Oceanic ISMI Belfast 
 
 Harland & Wolff |793ll 171)00 
 
 
 New York and Hull, Wilson Tier, i 
 Brooklyn Borough. ) 
 
 \V I LSON LINE. 
 (Office, 29 Broadway.) 
 
 Established 1840. 
 
 Buffalo 1885 Newcastle 
 
 Palmers 2909 4431 
 
 600 Malet 
 
 38546 28 
 36043 25 
 370 45 28 
 370 43 28 
 37047 28 
 36843 28 
 47050 42 
 490 52V 4 34y 2 
 
 Ohio 18SO Dumbarton. 
 
 A. McMill & Sons 2557 3967 
 Earles 2787 4220 
 Earles 2424 3709 
 
 450 Akester 
 
 Colorado 1887 Hull 
 Martcllo . 1884 Hull 
 
 6'0 Whitton 
 
 550 Potter 
 
 
 R. Stephenson & Co., Ld. 2971 4604 
 R. Stephenson & Co., Ld. 2407 3720 
 Swan .X: Hunter 4000 6000 
 
 j 600 Jenkins 
 
 Hindoo 18s'i Newcastle 
 
 500 Wing 
 
 Idaho ls<i7 WalNend 
 
 
 Chicago 1898 W. Hartlepool . 
 
 Furness, Withy & Co .... 4384 7000 
 
 
 FASTEST ATLANTIC OCEAX PASSAGES. 
 
 Route. . 
 
 Steamer. 
 
 Line. 
 
 Date. 
 
 I). 
 
 H. 
 
 M. 
 
 
 
 . Cunard 
 
 Oct. 21-26, 1894 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 20 
 17 
 14 
 20 
 
 23 
 38 
 
 's 
 
 98 
 
 6 
 
 
 Lucania 
 
 . Cunard 
 
 Sept. 8-14, 1894 
 
 Southampton to New York. 
 New York to Southampton. 
 Havre to New York 
 New York to Havre 
 
 Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse.. 
 Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse.. 
 La Touraine 
 La Touraine 
 
 . North German Lloyd.. 
 . North German Lloyd.. 
 . French ." 
 . French 
 
 Mar. 30-Apr. 5, 1898.. 
 Nov. 23-29, 1897 
 July 16-23, 1892 . . . 
 
 Oct. 29-Nov.5,1892.. 
 
 BEST RECORDS OF OTHER LINES. 
 
 Line. 
 
 Route. 
 
 Steamer. 
 
 Date. D. 
 
 H. M. 
 
 American.. 
 
 Queenstown to New York 
 
 Paris 
 
 Oct. 14-19, 1892... .. 5 
 
 14 24 
 
 American 
 American 
 Hamburg-American 
 
 Southampton to New York 
 New York to Southampton 
 New York to Southampton 
 \ew Y'ork to Queenstown. . 
 
 St. Paul 
 St. Louis 
 Fiirst Bismarck 
 Alaska 
 
 Aug. 8-11,1896 6 
 Sept. 1-8. 1897 6 
 
 Oct. 20-27, 18!>8 6 
 Sept. 12-19, 1882. . 6 
 
 31 
 10 14 
 10 15 
 
 18 37 
 
 Guion 
 
 (Queenstown to New York. 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Sept. 16-22, 1883 6 
 
 21 40 
 
 White Star 
 
 New York to Queenstown. 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Oct. 21-27, 1891 5 
 
 21 3 
 
 White Star. 
 
 Queenstown to New York 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 Aug. 13-19, 1891 5 
 
 16 31 
 
 Anchor 
 Anchor 
 Red Star 
 
 Glasgow to New York 
 New York to Glasgow 
 New York to Antwerp 
 
 Citv of Rome 
 City of Rome 
 Friesland 
 
 Aug. 18-24, 1886 6 
 Aug. 13-19, 1885 6 
 August, 1894 1 8 
 
 20 35 
 18 25 
 22 13 
 
 Approximate distances : Sandy Hook (Lightship), New York, to Queenstown (Roche's Point), 2,800 miles ; to 
 Plymouth (Kdd\ -stone). 2.962 miles; to Southampton (The Needles), 3.100 miles; to Havre. 3,170 miles. The fast- 
 est day's run was made by the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, of the North German Lloyd line, May 2, 3, 1898 580 
 knots. 'or C3.43 knots per hour. 
 
 THE RECORD-BREAKERS IN THIRTY-EIGHT YEARS. 
 
 The following is the succession of steamships which have broken the record since 1866, with their running time 
 The route in all cases was that between New York and Queenstown, east or west. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Steamer. 
 
 D. n. M. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Steamer. 
 
 D. II. M. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Steamer. 
 
 D. II. M. 
 
 1S5G... 
 1866 
 I86J 
 1*7;'. 
 
 Persia 
 Scotia 
 Citv of Bruei>. 
 Baltic 
 
 I) 1 45 
 
 8 2 48 
 7 22 3 
 7 L'O 9 
 
 7 15 4s 
 
 10 
 1>V> 
 
 Arizona 
 
 \laska 
 
 7 7 23 
 6 18 37 
 G 11 9 
 G 10 
 G 5 31 
 G 4 42 
 6 1 55 
 
 1889 
 1NH1 
 1891 
 18!>2 
 1S92 
 1893 
 1894 
 
 City of Paris.... 
 Majestic 
 Teutonic 
 Citv of Paris.... 
 City of Paris 
 Campania 
 Lucania 
 
 5 19 18 
 .5 18 8 
 5 16 31 
 5 15 58 
 5 14 24 
 5 12 7 
 5 7 23 
 
 1884 
 18S4.- 
 1886 
 
 Oregon 
 America 
 Etriiria . 
 
 1876 
 
 Citv of Berlin 
 
 lS7i> . Ciermanic . . 
 
 7 11 37 
 7 10 53 
 
 lss7 
 
 I inbria 
 
 1*77 Britannic 
 
 Etruria 
 
 American sailing ship A. <;. Ropes arrived off Sandy Hook, March 21, 18?s. in 19 days from Liverpool, En?., having made the trip 
 frniii Cape clear < Irish coast i to Sandy Hook (2.7ii khotsi in 17 days, an average of nearly 160 knots a day. Most transatlantic 
 recordset sailing vessels are fr in New York to Liverpool or Qoeenatown. There is no record on file from Liverpool to Xew York, 
 excepting that of the Young America, which made the trip to Liverpool in 18 days and came back in 23 days. The famous Dread- 
 nauRht once sailed to Liverpool from this port in 13 days and 8 hours, and the Red Jacket was a close second in 13 days, 11 hours and 
 25 minutes.
 
 476 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 THE SUBMARINE CABLES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 [From report issued by the International Bureau of Telegraph Administrations.] 
 
 The following table sets forth the entire system of submarine cables of the world, including those along 
 the shores and in the bays, gulfs, and estuaries of rivers, but excepting those in lakes anil the interior water- 
 courses of continents. The list includes all cables operated by private companies, and in addition thereto under 
 the name of each nation is given the list of cables operated by the government of that nation. 
 
 COMPANIES. 
 
 Number 
 of Cables. 
 
 "8 G ~~ 
 
 COMPANIES. 
 
 Number 
 of Cables. 
 
 Length of 
 Cables in 
 Nautical 
 Miles. 
 
 Anglo-American Telegraph Co. : 
 Transatlantic System Valentia (Ire- 
 land) to Heart s Content (Newfound- 
 land) 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 9 
 1 
 
 7,510 
 
 2,718 
 1,964 
 101 
 
 Central and South American Telegraph 
 Co 
 
 15 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 13 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 17 
 2 
 1 
 12 
 4 
 15 
 4 
 1 
 13 
 
 7,500 
 1,114 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 ' 1,048 
 710 
 
 * 
 8,832 
 
 17,359 
 
 4,185 
 4,603 
 
 253 
 
 503 
 699 
 678 
 842 
 2,530 
 155 
 11,805 
 
 Compagnie Allemande des Cables Tele- 
 graphiques 
 
 Minon, near Brest (France), to St. 
 
 Compania Telegratico - Telefonica del 
 Plata 
 
 Communication on American coasts . . . 
 
 Compania Telegrafico del Rio de la 
 Plata 
 
 Total 
 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 12,293 
 
 6,893 
 826 
 511 
 839 
 
 Direct Spanish Telegraph Co 
 
 Commercial Cable Co. : 
 Transatlantic System Waterville (Ire- 
 
 Direct West India Cable Co. : 
 Bermuda-Turk's Island, and Turk's 
 Island-Tamarique 
 
 Canso, N. S., to New York 
 
 Eastern and South African Telegraph Co 
 Eastern Extension Australasia and China 
 Telegraph Co 
 
 Canso, N. S., to Rockport, Mass 
 
 Communication in Europe 
 Total 
 
 Eastern Telegraph Co. : 
 Anglo-Spanish-Poftuguese System 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 9,069 
 
 2,564 
 535 
 
 Direct United States Cable Co. : 
 Ballinskellig's Bay (Ireland) to Hali- 
 fax (Nova Scotia) 
 
 Italo-Greek System 
 
 
 
 Halifax, N. S., to Rye Beach, N. H 
 Total 
 
 Turko-Greek System 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3,099 
 
 5,107 
 1,776 
 459 
 
 
 Western Union Telegraph Co. : 
 Transatlantic System Sennen Cove, 
 near Penzance, England, to Dover 
 
 
 Egypto-Indian System 
 
 Total 
 
 81 
 2 
 24 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 2 
 
 1 
 11 
 8 
 16 
 22 
 
 26,153 
 1,053 
 
 6,982 
 850 
 14 
 
 145 
 1,527 
 32 
 
 4.720 
 2,048 
 
 1,389 
 2,(<77 
 1.964 
 6.154 
 4,557 
 
 Dover Bav, N. S., to New York 
 
 Europe and Azores Telegraph Co 
 
 Gulf of Mexico System 
 
 Total 
 
 Great Northern Telegraph Co. : 
 Cables in Europe and Asia 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 7,342 
 
 2,282 
 828 
 
 Compagnie Franyaise du Te'le'graphe de 
 Paris a New York : 
 Brest (France) to St. Pierre-Miq 
 ^St. Pierre to Cape Cod, Mass 
 
 Halifax and Bermuda Cable Co 
 
 Indo-European Telegraph Co 
 
 India Rubber, Gutta Percha, and Tele- 
 graph Works Co 
 
 Total ' 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 8 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3,532 
 
 3,250 
 2,938 
 337 
 
 7,375 
 
 River Plate Telegraph Co 
 Socie'te Fran9aise des Te'le'graphes Sous- 
 
 Compagnie Fran9aise des Cables Tele- 
 graphiques : 
 Brest (France) to Cape Cod, Mass 
 
 
 United States and Hayti Telegraph and 
 Cable Co 
 
 African Direct Telegraph Co 
 
 West African Telegraph Co 
 
 Black Sea Telegraph Co 
 
 West Coast of America Telegraph Co 
 Western and Brazilian Telegraph Co 
 West India & Panama Telegraph Co 
 
 Total 
 
 Brazilian Submarine Telegraph Co. : 
 Carcavellos, near Lisbon (Portugal), to 
 Madeira, to St. Vincent (Cape Verde 
 Island), to Pernambuco (Brazil) . . 
 
 318 146,419 
 
 
 
 * Official figures not announced when this list was revised. 
 
 Cables Owned by Nations. 
 
 Austria 
 
 41 
 
 214 
 
 Argentine Republic and Brazil 
 
 49 
 
 119 
 
 Belgium 
 
 2 
 
 55 
 
 Australia and New Zealand 
 
 31 
 
 345 
 
 Denmark 
 
 73 
 
 235 
 
 Bahama Islands 
 
 1 
 
 213 
 
 France 
 
 54 
 
 5,0!5 
 
 
 1 
 
 200 
 
 Germany 
 
 58 
 
 2,225 
 
 British India (Indo-European Telegraph 
 
 
 
 G reat Britain and Ireland 
 
 135 
 
 1,989 
 
 Department) 
 
 111 
 
 1,919 
 
 Greece 
 
 47 
 
 55 
 
 
 2 
 
 113 
 
 Holland 
 
 24 
 
 62 
 
 Cochin China and Tonquin 
 
 2 
 
 774 
 
 Italy 
 
 39 
 
 1,061 
 
 
 70 
 
 1,508 
 
 Norway 
 
 325 
 
 324 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Portugal 
 
 4 
 
 115 
 
 Nouvelle CaltSdonie 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Russia 
 
 g 
 
 231 
 
 
 7 
 
 891 
 
 Spain 
 
 15 
 
 1 744 
 
 Senegal, Africa Dakar to Gor4e 
 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 14 
 
 96 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 > 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey 
 
 23 
 
 344 
 
 Total 
 
 1,142 
 
 19,880 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 477 
 
 OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 NUMBER OF PERSONS ENGAGED IN PRINCIPAL SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 (Census of 1890.) 
 
 OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 Males. , 
 
 Females. 
 
 OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 All occupations 
 
 18,820,960 
 
 3,914,711 
 
 Telegraph and telephone oper- 
 
 43,740 
 
 10,465 
 9,817 
 
 4,064,144 
 
 8,474 
 
 669 
 
 83 
 
 1,027.525 
 
 Agriculture, fisheries, mining. . . . 
 
 8,333,69? 
 2,556,930 
 16,072 
 5,055,130 
 59,887 
 70,186 
 65,829 
 208,330 
 140,906 
 37,628 
 70,047 
 33,665 
 
 632,641 
 
 679,509 
 
 ~447,085~ 
 1,734 
 226,427 
 263 
 2,415 
 28 
 219 
 133 
 30 
 687 
 32 
 
 311,682 
 
 Telegraph and electric light 
 employees 
 
 Dairymen and dairy women 
 Farmers, planters, overseers... 
 Fishermen and oystermcn 
 Gardeners, florists 
 
 Undertakers 
 
 Manufacturing and mechanical 
 industries 
 
 Lumbermen and raftsmen 
 
 Bakers 
 Blacksmiths 
 
 57,908 
 205,256 
 12,495 
 12,289 
 179,838 
 20.277 
 60,007 
 8,944 
 45,9 6 
 105,313 
 10,941 
 35.891 
 611,226 
 11.S45 
 34,294 
 20,5-13 
 23,702 
 17,562 
 47,435 
 80,144 
 3,340 
 5,034 
 828 
 8,016 
 32,660 
 2,760 
 16,890 
 
 9,065 
 
 42,612 
 17,336 
 
 8,706 
 142,087 
 39,032 
 176 937 
 101,216 
 61.006 
 158,874 
 
 4,604 
 51,561 
 52,745 
 406 
 66.'J41 
 218.622 
 12.313 
 18,869 
 17,834 
 14,360 
 38,912 
 
 56,555 
 12.943 
 80,899 
 
 6,207 
 9,886 
 
 133,216 
 3,988 
 22.929 
 14.192 
 21.272 
 121,586 
 51,427 
 83.601 
 11.255 
 63,529 
 47,636 
 
 2,273 
 59 
 1,697 
 11.498 
 33,609 
 73 
 194 
 1,173 
 10 
 129 
 499 
 35 
 191 
 10,745 
 278 
 4,760 
 6,286 
 5,606 
 54 
 92,914 
 9 
 28 
 288,155 
 303 
 1,722 
 3,663 
 3,335 
 
 89 
 
 856 
 6,694 
 
 20,513 
 2,449 
 313 
 139 
 2,049 
 63 
 42 
 
 1,398 
 41,850 
 99 
 60,058 
 47 
 1,246 
 54 
 8,955 
 2,195 
 357 
 23 
 
 42 
 2,020 
 5,565 
 
 219 
 6,463 
 
 302 
 145,716 
 3 
 20,62t 
 6 
 63,611 
 947 
 27,821 
 1,093 
 3,696 
 36,435 
 
 Miners (others) 
 
 Bleachers, dyers, scourers 
 
 Quarrvmen 
 
 Bookbinders 
 
 Stock "raisers, herders, drovers. 
 Wood choppers 
 
 Boot and shoe makers 
 
 Brewers and maltsters 
 
 Professional service 
 
 Brick and tile makers 
 
 Broom and brush makers 
 
 Actors 
 
 5,779 
 8.048 
 11,676 
 3,989 
 87,060 
 17,161 
 9,086 
 
 43,115 
 20,961 
 89,422 
 27,636 
 74,789 
 100,248 
 4,697 
 96,581 
 
 17,421 
 
 2,692,820 
 
 3,949 
 22 
 10,810 
 2,725 
 1,235 
 337 
 306 
 
 127 
 888 
 208 
 34,519 
 4,875 
 4,555 
 735 
 245,230 
 
 634 
 1,667,686 
 
 Butchers 
 
 
 Butter and cheese makers 
 
 Authors and scientific persons 
 Clergvmen 
 
 Cabinetmakers 
 
 Carpenters and joiners 
 
 Dentists 
 Designers and inventors 
 
 Carriage and wagon makers 
 
 Engineers (civil, _ mechanical, 
 
 Compositors 
 
 Journalists 
 
 Confectioners 
 
 Lawyers 
 Musicians, teachers of music. . . 
 
 Cotton mill operatives 
 Distillers and rectifiers 
 
 Physicians and surgeons 
 Professors in colleges 
 
 Door, sash, and blind makers.. . 
 Dressmakers = 
 
 Teachers 
 Theatrical managers, showmen, 
 
 Glass workers 
 Glove makers 
 
 Domestic and personal service 
 Barbers and hairdressers 
 
 Gold and silver workers 
 Gunsmiths, locksmiths, anil bell 
 
 82,151 
 55,660 
 
 11,756 
 
 139,718 
 38,825 
 18,776 
 1,858,504 
 31,816 
 6,688 
 69,137 
 237,523 
 27,919 
 
 3,097,653 
 
 2,825 
 147 
 
 32,593 
 
 47 
 5,315 
 2,780 
 54.813 
 216.627 
 51,402 
 2,275 
 1,205,876 
 
 Harness and saddle makers and 
 
 Bartenders 
 
 Boarding and lodging house 
 keepers 
 
 Hat and cap makers 
 
 Hosiery and knitting mill 
 operatives 
 
 Engineers and firemen (not loco- 
 moti ve) 
 
 
 Hotel-keepers 
 
 Leather curriers and tanners. . . 
 
 Janitors 
 
 Laborers 
 
 Manufacturers and officials 
 Marble and stone cutters 
 
 Launderers and laundresses 
 Nurses and midwives 
 
 
 Saloon keepers 
 
 Meat and fruit packers and can- 
 
 Servants 
 
 Soldiers, sailors, and marines. . 
 Trade and transportation 
 
 Mill and factory operatives 
 Millers (flour and grist) 
 
 228,309 
 
 Milliners 
 
 Agents (claim, commission, real 
 estate, insurance, etc.) 
 
 169,704 
 
 29,516 
 131,602 
 492,852 
 58,089 
 35,117 
 368,265 
 54,005 
 56,824 
 26,719 
 
 79,459 
 638,609 
 
 27,334 
 48,446 
 6.216 
 39,719 
 24,002 
 55,875 
 205 931 
 381,312 
 12,148 
 37,423 
 
 4,875 
 
 504 
 
 27,772 
 . 64,048 
 612 
 983 
 237 
 24 
 2,259 
 48 
 
 4 
 25,451 
 
 198 
 2,909 
 72 
 237 
 325 
 29 
 58,449 
 1,438 
 21,185 
 12 
 
 Molders 
 
 Painters, glaziers, varnishers. . . 
 Paper-hangers 
 
 Bankers and brokers (mouey 
 and stocks) 
 
 Paper mill operatives 
 
 Bookkeepers and accountants. . 
 
 
 Piano and organ makers 
 
 Commercial travelers. 
 
 Plasterers 
 
 Foremen and overseers 
 
 Plumbers and gas and steam 
 fitters 
 
 
 Hostlers 
 
 Potters 
 
 Hucksters and peddlers. 
 
 Printers and pressmen 
 
 Livery -stable keepers 
 
 Publishers of books and news- 
 
 Locomotive engineers and fire- 
 men 
 
 Rubber factory operatives 
 
 Merchants (retail) 
 
 Saw and planing mill em- 
 
 Merchants (wholesale), import- 
 ers 
 
 Seamstresses 
 
 Messengers and office boys 
 Newspaper carriers, newsboys. . 
 
 Ship and boat builders 
 
 Silk mill operatives 
 
 Steam boiler makers 
 
 Porters and helpers 
 
 Tailors and tailoresses 
 
 Sailors 
 
 Tinners ai.d tinware makers 
 Tobacco factory operatives 
 
 Salesmen and saleswomen 
 Steam railroad employees 
 Stenographers, typewriters 
 
 
 Woolen roiii operatives 
 

 
 478 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF WOOL IN 1898. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 North America : 
 United Stalest. 
 
 1 
 
 266,720,684 
 12,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 
 Europe : 
 Great Britain and Ire- 
 laud* 
 
 138,357,440 
 103,610.000 
 102,600,000 
 13,410,000; 
 49,590.000 
 21,451,000 
 04,300,000 
 301,100,000 
 8,200,000! 
 
 67,500,000 
 14,000,000 
 
 AsitlC'oii/iinii'ff. 
 British India , 
 
 85,000,000 
 
 3!),ooo,ooe 
 
 35,000,000 
 15,000,000 
 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 France 
 
 China 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 283,720,684 ^Portugal 
 
 
 Central America and 
 West Indies 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Germany 
 Italy* 
 
 Africa : 
 Algeria and Tunis 
 
 30,425,000 
 
 105,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 1.000,000 
 
 139,425,000 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 South America : 
 
 370,000,000 
 1,500,000 
 7,500,000 
 90,000,000 
 15,000,000 
 20,000,000 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 Turkey and Balkan Pen- 
 
 Cape Colony, Natal, Or- 
 ange Free State 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Brazil... 
 Chile 
 
 All other Europe 
 
 All other Africa 
 Total 
 
 Venezuela 
 AJ1 other South America. 
 
 Total 
 
 Total Europe 
 Asia: 
 
 944,418,440 
 
 60,000,000 
 46,000,000 
 
 Australasia 
 Oceanica 
 
 533,000,000 
 59,000 
 
 504,000,000 
 
 Central Asia 
 
 (Jrand total 
 
 2,689,614,124 
 
 * Fleece washed. Great Britain and Ireland^ product of 1897. t Washed and unwashed. 
 
 RAILROAD SPEED. 
 
 NOTABLE FAST RUNS OF PASSENGER TRAINS FOR LONG DISTANCES. 
 
 DATE. 
 
 Railroad. 
 
 Terminals. 
 
 I 
 
 Dis- 
 tance. -ri me 
 Miles. ,. 
 
 May, 1848. ' Great Western (England). . . 
 
 July, 1885. ! West Shore 7. ... 
 
 Aug., 1888. L. &N. W. , and Caledonian... 
 
 Sept., 1891. New York Central & H. It 
 
 Nov., 1891. Pennsylvania 
 
 Mar., 1892. New York Central & H. R.* 
 
 Nov., 1892. | New York Central & II. R. 
 
 Nov., 1892. 1 New York Central & H. R.* 
 
 May, 1893. New York Central & H. R.* 
 
 May, 1893. New York Central & L. S 
 
 Aug., 1894. Plant System, Atlantic Coast Line. 
 Aug., 1894. Plant System, A. C. L., Pa. R. R. . . 
 
 April, 1895. Old Colony 
 
 April, 1895. Pennsylvania 
 
 April, 1895. Delaware, Lackawanna & Hudson. 
 
 Aug., 1895. London & Northwestern 
 
 Sept., 1895. New York Central & H. R 
 
 Sept., 1895. N.Y. Central " World Flyer 
 
 Oct., 1895. Lake Shore & Michigan Southern. . 
 
 Oct., 1895. ] Pennsylvania 
 
 Oct., 1895., Long island 
 
 Mar., 1896. Phlfi., Wilmington & Baltimore. . . 
 
 Feb., 1897. Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 
 
 Mar,, 1897. Central R. R. of New Jersey 
 
 April, 1897.|Lehigh Valley, Black Diamond Ex. 
 
 May, IS:^. 1 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 
 
 July, 1897. New York Central & H. R.* 
 
 Aug., 1897. [Union Pacific 
 
 Dec., 1897. Union Pacific 
 
 Feb., 1898.| A., T. & S. F., " Santa Fe Route 
 
 May, 1898. Chicago <& Alton 
 
 July, 1898.!Lehigh Valley, Black Diamond Ex. 
 
 London Didcot ! 53 .25 0.47 
 
 East Buffalo Frankfort 201 . 7 4 . oo 
 
 London Edinburgh 'WO 7.38 
 
 68 
 
 50.4 
 
 52.4 
 
 New York East Buffalo.. 
 
 .... 430.327.19.559.56 
 54 26 
 72.69 
 67 38 
 63 38 
 68.46 
 
 Jersey City Washington 227 4.11 
 
 ( )neida De Witt 21.37 0. 17 
 
 Syracuse Utica 51.07 0.46 
 
 Chittenango Schenectady 1 1C. 16 1.50 
 
 Syracuse Rochester 80 38 1. 11 
 
 New York Chicago 964 [19.57 48.20 
 
 Jacksonville Richmond 661.5 112.51 51.48 
 
 Jacksonville Washington 760.9 ! 15.49 I'.' :I7 
 
 Concord, N. H. New London 119 J2.2-2 50.28{ 
 
 Camden Atlantic City 58.3 .0.45J 76.50 
 
 ringhamton East Buffalo 197 
 
 ] .ondon Aberdeen 510 
 
 3.05 
 8 32 
 
 60.64 
 63.28J 
 64.33$ 
 ;68 3 
 
 165. 7f 
 J57.9 
 J58.9 
 63 
 
 New York Buffalo , 436. 50 6.47 
 
 Albany- Syracuse 148 2.10 
 
 Chicago Buffalo 510 8.1 
 
 Jersey City Philadelphia 89.76 1 .33 
 
 Long Island City Amaganset; 101 1.46 
 
 Baltimore Gray's Ferry 92.5(1.28 
 
 Chicago Denver 1.025 IK. 52 5*. 74 
 
 Jersey City Washington 231 4.8 |60 
 
 Alpine, N. Y. Geneva Junction, Jf. \ ... 43.% 0.33 
 
 Mendota Chicago 79 .76 
 
 Syracuse Buffalo 14'.) 2.23 
 
 North Platte Omaha 291 4 . 3<i 
 
 North Platte Council Bin fl's 293 . 7 4 . 57 
 
 La Junta, Col. Dodge City, Kansas 204.4 3.44 
 
 Willow Spring Springfield 168.1 2.46 
 
 Savre-Buffalo 177 2.5!) 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 62.5 
 
 63.49 
 
 59.33 
 
 "><> 7 
 
 60.7 
 
 511.32 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 26 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 2t 
 
 1 
 
 * By "Empire State Express." t Six minutes. $ Including stops. Excluding stops. IT Exclusive of stops, 
 or 63.61 miles per hour including stops. Made the trip from Chicago to New York, <>5i> miles, in 17 hours, 45 min- 
 utes, 23 seconds (or 54.20 miles per hour, including ten stops), (a) Including " glow-tips " for taking>water, chang- 
 ing engines, etc. (b) Deducting stops, 64.08 miles per hour. 
 
 In making a comparison between English and American trains, certain conditions must be taken into con- 
 sideration. In the former instance the average weight of the train making the record between London and 
 Aberdeen in August, 1895, was between 105 and 120 tons. The "Empire State Express" in the record of Sep- 
 tember, 1805 New York to Buffalo was similar in make-up to the train that made the English record, but 
 weighed 259 tons, a vast difference and necessarily an important factor in speed. London to Paris On a special 
 run over the L., C. & D. Ry. to Paris, 2X7y 4 miles (via Calais), for the Grand Prix, running time 6 hours, 30 minutes, 
 12 seconds, or from 57.5 to '60.1 miles per hour. 
 
 AVKRAOK SPEED, INCMTDINr, STOPS, OF FOREIGN EXPRESS TRAINS PER HOUR IN MILES. 
 
 England, 51.75; Germany, 51.25; France, 49.88; Belgium, 45.01; Holland, 44.73 ; Italy, 42.34; Austria-Hungary. 
 41 .75.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 479 
 
 Fastest Recorded Runs for Short Distances. 
 
 DATE. 
 
 Railroad. 
 
 Terminals. 
 
 Distance, 
 Miles. 
 
 Time,^ 
 M. S. 
 
 Miles 
 perHour. 
 
 July 1890 
 
 Philadelphia & Reading 
 
 
 4 1 
 
 2 30 
 
 98 4 
 
 Aug 1891 . 
 
 Philadelphia & Reading 
 
 
 1 
 
 39 8 
 
 90 5 
 
 Nov., 1892 
 
 Philadelphia fc Reading 
 
 Somerton Parkland 
 
 5 
 
 3 25 
 
 87.8 
 
 Nov., 1892 
 
 Central of New Jersev 
 
 Fan wood Westfleld, N. J . 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 97 3 
 
 Mav, 1893 
 May, 1893 
 May, 1893 
 Aug 1895 
 
 N. Y. Central & Hudson River 
 N. Y. Central & Hudson River. .... 
 N. Y. Central & Hudson River 
 
 Orimesville 
 Grimesville 
 Looney ville Grimesville 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 5.1 
 
 35 
 32 
 3 00 
 3 00 
 
 102.8 
 112.5 
 100 
 102 
 
 Oct 1895 
 
 .Lake Shore & Michigan Southern. . 
 
 Erie Buffalo Creek (c) 
 
 8 
 
 
 85.4 
 
 Aug., 1898 
 
 Wabash 
 
 Boodv Blue Mound 
 
 6 
 
 4 7 
 
 87.40 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF HOG PRODUCTS EXPORTED FROM THE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 1896-97. 
 
 Bacon. 
 Pounds. 
 
 Hams, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pork. 
 Pounds. 
 
 Total 
 Meats. 
 Pounds. 
 
 Lard. 
 Pounds. 
 
 Aggregate, 
 1896-97. 
 
 Aggregate, 
 1895-96. 
 
 Aggregate, 
 1894-95. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 France 
 
 386,457,479 
 1,979,586 
 
 2G,87X,289 
 25,578,71)0 
 11,562.<;:}4 
 1,102,978 
 6,327,048 
 
 134,933,004 
 316,624 
 2,943,983 
 13,668,788 
 1,637,525 
 28,885 
 262,730 
 1,143 
 40.559 
 4,012,433 
 217,999 
 888,945 
 672,244 
 264,049 
 18,373 
 172,921 
 551,393 
 235,327 
 20,095 
 2,886,137 
 108,400 
 75,943 
 1,289,796 
 
 17,749,994 
 131,550 
 1,902,637 
 333,146 
 2,159.423 
 11,000 
 377,700 
 
 539,140,477 
 2,427,730 
 
 31,724,90!) 
 39,580.694 
 15,359.5*2 
 1,142,863 
 6,967,478 
 1,143 
 236,233 
 14,810.91'-' 
 11,714,164 
 4,957,160 
 9,339,331 
 366,584 
 17,104,578 
 336,424 
 610,570 
 2,994,779 
 32,794 
 19,531,344 
 3,190,631 
 3,398,672 
 7,440,588 
 
 192,116,083 
 20,934,590 
 166,192473 
 29,827,434 
 61,181,905 
 4,294,631 
 4,945,118 
 126,865 
 2,274,703 
 25,717,489 
 2,760,179 
 4,572,985 
 2,448,882 
 7,195,747 
 12,358,589 
 2,917,290 
 6,648,066 
 414,279 
 397,370 
 4,170,809 
 889,664 
 311,760 
 15,618,729 
 
 731,256,560 
 23,362,350 
 197,917,382 
 69,408,128 
 76,541,487 
 5,437,494 
 11,912,596 
 128,008 
 2,510,936 
 40,534,401 
 14,474,343 
 9,530,145 
 11,788,213 
 7,562,331 
 29,463,167 
 3,253,714 
 7,258,636 
 3,409,058 
 430,164 
 23,702,153 
 4,080,295 
 3,710,432 
 23,059,317 
 
 661,257,839 
 34,494, 639 
 134,097,526 
 61,835,270 
 42,578,216 
 7,737,998 
 9,644,243 
 73,345 
 850,344 
 35,990,821 
 15.668,265 
 9,804,165 
 15,342,695 
 3,781,160 
 32,712,927 
 2,174,859 
 7,740,056 
 6,725,774 
 167,553 
 23,830,113 
 4,128,193 
 5,157,187 
 16,527,979 
 
 634,531.355 
 44,744,508 
 121,408,880 
 78,448,298 
 38,579.035 
 7,410,486 
 6,144,359 
 130,450 
 646,675 
 40,202,681 
 17,106,672 
 7,779,631 
 10,495,854 
 2,207,743 
 36,262,365 
 2,110,451 
 7,460,541 
 3,554,340 
 123,267 
 14,021,246 
 1,346,353 
 2.410,649 
 14,090,447 
 
 Germany 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Italv 
 
 176,674 
 10,581,819 
 5,065 
 618,015 
 192,087 
 101,735 
 16,770.805 
 27,781 
 37,67V 
 5,752 
 4,099 
 10,514,(;*6 
 276,625 
 7,929 
 1,191,925 
 
 19,000 
 222,660 
 11,491,100 
 3,450,200 
 8,475,000 
 800 
 315,400 
 ia5,722 
 21,500 
 2,753.700 
 8,600 
 6,130,521 
 2,805,000 
 3,314,800 
 4,958,867 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Havti 
 
 
 British West Indies. . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 British Guiana 
 Peru 
 
 Quebec, Ontario, etc.* 
 Nova Scotia, etc 
 Newfoundland, etc.. 
 All other 
 
 Year to June 30 
 Value 
 
 500,399,448 
 $34,187,147 
 
 165,247.302 
 $15,970,021 
 
 66,768,920 
 $3,297,214 
 
 732,415,670 
 $53,454,382 
 
 568,315,64011,300,731,310:1,133,421,167 
 $29,126,4851 $82,580,8671 $83,675,922 
 
 1,091,206,266 
 
 $89,696,768 
 
 * Includes Manitoba, Northwest Territories, and British Columbia. 
 
 The tables of statistics of hog products were compiled by the Cincinnati Price Current. 
 
 The Department of Agriculture reported the following farm animals in the United States in 18%: Horses, 
 15,124,057, value, $500,140,186 ; mules, 2,278. 946, value, $103,204,457 ; milch cows, 16,137,586, value, $363,955,545; oxen 
 and other cattle, 32,085,409, value, $508,928,416; sheep, 38,298,783, value, $65,167,735; swine, 42,842,759, value, 
 $186,529,745. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO. 
 
 STATEMENT OF PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES IN THE YEAR ENDING JANUARY 1, 1895, 
 FROM THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 1,932 
 
 1,195,908 
 
 $131,550 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 63,510 
 
 42,043,620 
 
 $3,783,926 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 6,731 
 
 10,176,908 
 
 1 628,305 
 
 Ohio 
 
 37,493 
 
 32,468,938 
 
 1,753,323 
 
 Illinois 
 
 2,980 
 
 1,790,980 
 
 132,533 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 21,341 
 
 26,228.0*9 
 
 2,360,528 
 
 
 5,369 
 
 3,841 952 
 
 199 782 
 
 
 39.300 
 
 26,724,000 
 
 2,405,160 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 236,927 
 
 183,61s 4' '5 
 
 10,099 013 
 
 
 54,592 
 
 35,593,984 
 
 2,135,639 
 
 Maryland 
 
 11,822 
 
 7,010,380 
 
 420 623 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 3,737 
 
 2,634,585 
 
 263,459 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 2,323 
 
 3,449,665 
 
 344 966 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 18,066 
 
 14,669,592 
 
 792,158 
 
 
 11 581 
 
 8 296 749 
 
 755 004 
 
 
 
 
 
 New York 
 
 ->.r>:>o 
 
 6,934,620 
 
 654,770 
 
 Total 
 
 523,103 
 
 406,678.385 
 
 $27,760,739 
 
 Estimate for 1896 by the Department of 
 Agriculture : Area, 595,000 acres ; product, 
 403,004,000 pounds; value, $24,258,000; 
 yield per acre, 678 pounds. This is the last 
 year that an estimate has been made by the 
 Department. 
 
 The number of cigarettes manufactured in 
 the United States in 1890-91 was, according to 
 
 I the Internal Revenue returns, 2,877,799,440. 
 The value of domestic leaf tobacco exported 
 from the United States, year ending June 30, 
 1895, was $25,622,776 ; value of leaf tobacco 
 imported same period, $14,745,720. 
 
 The product of tobacco in Europe is nearly 
 equal in quantity to the average production 
 of the United States. Neumanu-Spallart has
 
 480 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 usually made it about 500,000,000 pounds. 
 Austria-Hungary produces about one third of 
 it, Russia one tenth, Germany nearly as much, 
 France about 35,000,000 pounds, and the 
 other countries a small quantity. Europe can 
 easily produce all the tobacco required, but 
 two reasons are prominent for importation of 
 tobacco from this country. It is very cheap, 
 and it is very desirable for mixing with and 
 fortifying European leaf. 
 
 TEA AND COFFEE. 
 
 Tea. The production of tea in 1888, by 
 countries, according to Mulhall, was, in 
 pounds : China, 290,000,000 ; India, 90,- 
 000,000 ; Japan, 40,000,000 ; Ceylon, 19,000,- 
 000 ; Paraguay, 10,000,000 ; Java, 7,000,000. 
 
 The consumption of tea is estimated by the 
 same authority as follows, in pounds : Great 
 Britain and Ireland, 184,500,000; United 
 States, 80,000,000 ; Russia, 37,000,000 ; Can- 
 ada, 22,000,000 ; Australia, 20,000,000 ; vari- 
 ous other countries, 106,500,000. 
 
 The importation of tea into the United 
 States in the fiscal year of 1896 was 93,998. 372 
 pounds, valued at $12,704,440. 
 
 Coffee The total production of coffee in 
 the world in 1889 was 1,249,000,000 pounds, 
 of which Brazil produced 812,000,000, other 
 parts of America, 253,000,000, East Indies 
 and Africa, 184,000,000. 
 
 The consumption by countries, according 
 to Mulhall, is in tons: United States, 215,- 
 000 ; Germany, 105,000 ; Brazil, etc., 78,000 ; 
 France, 65,000; Netherlands, 40,000; Aus- 
 tria, 36,000 ; Belgium, 25,000 ; Scandinavia, 
 25,000; Italy, 14,000; Great Britain, 15,000; 
 Russia, 8,000 ; Spain and Portugal, 5,000. 
 The importation of coffee into the United 
 States in 1896 was 580,597,915 pounds, valued 
 at $84,793, 124. 
 
 In 1897 the consumption of coffee in the 
 United States was 636, 340, 000 pounds, or 9.95 
 pounds to each individual. In all Europe it 
 was 610,300,000 pounds. 
 
 The English are the greatest tea drinkers 
 among western nations, the Americans the 
 greatest coffee drinkers. 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 A Ship Channel, connecting the waters of 
 the Great Lakes between Chicago, Duluth, 
 and Buffalo, giving channel 300 feet wide, 20 
 to 21 feet depth, is under construction by en- 
 gineers of the United States Army. 
 
 The Harlem River Ship Canal, connecting 
 the Hudson River and Long Island Sound, by 
 way of Spuyten Duyvil Creek and Harlem 
 River, was opened for traffic on June 17, 1895, 
 and cost about $2,700,000. 
 
 New York Canals. The whole number of 
 tons of freight carried upon the state canals 
 during the season of 1896 was 3,714,894, of 
 which the Erie Canal carried 2,742,438 ; 
 Champlain, 802,510; Oswego, 57,245; Black 
 River, 57,953 ; Cayuga and Seneca, 54,739. 
 The tonnage was 214,580 tons in excess of that 
 of 1895. The increase of tonnage on wheat 
 over 1895 was 128,507 tons ; on rye, 77,050 
 tons ; on barley, 29,691 tons ; on oats, 103,434 
 tons; and on apples, 21,666 tons. 
 
 Suez Canal. The Suez Canal is ninety-two 
 miles long and cost $102,750,000. One thou- 
 sand four hundred and fifty-eight ships, of 
 4,045,238 tons net, passed through the Suez 
 Canal during the first six months of 1897, yield- 
 ing $7,437,975 in dues. As to the nationality of 
 the vessels, the British were 908, German 161, 
 French 101, Dutch 106, Austro-Hungarian 37, 
 Italian 39, Norwegian 28, Turkish 4, Spanish 
 27, Russian 19, Egyptian 3, Japanese 18, 
 American 1, Chinese 2, Danish 2, Mexican 1. 
 
 Manchester Canal. A statement of the 
 traffic for the year 1896 shows a total tonnage 
 of 1,509,658 944,558 of which were im- 
 ported and 565,100 were exported. In 1895 
 the total was 1,087,443 tons, of which 592,581 
 tons were imported and 494, 862 tons exported. 
 The chief articles of import in 1 896 were as 
 follows, in tons : Timber, 179,859 ; paper 
 and paper making materials, 95,478 ; dye- 
 woods, 18,948; pig iron, 56,129; manufac- 
 tured iron, 22,980-; iron ores and pyrites, 
 44,427 ; American cotton, 44,409 ; Egyptian 
 cotton, 22,419; grain, 75,265; flour, rneal, 
 etc., 31,968 ; food stuffs (not described), 14,- 
 334; fruit (dried), 5,091; fruit (green), 
 27,137; sugar, 23,131; tea, 2,267; oil in 
 barrels (chiefly from New York), 17,449 tons. 
 
 Baltic Canal. Also known as the " North 
 Sea and Baltic " and " Kiel " Canal. During 
 the year ending June 30, 1896, 16,834 vessels 
 of 1,505,983 tons passed through from one 
 sea to the other, the receipts and expenditures 
 amounting to about $200,000. The canal is, 
 of course, a waterway of great strategical im- 
 portance for the Imperial fleets. It permits 
 the German naval forces to concentrate them- 
 selves either in one sea or the other in a very 
 few hours. 
 
 Panama Canal. The canal has been re- 
 organized under the corporate name of Com- 
 pagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama (the New 
 Panama Canal Company). The new com- 
 pany has not any governmental character, but 
 is organized under the general laws of France 
 by the representatives of financial institu- 
 tions of alleged unquestioned strength and 
 powerful influence, with a capital stock of 65,- 
 000,000 francs, and is not inviting any out-
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 481 
 
 side financial aid, but has conducted with its 
 own resources the great undertaking, and dem- 
 onstrating the success of the practical ques- 
 tions involved before public aid is again 
 invited. The work of constructing and re- 
 building the canal has been carried on, and a 
 large force of men has been engaged upon the 
 work during the past two years, under the 
 direction of eminent engineers. At present 
 the chief work is being done on the cutting of 
 the Culebra Hill. 
 
 It is anticipated that the canal will be com- 
 pleted. It is thought that $20,000,000 more 
 may finish the work. The distance between 
 the two oceans is 45 miles. Of this twelve 
 miles on the Atlantic coast and three miles 
 upon the Pacific coast are approaching comple- 
 tion. 
 
 Nicaragua Canal was projected to connect 
 the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, using the 
 waters of Lake Nicaragua. Total distance 
 from ocean to ocean, 169.4 miles ; depth of 
 canal, 30 feet ; least width at bottom, 100 
 feet ; time transit from ocean to ocean, 28 
 hours; length of Lake Nicaragua, 110 miles; 
 average w idth, 40 miles ; surface area, about 
 2, 600 square miles ; area of watershed of lake, 
 about 8,000 square miles. 
 
 From New York to San Francisco by water, 
 around Cape Horn, the distance at present is 
 15,660 miles ; by the Nicaragua Canal the dis- 
 tance between the same points will be 4,907 
 miles, a saving of 10,753 miles. The distance 
 in statute miles from New York to the Pacific 
 Ocean by the principal land and water routes 
 is as follows: By water to Cape Horn, 7,897 ; 
 by Southern Pacific Railroad, 3,709 ; by Cana- 
 dian Pacific Railroad, 3,619 ; by Central 
 Pacific Railroad, 3,269 ; by Northern Pacific 
 Railroad, 3,237 ; by Nicaragua Canal, 2,519. 
 Estimated cost of construction of Nicaragua 
 Canal by the Nicaragua Canal Commission 
 was 133,472,893. 
 
 DICTIONARY OF LAW AND BUS- 
 INESS TERMS. 
 
 Abandonment. The relinquishing to the underwrit- 
 ers, under an insurance, of all the property saved from 
 a wreck, in order to entitle the insured to' claim for a 
 total loss. 
 
 Abate. To break down, destroy, or remove; as, for 
 instance, to abate (remove or pet an end to) a nuisance. 
 
 Abduction. The unlawful taking or detention of a 
 woman (having property in possession or expectancy), 
 against her will, with the intention of procuring lier 
 marriage or defilement. Also the unlawful taking of an 
 unmarried girl under the age of sixteen years, out of 
 the possession and against the will of tlie father, or 
 other person having the lawful care of her, although 
 done without force or corrupt motives. The former is 
 a felony, and the latter a misdemeanor. 
 
 Abettor. A person who encourages or excites an- 
 other to commit an offense punishable by law. 
 
 Abeyance. The fee simple of lands is in abeyance 
 when there is no person in being in whom it can vest, 
 so that it is in a state of expectancy or waiting until a 
 
 proper person shall appear, or the right thereto is deter- 
 mined. The same applies to dignities or offices. 
 
 Abortion. The offense of procuring the miscarriage 
 : of a woman quick with child. 
 
 Abstract of Title. Au epitome of the deeds and doc- 
 uments constituting the evidence of title to an estate. 
 
 Above Par. Stock which sell for more than their 
 < face value are said to be above par. 
 
 Acceptance. The act by which a person on whom a 
 bill of exchange is drawn, undertakes to pay it at ma- 
 turity. The bill of exchange itselr is sometimes called, 
 in common parlance, an acceptance. 
 
 Accessory. A person concerned in a felonious offense, 
 although not the actual perpetrator, nor present at its 
 performance. He may be accessory either before or 
 after the fact. 
 
 Accommodation Bill. A bill of exchange accepted 
 without value, for the purpose of raising money thereon 
 by discount. 
 
 Action. The method of demanding the enforcement 
 of a legal right, and procuring redress for a civil injury 
 in the courts of common law. 
 
 Accept. To acknowledge by signature; to accept a 
 draft is to acknowledge the obligation to pay it when 
 due. 
 
 Acceptance " supra-protest " or for honor. An ac- 
 ceptance by some third partv after protest for non-ac- 
 ceptance by the drawee, with the view -of saving the 
 honor of the drawer or of some particular indorser. 
 
 Acceptor. The party who accepts a draft so as to 
 l bind himself to pay the sum specified in it. 
 
 Acknowledge. To admit ; to certify by signature to 
 the genuineness of a deed or mortgage ; to give infor- 
 mation of the arrival of a letter or remittance. 
 
 Accrued. Interest or increase due and unpaid. 
 
 Account. A statement ; an arrangement of debits and 
 credits in relation to any person or thing ; a record of 
 business transactions. 
 
 Account Sales. A statement of the product arising 
 from the sale of goods received by a merchant from 
 another party, and sold for his benefit, together with the 
 costs and charges incurred in making such sale. 
 
 Accountant. One who is skilled in accounts. 
 
 Actuary. A clerk of certain courts and insurance 
 offices ; one skilled in annuities ; an acting officer. 
 
 Administrator. He that has the goods of a person 
 I dying without a will committed to his care, for the pur- 
 | pose of legal distribution. The nearest of kin is entitled 
 ! to administration. 
 
 Ad Valorem. , Stamp duties, the amount of which is 
 regulated according to the value of the property, etc., 
 ; are so termed. 
 
 Adjust. To put in order ; to bring to a satisfactory 
 ] state, so that parties can agree in the result. 
 
 Advance. Additional price, stocks above par. 
 
 Advances. Sums of money paid by a merchant upon 
 goods lodged in his hands "for sale" at a future time. 
 This term also covers money loaned by bankers on bills 
 of lading. 
 
 Adventure. I'.x/perty ventured in a voyage ; a specu- 
 lation. 
 
 Advice. Counsel given, usually in regard to the pur- 
 chase and sale of goods. 
 
 Adulteration* Mixing a spurious with a genuine 
 article. 
 
 Affidavit. A written statement upon oath. It must 
 be sworn before a person authorized to administer 
 oaths; who that is, depends upon what the affidavit 
 relates to. The same officer is not usually empowered 
 to administer oaths in all the courts. 
 
 Affinity. Relation by marriage between the husband 
 or wife and the blood relations of either; but not be- 
 tween the husband and wife themselves. 
 
 Affirmation. A solemn declaration in lieu of an 
 ; oath. 
 
 Agent. A person appointed to do an act for another. 
 j The act when performed is, in law, the act of the prin- 
 cipal; tb> maxim being "qui facit per at ium facit 
 \ perse." 
 
 Alibi. Elsewhere. A defense by which it is proved 
 that the accused was not at the place where the offense 
 was committed at the time of its commission. 
 
 Alien. One born in a foreign country out. of the alle- 
 , gianceof the queen. 
 
 Alimony. An allowance made by a husband to his 
 wife when living apart from her. 
 
 Allocatur. The certificate by which a taxing mas- 
 ter certifies the amount at which he has taxed a bill of 
 
 : COStS. 
 
 | Allonge. A slip of paper attached to a note, draft,
 
 482 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 or other negotiable paper, to receive indorsements when 
 the back of the paper will hold no more. 
 
 Allowance. Abatement, a deduction made for vari- 
 ous reasons. 
 
 Amount. The sum total ; the aggregate. Gross 
 amount is the total without deduction. Net amount is 
 the total less deduction. 
 
 Ambassador. An envoy of the highest rank sent to 
 a foreign government. 
 
 Ancestor. The law distinguishes between ancestor 
 and predecessor ; the former is applied to individuals, 
 the latter to corporations. 
 
 Ancient Demesne. A tenure of lands partaking of 
 the properties both of copyhold and freehold. 
 
 Annuity. A periodical payment of money, amount- 
 ing to a fixed sum in each year, the moneys so paid 
 being either a gift or in consideration of a gross sum 
 received. 
 
 Anticipate. To take beforehand, or pay before due. 
 
 Antedate. To date beforehand. 
 
 Appeal. The removal of a cause from an inferior 
 into a superior court, for the purpose of impeaching the 
 judgment of the inferior court. 
 
 Appearance to Action. The first formal step by a 
 defendant in an action of suit. It is a notice that he in- 
 tends to defend. 
 
 Appellant/ Tbeperson appealing to a superior from 
 the decision of an inferior court. 
 
 Appraiser. A person who values personal chattels. 
 
 Appropriation. The appropriation of a payment 
 means the applying of it to the discharge of a particu- 
 lar debt, where the creditor to whom it is made has 
 more than one debt due from the same debtor. 
 
 Appraisement. The act of setting a value upon 
 goods or other property. 
 
 Appurtenance. That which appertains or belongs 
 to something else. 
 
 Arbitration. An extrajudicial method of settling 
 matters in difference by referring them to the arbitra- 
 ment or determination of persons appointed by the dis- 
 putants, and termed arbitrators. 
 
 Arraignment. A term of criminal procedure. A 
 
 Erisoner, after having had the indictment read over 
 im, is commanded to state whether or not he is guilty. 
 This proceeding is termed the arraignment. 
 
 Arrest. A legal seizure, capture, or taking of a man's 
 person which is effected by corporeal touching, or 
 something equivalent thereto. In civil cases a man can 
 only be arrested under legal process. The officer cannot 
 break open a man's outer door for the purpose of ar- 
 resting him ; nor can arreston a civilprocess beeffected 
 on a Sunday, except after an escape. 
 
 Arrest of Judgment. Where the court stays a judg- 
 ment, after a verdict on some question of law. 
 
 Arson. Felonious house burning. 
 
 Articles of Peace. A complaint against a person to 
 compel him to find sureties to keep the peace. 
 
 Arbitraging. Operating in the same stock or prod- 
 uct in two different markets to make a profit out of 
 the difference In price or "spread" between them, as, 
 for instance, buying wheat In St. Paul, and selling it in 
 Chicago. 
 
 Arrear. That which is behind in payment. 
 
 Assault and Battery. An attempt or offer, with 
 force and violence, to do a corporal hurt to another is 
 an assault ; an injury actually done to the person of an- 
 other in an angry, revengeful, or insolent manner, be it 
 ever so small, is a battery. 
 
 Assets. Property, whether real or personal, in the 
 hands of an executor, etc., for the purpose of satisfying 
 debts. 
 
 Assignee. A person to whom any real or personal 
 property is transferred by the act of law, as an executor, 
 an assig'nee of a bankrupt, etc., or by the act of party, 
 as a purchaser of a lease. 
 
 Assignment. A transfer of any kind of property 
 from one person to another. 
 
 Assumpsit. A verbal or parol promise expressed or 
 implied, springing out of a simple contract. The law 
 always implies a promise to do that which a party is 
 legally bound to perform. An action of assumpsit or 
 promise is the remedy for breach of a parol as distin- 
 guished from a written contract. 
 
 Assurance. The securing the payment of a sum of 
 money or other benefit on the happening of a certain 
 event, as, for instance, the death of a person. This is 
 the term now usually applied to life contingencies, M 
 contradistinguished from fires, losses at sea, etc., as to 
 which the term insurance is still used. 
 
 Assessment. A call upon the holders of stock or 
 
 policies to pay into the treasury a certain sum in order 
 to pay off debts or effect a reorganization. 
 
 Assign. To transfer or make over to another, tho 
 right one has in any object, as in an estate, especially 
 in trust for the security of creditors. 
 
 Assay. To determine the amount of a particular 
 metal in an ore or metallic compound. 
 
 Assess. To tax, or value for the purpose of taxing. 
 
 Assignor. One who makes a transfer to another. 
 
 Association. A company of persons united for a par 
 ticular purpose. 
 
 A sxu UK-. To take on one's self or become liable for the 
 debts of another. 
 
 Attachment. A process of the courts of law and 
 equity for compelling, by arrest, the performance of an 
 act, which a party is already in contempt for not per- 
 forming. Also an ancient remedy open to creditors in 
 London, and some other cities, to attach the money or 
 goods of their debtor in the hands of a third party 
 within the city. 
 
 Attorney. A person appointed by another by letter 
 or power of attorney to do anything for him in his 
 absence. 
 
 Attorney-at-Law. An officer of the superior courts 
 of law, legally authorized to transact the business of 
 other persons termed his clients in those courts. 
 
 Attach. To take by legal authority. 
 
 Attest. To call to witness or give official testimony 
 required in solemn instruments. 
 
 Auditor. A person authorized to examine and adjust 
 accounts. 
 
 Average. A contribution to a general loss. When 
 for the safety of a ship in distress, any destruction of 
 property is incurred, all persons haying goods on board 
 contribute ratably to the loss; this is called average. 
 
 Award. The judgment or decision of an arbitrator. 
 
 Backing a Warrant. The indorsing by a justice of 
 the peace of the county where a warrant (which has been 
 granted by the justice of the peace of another county) 
 is about to be executed, and is a necessary act to be done 
 before a person can be apprehended in a county differ- 
 ent to that in which the warrant was issued. 
 
 Bail. The sureties for the reappearance of a person 
 released from custody. 
 
 Bail-bond. A document under seal, by which a per- 
 son becomes bail. 
 
 Bailee. An individual intrusted with the custody of 
 goods; for instance, a carrier. 
 
 Bailiff. There are various kinds of bailiffs ; the most 
 common being those appointed by the sheriff, co'.u- 
 monly called sneriff 's officer. 
 
 Bailment. A delivery of a thing in trust for some 
 special object or purpose. 
 
 Bailor. The person who makes a bailment, or de- 
 livers goods to a bailee. 
 
 Banker. A person who holds the money of another, 
 and disposes of it as the other from time to time directs. 
 
 Bank Note. A promise by a banker to pay a speci- 
 fied sum to the holder. 
 
 Barristers. A body of men qualified by admission in 
 one of the Inns of Court, to plead as advocates; such 
 admission is termed, being " called to the bar." 
 
 Battel. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by the 
 law, by which the innocence or guilt of a party was de- 
 cided. 
 
 Balance. The arithmetical difference between the 
 two sides of an account ; the sum necessary to make the 
 two sides of an account equal in amount, spoken of as a 
 debitor credit balance; (verb) to bring into a state of 
 equality; to settle by paying what remains due on an 
 account. 
 
 Balance of Trade. The difference in value between 
 our exports and our imports. 
 
 Bank. An establishment for the custody and issue 
 of money; the office in which the transactions of a 
 banking association are conducted. 
 
 Bankable. Receivable as cash by a bank, such as 
 checks, express orders, money orders, etc. 
 
 Bank Bill. The note of a bank payable on demand, 
 and used as currency ; a bank note. 
 
 Bank Book. The book kept by a depositor, in which 
 the receiving teller writes the separate deposits, and 
 the bookkeeper of the bank enters the paid checks. 
 
 Bank Clearing. The aggregate amount of the checks 
 and drafts exchanged between banks (members of 
 clearing house association). In large cities less than 
 ten per cent, of the commercial business is done with 
 currency. While the clearings do not represent the sum 
 total of the counter transactions of banks for any given
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 483 
 
 time, they form a good basis for calculation as to the 
 comparative volume of trade from week to week. They 
 really indicate the growth or shrinkage of trade. 
 
 Bequest. A testamentary disposition of personal 
 estate. 
 
 Bear. A stock exchange phrase used to designate a 
 man who, having sold more stock than he possesses, 
 endeavors to depress its value, that he may buy at a low 
 rate, and so make pood his deficiency. 
 
 Bigamy. The criminal offense of a married man or 
 woman pretending to marry again, his wife or her hus- 
 band i as the case may be) being still alive. 
 
 Bill. The term applied to an intended statute when 
 1 passing through Congress, prior to its becoming law. 
 
 Bill of exceptions. A mode of appealing from the 
 decision of a judge on a point of law. 
 
 Bill of Exchange. A written order for payment of 
 money by one person (called the drawer), upon another 
 (termed the drawee). When the drawee has undertaken 
 to pay the bill,whieh he does by writing his name across 
 it, he is termed the acceptor. Bills of exchange are 
 negotiable, i. e., they confer on the holder the right of 
 suing upon it, which he could not do in the case of a 
 mere ordinary contract, for the want of that privity 
 which the law in ordinary cases requires between the 
 parties to a contract. The law as to bills of exchange 
 is governed by the Law Merchant. (See Law Merchant.) 
 
 Bill of Lading. A memorandum or receipt signed 
 by the master of a ship, acknowledging the shipment 
 of goods, which are usually made deliverable to the 
 consignee by post. By indorsing the bill of lading the 
 property in 'the goods" is passed to the indorsee, and so 
 from hand to hand. The bill of lading, properly in- 
 dorsed, forms, in fact, the title to the goods, and with- 
 out the production of which the captain would not 
 deliver the goods. 
 
 Bill of Sale. An assignment of goods and chattels, 
 by writing; generally, but not necessarily, under hand 
 and seal. 
 
 Bill of Lading. A negotiable receipt for goods de- 
 livered to a transportation company for carriage. 
 
 Bill of Parcels. A written statement given by the 
 seller to the buyer, containing particulars of the g'oods 
 bought and their prices. 
 
 Bills Discounted. Promissory notes, acceptances, 
 or bills of exchange discounted for the accommodation 
 of an indorser by cankers. 
 
 Bills Payable. Promissory notes or drafts held by a 
 merchant against others for future payment. 
 
 Bills Receivable. Promissory notes or drafts due to 
 a merchant by others. 
 
 Bill of Rights. A bill permitting an importer to ex- 
 amine his goods at the custom house. 
 
 Block. A number of shares, say 5,000 or 10,000, massed 
 together and sold or bought in a lump. 
 
 Bon a Fide. With good faith. 
 
 Bond. A written obligation, under seal. If for the 
 payment of a sum of money upon or after the death of 
 a person, it is then termed a post-obit bond. The per- 
 son making a bond is called the obligor, and he to 
 whom it is given, the obligee. 
 
 Borough. A town having now, or having formerly 
 had, corporate rights. 
 
 Bottomry. The borrowing of money by the master 
 on the bottom or hull of a ship ; to be paid with interest, 
 if the ship return in safety, but otherwise to be lost or 
 forfeited. 
 
 Board of Trade. A voluntary association of busi- 
 ness men for the regulation and advancement of com- 
 mercial interests. 
 
 Bond. An instrument iinder seal, by which the 
 maker binds himself, and usually his heirs, executors, 
 and administrators, to do or not to do a specified act. 
 A certificate of ownership of a specified portion of a 
 capital debt due by a government, a city, a railroad, or 
 other corporation, to individual holders, and usually 
 bearing a fixed rate of interest. 
 
 Bonded Goods. Imported goods left in a bonded 
 warehouse until the duties are paid. 
 
 Bonded Warehouse. A government warehouse in 
 which bonded goods are stored until the duties thereon 
 are paid. 
 
 Bonus. A premium on a loan ; something extra or in 
 addition. 
 
 Boom. A rush of business. A quick inflation of 
 values. 
 
 Breach of Covenant. The doing of an act which a 
 party has covenanted not to do, or neglecting to do that 
 which he has covenanted to perform. 
 
 Breach of the Peace. An act by which the public 
 
 repose is disturbed, and the safety of the community 
 more or less endangered. 
 
 Breach of Promise. The doing, or abstaining from 
 doing, something, contrary to an understanding or 
 contract. 
 
 Breach of Trust. A neglect of duty by a trustee 
 or person standing in a fiduciary relation," in violation 
 of his trust. 
 
 Bribery. The giving or receiving any reward for 
 corrupt purposes. 
 
 Brief. An abridgment of a client's case, for the in- 
 struction of counsel on trial or hearing in court. 
 
 Broker. An agent employed to buy or sel 1 goods ; a 
 sort of middleman between vendor arid purchaser. He 
 is not, like a factor, intrusted with the possession of 
 the articles he vends. 
 
 Brokerage. The commission paid to a broker. 
 
 Brand. A trade-mark ; a particular kind of goods. 
 
 Break. A quick, small decline. 
 
 Burglary. The offense of entering a dwelling- 
 house, in the night, with the intent to commit felony. 
 
 Bursar. The treasurer of a college. In Scotland it 
 | is nearly synonymous with sizar in the English uni- 
 versities. 
 
 Bucket Shop. A place where bets are made on 
 quotations of prices, established on legitimate Ex- 
 changes, and Boards of Trade. PretelWed trading. 
 Illegal in most States. 
 
 Bulge. A quick, small advance. 
 
 Bull. A person whose interest is to secure higher 
 prices ; a buyer for an advance. 
 
 Bulling. "Raising the price of stocks, etc. 
 
 BUSINESS CHARACTERS. 
 
 @ 
 
 At. 
 
 Account. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Check mark. 
 
 Pence. 
 
 Pound sterling. 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 ,, Ditto, the same. 
 X By, as 9X12. 
 
 1 1 , One and one fourtli. 
 
 1 2 , One and one half. 
 
 1 3 , One and three fourths. 
 4- Addition. 
 
 Subtraction. 
 X Multiplication. 
 -f- Division. 
 = Equal to. 
 
 Buyer Three. A Wall street expression signifying 
 that the buyer has three days in which to pay for his 
 purchase. 
 
 Bullion. Uncoined gold or silver, including gold 
 dust, ingots, and bars. 
 
 By-Law. A private law made by those duly author- 
 ized by charter, custom, or prescription; but "such by- 
 law must be consonant to the public laws and statutes, 
 and for the common benefit. 
 
 By-Bidder. One who bids at an auction in behalf of 
 the owner for the purpose of running up the price of 
 articles. 
 
 Canon Law. A collection of ecclesiastical constitu- 
 tions, definitions, and rules, derived from the ancient 
 councils, the writings of the fathers, ordinances of 
 popes, etc. At the Reformation it was enacted that a 
 review should be had of the Canon Law ; but that, until 
 such review, the existing law should continue in force, 
 except as far as the same should be repugnant to the 
 law of the land or the Royal Prerogatives this still re- 
 mains the state of the law, such review never having 
 been made. The canons of 1603 having been made by 
 the clergy, and confirmed by the king, James I., alone, 
 but not by Parliament, do not bind the laity. 
 
 Capias. A writ authorizing the arrest of a defend- 
 ant in a suit. It is issued, either after judgment, or 
 when it is satisfactorily shown that the defendant is 
 about to leave the realm before trial. 
 
 Capias ad Satisfaciendum.or CA-SA. The writ of 
 capias when issued after judgment ; so termed, because 
 the defendant is taken to satisfy the plaintiff's de- 
 mands. 
 
 Carrier. A person whose business it is to carry 
 goods for the proper delivery and safety of which he 
 is legally responsible. 
 
 Caveat. A proceeding to prevent an act being done, 
 such as the granting of administration, without notice 
 to the party entering the caveat. 
 
 Careat Emptor. Let the purchaser beware. It 
 signifies that a vendor is not bound to answer for the 
 goodness of his wares, unless he expressly warrants 
 them.
 
 484 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Call. A privilege to buy at a certain time for an 
 agreed price, called the " call price," which is always 
 a little above market price. 
 
 Call Loans. Money loaned subject to the call of 
 demand of lender. It must be returned the day it is 
 called for before the close of banking hours. 
 
 Capital. Money or other property invested in busi- 
 'ness. 
 
 Cashier. The clerk who has charge of the cash ; the 
 second executive officer in a bank. 
 
 Carat. Weight showing the degree of fineness of 
 gold. 
 
 Cargo. A ship's lading or freight. 
 
 Carte Blanche. Signature of an individual or in- 
 dividuals on blank paper with space above to write a 
 note; full power. 
 
 Certiorari. A writ for the removal of a cause from 
 an inferior to a superior court. This writ always lies, 
 unless where expressly taken away by statute, and here- 
 in it differs from an appeal, wh'ich can never be had 
 unless expressly given. 
 
 Certi flcate. A written voucher attesting a fact. 
 
 Certified Check. A check to which the cashier of 
 a bank certifies in writing as to the genuineness of the 
 signature of the drawer, and that he has funds on de- 
 posit sufficient to meet it, the bank reserving the 
 amount certified and regarding it as having been al- 
 ready paid, and therefore unavailable for other use. 
 
 Challenge. An exception taken by a prisoner 
 against one or more jurors, who, when challenged, are 
 set aside, if the challenge be allowed, and new ones put 
 in their places. 
 
 Chancellor. An officer of the highest dignity and 
 authority in various departments. 
 
 Chancery. The highest court of judicature next to 
 the Parliament, and of very ancient institution. The 
 Court of Chancery is called a Court of Equity, because 
 it was instituted for the purpose of proceeding by the 
 rules of equity and conscience, and of moderating the 
 rigor of the common law ; equity being the correction of 
 that wherein the law, by reason of its universality, is 
 deficient. Yet the Court of Chancery is not intended to 
 act in opposition to, but in assistance of, the common 
 law, supplying its deficiencies, not contradicting its 
 rules ; no judgment of law being reversible by a decree 
 in Chancery. 
 
 Charter. A royal grant or privilege, granted to cor- 
 porations, companies, etc. 
 
 Charter-Party. An instrument between merchants 
 and owners or masters of ships, containing the partic- 
 ulars of the contract for the hire of the ship. It is in 
 fact a mercantile lease of the ship. 
 
 Chattels. There are two kinds, chattels real and 
 chattels personal ; the former are leasehold property, and 
 the latter personal goods or chattels, as furniture or 
 money. 
 
 Chose. Athing. Chose-en-action isathing of which 
 a man has not the possession, and which he can only 
 claim by action, as, for instance, a debt owing to him 
 by another. 
 
 Chattel Mortgage. A mortgage of personal prop- 
 erty. 
 
 Check. An order upon a bank, or banker, to pay on 
 demand to the person named in the check, or to his 
 order, the sum of money specified in the body of the 
 check in writing. 
 
 Choses in Possession. Things of which one has the 
 possession. 
 
 Citation. The first step in an ecclesiastical cause, 
 analogous to the writ of summons in an action. 
 
 Civil L,aw. The Roman law is comprised in the in- 
 stitutes, code, and digest of the Emperor Justinian. 
 
 Cipher Code. An arrangement of words to stand for 
 phrases, numbers, or quotations, so that telegrams may 
 be thus sent in a private and condensed form. 
 
 Client. Anciently, a Roman citizen, taken under the 
 protection of some" great man, who was styled his 
 patron. The term is now applied to a party who em- 
 ploys a solicitor or counsel in any legal proceeding. 
 
 Clear. To exchange checks and bills, and to settle 
 balances as is done in a clearing house. 
 
 Clearing House. An organization for the settle- 
 ment of balances between members. Usually applied to 
 banks. 
 
 ' Clearing House Certificates. Certificates issued 
 by a clearing house agiinst collateral approved by the 
 loan committee, and used in the settlement of the 
 daily balances between its members. 
 
 Clearance. Certificate from the custom authorities 
 permitting a vessel to leave port. 
 
 Clearing. Act of leaving port. 
 
 Clique. A combination of persons " to run a deal " 
 or manipulate a market. Usually applied to stocks, 
 grain, and provisions. 
 
 Closed Policy. A policy in which the amount in- 
 sured is definitely stated. 
 
 Codicil. A supplement to a will. 
 
 Commission. The warrant, or letters patent, author- 
 izing any inquiry judicial or otherwise ; as the commis- 
 sion of the judges, the commission of the peace, etc. 
 
 Commitment. The sending a person who has been 
 guilty of any crime, to prison, by warrant or order. 
 
 Committee. Persons to whom the consideration of 
 any matter is referred ; as a Committee of the House of 
 Congress. 
 
 Common (Rights of). These are of four sorts : viz., 
 pasture, piscary, estovers, and turbary. Common of 
 pasture is the right of feeding one's cattle on the land 
 of another ; piscary, that of fishing in waters belong- 
 ing to another ; estovers, the right of taking wood from 
 another's estate, for household use and implements in 
 husbandry ; and turbary, the right of digging turf upon 
 another's ground. 
 
 Common L,aw. The law of England is composed of 
 Acts of Parliament or statutes, and the custom of the 
 realm, the latter consisting of those rules or maxims 
 which have obtained by common consent an immemorial 
 usage. The former are designated the lex scripta, or 
 statute law; the latter the lex non scripta, or common 
 law. This term is also applied to the superior courts of 
 Westminster, which are called Courts of Common Law, 
 as distinguished from the Court of Chancery, which is 
 the Court of Equity. 
 
 Complainant. One who complains of the act of an- 
 other in a court of justice, more commonly called 
 plaintiff. 
 
 Compounding Offenses. Entering into an agree- 
 ment not to prosecute an offender, for any considera- 
 tion received or to be received, constitutes a crime, for 
 which the offender may be indicted. 
 
 Compounding with Creditors. An agreement by 
 which creditors take a portion of their claims in dis- 
 charge of the whole. 
 
 Conditions of Sale The terms upon which a vendor 
 undertakes to sell to a purchaser. 
 
 Confirmation. A deed by which a voidable estate 
 in land is made perfect. 
 
 Conjugal Rights. Those rights of husband and 
 wife which spring out of their relationship. 
 
 Consanguinity. Relationship by blood, in contradis- 
 tinction to affinity, which is a relationship by marriage. 
 
 Conservator. A standing arbitrator, appointed to 
 compose and adjust differences that may rise between 
 parties, etc. 
 
 Consideration. The price or motive of a contract, 
 without which a simple contract is void. In technical 
 language, it may be defined as " some detriment to the 
 plaintiff sustained for the sake or at the instance of the 
 defendant, or some benefit to the defendant moving 
 from the plaintiff." 
 
 Consignee. A person to whom goods are delivered 
 either as purchaser, or more generally for sale on com- 
 mission. 
 
 Consignor. The person by whose act or direction 
 goods are delivered to the consignee. 
 
 Consignment. The act of making over, or deliver- 
 ing, goods to another. 
 
 Conspiracy. A combination of two or more persons 
 to carry into effect an unlawful purpose. 
 
 Consul. An officer appointed by government to re- 
 side abroad and watch over the interests of our country- 
 men who may happen to reside in or be passing through 
 the place where the consul is located. 
 
 Contempt. A disobedience to the rules, orders, or 
 process of a court, which has power to punish such of- 
 fense, which it does by imprisonment. 
 
 Contract. A covenant or agreement between two or 
 more persons with a lawful consideration. 
 
 Contribution. Where one surety or joint contractor 
 has been obliged to satisfy the whole demand, he may 
 obtain contribution from his fellow surety or con- 
 tractor. 
 
 Contributory. One liable to contribute to the 
 liquidation of the liabilities of a joint stock company, 
 under the Windiug-up Acts. 
 
 Conveyance. A deed which passes or conveys land 
 from one person to another. 
 
 Conveyancers. Persons who devote themselves to 
 the preparation of formal documents concerning prop- 
 erty.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 485 
 
 Convict. He that is found guilty of an offense by 
 the verdict of a jurv. 
 
 Coroner. An officer whose duty it is to inquire into 
 the cause bv which any person came to a sudden or 
 
 Compact. An agreement by which the parties are 
 firmly bound together. 
 
 Company. An association of persons for a common 
 enterprise. 
 
 Contraband. Prohibited; illegal. 
 
 Condition Precedent. A condition which must be 
 
 violent death, which must be done, before him and the 
 jury assembled for the purpose, upon view of the body. 
 
 c'osts. The expenses incurred in the prosecution or carried out before the obligation is performed, 
 defense of legal proceedings, of which there are two Copartnership. Joint concern in business, 
 kinds, those between party and party, and those be- 
 tween attorney and client. " 
 
 Count. In common law pleadings, is a section of a 
 declaration. 
 
 County Court. Local courts established throughout 
 the country. 
 
 Covenant. An agreement under seal. 
 
 Coverture. The state of a married woman as being 
 under the protection and influence of her husband or 
 
 Correspondence. An interchange of letters, or in- 
 tercourse. 
 
 Counterfeit. A forgery ; spurious bank bills. 
 Countersign. To sign," as secretary or subordinate 
 
 officer, a writing which has been signed by the superior. 
 
 Coupon. An interest certificate attached to a bond ; 
 when paid, it is cut off. 
 
 Cross-Examination. The interrogation of a witness 
 by or on behalf of the party against whom the evidence 
 
 baron. She is called a feme covert. is given. 
 
 Coalers. Coal roads. A term usually applied on Credentials. Testimonials; that which gives credit 
 stock exchanges to describe the Reading, Lackawanna, or authority. 
 Delaware andHudson, and Jersey Central Railroads. Custom. A law, not written, established by long use, 
 
 Cocket. A custom house warrant to show that goods and the consent of our ancestors ; if it be universal, it is 
 have been entered. " i common law; if particular, it is then properly custom. 
 
 Collaterals. Stocks, bonds, notes, or other value, Customs. Duties levied on commodities exported and 
 given in pledge as security when money is borrowed. i imported. 
 
 Collateral Security. Security for 'the payment of ! Curb. Prices made by private transactions not in 
 money or the performance of covenants in addition to j trading hours are called curb markets, 
 a principal promise or bond, e. g., a warehouse receipt j Curbstone Market. A hanger-on of Board of Trade 
 ora paid-up insurance policy given as security for the or Stock Exchanges, who does business on the sidewalk. 
 
 pay me 
 
 id-up 
 nt of 
 
 a promissory note would be collateral. 
 
 Combine. A word expressing the same meaning as 
 " trust " and supposed not to be quite so distasteful to 
 the opponents of monopolies. 
 
 Commercial Paper. Negotiable paper, such as 
 drafts, bills of exchange, etc., given in the due course 
 of business. 
 
 Common Stock. The ordinary shares in a corpora- 
 
 An irregular speculator, with the street for his place of 
 business, and for his office his hat. 
 
 Currency. Money in current use. 
 
 Custom House. A government place where imported 
 goods are entered and duties collected. 
 
 Damages. The amount of money awarded by a jury, 
 to be paid by a defendant to a plaintiff, as a compensa- 
 
 tion, j tion fpr the injury of which the latter complains. 
 
 Compromise. An agreement embracing mutual Days of Grace". Usually three days allowed for the 
 concessions. i payment of a note after maturity. 
 
 Concern. The business itself considered as a person j Debenture Bonds. Concentration of floating capital- 
 independent of its ownership. i ization into convenient bonded form. Originally, notes 
 
 Consign. To send goods or property to an agent or j in the form of bonds. 
 
 broker. The sender or the goods is a' consignor; the | Debenture. A written instrument of the nature of a 
 receiver is a consignee, and the goods or things sent are I bond or bill for a certain sum of money, 
 a consignment. De Bonis Non. When an administrator dies, the 
 
 Consols. A contraction of "consolidated." It ; risrht does not descend to his own representative, but a 
 represents the consolidation of Great Britain's bonded fresh grant of administration must be obtained of the 
 debt, and is the leading English funded government goods remain ing unadministered, and which is called an 
 
 securitv. 
 
 Contango. (London Stock Exchange.) A rate paid 
 for carrying shares over iintil next settlement day. 
 When a broker desires to " continue shares " or to post- 
 pone the day of payment or delivery, the premium paid 
 is called in* the seller's case "backwardation" and, in 
 the buyer's case, " contango." 
 
 Conversion. Bonds are frequently issued with a 
 provision whereby they can at any moment be ex- 
 changed for equivalent stock. Such securities are 
 called " convertible." and the act of substitution is 
 called " conversion." 
 
 Corner. An artificial scarcity created by holding 
 property off the market for the extortion' of abnor- i " Defaulter. "A person who neglects to perform an act 
 
 administration de bonls non. 
 
 Declaration. In an action at law, signifies the plain- 
 tiff's statement of his cause of action. 
 
 Declaration of Trust. A written or verbal expres- 
 sion or statement, by which a person acknowledges him- 
 self to be a trustee for another. If relating to lands, it 
 must be in writing. 
 
 Deed. A writing sealed and delivered bv the parties 
 to it. 
 
 De Facto. A thing actually done or existing. 
 
 Default (judgment by), if a defendant omits to ap- 
 pear or plead to an action, within the time allowed, the 
 plaintiff can sign judgment by default. 
 
 mallyhigh prices. Where the purchases of any party 
 or parties exceed the amount of contract grain in 
 regular warehouses on the last delivery day of the 
 month for which such purchases have been made, the 
 grain so bought is said to be cornered. 
 
 A corporate body authorized by law 
 
 Corporation. A corpora 
 to act as a single individual. 
 
 required to be done. 
 
 Defeasance. A collateral deed made at the same 
 time with some other deed, and containing certain con- 
 ditions which may defeat or render null and void the 
 provisions of such" other deed. 
 
 Defendant. The party against whom an action or 
 suit is brought. 
 
 Coupon Bonds. Bonds payable to bearer without Demesne. Lands which formerly the lord kept in his 
 any registration of the owner's name anywhere. The own hands, being next to his mansion, 
 interest in these bonds is evidenced by coupons which, Demise. A word used in conveyance* of estates for 
 when they become due, are cut off the original bond and terms of years. 
 
 collected." Demurrage. A compensation or allowance for de- 
 
 Cover. The buying in of grain or stocks to fill short taining a ship beyond the usual or specified time. 
 contracts is called "covering." Demurrer. A mode of raising a point of law, upon 
 
 Covering Shorts. Buying in property to fill con- the facts stated in the pleadings, assuming them to be 
 tracts (usually for future delivery) previously made. i true. 
 
 Coasting. "A sailing near land, or trade' carried on Deposition. The testimony of a witness taken down 
 between ports in the same country. in writing and signed by him. 
 
 C. O. D. Collect on delivery. Goods sent by express Devise. The giving away of lands or other real es- 
 marked in this way must be accompanied by the bill for tate by will. 
 
 them. This bill is collected and receipted by the mes- Debtor. A party who owes a debt; one who owes 
 senger of the express company, before delivering the another money, goo'ds, or services. 
 
 goods. Delivery Day. The first trading day of the month is 
 
 Commerce. Interchange of values or commodities, usually called delivery day, but, as all'transactions are 
 
 Common Carrier. One who makes it a business to j at the option of the seller, he may select and deliver the 
 
 transport goods: railroad companies are common car- grain on any day of the month for which it has been 
 
 riers. 1 sold.
 
 486 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Deposit. To place funds in a bank ; a sum deposited 
 at a certain time ; the amount on deposit at any given 
 time. 
 
 Defalcation. A deduction, abatement, or diminu- 
 tion, as in a promissory note. 
 
 Debt. What one owes to another. . 
 
 Delivery. To pass money or goods to another ; a giv- 
 ing. 
 
 Demand. An asking by authority ; a claim by right. 
 
 Depository. One to whom something is intrusted ; a 
 guardian. 
 
 Deputy. One appointed to act for another ; a repre- 
 sentative. 
 
 Disability. A legal incapacity to do an act. 
 
 Disclaimer. A renunciation by an executor or trus- 
 tee of the office imposed upon him, also a mode of de- 
 fense in equity, etc. 
 
 Discovert. A term applied to a widow or unmarried 
 woman. 
 
 Disfranchise. To take away from certain places or 
 persons any privilege, freedom, or liberty. 
 
 Disseisin. A wrongful invasion of the possession of 
 another, and turning him out from the occupation of 
 his lands, either by force or surprise. 
 
 Distress. The distraining or taking the effects of a 
 tenant, in order to satisfy the rent due to his landlord. 
 
 Dishonor. To refuse to accept a draft, or to pay a 
 note of acceptance. 
 
 Direct Evidence. Evidence which applies directly 
 to the fact to be proved. 
 
 Discount. In mercantile transactions, a discount 
 means a deduction of a certain amount from the face of 
 a bill for cash. In banking, a discount means the de- 
 duction of a certain amount from the face value of a 
 note or bill, as a payment for allowing the holder of the 
 note the immediate use of the money ; the rate of dis- 
 count varies. 
 
 Dividend. A portion allotted to stockholders, in di- 
 viding the profits. 
 
 Domicile. The domicile of a person is where he has 
 his permanent home. There are three sorts of domiciles 
 by birth, by choice, and by operation of law. 
 
 Dower. A widow is entitled, at the death of her 
 husbandj to a life interest in a third part of the estates 
 of inheritance of which her husband was seised, and 
 did not dispose of by deed or will. 
 
 Domiciliated. A negotiable instrument payable in 
 a different place from that in which it is drawn is 
 domiciliateu where payable. 
 
 Donee. One to whom a gift is made or a bequest is 
 given. 
 
 Donor. One who gives or bestows. 
 
 Dormant. Not acting; a partner who takes no 
 share in the active business of the concern, but shares 
 in the gains or losses. 
 
 Drop. In stocks or grain it is equivalent to a" break" 
 except that it may be due to wholly natural causes. 
 
 Draft. A bill of exchange used for domestic pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Drawback. Duty refunded on exported goods. 
 
 Drawee. One on whom a draft is drawn ; the payor. 
 
 Drawer. One who draws a bill or draft. 
 
 Duress. Anything done under compulsion and 
 through unavoidable necessity. 
 
 Dun. To press urgently the payment of a debt. 
 
 Duty. A government tax paid on goods imported or 
 exported. 
 
 Duplicate. A copy or transcript of anything. 
 
 Easement. A convenience which one has in or over 
 the lands'of another, as a way or a water course. 
 
 Earnest. A pledge, like money deposited, affords 
 good groundsCor reliance. 
 
 Effects. Goods or property of any kind. 
 
 Ejectment. An action at law to recover the posses- 
 sion of lands. 
 
 Elegit. A writ of execution under which all the 
 debtor's lands may be seized or extended, and held by 
 the judgment creditor until his judgment is satisfied. 
 
 Embezzlement. The act of appropriating that 
 which is received in trust for another, which is a 
 criminal offense. 
 
 Embargo. Prohibition of vessels from sailing. 
 
 Embarrassment. Financial distress ; on the verge 
 of bankruptcy. 
 
 Embassy. A public message or commission; the 
 person by whom it is sent. 
 
 Emporium. A commercial center. 
 
 Enfeoff(To). The act of conveying an estate of free- 
 hold by deed of feoff ment. 
 
 Enfranchisement. The admittance of a person 
 into a society or body politic. Enfranchisement of 
 copyholds is a conversion of copyholds into freehold 
 tenure. 
 
 Engrossing. A style of writing, not now generally 
 used, for deeds, but still used for the probates of wills. 
 
 Enrollment. The registering of deeds as required 
 by certain statutes ; as, for instance, deeds conveying 
 lands to charitable uses. 
 
 Entail. That inheritance whereof a man is seized to 
 him and the heirs of his body. Tail-general is where 
 lands and tenements are given to one, and the heirs of 
 his body generally. Tenant in Tail-special is where the 
 gift is restrained to certain heirs of the donee's body, as 
 male or female. 
 
 Entry. A record of a business transaction ; deposit- 
 ing of a ship's papers at custom house to procure license 
 to land goods. 
 
 Endorse. To write one's name on the back of a 
 check, note, or draft. 
 
 Equitable Mortgage. The most familiar instance 
 is the deposit (either with or without a memorandum, 
 although it is better to have one) of the title deeds of 
 an estate by way of security, which constitutes an 
 equitable mortgage without the execution of any formal 
 mortgage deed. 
 
 Equity of Redemption. The right which equity 
 gives to a mortgager of redeeming his estate after the 
 appointed time for payment has passed, and which right 
 can only be barred by" a foreclosure. 
 
 Equity. In law, qualifying or correcting the law in 
 extreme cases. 
 
 Error. A writ of error is a commission to judges of 
 a superior court, by which they are authorized to ex- 
 amine the record upon which a judgment was given in 
 an inferior court, and to affirm, reverse, or vary the 
 same, according to law. 
 
 Errors Excepted. A phrase inserted as a proviso, 
 that the person who renders a statement may have the 
 power of correcting any mistake that he may have com- 
 mitted. 
 
 Escheat. Is where lands, for want of heirs, or from 
 forfeiture, escheat or fall back to the sovereign or lord 
 of the fee as the original grantor. 
 
 Estate. The interest which a person has in lands, or 
 other property. 
 
 Estoppel. Where a man is precluded in law from 
 alleging or denying a fact in consequence of his own 
 previous act, allegation, or denial to the contrary. 
 
 Estreat. Where a recognizance becomes forfeited by 
 any of its conditions being broken, it is estreated ; that 
 is, "extracted from the record, and sent up to the Ex- 
 chequer, whence a process will issue to recover the pen- 
 alty. 
 
 Evidence. Proof, either written or unwritten, of the 
 facts in issue in any legal proceeding. 
 
 Excise. A tax or impost charge by government on 
 certain commodities. 
 
 Execution. The act of putting the sentence of the 
 law into force. 
 
 Executor. One appointed by a person's last will to 
 administer his personal estate. 
 
 Exhibits. Documents, etc., produced in evidence, 
 and marked for the purpose of identification. 
 
 Ex Offlcio. Anything done by virtue of an office. 
 An information filed by the attorney-general, by virtue 
 of his office, is called an Ex Officio-Information. 
 
 Ex Parte. A statement is called ex parte where only 
 one of the parties gives an account of a transaction, in 
 which two or more are concerned. 
 
 Ex Post Facto. An ex post facto law is a law made 
 purposely to restrain or punish an offense already com- 
 mitted. 
 
 Extrajudicial. Any act done by a judge beyond his 
 authority, or any opinion expressed by him not strictly 
 pertinent to the" matter in issue before him. 
 
 Exhaust Price. The point at which one's margins 
 will be exhausted. If trades are not re-margined they 
 are likely to be closed out by the broker at the exhaust 
 price, if "it is reached by the market. 
 
 Exchange. Act of bartering ; a bill drawn for money ; 
 a place where merchants meet; a difference between 
 the value of money in two places, or the premium and 
 discount arising from the purchase and sale of funds. 
 
 Executory. Yet to be performed. 
 
 Exports. Goods or produce carried abroad in com- 
 merce. 
 
 Express. A special messenger ; a regular conveyance 
 for packages, etc.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 487 
 
 Factor. An agent intrusted with the possession of 
 goods for sale belonging to his principal. A broker, on 
 the other hand, has not the custody of the goods of his 
 principal. 
 
 Faculty. A privilege or dispensation granted by an 
 ecclesiastical court in certain oases. 
 
 False Pretenses. The criminal offense of obtaining 
 any chattel, money, or valuable security by means of a 
 fal'se pretense ; it is punishable by transpo'rtation, tine, 
 or imprisonment. 
 
 Face. The amount expressed on a note or draft. 
 
 Failure. Act of becoming insolvent. 
 
 Facsimile. An exact copy. 
 
 Fancy Stocks. Term applied to stocks subject to 
 sudden fluctuation in price. 
 
 Favor. A note or draft is said to be in favor of the 
 payee. 
 
 Fee Simple. That estate or interest in lands which 
 a person holds to him and his heirs forever. During 
 his life he possesses over it a perfectly free and unre- 
 strained power of disposition, and on his death, with- 
 out having alienated it by deed or will, it descends to 
 his heirs, both lineal and collateral, male and female, 
 according to an established order of descent. 
 
 Felony. Formerly defined as comprising " all capi- 
 tal crimes below treason." It may now more accurately 
 be defined as comprising all crimes occasioning a for- 
 feiture of lands or goods or both. 
 
 Feme Covert. A married woman. 
 
 Feme Sole. An unmarried woman. 
 
 Feoffment. A mode of conveyance of lands in fee, 
 accompanied by certain solemnities. It is rarely, if ever, 
 now used. 
 
 Fiat. An order or warrant for a thing to be done er 
 executed. 
 
 Fieri Facias. A writ of execution, by which the 
 sheriff is commanded to levy the debt and damages of 
 the goods and chattels of the defendant. 
 
 Finding-. A finder of goods may appropriate them to 
 his own use if he really believes when he takes them 
 that the owner cannot "be found ; but if a jury should 
 say that the finder appropriated the goods, not having 
 (or that he could reasonably be supposed not to have had) 
 such belief at the time of appropriation, it amounts to a 
 theft, and can be punished criminally. 
 
 Finding a Bill. The grand jury either find or ignore 
 the bills against prisoners; if they find a true bill, the 
 case goes into court, and is tried. 
 
 Fire Policy. An instrument by which an insurance 
 company guarantees to a person, who has insured his 
 property, the payment of a sum of money, if it is injured 
 or destroyed by fire. 
 
 Fixtures. This term is generally used to denote those 
 personal chattels which, though annexed to the free- 
 hold of demised premises, a tenant is nevertheless en- 
 titled to remove. They consist of trade fixtures, and of 
 those put up for the ornament or convenience of the 
 premises. 
 
 Finance. Revenue ; income ; pertaining to money. 
 
 Financier. An officer of finance ; one having cha'rge 
 of the revenue. 
 
 Firm. A partnership, trading house, or its name. 
 
 Fiscal. Pertaining to a treasury or revenue. 
 
 Flat. A term signifying that stocks are sold without 
 reference to accumulated interest ; low in price; dull as 
 to sales. 
 
 Flotsam. Goods which float after being thrown over- 
 board at sea or in case of shipwreck. The goods thus 
 cast away are called jetsam or jettison, if they sink and 
 remain under water. 
 
 Foreclosure. The barring the equity of redemption 
 on mortgages. 
 
 Foreign Bill of Exchange. A bill drawn by a per- 
 son abroad, and accepted in the United States, or vice 
 versa. 
 
 Forfeiting Recognizances. When a person who has 
 entered into recognizances fails to comply with their 
 conditions, the same are forfeited or estreated. 
 
 Forfeiture. A punishment consequent upon the 
 commission of certain criminal offenses or illegal acts. 
 
 Forgery. The crime of counterfeiting a signature, 
 seal, or mark ; or the fraudulent alteration of a writing 
 to the prejudice of another. 
 
 Foreclose. To cut off the power of redemption 
 under a mortgage. 
 
 Forestall. To buy goods before they reach the mar- 
 ket. 
 
 Folio. Page* of a book, usually the two opposite 
 pages. 
 
 F. O. B. Free on board; the bill or invoice with 
 
 F. O. B. includes the transporting to the shipping port 
 and all the shipping expenses. 
 
 Foreign Exchange. Drafts drawn on the financial 
 centers of Europe ; for instance, London, Berlin, or 
 Paris. Drafts on London are called Sterling Ex- 
 change, as they are drawn in pounds sterling. 
 
 Franchise. A royal privilege to which a subject is 
 entitled as a fair, a market, a free warren, a park. 
 
 Fraud. A dishonest and illegal artifice, by which 
 undue advantage is taken of another, or by which the 
 interests of that other are unjustly prejudiced. Fraud 
 strikes at the root of every transaction, and vitiates 
 every contract, whether by record, deed, or otherwise. 
 
 Freehold. Land held in fee simple, fee tail, or at 
 least for life. 
 
 Freight. The remuneration due to the owner of a 
 ship for the conveyance of goods or merchandise, on 
 which he has a lien for the freight. 
 
 Franc. A French silver coin, value about twenty 
 cents. 
 
 Frank. A free letter. 
 
 Free Trade. The policy of conducting international 
 commerce without duties. 
 
 Fractional Orders. Orders for less than 5,000 bushels 
 of grain or 100 shares of stock are called fractional 
 orders, as the above amounts represent the units of 
 speculation. Fractional orders are entirely regular, 
 both on the Chicago Board of Trade and the Stock 
 Exchanges. Orders are executed in 1,000 bushel lots of 
 wheat, but not in corn or oats. Neither is there any 
 market for small quantities of provisions or cotton. 
 
 Frozen Out. Said of deals or trades closed out 
 compulsorily because of inability to further protect 
 contracts with re-margins. 
 
 Funded Debt. The public debt of this country, 
 consisting of an immense sum which, from time to 
 time, has been lent to government by individuals, and 
 which they or their assigns receive interest for, out of 
 the taxes. 
 
 Future Estates. Estates not in possession, but in 
 expectancy, as a remainder. 
 
 Funds. Stock or capital, a sum of money. 
 
 Funded. Put into a permanent loan on which an 
 annual interest is paid. 
 
 Futures. Buyers of cash grain protect themselves 
 against possible loss by selling an agreed amount for 
 future delivery in some general market, usually Chicago. 
 Such contracts are called futures because they do not 
 terminate until some designated month in the future. 
 These transactions pass from hand to hand and may be 
 turned over hundreds and thousands of times in an 
 active market before maturity, and this is called deal- 
 ing in futures. Nearly all speculative operations are in 
 futures. 
 
 Garnishee. The party in whose hands money, due 
 to a defendant, is attached. 
 
 Gain. Profit; benefit; increase in wealth. 
 
 Gauging. Measuring the contents of casks, etc. 
 
 Gist. The main point of a case ; the turning point. 
 
 Gift. A voluntary conveyance or gift of lands or 
 goods. If of the former, it 'is liable to be defeated in 
 the lifetime of the grantor, by his conveying the same 
 lands to a purchaser, for a valuable consideration, even 
 though with notice of the prior gift. 
 
 Gold and Silver Certificates. Certificates issued 
 by the United States government, circulating as money, 
 oh the security of gold deposited with the government 
 for that purpose, or of silver coin belonging to itself. 
 
 Grois Weight. Weight of goods including case, bag, 
 
 Grace, Days of. The name given to the days of in- 
 dulgence allowed to the acceptor of a bill of exchange 
 after it becomes due. The number of such days varies 
 in different countries. In some, as in France, they are 
 abolished altogether. In England, three days are al- 
 lowed, so that a bill at a month drawn on the first of one 
 month, will become due on the fourth of the next. 
 
 Grand Jury. The jury to whom all bills of indict- 
 ment are referred in the first instance. It is the duty 
 of this jury to interrogate the witnesses for the prosecu- 
 tion, and ascertain whether or not a prima facie case is 
 made out against the prisoner ; if so, they find a true 
 bill, and he takes his trial ; if not, they ignore the bill, 
 and he is discharged. 
 
 Grant. A mode of conveyance, formerly applicable 
 only to incorporeal hereditaments, reversions, etc. ; but 
 its significance has been extended by a recent statute, 
 and it Is now the instrument most usually employed in 
 the conveyance of land.
 
 488 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OP FACTS. 
 
 Granger Roads. Western railroads. This term was 
 originally applied in AVall street to the Chicago and 
 Northwestern, and the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. 
 Paul roads, but is now employed on Stock Exchanges to 
 designate those railroads which handle principally farm 
 produce. 
 
 Gross. Whole ; entire ; total ; specifically without de- 
 duction, as for damage or waste material; without al- 
 lowance of tare, opposed to net, as gross sum or amount, 
 gross profits, income or weight. 
 
 Guaranty. An engagement to be responsible for the 
 debts or duties of a third person. 
 
 Guarantor. A warrantor. 
 
 Guaranteed Stock. Stocks of leased or subsidiary 
 company guaranteed by the principal company. 
 
 Habeas Corpus. A writ of right for those who are 
 grieved by illegal imprisonment. The Habeas Corpus 
 Act is next in importance to Magna Charta, for, so long 
 as this statute remains, no subject of England can long 
 be detained in prison, except under legal process. 
 
 1 1 ali. -ml ii in. One of the formal parts of a deed : its 
 office is to limit or define the estate granted. It is so 
 called because it begins with the words " to have." 
 
 Harbor. A place of rest or safety for ships ; a port for 
 loading and unloading. 
 
 Heir. The legal representative of his ancestor, with 
 respect to the real property of such ancestor. He takes 
 all the real property not otherwise disposed of by the 
 ancestor in his lifetime or by his will. 
 
 Heir Apparent. Is one whose right of inheritance 
 is certain, and which nothing can defeat, provided he 
 outlives his ancestor ; as the eldest son or issue. Heir 
 presumptive is one who would inherit, provided his an- 
 cestor were to die at that particular time, but whose 
 right of inheritance might be defeated by some nearer 
 heir being afterwards born ; as a brothe'r or nephew, 
 whose presumptive succession may be destroyed by the 
 birth of a child. 
 
 Heirlooms. Such personal chattels as go to the heir 
 along with the inheritance, and not to the executor of 
 the deceased. 
 
 Hereditaments. All things which may be inherited, 
 that is, which would descend to the heir, if not disposed 
 of by deed or will. Hereditaments are of two kinds, 
 corporeal and incorporeal. 
 
 Hedge. The operation called hedging by speculators 
 is practically the same as straddling, though the terms 
 are not synonymous. Traders hedge to avert a loss and 
 straddle for a profit. 
 
 High Seas. Waters of the ocean outside of the 
 jurisdiction of any country. 
 
 Homicide. The crime of killing any human being; 
 of which there are three kinds justifiable, excusable, 
 and felonious. 
 
 Honor. To accept and pay when due. 
 
 Hue and Cry. The old common law process of 
 pursuing felons "with horn and voice." Also, the 
 name of a paper now circulated amongst the police 
 containing the names and description of felons. 
 
 Hypothecate. A term used for pawning a ship and 
 goods, or either, for necessaries, which a master of a 
 ship may do when in distress at sea. 
 
 Ignore. When the grand jury reject a bill of indict- 
 ment, they are said to ignore it, from the Latin word 
 ignoramus. 
 
 Illegal Condition. A condition annexed to any- 
 thing which is illegal, immoral, impossible, or other- 
 wise contrary to law. 
 
 Immoral Contracts. Contracts infringing the rules 
 of morality which, for reasons of public policy, are void 
 at law. 
 
 Impaneling. Writing in a parchment schedule the 
 names of the jury by the sheriff. 
 
 Import. To bring from another country. 
 
 Importer. One who brings goods from abroad. 
 
 Impost. Duty on goods paid by the importer. 
 
 Incorporeal Hereditaments. Hereditaments of a 
 non-tangible nature, and consisting of rights or bene- 
 fits issuing out of corporal or tangible things, as a 
 rent, an advowson, etc. 
 
 Incumbent. The present possessor of an ecclesias- 
 tical benefice. 
 
 Incumbrance. A charge or lien upon property, as a 
 mortgage. 
 
 Indemnity. A written instrument whereby one un- 
 dertakes to free another from responsibility. 
 
 Indenture. A deed or writing, formerly cut or in- 
 
 dented ; now the name usually given to deeds, although 
 indenting is uo longer essential. 
 
 Indictment. A written accusation of one or more 
 persons, of a crime or misdemeanor, preferred to, and 
 presented on oath, by a grand jury. 
 
 Indorsement. Anything written on the back of a 
 deed or other instrument ; such as a bill of exchange. 
 
 Infant. Every person is by the law styled an infant 
 till he has attained the age of" twenty-one years. 
 
 Inheritance. An estate in lands or tenements to a 
 man and his heirs. 
 
 Injunction. A prohibitory writ granted by the 
 Court of Chancery forbidding certain acts to be done 
 under pain of contempt. It may be granted in urgent 
 cases ex parte, but notice is sometimes required to be 
 given. 
 
 Inquest. A meeting of jurors, who are summoned to 
 take into consideration certain matters, which may ap- 
 pear in evidence before them, and to bring in theii 
 verdict accordingly. 
 
 Inquiry (writ of). A writ directed to the sheriff, 
 commanding him to summon a jury and assess the 
 damages in an action; as, for instance, when the de- 
 fendant has suffered judgment by default. 
 
 Insolvency. The state of a person who is unable to 
 pay his debts. 
 
 Insurance. A security or indemnification against 
 the risk of loss from the "happening of certain events. 
 The usual kinds are fire and marine. 
 
 Interpleader. When two or more persons claim the 
 same thing of a third, the latter may call upon them to 
 interplead, i. e., to try the right to it between them- 
 selves; he, the third person, retaining possession of the 
 thing in the meantime, as a kind of stakeholder. 
 
 Interrogatories. Written questions to which the 
 parties interrogated are to give written answers on oath. 
 
 Intestate. A person dying without a will, or, hav- 
 ing made a will, without appointingan executor thereof. 
 
 Innuendo. That part of the declaration, in actions of 
 libel and slander, which explains the meaning, or points 
 the application, of the libelous or slanderous matter 
 complained of. 
 
 In Re. In the matter of. 
 
 Installment. Part of a sum of money paid or to be 
 paid from time to time. 
 
 Interest. The use of money ; premium paid for the 
 use of money. 
 
 Investment. The laying out of money in the pur- 
 chase of property. 
 
 Inventory. A list of goods. 
 
 Invoice. Alistof goods bought or sold, or consigned. 
 
 In Sight. Said of stocks of grain, cotton, coffee, or 
 other merchandise, available for immediate use. Grain 
 stored in private warehouses, or held by producers, is 
 not usually included in the supply " in sight." 
 
 Inspection. Grain received at Chicago is inspected 
 and graded by sworn inspectors under rules established 
 by the Board of Railroad and Warehouse Commission- 
 ers, appointed by the state of Illinois. From this in- 
 spection, if not satisfactory, an appeal may be taken to 
 the Inspection Committee of the Board of Trade. In 
 other states similar laws exist. 
 
 I. O. U. A written acknowledgment of a debt. This 
 instrument is regarded in a court of law as evidence of 
 an account stated. It is not a promissory note and does 
 not require a stamp. 
 
 Issue. The disputed point or question to which the 
 parties in an action have, by pleading, narrowed their 
 several allegations, and are hence said to join issue. If 
 it be an issue of fact, it is tried by a jury, if of law, by 
 the court. Issue is also the legal term for children or 
 remoter descendants. 
 
 Jettison. A voluntary throwing of goods overboard 
 at sea in a storm to lighten the ship. 
 
 Joinder in Action. The coupling or joining two 
 parties in one suit or action. 
 
 Joint Tenants. Persons who hold lands, etc., jointly 
 by one title. On the death of one the survivor takes the 
 whole. 
 
 Jointure. A settlement of lands or tenements on a 
 woman, to take effect after her husband's death in lieu 
 of dower. 
 
 Journal. A book used to classify and arrange busi- 
 ness transactions. 
 
 Judgment. The sentence of the law pronounced by 
 the court upon the matter contained in the record. 
 
 Jury. A certain number of men sworn to deliver a 
 verdict upon such evidence of facts as shall be delivered 
 to them, touching the matter in question.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 489 
 
 Judgment Note. A note in the usual form, with the 
 addition of the power to confess judgment if not paid. 
 
 Jurisdiction. The authority by which judicial offi- 
 cer* take cognizance of and decide causes. 
 
 Landlord. A proprietor of lands occupied by an- 
 other, which latter party is termed the tenant. 
 
 Lapse. A forfeiture of the right of presentation to a 
 church by the neglect of the patron to present. The 
 word is also applied where a testamentary gift falls by 
 the death of its object in the lifetime of the testator. 
 
 Larceny. The wrongful and unlawful taking and 
 carrying away by one person of the personal goods of 
 another, with the felonious intention of converting 
 them to his own use. 
 
 Law. This word signifies generally an inflexible rule 
 of action. The law of England is co'mposed of written 
 laws or statutes, and unwritten laws, or the customs of 
 the realm. The latter is also termed the common law. 
 
 Law of Nations. A system of rules or principles 
 deduced from the law of "nature, and intended for the 
 regulation of the mutual intercourse of nations. 
 
 Leading Question. A question put or framed in 
 such a form as to suggest the answer sought to be 
 obtained. Such a question is not allowed to be put to a 
 witness, except on cross-examination. 
 
 Lease. A conveyance or demise of lands of tene- 
 ments for life, or years, or at will, but always for a less 
 term than the party conveying lias in the premises. 
 
 Lease and Release. The form of conveyance, until 
 recently commonly used for conveying land ; but a 
 lease, commonly called a lease for a year, is no longer 
 necessary ; the release alone being now as effectual as a 
 lease and release were formerly. 
 
 Leasehold. Lands held o'n lease, which (however 
 long the term) are considered as chattels real, and go to 
 the next of kin, and not to the heir, on the death of the 
 owner intestate. 
 
 ey, goods, or other 
 to whom it is 
 gift is of the 
 
 residue, after paymentTof debts and legacies, he is then 
 styled the residuary legatee. 
 
 Lessor and Lessee. The person who grants a lease 
 is called the lessor, the party to whom it is granted, the 
 lessee, and the person to whom either of them assigns, 
 the assignee. 
 
 Letters of Administration. The instrument granted 
 by the Probate Court under which administrators de- 
 rive their title to administer the goods and chattels of 
 an estate. 
 
 Letters (or Power) of Attorney. A writing, under 
 seal, empowering another person to do any act instea i 
 of the person granting the letter. It may be either 
 general or special ; the attorney represents his principal 
 in the matters prescribed by 'the letter until it be re- 
 voked. 
 
 Letters of License. An instrument whereby credit- 
 ors grant to their debtor time for the payment of his 
 debts, and bind themselves not to molest him until that 
 time has expired. 
 
 Levy. The seizing of goods or chattels by a sheriff 
 under an execution is called a levy. 
 
 Ledger. Book of accounts. 
 
 Letters of Credit. A letter authorizing the holder 
 to receive money on account of the writer. 
 
 Legal Debts.' Debts that are recoverable in a court 
 of common law. 
 
 Legal Tender. That which the law authorizes to be 
 tendered in payment of debts. Strictly speaking, it is 
 the exact amount of the debt in current funds. It is 
 not a legal tender to demand change. 
 
 Letter of Advice. A letter of information concern- 
 ing a shipment of goods or of the drawing of a draft. 
 
 Libel. A malicious defamation, expressed either in 
 printing or writing, or by signs, pictures, etc., tending 
 either to blacken the memory of one who is dead, or the 
 reputation of one who is alive, and theieby exposing 
 him to public hatred, contempt, or ridicule. 
 
 Lien. A qualified right which a person has in or to 
 a thing in his possession, arising from a claim upon the 
 owner. Liens are of two kinds, particular or general. 
 
 Limited Liability. The limitation of the liability of 
 shareholders in a company to the amount unpaid upon 
 their shares, introduced by recent Acts, and applicable 
 to all companies registered thereunder: such compa- 
 nies are bound to use the word " Limited " in their title 
 after the word " Company." 
 
 fjneal Descent. That which goes from father to 
 ADRL, from son, to grandson, and so on. 
 
 Liquidated Damages. Damages, the amount of 
 which is fixed or ascertained. 
 
 Liability. Debt or claim against a person. 
 
 License. Legal permission to sell goods or to do 
 certain things. 
 
 Liquidate. To pay off, as debts ; to settle or adjust 
 accounts. 
 
 Lighterage. A charge for conveying goods to or 
 from a vessel in a harbor. 
 
 Limit. A set figure, at which one's trade is to be 
 made or closed. 
 
 Liquidation. When employed by speculators, this 
 term signifies the selling out of property previously 
 bought or contracted for. The expression '" liquidation 
 by longs," is in contradistinction to "covering by shorts." 
 In a market where both processes are extensively car- 
 ried on, it is called " evening up." 
 
 Loan. To deliver to another for temporary use ; the 
 thing lent. 
 
 Long. One who has property bought in anticipation 
 of a rise in price. Hence, for a trader to be " long " of 
 stocks or grain presupposes him to be a "bull." Also 
 used adjectively. 
 
 Long Market. A market that is overbought, the 
 volume of open contracts to buy property for future 
 delivery being in dangerous excess of the probable de- 
 mand. 
 
 Lunatic. One who has had understanding, but, by 
 grief, disease, or other accident, has lost the use of his 
 reason generally, though he may have lucid intervals. 
 
 Magna Charta. The great charter of English lib- 
 erties granted by, or rather extorted from, King John, 
 at Runnvmede, between Windsor and Staines, on the 
 15th of June, 1215, and afterwards confirmed bv Henrv 
 III. 
 
 Maihem or Mayhem. The violently depriving an- 
 other of the use of such of his member's as may render 
 him less able, in fighting, either to defend himself or to 
 annoy his adversary. 
 
 Malice Prepense. Malice aforethought; i. e., delib- 
 erate, predetermined malice. 
 
 Mandamus. A writ commanding the completion or 
 restitution of some right, or the performance of a duty. 
 
 Manor. A territorial domain, held partly by the lord 
 and partly by his tenants ; it must have continued from 
 time immemorial, and have annexed to it a Court 
 Baron, with at least two suitors. 
 
 Manslaughter. The unlawful killing of another, but 
 without malice. 
 
 Manumission. The making a bondman free. 
 
 Marque and Reprisal (Letters of). Commissions 
 granted to individuals to fit out privateers in time of 
 war ; not used in the late war, and abandoned by all the 
 great powers at the Congress of Paris, 1856. 
 
 Master of the Rolls. An assistant of the Lord 
 Chancellor, who hears and decides the cases assigned to 
 him, at his own court in the Rolls Yard. He holds his 
 office by patent for life. 
 
 Maturity. Bills, or notes, when due, are said to be at 
 their maturity. 
 
 Maxims in" Law. Certain proverbial axioms, which 
 form part of the general custom or common law of the 
 land. As, " Xo man is bound to criminate himself." 
 "Conditions against law are void." "It is fraud to 
 conceal fraud," etc., etc. 
 
 Malfeasance. An act which one has no right to do. 
 
 Mandatory. One to whom business is intrusted or 
 charge given. 
 
 Manifest. A list of articles comprising a vessel's 
 cargo. 
 
 Manufacture. The process of converting raw ma- 
 terial into articles of use and sale. 
 
 Margin. A sum of money deposited with a broker, 
 in stock transactions, to protect him against loss by the 
 depreciation of stocks held by him for another party. 
 Also the difference between the value of securities de- 
 posited as collateral and the amount loaned upon them. 
 
 Marine. Relating to the sea. 
 
 Maritime Law. Law relating to harbors, ships, and 
 seamen. 
 
 Mart. A place of public sale ; a market. 
 
 Maximum. The highest figure. 
 
 Merger. The sinking of a smaller estate into a 
 greater, -whereby the former is utterly extinguished and 
 destroyed. It takes place when tw'o estates meet to- 
 gether, without any intermediate estate between them, 
 to both of which estates the same individual is en- 
 titled in one and the same right as where a tenant for 
 life afterwards acquires the fee simple.
 
 490 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Mesne-Process. Commonly used to describe the 
 first process in an action, as where a party used to be 
 arrested on mesne-process, as distinguished from an 
 arrest on a final judgment. 
 
 Mercantile Law. Law relating to business trans- 
 actions. 
 
 Mercantile Agency. A concern which procures in- 
 formation relating to the financial standing and credit 
 of merchants for the use of others, to whom said mer- 
 chant may apply for credit. 
 
 Misdemeanor. An indictable offense, which, though 
 criminal, does not amount to felony. 
 
 Misprision. A neglect, oversight, or contempt; as, 
 for example, misprision of treason is a negligence in not 
 revealing treason. 
 
 Minimum. The lowest figure. 
 
 Mint. The place where money is coined. 
 
 Misfeasance. Doing in an improper manner, by 
 which another receives an injury. 
 
 Mitigation. Lessening the amount of a judgment, 
 penalty, or punishment. 
 
 Moot Point. An obscure point of law not definitely 
 settled ; and therefore open for discussion. 
 
 Mortgage. A conveyance of lands by way of secu- 
 rity , for the repayment of a sum of money borrowed, or 
 owing. 
 
 Mortmain. Lands held by corporations are said to 
 be held in mortmain. 
 
 Motion. An occasional application to the court, to 
 obtain some rule or order in the progress of a cause. 
 
 Money. Current coin and circulating medium. 
 
 Money Broker. A broker who deals in money or 
 exchanges. 
 
 Monopoly. The sole power of vending goods. 
 
 Mortgagee. The person to whom the conveyance is 
 made. 
 
 Mortgagor. One who makes the mortgage. 
 
 Municipal Law. That which pertains solely to the 
 citizens of a particular state, city, or province. 
 
 Muniments. Deeds, evidences, and writings in gen- 
 eral. 
 
 Murder. Unlawfully killing any person, with malice 
 aforethought, either express or implied by law. 
 
 Mutiny Act. An Act annually passed to punish 
 mutiny and desertion, and for the better regulation of 
 the army. 
 
 Naturalization. The making a foreigner a lawful 
 subject of the state. 
 
 Negotiable Instruments. Those instruments which 
 confer on the holders the legal right to sue for the money 
 or property thereby secured, and which by delivery 
 
 Sass such money or property from man to man as 
 ills of exchange, bills of lading. 
 
 Next Friend. The party in whose name an infant or 
 feme-covert brings an action or suit. 
 
 Negotiable. That may be transferred by indorse- 
 ment and delivery, or by delivery alone. 
 
 Negotiate. To transact business or treat with an- 
 other respecting trade or treaty. 
 
 Net. Clear of all charges and deductions. 
 
 Net Proceeds. The sum left after deducting com- 
 mission or discount, etc. 
 
 Negotiable Paper. Notes, drafts, or other written 
 obligations, which may be bought and sold. 
 
 Net Cash. A term applied to a bill of goods to be 
 paid without any allowance or discount, and without 
 reference to time, but by common custom understood to 
 be thirty days, unless otherwise specified. 
 
 Nisi Prius. A term applied to those courts in which 
 civil causes are tried before a judge and jury. 
 
 Nolle Prosequi. An acknowledgment by the plain- 
 tiff that he will not further prosecute his suit, as to the 
 whole or a part of the cause of action. 
 
 Non Assumpsit. He has not promised. A plea by 
 which a defendant denies his liability in an action of 
 assumpsit. 
 
 Non Pros. When the plaintiff neglects to take any 
 step within the prescribed time, the defendant may 
 move for a judgment against him, which is called judg- 
 ment of non pros. 
 
 Nonsuit. A renunciation of a rait by a plaintiff, after 
 which he may still commence another action for the 
 same cause, which he could not do if a verdict goes 
 against him. 
 
 Notary Public. A person whose business it is to 
 note and protest bills of exchange, and who also attests 
 deeds and writings, to make them authentic in another 
 country. 
 
 Non Feasance. The non-performance of an act that 
 should be done. 
 
 Note. An obligation without a seal; a written prom- 
 ise to pay. 
 
 Nominal. Existing in name only. 
 
 Nuisance. Anything which unlawfully annoys or 
 does damage to another. Nuisances may be either pub- 
 lic or private. 
 
 Nuncupative Will. An oral will before a sufficient 
 number of witnesses, and afterwards reduced to writ- 
 ing now abolished, except as to soldiers and sailors. 
 
 Nunc Pro Tune. Literally, now for then; and is 
 often so used in legal proceedings. 
 
 Oatb. An appeal to God as a witness of the truth of 
 what is affirmed or denied in evidence, in the presence 
 of a judge, magistrate, or other officer authorized to 
 administer oaths. 
 
 Obligation. That which legally binds a party to per- 
 form a duty. 
 
 Official Assignees. Officers of the Court of Bank- 
 ruptcy, one of whom is allotted to each bankrupt's 
 estate. He acts with the assignees appointed by the 
 creditors in the administration of the estate ; but his 
 especial duty is to keep the assets of the estate, and re- 
 ceive and pay all money on account of it. 
 
 Onus Probandi. The burden of proof . It is a legal 
 principle that the issue in an action must be proved l>y 
 the party who states an affirmative ; not by the party 
 who states a negative. The burden of proof, therefore, 
 is on the former party. 
 
 On Call. When money is loaned " on call," it is un- 
 derstood that it must be returned the day it is called 
 for, before the close of banking hours, and without pre- 
 vious notice. 
 
 Open Policy. A policy upon which amounts yet to 
 be ascertained and insured, may be entered at different 
 times. 
 
 Option. Property bought or sold at the call or de- 
 mand of the buyer or seller as may be specified ; a con- 
 ditional contract. 
 
 Ostensible Partner. A person whose name appears 
 to the world as a partner in a firm. Although such a 
 person may not have any interest in the partnership, he 
 is liable for its debts and engagements. 
 
 Outlawry. The act or process by which a person is 
 excluded from, or deprived of, the benefit of the laws, 
 attended with a forfeiture of his goods to the Crown. 
 
 Outlawed. Term applied to a debt or note which has 
 run beyond the time when its payment can be enforced 
 by law. 
 
 Overt Act. An open act, capable of being manifested 
 by legal proof. 
 
 Overdraw. To issue a check for more than the con- 
 cern's deposit. 
 
 Overdue. Remaining unpaid after maturity. 
 
 Overissue. An issuing as of stock, beyond or in ex- 
 cess of the capital stock. 
 
 Oversold. The reverse of overbought. 
 
 Owe. To be indebted to, or bound to pay. 
 
 Oyer and Terminer. A commission directed to the 
 judges and others, by virtue whereof they have power 
 to hear and determine treasons, felonies, etc. 
 
 O Yes. A corruption of the French oyez, hear ye ! 
 The term is used by a public crier to enjoin silence and 
 attention. 
 
 Panel. A schedule or slip of parchment, containing 
 the names of such jurors as have been returned by the 
 sheriff to serve on trials. 
 
 Paraphernalia. Things to which a wife is entitled 
 over and above her dower, consisting of wearing ap- 
 parel and ornaments suitable to her rank and station in 
 life. The husband may (with the exception of his 
 wife's wearing apparel) dispose of them in his lifetime, 
 but not by will. On his death they belong to the wife 
 absolutely. 
 
 Parol. Word of mouth, verbal. 
 
 Particeps < ri minis. A participator in the crime. 
 
 Partition. The dividing of lands held by joint ten- 
 ant, coparceners, or tenants in common, Into two dis- 
 tinct portions. 
 
 Pawn. A delivery of goods and chattels, to be re- 
 tained until a debt is discharged, 
 
 Par. Kqual value; when market value equals fare 
 value. 
 
 Partnership. Company ; union of two or more in 
 business. 
 
 Pawnbroker. One who lends money on a pledge or 
 deposit of goods.
 
 FINANCE, INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 491 
 
 Payee. The party to whom payment is to be made. 
 
 Payor. One who pays or is bound to pay. 
 
 Paper Profits. Profits on contracts not yet closed, 
 and consequently not yet in hand. 
 
 Par of Exchange. Equivalent value of the cur- 
 rency of a country in that of another. 
 
 Partial Payment. Part payment of a debt. 
 
 Partner. An associate in business. 
 
 Passing: a Dividend. When the directors of a cor- 
 poration vote against declaring a dividend it is said to 
 be "passed." This is nearly always the cause of great 
 weakness in the stock. 
 
 Penance. An ecclesiastical punishment, varied ac- 
 cording to the nature of the offense, in which the peni- 
 tent is supposed to make satisfaction to the Church for 
 the scandal he has given by his evil example. 
 
 Perjury. The offense committed by a person who, 
 having been sworn to tell the truth in a matter pending 
 in a court of justice, willfully and deliberately takes a 
 false oath. 
 
 Perpetuity. A rule that land cannot be limited be- 
 yond a life or lives in being and twenty-one years after- 
 wards, and the period of gestation, if it actually exists, 
 is commonly called the rule against perpetuities. 
 
 Personal Estate, or Personalty. Movable things, 
 whether alive or dead, as distinguished from land, or 
 immovables, which are termed real estate. 
 
 Petitioning Creditor. A creditor who petitions the 
 Court of Bankruptcy to make his debtor a bankrupt. 
 
 Pin Money. An allowance set apart by the husband 
 for the personal expenses of a wife, i. e., for her dress 
 and pocket money. 
 
 Pit Traders. Brokers who are in the pit daily trad- 
 ing for their own account. 
 
 Plaintiff. The complainant in an action or suit. 
 
 Plea. The defendant's answer to the plaintiff's dec- 
 laration. 
 
 Pleader. A lawyer, who draws the pleadings in 
 actions. 
 
 Pleadings. The mutual allegations or statements 
 which are made by the plaintiff and defendant in an 
 action. 
 
 Pledge. A pawn ; a deposit as security. 
 
 Posse Comitatus. The power of the county. This 
 includes the aid and attendance of all men, except 
 ecclesiastics and inferior persons, above the age of fif- 
 teen, within the county; which force may be used in 
 cases of riot or rebellion, or where any resistance is 
 made to the execution of justice. 
 
 Postea. The verdict of the jury drawn up in due 
 form, and entered on the back of the record. 
 
 Pound Breach. The indictable offense of breaking 
 open a pound for the purpose of taking cattle therefrom. 
 
 Policy of Insurance. Contract between the insurer 
 and the insured. 
 
 Portage. The price of carrying; cost paid by the 
 captain for running his vessel. 
 
 Point. On stock exchanges "a point" is understood 
 to mean one dollar a share. A decline in Missouri 
 Pacific from twenty-five to twenty-two would be a de- 
 cline of three points. 
 
 Pool. The stock and money contributed by a syndi- 
 cate to control the price of a given surety or commodity. 
 Also refers to the individuals composing the pool. 
 
 Post Date. To date after the real day. 
 
 Pre-emption. The right of first buying. 
 
 Prescription. A title acquired by use and time, and 
 allowed by law. 
 
 Presentment. The notice taken by a grand jury or 
 inquest of any offense, etc., from their own knowledge 
 or observation. 
 
 Primogeniture. The right of the eldest son to in- 
 herit his ancestor's estate, to the exclusion of the younger 
 son, where the ancestor has died intestate. 
 
 Privilege. An exemption from the general rules of 
 law. It is of two kinds real, attaching to any place, 
 or personal, attaching to persons, as ambassadors, etc. 
 
 Probate. The copy of a will made out on parchment 
 with a certificate of its having been proved. 
 
 Process. A general term applied to formal judicial 
 proceedings. 
 
 Prohibition. A writ issuing out of the superior 
 courts directing the judge of an inferior court not to 
 proceed further in a suit. 
 
 Promissory iNote. A written promise by which one 
 person engages or promises to pay a certain sum of 
 money to another. 
 
 Pro Kata. In proportion. 
 
 Protest. On bills of exchange. A protest means 
 
 the solemn declaration of a public notary of the dis- 
 honor of a bill. 
 
 Proviso. A condition inserted in a deed, on the per- 
 formance whereof the validity of the deed frequently 
 depends. 
 
 Premises. Things previously mentioned; houses, 
 lands, etc. 
 
 Premium. The sum paid for insurance ; the excess 
 of value above par. 
 
 Price. Value set or demanded ; current value. 
 
 Price Current. A table of the current price of mer- 
 chandise, stocks, bills of exchange, etc. 
 
 Prima Facie. On the first view of the matter. 
 
 Primage. A charge imposed in addition to the 
 freight. 
 
 Principal. An employer ; the head of a commercial 
 house ; the sum loaned, upon which interest is paid. 
 
 Preferred Stock. Shares of a corporation having 
 preference over ordinary shares, but not over bonded or 
 mortgaged indebtedness. Preferred stock is usually 
 issued for borrowed capital. Earnings, if any are left 
 after paying interest on the bonded debt, go next to pay 
 a dividend on the preferred stock, and only what then 
 remains is applied to the common stock. 
 
 Privileges. " Puts " and " Calls." A " put " is the 
 privilege or option, which a person purchases, of " put-, 
 ting," i. e., delivering, property or contracts for prop- 
 erty to the seller of such privilege, at a named price 
 within a stipulated time one or more days, weeks, or 
 months. " Puts " are good (from the buyer's stand- 
 point) when the market declines below the " put " price 
 within the time covered by the privilege contract. The 
 buyer can then buy the property at the cheaper figure 
 and " put " it to the person who sold him the risk, his 
 profit being the difference between the " put " price and 
 the quotation at which the property is bought with 
 which to make the delivery. A " call " is the reverse of 
 a " put,"the purchaser of a " call " acquiring the right 
 to " call " upon the seller of the privilege for property, 
 or contracts for property, at a named price within a 
 stipulated time. " Calls " are good when the market 
 advances above the call price, and the buyer of such 
 privilege is enabled to sell at a profit the -property 
 " called " from the seller of the privilege. The seller of 
 privileges occupies, in a sense, the position of an in- 
 surance or guaranty company. He sells market risks as 
 an insurance company sells fire, life, or accident risks. 
 Trading in privileges is illegal in some states, notably 
 in Illinois. Prices paid for privileges are usually $1.00 
 per thousand bushels for a single day, $1.25 for a week 
 or ten days, and from $2.50 to $7.50 for a month or dur- 
 ing the life of a distant option. 
 
 Promoters' Shares. Those issued by corporations 
 in payment of the services of promoters in the organi- 
 zation of companies. 
 
 Pyramiding. Enlarging one's operations by the 
 use of profits which one has made. For instance, if 
 one buys 5,000 bushels and. the market advances 2 cents, 
 he sells, realizes $100 profit, and with this in addition to 
 his additional margin he buys 10,000 bushels of wheat, 
 which he closes on a further advance and makes a still 
 larger investment. On steadily advancing markets with 
 moderate reactions this plan makes large profits, but 
 must not be followed too far and liberal margins should 
 be kept. 
 
 Quarantine. Signifies 40 days. It is applied to the 
 period which persons coming from infected countries 
 are obliged to vvait onboard ship before they are allowed 
 to land. But in law it more strictly applies to the 
 similar period during which a widow, entitled to dower, 
 is permitted to remain in her husband's capital man- 
 sion after his death, whilst she awaits the assignment 
 of her dower. 
 
 Quash. To annul or cancel. 
 
 Quasi Contract. An implied contract. 
 
 Quid Pro Quo. Giving one thing for another, being 
 the mutual consideration in contracts. 
 
 Quo Warranto. An ancient writ still in use, 
 directed against any person or corporation, who usurps 
 any office, franchise, or liberty, calling upon them to 
 show by what authority they support their claim. 
 
 Quotations. A statement of the prices of articles of 
 merchandise, given for the information of correspond- 
 ents. 
 
 Rape. The carnal knowledge of a female who is 
 above the age of ten years, against her will; or of a 
 girl under the age of ten years, although with her per- 
 mission. The age of consent varies. 
 
 Bate. The proportion or standard.
 
 492 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Real Estate or Realty. The term applied to land, 
 in contradistinction to personalty. 
 
 Recital. The formal statement of some matter of 
 fact in any deed or writing. It usually commences with 
 the formal word "Whereas." 
 
 Recognizance. An obligation of record which a 
 man enters into, with condition to do some particular 
 act ; as, to appear at the assizes,to keep the peace, to pay 
 a debt, or the like. 
 
 Record. An authentic testimony, in writing, con- 
 tained in rolls of parchment, and preserved in a court of 
 record. 
 
 Re-Entry, proviso for. A stipulation in a lease 
 that, on non-payment of rent or non -performance of the 
 covenants, the leaser may re-enter. 
 
 Registrars. Officers having custody of a Registry, 
 such as the registrars of births, marriages, and deaths. 
 
 Rejoinder. The answer of a defendant in an action 
 to the plaintiff's replication. 
 
 Release. A form of conveyance. Also, an acquit- 
 tance under seal of a debt or other obligation. 
 
 Remainder. A vested or contingent estate or inter- 
 est in land, limited to take effect and come into pos- 
 session on the determination of a prior estate created 
 at the same time. 
 
 Rent. The annual return made by the tenant to his 
 landlord, which may be either money, labor, or provi- 
 sions. 
 
 Replevin. An action to try the validity of a distress. 
 The things distrained are re-delivered to the tenant on 
 security or pledges given by him to try the right. 
 
 Reprieve. A suspension of the execution of sentence 
 of death on a criminal. 
 
 Rescue. A resistance against lawful authority, as, 
 for instance, the violently taking away a man who is un- 
 der legal arrest. 
 
 Residuary Devisee. The person to whom a testator 
 devises the remainder of his lands, not otherwise dis- 
 posed of. 
 
 Residuary Legatee. A legatee to whom is be- 
 queathed the residue or remainder of a testator's per- 
 sonal estate, after payment of all legacies, claims, and 
 demands. 
 
 Residue or Residuary Estate. The portion of a 
 testator's estate not specifically disposed of. 
 
 Retainer. A fee given to counsel to secure his serv- 
 ices. It may be either generator special. The former 
 secures the services of the counsel to the party giving 
 it in all matters ; the latter only in one cause or matter. 
 The fee in the former cause is five guineas, in the latter 
 one guinea. 
 
 Return of a "Writ. The certificate of the sheriff 
 made to the court of what he has done towards the ex- 
 ecution of any writ directed to him. 
 
 Reversal. The making a judgment void, in con- 
 sequence of some error in thesaine. 
 
 Reversion. The residue of an estate left in the 
 grantor, and returning to him or his heirs, after the 
 grant is determined. * 
 
 Receipt. A writing acknowledging the taking of 
 money or goods. 
 
 Refund. To repay or pay back. 
 
 Resources. Pecuniary means; effects; property. 
 
 Respondential Bond. A pledge of a cargo at sea. 
 
 Retail. To sell in small quantities. 
 
 Revenue. Tax ; income ; rents ; customs and duties. 
 
 Revocation. The recall of power or authority con- 
 ferred, as the revocation of an agency. 
 
 Receiver's Certificates. Those issued by a receiver 
 for the purpose of raising money for a company in the 
 jurisdiction of a court. When approved by the court 
 and issued, they are a first lien upon the net earnings 
 and property of the company. 
 
 Registered Bonds. That class of Government Bonds 
 which are payable to the order of some individual or 
 corporation, whose name is registered as the owner 
 thereof in the government offices at Washington. Such 
 bonds, if stolen or lost, cannot be realized upon. 
 
 Remittance. Value, as bills or money transmitted 
 to another. 
 
 Renewal of a Note. Extending the time of its pay- 
 ment by giving a new note in exchange for it. 
 
 Rule. An order made bj the court at the instance 
 of one of the parties in an action. It may either be a 
 rule absolute, or merely a rule nisi, or to show cause. 
 
 Rules of Court. The rules framed by the judges for 
 regulating the practice of the different courts of law. 
 
 Salvage. An allowance made for saving ships or 
 goods from enemies, or wreck, or loss at sea. 
 
 Scire Facias. A judicial writ founded on matter ol 
 record, and used lor various purposes, as, for in^ 
 stance, to enforce against a shareholder a judgment 
 against a Joint Stock Company, which it is unable to 
 satisfy. 
 
 Scrivener. One intrusted with other men's moneys 
 to put out for them, and for which he charges a com- 
 mission, or bonus. 
 
 Scrip. Dividends issued by a stock company payable 
 in stock. Scrip dividends are simply an increase o'f the 
 capital of the company, as the stock issued to meet them 
 is added to the capital, and in its turn is entitled to 
 future dividends. 
 
 Scalper. One who trades in options continually, and, 
 by reading the temper of the market at the moment, 
 tries to get a profit out of the minor fluctuations ; also 
 applied to irregular railroad ticket brokers. The term 
 is coming into general use in other lines. 
 
 Scalping. Buying and selling on small fluctuations 
 of V\e market. Taking a small profit or a small loss. 
 
 Seizin. Possession of a freehold estate. Seizin in 
 deed is when actual possession is obtained. Seizin in 
 law is a right to lands of which actual possession has 
 not been obtained. 
 
 Separate instate. Real or personal property settled 
 upon a married woman, and which she may dispose of 
 as if she were a single woman. 
 
 Sequestration. Used in several cases ; but most fre- 
 quently as signifying an execution for debt against 
 a beneficed clergyman, in which case the debt is satis- 
 fied out of the tithes and other profits of the benefice. 
 In Scotland a sequestration is nearly equivalent to our 
 term " bankruptcy." 
 
 Set-off. A mode of defense, whereby a defendant sets 
 up a demand of his own to counterbalance the plaintiff's 
 claim either wholly or in part. 
 
 Seaworthy. Fit for a voyage ; in a proper condition 
 to venture at sea. 
 
 Secondarily. Applied to the indorser of a note or 
 the drawer of a bill, signifying that he is only condi- 
 tionally liable, or liable if the maker and drawee fail. 
 
 Seigniorage. The difference between the commer- 
 cial value of bullion in coin and the face value of the 
 coin itself. 
 
 Shipment. Goods ; act of shipping. 
 
 Short Market. A market that is oversold ; the vol- 
 ume of open contracts to deliver property being in dan- 
 gerous excess of available supply. 
 
 Short Selling. The process of selling property for 
 future delivery in the expectation of being able to 
 obtain the property cheaper before the maturity of con- 
 tract, or of being able to close out the contract at a 
 profit without the actual delivery of the property. 
 
 Simony. The corrupt presentation of anyone to an 
 ecclesiastical benefice, for money, gift, or reward. 
 
 Simple Contract. An agreement entered into ver- 
 bally or by writing not under seal. 
 
 Sight. ' The time of presenting a bill to the drawee. 
 
 Signature. The peculiar style in which a person 
 signs his name. 
 
 Sinking Fund. A fund created by a government or 
 corporation for the extinction of its indebtedness, by 
 the gradual purchase of its outstanding obligations, 
 and the application of the interest saved on these 
 obligations thus redeemed to further purchases. 
 
 Silent Partner. One who invests his capital in a 
 business house, but whose name does not appear in the 
 firm. His liability is limited to the extent of his con 
 tribution, except in cases where he fails to make th 
 proper publication of his connection with the concern. 
 
 Silver Certificates. Those issued against standard 
 silver dollars deposited in the treasury, in denomina- 
 tions of si, S'_>, sr>. and slit, and higher denominations. 
 Not legal tender but receivable for public dues. 
 
 Slander. The malicious defamation of a rian by 
 word of mouth, analogous to libel, which is slander by 
 writing. 
 
 Solicitor. One who solicits ; a lawyer or advocate in 
 a court of chancery. 
 
 Solvency. Ability to pay all debts. 
 
 Special Pleading'. When the pleadings in an action 
 are not in the ordinary form,but are of a more complex 
 character, they are termed special pleadings. 
 
 Specific Performance. A remedy in equity, to com- 
 pel the performance of a contract according to its 
 terms, instead of proceeding at law to recover damages 
 merely. 
 
 Specialty. A writing sealed and delivered, contain- 
 ing some agreement.
 
 , INDUSTRY, TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Speculation. Buying commodities not needed for 
 use, or selling; commodities not owned, with the hope of 
 making profits by fluctuations in the values of these 
 commodities. A speculator buys wheat because he 
 hopes to sell it at a better price, but not because he needs 
 it for use. He sells sugar stock because he believes he 
 can buy it at a cheaper price later, and make the differ- 
 ence. 
 
 Statutes. The written laws of the kingdom are of 
 two kinds, public or private; the former applies to all 
 statutes which affect the public generally, and of which 
 the judges take cognizance without being specially 
 pleaded. The latter relates to the private rights of in- 
 dividual bodies, as, for instance, the various acts for the 
 management of railway and other companies are private 
 acts. 
 
 Stoppage in Transitii. Goods sold on credit to a 
 person, since becoming insolvent or bankrupt, may be 
 seized by the vendor at any time before their actual and 
 complete delivery to the vendee. This seizure is called 
 stoppage in transitu ; it is often a nice and difficult 
 question to determine when the transit has ended and 
 tne purchaser's possession begun. 
 
 Stipend. Settled pay for services; daily, monthly, or 
 annual salary. 
 
 Stipulation. An agreement or contract. 
 
 Stocks. Shares in joint stock companies, and notes 
 on the government. 
 
 Stock Broker or Jobber. One who speculates in 
 stocks. 
 
 Statute of Limitations. An assigned period within 
 which legal action must be commenced to enforce pay- 
 ment. 
 
 Statement. Usually a list of property, or resources 
 and liabilities. 
 
 Statistics. A collection of facts respecting any par- 
 ticular thing. 
 
 Sterling Exchange. A bill of exchange drawn on 
 London. This is the most general current exchange, 
 and is good for the payment of debts anywhere. Our 
 shippers of cotton, grain, flour, and merchandise re- 
 ceive bills of lading with draft attached, which they sell 
 to foreign exchange houses here, who issue their bank- 
 ers' bills against these commercial bills. 
 
 Stock. Certificates issued by a corporation certifying 
 that the person in whose name they are written 'and 
 stand registered on the corporation books is entitled to 
 share in the company's profits, to vote, etc. 
 
 Stock, Assessable. That is liable to assessment. 
 
 Stock, Cumulative. One on which a corporation 
 agrees to pay past due dividends before declaring a 
 dividend on stocks coming after it in the distribution 
 of net earnings. 
 
 Stock Exchange. An incorporated body of brokers, 
 who buy and sell stocks, bonds, and other values. 
 
 Stock, Non- Assessable. Stock carrying with it no 
 liabilities. 
 
 Subornation of Perjury. The offense of procuring 
 another to take a false oath. 
 
 Subprena. A writ used for the purpose of compel- 
 ling witnesses to attend and give evidence. 
 
 Sufferance. A tenant at, is a person who acquired 
 the possession of lands by right, and holds over after his 
 right is determined. 
 
 Suit. Proceedings in equity are usually termed suits, 
 as distinguished from the proceedings at common law, 
 which are termed actions. 
 
 Summons, "Writ of. The process used for the com- 
 mencement of all action in the courts of law. 
 
 Supersedeas. A command to stay some ordinary pro- 
 ceedings at law, on good cause shown. 
 
 Sue. To prosecute in law. 
 
 Surety. Security against loss; a person bound for 
 the faithful performance of a contract by another. 
 
 Suspend. To stop payment temporarily. 
 
 Syndicate. A number of capitalists who unite to dis- 
 pose of a loan, or to conduct a great financial enterprise. 
 
 Tacit. That which is understood ; implied. 
 
 Tare. An allowance for weight of box, case, bag, 
 cask, etc., containing merchandise. 
 
 Tariff. A list of prices; duties on imports and ex- 
 ports. 
 
 Tax. A rate or sum of money imposed on persons or 
 property for public use. 
 
 Tenancy. The holding of property under tenure. 
 
 Tenant. One who holds lands of another as a tenant 
 for life, for years, in tail, etc. ; it is a word extensively 
 used in legal phraseology. 
 
 Tender. A legal tender is an unconditional offer to 
 
 pay a debt, which, if refused, may be afterwards pleaded 
 in bar to an action. 
 
 Tenement. Property held by a tenant ; It comprises 
 lands, houses, and every species of real property which 
 may be holden. 
 
 Tenure. The system of holding lands in subordina- 
 tion to some superiors. 
 
 Testamentary Guardian. A person appointed bv a 
 father in his will to be the guardian of his child. 
 
 Testator or Testatrix. The maker of a will. 
 
 Teste. The clause at the bottom of a writ beginning 
 with the word " witness," is so called. 
 
 Tenants in Common. Persons holding lands and 
 tenements by several and distinct titles, and not by a 
 joint title. 
 
 Title. The evidence of the right which a person has 
 to the possession of property. 
 
 Time Draft. A draft maturing at a future specified 
 time. 
 
 Tonnage. "Weight of a ship's load ; capacity of a ves- 
 sel. Also a duty on ships estimated per ton. 
 
 Traverse. A plea which denies the truth of some 
 part of the plaintiff's declaration in an action. 
 
 Treasure Trove. Any money, etc., found hidden 
 under the earth the owner thereof being unknown. 
 
 Trespass. Any wrong or damage which is done by 
 one man to another, whether it relates to his person or 
 property, but it usually signifies a wrongful entry on 
 another's premises. 
 
 Trial. The formal method of examining and adju- 
 dicating upon a question of fact in a court of law. 
 
 Trover. The form of action used to trv a disputed 
 question of property in goods or chattels, in which the 
 plaintiff can only recover their estimated value, and not 
 the goods or chattels themselves. 
 
 True Bill. The words indorsed upon an indictment 
 by a grand jury, when satisfied that the charge against 
 the offender is made out. 
 
 Trust. A trust exists where a party, called the 
 cestui que trust, has a right in equity to the beneficial 
 enjoyment of property, the legal ownership of which is 
 vested in another, who is hence called a trustee. 
 
 Transact. To perform any act of business; to man- 
 age. 
 
 Transfer. To convey; to sell or alienate title. 
 
 Treasury. A place where public money is kept. 
 
 Trustee. One to whom some special trust is as- 
 signed. 
 
 Trade. A company of persons engaged in the same 
 occupation ; business of buying and selling. 
 
 Trade Discount. A deduction of a certain rate per 
 cent, from the face of a bill made by wholesale houses 
 and others in trade. 
 
 Trade-Mark. A distinguishiag mark used by a 
 manufacturer on his goods or labels. 
 
 Trunk Lines. Through lines of railroad from the 
 Atlantic seaboard to Chicago or more western points. 
 
 Trust. A combination of manufacturers or dealers 
 for the purpose of limiting production and advancing 
 prices for their own benefit. 
 
 Umpire. A third person chosen to decide a matter 
 in dispute left to arbitration, in case the arbitrators 
 should not agree. 
 
 Under-I^ease. A" lease granted by one who is him- 
 self only a lessee of the premises under-let. 
 
 Under-Lessee. The person to whom an under-leas 
 is granted. 
 
 Unliquidated Damages. Damages not fixed or as- 
 certained, and which require therefore to be estimated 
 by a jury. 
 
 Uncurrent. Not passing in common payment, as 
 pounds, shillings, and pence in the United States. 
 
 Underwriter. An insurer; so called because he un- 
 derwrites his name to the conditions of the policy. 
 
 Use. A right to the beneficial enjoyment of land 
 nominally vested in another. 
 
 Usury. The extortion of unlawful gain ; the taking 
 more for the use of money than is allowed by law ; but 
 the usury laws in this country are now abolished, any 
 rate of interest therefore may now be lawfully taken . 
 
 Usage of Trade. Custom, or the frequent repeti- 
 tion of the same act in business transactions. 
 
 Usance. A fixed time on bills of exchange ; business 
 habit generally acted upon from force of custom. 
 
 Value Received. The words usually, but unneces- 
 sarily, appearing in bills of exchange and promissory 
 notes. 
 
 Valid. Of binding force; strong; effectual.
 
 494 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Value. The rate of worth or amount or price of a 
 commodity. 
 
 Venditioni Exponas. A writ directed to the sheriff, 
 commanding him to sell goods which he lias taken pos- 
 session of under a writ of fieri facias, and which re- 
 main in his hands unsold. 
 
 Vendor and Vendee. A vendor is the person who 
 sells, and a vendee the person who buys, anything. 
 
 Venue. The county at which an action at law is in- . 
 tended to ke tried. 
 
 Verdict. A verdict is the unanimous judgment or 
 opinion of the jury on the issue of fact submitted to 
 them. 
 
 Vend. To sell ; to transfer for a pecuniary consider- 
 ation. 
 
 Versus. Against. 
 
 Viva Voce. By word of mouth. 
 
 Voluntary Conveyance, or Settlement. A con- 
 veyance or settlement without any valuable considera- 
 tion. 
 
 Voucher. A receipt or discharge. 
 
 Void. Having no binding force or effect. 
 
 Voidable. That which has some force or effect, but 
 which, in consequence of some inherent quality, may 
 be annulled or avoided. 
 
 Waifs. Stolen goods which the thief has thrown 
 away or left behind him. 
 
 Ward. An infant under the guidance and protec- 
 tion of a guardian. 
 
 Warrant. An authority or precept from a justice, 
 commanding the apprehension of an offender, or a 
 search to be made for stolen goods. 
 
 Warrant of Attorney. An authority given by any- 
 one to an attorney at law, to appear and plead for him ; 
 
 or to suffer judgment to pass against hirr., cy confessing 
 the action. 
 
 Warranty. As applied to goods and chattels, may be 
 either expressed or implied ; the implied warranty only 
 extends to the title of the vendor. If that proves defi- 
 cient, the purchaser may demand satisfaction from the 
 seller. 
 
 Watercourse, Right of. A right to an uninterrupted 
 flow of water. 
 
 Way, Right of. The right of going over another 
 man's ground. 
 
 Wages. Compensation for services. 
 
 Waiver. The relinquishment or refusal to accept of 
 a right. 
 
 Wares. Goods; merchandise; commodities. 
 
 Wash Trades. Pretended trading. Trades madf 
 on an open market by parties between whom there is a 
 tacit or private understanding that they shall be void. 
 Done with a view to influence prices and considered a 
 reprehensible practice. 
 
 Watered Stock. An increase in capitalization with- 
 out a corresponding increase in assets. 
 
 Wharfinger. The owner or keeper of a wharf. 
 
 Will. A will is the legal written declaration of a 
 man's intentions of what he wills to be performed after 
 his death with reference to the disposition of his prop- 
 erty. It must be in writing, signed by the testator, and 
 attested by two witnesses, who must not only be present 
 and see the testator sign, but must themselves subscribe 
 the will as witnesses in the presence of the testator and 
 of each other. Without these formalities the will is in- 
 valid. A codicil is a kind of addendum or supplement 
 to a will. Its execution and attestation must be at- 
 tended with the same formalities as the will itself.
 
 Book VII. 
 Religion, Education, Pine Arts.
 
 Religion, Education, Fine Arts. 
 
 European Cathedrals. Among the 
 most noted and magnificent cathedrals in Eu- 
 rope are St. Peter's, in Rome ; the cathedral of 
 Cologne, and that of Milan ; St. Mark's, in 
 Venice ; Westminster and Salisbury, in Eng- 
 land ; Rouen and Notre Dame, in France ; 
 Seville and Strasburg, in Spain and Germany, 
 respectively. St. Paul's, in London, though 
 architecturally much inferior to the others, is 
 yet so noted as to deserve a brief description. 
 It is built in the form of a cross, 514 feet long 
 and 287 feet -wide. The cost of the whole 
 building, which is of Portland stone, was nearly 
 $4,000,000, being the proceeds of a tax on the 
 coal brought into the port of London during 
 its erection. The edifice was built under the 
 direction of Sir Christopher Wren, was thirty- 
 five years in course of erection, and was com- 
 menced and finished under the same bishop, 
 the same architect, and the same mason. The 
 great bell of this cathedral is only tolled on the 
 occasion of a death in the royal family. St. 
 Peter's, at Rome, was commenced about the 
 year 1503 by Julius II. under the direction of 
 Bramante, but the present form of the basilica 
 is due almost entirely to Michael Angelo. The 
 interior is 613 feet in length, the height of the 
 nave 152 1-2 feet ; the length of the transepts 
 is 446 1-2 feet ; the interior diameter of the 
 dome is 139 feet, the exterior 195 1-2 feet. The 
 colonnades around the piazza inclose a space 
 787 feet in diameter, and are connected with 
 the facade by two galleries 296 feet in length. 
 The facade is 379 feet long, and 148 1-2 feet 
 high, and contains five doors, which admit to 
 the grand entrance, which occupies the whole 
 width of the church, 468 feet long, 66 feet 
 high, and 50 feet wide. The height from the 
 pavement to the top of the cross is 476 feet. 
 The Cologne cathedral is one of the noblest 
 specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. 
 It is said to have had its origin in an erection 
 by Archbishop Hildebold, during the reign 
 of Charlemagne, in 814. Frederic the Red- 
 bearded bestowed upon it, in 1162, the bones 
 of the three holy kings, which he took from 
 Milan, and this gift contributed greatly to the 
 increase of its importance. The bones are 
 retained as precious relics to this day, but the 
 old structure was burned in 1248. According 
 to some accounts the present cathedral was 
 begun in the same year, but others fix the date 
 of its commencement in 1270-'75. To whom 
 the design of this noble building is to be as- 
 cribed is uncertain. The work was carried 
 on, sometimes more actively, sometimes more 
 
 slowly, till the era of the Reformation, when it 
 was suspended ; and during the subsequent 
 centuries not only was nothing done to advance 
 it, but what had been already executed, was 
 not kept in repair. In the beginning of the 
 present century, however, attention was di- 
 rected to its unrivaled beauties, and the neces- 
 sary funds to repair and complete it according 
 to the original designs were raised. The body 
 of the church measures 500 feet in length, and 
 230 feet in breadth ; the towers are above 500 
 feet high. Since 1823 $4,500,000 have been 
 expended on the building ; the total cost of the 
 whole is estimated at $10,000,000. The cathe- 
 dral at Milan is also of Gothic architecture, 
 but the facade is marred by classic doors and 
 windows, and the altars within are in the same 
 style. The edifice is nearly 500 feet long, and 
 250 feet wide through the transepts, and the 
 height of the nave is about 150 feet. The cen- 
 tral spire is more than 350 feet high. The 
 throng of statues (some 4,500 in all) and the 
 many pinnacles are marked features of the ex- 
 terior. 
 
 The celebrated church of St. Sophia, at 
 Constantinople, was originally built by the 
 Emperor Constantine in 325-326, and is so 
 called as being dedicated, not, as commonly 
 supposed, to a saint of that name, but to 
 Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) ; that is, to the 
 Eternal Wisdom of God, or the Logos, the 
 second person of the Trinity. The church 
 was twice destroyed and rebuilt, the present 
 edifice having been built by the Emperor 
 Justinian about 532. It may be described as 
 a square of 241 feet, forming interiorly a 
 Greek cross, and surrounded in the interior by 
 a woman's choir or gallery, supported by 
 magnificent pillars, for the most part borrowed 
 from ancient buildings. In the center rises a 
 dome, which is supported by two great semi- 
 domes, the whole presenting a series of unex- 
 ampled beauty. The height of the dome is 
 175 feet. The building is approached by a 
 double porch, which is about 100 feet in depth. 
 The whole of the interior was richly decorated 
 with sculptured marble and mosaics. The 
 building occupied seven years in its erection, 
 and the history of the work and of the details 
 of its material and construction is full of 
 marvels. Ten thousand workmen are said to 
 have been employed upon it. The materials 
 were supplied from every part of the empire, 
 and comprised remains of almost every cele- 
 brated temple of the ancient paganism. The 
 sedilia of the priests and those of the patri-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 49? 
 
 arch s were of silver gilt. The dome of the 
 tabernacle was of pure gold, and was sur- 
 mounted by a gold cross weighing 75 pounds 
 and incrusted with precious stones. All the 
 sacred vessels and other apparatus were of 
 gold. The altar cloths were embroidered with 
 gold and pearls ; and the altar itself was com- 
 posed of a mass of molten gold, into which 
 were thrown pearls, sapphires, diamonds, 
 onyxes, and every other object which could 
 raise its costliness to the highest imaginable 
 degree. The total cost of the structure is 
 stated by the ancient authorities at 320,000 
 poiinds. Some regard this as pounds-weight 
 of silver, others as of gold. If the latter, 
 which is most generally adopted, the cost 
 reaches the enormous sum of $65, 000, 000. 
 On the capture of Constantinople by the Turks 
 in 1453 St. Sophia was appropriated as a 
 mosque, and has since been put to that use. 
 
 Easter. The festival of the Resurrection 
 of Christ probably derives its Teutonic name 
 from the festival of the goddess Ostara in 
 Anglo-Saxon, Eastre which the Saxonsof old 
 were wont to celebrate about the same season 
 at which the Christian festival of Easter occurs. 
 In the second century a dispute arose as to the 
 proper time for celebrating Easter between the 
 Eastern and Western Churches. The great 
 mass of Eastern Christians celebrated Easter 
 on the 14th day of the first month or moon, 
 considering it to be equivalent to the Jewish 
 Passover, when Christ was crucified. The 
 Western Christians celebrated it on the Sun- 
 day after the 14th, holding that it was the 
 commemoration of the Resurrection of Jesus. 
 The Council of Nice, A. D. 325, decided in 
 favor of the Western usage. At the time of 
 the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar it 
 was debated whether Easter should continue a 
 movable feast or whether a fixed Sunday after 
 the 21st of March should not be adopted. In 
 deference to the ancient custom, the eccle- 
 siastical authorities decided to adhere to the 
 method of determining the day by the moon. 
 It must be understood, however, that it is not 
 the actual moon in the heavens, nor even the 
 mean moon of the astronomers, that regulates 
 the time of Easter, but an altogether imaginary 
 moon, whose periods are so contrived that the 
 new (calendar) moon always follows the real 
 new moon sometimes by two, or even three 
 days. The effect of this is that the 14th of 
 the calendar moon which had from the time 
 of Moses been considered full moon for eccle- 
 siastical purposes falls generally on the loth 
 or 16th of the real moon, and thus after the 
 real full moon, which is generally on the 14th 
 or 15th day. With this explanation, then, of 
 what is meant by " full moon " viz., that it is 
 
 ! the 14th day of the calendar moon, the rule 
 j is that Easter day is always the first Sunday 
 after the Paschal full moon, i.e., the full moon 
 which happens upon or next after the 21st jof 
 March ; and if the full moon happens on a 
 Sunday, Easter day is the Sunday after. 
 
 Apostles, Deaths of. It is generally 
 believed that only one of Christ's Apostles, 
 ! John, escaped martyrdom. Matthew is sup- 
 | posed to have been slain with a sword in 
 | Ethiopia. James, son of Zebedee, was be- 
 headed at Jerusalem. James, the brother of 
 i our Lord, was thrown from a pinnacle of the 
 I Temple and then beaten to death with a ful- 
 ler's club. Philip was hanged up against a 
 pillar at Hieropolis, a city of Phrygia. Bar- 
 tholomew was flayed alive at Albanapolis, in 
 Armenia. Andrew suffered martyrdom on a 
 cross at Patrse, in Achaia. Thomas was run 
 through/the body with a lance at Coromandel, 
 in the East Indies. Thaddeus was shot to 
 death with arrows. Simon Zelotes was cruci- 
 i fied in Persia. Peter was crucified, head down- 
 I ward it is said, during the Neronian perse- 
 cution. Matthias was first stoned and then 
 beheaded, and Paul was beheaded at Rome by 
 the tyrant Nero. Judas Iscariot, after the 
 betrayal of our Lord, hung himself. 
 
 Bible, English Translations of. 
 Between the eighth and tenth centuries por- 
 tions of the Bible were translated into Anglo- 
 Saxon by Aldhelin, Egbert. Bede, and others. 
 In 1290 an English version of the Psalms was 
 made. Wycliffe'a version of the New Testa- 
 ment was finished in 1380, and a little later he 
 completed the Old. The seven penitential 
 Psalms were apparently printed in 1505. Be- 
 fore 1526 William Tyndale had completed an 
 English translation of the New Testament. 
 In the beginning of that year they were secretly 
 conveyed to England from the Continent, 
 where the translation had been made, where 
 they were bought up and burned. The ex- 
 cellence of his translation is evidenced by the 
 j fact that in our present version a very large 
 portion of the New Testament is taken verba- 
 j tim from Tyndale 's translation. In 1535 the 
 first English version of the whole Bible was 
 published by Miles Coverdale, a friend of Tyn- 
 dale's, and was dedicated to Henry VIII. Be- 
 I tween that year and 1557 several versions of 
 ! the Bible were printed, but they were in the 
 greater part revisions of Tyndale 's previous 
 work. The Geneva Bible, or, as best known, 
 I the Breeches Bible, appeared in 1557. It was 
 translated by several English divines who had 
 fled to Geneva to escape from the persecutions 
 of Bloody Mary, and received the name of 
 Breeches Bible on account of the rendering 
 j of Genesis iii, 7 : " Then the eyes of both of
 
 498 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 them were opened, and they knew that they 
 were naked, and they sewed fig-tree leaves to- 
 gether and made themselves breeches." The 
 Bishops' Bible was published in London in 
 1568. The text of this was compared with 
 the original by eight bishops and seven other 
 scholars of reputation, who appended their 
 initials to their respective tasks. In 1582 ap- 
 peared, at Rheims, in France, an English ver- 
 sion of the New Testament, prepared by sev- 
 eral Roman Catholic exiles, and in 1609-'10 a 
 similar version of the Old Testament at Douay. 
 They form the standard English Scriptures of 
 the Roman Catholics, being generally known 
 as the Douay Bible. In July, 1604, King 
 James appointed fifty-four scholars to prepare 
 a new version of the Bible. Only forty-seven 
 accepted the appointment, and the result of 
 their labors was the publication in 1610 of the 
 version known as " King James's Bible,'" which 
 has been in common use from that time to 
 this, slightly modified by the revision prepared 
 by the most learned English and American 
 scholars a few years ago. 
 
 Benefit of Clergy. Until the reign of 
 Henry VI. all members of the clerical order 
 were almost totally exempted from the juris- 
 diction and authority of the secular magistrate 
 in respect of crimes and offenses. This was 
 called " Benefit of the Clergy. " If a priest or 
 "clerk" happened to be imprisoned by the 
 secular arm on a criminal charge, he was, on 
 the demand of the bishop, instantly delivered 
 up without any further inquisition not to be 
 let loose upon the community, it is true, but to 
 be detained by the ordinary till he had either 
 purged himself from the offense, or, having 
 failed to do so, had been degraded. In the 
 reign mentioned this was so far altered that 
 the prisoner had first to be arraigned, but 
 could arrest judgment by plea, declining the 
 jurisdiction either before or after conviction. 
 At first the test of admission to this singular 
 privilege was the clerical dress and tonsure ; 
 but in course of time all who could read a 
 mark of great learning in those days whether 
 of the clergy or laity, were allowed the privi- 
 lege. A layman, however, could only claim it 
 once, and upon doing so was burned on the 
 hand and discharged. He was then tried by 
 the bishop, and usually acquitted, even though 
 he had been previously convicted either by his 
 country or his own confession. By this ac- 
 quittal the offender was restored to his liberty, 
 his credit, and his property in short, in the 
 eye of the law he became a new and innocent 
 person. The test of reading was applied as 
 follows : On conviction, the felon demanded 
 his clergy, whereupon a book (commonly a 
 Psalter) was put into his hand, which he was 
 
 required to read, when the judge demanded of 
 the bishop's commissary, Legit ut clericus ? If 
 the answer was simply legit, the prisoner was 
 burned on the hand and discharged ; but if it 
 was non legit, he suffered the punishment due 
 to his offense. During the reign of Queen 
 Anne the benefit of clergy was extended to 
 all persons convicted of clergyable offenses, 
 whether they could read or not, but it was dis- 
 cretionary with the judge whether a fine or 
 imprisonment was inflicted. The benefit of 
 clergy was totally abolished during the reign 
 of George IV. 
 
 Catacombs. Those in Paris were origi- 
 nally quarries which had existed under the 
 city from the earliest time. In 1774 the 
 Council of State issued a decree for clearing 
 the Cemetery of the Innocents, and for remov- 
 ing its contents, as well as those of other grave- 
 yards, into these quarries. These quarries 
 or catacombs, as they were called were con- 
 secrated with great solemnity on April 7, 1786, 
 and the work of removal from the cemeteries 
 was immediately begun. The bones were 
 brought at night in funeral cars, covered with 
 a pall, and followed by priests chanting the 
 service of the dead. At first the bones were 
 heaped up without any kind of order except 
 that those from each cemetery were kept sepa- 
 rate ; but in 1810, a regular system of arrang- 
 ing them was commenced, and the skulls and 
 bones were built up along the wall. From the 
 main entrance to the catacombs, which is near 
 the Barriers d'Enfer, a flight of ninety steps 
 descends, at whose foot galleries are seen 
 branching in various directions. Some yards 
 distant is a vestibule of octagonal form, which 
 opens into a long gallery lined with bones from 
 floor to roof. The arm, leg, and thigh bones 
 are in front, closely and regularly piled, arid 
 their uniformity is relieved by three rows of 
 skulls at equal distances. This gallery con- 
 ducts to several rooms resembling chapels, 
 lined with bones, variously arranged. One is 
 called the " Tomb of the Revolution," an- 
 other the "Tomb of Victims" the latter 
 containing the relics of those who perished in 
 the early period of the Revolution and in the 
 " massacre of September." It is estimated 
 that the remains of fully 3,000,000 human 
 beings lie in this receptacle. Owing to the 
 unsafe condition of the roof, admission to the 
 catacombs has been forbidden for years. Of 
 the other catacombs in existence, the most 
 celebrated are those on the Via Appia, at a 
 short distance from Rome, where, it is believed, 
 the early Christians were in the habit of retir- 
 ing in order to celebrate their new worship in 
 times of persecution. These catacombs con- 
 sist of long, narrow galleries, usually about
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FIXE ARTS. 
 
 499 
 
 eight feet high and five feet wide, which twist 
 and turn in all directions, very much resem- 
 bling mines, and at irregular intervals into 
 wide and lofty vaulted chambers. The graves, 
 where are buried many of the saints and mar- 
 tyrs of the primitive church, were constructed 
 by hollowing out a portion of the rock at the 
 side of the gallery large enough to contain 
 the body. The catacombs at Naples, cut into 
 the Capo di Monte, resemble those at Rome, 
 and evidently were used for the same purpose, 
 being in many parts literally covered with 
 Christian symbols. In one cf the large vaulted 
 chambers there are paintings which have re- 
 tained a freshness which is wonderful. Simi- 
 lar catacombs have been found at Palermo and 
 Syracuse, and in Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, 
 Persia, Egypt, and in Peru and other parts of 
 South America. 
 
 Apocrypha, The. In the earliest churches 
 the word Apocrypha was applied with very 
 different significations to a variety of writ- 
 ings ; sometimes it was given those whose 
 authorship and original form were unknown ; 
 sometimes to writings containing a hidden 
 meaning ; sometimes to those whose public 
 use was not thought advisable. In this last 
 signification it has been customary, since the 
 time of Jerome, to apply the term to a number 
 of writings which the Septuagint had circulated 
 among the Christians, and which were some- 
 times considered as an appendage to the Old 
 Testament, and sometimes as a portion of it. 
 At the Council of Laodicea, 360 A. D., the 
 Greek Church rejected all books except those 
 in the present Protestant canon. In -474 Pope 
 Gelasins convened a council of seventy bishops, 
 which confirmed the opinion of Pope Innocent 
 I., recognizing the Apocryphal books as sacred, 
 and rejecting some of the doubtful books of 
 the New Testament. The Council of Trent, 
 1545-'63, finally settled the question for the 
 Roman Catholic Church, accepting the Apocry- 
 pha as a part of the sacred canon. The Prot- 
 testant churches reject their use in public 
 w r orship. It was customary at onetime to bind 
 up the Apocrypha between the authorized 
 versions of the Old and New Testaments, 
 though this has now ceased, and, as a conse- 
 quence, this curious, interesting, and instruct- 
 ive part of Jewish literature is now known only 
 to scholars. 
 
 Inquisition, The, was a tribunal in the 
 Roman Catholic Church for the discovery, re- 
 pression, and punishment of heresy, unbelief, 
 and other offenses against religion. From the 
 very first establishment of Christianity as the 
 religion of the Roman empire, laws more or 
 less severe existed, as in most of the ancient 
 religions, for the repression and punishment of 
 
 dissent from the national creed, and the Em- 
 perors Theodosius and Justinian appointed of- 
 ficials called "inquisitors," whose special duty 
 it was to discover and to prosecute before the 
 civil tribunals offenders of this class. For 
 several centuries cases of heresy were tried be- 
 fore the ordinary courts, but in course of time 
 the examination of those accused of this crime 
 was handed over to the bishops. Special ma- 
 chinery for the trial and punishment of here- 
 tics was first devised in the eleventh and twelfth 
 centuries against the various sects who had 
 separated from the Church, and who became 
 known under the general term of Albigenses. 
 Heresy was then regarded as a crime against 
 the state as well as the Church, and the civil, 
 no less than the ecclesiastical, authorities were 
 arrayed against those sects. The murder of a 
 papal legate in, 1 205 gave a pretext for declar- 
 ing against the Albigenses a war in which thou- 
 sands perished, and in 1299 the Council of 
 Toulouse decreed the ' Inquisition " for their 
 extermination. The searching out of here- 
 tics was first given to the bishops of the 
 Church, but the 'Pope (Gregory IX.), fearing 
 that these would not be active enough, trans- 
 ferred their work to the Dominican friars. A 
 guild was also formed called the " Militia of 
 Jesus Christ," whose object was to aid in- 
 quisitors in their work. The Church found 
 the heretics, examined, and sentenced them, 
 and then called in the civil authority to put 
 its sentence into execution. The inquisitorial 
 courts at first only held occasional sessions, but 
 after 1248 they sat permanently. A person, if 
 suspected of heresy or denounced as guilty, 
 was liable to be arrested and detained in 
 prison, only to be brought to trial when it might 
 seem fit to his judges. The proceedings were 
 conducted secretly. He was not confronted 
 with his accusers, nor were their names, even, 
 made known to him. The evidence of an ac- 
 complice was admissible, and the accused him- 
 self was liable to be put to torture, in order to 
 extort a confession of guilt. The punish- 
 ments to which, if found guilty, he was liable, 
 were death by fire, as exemplified in the ter- 
 rible auto-da-fe", or on the scaffold, imprison- 
 ment in the galleys for life or for a limited 
 period, forfeiture of property, civil infamy, 
 and in minor cases retraction and public pen- 
 ance. 
 
 Inquisition, Spanish. The Inquisition 
 was introduced in Spain in 1232, by Pope 
 Gregory's appointment of the Dominicans of 
 Aragon as inquisitors, and it ultimately came 
 to be viewed by the people with most ab- 
 ject terror. At first it passed no sentence 
 more severe than the confiscation of property, 
 but toward the close of the fifteenth century,
 
 500 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the zeal of Mendoza, the archbishop of Seville, 
 gave a new impulse to the institution. At that 
 time there was a real or pretended alarm lest 
 the Jews and Moors in Spain should unite 
 against the Christians. Bishop Mendoza pro- 
 posed to King Ferdinand, in 1477, that an 
 inquisition should be established in Castile, 
 with the primary object of searching out the 
 Jews who had relapsed into Judaism after 
 having professed Christianity, or who simply 
 feigned conversion. The Inquisitorial Court 
 of Seville was established in September. 1480, 
 in the person of two Dominican friars. Tor- 
 quemada, another Dominican, appointed in 
 1483, was Grand Inquisitor for fifteen years. 
 Under him three new tribunals of the Holy 
 Office were erected at Cordova, Jaen, and Villa 
 Real ; afterwards a fifth was added to Toledo. 
 These Tribunals were always popular with the 
 lower orders and the clergy in Spain, but ter- 
 rible in the eyes of the nobles and the rich 
 middle class, who believed that they were 
 often used by the Government as engines of 
 political repression in order to diminish their 
 influence. Ranke calls the Spanish Inquisi- 
 tion " a royal tribunal furnished with spiritual 
 weapons." In 1492 an edict was issued for 
 the banishment of all Jews refusing to em- 
 brace Christianity from Spain, chiefly on 
 account of their alleged incorrigible obstinacy 
 in persisting in the attempt to convert Chris- 
 tians to their own faith and instruct them in 
 their rites. About a hundred thousand accord- 
 ingly went into banishment. 
 
 The history of the Spanish Inquisition was 
 written by Llorente, who was secretary to the 
 tribunal of Madrid from 1790 to 1792. Al- 
 though he is supposed to have possessed great 
 opportunities for obtaining exact information, 
 his estimate of the persons condemned to death 
 is now considered very much exaggerated. 
 The figures of Llorehte include not only those 
 condemned for heresy, but besides persons 
 charged with many other crimes, such as 
 polygamy, seduction, unnatural crime, smug- 
 gling, witchcraft, sorcery, imposture, etc., 
 civil offenses within the jurisdiction of the 
 Inquisition and punishable with death. 
 
 The celebrated Autos-da-Fe (Acts of the con- 
 fession of the faith"), says Mohler, " were as a 
 rule bloodless. But few inquisitional processes 
 terminated with the death of the accused." 
 The Auto, speaking generally, was a form of 
 reconciling culprits to the Church. Neverthe- 
 less the severities practiced by the tribunals 
 were such that Rome frequently interfered. 
 By the beginning of the seventeenth century, the 
 Inquisition, having largely obliterated heresy 
 in Spain, became more lenient ; its efforts were 
 then principally directed against heretical 
 
 books, and occasionally decreed an execution. 
 The jurisdiction of the Inquisition had been 
 greatly restricted when Joseph Bonaparte 
 abolished it in December, 1808. It was restored 
 by Ferdinand VII. in 1814, but was again 
 abolished by the Constitution of the Cortes in 
 1820. After the second restoration a tribunal 
 was re-established at Valencia in 1826. It 
 was finally abolished, however, in 1834, and 
 in 1835 all its property was confiscated for the 
 public debt. 
 
 Celibacy in the Roman Catholic 
 Church. Previous to the close of the fourth 
 century there was no law nor uniformity of 
 opinion regarding the celibacy of the Romish 
 priests. About this time, however, Pope Siri- 
 cius forbade priests to marry, and those who 
 had married previous to ordination were com- 
 manded to put away their wives. Children 
 born to a clergyman after ordination were de- 
 clared by the Emperor Justinian to be illegiti- 
 mate and incapable of inheritance. This 
 doctrine was opposed by the Eastern Church, 
 and in 692 it was condemned as heretical by 
 the Council of Constantinople, and the mar- 
 riage of priests has, therefore, always been 
 sanctioned by the Orthodox Greek Church. 
 Notwithstanding the action taken by the 
 Romish Church, it was several centuries be- 
 fore celibacy was firmly established, and this 
 was not accomplished until Pope Gregory VII., 
 in the face of violent opposition in all coun- 
 tries, deposed all married priests and excom- 
 municated all laymen who upheld them in the 
 exercise of their spiritual functions. This 
 decree was carried out with the utmost rigor, 
 and brought about the result which the Church 
 had been aiming at for centuries, and which 
 still continues to be the canonical law. 
 
 Indulgences. Originally, indulgences 
 meant a release from the temporal penalties 
 which remained due after the sin itself had 
 been remitted by confession and absolution, 
 and were granted during the first centuries of 
 the Christian churches, not only by the pope, 
 but by all bishops, to infirm persons or to those 
 penitents who showed extraordinary con- 
 trition. An indulgence cannot be granted for 
 unforgiven sin. It is not the remission of sin 
 nor of the eternal punishment due to mortal sin, 
 still less is it a permission to commit sin in the 
 future. Before an indulgence can be gained, sin 
 must have been previously remitted by repent- 
 ance. Thus, instead of being an encouragement 
 to sin , it is a strong motive to repentance. Many 
 indulgences have been abrogated, or declared 
 apocryphal by the Roman Catholic Church. 
 The Council of Trent prohibited the " disrepu- 
 table gains" made at some places at the 
 expense of those who desired to obtain indul-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 501 
 
 gences. The same council prescribes that all 
 indulgences must be granted " gratis." 
 
 Cambridge, University of, is situated 
 at the town of Cambridge, forty-eight miles 
 northeast of London. The first regular society 
 of students was that of Peter-House, founded 
 in 1257. The history of the University, how- 
 ever, may be said to date from the opening of 
 the twelfth century, but until the year men- 
 tioned there were no public halls or hostels, each 
 student living in his own hired lodging. About 
 1257 the students began to live together in 
 hostels, under the rule of a principal. These 
 hostels were named after the saints to whom 
 they were dedicated, the churches which they 
 adjoined, or the persons who formerly built or 
 possessed them. In the year 1280 there were 
 as many as thirty-four, and some of them 
 contained from twenty to forty masters of arts, 
 and a proportionate number of younger stu- 
 dents. These hostels were the beginning of 
 what may be called the college system, which 
 distinguishes the sister universities of Oxford 
 and Cambridge from those of Edinburgh, 
 London, and the Continent. All the royal 
 and religious foundations, with one exception, 
 which now constitute the University were en- 
 dowed between the latter part of the thirteenth 
 and the close of the sixteenth century. The 
 governing body of the university is the senate ; 
 but, before being submitted to it, all university 
 laws must be approved by the council, a body | 
 elected by the resident members of the senate. 
 After the chancellor and high steward, the 
 chief executive power is vested in the vice- 
 chancellor, who is elected annually from the 
 heads of colleges. There are three terms in 
 this university the Michaelmas, or October 
 term ; the Lent term, and the Easter term. 
 To take an ordinary B.A. degree, a student 
 must reside nine terms. The M.A. degree 
 follows, without examination, about four years 
 after. There are four classes of students 
 Fellow Commoners and Xoblemen, Pensioners, 
 Sizars and Subsizars, and the more distin- 
 guished, who are elected Scholars on the foun- 
 dation of this college. The pensioners are the 
 great body of students, are not on the founda- 
 tion, and pay for their own commons, viz., 
 dinners in halls, etc., and for their rooms. 
 The sizars are poorer students, selected, how- 
 ever, by examination, who receive free com- 
 mons and certain money payments, and are 
 admitted at lower charges than the pensioners, 
 but wear the same dress and are no longer sub- 
 ject to the performance of menial offices, as 
 they once were. The scholars are elected, by 
 examination, from the pensioners and sizars. 
 They are on the foundation of the college, from 
 which they receive certain emoluments. The 
 
 fellows are subsequently elected from the schol- 
 ars and the students who have distinguished 
 themselves in the Tripos examinations. The 
 University has forty professors, in addition to 
 readers, demonstrators, and assistants. The 
 tutor of the college is understood to be in loco 
 parentis to his pupils, the dean has the over- 
 sight of " religion and morals," and instruction 
 is given by college lecturers. The great prizes 
 at the University are the Fellowships, of which 
 there are about four hundred. The follow- 
 ing is a list of the colleges and their founders : 
 St. Peter's College or Peter-House, founded by 
 Hugh de Balsham, Bishop of Ely, 1257 ; Clare 
 College, founded under the name of University 
 Hall by Richard Baden in 1326, was burned in 
 1338, and rebuilt and endowed by Elizabeth, 
 Countess of Clare ; Pembroke College, founded 
 by the Countess of Pembroke, 1347 ; Gonville 
 and Caius College, founded by Edward Gon- 
 ville in 1348 ; Trinity Hall, founded by William 
 Bateman, Bishop of Norwich, 1350; Corpus 
 Christi or Benedict College, founded by the 
 guilds of Corpus Christi and the Blessed 
 Virgin, 1351 ; King's College, founded by 
 Henry VI., 1441 ; Queens' College, founded 
 by Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., 1446 ; 
 St. Catherine's College or Hall, founded by 
 Robert Wodelarke, provost of King's College, 
 1473 ; Jesus College, founded by John Alcock, 
 Bishop of Ely, 1496 ; Christ College, founded 
 by the Countess of Richmond, 1505 ; St. John's 
 College, founded by the Countess of Rich- 
 mond, 1511 ; Magdalene College, founded by 
 Thomas, Baron Audley, of Walden, 1519 ; 
 Trinity College, founded by Henry VIII., 
 1546 ; Emmanuel College, founded by Sir 
 Walter Mildmay, 1584; Sidney Sussex College, 
 founded by Lady Frances Sidney, 1598 ; Down- 
 ing College, founded by Sir George Downing, 
 1800. 
 
 Oxford University is one of the two 
 greatest seats of learning in Great Britain. It 
 is situated at Oxford, fifty-two miles from 
 London, and comprises twenty colleges and six 
 halls the latter for the residence of students. 
 The colleges, their founders, and the dates 
 thereof, are as follows : University College, 
 founded by AVilliam of Durham, 1249; Bal- 
 liol, by John Balliol and Devorgilla, his wife, 
 between 1263 and 1268 ; Merton, by Walter 
 de Merton, Bishop of Rochester, at Maiden, 
 in 1264, and removed to Oxford before 1274 ; 
 Exeter, by AValter de Stapleton, Bishop of 
 Exeter, 1314; Oriel, by Edward II., 1326; 
 Queen's, by Robert Eglesfield, chaplain to 
 Philippa, queen of Edward III., 1340; New, 
 by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winches- 
 ter, 1386 ; Lincoln, by Richard Fleming, 
 Lincoln, 1427 ; All Souls', by Henry
 
 502 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1437; 
 .Magdalen, by William of Waynflete, Lord 
 Chancellor, v 1450 ; Brasenose, by William 
 ^rnith, Bishop of Lincoln, 1509; Corpus 
 Christi, by Richard Fox, Bishop of Winches- 
 ter, 151<i'; Christ Church, by Henry VIII., 
 1546- '47 ; Trinity, by Sir Thomas Pope, 1554 ; 
 St. John's, by Sir Thomas White, 1555 ; 
 Jesus, by Queen Elizabeth, 1571 ; AVadham, 
 by Nicholas Wadham, 1613 ; Pembroke, by 
 James I., at the expense of Thomas Tisdale 
 and Richard Wrightwic!', 1620; Worcester, 
 by Sir Thomas Cookes, 1714 ; Keble as a me- 
 morial to the Rev. John Keble, by public sub- 
 scription, in 1870. 
 
 Adam and Eve. To the Scriptural 
 account of the creation and fall of Adam and 
 Eve, the later Jewish writers in the Talmud 
 have made many additions. According to 
 them, the stature of Adam, when first created, 
 reached to the heavens, while the splendor of 
 his countenance surpassed that of the sun. 
 The very angels stood in awe of him, and all 
 creatures hastened to worship him. Then 
 the Lord, in order to show the angels his 
 power, caused a sleep to fall upon Adam, and 
 removed a portion of every limb. He thus 
 lost his vast stature, but remained perfect and 
 complete. His first wife was Lilith, the mother 
 of demons ; but she fled from him, and after- 
 ward Eve was created for him. At the mar- 
 riage of Adam and Eve angels were present, 
 some playing on musical instruments, others 
 serving up delicious A'iands, while the sun, 
 moon, and stars danced together. The happi- 
 ness of the human pair excited envy among 
 Ihe angels, and the seraph Sammael tempted 
 them, arid succeeded in leading them to their 
 fall from innocence. According to the Koran, 
 all the angels paid homage to Adam excepting 
 Eblis, who, on account of his refusal, was ex- 
 pelled from Paradise. To gratify his revenge, 
 Eblis seduced Adam and Eve, and they were 
 separated. Adam was penitent, and lived in 
 a tent on the site of the Temple of Mecca, 
 where he was instructed in the divine com- 
 mandments by the Archangel Gabriel. After 
 two hundred years of separation, he again 
 found Eve on Mount Arafat. 
 
 Celebrated Paintings. It is generally 
 agreed by art critics that Michael Angelo and 
 Raphael stand at the head of the line of mas- 
 ter painters. Conspicuous among the great 
 paintings of the former are "-The Last Judg- 
 ment," " The Conversion of St. Paul," and 
 " The Crucifixion of St. Peter " ; and among 
 those of the latter, " The Dispute Concerning 
 the Sacrament," the " Madonna cli Foligno," 
 and the " Madonna del Pisce, or Virgin of the 
 Fish." " The Last Judgment " isfa large 
 
 fresco-painting, sixty feet high by thirty feet 
 wide, occupying the wall opposite the entrance 
 of the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican Palace at 
 Rome. Over three hundred figures are repre- 
 sented in " the most violent attitudes and most 
 admired disorder." " The Conversion of St. 
 Paul " is another large fresco-painting in the 
 Vatican. " The Crucifixion of Peter," also 
 in the Vatican, is one of the last from the 
 hands of Angelo. " The Dispute Concerning 
 the Sacrament" is a fresco, representing, 
 above, a convocation of the saints around the 
 Almighty, the Saviour, and the Virgin, envel- 
 oped in heavenly glory, while beneath the 
 ceremony of the Consecration of the Sacra- 
 ment is depicted. This is found in the Camera 
 della Segnatura of the Vatican. " The Ma- 
 donna di Foligno," in the Vatican gallery, 
 derives its name from the city of Foligno, 
 which is represented in the background. The 
 "Madonna del Pisce," now in the gallery at 
 Madrid, Spain, represents the Virgin and 
 Child enthroned, with St. Jerome on one side, 
 and on the other an archangel with the young 
 Tobit, who carries a fish, from which circum- 
 stance the name is derived. "The Madonna 
 di San Sisto " is considered by many critics the 
 best of Raphael's works. It is located in the 
 gallery of Dresden, Germany, and represents the 
 Madonna standing -upon the clouds surrounded 
 with glory, holding in her arms the eternal 
 son. Saint Sixtus and Saint Barbara kneel at 
 the sides. It was originally painted on wood, 
 but has been transferred to canvas. The paint- 
 ing of "The Last Supper," by Leonardo da 
 Vinci, is recognized as one of the master- 
 pieces. It was originally painted, by order of 
 the Duke of Milan, on the walls of the refec- 
 tory in the Dominican conventof the Madonna 
 della Grazie. Rubens' paintings of the " De- 
 scent from the Cross " and " Elevation of the 
 Cross," at Antwerp, rank high as master- 
 pieces. The " Adoration of the Trinity," by 
 Albert Durer, at Vienna, and his two pictures 
 containing life-size figures of Peter and John, 
 Mark and Paul, presented to the Council of 
 Nuremberg, Germany, are also very famous. 
 The two pictures of Mary Magdalen are also 
 among the most famous in the world " La 
 Bussendi Magdalina,"by Corregio, now in the 
 Dresden Gallery, and one by Guido Reni. 
 
 Venus, Statues of.- The Roman god- 
 dess of love and beauty, subsequently identi- 
 i fied with the Greek Aphrodite, was a favorite 
 subject of ancient sculptors. The most fa- 
 mous specimen still existing is the Venus de 
 Medici, executed by Cleomenes, the Athenian, 
 about 200 B. C., and generally admitted to be 
 the finest relic of ancient art. It was dug up 
 ! in several pieces, either at the villa of Hadrian,
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FIXE ARTS. 
 
 503 
 
 near Tivoli, or at the Portico of Octavia, in 
 Rome, in the seventeenth century. After re- 
 maining for some time in the Medici Palace 
 in Rome (whence its name) it was carried to 
 Florence by Cosmo III., about 1680, where it 
 is now preserved in the Uffizi Gallery. From 
 the exquisite grace and symmetry of the fig- 
 ure it has become a sort of standard of excel- 
 lence for the female form. The beautiful 
 Venus de Milo is so called because it was found 
 on the Island of Milo, or Melos, in the Grecian 
 Archipelago. It is now in the Louvre, at 
 Paris. Of modern statues, that by Canova is 
 the most famous. 
 
 Buddhism. The religion known as Bud- 
 dhism is one of the oldest existing religions, and 
 traces its origin back to Siddharthaor Buddha, 
 a Hindoo prince. In Hindustan, the land of 
 its birth, it has now little hold, except among 
 the Nepaulese and some other northern tribes, 
 but it bears full sway in Ceylon and over the 
 whole eastern peninsula. It divides the ad- 
 herence of the Chinese with the system of Con- 
 fucius. It prevails also in Japan and north of 
 the Himalayas. It is the religion of Thibet, 
 and of the Mongolian population of Central 
 Asia. Its adherents are estimated at 340,000,- 
 000. According to the Buddhist belief, when 
 \ man dies he is immediately born again, or 
 appears in a new shape ; and that shape may, 
 According to his merit or demerit, be any of 
 the innumerable orders of being composing the 
 Buddhist universe, from a clod to a divinity. 
 If his demerit would not be sufficiently pun- 
 ished by a degraded earthly existence in the 
 form, for instance, of a woman or a slave, of 
 a persecuted or a disgusting animal, of a plant, 
 or even of a piece of inorganic matter he will 
 be born in some one of the one hundred and 
 thirty-six Buddhist hells situated in the interior 
 of the earth. These places of punishment 
 have a regular gradation in the intensity of the 
 suffering and in the length of time the sufferers 
 live, the least term of life being 10,000,000 
 years, the longest term being almost beyond the 
 powers of even Indian notation to express. A 
 meritorious life, on the other hand, secures the 
 next birth either in an exalted and happy posi- 
 tion on earth or as a blessed spirit, or even 
 divinity, in one of the many heavens in which 
 the least duration of life is about 10,000,000,- 
 000 years. But however long the life, whether 
 of misery or bliss, it has an end, and at its 
 close the individual must be born again, and 
 may again be either happy or miserable. The 
 Buddha himself is said to have gone through 
 every conceivable form of existence on the earth , 
 in the air and in the water, in hell and in 
 heaven, and to Lave filled every condition in 
 human life ; and a great part of the Buddhist 
 
 ; legendary literature is taken up in narrating his 
 j exploits when he lived as an elephant, as a bird, 
 as a stag, and so on. A second Buddhist doc- 
 trine is embodied in the " Four Sublime Ver- 
 ities." The first asserts that pain exists ; the 
 second that the cause of pain is desire or at- 
 I tachment ; the third that pain can be ended by 
 \ Nirvana; and the fourth shows the way that 
 leads to Nirvana, from simple faith to complete 
 regeneration. Theoretically this religion has 
 no priests, nor clergy, nor public religious rites. 
 Every man is his own priest and confessor, and 
 the monks are ascetics only for their own ad- 
 vancement in holy living ; but in fact Buddhist 
 countries swarm with priests or religious teach- 
 ers, so reputed. The central object in a 
 Buddhist temple, corresponding to the altar in 
 a Roman Catholic church, is an image of the 
 Buddha, or a dagoba or shrine containing his 
 relics. Here flowers, fruit, and incense are 
 daily offered, and processions are made, with 
 singing of hymns. Of the relics of the Buddha, 
 the most famous are the teeth, that are pre- 
 served with intense veneration in various places. 
 The quantities of flowers used as offerings are 
 prodigious. A royal devotee in Ceylon, in the 
 fifteenth century, offered on one occasion 
 6,480,320 flowers at the shrine of the tooth, 
 and at one temple it was provided that there 
 should be offered " every day 100,000 flowers, 
 and each day a different flower." 
 
 Eden, Garden of. The question of the 
 locality of the Garden of Eden, or of the exact 
 sense in which the Mosaic narrative is to be 
 understood, is involved in inexplicable mys- 
 tery. Josephus and several of the Fathers 
 conceived that Eden was a term denoting the 
 entire region between the Ganges and the Nile. 
 Calvin, Huet, Bochart, and Wells have, with 
 slight differences of detail, concluded in favor 
 of Kornah, in Babylonia, not far from the 
 Persian Gulf ; while Armenia, near the sources 
 of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the region 
 near Damascus, have been selected by other 
 celebrated scholars. The modern German 
 school of Biblical critics, convinced that the 
 Hebrew account is traditional, and, in its 
 present form, of very late composition, and 
 impressed, beside, with the vast antiquity of 
 the far East, have, almost without exception, 
 sought the cradle of the human race in Bactria 
 or Cashmere, or the region lying to the north 
 of it, a part of which is to this day called 
 Audyana, the Garden. The Mohammedans, 
 it may also be mentioned, believe Eden to have 
 been in one of the seven heavens some say 
 the moon and that the expulsion from Para- 
 j dise consisted in Adam being cast down upon 
 the earth after the fall. The endeavor to pos- 
 itively identify the river system of Eden with
 
 504 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 anything known at present is useless. There 
 is no river on the face of the globe of which 
 the Euphrates and Tigris (Hiddekel) are sep- 
 arate "heads," as they are said to be in the 
 second chapter of Genesis ; for, although the 
 Euphrates and Tigris now unite for a short 
 space on their way to the Persian Gulf, yet 
 until the time of Alexander the Great they 
 kept entirely distinct courses, and therefore it 
 has been assumed that the Deluge completely 
 altered the physical character of the region de- 
 noted by the term Eden. This was Luther's 
 notion, to which, however, it has been objected 
 that the narrative in Genesis is so worded as to 
 convey the idea that the countries and rivers 
 spoken of were existing in the time of the his- 
 torian. Besides, the science of geology has 
 thrown so much doubt on the universality of a 
 deluge so late as the period assigned to Noah 
 that it is hazardous to argue on the hypothesis 
 of any extensive physical changes having taken 
 place since the first appearance of man on the 
 planet at least if that be dated only some 
 six thousand years back. Jn all the theories 
 which have been advanced regarding the loca- 
 tion of Eden two things have not been explained 
 by anyone ; these are the statement that the 
 four rivers flow from one river, and the river 
 Pison " compasseth the whole land of Havilah. " 
 Until these are solved the location of the Gar- 
 den of Eden will continue to remain a mystery. 
 
 Diet of Worms was an assembly con- 
 voked by Emperor Charles V., for the purpose 
 of considering state affairs, and principally 
 the course to be pursued toward the Reforma- 
 tion and Martin Luther. It was composed of 
 the princes and other leading representatives 
 of the several states of the German Empire. 
 Luther appeared before this august body, and 
 his defense of himself and his followers 
 against the charge of heresy was dignified and 
 eloquent, and compelled the admiration of the 
 assembly and many of his former foes. He 
 was allowed to leave the city under escort, and 
 at the instigation of his friend, the Elector of 
 Saxony, who feared that he might be assassi- 
 nated if he continued in active life, he was 
 taken to the Castle of Wartburg, where he 
 remained, virtually a prisoner, for about one 
 year. When his adherents had become numer- 
 ous- enough and strong enough for him to 
 advocate his principles without fear of moles- 
 tation, he was restored to liberty. 
 
 Confucianism is termed a religion, but 
 it ought rather to be regarded as a system of 
 social and political life, built upon a slight 
 foundation of philosophy. It contains no 
 trace of a personal God. There are, indeed, 
 a number of allusions to a certain heavenly 
 agency or power Shang-te whose outward 
 
 emblem is Tien, or the visible firmament ; but 
 this Shang-te, in the opinion of the most en- 
 lightened Chinese scholars, is nothing more 
 than a verbal personification of "the ever- 
 present Law and Order and Intelligence which 
 seem to breathe amid the wonderful activities 
 of physical creation, in the measured circuit 
 of the seasons, in the alternation of light and 
 darkness, in the ebb and flow of tides, and in 
 the harmonious and majestic revolutions of 
 the heavenly bodies." Confucius lived about 
 550 B. C. He strove to direct the attention 
 of men to the duties of social and political life, 
 and Confucianism is epitomized in the follow- 
 ing words of the great teacher: "I teach 
 you nothing but what you might learn your- 
 selves, viz., the observance of the three funda- 
 mental laws of relation between sovereign and 
 subject, father and child, husband and wife, 
 and the five capital virtues universal char- 
 ity, impartial justice, conformity to ceremonies 
 and established usages, rectitude of heart and 
 mind, and pure sincerity." Confucianism 
 appeals to " practical " men. It lauds the 
 present world ; rather doubts, than otherwise, 
 the existence of a future one ; and calls upon 
 all to cultivate such virtues as are seemly in 
 citizens industry, modesty, sobriety, gravity, 
 decorum, and thoughtfulness. 
 
 Millennium. The idea of the millen- 
 nium, literally a thousand years' time, origi- 
 nated proximately in the Messianic expectation 
 of the Jews ; but more remotely, it has been 
 conjectured, in the Zoroastrian doctrine of the 
 final triumph of Ormuzd over Ahriman, and 
 was connected by the Christians with the sec- 
 ond coming of Christ. The notion of a golden 
 age, preserved by the converts from heathen- 
 ism to Christianity, as well as the oppression 
 and persecution to which they were long sub- 
 jected by the state authorities, were naturally 
 calculated to develop and strengthen such 
 hopes. The chief basis of the millennium 
 idea in Judaism, as well as in Christianity, 
 however, is the ardent hope for a visible Divine 
 rule upon earth, and the identification of the 
 Church with that of which it is merely a sym- 
 bol. In the Mosaic account of creation we 
 find the primitive ground for making the vic- 
 torious era of the Church last a thousand 
 years. By a strictly literal interpretation of 
 the 4th verse of the 90th Psalm it was sup- 
 posed that a day of God was arithmetically 
 equal to a thousand years ; hence the six days 
 of creation were understood to indicate that 
 the earth would pass through 6,000 years ol 
 labor and suffering, to be followed by a sev- 
 enth day that is, 1,000 years of rest and 
 happiness. In the book of Revelation this 
 view is presented. Still, the rabbinical tradi-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 505 
 
 tions differ widely among themselves as to the 
 duration of the happy period During the 
 civil and religious wars in France and England 
 the belief in millennianism was prominent. 
 The Fifth-monarchy men of Cromwell's time 
 were rnillenarians of the most exaggerated 
 and dangerous sort, and marked by extreme 
 arrogance. Their peculiar tenet was that the 
 millennium had come and they were the saints 
 who were to inherit the earth. Great eager- 
 ness and not a little ingenuity have been ex- 
 hibited by many persons in fixing a date for 
 the commencement of the millennium. The 
 celebrated theologian Johann Albrecht Bengel 
 asserted, from a study of the prophecies, that 
 the millennium would begin in 1836. This 
 date was long popular. Swedenborg held that 
 the last judgment took place in 1757, and that 
 the new Church, or " Church of the New 
 Jerusalem," as his followers designate them- 
 selves in other words, the millennium era 
 then began. In America considerable agita- 
 tion was excited by the preaching of one Wil- 
 liam Miller, who fixed the second advent of 
 Christ about 1843. Of late years the most 
 noted millenarian was Dr. John Cummings 
 of England, who originally placed the end of 
 the present dispensation in 1866 or 1867 ; but 
 as the time drew near without any millennial 
 symptoms, he was understood to have modified 
 his views considerably, and came to the belief 
 that the beginning of the millennium will not 
 differ so much, after all, from the years im- 
 mediately preceding it as people commonly 
 suppose. 
 
 Ecole Polytechiiique, a celebrated mil- 
 itary academy of France, established in 1794 
 through the instrumentality of M. Lamblardie, 
 director of the Pouts et Chaussees. The acad- 
 emy was first called the Ecole Centrale des 
 Travaux Publics; but in the following year, 
 1795, the name was changed to Ecole Poly- 
 technique, and numerous alterations were made 
 in its organization. It was dissolved in 
 1816, again in 1830, and again in 1832, on 
 account cf the impetuous way in which the 
 scholars mixed themselves up with the political 
 disturbances of those years ; but it was re- 
 established on each occasion, after the restora- 
 tion of tranquillity. Candidates are admitted 
 by competitive examination, which takes place 
 yearly. To be eligible as a candidate the 
 youth must be French, and must be more than 
 sixteen and less than twenty years of age before 
 the first of January following ; but soldiers are 
 admissible up to twenty-five, provided they 
 can give proof of service in the regular army. 
 The course of instruction lasts for two years, 
 when graduates have the privilege of choosing, 
 from the various public services supplied from 
 
 this school, the particular branch they wish to 
 enter. The school was last reorganized by a 
 decree of the 15th of April, 1873. 
 
 Benedictines, as the order of monks were 
 called who followed the rule of St. Benedict, 
 are regarded as the main agents in the spread 
 of Christianity, civilization, and learning in 
 the west. At one time the order is said to have 
 had as many as 37.000 monasteries, and 
 counted among their branches the great Order 
 of Clugny, founded about 910 ; the still greater 
 Order of the Cistercians, founded in the follow- 
 ing century ; the congregations of Monte Cas- 
 sino in 1408, of St. Vanne in 1600, and of St. 
 Maur on the Loire in 1627. All the Benedic- 
 tine houses in France were affiliated to this last 
 congregation. Among the monks of St. Maur 
 were many noted scholars, and the services 
 they rendered to literature it would be difficult 
 to overestimate. At the Revolution in 1792 
 the Benedictines were suppressed in France 
 and their splendid conventual buildings were 
 destroyed, but the order was revived later. 
 Most of- the richest abbeys and all the cathe- 
 dral priories (excepting Carlisle) in England 
 belonged to the Benedictines, and they had 
 numerous monasteries in Scotland. The Ben- 
 edictines gained great distinction in both Italy 
 and Germany in the former as literati, jurists, 
 and physicians, and in the latter as promoters 
 of education and as the founders of mediaeval 
 scholasticism. As early as 1354 this order 
 could boast of having numbered among its 
 followers 24 popes, 200 cardinals, 7,000 arch- 
 bishops, 15, 000 bishops, 1,560 canonized saints, 
 and 5,000 holy persons judged worthy of 
 canonization, besides 20 empresses, 47 kings, 
 above 50 queens, 20 sons of emperors, 48 sons 
 of kings, 100 princesses, and an immense number 
 of the nobility. In the fifteenth century the 
 order had 15,107 monasteries, of which only 
 5, 000 were left after the Reformation, and there 
 are now not more than 800. They were com- 
 monly styled the "Black Monks" from their 
 dress, a long black gown with a cowl or hood 
 of the same, and a scapulary. The rule of St. 
 Benedict was much less severe than that which 
 the eastern ascetics followed. Besides implicit 
 obedience to their superiors, the Benedictines 
 were to shun laughter, to hold no private 
 property, to live sparely, to exercise hospi- 
 tality, and, above all, to be industrious. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Architecture, or the art of planning and 
 raising edifices, appears to have been among 
 the earliest inventions. The first habitations 
 of men were such as nature afforded, with but 
 little labor on the part of the occupant, and 
 sufficient to supply his simple wants grot-
 
 506 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 toes, huts, and tents. In early times, the 
 country of Judea, which is mountainous and 
 rocky, offered cavernous retreats to the in- 
 habitants, who accordingly used them instead 
 of artificial places of shelter. From various 
 passages in scripture, it appears that these 
 caves were often of great extent, for, in the 
 sides of the mountain of Engedi, David and 
 six hundred men concealed themselves. In 
 the course of time, art was employed to 
 fashion the rude cavernous retreats, and to 
 excavate blocks by which rude buildings were 
 compiled in more convenient situations. The 
 progress of architecture, however, from its 
 first dawn, differed in almost every different 
 locality. Whatever rude structure the climate 
 and materials of any country obliged its early 
 inhabitants to adopt for their temporary 
 shelter, the same ; tructure, with all its prom- 
 inent featurco, was Afterward kept up by their 
 refined and opulent posterity. 
 
 From the cause now mentioned the Egyp- 
 tian style of building had its origin in the 
 cavern and mound ; the Chinese architecture, 
 with its pavilion roofs and pointed minaret, is 
 molded from the Tartar tent ; the Grecian is 
 de.-ived from the wooden cabin ; and the 
 Gothic from the bower of trees. It is evident 
 that necessity as much as choice or chance led 
 to the adoption of the different kinds of edi- 
 fices. 
 
 After mankind had learned to build houses, 
 they commenced the erection of temples to 
 their gods, and these they made still more 
 splendid than private dwellings. Thus archi- 
 tecture became a fine art, which was first dis- 
 played on the temples, afterward on the habi- 
 tations of princes and public buildings, and 
 at last became a universal want in society. 
 
 Traces of these eras of advancement in 
 the art of erecting buildings are found in 
 various quarters of the globe, especially in East- 
 ern countries, where the remains of edifices 
 are discovered of which fable and poetry can 
 alone give any account. The most remark- 
 able of these vestiges of a primitive architec- 
 ture are certain pieces of masonry in the island 
 of Sicily, as well as in some other places, called 
 the works of the Cyclops, an ancient and fab- 
 ulous race of giants, mentioned by Homer in 
 his Odyssey. By whom these walls were ac- 
 tually erected is unknown. 
 
 Of the progressive steps from comparative 
 rudeness to elegance of design, history affords 
 no certain account, and we are often left to 
 gather facts from merely casual notices. The 
 most ancient nations known to us among 
 whom architecture had made some progress 
 were the Babylonians, whose most celebrated 
 buildings were the temple of Belus, the palace 
 
 and the hanging gardens of Semi ram is ; the 
 Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich 
 in splendid buildings ; the Phoenicians, whose 
 cities, Sidon, Tyre, Aradus, and Sarepta, were 
 adorned with equal magnificence ; the Israel- 
 ites, whose temple was considered as a won- 
 der of architecture ; the Syrians and the Phi- 
 listines. No architectural monument of these 
 nations has, however, been transmitted to us ; 
 but we find subterraneous temples of the Hin- 
 doos, hewn out of the solid rock, upon the 
 islands Elephanta and Salsette, and in the 
 mountains of Elora. These temples may be 
 reckoned among the most stupendous ever ex- 
 ecuted by man. The circuit of the excava- 
 tions is about six miles. The temples are 100 
 feet high, 145 feet long, and 62 feet wide. 
 They contain thousands of figures, appearing, 
 from the style of their sculpture, to be ol an- 
 cient Hindoo origin. Everything about them, 
 in fact, indicates the most persevering indus- 
 try in executing one of the boldest plans. 
 
 Egyptian Architecture. All the ar- 
 chitectural remains of ancient times sink 
 into insignificance when compared with those 
 of Egypt. The obelisks, pyramids, temples, 
 palaces, and other structures of this coun- 
 try, are on the grandest scale, and such as 
 could only have been perfected by a people 
 considerably advanced in refinement. The 
 elementary features of Egyptian architecture 
 were chiefly as follows : 1. Their walls were 
 of great thickness, and sloping on the outside. 
 This feature is supposed to have been derived 
 from the mud walls, mounds, and* caverns of 
 their ancestors. 2. The roofs and covered 
 ways were flat, or without pediments, and com- 
 posed of blocks of stone, reaching from one 
 wall or column to another. The principle of 
 the arch, although known to the Egyptians, 
 was seldom if ever employed. 3. Their col- 
 umns were numerous, close, short, and very 
 large, being sometimes ten or twelve feet in 
 diameter. They were generally without bases, 
 and had a great variety of capitals, from a 
 simple square block, ornamented with hiero- 
 glyphics, or faces, to an elaborate composition 
 of palm leaves, not unlike the Corinthian cap- 
 ital. 4. They used a sort of concave entab- 
 lature or cornice, composed of vertical flutings 
 or leaves, and a winged globe in the center. 
 5. Pyramids, well known for their prodigious 
 size, and obelisks, composed of a single stone, 
 often exceeding seventy feet in height, are 
 structures peculiarly Egyptian. 6. Statues 
 of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone, 
 and sculptures in outline of fabulous deities 
 and animals, with innumerable hieroglyphics, 
 are the decorative objects which belong to thia 
 style of architecture.
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 507 
 
 The main character of Egyptian architecture 
 is that of great strength with irregularity of 
 taste. This is observable in the pillars of 
 the temples, the parts on which the greatest 
 share of skill has been lavished. The temple 
 of Karnak is an example. 
 
 In these columns \ve may notice that sturdi- 
 ness is the prevailing characteristic. The de- 
 sign has been the support of a great weight, 
 and that without any particular regard to 
 proportion or elegance, either as a whole or 
 in parts. AVhen assembled in rows or groups, 
 the columns had an imposing effect, because, 
 from their height and thickness, they filled the 
 eye and induced the idea of placid and easy 
 endurance. 
 
 Grecian Architecture. From Egypt, 
 the architectural art spread to Greece, 
 where it passed from the gigantic to the 
 chaste and elegant. The period in which 
 it flourished in the greatest perfection was that 
 of Pericles, about 440 before Christ, when 
 some of the finest temples at Athens were 
 erected. After this, it declined with other 
 arts, and was carried to Rome, where, however, 
 it never attained the same high character. 
 
 Aided doubtless by the examples of Egyp- 
 tian art, the Greeks gradually improved the 
 style of architecture, and originated those dis- 
 tinctions which are now called the " Orders of 
 Architecture." By this phrase is understood 
 oertain modes of proportioning and decorat- 
 ing the column and its entablature. They 
 were in use during the best days of Greece 
 and Rome, for a period of six or seven cen- 
 turies. They were lost sight of in the dark 
 ages, and again revived by the Italians at the 
 time of the restoration of letters. The Greeks 
 had three orders, called the Doric, Ionic, and 
 Corinthian . These were adopted and modified 
 by the Romans, who also added two others 
 called the Tuscan and Composite. 
 
 The Doric Order. This is the earliest 
 of the Greek orders, and we see in it a noble 
 simplicity on which subsequent orders were 
 founded. The shaft of the Doric column 
 had no base, ornamental or otherwise, but 
 rose directly from the smooth pavement or 
 stylobate. It had twenty flutings, which were 
 superficial, and separated by angular edges. 
 The perpendicular outline was nearly straight. 
 The Doric capital was plain, being formed of 
 a few annulets or rings, a large echinus, and a 
 Hat stone at top called the abacus. The archi- 
 trave was plain ; the frieze was intersected by 
 oblong projections called triglyphs, divided 
 into three parts by vertical furrows, and orna- 
 mented beneath by guttse, or drops. The 
 spaces between the triglyphs were called met- 
 opes and commonly contained sculptures. To 
 
 have a just idea of the Doric, therefore, we 
 must go back to the pure Grecian era. The 
 finest examples are those of the temple of 
 Theseus and the Parthenon at Athens. The 
 Parthenon, which is now a complete ruin, has 
 formed a model in modern architecture. It 
 was built by the architect Ictinus, during the 
 administration of Pericles, and its decorative 
 sculptures are supposed to have been executed 
 under direction of Phidias. The platform or 
 stylobate consists of three steps, the upper- 
 most of which is 227 feet in length and 101 
 in breadth. The number of columns is eight 
 in the portico of each front, and seventeen in 
 each flank, besides which there is an inner 
 row of six columns, at each end of the cell. 
 
 The Ionic Order. In this order the shaft 
 begins to lengthen, and to possess a degree 
 of ornament, but still preserving a great 
 degree of simplicity of outline. In the best 
 examples, as in the Parthenon, the column 
 was eight or nine diameters in height. It had 
 a base often composed of a torus, a scotia, and 
 a second torus, with intervening fillets. This 
 is called the Attic base. Others were used in 
 different parts of Greece. The capital of this 
 order consisted of two parallel double scrolls, 
 called volutes, occupying opposite sides, and 
 supporting an abacus, which was nearly square, 
 but molded at its edges. These volutes have 
 been considered as copied from ringlets of hair, 
 or perhaps from the horns of Jupiter Ammon. 
 The Ionic entablature consisted of an archi- 
 trave and frieze, which were continuous or un- 
 broken, and a cornice of various successive 
 moldings, at the lower part of which was often 
 a row of dentils, or square teeth. The ex- 
 amples at Athens of the Ionic order were the 
 temple of Erectheus, and the temple on the 
 Ilissus, both now destroyed. Modern imita- 
 tions are common in public edifices. 
 
 The Corinthian Order. This was the light- 
 est and most highly decorated of the Grecian 
 orders. The base of the column resembled 
 that of the Ionic, but was more complicated. 
 The shaft was often ten diameters in height, 
 and was fluted like the Ionic. The capital 
 was shaped like an inverted bell, and covered 
 on the outside with two rows of leaves of 
 the plant acanthus, above which were eight 
 pairs of small volutes. Its abacus was molded 
 and concave on its sides, and truncated at the 
 corners, with a flower on the center of each 
 side. The entablature of the Corinthian 
 order resembled that of the Ionic, but was 
 more complicated and ornamented, and had, 
 under the cornice, a row of large oblong pro- 
 jections, bearing a leaf or scroll on their un- 
 der side, and called modillions. No vestiges 
 of this order are now found in the remains
 
 506 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 of Corinth, and the most legitimate example 
 at Athens is in the choragic monument of 
 Lysicrates. The Corinthian order was much 
 employed in the subsequent structures of 
 Rome and its colonies. The finest Roman ex- 
 ample of this order is that of three columns 
 in the Campo Vaccina, at Rome, which are 
 commonly considered as the remains of the 
 temple of Jupiter Stator. 
 
 Caryatides. The Greeks sometimes de- 
 parted so far from the strict use of the orders 
 as to introduce statues, in the place of col- 
 umns, to support the entablature. Statues of 
 slaves, heroes, and gods appear to have been 
 employed occasionally for this purpose. The 
 principal specimen of this kind of architecture 
 which remains is in a portico called Pandro- 
 seum, attached to the temple of Erectheus at 
 Athens, in which statues of Carian females, 
 called Caryatides, are substituted for columns. 
 
 Roman Architecture. Roman archi- 
 tecture possessed no originality of any value ; it 
 was founded on copies of the Greek models, 
 and these were modified to suit circumstances 
 and tastes. The number of orders was aug- 
 mented by the addition of the Tuscan and 
 Composite. 
 
 Tuscan Order, This order is not unlike 
 the Doric, and is chaste and elegant. The 
 shaft had a simple base, ornamented with one 
 torus, and an astragal below the capital. The 
 proportions were seven diameters in height. 
 Its entablature, somewhat like the Ionic, con- 
 sisted of plain running surfaces. 
 
 The Composite Order. Of this there were 
 various kinds, differing less or more either 
 in the ornaments of the column or in the 
 entablature. The simplest of this hybrid or- 
 der was that which combines parts and pro- 
 portions of the Doric, the Ionic, and the 
 Tuscan. 
 
 The temples of the Romans sometimes re- 
 sembled those of the Greeks, but often differed 
 from them. The Pantheon, which is the most 
 perfectly preserved temple of the Augustan 
 age, is a circular building, lighted only from 
 an aperture in the dome, and having a Corin- 
 thian portico in front. The amphitheater 
 differed from the theater, in being a com- 
 pletely circular or rather elliptical building, 
 filled on all sides with ascending seats for 
 spectators, and leaving only the central space, 
 called the arena, for the combatants and pub- 
 lic shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous 
 structure of this kind. The aqueducts were 
 stone canals, supported on massive arcades, and 
 conveying large streams of water for the supply 
 of cities. The triumphal arches were com- 
 monly solid oblong structures ornamented with 
 sculptures, and opeu with lofty arches for pas- 
 
 sengers below. The edifice of this kind most 
 entire in the present day is the triumphal arch 
 of Constantine, at Rome. 
 
 The basilica of the Romans was a hall of 
 justice, used also as an exchange or place of 
 meeting for merchants. It was lined on the 
 inside with colonnades of two stories, or with 
 two tiers of columns, one over the other. The 
 earliest Christian churches at Rome were some- 
 times called basilicae, from their possessing an 
 internal colonnade. The monumental pillars 
 were towers in the shape of a column on a 
 pedestal, bearing a statue on the sum mi t, 
 which was approached by a spiral staircase 
 within. Sometimes, however, the column was 
 solid. The thermae, or baths, were vast struc- 
 tures, in which multitudes of people could 
 bathe at once. They were supplied with warm 
 and cold water and fitted up with numerous 
 rooms for purposes of exercise and recreation. 
 
 Italian Architecture. After the dis- 
 memberment of the Roman empire, the arts 
 degenerated so far that a custom became prev- 
 alent of erecting new buildings with the frag- 
 ments of old ones, which were dilapidated and 
 torn down for the purpose. This gave rise to 
 an irregular style of building, which contin- 
 ued to be imitated, especially in Italy, during 
 the dark ages. It consisted of Grecian and 
 Roman details, combined under new forms, 
 and piled up into structures wholly unlike the 
 unique originals. Hence the names Graeco- 
 Gothic and Romanesque architecture have 
 been given to it. After this came the Italian 
 style, which was professedly a revival of the 
 classic styles of Greece and Rome, but adapted 
 to new manners and wants a kind of transi- 
 tion from ancient to modern times. Its great 
 master was Andrea Palladio, a Venetian (born 
 1518, died 1580). 
 
 There are considerable variety and beauty in 
 the foliate and other enrichments of an archi- 
 tectural character in many structures in Italy, 
 but very little ornament enters into the co- 
 lumnar composition of Italian architecture. 
 Friezes, instead of being sculptured, are swol- 
 len ; the shafts of columns are very seldom 
 fluted, and their capitals are generally poor in 
 the extreme ; moldings are indeed sometimes 
 carved, but not often ; rustic masonry, ill- 
 formed festoons, and gouty balustrades for 
 the most part supply the place of chaste and 
 classic ornaments. 
 
 The Chinese Style The ancient Tar- 
 tars and wandering shepherds of Asia appear 
 to have lived from time immemorial in tents, 
 a kind of habitation adapted to their erratic 
 life. The Chinese have made the tent the 
 elementary feature of their architecture ; and 
 of their style anyone may form an idea by in-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 509 
 
 specting the figures which are depicted upon 
 common china ware. Chinese roofs are con- 
 cave on the upper side, as if made of canvas 
 instead of wood. A Chinese portico is not un- 
 like the awnings spread over shop windows in 
 summer time. The veranda, sometimes copied 
 in dwelling houses, is a structure of this sort. 
 The Chinese towers and pagodas have concave 
 roofs, like awnings, projecting over their sev- 
 eral stories. Such structures are built with 
 wood or brick ; stone is seldom employed. 
 
 The Saracenic, Moorish, and By- 
 zantine Styles. The Arabs, or Saracens, 
 as they are more usually called, and the Moors, 
 introduced into Spain certain forms of archi- 
 tecture which differed considerably from the 
 Grecian in appearance, though founded on its 
 remains in Asia and Africa. 
 
 The chief peculiarity of this architecture 
 was the form of the arch ; the Saracens are 
 understood to have made it of greater depth 
 than width, thus constituting more than half 
 a circle or ellipse, and therefore unphilosoph- 
 ical and comparatively insecure ; while the 
 Moorish style was principally distinguished 
 by arches in the form of a horseshoe or a 
 crescent. 
 
 We associate with these styles another, 
 which arose at Constantinople, called the By- 
 zantine, likewise formed on the remains of 
 Grecian art, and partaking of a slightly East- 
 ern character. It became known in Western 
 Europe along with the Lombard, another de- 
 generate Grecian style, about the ninth and 
 tenth centuries. 
 
 Saxon Style. This style commenced at 
 the establishment of Christianity among the 
 Saxons in the sixth century, and is called 
 Saxon from its having prevailed during the 
 reigns of the Saxon and Norman kings in 
 England. 
 
 Gothic or Pointed Style. The term 
 Gothic is a modern error, which, being now 
 impossible to correct, is suffered to remain as 
 the generally distinguishing appellation of the 
 kind of architecture possessing pointed arches. 
 This style originated in Germany about the 
 middle of the thirteenth century, and was 
 zealously pursued as the leading fashion for 
 ecclesiastical structures all over Europe. Ex- 
 ecuted by a class of skilled artisans, who wan- 
 dered from country to country, the finest 
 specimens of the pointed style are the cathe- 
 drals of Strasburg, Cologne, and Antwerp, 
 and the splendid abbeys of Melroseand West- 
 minster. 
 
 In this fanciful and picturesque style of 
 architecture, the slender columns, always 
 united in groups, rise to a lofty height, re- 
 sembling the giants of the grove, in whose 
 
 dark shade the ancient Teuton used to build 
 his altar. In the obscure depth of the dome, 
 the mind is awakened to solemn devotional 
 feelings. 
 
 When the circular arch totally disappeared 
 in 1220, the early English style commenced. 
 The windows of this style were at first very 
 narrow in comparison with their height ; they 
 were called lancet shaped, and were considered 
 very elegant ; two or three were frequently 
 seen together, connected by dripstones. In a 
 short time, however, the windows became 
 wider, and divisions and ornaments were in- 
 troduced. Sometimes the same window was 
 divided into several lights, and frequently 
 finished at the top by a light in the form of a 
 lozenge, circle, trefoil, or other ornament. 
 
 About the year 1300, the architecture be- 
 came more ornamental, and from this circum- 
 stance received the name of the decorated 
 English style, which is considered the most 
 beautiful for ecclesiastical buildings. 
 
 The transition from the decorated to the 
 florid, or perpendicular, style was very grad- 
 ual. Ornament after ornament was added, till 
 simplicity disappeared beneath the extravagant 
 additions; and about the year 1380 the archi- 
 tecture became so overloaded and profuse that 
 it obtained the title of florid, which by some 
 persons is called the perpendicular, because 
 the lines of division run in upright or perpen- 
 dicular lines from top to bottom, which is not 
 the case in any other style. 
 
 Norman, Tudor, and Modern Gothic. 
 Throughout England may be seen many 
 aged castles, some still in a state of good 
 preservation, but the greater number in ruins, 
 ! and occupying, with their picturesque remains, 
 the summit of a rising ground or rocky preci- 
 pice. These castles are of a style which pre- 
 vailed during the feudal ages in Europe, and 
 was brought to England by the Normans, 
 who erected them as fastnesses, into which 
 they might retire and oppress the country at 
 pleasure. 
 
 The feudal castles in England, like those on 
 the Rhine, consisted for the most part of a 
 single strong tower, or keep, the walls of 
 which were from six to ten feet thick, and the 
 windows only holes of one or two feet square, 
 placed at irregular intervals. The several 
 floors were built on arches, and the roof was 
 flat or battlemented, with notches in the para- 
 pet, from which the inhabitants or retainers of 
 the chieftain might defend themselves with 
 instruments of war. The accommodations for 
 j living were generally mean, and what would 
 ! now be called uncomfortable. Around or in 
 front of the main tower there was usually a 
 courtyard, protected by a high wall, and the
 
 510 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 arched entrance was carefully secured by a 
 falling gate or portcullis. Outside, there was 
 in many cases a regular wet ditch or fosse. 
 Castles of greater magnitude consisted of two 
 or more towers and inner buildings, including 
 a chapel and offices for domestics, and stables 
 for horses and other animals. Some of them 
 were on a great scale, and possessed considera- 
 ble grandeur of design. 
 
 As society advanced and civil tranquillity 
 was established, these military strengths grad- 
 . ually assumed a character of greater elegance , 
 and less the appearance of defense. The wet 
 ditch disappeared, and was superseded by a | 
 lawn or shrubbery. Instead of the drawbridge 
 and portcullis, there was a regular approach ; 
 and gate of ordinary construction. The win- j 
 dows became larger, a^id were fitted with glass 
 frames, and stone was abandoned for the 
 greater comfort of wooden floors. Instead, 
 also, of a bare region around, in which no foe 
 might lurk, gardens were established, and a 
 long avenue of trees led to the front of the mod- 
 ernized mansion. In some instances the pep- 
 per-box turrets at the upper corners of the ; 
 building remained. Of the class of structures 
 that sprang up in this period of transition, 
 which we may refer in England to the fifteenth j 
 and sixteenth and in Scotland to the seven- j 
 teeth centuries, there are several highly inter- 
 esting remains. These edifices of the nobility 
 and gentry were no longer called castles ; they 
 took the name of halls, and as such had i 
 attained so great a pitch of magnificence in | 
 the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, as to 
 have subsequently given a name to a new style I 
 the Tudor or Elizabethan. Latterly, and [ 
 with no very distinct reference to any particular 
 period, this remarkable fashion of building 
 has been pretty generally called the old Eng- 
 lish style of architecture. One of the best 
 existing specimens of the Tudor era of archi- 
 tecture is Haddon Hall, in Derbyshire, the 
 property of the Duke of Rutland. 
 
 Modern British Architecture. Dur- 
 ing the sixteenth century, an extraordinary 
 effort was made in Italy to restore the purity 
 of Grecian architecture ; and in this attempt 
 Palladio was followed by the not less eminent 
 Michael Angelo Buonaroti, who, at an ad- 
 vanced age, in 1546, undertook the continua- 
 tion of the building of St. Peter's at Rome, a 
 work on which the greatest splendors of the 
 Italian style are lavished. Into England, this 
 revived taste for the Grecian was introduced 
 at the beginning of the seventeenth century by 
 Inigo Jones, to whose contemptuous observa- 
 tions on the German or pointed style the term 
 Gothic has been traced ; and after his decease, 
 the Grecian, or more properly the Italianized 
 
 Grecian, was perpetuated on a scale still more 
 extensive by Sir Christopher Wren. Tht, 
 edifices erected by this great master are char- 
 acterized by the finest taste, and his spires in 
 particular are models of elegance. The great- 
 est work of Wren was St. Paul's Cathedral in 
 London, in which the Italian is seen in all its 
 glory. 
 
 The eighteenth century was an era of de- 
 cline in architectural taste. Every other style 
 merged in that of a spiritless and often mean 
 Graeco-Italian, out of which the architects of 
 the nineteenth century have apparently had a 
 difficulty to emerge. Latterly, there has been 
 a revival in England of a purer kind of Gre- 
 cian, and also, as we have already said, of old 
 English, and the Gothic or pointed style, and 
 in most instances with good effect. It is only 
 to be lamented that, by the manner in which 
 state patronage is distributed in this branch of 
 the fine arts, some of the largest and most ex- 
 pensive structures Buckingham Palace and 
 the National Gallery, for example have been 
 erected on the poorest conceptions of the Gre- 
 cian style, and with a general effect far from 
 pleasing. In Paris there now exist some mod- 
 ern structures after correct Grecian models, 
 which cannot be too highly praised ; we would, 
 in particular, instance the building called the 
 Madeleine, the Bourse, and the interior of the 
 church of St. Genevieve, which are exceed- 
 ingly worthy of being visited by young and as- 
 piring architects from Britain. Of the superb 
 buildings springing up on all sides of this vast 
 continent, it is unnecessary to speak. While 
 those already in existence, notably in Wash- 
 ington, are admirable copies of the great Greek 
 and Roman periods, the so-called Queen Anne 
 is now the especial craze. 
 
 For palatial and other secular edifices in 
 England, the Renaissance for the most part 
 was in favor in the earlier part of this century. 
 The attempt of Stuart and others in favor of 
 Greek art had but little influence upon archi- 
 tecture, while the effort of Scott and others, es- 
 pecially Ruskin, to bias the public mind in the 
 direction of the Gothic has succeeded far beyond 
 all efforts of the same kind in other countries. 
 In churches and educational institutions, it 
 found especial favor, and, in 1836, it was de- 
 cided that the legislative halls of the Empire 
 should be rebuilt in this style, according to the 
 plans of Sir Charles Barry. These contem- 
 plated a Gothic, rich but not ornate, with 
 square supporting towers at certain points, 
 flanked, like the walls, with massive buttresses. 
 The New Palace of Westminster, as it is called, 
 covers eight acres and contains upwards of five 
 hundred apartments clustered around eleven 
 open quadrangles or courts. The edifice is of
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 511 
 
 gray limestone, and is not only one of the 
 noblest structures of this century, but a most 
 successful attempt to secularize this truly 
 northern style of architecture. 
 
 Architecture in the United States. 
 During the Colonial period of the United 
 States there was neither time nor opportunity 
 for the practice of the fine arts. When the 
 Revolution was over, however, Congress in 
 spite of heavy debt proceeded to lay out a Na- 
 tional Capital and erect national buildings. 
 These latter were the first to receive serious 
 architectural treatment, and until recently 
 were, together with the state capitols, in what 
 may be called a classic style, because they had 
 porticoes with columns and other features of 
 the ancient orders. 
 
 The Capitol at Washington, the inception of 
 which belongs to the last century, is unques- 
 tionably the grandest pile in that city, and 
 probably the most monumental of United 
 States buildings. Notwithstanding its con- 
 ventionally classic style it is an edifice of 
 which a great nation may be proud, majestic 
 both within and without, and gaining iu effect 
 from its position on a commanding site. The 
 corner stone of the Capitol was laid in 1793. 
 It is of the Renaissance, and consists of two 
 stories rising from a lofty rustic basement. 
 The ground plan is a central pavilion with 
 north and south wings. The principal fagade 
 is on the east side, where a portico of Corin- 
 Ihian columns thirty feet in height fronts 
 the pavilion, while pilasters of the same order 
 re continued along the wings. The eight 
 middle columns project so as to admit of an- 
 other inner row, and these sixteen columns 
 support a noble pediment adorned with a bas- 
 relief. The subject is allegorical, Liberty at- 
 tended by Hope and Justice, and is said to 
 have been designed by John Quincy Adams. 
 The approach to this imposing portico is by a 
 flight of broad marble steps. The central 
 portion of the edifice is, for the most part, oc- 
 cupied by a circular apartment, measuring 
 about one hundred feet in diameter and height, 
 and known as the Rotunda. It is ornamented 
 with paintings and bas-reliefs illustrative of 
 our national history. The paintings are sepa- 
 rated from one another by gilded pilasters, 
 which rise to the dome forming the roof. 
 The dome compares well with those that are 
 famous in the world, and, taken as a whole, 
 the Capitol is more stately than the Houses of 
 Parliament, and is open to as little criticism 
 as the buildings of its class in other lands. 
 
 Treasury and Patent Office. Among the 
 older government buildings may be cited the 
 LTnited States Treasury, a structure with four 
 fronts. The building commonly known as the 
 
 Patent Office, which has .recently been sub- 
 jected to considerable alteration, is also a foui 
 fronted building with a portico in the center of 
 each of its sides, the principal consisting of 
 two rows of eight columns. As Grecian 
 structures these monumental piles are not un- 
 worthy, bait the incongruity between their ap- 
 pearance and their purpose is manifest. 
 
 Pension Bureau. The newer government 
 structures at Washington have followed neither 
 the Grecian nor the vernacular Palladian. 
 The Pension Bureau is a large and severely 
 symmetrical structure in the style of Bramante, 
 having three stories of rectangular windows, 
 a bold cornice and an attic in the center. 
 The decorations are of terra cotta. 
 
 The Congressional Library is of the Italian 
 Renaissance order of architecture ; it has three 
 stories with a dome ; and is in area 470 by 
 340 feet, covering nearly three and one half 
 acres of ground, with four inner courts. The 
 building is surmounted on all sides by a carved 
 balustrade. The dome is finished in black 
 copper with panels gilded with a thick coating 
 of gold leaf. The cresting of the dome above 
 the lantern terminates in a gilded fiuial rep- 
 resenting the torch of Science ever burning. 
 The general plan of the structure consists of a 
 great central rotunda, from which radiate 
 book stacks and which is inclosed in a paral- 
 lelogram of galleries and pavilions. The 
 building material employed for the exterior 
 walls is white granite from New Hampshire, 
 and for the inner courts Maryland granite and 
 white enameled bricks. The interior is rich 
 in choice marbles from Europe, Africa, and 
 America. The entrance to the building is by 
 massive stairways of the central pavilion, and 
 through bronze doors to the central stair hall. 
 This magnificent apartment is pronounced to 
 be unsurpassed by any other entrance hall in 
 the world. It is lined throughout with fine 
 Italian marble highly polished. On the sides 
 rise lofty rounded columns, with elaborate 
 carved capitals of Corinthian design ; while 
 the arches are adorned with marble rosettes, 
 palm leaves, and foliated designs of exquisite 
 finish and delicacy. The newel posts of the 
 stairway are enriched by beautiful festoons of 
 leaves and flow r ers, and are surmounted by 
 two bronze lamp bearers. The staircases are 
 ornamented with miniature marble figures by 
 Martiny, carved in relief, representing in em- 
 blematic sculpture the various arts and sciences. 
 This beautiful and spacious entrance hall has 
 been described as a " vision in polished stone," 
 and taken in connection with the grand cor- 
 ridors and rich decorations may be pronounced 
 the finest marble interior in America. 
 
 The Bureau of Printing and Engraving is in
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 red and brown brick, round arched, and with- 
 out the orders, and may, perhaps, be called 
 Romanesque. Other specimens of Washing- 
 ton architecture worthy of mention are the 
 new Corcoran Art Gallery, the Smithsonian 
 Institution, and the War, State, and Navy 
 building. 
 
 Besides the buildings of the Greek style 
 erected in Washington, others, not only by the 
 government but by banking corporations, 
 commercial houses, etc., have been erected in 
 various parts of the country. The two best of 
 these are probably the Sub-Treasury building 
 at New York and Girard College at Philadel- 
 phia.. Both are of white marble, and the latter 
 modeled, as to the exterior, after the Parthe- 
 non, that is so far as possible, while employ- 
 ing a different order of architecture. It is 
 considered the Greek building par excellence 
 of America, as the Madeleine is of France, 
 and is a Corinthian peristyle resting upon a 
 Grecian stylobate. Its monolithic colonnade is 
 quite imposing, bat as a whole it fails to excite 
 in the beholder much of that emotion which is 
 awakened by the Grecian edifice. Cold and 
 unimpressive, it seems rather like some rare 
 exotic a thing to be gazed and wondered at 
 rather than enjoyed. This is no doubt attrib- 
 utable in part to its position, for while the 
 Greek temple always crowned some lofty 
 height, or some jutting spur, this edifice is 
 built in the middle of a broad, flat plain, with- 
 out any relief from the blue sky or jagged 
 mountain side. 
 
 Several of the state capitols illustrate pleas- 
 ing styles of architecture. The state house at 
 Newport is a perfectly symmetrical brick and 
 stone structure, commenced in 1738". It has 
 rectangular windows with quoins, a balcony over 
 the entrance, above the balcony a broken pedi- 
 ment, and over this a truncated gable. Over 
 all rises a low octagonal turret. The old state 
 house at Boston is of the same period ; it is a 
 very plain structure, with a wide entrance and 
 curious end gables. Independence Hall and 
 the White House belong to the same period. 
 
 The State Capitol at Albany, as originally de- 
 signed, was an immense rectangular Renais- 
 sance block, in which an order was given to 
 each story, much after the style practiced at 
 Venice by Sansovino and San Micheli, and was 
 crowned by a domical tower of grand propor- 
 tions. The design was improved by Richard- 
 son, and the upper portions of the edifice were 
 completed according to it. There is great 
 beauty in the newer portion, but it cannot be 
 said that there is congruity. The towers are Ro- 
 manesque, while the cornice of the order below 
 is changed to Gothic. Parts of the interior, as 
 the Hall of Assembly, the work of Eidlitz, are \ 
 
 Gothic of the most beautiful kind vaulted 
 mediaeval halls enshrined in a classical exterior. 
 
 The Capitol at Hartford, Connecticut, al- 
 though it has a dome like many other capitols, 
 is far from being an ordinary structure, and 
 may be reckoned one of the finest public build- 
 ings in the United States. The style is Gothic, 
 and the regular fagadeis broken into a center, 
 curtains, and wings. The center has two low 
 towers in every way subordinate to the tall 
 tambour and dome which rise behind them. 
 This cupola crown tower is decidedly Gothic 
 in the sentiment of its details. 
 
 The City Hall, Philadelphia, is among the 
 largest of modern buildings, slightly exceeding 
 the Capitol at Washington in area. Seldom 
 has a better opportunity been afforded for ar- 
 chitectonic display than is given by its posi- 
 tion at the junction of two of the principal 
 streets of the city. It occupies what was once 
 Penn Square and thus stands free all around. 
 This immense structure is conceived in the 
 style of the Louvre at Paris with central and 
 angle pavilions, the whole surmounted by 
 a mansard roof of great height. Each front 
 is a symmetrical whole, and, with the exception 
 of the slight difference in length, the fronts 
 are alike. The central feature is a gigantic 
 tower which rises upward of 537 feet above 
 the pavement. This tower was designed to be 
 the loftiest in the world, but in this respect 
 has already been surpassed by the Washing- 
 ton Monument at the National Capital. The 
 magnificence of this edifice consists in its im- 
 posing dimensions, the rich array of marble 
 and polished granite, and the beautiful sculp- 
 ture which adorns its fagades and entrance 
 halls. 
 
 In our largest cities we find many church 
 edifices both completed and in process of 
 erection which are worthy of attention for their 
 architecture as well as the solidity and beauty 
 of material employed. Most of these are of 
 the Gothic style. 
 
 Trinity Church in New York, completed in 
 1846, was the first stone edifice after the Gothic, 
 in America. It is most nearly allied to the 
 early English, and the architect deserves the 
 gratitude of all lovers of the beautiful, for giv- 
 ing his countrymen so elegant and chaste a 
 model. 
 
 Grace Church in the same city, built of gran- 
 ite, is of a more ornate style and presents 
 nearly all the peculiar features of the Gothic, 
 although in small dimensions. 
 
 St. Patrick's Cathedral, fronting on Central 
 Park, affords us the best specimen of the Gothic 
 as it prevailed in Europe in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. The style is commonly known as the Dec- 
 orated or Geometric Gothic. Trinity Church,
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 513 
 
 Boston, a Romanesque or Byzantine structure, 
 is the work of Richardson. The original design 
 was improved in 1886, and, as now completed, 
 furnishes perhaps the noblest church edifice in 
 the United States. 
 
 The Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New 
 York-, which gives promise of great architec- 
 tural beauty, is in the modified Romanesque 
 style of architecture. 
 
 The Temple Emmanuel in New York city has 
 a most ornate and symmetrical exterior, with 
 two towers and an arcade in the center, and 
 although the effect is pretty and fanciful rather 
 than grand, it ranks among the finest of the 
 religious edifices of that city. The Rodef 
 Shalom synagogue, Philadelphia, has an ef- 
 fective fagade, and is Gothic in sentiment 
 notwithstanding its Moorish forms. The Syn- 
 agogue Emmanuel in San Francisco is pecul- 
 iar among synagogues from the fact that the 
 windows are filled with Gothic tracery and its 
 walls and towers set with Gothicized but- 
 tresses. 
 
 M< mortal Hall of Harvard University is built 
 of brick banded in the Lombard style with 
 buff tiles bearing geometric designs in blue. 
 The central tower rises above the Memorial 
 Hall while smaller towers, all of the English 
 Gothic, flank its walls. 
 
 The Art Museum at Cincinnati, in the Ro- 
 manesque style, has two ranges of rectangular 
 twin windows, and the plain walls of the up- 
 permost story are unrelieved save by blind 
 arches. The central hall is the most striking 
 feature of the interior. The walls are of lo- 
 cal blue limestone, with cornices and arches 
 of Missouri granite ; the roof is of red Akron 
 pantiles. The eastern wing has a fine polyg- 
 onal apse with nine pairs of windows and a 
 tall tower on the line of the entrance front. 
 
 The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, com- 
 menced in 1871, is one of the first buildings in 
 the United States upon which terracotta made 
 in England from the architect's drawing has 
 been extensively used. This structure may 
 be called Italian Gothic ; upon the ground 
 floor it has arched openings in groups sepa- 
 rated by buttresses, while above these large 
 panels, some of them filled with sculptures, 
 mask the picture gallery. The entrance is 
 through a pair of arches. 
 
 The Masonic Temple of Philadelphia is a very 
 imposing and massive building. It dominated 
 Penn Square until the City Hall arose be- 
 side it. It is built of gray granite, and the 
 exterior is round arched and may be called 
 Romanesque, but does not strictly conform to 
 the Norman phase of that style. 
 
 Harvard College, time honored in this ! 
 country, though it would be young in the old 
 
 world, marks in its various structures all the 
 phases through which American architecture 
 has passed. Its finest buildings are un- 
 doubtedly its most modern ones. These are 
 the Memorial Hall, the Gymnasium, the Law 
 School and Seaver Hall, the last three of which 
 are the work of Richardson. 
 
 The University of Pennsylvania comprises a 
 group of Gothic structures built of green ser- 
 pentine, with dressings of Ohio stone. There 
 is little ornament, but the grouping is effective 
 and the general effect satisfactory. Recent 
 buildings have been added of a very pleasing 
 style and admirably express their purpose. 
 
 Stone Hall, Wellesley College, is a fine struc- 
 ture and what may be called Free Classic, but 
 in its stepped gables and in the lines of its cen- 
 tral pavilion approaches Flemish Renaissance. 
 The entrance is well accentuated, contrasting 
 admirably with the curtain-walls which inter- 
 vene between it and fche tower-like blocks 
 which mark the intersection of the center with 
 its wings. 
 
 The Art School at Yale is a species of Gothic, 
 but is of heavy outline, and its tower is without 
 sufficient prominence. Most of the newer Yale 
 buildings are in this style, including the Pea- 
 body Museum, which is perhaps the best. 
 
 Princeton has a good Gothic dormitory, and 
 the Lecture Hall of the theological seminary, 
 with its groups of cusped windows, is effective. 
 The buildings of the Chicago University and 
 Leland Stanford, Jr., University exhibit 
 unique and pleasing styles. 
 
 Some of the best specimens of architecture 
 in America, in addition to those already no- 
 ticed, are the City Hall of San Francisco, Alle- 
 gheny Court House of Pittsburg, the Boston 
 Public Library, Ridgway Library of Philadel- 
 phia, the Libraries at Burlington, Vt., and 
 Woburn, Massachusetts, the Metropolitan 
 Opera House, New York city, the Casino of 
 the same city, Memorial Hall in Fairmount 
 Park, Ponce de Leon Hotel at St. Augustine, 
 Auditorium Theater, Chicago, the Century 
 and Metropolitan Clubs, New York, the Carne- 
 gie Library at Pittsburg. the Pennsylvania 
 Railroad Station at Philadelphia, South Termi- 
 nal Station, Boston, and the National Academy 
 of Design, New York city ; though many more 
 might be mentioned of varying degrees of merit. 
 
 Alexandrian Codex is an important 
 manuscript of the Sacred Scriptures written in 
 Greek. It is written on parchment, in finely- 
 formed uncial letters, and is without accents, 
 marks of aspiration, or spaces between the 
 words. Its probable date is the latter half of 
 the sixth century. With the exception of a 
 few gaps, it contains the whole Bible in 
 Greek, along with the Epistles of Clemens
 
 514 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Romanus. This celebrated manuscript, -which 
 is now in the British Museum, belonged, as 
 early as 1098, to the library of the Patriarch 
 of Alexandria. In 1628 it was sent as a 
 present to Charles I. of England, by Cyrillus 
 Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, who de- j 
 clared that he got it from Egypt ; and that it ; 
 was written there appears from internal and j 
 external evidence. 
 
 Alexandrian Library contained in the 
 time of Cleopatra about 700,000 volumes or 
 rolls, and was founded at the suggestion of 
 Demetrius Phalereus, a fugitive from Athens 
 in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. The greater 
 portion of this remarkable collection was de- 
 stroyed during the Alexandrine war. This 
 loss, however, was repaired by Mark Antony, 
 who presented to Cleopatra the library taken 
 at the siege of Pergamos. From this time [ 
 until about the year 391 A. D., the library in- 
 creased in size and reputation, and contained | 
 treasures of learning in all known tongues. 
 At the burning of the Temple of Jupiter Ser- 
 apis by the Christians under Theodosius the 
 Great, a*bout that year a portion of the library 
 was destroyed, and when the Arabs, under 
 Caliph Omar, took the city in 640 A. D., the 
 destruction of the remainder was completed. 
 
 Egyptian Labyrinth was situated at 
 Crocodilopolis, near Lake Mceris, in the vicin- 
 ity of the present pyramid of Biakhmu. It 
 was built of polished stone, with many cham- 
 bers and passages, said to be vaulted, having 
 a peristyle court with 3,000 chambers, half of 
 which were under the earth and the others 
 above ground, which formed another story. 
 The upper chambers were decorated with re- 
 liefs ; the lower were plain, and contained, 
 according to tradition, the bodies of the twelve 
 founders of the building and the mummies of 
 the sacred crocodiles, conferring on the build- 
 ing the character of a mausoleum, probably 
 conjoined with a temple that of Sebak, the 
 crocodile god. The Labyrinth stood in the 
 midst of a great square. Part was constructed 
 of Parian marble and of Syenitic granite ; it 
 had a staircase of ninety steps, and columns of 
 porphyry, and the opening of the doors echoed 
 like the reverberation of thunder. There is 
 great difference of opinion among authors as 
 to the name of the king under whom this 
 remarkable work was constructed and the pur- 
 pose for which it was intended, and it is prob- 
 able that it was not built in a single reign. 
 According to some ancient authorities it was 
 supposed to have been inhabited by the Dodic- 
 archy, or twelve kings, w r ho conjointly ruled 
 Egypt before Psammetichus I. ; while others 
 claim it to have been the place of assembly of 
 the governors of nomes, or districts twelve 
 
 in number, according to Herodotus ; sixteen, 
 according to Pliny ; and twenty-seven, accord- 
 ing to Strabo. The Labyrinth was extant in 
 the time of Pliny, A. D. 78, and was then, 
 according to that author, 3,600 years old. 
 The ruins of the foundations or lower cham- 
 bers have been found at the modern village of 
 Howara, in Fayoom. The next labyrinth in 
 renown to the Egyptian was the Labyrinth of 
 Crete, supposed to have been built by Daedalus 
 tor the Cretan monarch, Minos, in which the- 
 Minotaur was confined by his orders. The 
 third of the labyrinths of antiquity was the 
 Samian, constructed by Theodorus and artists 
 of his school, in the age of Poly crates, 540 B. 
 C., supposed to be a work of nature embel- 
 lished by art, having 150 columns erected by 
 a clever mechanical contrivance. Other infe- 
 rior labyrinths existed at Nauplia,at Sipontum 
 in Italy; at Val d'Ispica in Sicily, and else- 
 where. 
 
 Councils of Nice The first Council of 
 Nice was held in the Emperor 'Constantine 's 
 palace, June 19, A. D. 325, and was attended 
 by 318 bishops of the Catholic Church, and 
 resulted in the adoption of the Nicene Creed, 
 expounding the faith of the Church. August 
 17, A. D., 786, the second Council of Nice was 
 convened by order of the Empress Irene and 
 her son Constantine, at which there were 376 
 bishops present. This council was held for the 
 purpose of establishing the use of images in 
 the churches, which had been interdicted by the 
 Emperor Leo and his son Constantine, but was 
 dissolved owing to the tumults raised by the 
 party in opposition. It was reconvened Sep- 
 tember 24, A. D. 787, when the use of images 
 was restored. 
 
 Islam, or, as it is called, Eslam, is the 
 proper name of the Mohammedan religion. 
 The word is Arabic, and means " Submission 
 to God," or, according to some authorities, 
 " Salvation." Islam, it is held, was once the 
 religion of all men ; and every child, it is be- 
 lieved, is born in Islam, or the true faith, and 
 would continue in it till the end were it not for 
 the wickedness of its parents, " who misguide 
 it early and lead it astray toMagism, Judaism, 
 or Christianity." Whether wickedness and 
 idolatry came into the world after the murder 
 of Abel, or at the time of Noah, or only after 
 Amru Ibn Lohai, one of the first and greatest 
 idolaters of Arabia, are moot-points among 
 Moslem theologians. 
 
 Albig~eiises. About the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century various sects of heretics 
 abounded in the south of France, and to these 
 was applied the name Albigenses. The name 
 arose from the circumstance that the district 
 of Albigeois in Languedoc now in the de-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 515 
 
 partment of Tarn, of which Albi is the capi- 
 tal was the first point against which the 
 crusade of Pope Innocent III., 1209, was 
 directed. The immediate pretense of the cru- 
 sade was the murder of the papal legate and 
 inquisitor, Peter of Castelnau, who had been 
 commissioned to extirpate heresy in the domin- 
 ions of Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse ; but 
 its real object was to deprive the count of his 
 lands, as he had become ail object of hatred 
 from his toleration of the heretics. It was in 
 vain that he had submitted to the most humil- 
 iating penance and flagellation from the hands 
 of the legate, Milo, and had purchased the 
 papal absolution by great sacrifices. The ex- 
 pedition took by storm Beziers, the capital of 
 Raymond's nephew Roger, and massacred 
 20,000 of the inhabitants, Catholics as well as 
 heretics. Simon, Count of Montfort, who con- 
 ducted the crusade under the legates, proceeded 
 in the same relentless way with other places in 
 the territories of Raymond and his allies. The 
 conquered lands were given to Simon de Mont- 
 fort, and by him were eventually ceded to 
 Louis VIII. Raymond VI. and Raymond VII. 
 disputed the possession of the land by the 
 king, and after thousands had perished on both 
 sides, a peace was concluded in 1229, at which 
 Raymond VII. purchased relief from the ban of 
 the church by immense sums of money, gave up 
 Xarbonne and several lordships to Louis IX.. 
 and had to make his son-in-law, the brother of 
 Louis, heir of his other possessions. The her- 
 etics were handed over to the proselyting zeal 
 of the Order of Dominicans and the bloody 
 tribunals of the Inquisition, and both used 
 their utmost power to bring the recusant Albi- 
 genses to the stake. From the middle of the 
 thirteenth century the name of the Albigenses 
 gradually disappears. 
 
 Juggernaut. The temple in the town of 
 Juggernaut, one of the chief places of pilgrimage 
 in India, contains an idol of the Hindoo god, 
 called Jaggernaut or Juggernaut, a corruption 
 of the Sanskrit word Jagannatha, i. e.,lordof the 
 world. The legend regarding the building of the 
 town, the erection of the temple, and the forma- 
 tion of the idol is as follows : A king, desirous 
 of founding a city, sent a learned Brahmin to 
 pitch upon a proper spot. The Brahmin, 
 after a long search, arrived upon the banks of 
 the sea, and there saw a crow diving into the 
 water, and, having washed its body, making 
 obeisance to the sea. Understanding the lan- 
 guage of birds, he learned from the crow that 
 if he remained there a short time he would 
 comprehend the wonders of this land. The 
 king, apprised of this occurrence, built on the 
 spot where the crow ha.d appeared a large city 
 and a place of worship. The Rajah one night 
 
 heard in a dream a voice saying : ' ' On a cer- 
 tain day cast thine eyes on the seashore, when 
 there will arise out of the water a piece of 
 wood 52 inches long and l cubits broad ; this 
 is the true form of the Deity ; take it up and 
 keep it hidden in thine house seven days ; and 
 in whatever shape it shall then appear, place it 
 in the temple and worship it." It happened 
 just as the Rajah had dreamed, and the image, 
 called by him Jagannatha, became the object 
 of worship of all ranks of people, and per- 
 formed many miracles. The car-festival, 
 when Jagannatha is dragged in his car on a 
 yearly visit to his country quarters, is currently 
 believed to be the occasion of numerous cases 
 of self-immolation,, the frantic devotees com- 
 mitting suicide by throwing themselves before 
 the wheels of the heavy car. This has been 
 proved, however, upon good authority, to be 
 untrue. 
 
 Children's Crusade. In the summer of 
 1212 two immense armies of children were 
 gathered at Cologne, in Germany, and at Ven- 
 dome, in France, summoned thither by two 
 boy prophets, Stephen of Cloys (France) and 
 Nicholas of Cologne (Germany), both about 
 twelve years of age. These boy prophets be- 
 lieved or pretended to believe, that they were in- 
 spired by heaven, and the crusade which they 
 preached was not a crusade of blood against 
 the Saracens, but a crusade of prayer. The 
 children were to march to the sea, which would 
 open, as it once did for the Israelites, to per- 
 mit them to pass over into Palestine dry shod. 
 There they were to convert the leaders of Is- 
 lam and baptize the heathen. The excite- 
 ment aroused by this preaching spread so 
 among the children that within short intervals 
 of each other two unarmed hosts of German 
 children, drawn from all classes, and nearly 
 all under twelve years of age, left Cologne to 
 march over the sea to the Holy Land. The 
 first was led by the famous Nicholas, and the 
 second by a boy whose name is not known. 
 Their combined numbers are believed to have 
 been 40,000. At about the same time an army 
 of French children to the number of about 
 30,000 left Vendome under Stephen. The 
 mortality among the German children in their 
 passage across the Alps was frightful. Nearly 
 30,000 succumbed to exposure, fatigue, and 
 hunger. Of the French army, 10,000 died 
 before it reached Marseilles. The army under 
 Nicholas was broken up at Genoa when it was 
 found that the sea did not open to let them 
 pass, and some of the children were returned 
 to their homes by the humane Genoese ; but 
 others pressed on to Pisa and obtained pas- 
 snge by ship to the Holy Land. A part of 
 the children under the unknown leader were
 
 516 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 shipped to Palestine from Brindisi, and about 
 5, 000 of the French children were shipped from 
 Marseilles, and all who survived the voyages 
 were sold as slaves to the Turks. Of the 70,- 
 000 children who joined this crusade, it is 
 probable that less than 20,000 were ever heard 
 of afterward by their parents. 
 
 Latter-Day Saints, or Mormons, were I 
 founded by Joseph Smith, the son of a Ver- | 
 mont farmer, who claimed to have received 
 from the hands of an angel of the Lord certain 
 plates, on which were engraved God's revela- j 
 tion to the New World. This was the famous 
 Book of Mormon, believed by the followers of ; 
 Smith to be of equal authority with the Jewish 
 and Christian scriptures, and to form an indis- 
 pensable supplement to them. It was published 
 in 1830, with the names of Oliver Cowdery, 
 Martin Harris, and David Whitmer appended 
 to a statement that an angel of God had come 
 down from heaven and shown them the original 
 plates. Eight other witnesses testified that 
 they had been shown the plates by Smith. 
 These, however, are the only persons who 
 have been so privileged. The first Mormon 
 settlement was at Manchester, N. Y., in 1830, 
 but the following year Smith and his followers 
 moved to Kirtland, Ohio. Their missionaries 
 were full of zeal, converts were made in great 
 numbers, and churches were established in 
 Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois, and 
 Missouri . Toward the close of 1838, the whole 
 body of Saints, about 15,000, took refuge in 
 Illinois at a place which they called Nauvoo, 
 or the City of Beauty. Here, for a space of 
 years, the Mormons lived in quietness, gather- I 
 ing to themselves many new converts ; but, j 
 ultimately, the doctrine of "sealing wives" 
 aroused the wrath of the neighborhood, and 
 Smith and his brother Hiram were thrown 
 into prison at Carthage, where, on June 27, 
 1844, they were shot by a mob who broke into 
 the jail. Previous to this event, however, the 
 main body of the Mormons had removed to 
 Salt Lake City, Utah, and upon Smith's death 
 Brigham Young was chosen to succeed him. 
 The points of the belief of the Mormon Church 
 have been somewhat altered since first received 
 from Joseph Smith, that teacher having taught, 
 for instance, the dogma of a Trinity, while 
 modern Mormonism holds that there is a dual- 
 ity of persons in the Godhead, the Holy Ghost 
 being merely a spiritual soul. They also 
 teach that God has parts resembling the body 
 of man, and not materially differing from him 
 in size. They deny the doctrine that " all 
 men sinned in Adam," but accept the atone- 
 ment through Christ for sins committed by 
 men. They hold that the ordinances of the 
 gospel are: (1) Faith in Christ; (2) Re- 
 
 pentance ; (3) Baptism by immersion for 
 remission of sins ; (4) Laying on of hands for 
 the gift of the Holy Ghost. They believe that 
 a man is called to preach by " prophecy and 
 the laying on of hands," and claim to havo 
 the same organization in respect to teachers 
 that the primitive church held. They further 
 hold a twofold priesthood, which they call the 
 Melchizedek and the Aaronic, and they believe 
 in a "baptism for the dead " ; that is, that a 
 living person may save a dead friend by being 
 immersed for him, unless he has committed 
 the unpardonable sin. They believe that the 
 gift of tongues, revelations, visions, etc., is 
 still granted to men, and that many things are 
 still to be revealed concerning the kingdom of 
 God. They further believe in the literal gather- 
 ing of the tribes of Israel and in the restoration 
 of the Ten Tribes ; that Zion will be built 
 upon this continent ; that Christ will reign per- 
 sonally upon this earth, and that the earth will 
 be renewed and receive its paradisal glory. 
 The doctrine of polygamy was not a part of 
 the original revelation of Mormonism, but was 
 introduced later, and came to be not simply 
 tolerated, but enjoined as a positive duty, a 
 man's rank in heaven being alleged to be 
 largely dependent on the number of his chil- 
 dren. Children are taken into the church at 
 the age of eight years ; never before. 
 
 Leaning- Tower of Pisa. This cele- 
 brated and beautiful bell-tower is situated in 
 the city of Pisa, Italy, and was built during 
 the twelfth century by the German architect 
 William of Innspruck. It is cylindrical in 
 shape, 50 feet in diameter, 180 feet high, and 
 leans about 14 feet out of the perpendicular. 
 It is entirely of white marble, and consists of 
 seven stories, divided by rows of columns. 
 The top, which is surmounted by a flat roof 
 and an open gallery, commanding a splendid 
 view of the surrounding country, is reached by 
 300 steps. The tower was not originally in- 
 tended to lean, but the foundation settled 
 more on one side than on the other until it 
 reached the present inclination, which it has 
 maintained with scarcely any perceptible in- 
 crease for hundreds of years. The upper part 
 of the structure was built in a manner to 
 counteract in part the inclination ; and the 
 grand chime of bells, seven in number, of 
 which the largest alone weighs 12,000 pounds, 
 is mounted with reference to counteract this 
 fault still further. 
 
 Ark of the Covenant. Previous to the 
 destruction of the Temple of Solomon by the 
 Babylonians the Ark of the Covenant was 
 contained therein, but what became of it after 
 that time is unknown. It is believed by some 
 to have been taken away or destroyed by
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FiNE ARTS. 
 
 517 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, while certain of the Jews be- 
 lieve that it was concealed from the spoilers, 
 and account it among the hidden things which 
 will be revealed by the Messiah. That the old 
 Ark was not contained in the second Temple 
 all Jewish writers agree ; and the absence of 
 the Ark is one of the important particulars in 
 which this Temple was held to be inferior to 
 that of Solomon. It is held by some writers, 
 however, that the Jews could not properly 
 carry on their worship without an Ark, hence 
 that a new one must have been made and 
 placed in the Temple if the original Ark was 
 not recovered. The silence of Ezra, Nehemiah, 
 the Maccabees, and Josephus, who repeatedly 
 mention all the other sacred utensils but never 
 name the Ark, would, nevertheless, seem con- 
 clusive on this subject. 
 
 Mount Ararat. The mountains of 
 Ararat, referred to in the Scriptures, overlook 
 the plain of Araxes in Armenia, and are 
 divided into two peaks, Great Ararat and Lit- 
 tle Ararat. The summit of the former is 17,- 
 323 feet above the level of the sea, and of the 
 latter 13,000 feet. It is believed that the rest- 
 ing place of the Ark was upon some lower 
 portion of this range rather than upon the 
 peaks, and in support of this view is the fact 
 that at an elevation of 6,000 or 7,000 feet the 
 climate is temperate, the harvests are quick to 
 mature and abundant ; while the peaks, for 
 more than 3,000 feet below their summits, are 
 continuously covered with ice and snow. 
 
 Obelisks. The word is from the Greek, 
 and signifies a prismatic monument of stone 
 or other material terminating in a pyramidal 
 or pointed top. They are found principally in 
 Egypt, and date back to the most remote pe- 
 riods of antiquity. They were placed before 
 the gateways of the principal temples, and 
 correspond in Egyptian art to the columns of 
 the Romans and stelae of the Greeks, and ap- 
 pear to have been erected to record the honors 
 or triumphs of the monarchs. They are also 
 called "monoliths," being cut out of a sin- 
 gle piece of stone, and have four faces, broader 
 at the base than at the top, the width at the 
 base being one tenth the height of the shaft to 
 the beginning of the pyramidion, or cap, which 
 is also one tenth of the same height. The 
 sides are generally sculptured with one verti- 
 cal line of deeply cut hieroglyphs and repiesen- 
 tations. Some of them were origin ally capped 
 with bronze or gold. Their height varied 
 from a few inches to upward of one hundred 
 feet, the tallest known being that of Karnuk, 
 which rises to 105 feet 7 inches. A number of 
 them were removed to Rome by Augustus and 
 later emperors, and they were afterwards 
 transported to various cities of Italy and France 
 
 and used to adorn squares and public parks. 
 Among the most notable of these relics of an- 
 cient art are the two known as Cleopatra's 
 Needles, which, from the inscriptions on them, 
 appear to have been set up at the entrance of 
 the Temple of the Sun, in Heliopolis, Egypt, 
 by Thothmes III., about 1831 B. C. Two cen- 
 turies after their erection the stones were nearly 
 covered with carvings, setting out the greatness 
 and achievements of Rameses II. Twenty- 
 three years before the Christian era they were 
 moved from Heliopolis to Alexandria by Au- 
 gustus Caesar and set up in the CaBsarium, a 
 palace which now stands, a mere mass of ruins, 
 near the station of the railroad to Cairo. In 
 1819 the Egyptian Government presented one 
 of them to England, but it was not taken to 
 London until 1878. The other was trans- 
 ported to New York in 1880, it having been 
 presented to the United States, and was raised 
 on its pedestal in Central Park, New York, 
 January 22, 1881. The material of these, and 
 indeed of most of the obelisks, is granite 
 brought from Syene, near the first cataract of the 
 Nile. They were cut at the quarry, and floated 
 into and down the Nile during one of the an- 
 nual overflows. 
 
 Lake School. Toward the close of the 
 last century the poets Wordsworth, Coleridge, 
 and Southey took up their residence in the 
 Lake district of Cumberland and Westmore- 
 land, in England, for the purpose, as they 
 said, of seeking the sources of poetical inspira- 
 tion in the simplicity of nature, rather than in 
 the works of their predecessors and the fash- 
 ions of the time. On this account they were 
 given the name of the Lake School by the 
 Edinburgh Review 
 
 Kissing 1 the Book. The custom of 
 swearing on the Bible comes from the ancient 
 Jews, who at first touched their phylacteries 
 
 small cases containing strips of parchment 
 inscribed with texts from the Old Testament 
 
 in taking oaths, and later laid their hands 
 upon the Book of the Law ; and the various 
 customs of taking oaths in different countries 
 have all a similar origin. The early Anglo- 
 Saxons regarded stones as sacred to their gods, 
 therefore laid their hands on a pillar of stone. 
 In mediaeval times it was customary to touch 
 a relic, and this was regarded as giving the 
 oath more sacredness than when sworn upon 
 the missal, or prayer book. Another custom 
 of the same times was swearing by churches. 
 A certain number were mentioned, and the 
 attestor was obliged to go to each one, take 
 the ring of the church door in his hand, and 
 repeat his oath. The custom of kissing the 
 cross to attest an oath has been observed in 
 Russia from very early times, and has extended
 
 518 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 into other countries. According to the laws 
 of the Order of the Garter in the time of 
 Henry VIII., Knights Templars wereTequired 
 in taking oath to touch the book and kiss the 
 cross. Since the Reformation the taking of 
 oaths by kissing the Bible has not been per- 
 mitted in Scotland. In other portions of 
 Great Britain it is the common method. 
 
 French Renaissance. "Renaissance " 
 is the name given to the style of art, espe- 
 cially architecture, in Europe which succeeded 
 the Gothic and preceded the rigid copyism of 
 the classic revival in the first half of the pres- 
 ent century. It is also used to denote the time 
 during which this style of art prevailed, and 
 also to include the development of the Euro- 
 pean races in other lines as well as art. The 
 name signifies the " new birth." The date of 
 the beginning of this period coincides with 
 that of the fall of the Byzantine Empire, and 
 the latter was no doubt the cause of the former ; 
 for when the Turks took possession of Con- 
 stantinople all the memorials, paintings, books, 
 etc., that could be removed from the destroy- 
 ing hand of the invaders were hastily conveyed 
 to Italy. These inspired just admiration 
 among the Italian people, and aroused not only 
 a desire to emulate the construction of such 
 worthy works, but also an interest in ancient 
 works and models. In 1494 Charles VIII., 
 King of France, made a warlike expedition 
 into Italy, and on his return brought some 
 Italian workmen to supervise the construction 
 of the royal buildings. This was the first in- 
 troduction of the renaissance into France. 
 Communication between France and Italy was 
 also stimulated by this expedition, and the 
 growth of Italian ideas among the Frencfh was 
 steady, though slow. In the reign of Louis 
 XII., 1498-1515, the work was further stimu- 
 lated by the founding of a school of architec- 
 ture under an artist from Verona. But it was 
 under Francis I., 1515- '47, that the new 
 growth was most stimulated and aided. This 
 prince was possessed both of learning and in- 
 tellectual power. He had a sincere love for 
 literature, science, and art, and a keen appre- 
 ciation of the beautiful in these departments. 
 He invited a number of Italian artists to his 
 court. Among the most famous of these were 
 Leonardo da Vinci and Benvenuto Cellini. 
 These and others introduced Italian details in 
 their designs, which native architects applied 
 to old forms, with which they were familiar ; 
 so that the French renaissance was similar to 
 that of Italy, but different from it in many 
 important respects. All lines of art felt the 
 renaissance spirit ; and not merely architecture, 
 painting, and sculpture, but also music, poetry, 
 and literature were stimulated. The minor 
 
 plastic and decorative arts, engraving, work- 
 ing in wood and metals, pottery, tapestry, etc., 
 were cultivated with eagerness and skill. The 
 study of the classics also received a new im- 
 pulse, and this era had, in France, some of the 
 greatest scholars of the times. Historical 
 writers usually consider the renaissance period 
 as one of the most important influences in has- 
 tening the growth of individuality and the 
 work of the Reformation, and in ushering in 
 ! the progress that has marked the modern his- 
 tory of the world. In Germany, Russia, and 
 every country in Europe, tha renaissance pre- 
 vailed in a manner similar to that above de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Lollards, or Lollhards, acquired their 
 name from their practice of singing dirges at 
 funerals the Low German word lullen, or 
 lollen, signifying to sing softly or slowly. The 
 Lollards were a semi-monastic society formed in 
 Antwerp about the year 1300, the members of 
 which devoted themselves to the care of the sick 
 andthe dead. They were also called, from their 
 frugal life and the poverty of their appearance, 
 Ulatemans ; also, from their patron saint, 
 Brethren of St. Alexius: and on account of 
 their dwelling in cells, Fratres Cellitce. In the 
 frequent pestilences of that period, the Lollards 
 were useful and everywhere welcome, and the 
 order spread through the Netherlands and 
 Germany. Owing to the fact that they were 
 persecuted and reproached with heresy by the 
 clergy and begging-friars, their name was after- 
 ward very commonly given to different classes 
 of religionists ; and in England it became a 
 designation of the followers of Wycliffe. 
 
 French Academy, The, had its origin in 
 a literary coterie which held meetings in 
 Paris during the time of Louis XIV., and its 
 purpose and unity were given to it by Cardinal 
 Richelieu. His object was to have a fixed 
 standard of grammar and rhetoric given to 
 the language, believing that this would tend to 
 the unification and peace of France. The 
 duties which were imposed upon the members 
 of the Academy were " to purify and fix the 
 national tongue, to throw light upon its 
 obscurities, to maintain its character and 
 principles, and at their private meetings to 
 keep this object in view. Their discussions 
 were to turn on grammar, rhetoric, and poetry ; 
 their critical observations on the beauties and 
 defects of classical French authors, in order 
 to prepare editions of their works, and to 
 compose a new dictionary of the French lan- 
 guage." The original Academy was swept 
 away in 1793, and the present Academy pre- 
 serves but little of its original character of a 
 mere coterie of grammarians. This present 
 Academy came into existence with the restora-
 
 RFLIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 519 
 
 rfon of the Bourbons. It meets at the Palace 
 Mazarin, Paris. Its chief officer is its secre- 
 tary, who has a life tenure of his position. 
 He receives a salary of 12,000 francs a year, 
 the society being allowed by the Government 
 85,000 francs a year for the payment of its 
 officers and the care of its library. The Acad- 
 emy is always to consist of forty members, 
 all vacancies being filled by the votes of those 
 already composing the body. To belong to it 
 is regarded as a high honor, the members be- 
 ing spoken of as "the forty immortals." 
 
 Majolica \Vare was first manufactured 
 in the island of Majolica, and from thence the 
 art was taken to Italy, where, during the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries, it was carried 
 on to a considerable extent. A factory for 
 manufacturing this ware was established in 
 Fayence, France, in the latter century, and 
 the name faience was substituted for that of 
 majolica. About 1530, plates and other ware 
 were manufactured in Italy, decorated with 
 subjects derived from the compositions of 
 Raphael and Marc Antonio, and painted in gay 
 and brilliant colors. The establishment was 
 abandoned in 1574, but pieces of majolica 
 continued to be fabricated in various cities of 
 Italy till the eighteenth century. During the 
 decadence of the art of making enameled pot- 
 tery in Italy, it nourished greatly in France at 
 the famous Palissy pottery works at Paris and 
 the factories at Nevers and Rouen, where it was 
 manufactured till the end of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 The Boxers are a Chinese secret society, 
 partly religious and partly patriotic. The 
 Chinese name of the society is Yi-Ho-Chuan, 
 meaning in English, "righteousness, harmony, 
 and ' fists ' " ; the derived name ' * boxers ' ' has 
 evidently been applied because of the athletic 
 aspect the society first assumed. It was first 
 organized in groups which began gymnastic 
 exercises in the Chinese villages, and drilling as 
 a military organization was quickly developed, 
 with broadswords for arms. On account of the 
 swords the boxers have also been known as the 
 "Big Knives." They first made themselves 
 felt in Shan-Tung province, where the Ger- 
 mans secured the lease of Kiao-Chou bay, and 
 large railroad and mineral rights. Each"band, 
 it is said, is governed by a " demonized ' ' 
 leader, who, by the selection of an epileptic 
 patient, or, by the aid of hypnotism, causes a 
 medium to display wild and unnatural symp- 
 toms, or to utter wild and strange speech, this 
 serving as a basis for the claim of the society 
 to spiritual power. Every boxer is assured of 
 immunity from death or physical injury. The 
 assault upon Christianity by the boxers was 
 particularly directed against native converts, 
 
 but later developed into a general anti-foreign 
 crusade. Though revolutionary in their meth- 
 ods they profess fealty to the reigning dynasty, 
 and devotion to the ancient religion, while 
 attacking the foreign influences which they 
 believe to be undermining the ancient institu- 
 tions and nationality of China. 
 
 Libraries, Foreign. First among the 
 libraries of Great Britain, and second to few, 
 if any, on the continent, is that of the Brit- 
 ish Museum. It contains about 1,300,000 
 printed volumes, besides rare and extensive 
 collections of manuscripts, maps, prints, and 
 drawings. Next in rank is the Bodleyan or 
 Bodleian Library at Oxford, which contains 
 300,000 volumes in addition to 20,000 to 30,000 
 in manuscript. The third and fourth places are 
 occupied by the Public or University Library of 
 Cambridge, and the Library of the Faculty of 
 Advocates at Edinburgh, which are nearly on a 
 par as regards extent and value, containing 
 not less than 265,000 volumes each. The 
 Library of Trinity College, Dublin, with about 
 192,000 volumes, is the largest and most valu- 
 able in Ireland. These five libraries have long 
 been, and still are, entitled by statute to a free 
 copy of every book published in the empire. 
 The great National Library of France La 
 Bibliotheque du Roi, as it used to be called, La 
 Bibliotheque Nationale, as it is called at present 
 is one of the largest and most valuable col- 
 lections of books and manuscripts in the world. 
 The number of printed volumes- contained in. 
 it is estimated at nearly 2,500,000, and of 
 manuscripts at about 150,000. Among libra- 
 ries of the second class in Paris, the Arsenal 
 Library with 300,000 volumes, the Library of 
 Ste. Genevieve with 200,000, and the Mazarine 
 Library with 160,000, are the chief. In It- 
 aly the Library of the Vatican at Rome stands 
 pre-eminent. The number of printed vol- 
 umes is only about 200,000, but the manu- 
 script collection is the finest in the world. 
 The Casanata Library, also at Rome, is said to 
 contain 120,000 volumes ; the Ambrosian Li- 
 brary at Milan, 140,000 volumes; the Mag- 
 liabechi Library at Florence, 200,000 volumes ; 
 the Royal Library at Naples, 200,000 volumes ; 
 the Library of St. Mark's at Venice, 120,000 
 volumes and 10,000 manuscripts. The Lau- 
 rentian Library at Florence consists almost en- 
 tirely of manuscripts. The principal libraries 
 of Spain are the Biblioteca Nacional at Mad- 
 rid, numbering nearly 430,000 volumes, and 
 the Library of the Escorial, which contains 
 numerous manuscript volumes, treasures of 
 Arabic literature. The Imperial Library at 
 Vienna is a noble collection of not fewer than 
 400,000 volumes, of which 15,000 are of the 
 class called incunabula, or books printed before
 
 520 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the year 1500. The Royal Library at Munich 
 contains 900,000 volumes, including 13,000 
 'ncunabula, and 22,000 manuscripts. The 
 Royal Library at Dresden is a collection of 
 500,000 volumes, among which are included 
 some of the scarcest specimens of early print- 
 ing, among others the Mainz Psalter of 1457, 
 the first book printed with a date. The Royal 
 Library of Berlin contains about 700,000 vol- 
 umes of printed books, and 15,000 volumes of 
 manuscripts. Of the other libraries in Ger- 
 many, that of the University of Gottingen con- 
 tains upward of 500,000 volumes, the Ducal 
 Library of Wolfenbuttel about 270,000 vol- 
 umes, and the University Library at Stras- 
 burg over 513,000 books and manuscripts. In 
 Holland, the principal library is the Royal 
 Library at the Hague, containing about 200,- 
 000 printed volumes. The Royal Library at 
 Copenhagen contains nearly 550,000 volumes. 
 The largest library in Sweden is that of the 
 University of Upsala, consisting of nearly 200,- 
 000 volumes. One of its chief treasures is 
 the famous manuscript of the Gothic Gospels 
 of Ulfilas, commonly known as the Codex Ar- 
 genteus. The number of volumes in the Impe- 
 rial Library of St. Petersburg, Russia, is esti- 
 mated to be at least 900,000, in addition to 
 35,000 manuscripts. 
 
 Church of England. Up to the time 
 of the Reformation, ecclesiastical affairs would 
 be more properly described as the history of 
 ,the Church in England, as from that period 
 the Church of England dates her existence. 
 From the eighth to the sixteenth century the 
 English Church was subject to Rome ; but for 
 the last two hundred years the seed sown by 
 Wycliffe had been bearing fruit and preparing 
 the people for a final separation, the immedi- 
 ate occasion for which was found in the royal 
 caprice of Henry VIII. From 1066 to 1356 
 there was a constant struggle between the civil 
 and ecclesiastical powers. Then came Wyc- 
 liffe's translation of the Bible into English 
 and his continued war against some of the 
 leading doctrines of the Romish Church, which 
 led to the formation of a new sect called Lol- 
 lards (See LOLLARDS), holding views similar 
 to those of the" present Church. Despite per- 
 secutions, the new doctrines spread and had 
 many adherents. The Reformation is ordi- 
 narily assigned to the reign of Henry VIII., 
 the two most important acts being passed in 
 1532 and 1534 ; but the main feature of these 
 acts was the declaration of the independence 
 of the Church in England and the supremacy 
 of the king over that Church. They had cast 
 off the bondage of Rome, but in doctrine the 
 churches were still in accord ; and it was not 
 until thirty years afterward 1563, in the 
 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth that the Thirty- 
 Nine Articles of Faith were finally reviewed 
 and adopted, and the Protestant Church of 
 England finally and fully established. In 
 1801, by the " Act of Union," the Episcopal 
 churches in England and Ireland were united ; 
 but the latter church was disestablished and 
 disendowed in 1869. The Episcopal Church 
 in Scotland is not, politically speaking, in 
 union with that of England ; but an Act of 
 Parliament, passed in 1864, has taken away 
 many restrictions imposed on Scottish Episco- 
 palians after the battle of Culloden, and 
 clergy ordained by Scotch bishops may now, 
 under some slight restrictions, be presented to 
 benefices in England. 
 
 Christian Association, Young Men's. 
 Associations of young men for Christiaji 
 work have existed in Great Britain and Ire- 
 land, for upward of two centuries, and also in 
 Germany and Switzerland. In 1710 it is re- 
 corded that Cotton Mather addressed kindred 
 societies in New England, which were known 
 as " Young Men Associated." In 1849, the 
 societies which had been established in Ger- 
 many took a wider scope, and from these as- 
 sociations grew the German associations of the 
 present day. The English Young Men's Chris- 
 tian Association commenced in a meeting of 
 clerks organized by George Williams in a mer- 
 cantile establishment in London in 1844. The 
 example of the British metropolis was speedily 
 followed by the various cities of Great Britain 
 founding associations, and in December, 1851, 
 America caught the enthusiasm of the move- 
 ment, and formed an association in Montreal, 
 modeled after the one in London. Then Bos- 
 ton undertook the formation of one for itself, 
 and their growth and influence since that time 
 have been simply wonderful. They now flour- 
 ish in every Protestant Christian country ; 
 and in almost every place where a colony of 
 Christians are gathered, these associations are 
 to be found. 
 
 Blind, Education of The. The main 
 end to be sought in the education of the blind 
 is to fit them to compete in as many ways as 
 possible with the more fortunate who can see, 
 and take them out of their despondency and 
 give them a worthy object to accomplish in 
 life. The first institution for the blind was 
 founded in Memmingen by AVeef VI. in 1178, 
 the second in Paris by Louis IX. in 1260, and 
 the first for the employment of the adult blind 
 in Edinburgh by Dr. Johnston in 1793. The 
 work in a school for the blind is about equal 
 to the ordinary high school course. Pupils are 
 classified as in other schools ; but persons who 
 become blind at the age of twenty, for instance, 
 must begin with the alphabet, as little children
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 521 
 
 do. Writing is taught by tracing with a pencil 
 letters sunk into a stiff card. This manner of 
 writing can be read by seeing persons only. 
 The point systems -Braille's and Waite's 
 are generally used by blind persons to com- 
 municate with each other. In the Illinois In- 
 stitution for the Blind the use of the type- 
 writer is being taught, and it is said that some 
 excellent work has already been done by the 
 pupils. In the study of music the notes are 
 read to the pupil, who writes them down in 
 the Braille or Waite systems, and then studies 
 them at the instrument until they are memo- 
 rized. In most schools books in raised print 
 are used. The first book of this character was 
 printed in Paris in 1784 by M. Valentine 
 Haiiy. 
 
 Gnostic, a word sometimes confounded 
 with agnostic, and employed in a loose and gen- 
 eral way to designate a freethinker. Correctly 
 speaking, gnosticism is the term applied to 
 various forms of philosophical speculation 
 which sprang up in the early history of the 
 Church. They were generally regarded as 
 heretical, but the term itself means simply 
 knowledge, and does not contain any idea of 
 antagonism to Judaism or Christianity. There 
 were three main schools, or centers, of gnostic 
 speculation : the Syrian of Antioch ; the Alex- 
 andrian of Egypt, and that of Asia Minor, rep- 
 resented by Marcion of Pontus. Gnosticism 
 represents the first efforts to construe*, a philo- 
 sophical system of faith, and the main ques- 
 tions with which it concerned itself were the 
 same which in all ages have agitated inquiry 
 and baffled speculation the origin of life 
 and origin of evil, how life sprang from an 
 infinite source, how a world so imperfect as 
 this could proceed from a suprftmely perfect 
 God. All of the schools agreed in the exist- 
 ene of an infinitely Supreme B^ing, their dif- 
 ferences arising in their various speculations 
 to account for the passage from the higher 
 spiritual world to this lower material one. In 
 the Alexandrian thought, er>l is but degen- 
 erated good. The Syrian school assumed the 
 existence of two living, active, independent 
 principles, good and evil. The former system 
 embraced Judaism as a divine institution, 
 although inferior and defective in its manifes- 
 tation of the divine character; the latter re- 
 jected it as being wholly the work of the Spirit 
 of Darkness. The anti-Judaical spirit was de- 
 veloped to the extreme in Marcion and his 
 followers. The gnostics accepted Christ, but 
 in different and modified lights. According 
 to the Alexandrian school, he is a higher 
 Divine Being, proceeding from the Spiritual 
 Kingdom for the redemption of this lower ma- 
 terial kingdom ; but however superior, he is 
 
 yet allied to the lower angels and the Demiur- 
 gos, who is an inferior manifestation of 
 Deity partaking of the Divine nature, the in- 
 termediary between the Infinite Spirit and the 
 material world, and the immediate creator and 
 
 I governor of this world. The Syrian school, 
 on the other hand, regarded Christ as a being 
 totally distinct from the Demiurgos, who was 
 
 ! in their system not the representative and 
 
 i organ of the Supreme Spirit, but a rival Spirit 
 of Darkness ; and hence, in coming into this 
 lower world, he was invading the realms of the 
 
 I powers of darkness, in order to seek out and 
 rescue any higher spiritual natures who were 
 living here under the power of the Evil One. 
 Gnosticism has been well termed an extraordi- 
 nary conglomeration of Monotheism, Panthe- 
 ism, Spiritualism, and Materialism. It was 
 vague, confused, and irrational for the most 
 part, and yet its influence in the world was not 
 
 ! altogether bad. It compelled Christian teach- 
 ers to face the great problems of which it at- 
 tempted the solution in so many fantastic forms. 
 It expanded the horizon of controversy within 
 as without the Church, and made the early 
 fathers feel that it was by the weapons of rea- 
 son and not of authority that they must win 
 the triumph of Catholic Christianity. It may 
 be said to have laid the foundations of Chris- 
 tian science ; and Antioch and Alexandria, the 
 centers of half-pagan and half-Christian specu- 
 lation, became the first centers of rational 
 Christian theology. The several schools began 
 to decline after the middle of the third cen- 
 tury. Their doctrines were revived several 
 times by certain sects in the middle ages, but 
 have had no considerable body of adherents 
 since the thirteenth century. 
 
 Hades. The word " hades " is from the 
 Greek. Its etymology is somewhat doubtful, 
 but it is generally believed to have come from 
 the verb eidein, meaning to see, and the nega- 
 tive particle a. Hence it may mean what is 
 out of sight, the invisible, or, where nothing 
 can be seen, the place of darkness. In Homer 
 the name is applied to Pluto, the lord of the 
 lower regions, perhaps because he was the 
 deity who had the power of making mortals 
 invisible. The Greeks, however, gave up the 
 latter application of the word, and when the 
 Greek Scriptures were written the word was 
 always used to designate the place of departed 
 spirits. It was the common receptacle of 
 departed spirits, the good as well as the bad, 
 and was divided into two parts the one an 
 Elysium of bliss for the good, the other a 
 Tartarus of punishment and grief for the 
 wicked, and its locality was supposed to be 
 underground in the mud regions of the earth. 
 In the very early stages of Grecian history no
 
 522 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 complete theory of punishments or rewards in 
 hades had found its way into the popular creed. 
 The prevalent belief was merely that the souls 
 of the departed with the exception of a few 
 who had personally offended against the gods 
 were occupied in the lower world in the un- 
 real or shadowy performance of the same ac- 
 tions that had employed them when in the 
 region of day. The poets and dramatists 
 introduced the accessories of tribunals, trials 
 of the dead, a paradise for the good, and place 
 of torture for the bad. The modes of punish- 
 ment imagined were ingenious, such as that 
 of Ixion, who was bound to an ever-revolving 
 wheel ; that of Sisyphus, who was set to roll a 
 huge stone up a steep hill, a "toil never ending 
 and still beginning, for as soon as it reached 
 the summit it rolled back again to the plain ; 
 or that of Tantalus, who was placed up to his 
 chin in the water, but was unable to quench 
 his thirst, as the water constantly slipped 
 away from him as he raised it to his lips. 
 Over his head also hung a branch loaded with 
 fruit, but, as he stretched forth his hand to 
 grasp it, it sprang from him toward the clouds. 
 It is plain that these punishments had their 
 origin in the imagination of poets rather than 
 of priests or religious teachers. 
 
 Illiteracy of Various Nations. In 
 Russia, Servia, Roumania, and Bulgaria over 
 80 per cent, of the population are illiterate, 
 Spain 63 per cent., Italy 48 per cent., Hun- 
 gary 43 per cent., Austria 39 per cent., Ireland 
 21 per cent., France and Belgium 15 per cent., 
 Holland 10 per cent., United States (whites) 
 8 per cent., Scotland 7 per cent., Switzerland 
 2.5 per cent., some parts of Germany 1 per 
 cent. In Sweden, Denmark, and Bavaria, 
 Wurtemberg and Saxony, only rarely a person 
 cannot write. 
 
 Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The 
 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, so celebrated 
 among the Greeks, contained a square of four 
 plethra that is, 400 feet on every side and 
 were carried up aloft into the air in the man- 
 ner of several large terraces, one above an- 
 other, till the height equaled that of the walls 
 of the city. The ascent was from terrace to 
 terrace by stairs ten feet wide. The whole 
 pile was sustained by vast arches, raised upon 
 other arches, one upon another, and strength- 
 ened by a wall, surrounding it on every side, 
 of twenty-two feet thickness. On the top of 
 the arches were first laid large flat stones, 
 sixteen feet long and four broad ; over these 
 was a layer of reeds, mixed with a quantity of 
 bitumen, upon which were two rows of bricks, 
 closely cemented together with plaster. The 
 whole was covered with thick sheets of lead, 
 upon which lay the mold of the garden ; and 
 
 ! all this flooring was contrived to keep the 
 moisture of the mold from running away 
 through the arches. The mold, or earth, laid 
 
 j thereon was so deep that the greatest trees 
 might take root in it ; and with such the ter- 
 races were covered, as well as \\ ith all other 
 plants and flowers that were proper for a gar- 
 
 | den of pleasure. In the upper terrace there 
 was an engine or kind of pump by which water 
 was drawn up out of the river, and from thence 
 the whole garden was watered. In the spaces 
 between the several arches, upon which the 
 whole structure rested, were large amd magnif- 
 icent apartments that were very light, and had 
 the advantage of an exceedingly beautiful 
 prospect. 
 
 Pan, the chief Grecian god of pastures, 
 forests, and flocks. He was, according to the 
 most common belief, a son of Hermes by a 
 daughter of Dryops, or by Penelope, the wife 
 of Ulysses ; while other accounts make Penel- 
 ope the mother, but Ulysses himself the father 
 though the paternity of the god is also 
 ascribed to the numerous wooers of Penelope 
 in common. The original seat of his worship 
 was the wild, hilly, and wooded solitudes of 
 Arcadia, whence it gradually spread over the 
 rest of Greece, but was not* introduced into 
 Athens until after the battle of Marathon. He 
 is represented as having horns, a goat's beard, 
 a crooked nose, pointed ears, a tail, and 
 goat's feet. He had a terrible voice, which, 
 bursting abruptly on the ear of the traveler in 
 solitary places, inspired him with a sudden 
 fear (whence the word panic). He is also rep- 
 resented as fond of music and of dancing with 
 the forest nymphs, and as the inventor of the 
 syrinx or shepherd's flute, also called Pan's 
 pipe. The fir tree was sacred to him, and he 
 had sanctuaries and temples in various parts of 
 Arcadia, at Troezene, at Sicyon, at Athens, 
 etc. When, after the establishment of Chris- 
 tianity, the heathen deities were degraded by 
 the Church into fallen angels, the characteris- 
 tics of Pan the horns, the goat's beard, the 
 pointed ears, the crooked nose, the tail, and 
 the goat's feet were transferred to the devil 
 
 j himself , and thus the "Auld Hornie " of 
 
 j popular superstition is simply Pan in dis- 
 guise. 
 
 ^Esthetics is a term invented about the 
 middle of the last century by Baumgarten, a 
 Professor of Philosophy in the University of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, to denote the science 
 of the Beautiful, particularly of art, as the 
 most perfect manifestation of the Beautiful. 
 Notwithstanding the fact that the Beautiful 
 was a favorite subject of contemplation among 
 the ancients, Baumgarten is held to be the 
 
 , first who considered the subject from the true
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 523 
 
 scientific point of view, and therefore entitled 
 to be called the founder of the philosophy of 
 art. All sensuous apprehension, not in one 
 form or manifestation only, but in every possi- 
 ble form or manifestation, was included in his 
 view of the subject, and this conception he 
 expressed by the word ^Esthetics, from the 
 Greek aisthanomai, I feel indicating not ab- 
 solute or objective knowledge of things, but 
 such as is conditioned subjectively by the play 
 of our sensibilities. Beauty was, with Baum- 
 garten, the result of the highest and purest 
 aesthetic perception, to the realization of which 
 
 the finer portion of our nature aspires ; and to 
 trace which, through the whole sphere of art, 
 was the work of {esthetic philosophy. 
 
 COMPULSORY SCHOOL LAWS. 
 
 United States. Twenty-nine States and two 
 Territories have passed compulsory school laws 
 defining the ages to which the law shall apply, 
 the annual term of school attendance, and the 
 penalty imposed upon parents or guardians for 
 violation of the law. 
 
 These requirements are summarized in th 
 following table : 
 
 Compulsory Education Requirements in the United States. 
 
 STATE. 
 
 AGE. 
 
 ANNUAL PERIOD. 
 
 PENALTY ON PARENTS OR GUARDIANS. 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York. 
 
 New Jersey.. . 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Indiana , 
 
 Illinois 
 Michigan.. 
 
 "Wisconsin. 
 Minnesota 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 South Dakota. 
 Nebraska ..... 
 Kansas . . . 
 
 Montana 
 
 Wyoming . . . 
 Colorado .... 
 New Mexico. 
 
 Utah.... 
 Nevada . 
 Idaho . . 
 
 Washington. 
 Oregon 
 
 California. 
 
 8-15 
 
 6-16 
 8-15 
 
 8-14 or 15 
 
 7-15 
 
 8-14 or 15 
 
 08-14 
 
 67-12 
 a 8-13 
 
 C6-15 
 8-14 
 7-14 
 
 a 8-14 
 
 8-14 
 7-14 
 
 7-13 
 8-16 
 
 8-14 
 
 8-14 
 8-14 
 8-14 
 
 8-14 
 
 e6-21 
 8-14 
 8-16 
 
 8-14 
 
 C8-14 
 
 8-14 
 
 8-15 
 8-14 
 
 8-14 
 
 16 weeks (2 terms of 8 weeks 
 each, if practicable). 
 
 12 weeks 
 
 20 weeks 
 
 30 weeks 
 
 12 weeks ; 6 consecuti ve 
 
 8 to 13 years of age, 24 weeks ; 
 13 to 14, 12 weeks. 
 
 8 to 12 years of age and un- 
 employed youths 14 to 16, full 
 term ;" for children 12 to 14, 
 at least 80 days consecutive. 
 
 20 weeks ; 8 consecutive 
 
 70 per cent, of the entire term 
 
 12 weeks; 6 consecutive. 
 
 16 weeks 
 
 8 consecutive weeks 
 
 20 weeks, city district; 16 
 weeks, village and town- 
 ship districts. 
 
 12 consecutive weeks 
 
 16 weeks ; 8 consecutive. 
 16 weeks ; 6 consecutive. 
 
 12 weeks 
 
 12 weeks ; 6 consecutive 
 
 .do 
 
 .do 
 
 12 weeks 
 
 12 weeks ; 6 consecutive j 
 
 ...do... 
 
 12 weeks 
 
 12 weeks; 8 consecutive. 
 12 weeks 
 
 16 weeks ; 10 consecutive 
 
 16 weeks ; 8 consecutive 
 
 ...do... 
 
 12 weeks 
 
 12 weeks ; 8 consecutive. 
 
 Two thirds of school term ; 12 
 weeks consecutive. 
 
 Fine, $25 (maximum). 
 
 Each offense, $10 (maximum). 
 
 Fine, $10 to 50. 
 
 Each offense, forfeit not exceeding $20. 
 
 Each offense, fine 20 (maximum). 
 
 For each week's neglect, fine $5 (maximum). 
 
 First offense, fine ${j (maximum) ; each sub- 
 sequent offense. >50 (maximum) or im- 
 prisonment 30 days. 
 
 Each offense, $10 to $25, or imprisonment 1 
 to 3 months. 
 
 First offense, $2 (maximum) ; each subse- 
 quent offense, $5 (maximum). 
 
 Fine, $20 (maximum). 
 
 Fine, not exceeding 5. 
 
 Fine, $5 to $20 (first offense); $10 to $50 
 each subsequent offense. 
 
 Fine, $5 to $20. 
 
 $10 to $50; also, if court so orders, im- 
 prisonment 2 to 90 days. 
 
 Fine, $3 to 20. 
 
 First offense, $5 to $10; each subsequent 
 offense, 10 (minimum). 
 
 Fine, $3 to $20. 
 
 First offense, $10 to $25 ; each subsequent 
 offense, 25 to 50. 
 
 First offense, $5 to $20; each subsequent 
 offense, 10 to 50. 
 
 Fine, 10 to 20. 
 
 Each offense, $10 to 50. 
 
 First offense, line $5 to $10; each subse- 
 quent offense, $10 to 20. 
 
 Each offense, 5 to $20, or 30 days' imprison- 
 ment. 
 
 Each offense, $25 (maximum). 
 
 Each offense, 5 to 25. 
 
 Fine, 1 to $25, or imprisonment for not 
 more than 10 days. 
 
 First offense, $10 "(maximum); each subse- 
 quent offense, 30. 
 
 First offense, 50 to $100; each subsequent 
 offense, $100 to 200. 
 
 First, $5 to 20 ; subsequent offenses, $10 to 
 $50 
 
 Fine,' $10 to $25. 
 
 First offense, $5 to $25 ; subsequent offense, 
 25 to $50. 
 
 First offense, $20 ; each subsequent offense, 
 20 to $50. 
 
 a To 16 if unemployed in labor. 
 
 b The law applies to youths 12 to 16 years of age if discharged from employment in order to receive instruction. 
 
 c Law not enforced. 
 
 d In cities, 7 to 16. 
 
 e Penalty imposed only for children 7 to 16.
 
 5*4 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Compulsory Education in Foreign Countries. 
 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 AGE. 
 
 ATTENDANCE REQUIRED. 
 
 PENALTY. 
 
 Austria 
 
 6-14 
 
 Until scholar has acquired 
 
 
 
 a 6-14 
 
 prescribed subjects, relig- 
 ion and reading, writing 
 and arithmetic. 
 Do 
 
 to 2 "days. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 No compulsory law 
 
 ment. 
 
 France 
 
 6-13 
 
 For 4 absences of half a day 
 
 
 
 England 
 
 5-13 
 
 in a month the parent is 
 summoned before local 
 school committee. 
 Full school term unless by 
 
 sequent fine, 3 (maximum) and im- 
 prisonment 5 days. 
 
 Determined by local by-laws 
 
 Scotland 
 
 5-13 
 
 special arrangement. 
 Do 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 No compulsory law . . 
 
 
 
 66-12 
 
 8 months, country 10 months 
 
 Fine from 35 cents to $1 50 
 
 Italy 
 
 6-9 
 
 town. 
 No fixed rule 
 
 Each offense 10 cents to $2 
 
 Norway 
 
 (c) 
 
 12 weeks per annum . 
 
 Fines. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 6-14 
 
 
 
 Saxony 
 
 d7-15 
 
 education is completed. 
 Same as Austria 
 
 prisonment up to three days. 
 Fine, $1.50 to 7 00 or imprisonment from 
 
 Sweden 
 
 7-14 
 
 34% weeks ; 
 
 1 day to 6 weeks. 
 
 Berne 
 
 6-15 
 
 Five sixths of possible attend- 
 
 
 Geneva 
 
 6-15 
 
 ances. 
 4 davs a week, 6 hours a dav 
 
 Do 
 
 Neuf cbatel 
 
 7-16 
 
 After 13 years of age, 10 hours 
 
 
 Tessin (Switzerland). . 
 Vaud (Switzerland)... 
 
 6-14 
 V 7-16 
 
 a week! 
 28 hours a week for 6 to 9 
 months. 
 33 hours a week 
 
 30 days (maximum). 
 Each offense 2 to 3 cents, and 4 hours' im- 
 prisonment. 
 
 Grisons (Switzerland). 
 
 7-15 
 
 
 Fines or imprisonment 
 
 Zurich 
 
 6-16 
 
 Every day; penalties for 10 
 
 Warnings; subsequently fines 60 cents to 
 
 Wurtemberg 
 
 6-14 
 
 absences. 
 Every school day 
 
 ffljo 
 
 <JO. 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 7-12 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 Cape Colony 
 
 
 No compulsory law 
 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 7 13 
 
 One half the period during 
 
 Fine, $10 (maximum) 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 7 12 
 
 which the school is open. 
 80 days a year .... 
 
 Fine, $2. 
 
 Ontario 
 
 7-13 
 
 100 days a year 
 
 $1 per month for each of the children not 
 
 Prince Edward Island 
 
 8-13 
 
 13 weeks a year 
 
 attending a school. 
 Fine. 
 
 Quebec 
 
 
 No compulsory law 
 
 
 Queensland 
 
 6-12 
 
 60 days in each half year, but 
 
 Fine, $5 to $25 or imprisonment 7 to 30 
 
 South Australia 
 
 7 13 
 
 law not yet enforced. 
 35 school davs per quarter 
 
 days. 
 Fine, $1 25 to $5 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 7-13 
 
 3 davs a wee'k 
 
 
 a 13 to 16 in secular Sunday Schools. 
 
 6 12 to 15 continuation. 
 
 c From 8 until confirmation ; in town from 7 until confirmation. 
 
 d Special dispensation after 7 years' attendance and 1 year's prolongation for ignorance. 
 
 Halacha is the term for the Jewish oral 
 law, and is supposed to be, like the written 
 law contained in the Bible, of divine origin. 
 It embraces the whole field of juridico-political, 
 religious, and practical life down to its most 
 minute and insignificant detaLs. It began to 
 be written down when the sufferings to which 
 the Jews were almost uninterruptedly sub- 
 jected from the first exile downward had 
 made many portions of it already very uncer- 
 tain and fluctuating, and threatened finally to 
 obliterate it altogether from memory. The 
 first collection of laws was instituted by Hillel, 
 Akiba, and Gamaliel ; but the final reduction 
 of the general code, Mishna, is due to Jehudah 
 Hanassi, A. D. 220. The Halacha was fur- 
 ther developed in subsequent centuries by the 
 Saboraim, Geonim, and the authorities of each 
 generation. 
 
 Oneida Community is a society of Per- 
 fectionists, or Bible Communists, founded by 
 John Humphrey Noyes, who was born at 
 Brattleborough, Vt., in 1811. He was origi- 
 nally a lawyer, then studied theology at Andover 
 and Yale, and became a Congregational min- 
 ister, but soon lost his license to preach on 
 account of the views which he adopted. The 
 Community is situated on Oneida Creek, in 
 Lenox township, Madison County, N. Y., 
 where it owns a fine estate, several mills and 
 manufactories, and is said to be in a prosperous 
 condition. The cardinal principles of the 
 Community are four in number: reconciliation 
 to God, salvation from sin, recognition of the 
 brotherhood and equality of man and woman, 
 and the community of labor and its fruits. 
 The last named principle embraces a scheme by 
 which all the male and all the female members
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 525 
 
 of the Community are held in a sense to be 
 married to each other. This has led to the 
 charge being made against them of being 
 "free-lovers"; but, says one writer, "The 
 system, as regulated by the ' principle of sym- 
 pathy ' and controlled by that free public 
 opinion which constitutes the supreme govern- 
 ment of the society, is far from being ame- 
 nable to the reproach of immorality in any 
 sense of the word." The Community reject 
 all rules of conduct except those which each '. 
 believer formulates for himself, subject to the 
 free criticism of his associates. They hold | 
 that the Mosaic law and ordinances were abro- | 
 gated by the second coming of Christ, which 
 they place at A. D. 70, and at which time the 
 reign of sin was concluded ; and true believers 
 have since been free to follow the indications 
 of the Holy Spirit in all things, nothing being 
 good or bad in itself. While all the males and 
 females are united by a " complex marriage," 
 their intercourse which, in theory, is un- 
 fettered by any law is, in practice, subject to 
 a good deal of regulation. Like everything 
 else, it is subject to the opinion of the society, 
 and certain principles have been so steadily ap- 
 plied to it that they have gained the force of 
 laws. First, there is the principle of the as- 
 cending fellowship. There should be contrast, 
 the Perfectionists say, between those who be- | 
 come united in love. That there should be j 
 differences of temperament and of complexion 
 has, they say, been well ascertained by phys- j 
 iologists. They hold that there should be a 
 difference in age also, so that the young and 
 passionate may be united to those who have, j 
 by experience, gained self-control. In virtue 
 of this principle, the younger women fall to j 
 the older men. and the younger men to 
 the older women. A second principle is 
 that there should be no exclusive attachment 
 between individuals ; a third, that persons ; 
 should not be obliged to receive the attentions ; 
 of those whom they do not like ; and, lastly, it 
 is held indispensable that connections should 
 be formed through the agency of a third party; 
 because, without this, the question of their 
 propriety might be open to criticism, and also 
 because this affords the lady an easy opportu- 
 nity of declining. 
 
 Pagodas are in most instances pyramidal- ] 
 shaped temples consisting of various layers of 
 stones piled one upon another in successive reces- 
 sion, and covered all over with the richest orna- 
 mentation. They are among the most remark- 
 able monuments of Hindoo architecture. The 
 pilasters and columns, which take a prominent 
 rank in the ornamental portion of these tem- 
 ples, show the greatest variety of forms ; some 
 pagodas are also overlaid with strips of cop- 
 
 per, having the appearance of gold. Though 
 the word pagoda is. used to designate but the 
 temple, it is in reality an aggregate of various 
 monuments, which in their totality constitute 
 the holy place sacred to the god. Sanctuaries, 
 porches, colonnades, gateways, walls, tanks, 
 etc., are generally combined for this purpose 
 according to a plan which is more or less uni- 
 form. Several series of walls form an inclo- 
 sure ; between them are alleys, habitations for 
 the priests, etc. ; and the interior is occupied 
 by the temple itself, with buildings for the 
 pilgrims, tanks, porticoes, and open colon- 
 nades. The walls have, at their openings, large 
 pyramidal gateways higher than themselves, 
 and so constructed that the gateway of the 
 outer wall is always higher than that of the 
 succeeding inner wall. These gateways are 
 pyramidal buildings of the most elaborate 
 workmanship, and consist of several, some- 
 times as many as fifteen, stories. The pagoda 
 of Chalambron, in Tanjore, is one of the most 
 celebrated and most sacred of these monu- 
 ments in India. The buildings of which this 
 pagoda is composed cover an oblong square 
 360 feet long and 210 wide. The pagodas of 
 Juggernaut on the north end of the coast of 
 Coromandel are three in number, and are sur- 
 rounded by a wall of black stone, whence they 
 are called by Europeans the Black Pagodas. 
 The height of the principal one is said to be 
 344 feet ; according to some, however, it does 
 not exceed 120-123 feet. The term pagoda is 
 also applied, but not correctly, to those Chinese 
 buildings of a tower form, as the Porcelain 
 Tower of Nanking. These buildings differ 
 materially from the Hindoo pagodas, not only 
 as regards their style and exterior appearance, 
 but inasmuch as they are buildings intended 
 for other than religious purposes. The word 
 pagoda is, according to some, a corruption of 
 the Sanskrit word bhagavata, from bhagavat, 
 sacred ; but according to others, a corruption 
 of put-gada, from the Persian put, idol, and 
 gada, house. 
 
 Hampshire Shakers. This community 
 of Shakers settled in the New Forest, near 
 Lymington, Hampshire, England, in 1872 or 
 1873, and consisted of eighty-three persons. 
 Their leader, a Mrs. Girling, wife of an Ips- 
 wich builder, declared herself to be the woman 
 of the twelfth chapter of Revelations, who \vas 
 "clothed with the sun, and the moon under 
 her feet." These Girlingites, or Bible Chris- 
 tians, as they called themselves, believed that 
 the earth and the fullness thereof belonged to 
 the elect, and that they were the elect. They 
 professed to take the literal scriptures for their 
 guide in all things, yet were so little inclined 
 to earn their bread by the sweat of their bro\
 
 526 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 that they got into debt, mortgaged the cot- 
 tages which had been secured for them by a 
 Miss Wood, a convert, and finally lost their 
 property in 1878, when, as a community, they 
 passed out of existence. 
 
 Pantheon of Rome, a famous temple 
 of circular form, built by M. Agrippa, son-in- 
 law of Augustus, in his third consulship, about 
 27 B. C. The edifice was called the Pantheon, 
 not, as is commonly supposed, from its having 
 been sacred to all the gods, but from its ma- 
 jestic dome, which represented, as it were, the 
 "all-divine" firmament. It was dedicated to 
 Jupiter Ultor. Beside the statue of this god, 
 however, there were in six other niches as 
 many colossal statues of other deities, among 
 which were those of Mars and Venus, the 
 founders of the Julian line, and that of Julius 
 Csesar. The Pantheon is by far the .largest 
 structure of ancient times, the external diam- 
 eter being 188 feet, and the height to the sum- 
 mit of the upper cornice 102 feet, exclusive of 
 the flat dome or calotte, which makes the entire 
 height about 148 feet. It has a portico, in 
 the style of the Corinthian architecture, 110 
 feet in length and 44 feet in depth, made up of 
 16 granite columns, with marble capitals and 
 bases, placed in three rows, each column being 
 5 feet in diameter and 46 feet high. These 
 columns supported a pediment with a roof of 
 bronze. The Pantheon stands near the ancient 
 Campus Martius, and, after the lapse of 1900 
 years, is still the best preserved of the old 
 Roman buildings. It was given to Boniface 
 IV. by the Emperor Phocas in 609, and was 
 dedicated as a Christian church to the Virgin 
 and the Holy Martyrs, a quantity of whose 
 relics was placed under the great altar. In 
 830, Gregory IV. dedicated it to all the saints. 
 It is now known as the Church of Santa Maria 
 Rotunda. This consecration of the edifice, 
 however, seems to have afforded it no defense 
 against the subsequent spoliations, both of 
 emperors and popes. The plates of gilded 
 bronze that covered the roof, the bronze bassi- 
 relievi of the pediment, and the silver that 
 adorned the interior of the dome, were carried off 
 byConstans II., A. D. 655, who destined them 
 for his-imperial palace at Constantinople ; but, ; 
 being murdered at Syracuse when on his return 
 with them, they were taken by their next pro- \ 
 prietors to Alexandria. Urban VIII. carried 
 off all that was left to purloin the bronze 
 beams of the portico, which amounted in 
 weight to more than 45,000,000 pounds. Dur- 1 
 ing eight centuries it has suffered from 
 the dilapidations of time and the cupidity of 
 barbarians. The seven steps which elevated it ' 
 above the level of ancient Rome are buried 
 >eneath the modern pavement. Its rotunda of 
 
 brick is blackened and decayed ; the marble 
 statues, the bassi-relievi, the brazen columns, 
 have disappeared ; its ornaments have van- 
 ished, its granite columns have lost their luster, 
 and its marble capitals their purity. Yet, 
 under every disadvantage, it is still pre- 
 eminently beautiful. No eye can rest on the 
 noble simplicity of the matchless portico with- 
 out admiration. Its beauty is of that sort 
 which, while the fabric stands, time has no 
 power to destroy. 
 
 Oracles dated from the highest antiquity, 
 and flourished in the most remote ages. The 
 J word signifies the response delivered by a 
 ' deity or supernatural being to a worshiper or 
 inquirer, and also the place where the response 
 i was delivered. These responses were sup- 
 posed to be given by a certain divine afflatus, 
 either through means of mankind, as in the 
 orgasms of the Pythia, and the dreams of the 
 | worshiper in the temples ; or by its effect on 
 : certain objects, as the tinkling of the caldrons 
 at Dodona, the rustling of the sacred oak, the 
 murmuring of the streams ; or by the action of 
 ! sacred animals, as exemplified in the Apis or 
 ! sacred bull of Memphis, and the feeding of 
 holy chickens of the Romans. These responses, 
 however, had always to be interpreted to the 
 I inquirer by the priesthood. It is probable that 
 all the Egyptian temples were oracular, although 
 only a few are mentioned by Herodotus, as 
 ! the oracles of Latona in the city of Buto ; 
 those of Hercules, Mars, Thebes, and Meroe. 
 Oracles -were also used by the Hebrews. The 
 Grecian oracles enjoyed the highest reputation 
 ! for truthfulness, and the most renowned of 
 | all was the Delphic Oracle. Sacrifices were 
 offered by the inquirers, who walked with 
 j laurel crowns on their heads, and delivered 
 ' sealed questions ; the response was deemed 
 infallible, and was usually dictated by justice, 
 | sound sense, and reason, till the growing po- 
 I litical importance of the shrine rendered the 
 guardians of it fearful to offend, when they 
 | framed answers in ambiguous terms, or al- 
 lowed the influence of gold and presents to 
 j corrupt the inspirations. There were numer- 
 ous other oracles in Greece and in Asia Mi- 
 nor, and written ones existed of the prophecies 
 ! of celebrated seers. Those of the Sibyls or 
 prophetic women enjoyed great popularity. 
 
 Holy Grail. The Holy Grail was one of 
 the leading themes of mediaeval romance, 
 fabled to have been the cup or chalice used by 
 Christ in the Last Supper, and in which he 
 changed the wine into blood. This chalice, 
 preserved by Joseph of Arimathea, had also 
 received the blood which flowed from the side 
 of Christ on the cross. This is what the 
 apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus says, but no
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 527 
 
 early mention is made of it by either profane 
 or ecclesiastical writers. In the twelfth cen- 
 tury it reappears as the central subject of the 
 prophecies of Merlin and the object of the ad- 
 venturous quest of the Knights of the Round 
 Table. It was also mixed up, by romance, 
 with the struggles in Spain between Moors and 
 Christians, and with the foundation of the 
 Order of Templars in Palestine. 
 
 Peter the Hermit was the apostle of the 
 first crusade, and was born in the diocese of 
 Amiens, France, about the middle of the 
 eleventh century. After engaging in several 
 pursuits he became a hermit, and in 1093 un- 
 
 dertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where the 
 oppression he witnessed and experienced deter- 
 mined him to arouse the people of Christendom 
 to undertake a war for the liberation of the holy 
 sepulcher. The first host of crusaders was led 
 by Peter in person, and was unsuccessful. He 
 was associated with the expedition under God- 
 frey of Bouillon. While the crusaders were be- 
 sieged in Antioch, he deserted, but was captured 
 and brought back. On the conquest of Jeru- 
 salem he preached a sermon to the crusaders on 
 the Mount of Olives. After this he returned 
 to Europe and founded the Abbey of Neuf- 
 moustier, near Huy, where he died in 1115. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 Colleges. Location. 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 Denomina- 
 tional 
 Control. 
 
 President or Chairman 
 of Faculty. 
 
 Instruc- 
 tors.* 
 
 Students.* 
 
 a 9 ^ 
 
 i* |12 
 
 3 * c 
 o <- - - - 
 
 5:2 "25 
 o3 2hg 
 
 > fc < 
 
 1873 Add-Ran Christ, Un.f Waco, Tex... 
 1896 Adelphi Colleget B'klyn Boro, N. Y. 
 
 Disciples 
 Non-Sect 
 Meth. Prot 
 
 B.C. Snow, A.M 
 C. H. Levermore, Ph.D 
 Dr. David Jones (Act.Pres.) 
 W.LeRoy Broun,M.A.,LL.D 
 Rev.J.P.Ashley,S.T.B..PhD 
 Rev. Boothe C.Davis, Ph.D. 
 William H. Crawford, D.D. 
 Rev. A. F. Bruske, D.D.... 
 J. F. Spence, A.M., LL.D. . . 
 Bp. J.F. Hurst, D.D. , LL.D. 
 George Harris, D.D., LL.D. 
 Rev. J.C.Calhoun, A.B., A.M 
 George F.Moore, D.D 
 William A. Bell, M.A 
 
 15 
 70 
 15 
 30 
 26 
 18 
 18 
 19 
 30 
 
 'S2 
 10 
 8 
 12 
 6 
 60 
 48 
 16 
 20 
 10 
 7 
 26 
 9 
 10 
 23 
 11 
 36 
 24 
 21 
 23 
 13 
 31 
 22 
 10 
 9 
 7 
 11 
 20 
 144 
 31 
 15 
 64 
 41 
 18 
 26 
 10 
 22 
 22 
 8 
 21 
 12 
 12 
 20 
 10 
 30 
 
 200 
 1.062 
 115 
 341 
 427 
 150 
 326 
 223 
 400 
 
 "377 
 240 
 41 
 150 
 108 
 790 
 1.200 
 155 
 300 
 100 
 194 
 P12 
 102 
 120 
 532 
 272 
 265 
 340 
 541 
 414 
 223 
 674 
 427 
 100 
 89 
 202 
 263 
 477 
 1,454 
 379 
 344 
 909 
 310 
 192i 
 419 
 188 
 238 1 
 240 
 115 
 310 
 300 
 158 
 240 
 170 
 175 
 
 3,250 20,000 
 8,000 
 
 1859 Adrian Colleget - Adrian, Mich 
 
 6,000 80,000 
 11,000 57,791 
 12,000 230,000 
 11,728; 289.000 
 17,0001 200,000 
 15,000 220,000 
 2,000i 
 
 1872 Alabama Poly. Inst.f.. Auburn, Ala 
 1861 Albion folleget Albion, Mich 
 
 Non-Sect 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Non-Sect 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Presbyterian 
 Non-Sect 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Congregat'l. . 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Presbyterian 
 Non-Sect.... 
 Non-Sect .... 
 
 1836 Alfred TJniversitvt . . . . i Alfred, N. Y 
 1815 Allegheny Colleget Meadville, Pa 
 1887 Alma Colleget.. . Alma, Mich 
 
 1892 Am. Temperance Un.t Harriman, Tenn.. . 
 1891 American Univ.t(. .) Washington, D. C. 
 1821 Amherst College Amherst, Mass 
 1872 Amitv Colleget. College Springs, la 
 
 4,500 
 70,0ro 1,600,000 
 4,000 27,000 
 51,000 800,000 
 5,000 102.000 
 4,000 
 
 1808 Andover Theol. Sem. . Andover, Mass 
 1852 Antioch Colleget -Yellow Springs, O 
 
 1872 Arkansas Colleget Batesville, Ark .... 
 1872 Arkansas Indus. Un.t Favet'ville.Ark/p) 
 1893 Armour Inst. Tech'vt Chicago, 111 
 
 Eugene R. Long, A.M.. Ph.D 
 1. L.Buchanan, A.M., LL.D. 
 V. C. Alderson 
 
 7,908! 130,000 
 16,000 1,500,000 
 2,500 
 
 1842 Ashevillo Colleget... ". . Asheville, N. C.... 
 1869 Atlanta TJniversitvt. ..Atlanta, Ga 
 1820 Auburn Theol. Sem'y. Auburn, N. Y 
 1869 Augsburg Seminarv... 'Minneapolis, Minn 
 1860 Augustana Colleget(^) Rock Island, 111.. . 
 1849 Austin College Sherman, Tex 
 1809 Avalon Colleget Trenton, Mo 
 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Presbyterian 
 Lutheran 
 Lutheran 
 Presbyterian 
 U. Brethren. 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Non-Sect 
 Free Baptist 
 Baptist 
 Non-Sect 
 Congregat'l . 
 Non-Sect ' 
 Lutheran 
 Disciples 
 Baptist 
 Cumb. Pres.. 
 Presbvterian 
 R. Catholic.. 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Congregat'l . 
 Latter Day.. 
 Non-Sect .*. . . 
 Non-Sect 1 
 Universalist. 
 Baptist I 
 Christian....! 
 Non-Sect .... 
 R. Catholic.. 
 Lutheran 
 Congregat'l.. 1 
 Baptist 
 Lutheran 1 
 Non-Sect ! 
 Reformed . . . 
 R. Catholic..' 
 
 Archibald A. Jones, A. 15... 
 Horace Bumstead, D.D 
 Rev. G. B. Stewart, D.D.... 
 George Sverdrup 
 Rev. O. Olsson.D.D., Ph.D. 
 T. R. Sampson, A.B., D.D.. 
 C. J. Kephart, A.M.. D.D... 
 Lemuel H. Murlin, D.D 
 Rev. R.M. Freshwater.D.D. 
 Emilv J. Smith, A.B.,Dean. 
 George C.Chase,D.D.,LL.D. 
 Oscar H. Cooper, LL.D 
 E. D. Eaton, D.D. , LL.D .... 
 Rev. James G. Rodger,A.B. 
 Wm. G. Frost, Ph.D., D.D.. 
 Rev. C. Swensson, Ph.D 
 C. A. Young, Ph.D 
 Rev. E.S. Alderman, D.D.. 
 Charles E. Stark, A.M 
 Rev. D. J. Sanders, D.D 
 Rev. Tim. Brosnahan, S.J.. 
 W. F. Warren. S.T.D..LL.D. 
 Wm. DeWitt Hyde. D.D.. .. 
 James H.Limford,B.S.,B.D. 
 W. H. P. Faunce, D.D 
 M. Carey Thomas, Ph.D. . . . 
 Rev. Ira A. Priest 
 
 10,400 42.000 
 32,477| 569,775 
 1,0(10 
 
 15,000' 325,000 
 8,000| 60,000 
 5,000 
 
 1858 Baker Universityt.... Baldwin, Kas 
 1845 Baldwin University. . Berea, O 
 1889 Barnard Colleget(ci).. . Manh'n Boro, N.Y. 
 1863 Bates Colleget Lewiston, Me 
 1845 Bavlor Universityt. ..Waco, Tex 
 
 7,0.00 10,000 
 6,000 80,000 
 (d) i 
 
 20,000 356,000 
 8,000 8,500 
 24,000 
 
 1847 Beloit Colleget ^Beloit, Wis 
 
 1891 Benzonia Colleget(tf). . Benzonia, Mich... 
 1855 Berea Colleget i Berea, Ky 
 1881 Bethany Colleget. ... Lindsborg, Kan. . . 
 1841 Bethany Colleget Bethanv, W. Ya.. . 
 1854 Bethel College Russellville Ky 
 
 6,000 
 
 14,000; 
 
 5,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 5,000 125,000 
 1,000 
 
 1847 Bethel Colleget McKenzie, Tenn 
 
 1868 Biddle University i Charlotte, N . C 
 1864 Boston Collep-e i Boston, Mass 
 
 13,000 .... 
 
 39,109 400,000 
 937,000 
 63.000 660,416 
 3,100 100,000 
 90,000 1,297,227 
 27,291 1,500,000 
 7,500 200,000 
 18,000 400,000 
 3 825 
 
 1869 Boston Universityt.... Boston, Mass 
 1794 Bowdoin College Brunswick, Me 
 1877 Brigham Young Col.t Logan, Utah i 
 1764 Brown Universitvf Providence, R.I... 1 
 1880 Brvn Mawr Colleget. . Brvn Mawr, Pa 
 1871 Buchtel Colleget. Ak'ron, O 
 
 1846 Bucknell Universityt. Lewisburg, Pa 
 1848 Burritt Colleget Spencer, Tenn 
 1855 Butler Universityt(fl). Irvington, Ind ' 
 1870 Canisius College 'Buffalo, N. Y 
 1850 Capital University Columbus, O 
 1866 Carleton Colleget Northfleld.Minn. . 
 1851 Carson & Newman C.t Mossy Creek, Tenn 
 1870 Carthage Colleget Carthage, 111 
 1880 Case Sc. App'l Science Cleveland, O 
 1851 Catawba Colleget :Newton. N. C 
 1888 Catholic Univ. Am.(/) Washington, D. C. 
 
 John H.Harris. LL.D., Ph.D. 
 \V. N. Billingslev, A.M 
 Scot Butler, A.M., LL.D.. . . 
 Rev. John B. Theis, S. J 
 F. W. Stellhorn, D.D 
 
 6,000 275,000 
 21,000 ; 
 
 6,000 48,487 
 15,000 125,000 
 3.500J 40,000 
 6,000i 50,000 
 2,50* 1,000.000 
 1,500 30,000 
 46,584 866,283 
 
 James W. Strong, D.D 
 J. T. Henderson, A.M 
 Sev.Fred L. Sigmund. A.M. 
 Dady Staley, Ph.D., LL.D... 
 C. H. Mebane, A.B 
 Rev. Thomas J.Conaty, D.D.i
 
 628 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Universities and Colleges of the United States Continued. 
 
 73 
 
 1 
 
 a Colleges. 
 
 b 
 
 o 
 
 Location. 
 
 Denomina- 
 tional 
 Control. 
 
 President or Chairman 
 of Faculty. 
 
 Instruc- 
 tors.* 
 
 Students.* 
 
 Volumes in 
 Library. 
 
 Productive 
 Funds- 
 Amount of. ' 
 
 1857 Central Colleget.. . 
 
 Fayette, Mo 
 New Berlin, Pa 
 Nashville, Tenn. . . 
 Pella, la 
 
 Meth. Ep. S.. 
 Evangelical . 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Baptist 
 
 E.B. Craighead,A.M.,LL.D. 
 Rev. A. E.Gobbie,A.M.,D.D. 
 Rev. John Braden, D.D 
 Rev. A.B. Chaff ee,A.M., D.D 
 L. H. Blanton, D.D., Chan.. 
 Geo. B. Addicks, A.B. , A.M. 
 Rv.W.C.Roberts,D.D.,LL.D 
 Rev. A. M. Danely, A.M.... 
 J.F.Hirsch M.A 
 
 12 
 7 
 43 
 14 
 40 
 12 
 16 
 15 
 11 
 7 
 22 
 2! 
 17 
 
 181 
 103 
 536 
 206 
 954 
 245 
 242 
 75 
 220 
 40 
 125 
 663 
 475 
 
 6,000 
 5,000 
 4,225 
 4,000 
 8,200 
 6,000 
 12,137 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 12,500 
 1,000 
 5,000 
 1,000 
 17,000 
 5,000 
 2,500 
 34,800 
 1,500 
 26,047 
 31,536 
 25,000 
 250,00(1 
 12,000 
 4,260 
 1,500 
 16,536 
 211,278 
 
 $140,000 
 41,000 
 15,000 
 23,000 
 150,000 
 70,000 
 500,000 
 
 1855 Central Penn*aColl.t.. 
 1866 Central Tenn. Col.f(c). 
 1853 Central Universityt.. . 
 1873 Central University 
 1864 CentralWesleyanCol.t 
 1819 Centre College 
 
 Richmond, Ky 
 Warrenton, Mo... 
 Danville, Ky 
 
 Presbyterian 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Presbyterian 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Germ. Meth 
 Non-Sect 
 Disciples 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Presbyterian 
 Baptist 
 
 1853 Chaddock Colleget .... 
 1891 Charles City Colleget. 
 178.5 Charleston College 
 1853 Christian University t . 
 1869 Claflin Universityt . . 
 1870 Clark University!. .'. . . 
 1887; Clark University 
 1890 Clemson Agri. College 
 1881 CoeColleget 
 1818 Colby Colleget 
 
 Quincy, 111 
 Charles Citv, Iowa 
 Charleston, S. C... 
 Canton, Mo 
 Orangeburg, S. C.. 
 Atlanta, Ga 
 Worcester, Mass. . 
 Clemson Col., S. C. 
 Cedar Rapids, la. . 
 Waterville, Me .... 
 
 21,000 
 299,000 
 18,000 
 5,000 
 
 Harrison Randolph, M.A. . . 
 D. R. Dungan, A.M 
 L. M. Dunton. A.M., D.D. .. 
 Chas. M. Melden, Ph.D. .... 
 G Stanley Hall LL I) 
 
 2.000,000 
 80,000 
 65,000 
 436,400 
 
 Henry S. Hartzog, B.S 
 
 29 
 11 
 15 
 7 
 29 
 60 
 34 
 304 
 238 
 7 
 17 
 32 
 196 
 42 
 17 
 60 
 10 
 9 
 13 
 23 
 28 
 10 
 28 
 12 
 60 
 7 
 18 
 15 
 19 
 12 
 8 
 15 
 12 
 6 
 16 
 13 
 
 450 
 182 
 220 
 126 
 325 
 1,907 
 450 
 2,157 
 1,093 
 177 
 182 
 571 
 1,835 
 186 
 273 
 670 
 180 
 287 
 91 
 378 
 480 
 153 
 450 
 140 
 1,100 
 175 
 325 
 360 
 114 
 100 
 119 
 305 
 104 
 80 
 210 
 138 
 
 Rev. S. B. McCormick, D.D. 
 Rev. Nathaniel Butler, D.D. 
 F. N.English, A.M., Ph.D.. 
 George B. Merrill, D.D 
 Alex. Stewart Webb, LL.D. 
 W. F. Slocum, B.D., LL.D.. 
 Seth Low, LL.D 
 S.H.Greene LL.D 
 
 1885 Coif ax Colleget 
 
 Coif ax, Wash 
 Hamilton, N. Y. .. 
 Manh'n Boro, N.Y. 
 Colorado Sp's, Col 
 Manh'n Boro, N.Y. 
 Washington, D. C. 
 Fort Wayne, Ind. . 
 Univ. Park, Ore. .. 
 Mt. Vernon, Iowa. 
 Ithaca, N.Y 
 Bethany, Neb 
 Lebanon, Tenn 
 Hanover, N. H 
 Davidson, N. C.... 
 
 Baptist 
 Baptist 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Baptist 
 Lutheran 
 Meth. Epis. 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Disciples 
 numb. Pres. . 
 Non-Sect 
 Presbyterian 
 
 1819 Colgate University .... 
 1847 College City of N. Y. . 
 1874 Colorado Colleget 
 1754 Columbia Univ.(ei).. .'. 
 1821 Columbian Univ.t 
 1839 Concordia College 
 18J8 Consolidated Univ.t.. 
 1857 Cornell Colleget 
 
 1,500.000 
 43,800 
 360,000 
 10400,000 
 1,500,000 
 
 Jos. Schmidt, A.M 
 Rev. C. R. Thoburn, Chan.. 
 Wm. F. King, D.D., LL.D.. 
 J.G. Schurman,D.Sc.,LL.D. 
 W. P. Aylsworth, LL.D 
 Nathan Green, LL.D., Chan. 
 Wm. J. Tucker, D.D., LL.D. 
 J. B. Shearer, D.D., LL.D.. 
 J.R. H. Latshaw, A.M., D.D. 
 Geo. A. Harter, M. A., Ph.D. 
 D. B. Puriiiton,Ph.D.,LL.D. 
 Rev. H. A. Gobin,D.IX. .. 
 
 80,000 
 100,000 
 6,756,370 
 
 1868 Cornell University t. . . 
 1889 Cotner Universityt. . . 
 1812 Cumberland Univ.t. . . 
 1769 Dartmouth College.. . . 
 1837 Davidson College 
 1884 Defiance Colleget 
 1833 Delaware College 
 
 6,000 
 85,000 
 12,000 
 500 
 10,000 
 20,000 
 9,700 
 2,500 
 35,000 
 7,600 
 6,500 
 43,000 
 23,500 
 30,000 
 5,000 
 12.000 
 11,000 
 20,000 
 4,000 
 6,000 
 3,200 
 5,000 
 
 90,000 
 2,300,000 
 120,000 
 300,000 
 83.000 
 410,000 
 350,000 
 57,000 
 375,000 
 79,256 
 150,000 
 400,000 
 235,000 
 200,000 
 80,000 
 
 Newark, Del 
 
 Non-Sect 
 
 1831 Denison University. . . 
 1337 De Pauw Universityt. 
 1865 DCS Moines Colleget. 
 1783 Dickinson Colleget 
 1872 Doane Colleget 
 1881 Drake Universityt.... 
 1867 Drew Theol. Sem 
 
 Granville, O 
 Greencastle, Ind.. 
 Des Moines, Iowa. 
 Carlisle, Pa 
 Crete, Neb 
 Des Moines, Iowa. 
 Madison, N. J 
 Springfield, Mo. . 
 Richmond, Ind.. . . 
 Klmira, N. Y 
 Elon College, N. C. 
 Emory, Va 
 Oxford, Ga 
 Emporia, Kan 
 Due West, S.C.... 
 Eureka, 111 
 Ewing, 111 
 Wichita, Kan 
 Fargo, N. D 
 Findlay, O 
 Nashville, Tenn.. . 
 Fort Worth, Tex . 
 Lancaster, Pa 
 Franklin, Ind 
 
 Baptist 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Baptist 
 
 J. P. Stephenson, Dean 
 Geo. E. Reed, S.T.D., LL.D. 
 David B. Perry, A.M., D.D. 
 Wm. B. Craig, D.D.,Chan.. 
 Henry A. Buttz, D.D. .LL.D. 
 Homer T. Fuller, Ph.D 
 Joseph J. Mills, A.M..LL.D. 
 Rev. A. C. MacKenzie, D.D. 
 Rev. W.W. Stalls, A.M., D.D. 
 R.G.Waterhouse,M. A. ,!).!). 
 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Ztongregat'l . 
 Christian 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Uongregat'l . 
 Dr. Friends.. 
 Presbyterian 
 'hristian 
 Methodist ... 
 Meth. Ep. S. 
 Presbyterian 
 Presbyterian 
 Disciples 
 Baptist 
 Congregat'l . 
 Congregat'l . 
 Ch.of God.. 
 Congregat'l . 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Ref. in U.S.. 
 Baptist 
 
 1873 Drury Colleget 
 1847 Earlham Colleget 
 1855 Elmira College J 
 1890 Elon Colleget 
 
 1838 Emory & Henry Col. . 
 1837 Emory College 
 1882 Emporia Colleget 
 1839 Erskine Colleget 
 
 28,000 
 175,156 
 
 C. E. Dowman, A.M., D.D.. 
 Rev.J. C. Miller, A.M. .D.D. 
 Rev. F. Y. Pressly, D.D.... 
 R. E. Hieronymus. A.M 
 J. A. Leavitt.B.A., D.D.... 
 Rev. J. N. Morrison 
 
 100,000 
 
 1853 Eureka Colleget 
 18G7 Ewing Colleget 
 Fairmount Colleget. . . 
 1388 Fargo Colleget 
 1882 Findlay Colleget 
 1867.FiskUniversityt(c). . . . 
 1881 Fort Worth Univ.t. . . . 
 1852 Franklin & Marshall. 
 1334 Franklin Colleget 
 
 20,000 
 
 Rev. H. J. Morley, LL.D.... 
 Rev. C. Manchester, D.D. . . 
 Erastus Milo Cravath, D.D. 
 Rev.O. L. Fisher,A.M.,D.D. 
 Rev. J. S. Stahr,Ph.I).,D.D. 
 Rev. W. T. Stott, A.M., D.D. 
 Rev. W. A. Williams, D.D. . 
 A.P.Montague, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 Wm. D. Thomas,D.D.,Ph.D. 
 Rev. Oscar F. Davis 
 
 8 
 12 
 25 
 49 
 23 
 11 
 12 
 15 
 14 
 11 
 14 
 14 
 23 
 118 
 67 
 9 
 15 
 8 
 18 
 19 
 11 
 14 
 18 
 60 
 9 
 80 
 14 
 17 
 
 166 
 149 
 459 
 930 
 306 
 2(10 
 100 
 165 
 90 
 201 
 156 
 242 
 350 
 684 
 1,715 
 97 
 160 
 146 
 275 
 619 
 175 
 256 
 155 
 393 
 128 
 1,006 
 175 
 63 
 
 2,600 
 1,000 
 6,509 
 3,500 
 35,947 
 12,000 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 28,183 
 4,500 
 12,000 
 80,000 
 15,872 
 1,000 
 6,000 
 7,500 
 2,000 
 4,000 
 5,000 
 8,000 
 40,000 
 7,500 
 16,000 
 9,000 
 14,000 
 68,000 
 
 40,000 
 62,000 
 42,000 
 
 340,000 
 207,000 
 
 1825 Franklin Colleget 
 1854 Furman Universityt . . 
 1856 Gale Colleget 
 1881 Gates Colleget 
 1817 General Theol. Sem. . . 
 1848 Geneva Colleget 
 
 New Athens, O 
 Greenville, S. C... 
 Galesville, Wis 
 Neligh, Neb 
 Manh'n Boro, N.Y. 
 Beaver Falls, Pa . . 
 Jeorgetown, Ky.. 
 Washington, D. C. 
 Philadelphia, Pa.. 
 Edinburg, Mo 
 Greensboro, N. C . . 
 Tusculum, Tenn. . . 
 Soopeston, 111 
 Grove Citv, Pa 
 Guilford Col. ,N.C. 
 St. Peter, Minn 
 Clinton, N.Y 
 St. Paul, Minn.(x). 
 Hamp.-Sidney,Va. 
 Hampton, Va 
 Hanover, Ind 
 Hartford, Ct 
 
 Non-Sect 
 Baptist 
 Presbyterian 
 Congregat'l.. 
 Prot. Epis. .. 
 Ref. Presb... 
 Baptist 
 R. Catholic.. 
 Non-Sect 
 Chris. Union 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Presbyterian 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Friends 
 Lutheran 
 Non-Sect 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Non-Sect... 
 Non-Sect 
 Presbyterian 
 Congregat'l.. 
 
 65,000 
 20,000 
 20,000 
 1,372,245 
 114,000 
 235,000 
 47,000 
 15958,293 
 
 E. A. Hoffman, D.D. ,D.C.L. 
 W. P. Johnston, A.M., D.D. 
 Arthur Yager, Ph.D 
 Rev. J. D. Whitney, S. J 
 A.H. Fetterolf,Ph'.D.,LL.D. 
 Rev. Geo. W. Mitchell, D.D. 
 Dred Peacock, A.B., A.M. . . 
 
 1*29 Georgetown Colleget. 
 1789 Georgetown Univer. . . 
 1848 Girard College 
 1850 Grand River C.U.Col.t 
 1S46 Greensboro Colleget. . 
 1794 Gr'nville& Tusc. Col.t 
 1891 G reer Colleget 
 
 '"i',800 
 40,000 
 
 Rev. Jere. Moore, D.D 
 J. M. Clarv, A.M 
 Rev. I. C. Ketler,Ph.D.,D.D. 
 Lewis L Hobbs, A.M 
 
 Grove City College . . . 
 1837 Guilford Colleget. . . . 
 1862 Gustav. Adolphus C.t. 
 1812 Hamilton College 
 1S54 Hamline Universityt.. 
 1775 Hampden-SidneyCol.. 
 1868 Hampton Inst.t(j) 
 1832 Hanover Colleget 
 1834 Hartford Theol. Sem.t 
 
 50,000 
 6,863 
 511,000 
 
 M. Wahlstrom, A.M., Ph.D. 
 M. W. Stryker, D.D., LL.D. 
 Rev. G. H. Bridgman, D.D. 
 Richard Mcllwaine, D.D. .. 
 Rev. H. B. Frissell, D.D 
 D. W. Fisher, D.D., LL.D.. . 
 
 150,000 
 708,360 
 200,000 
 175,000 
 
 Rev. C. D. Hartranft, D.D..
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 529 
 
 Universities and Colleges of the United States Continued. 
 
 Organized. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Denomina- 
 tional 
 Control. 
 
 President or Chairman 
 of Faculty. 
 
 Instruc- 
 tors.* 
 
 Students.* 
 
 Volumes in 
 Library. 
 
 Productive 
 Funds- 
 Amount of. 
 
 1636 
 1833 
 
 1855 
 1850 
 1884 
 
 i857 
 1855 
 1867 
 1849 
 1825 
 1866 
 1841 
 1843 
 1867 
 1883 
 1829 
 1851 
 1880 
 1820 
 1847 
 1869 
 1843 
 1883 
 1876 
 1855 
 1886 
 1836 
 1860 
 1826 
 1892 
 1867 
 1837 
 1883 
 1832 
 1858 
 1857 
 1832 
 1863 
 1817 
 1866 
 1866 
 1891 
 1870 
 1891 
 1856 
 1875 
 1893 
 1865 
 1854 
 1882 
 1851 
 1860 
 1885 
 1863 
 1835 
 1819 
 1863 
 1865 
 1830 
 1828 
 1858 
 1837 
 1824 
 1857 
 1800 
 1887 
 1882 
 1871 
 1867 
 1880 
 1850 
 1889 
 1856 
 1856 
 1890 
 1894 
 1881 
 1872 
 
 Harvard University.. . 
 Haverford College'. . . . 
 Hedding Colleget 
 Heidelberg Uui v.t 
 Hendrix Colleget 
 Henry Colleget 
 Highland University t 
 Hillsdale Colleget 
 Hiram Colleget 
 
 Cambridge, Mass.. 
 Haverford, Pa 
 Abingdon, 111 
 Tiffin, O 
 Conwav, Ark 
 Campbell, Tex 
 Highland, Kan 
 Hillsdale, Mich.... 
 Hiram, O 
 Hiwassee C., Tenn. 
 Geneva, N. Y 
 Holland, Mich 
 East Lake, Ala 
 Worcester, Mass . . 
 Washington, D. C. 
 Huron, S. Dakota. 
 Jacksonville, 111. . . 
 Bloomington, 111. . 
 Bacone, Ind. Ter. . 
 Bloomington, Ind. 
 Grinnell, Iowa 
 Ames, Iowa 
 Mt. Pleasant, Iowa 
 DeLand, Fla 
 
 Non-Sect 
 Friends 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Ref. in U. S. 
 Meth. Ep.S. 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Presbyterian 
 Free Baptist 
 Christian 
 
 Charles Wm. Eliot, LL.D... 
 Isaac Sharpless,Sc.D.,LL.D. 
 H. D. Clark, D.D., Ph.D.. . . 
 Rev. J. A. Peters, D.D 
 Rev. A. C. Millar, A.M 
 T.H. Bridges 
 Ambrose P. Haydon, A.M.. 
 George F. Mosher, LL.D. .. 
 Ely V. Zollars, A.M., LL.D. 
 Rev. J. E Lowrv 
 
 401 
 18 
 12 
 23 
 9 
 21 
 10 
 20 
 25 
 6 
 20 
 13 
 10 
 25 
 50 
 12 
 15 
 41 
 10 
 60 
 32 
 52 
 20 
 20 
 123 
 14 
 15 
 15 
 14 
 21 
 12 
 4 
 40 
 7 
 28 
 15 
 121 
 5 
 16 
 23 
 19 
 40 
 83 
 21 
 7 
 10 
 8 
 10 
 12 
 11 
 11 
 13 
 20 
 8 
 28 
 20 
 16 
 1!) 
 161 
 9 
 14 
 8 
 
 ir> 
 1C 
 48 
 10 
 14 
 9 
 24 
 10 
 21 
 8 
 13 
 20 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 16 
 10 
 
 3,829 
 116 
 200 
 365 
 160 
 300 
 75 
 363 
 360 
 75 
 94 
 256 
 157 
 341 
 683 
 150 
 235 
 1,320 
 120 
 1,049 
 506 
 589 
 381 
 275 
 641 
 187 1 
 472 
 361 
 332 
 175 
 150 
 75 
 650 
 220 
 310 
 150 
 1,393 
 a5 
 211 
 378 
 225 
 321 
 1,224 
 691 
 145 
 140 
 122 
 293 
 194 
 191 
 265 
 191 
 250 
 130 
 671 
 200 
 379: 
 157 
 1,209 
 17(1 
 298 
 125 
 260 
 
 14:> 
 
 480 
 106 
 124 
 ls. r > 
 140 
 14-.' 
 296 
 115 
 270 
 300 
 144 
 100 
 2.30 
 422 
 180 
 
 520,000 
 34,800 
 2,000 
 15,000 
 5,000 
 
 $12614,848 
 820,000 
 30.000 
 275000 
 30,OOJ 
 
 5,000 
 12,383 
 6,000 
 2,000 
 35,373 
 14,000 
 1,500 
 10,000 
 13,000 
 1,000 
 15,000 
 10,000 
 500 
 30,000 
 26,000 
 12,000 
 4,000 
 8,000 
 85.000 
 5,996 
 3,500 
 14,272 
 2,000 
 32,000 
 2,000 
 7,000 
 10,000 
 500 
 19,100 
 7,000 
 16,000 
 18,000 
 8,000 
 15,620 
 9,000 
 100,000 
 43,000 
 1,500 
 300 
 4,000 
 1,000 
 500 
 3,000 
 14,000 
 3,500 
 7,000 
 20,000 
 6,500 
 9,262 
 60,000 
 12,000 
 19,100 
 44.058 
 20.000 
 9,000 
 2,600 
 15,000 
 15,000 
 22,000 
 22.832 
 5,000 
 2.000 
 6,000 
 5,500 
 6,487 
 4,000 
 4.800 
 6.000 
 5,000 
 3,000 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 4,200 
 
 36,000 
 234,977 
 1 50,00 J 
 
 Hiwassee Colleget 
 Hobart College 
 Hope Colleget 
 Howard CoUeget(9) . 
 Holy Cross College .... 
 Howard Universityt . . 
 Huron Colleget 
 
 Prot. Epis.. . 
 Ref. in Am.. 
 Baptist 
 
 Rev. Robert E. Jones, D.D. 
 Gerrit J.Kollen,A.M.,LL.D. 
 F. M. Roof, A.B., A.M 
 
 445,016 
 206,329 
 
 R. Catholic.. 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Presbyterian 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Baptist 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Congregat'l.. 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Baptist 
 
 John F. Lehy, S.J 
 J. E. Rankin, D.D.,LL.D. . . 
 Rev. C. H. French, M.A .... 
 C. AV. Barnes, M.A 
 
 500,000 
 49,000 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 Illinois Wesleyan U.t. 
 Indian Universityt 
 Indiana Universityt .. 
 Iowa Colleget 
 Iowa State Colleget. . . 
 Iowa Weslevan Univ.t 
 John B. Stetson Un.t. 
 Johns Hopkins TJn.(g). 
 Kalamazoo CoD.t(g) . . . 
 Kansas Wesleyan KM.; 
 Kentucky Universitvt 
 Ky. Wesleyan Coll.t.'. . 
 Kenyon College 
 Keuka Colleget ... 
 
 Edgar M. Smith 
 
 J.H.Scott 
 Joseph Swain, LL.D 
 
 600,000 
 475,000 
 682T833 
 75,000 
 203,000 
 3,000.000 
 196,583 
 
 Rev. George A. Gates, D.D. 
 W. M. Beardshear, LL.D. .. 
 Rev. A.C. Piersel 
 
 JohnF. Forbes, A.M.,Ph.D. 
 Daniel C. Gilman, LL.D 
 A. G. Slocum, LL.D 
 F. B.Tubbs, A.M 
 A. R. Milligan 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 Kalamazoo, Mich 
 Salina, Kan 
 Lexington. Ky.(y). 
 Winchester, ivy. . . 
 Gambier, O 
 Keuka Park, N. Y. 
 Bristol, Tenn 
 Galesburg, 111 
 La Fayette, Ala. . . 
 
 Non-Sect 
 Baptist 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Christian 
 Meth. Ep. S.. 
 Prot. Epis... 
 Free Baptist 
 Presbyterian 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Presbyterian 
 Baptist 
 
 275,000 
 40,000 
 300,000 
 200,000 
 18,000 
 238,162 
 
 D. W. Batson 
 Rev.WFPierce,M.A.,L.H.D. 
 
 Rev. Geo. H. Ball,A.M.,D.D. 
 Rev.J.A.Wallace,M.A.,D.D. 
 Thomas McClelland, D.D. . . 
 Geo. R.McNeill,A.M.,Ph.D. 
 R. D. Warfield, LL.D 
 
 King College 
 
 Knox Colleget 
 La Fayette Colleget. . . 
 Lafayette College 
 La Grange Colleget. . . 
 Lake Forest Univ.t . . . 
 Lane Theol. Seminarv 
 La Salle College. . . .'. 
 
 430,000 
 12,500 
 535,000 
 351,000 
 
 205,020 
 10,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 15,000,000 
 118,000 
 
 La Grange, Mo 
 Lake Forest, lll.(7>) 
 
 Jere F. Muir, LL.D., A.M . 
 James G.K.McClure, D.D. 
 K. Fullerton, M.A 
 
 Presbyterian 
 Presbvterian 
 R. Catholic.. 
 Meth. Eiiis.. 
 U. Brethren. 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Lutheran 
 Presbyterian 
 Baptist 
 Evang. Luth. 
 Cumb. Pres.. 
 Presbvterian 
 Afric.' Meth. 
 Universalist. 
 Non-Sect ... 
 Presbvterian 
 R. Catholic.. 
 Non-Sect ... 
 Presbyterian 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Presbyterian 
 Meth." Epis.. 
 Baptist 
 Baptist 
 Non-Sect . . . 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa . . 
 Appleton, Wis 
 Annville, Pa. . . 
 
 Rev. Bro. Isidore, F.S.C.... 
 Samuel Plantz, Ph.D., D.D. 
 Rev. H. U.Roop,A.M.,Ph.D. 
 Thomas M. Drown, LL. D. . . 
 David Starr Jordan, LL.D.. 
 G. H Felton AM 
 
 Lawrence Univ.t 
 Lebanon Valley Coll.t 
 Lehigh University .... 
 Leland Stanford, Jr.f. 
 Leland Universityt.. . 
 
 S. Bethlehem, Pa.. 
 Palo Alto, Cal 
 New Orleans, La. . 
 Hickory, N. C 
 Hopkiriton, Iowa.. 
 Glasgow, Kv 
 Lima O 
 
 Rev. R. A. Yoder, A.M 
 Andrew G. Wilson, A.M 
 Rev. J. H. Burnett, A.M.. . 
 Rev. S. P. Long, A.M 
 
 Lenox Colleget 
 
 10,030 
 
 Liberty Colleget 
 
 
 
 Lincoln Universityt . . 
 Lincoln University|V/ ' 
 Livingstone College t 
 Lombard Universityt. 
 Louisiana State Un'iv. 
 Maealester Colleget. . . 
 Manhattan College 
 Marietta Colleget 
 Maryville Colleget 
 Mass. Agricul. Coll.t.. 
 Mass. Inst. Techn'lgyt 
 McCormick The. Bern. 
 McKendree Colleget. . 
 McMinnville Colleget . 
 Mercer University 
 Miami Universitvt 
 Mich. Agricul. Coll.t.. 
 Middlebury Colleget. . 
 Midland Colleget 
 Milligan Colleget 
 Mills Coll. and Sem.J.. 
 Milton Colleget 
 
 Lincoln, 111 
 Oxford, Pa 
 
 Rev. J. L. Goodknight, D.D. 
 Rev. I. N. Kendall, D.D 
 Wm H Goler DD 
 
 59,540 
 394,800 
 600,003 
 200,000 
 318,313 
 
 Salisbury, N. C.... 
 Galesburg, 111 
 Baton Rouge, La. . 
 St. Paul, Minn 
 Manh'nBoro.,N.Y. 
 Marietta, O 
 Maryville, Tenn... 
 Amiierst, Mass 
 Boston , Mass 
 
 Charles E. Nash A.M., D.D. 
 Thomas D Bovd M \ 
 
 James Wallace, Ph.D 
 
 Rev. Bro. Justin, LL.D 
 Alfred T. Perrv, A.M 
 S.W. Boardman,D.D.,LL.D. 
 Henry H. Goodell, LL.D... 
 Henry S. Pritchett, LL.D.. 
 V S 'Carrier D.D 
 
 
 250.000 
 200,000 
 360,575 
 1,855,050 
 1,165,000 
 40,000 
 40,000 
 187,000 
 50,000 
 694,110!) 
 370,000 
 24,044 
 
 Lebanon, 111 
 McMinnville, Or.. 
 Macon, Ga 
 Oxford, O 
 
 McK. H. Chamberlin,LL.D. 
 H. L'. Boardman, A.M 
 P. D. Pollock, A.M., LL.D.. 
 Rev. David S. Tappan,D.D. 
 J. L. Snyder, M.A., Ph.D... 
 Ezra Brainerd, LL.D 
 Rev. Jacob A. Clutz, D.D... 
 Josephus Hop-wood, A.M. . . 
 Mrs. C. T. Mills 
 Rv.WCWhitford,A.M.,D.D. 
 
 Lansing, Mich 
 Middlebury, Vt 
 Atchjson, Kan 
 Milligan, Tenn .. 
 Seminarv Park Cal 
 Milton Wis 
 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Non-Sect 
 Lutheran 
 Christian 
 Non-Sect 
 7th Day Bap. 
 Non-Sect 
 Baptist 
 Cumb. Pres.. 
 United Pres. 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Methodist. . . 
 Methodist.. . 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 
 
 83.244 
 98,575 
 39,000 
 112.546 
 100,000 
 20,140 
 21.000 
 2,500 
 
 Miss.Agri.& Mech.Col. 
 Mississippi College . . . 
 Missouri Valley Coll.t. 
 Monmouth Colleget. . . 
 Moore's Hill Colleget . 
 Morgan Colleget ..... 
 Morningside Colleget. 
 Morris Brown Colleget 
 Morrisville Colleget.. . 
 
 Agric Coll., Miss. 
 Clintor, Miss 
 Marshall, Mo 
 Monmouth, 111 
 Moore's Hill, Ind.. 
 Baltimore, Md 
 Sioux City, Iowa.. 
 
 Gen. Stephen D. Lee, LL.D. 
 Rev. W.T.Lowrey, D.D. , A.M 
 William H. Black, D.D 
 Samuel R. Lvons, D.D 
 Chas. W. Lewis, M.S 
 F. J. Wagner, A.M., D.D. .. 
 W. S.Lewis, D.D 
 Rev. J. M. Henderson, A.M. 
 J. J. Pritchett, A.M., LL.D. 
 
 Morrisville, Mo
 
 530 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Universities and Colleges of the United States Continued. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Denomina- 
 tional 
 Control. 
 
 President or Chairman 
 of Faculty. 
 
 I 
 
 III 
 
 rn < 
 
 1887 Mount Angel College.. Mount Angel, Ore. R. Catholic. . 
 1837 Mt. Holvoke College!. So. Hadley, Mass. . Non-Sect .... 
 1808 Mt. St. Marv's College Emmitsburg, Md.. R. Catholic. . 
 
 1816 Mt. Union Colleget . . . Alliance, O Meth. Epis. . 
 
 1867 Muhlenberg College. . Allentown, Pa Lutheran 
 
 1837 Muskinguin Colleget.. 'New Concord, O. . . United Pres. 
 
 1888 Neb. Wesleyan Univ.t UniversityPl.,Neb. Meth. Epis.. 
 
 1886 Nevada State Univ.t . . Reno, Nev Non-Sect 
 
 1856 Newberry Colleget Newberry, S. C Lutheran 
 
 1825 Newton Theol. fnst.(e) Newt'nC'ntr.Mass. Baptist 
 
 1831 New York Univ.(?<')--- New York city(w). Non-Sect 
 
 1856 Niagara University. . . Niagara FallsJN.Y. R. Catholic. . 
 1859 North Carolina Coil ... Mt. Pleasant, N. C. Lutheran 
 
 1 -5i Northern 111. Colleget . Fulton, 111 Non-Sect .... 
 
 1892 Nor'west Missourf C.t Albany, Mo |Meth. South. 
 
 1861 Northwestern Coll.t.. . Naperville. Ill [Evangelical.. 
 
 1855 North westernUniv.t.. Evanston, 111 Meth. Epis. . 
 
 1865 North western Univ.t.. Watertown, Wis.. (Lutheran 
 
 1861 Norwegian Luth. Coll. Decorah, Iowa 'Lutheran 
 
 1833 Oberlin Colleget Oberlin, O Non-Sect 
 
 1887 Ogden College Bowling G r'n, Ky . Non-Sect .... 
 
 1870 Ohio State Univ.t. ... Columbus, O ....".. Non-Sect 
 
 1804 Ohio University t Athens, O Non-Sect .... 
 
 IBM-Ohio Wesleyan'Univ.t Delaware, O Meth. Epis.. 
 
 1844 Olivet Colleget Olivet, Mich Congregat'l.. 
 
 1865 Ottawa Uni versityt. .. Ottawa, Kan Baptist 
 
 1847 Otterbein Univ.t Westerville, O U. Brethren. 
 
 1886 Ouachita Bapt. Coll.t. Arkadelphia, Ark. Baptist 
 
 1819 Oxford College* Oxford, O Presbyterian 
 
 1891 Pacific Colleget Newberg, Ore Friends 
 
 1848 Pacific UniversLtyt. . . Forest Grove, Ore. Congregat'l.. 
 1875 Park Colleget Parkville.Mo Non-Sect . . . . 
 
 F. Dominic, O. S. B 
 
 Miss Woollev, A.M., Litt.D 
 YeryRev.W.L.O'Hara.A.M. 
 
 Albert B. Riker, D.D 
 
 Rev. Theo. L. Seip, D.D .... 
 Rev. Jesse Johnson, D.D . . 
 D. W. C. Huntington, D.D.. 
 JosephE.Stubbs,D.D.,LL.D. 
 
 Geo. B. Cromer, A.M 
 
 Rev. Nathan E. Wood, B.I). 
 H .M.McCracken,D.D.,LL. D 
 Rev. Patrick McHale. C.M. 
 
 Rev. W. A. Lutz, A.M 
 
 J. E. Bittinger, A.M 
 
 Wm. H. Pritchett, A.M 
 
 Rev. H. J. Kiekhoefer,A.M. 
 
 D. Bonbright 
 
 A.F.Ernst.. , 
 
 Rev. Laur. Larsen 
 
 John H. Barrows, LL.D . . . 
 Wm. A. Obenchain, A.M. . . 
 
 W. O. Thompson, LL. D 
 
 Chas.W. Super .Ph.D., LL.D 
 J. W. Bashford, Ph.D.,D.D 
 
 18 100 6,000 S 
 
 40 441 17,700 550,000 
 
 40 200 20,000 
 
 2l! 411 3,500| 62,000 
 
 12 164 10,300; Hil. Tin 
 
 13 203 3,000 
 
 -'0 4H() 3,000 
 
 24 335 <;,457 
 
 8 161 7,000 
 
 7 i 63 22,383 
 
 167 1,609 44,220 
 
 9,000 
 
 75 4,000 
 175 1.500 
 106 1,200 
 
 15,000 
 6,000 
 5,000 
 
 4i500| 104,000 
 222 2,019; 38,582 3,041,612 
 
 36500 
 10,000 
 
 '32^666 
 
 800,000 
 
 3,365,402 
 
 1875 Parsons Colleget. . 
 
 1873 Penn Colleget 
 
 1832 Pennsylvania Coll.t... 
 1862 Penna. Military Col. . . 
 
 Fairfield, Iowa Presbyterian 
 
 ( )ska 1 < >osa, Iowa. . . Friends 
 
 Gettysburg, Pa Lutheran 
 Chester, Pa Non-Sect 
 
 1859 Penna. State Coll.t.... State College, Pa.. Non-Sect .... 
 
 Rev. Willard G.Sperry,D.D. 
 J. D. S. Riggs, A.M.,Ph.D. . 
 T. J. Sanders, A.M., 'Ph.D. . 
 John W. Conger, A.B..A.M. 
 
 John H. Thomas, D.D 
 
 Edwin McGrew, M.S 
 
 W. M. Ferrin, A.M 
 
 L.M. McAfee (Chm. of Fac.) 
 
 Rev. F. W.Hinitt, M.A 
 
 A. Rosenberger, A. B., LL.D. 
 H.W.McKnight,D.D.,LL.D. 
 
 Chas. E. Hyatt, C.E 
 
 Geo. W. Atherton, LL.D. . . 
 
 1881 Philander Smith Col.t Little Rock, Ark. . Meth. Epis.. Rev. James M. Cox, A.M.. 
 
 1366 Philomath Colleget. . . Philomath, Ore. .. U. Brethren. P. O. Bonebrake, M.A 
 
 1381 Pike Colleget BowlingGreen,Mo Non-Sect R. E. Downing, A.M 
 
 1391 Polytechnic Colleget.. Fort Worth, Tex . . Meth. Ep. S.. Rev. W. F. Lloyd, D.D 
 
 1.354 Polytechnic Institute. B'klyn Boro, N. Y. Non-Sect .... Henry S. Snow, LL.D 
 
 1387 Pratt Institutet B'klyn Boro, N. Y. Non-Sect Charles M. Pratt 
 
 1380 Presbyterian Col.S.C.t Clinton, S. C Presbyterian AlmonE.Spencer,B.A.,M.A. 
 
 1312 Princeton Theol. Sern. Princeton, N. J. . . Presbyterian W. M. Paxton, LL.D. 
 
 1T46 Princeton University. Princeton, N. J... Non-Sect... F. L. Patton, D.D., LL.D... 
 
 1371 Proseminar College.'. . Elmhurst, 111 Evangelical.. Rev. D. Irion 
 
 1374 Purdue Uni versityt... Lafayette, Ind Non-Sect W. E. Stone, Ph.D 
 
 1853 Racine College ...*. Racine, Wis Prot. Epis. .. Henry D. Robinson, M.A. .. 
 
 1379 Radcliffe Colleget Cambridge, Mass.. Non-Sect Mrs. Elizabeth C. Agassiz.. 
 
 1830 Randolph-Macon Col.. Ashland, Ya.(f) Meth. Epis. . John A. Kern, D.D 
 
 1892 Red River VaJ. Univ.t Wahpeton, N.Dak. Meth. Epis. .S Rev. E. P. Robertson, A.M. 
 
 1821 Rensselaer Poly. Inst.. Troy, N. Y Non-Sect 'John Hudson Peck, LL D. . 
 
 1835 Richmond Colleget... Richmond, O Non-Sect ....jG.W.MacMillan,D.D.,Ph.D. 
 
 1832 Richmond Colleget... Richmond, Ya Baptist F. W. Boatwright, M.A 
 
 1892 Ridgeville Colleget... Ridgeville, Ind Congregat'l.. 
 
 1876 Rio Grande Colleget. . Rio Grande, O Free Bapt. . . 
 
 1851 Ripon Colleget Ripon, Wis Non-Sect 
 
 1853 Roanoke College Salem, Va Non-Sect 
 
 1857 Rock Hill College Ellicott City, Md.. R. Catholic. . 
 
 1863 Roger Williams U.t.. Nashville, fenn... Baptist 
 
 1885 Rollins Colleget Winter Park, Fla.. Nt>n-Sect 
 
 1883 Rose Polytechnic Inst. Terre Haute, Ind.. Non-Sect 
 
 1766 Rutgers Cc liege N. Brunswick.N.J. Dutch Ref'iL 
 
 1853 Rutherford Colleget. . Ruth'f'd Col., N.C. Non-Sect 
 
 1871 San. Fran. Theol. Sem. San Anselmo, Cal. Presbyterian 
 
 1866 Scio Colleget Scio, O Meth. Epis.. 
 
 1870 Scotia Seininary{ Concord, N. C Presbyterian 
 
 18.56 Seton Hall College South Orangc.N.J. R. Catholic.. 
 
 1865 Shaw Universityt.... Raleigh, N.C Baptist 
 
 1827 Shurtleff Colleget(//). . Upper Alton, 111.. . Baptist 
 
 1867 Simpson Colleget Indianola, Iowa. . . Meth. Epis.. 
 
 1875 Smith College:; N'hampton. Mass.. Non-Sect 
 
 1801 South Carolina Coll.t. Columbia, S. C. . . . Non-Sert . .. 
 
 1883 South Dakota Univ.t.. Mitchell, S. I) Meth. Epis.. 
 
 1859 S'th'n Bap. Theo. Sera. Louisville, Ky Baptist 
 
 1856 Southern Uni versityt. Greensboro', Ala. . Meth. E]\. >s.. 
 
 Rev. Geo. Hindley, B.D 
 
 Rev. J. M. Davis, D.D 
 
 Rev. Rufus C. Flagg, D.D.. 
 J. D. Dreher, A.M., Ph.D... 
 
 Rev. Brother Abraham 
 
 Rev. P. B. Guernsey, A.M.. 
 l'e\ -.G.M. Ward, A.M., LL.B. 
 
 C. Leo Mees, Ph.D 
 
 Austin Scott, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 W. E. Abernethy, AM 
 
 William Alexander, D.D... 
 
 J. H. Beal, Ph.B 
 
 Rev. D. J. Satterfield, D.D. 
 Rev. J. J. Synnott, D.D. ... 
 Charles F. Meserve, A.M 
 Austen K. de Blois, Ph.D... 
 
 C. E. Shelton, A.M 
 
 L. Clark Seelye, D.D..LL.D. 
 F. C. Woodward, Litt. D. .. 
 Rev. W. I. Graham, D.D. .. 
 
 E. Y. Mullins, LL.D 
 
 J. O. Keener, A.M., DJX. .. 
 
 149 So. Kentucky Coll.t... Hopkinsville, Ky.. Christian Saml. S. Woolwine. 
 
 1878 Southwest Bap. Col.t. . Bolivar, Mo '... Baptist ! James Rice, A.M. 
 
 10 177 
 69 1,310 
 
 3,709 
 9,100 
 49,631 
 
 8,526 
 1,028,345 
 
 5| ' 82' 3,000 130,000 
 
 981,150 23,339 553,893 
 
 23 435 14,500 
 
 98 1,311 30,000 728,032 
 
 23 250 26,000 150,000 
 
 19 503 3,500j 80,000 
 
 20 24!i K.OOO 70,000 
 
 J". :;28 3,000 .......... 
 
 lf,3 5.000 .......... 
 
 8 120 
 
 131 216 
 
 1,000 10,000 
 9,300! 194,000 
 
 369 12,000 : 200,000 
 
 210 5,000 160,000 
 
 257 5.000 25,000 
 
 263 24,000 210,000 
 
 121 1 .500 
 
 293 12^400 5i7,6oO 
 
 287 800 
 
 116 1,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 9 165 tiOO . 
 
 20, 332 2,500 
 
 49 700 11,000 110,000 
 
 134 2,791 67,216 2,250,003 
 
 6 50 1.400 7,000 
 
 12 195 61.900 1,300,000 
 
 84 1,103 131.500 
 
 8 103 2,137 
 
 65 750 10,000 340,000 
 
 47 10,000. 
 
 111(1 
 
 12! Ill 
 
 424 12,000 400,00.1 
 
 8,000 
 
 34,000 
 10,000 
 
 2,700 
 
 16 152 6,000.. 
 
 7 100 3.000 
 
 If 2(iO 13.000 275,000 
 
 130 3,000 
 
 154 1.100 
 
 171 180 10,000 218,918 
 
 11 191 21,000 65,000 
 20 145 7.500 
 
 15 220 5,000 
 
 20 186 3,000 
 
 21 110 9,000 650,000 
 271 168 36,562 
 
 7 105 5.000 
 
 7 30 IK.OOli 400,0:H> 
 
 16 410, 2,500 
 
 15| 273 1,700 
 
 15 150 25,000 
 
 24 362 1,500 31,000 
 
 20 222 8.000 129.145 
 
 17 545 3,200 48,534 
 64 1,070 7,000 793,625 
 
 12 185 30,000 
 
 13 264 2,000 
 
 11 280 25,000 465,000 
 
 9 176 10,000 50,000 
 
 8 190 600 
 
 7' 113 s 1,200
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, AND FINE ARTS. 
 
 531 
 
 Universities and Colleges of the United States Continued. 
 
 Organized. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Denomina- 
 tional 
 Control. 
 
 President or Chairman 
 of Faculty. 
 
 Instruc- 
 tors.* 
 
 Students.* 
 
 Volumes in 
 Library. I 
 
 Productive 
 Funds- 
 Amount of. 
 
 1845 Southw'n Bap. Un.!.. . Jackson, Tenn Baptist |G.M. Savage, A.M., LL.D... 
 
 1875 Southw'n Pres. Univ.. Clarksville, Tenn.. Presbyterian George Summey,D.D 
 
 1872 Southwestern Univ.t. Georgetown, Tex.. Meth. Ep. S. [Robert S. Hyer, A.M 
 
 1885 Southwest Kansas C.| Winffeld, Kan Meth. Epis. iFred C. Demarest 
 
 IKQA Q n i.in~ TT,-ii r< n ii.,.i a..i~ TT.-II A I- R. Catholic. jVery Rev. M.Moynihan,S J. 
 
 Non-Sect . . . |Rev".Geo. E. Maclean, LL.D 
 Baptist Rev^Chas. L. Puree, D.D... 
 
 1830 Spring Hill College. . . Spring Hill, Ala.. 
 
 1847 State Univ. lowat Iowa City, Iowa . . 
 
 1879 State Univ. of Kyt. . . Louisville, Ky , 
 
 1858 St. Benedict's Co'llegejAtchison, Kan.... R. Catholic. 
 
 1848 St. Charles College Ellicott City, Md.. R. Catholic. 
 
 Rt. Rev. I. Wolf, D.D. 
 Rev.C.B.Schrantz,S.S.,A M. 
 
 1888 St. Edward's College.. Austin, Tex R. Catholic. JRev. JohnT. Boland,C.S.C. 
 
 1847 St. Francis Xavier C. . Manh'n Boro, N.Y. R. Catholic. iRev. T. E. Murphy, S.J 
 
 1871 Stevens Inst. of Tech.. Hoboken, N. J .... Non-Sect.... Henry Morton, Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 1789 St. John's College Annapolis, Md.... Non-Sect .... Thomas Fell, Ph.D., LL.D.. 
 
 1865 St. John's College Washington, D. C. R. Catholic. . Rev. Bro. Abdas, F.S.C 
 
 1846 St. John's College Fordham, N. Y. C. R. Catholic. (Rev. T. J. Campbell, A.M . . 
 
 1857 St. John's University.. College ville, Minn. R. Catholic. IRt. Rev. Peter Engel,Ph.D. 
 
 1856 St. Lawrence Univf.. . Canton, N. Y Universalist 
 
 1829 St. Louis University. . St. Louis, Mo R. Catholic. 
 
 1869 St. Mary's College St. Mary's Kan R. Catholic. 
 
 1821 St. Mary's College St. Mary's, Ky . . . . R. Catholic. 
 
 1874 St. Olaf Collegef Northfield, Minn. . Lutheran .... 
 
 1889 St. Paul's College!.... St. Paul Park, Min. Meth. Epis.. 
 1860 St. Stephen's College. Annandale, N. Y. . Prot. Epis. . . 
 
 1865 St. Vincent's College. Los Angeles, Cal. . R. Catholic. . 
 
 1869 Swarthmore Coll.]- Swarthmore, Pa. . . Friends 
 
 1871 Syracuse Universityf. Syracuse, N. Y Meth. Epis.. 
 
 1866 Tabor College! Tabor, Iowa Congregat'l.. 
 
 Rev. Almon Gunmson,D.D. 
 
 Rev. W. B. Rogers, S.J 
 
 Rev. James McCabe, S.J. . . 
 Rev. JohnFehrenbach,D.D. 
 
 Rev. J. N. Kildahl 
 
 W. F. Finke, A.M 
 
 Rev.Laureuce T. Cole,Ph.D. 
 
 Rev. J. A. Linn, C.M 
 
 Wm. W. Birdsall 
 
 Rev.J. R. Day, S.T.D..LL.D. 
 Rev.Rich'd C. Hughes.A.M. 
 
 20 270 $ 
 
 11 140 8,000 286,000 
 
 22J 424 5,000 4,000 
 
 16 304 3,000 8,806 
 25 130 75.000 
 
 101 1,331! 25,000 235,000 
 
 10| 141 500 
 
 23 147 14,000 
 
 17 2301 13,339 
 
 25 150 3,000 
 
 732 
 
 214 
 
 156 
 
 150 
 
 250 
 
 23[ 250 
 16 144 
 30; 440 4'i.ono 
 27 
 in 
 12 
 7 
 
 30,000 
 9,500 500,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 40,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 1867 Talladega Colleget(c). . Talladega, Ala.... Congregat'l.. |G. W. Andrews(Act. Pres.) 
 18S3 Tarkio Colleget... ... Tarkio.Mo Un. Presb. .. |Rev. J. A. Thompson, D.D..| 
 
 Rev. T. C.Reade, A.M.,D.D.! 
 
 Seth Low, LL.D. 
 
 1846 Taylor University!.... Upland, Ind Meth. Epis. 
 
 1889 Teachers' CollegetlT . .Manh'n Boro, N.Y. Non-Sect . . . 
 
 1870 Thiel Colleget Greenville, Pa Lutheran... 
 
 1891 Throop Poly. Inst.t .... Pasadena, Cal Non-Sect . . . 
 
 1854 Trinity College Durham, N. C Meth. Ep. S. 
 
 1823 Trinity College Hartford, Ct Non-Sect . . . 
 
 1869 Trinity University) . . . Tehuacana, Tex. . . Cumb. Pres. 
 
 1855 Tufts Colleget Tufts Coll., Mass. . Universalist 
 
 1834 Tulane Universityt(H). New Orleans, La. . Non-Sect . . . 
 1859 Union Christ'n Coll.t. . Merom, Ind Christian... 
 
 Tuscaloosa, Ala.JJ. Non-Sect ... 
 Tucson, A riz Non-Sect . . . 
 
 1836 Union Theo. Sem Manh'n Boro, N.Y. Presbyteria: 
 
 1881 University Institute!. Lockhart, Miss Non-Sect... 
 
 1831 Univ. of Alabama! - - - ~ 
 
 1891 Univ. of Arizonat 
 
 1868 Univ. of California!... Berkeley, Cal Non-Sect ... 
 
 1890 Univ. of Chicago! Chicago", 111 Non-Sect . . . 
 
 1874 Univ. of Cincinnati!. . Cincinnati, O Non-Sect . . . 
 
 1877 Univ. of Colorado! .... Boulder, Col Non-Sect 
 
 1864 Univ. of Denver!. . . 
 1785 Univ. of Georgia. . . 
 
 1892 Univ. of Idaho!... 
 1868 Univ. of Illinois! . . . 
 
 1855 Univ. of Iowa! 
 
 1866 Univ. of Kansas!.. . 
 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 
 Non-Sect , 
 Non-Sect . 
 Non-Sect . 
 Non-Sect . 
 Non-Sect . 
 
 Denver, Col 
 
 Athens, Ga 
 
 Moscow, Idaho . 
 
 Urbana, Ill.(r).. 
 
 Iowa City, Iowa 
 
 Lawrence, Kan. 
 
 1865 Univ. of Maine! Orono, Me Non-Sect 
 
 1837 Univ. of Michigan!. .. Ann Arbor, Mich.. Non-Sect 
 1869 Univ. of Minnesota!. Minneapolis, Minn Non-Sect 
 1848 Univ. of Mississippi!.. University, Miss. ..-Non-Sect 
 
 1840 Univ. of Missouri! Columbia!, Mo.(tt).. Non-Sect 
 
 1895 Univ. of Montana! Missoula, Mont Non-Sect 
 
 1785 Univ. of Nashville!. . . Nashville, Tenn. . . Non-Sect 
 
 Theophilus B. Roth, D.D. . . 
 Walter A. Edwards, A.M.. . 
 John C. Kilgo, D.D.,A M. . . 
 
 240; 7,500; 
 
 91 4,000 
 
 125! 2,500i 
 
 100 900 
 
 7,000 
 15.000 
 
 6l! 1,450 107,652 
 160 3,000 ........ 
 
 186 18500 420,0(M) 
 
 1,092 i 55,000 1,399,506 
 
 178 8300 103,000 
 
 600 5,000 
 
 271 
 
 222 
 
 59,000 
 
 91,000 
 
 Geo. W. Smith, D.D.,LL.D. 20 
 L.A.Johnson (dim. of Fac.) 17 
 
 1,081 
 2,000 
 . . 10,000 
 
 10| 125 7,000 62,000 
 23J 216 1,650 28,200 
 18! 192 13,000 332,750 
 
 1869 Univ. of Nebraska!. 
 1889 Univ. of N. Mexico! 
 
 Lincoln, Neb Non-Sect .... 
 
 A.lbuquerque,N.M. Non-Sect 
 
 Elmer Hewitt Capen, D.D.. 
 
 E. A. Alderman, LL.D 
 
 Rev. L.J.Aldrich, A.M., D.D, 
 
 James P. Faulkner 
 
 Wm. T. Bland 
 
 Rev. A.V.V. Raymond, D.D. 
 Rev.Chas.Cuthbert Hall .... 
 C. A. Huddleston,A.M.,D.D. 
 James K. Powers, LL.D 
 Millard M. Parker, A.M. . . . 
 
 Benj. I. Wheeler, LL.D 
 
 Wm. R. Harper, Ph.D.,D.D. 
 
 Howard Avers, LL.D 
 
 Jas. H. Baker,M.A.,LL.D. . . 
 
 H. A. Buchtel, D.D 
 
 W. B. Hill, A.M 
 
 J. A. Maclean, Ph.D 
 
 Andrew S. Draper, LL.D. . . 
 A. N. Currier (Act. Pres.). . . 
 IF. H. Snow, Ph.D., LL.D. . . 
 Abram W. Harris, Sc.D . . . . 
 
 ! James B. Angell, LL.D 
 
 Cyrus Northrop, LL.D 
 
 Robert B. Fulton, LL.D. . . . 
 Richard Henry Jesse, LL.D. 
 Oscar J. Craig, A.M., Ph.D. 
 W. H. Payne, LL.D., I'h.I). 
 
 E. B. Andrews. LL.D 
 
 C. L. Herrick, M.S 
 
 F. P. Venable, Ph.D 
 
 Webster Merrifleld, M.A... 
 Rev. A. Morrisey ,C.S.C 
 
 135 40.000 750,000 
 
 245J 3,000 34,500 
 
 530 40,00!) 1,400,000 
 
 856! 20,000 
 
 225 3,80(" 
 
 140! 1,061 
 
 342 2,000 
 
 63,000 
 4,810 
 
 W 
 
 73 
 13 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 16 
 
 271 
 
 200 
 
 S)29 2)456 10,223 3,000,000 
 80 700 18.495 
 
 .. 31,928 546,174 
 
 125 72,562 1,350,000 
 
 103 1,879 
 
 318 15,000 300,000 
 
 15G 3,200 
 
 2,196 76,000 11710,054 
 2.500 336,740 7,438,450 
 
 99 598 10,000 214.000 
 
 40 470 28,960 382,500 
 
 L'l 300 6,100 7,500 
 
 214 1,750 50,000! 501,992 
 112 1.313 30,0001 232,000 
 
 58 1,064 30,000 142,000 
 
 43 320 14,000 : 1,044,901 
 
 178 3,229 122,000 830,000 
 
 215 3,010 53,000 1,307,211) 
 20 296 14,000 540.000 
 64 818 25,000 1.135,000 
 
 1U 203 3.000 
 
 7811,420 12,000 100.00(1 
 
 185 1,915 40,000 175,000 
 
 1795 Univ. of N. Carolina- r) Chapel Hill.N. C. . Non-Sect.... 
 1884 Univ. of N. Dakota!. . Grand Forks.N.D. Non-Sect .... 
 1842 Univ. of Notre Dame. . Notre Dame, Ind. . R. Catholic. . . . 
 
 1892 Univ. of Oklahoma!. . . Norman, Okla Non-Sect .... David R. Boyd, A.M 
 
 185(0 Univ. of Omaha! Omaha, Xeb.(7).. . . Presbvterian David R. Kerr, D.D.. Ph.D. 
 
 1877 Univ. of Oregon! Eugene, Ore Non-Sect .... Frank Strong, Ph.D 
 
 Charles C. Harrison, LL.D 
 
 670 35.000 
 
 :><;_' (i.500 
 
 645 50,000 
 
 22n .'UK Mi 
 
 300 5,000 
 
 49 300 7,000 
 
 10J,000 
 
 160.000 
 185,000 
 
 1880 Univ.of S.Calif'niat(g) Los Angeles, Cal.. Meth. Epis. 
 1882 Univ. of S. Dakota!... Vermilion. S. Dak. Non-Sert... 
 
 1868 Univ. of the South Sewanee. Tenn Prot. Epis. . 
 
 1794 Univ.of Tennessee!(e) Knoxville, Tenn... Non-Sect ... 
 
 1881 Univ. of Texas! Austin, Tex.(s). . . . Non-Sect . . . . I W. L. Prather, LL.D 
 
 Rev. Rush Rhees. D.D 
 
 George F. Bonard, D.D 
 
 Garrett Droppers, A.B 
 
 B. L. Wiggins. M.A. ,Vice-C. 
 C.W. Dabney, Ph. I). .LL.D. 
 
 20 210 6.000 30,000 
 
 258 2,834 140.000 2.748,937 
 
 15 216; 34.500! 738,573 
 
 54 400 4.000: 150,000 
 
 20 355 4,500 
 
 42 427 41.000 186,681 
 
 56 598 15,500 425.000 
 
 71. 800! 35,000 626,716
 
 532 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Universities and Colleges of the United States Continued. 
 
 Colleges. 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 Location. 
 
 Denomina- 
 tional 
 Control. 
 
 President or Chairman 
 of Faculty. 
 
 Instruc- 
 tors.* 
 
 Students.* 
 
 C <H 
 
 ""si. - 1 
 
 SC SA-g 
 
 Is J-g 
 
 55 "? 5g 
 
 >-! 9 
 
 ' > t* < 
 
 1850 Univ. of Urbana 
 1850 Univ. of Utahf 
 
 Urbana, O 
 Salt Lake City, U. 
 Burlington, Vt 
 Charlottesville, Va 
 Seattle, Wash 
 Madison, Wis 
 Wooster, O 
 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Presbyterian 
 Non-Sect 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 
 Rev. John Whitehead,M.A. 
 Jos. T. Kingsbury, Ph.D. . . 
 Mat. H. Buckham, D.D 
 P. B. Barringer, M.D 
 F. P. Graves, Ph.D., LL.D.. 
 Charles K. Adams, LL.D. . . 
 Rev. Louis E. Holden, D.D. 
 Rev. Elmer E. Smilev, A.B. 
 Rev. G. P. Benton, A.M. . . 
 
 6 
 22 
 54 
 43 
 23 
 120 
 22 
 14 
 23 
 28 
 <?)59 
 53 
 56 
 90 
 13 
 6 
 14 
 15 
 17 
 32 
 21 
 14 
 16 
 15 
 25 
 8 
 9 
 170 
 78 
 20 
 34 
 12 
 20 
 120 
 142 
 9 
 9 
 11 
 48 
 18 
 60 
 20 
 15 
 53 
 11 
 23 
 30 
 11 
 28 
 21 
 8 
 30 
 252 
 15 
 10 
 
 120 
 567 
 539 
 600 
 239 
 1,767 
 767 
 186 
 412 
 200 
 2)612 
 325 
 280 
 800 
 127 
 614 
 135 
 265 
 247 
 333 
 200 
 254 
 248 
 340 
 140 
 110 
 199 
 1,669 
 054 
 95 
 330 
 230 
 250 
 800 
 750 
 
 ion 
 
 100 
 291 
 845 
 321 
 209 
 305 
 353 
 575 
 171 
 329 
 388 
 131 
 290 
 450 
 161 
 288 
 2,500 
 236 
 194 
 
 15,000 $ 
 
 15,000 185,000 
 51,000 317.602 
 40,000 376,600 
 8,000 .... 
 
 1800 Univ. of Vermontf 
 1825 Univ. of Virginia 
 1862 Univ.of Washingtonf. 
 1848jUniv. of Wisconsin!.. 
 ISTOjUniv.of Woostert 
 1887 Univ. of Wyomingt. . 
 
 54,000 500,000 
 17,000 350,00:) 
 7,000 47,000 
 5,000 47,000 
 8,000 185,000 
 6,000 
 
 Laramie, Wyo 
 
 1869 Ursinus Colleget 
 
 College ville, Pa... 
 Chattanooga.Tenn. 
 West Point, N. Y.. 
 Annapolis, Md 
 Nashville, Tenn... 
 Burton, Wash 
 Poughkeepsie,N.Y 
 Villanova, Pa 
 Vincennes, Ind 
 Lexington, Va 
 Blacksburg, Va 
 Crawf'rdsville.Ind 
 Wake Forest, N. C. 
 Topeka, Kan 
 Washington, Pa.. . 
 Lexington, Va 
 Chestertown, Md. . 
 Wash'n Col., Tenn. 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Ref. inU. S.. 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Meth.Ep. S.. 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 R. Catholic.. 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 
 Rev. H. T. Spangler, D.D .. 
 Bishop I. W. Joyce, LL.D. . 
 CoLA.L. Mills, U.S.A. ,Supt. 
 Com. R.Wainwright,U.S.N. 
 J. H. Kirkland,LL.D.,Ph.D. 
 A. C. Jones, Ph.D 
 Jas. M. Taylor, D.D., LL.D. 
 Rev. L. A. Delurey, A.M 
 W. H. Hershman 
 
 1867 ,U. S. Grant Univ.t 
 1802 U. S. Military Acad. . . 
 1815 U. S. Naval Academy. 
 1872 Vanderbilt Univ.t 
 1892 Vashon Colleget 
 
 41 9331 
 
 37.H91 
 18,000 1,250,000 
 1 138 
 
 1861 Vassar Collegej 
 
 30,000 1,016,226 
 2 000 
 
 1842' Villanova College. . . . 
 1806 Vincennes Univ.t 
 1839 Virginia Mil. Inst 
 1872 Virginia Poly. Inst. . . 
 1832 Wabash College 
 
 7,805 51.000 
 9,!>14 20,000 
 3,000 344.312 
 .15.0110 470,000 
 13,000 208,856 
 7,500 70,001) 
 15,000 263,098 
 40,000 626,000 
 2,500 25,000 
 2,500 8,000 
 5,000 4,000,000 
 48,600 328.579 
 7,000 200,000 
 53,000 1,370.840 
 3 000 
 
 Scott Shipp Supt 
 
 J. M. McBryde,Ph.D.,LL.D. 
 Rev. W. P. Kane, D.D 
 C. E. Taylor, D.D.,LL.D .... 
 George M. Herrick, A.M 
 Rev. Jas. D. Moftat. D.L). . . 
 H. St. G. Tucker, LL.D 
 C. W.Reid, Ph.D 
 Rev. Jas. T. Cooter, M.A 
 W infield S. Chaplin, LL.D. 
 CarolineHazard,MA.,Litt.D 
 J. W. Frelev 
 B. P. Raymond, D.D., LL.D. 
 L. Bookwalter, A.M.. D.D.. 
 Rev. T. H. Lewis,D.D.,A.M 
 Daniel Carhart, Dean 
 Charles F. Thwing, D.D.... 
 William S. Reese, Ph.M . . . . 
 J. H. MacCracken, Ph.D. . . 
 Rev. R. G. Ferguson, D.D. . 
 Jerome H. Raymond, Ph.D 
 Charles A. Blanchard, D.D. 
 Rev. S. B. L. Penrose, A.B. 
 S. T. Mitchell, A.M., LL.D 
 Rev. M.W. Dogan, A.M 
 Willis C. Hawley, A.M 
 Lvon G. Tyler. M.A. , LL.D. 
 John P. Greene. D.D.,LL.D. 
 FranklinCarter,Hi.D.,LL.L- 
 James B. Unthank, M.Sc. .. 
 Rev. S. A. Martin, D.D 
 J . M. Ruthrauff , D.D 
 James H. Carlisle, LL.D 
 T.C.Mendenhall,PbD.,LL.D 
 Arthur T. Hadley , LL.D 
 Rev.Henry K. Warren, A.M. 
 Win. E. Schell, A.M 
 
 1833 Wake Forest College.. 
 1F65 Washburn Collegef... 
 1802 Wash.& Jefferson Col. 
 1749 Wash. & Lee Univ. . . . 
 1783 Washington Colleget. 
 1795 Washington Colleget . 
 1853 Washington Univ.t . . 
 
 Congregat'l.. 
 Non-Sect, (i). 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect .(i). 
 Non-Sect 
 
 1875 Wellesley Colleget 
 18H8 Wells Colleget 
 1831 Wesleyan Univ.t 
 1856 Western Colleget 
 1867 West. Maryland Col.t. 
 1787, West. Un. of Penn.t.. 
 1886 West. Reserve Univ.(o) 
 1865 Westlield Colleget .... 
 1853 Westminster Col 
 
 Wellesley, Mass. . . 
 Aurora, N. Y 
 Middletown, Ct. . . 
 Toledo, Iowa 
 Westminster, Md.. 
 Pittsburg, Pa.(m).. 
 Cleveland, O 
 Westfleld 111 
 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 Meth. Epis. . 
 U. Brethren. 
 Meth. Prot.. 
 Non-Sect 
 Non-Sect 
 U. Brethren. 
 Presbvterian 
 Unit. Presb.. 
 Non-Sect 
 Congregat'l . 
 Congregat'l . 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Meth. Epis.. 
 Non-Sect 
 Baptist 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Friends 
 Presbyterian 
 Lutheran.. . . 
 Meth.Ep. S.. 
 Non-Sect .... 
 Congregat'l . 
 Congregat'l . 
 U. Brethren. 
 
 5,000! 
 16,000 480,000 
 55,000 1,113,718 
 3 000 
 
 Fulton, Mo 
 
 6,000 209,000 
 4,000 96,000 
 20,000 114,250 
 3,000 50,000 
 6,000 190,000 
 6,500 30,400 
 3 550 
 
 1852 Westminster Col.t 
 1867 W. Virginia Univ.t... 
 1860 Wheaton Colleget 
 1859 Whitman College 
 1856 Wilberforce Univ.t^.,. 
 1873 Wiley Universitytf 
 1844 Willamette Univ.t. . . . 
 1693 William & Mary Col... 
 1849 William Jewell Col 
 1785 Williams College 
 1870 Wilmington Colleget.. 
 1870 Wilson Colleget 
 
 N.Wilmington, Pa. 
 Morgant'n, W. Va. 
 Wheaton, 111 
 
 Walla Walla, Wn.. 
 Wilberforce, O 
 Marshall, Tex 
 Salem, Ore 
 Williamsburg, Va. 
 Liberty, Mo 
 Williamst'n, Mass. 
 Wilmington, O 
 Chambersburg,Pa. 
 Springfield, O 
 Spartanburg, S. C. 
 Worcester, Mass... 
 New Haven, Ct 
 Yankton, S. Dak.. 
 York, Neb 
 
 4',513 40,000 
 14,000 127,900 
 12,000 219,700 
 40,750 1,100,000 
 2,500 35,000 
 6,000 250.000 
 12,000 175,000 
 8,000 63.000 
 5,200 615,000 
 285,000 5,000,000 
 6,255 113,690 
 1,000 50,000 
 
 1845 Wittenberg Coll.t(?)... 
 1854 Wofford Colleget 
 18C5 Worcester Poly. Inst.. 
 1701 Yale University (v) 
 1882 Yankton Colleget 
 1890 York Colleget 
 
 * All departments, t Co-education of the sexes, 
 t Education of women only. For the education of 
 colored students. H Teachers' College is now part of 
 Columbia University, it Medical Department at Mo- 
 bile, Ala. 
 
 (b) Not yet organized for instruction. Is intended 
 solely for post-graduate work. 
 
 icl'No restriction as to color. 
 
 (rf) Barnard College (for women), annex of Columbia 
 University, with use of library. 
 
 (e) Ladies preparing forforeign missionsare admitted 
 to class-room work. 
 
 (/) Confined strictly to post-graduate work. The na- 
 tional university* of the church. 
 
 ((/) Academic and Technical Departments at Fayette- 
 ville; Law and Medical Departments at Little Rock; 
 Normal School (for negroes), Pine Bluff, Ark. 
 
 (i) Presbyterian in sympathy. 
 
 O') For Indians and colored "youth, both sexes. 
 
 (fc) Professors take Chairmanship in turn. 
 
 (I) Branch at Bellevue, Neb., also. 
 
 (TO) Located in Pittsburg and Allegheny. 
 
 (n) Separate department for women in'the H. Sophie 
 Newcomb Memorial College. 
 
 (o) For both sexes, except that Adelbert College Annex 
 is for men only. 
 
 (p) Dental and Law Schools at Chicago. 
 (g) Report at close of 1897. 
 (r) Schools of Pharmacy and Medicine at Chicago, 
 
 (s) Academic and Law departments at Austin; Medi- 
 cal at Galveston ; Agricultural and Mechanical Branch 
 at College Station, Tex. 
 
 (t) Randolph -Macon College for women at Lynch- 
 burg, Va. 
 
 (u) School of Mines at Rolla, Mo. 
 
 (v) Co-education in graduate courses only. 
 
 (?<) Co-education in law, pedagogy, and graduate 
 school. The University proper is at University Heights, 
 Bronx Borough, New York ; the University Law School 
 is at Washington Square, Manhattan Borough, New 
 York. 
 
 (x) College of Liberal Arts at St. Paul, Minn. ; College 
 of Physicians and Surgeons at Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 (y) Medical Department located in Louisville. Statis- 
 tics are exclusive of medical students and those in 
 commercial college. 
 
 (2) Statistics are for Academic Department only.
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 638 
 
 Foreign Universities. 
 
 Date of 
 foun- 
 dation. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Number 
 of stu- 
 dents. 
 
 Date of 
 foun- 
 dation. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Number 
 of stu- 
 dents. 
 
 1200 
 1809 
 1365 
 1508 
 1224 
 1755 
 1465 
 1472 
 1819 
 1200 
 1837 
 1409 
 1851 
 1257 
 1583 
 1348 
 1588 
 1412 
 1875 
 1472 
 1640 
 1478 
 1451 
 1303 
 1450 
 1233 
 1586 
 1818 
 1864 
 1426 
 1502 
 1119 
 1868 
 1222 
 1804 
 1477 
 1808 
 1402 
 1288 
 1506 
 
 1784 
 1827 
 1361 
 1779 
 1181 
 1831 
 1364 
 1477 
 1808 
 1817 
 1243 
 1632 
 
 1632 
 1811 
 1737 
 1605 
 1457 
 1591 
 1386 
 1567 
 
 1816 
 
 Paris, France 
 
 11,090 
 9,629 
 7,086 
 
 1821 
 1743 
 
 Montreal, Canada 
 
 1,082 
 1,075 
 1,075 
 1,066 
 1,033 
 1,013 
 1,010 
 1,009 
 1,000 
 957 
 908 
 902 
 862 
 837 
 816 
 814 
 813 
 789 
 758 
 755 
 748 
 732 
 727 
 726 
 726 
 726 
 683 
 676 
 668 
 667 
 665 
 634 
 601 
 595 
 581 
 553 
 540 
 538 
 524 
 514 
 510 
 484 
 465 
 454 
 452 
 422 
 412 
 400 
 390 
 358 
 348 
 320 
 298 
 257 
 250 
 237 
 222 
 207 
 206 
 169 
 166 
 109 
 99 
 93 
 
 Berlin, Prussia, Germany . .... 
 
 Erlaiigen, Bavaria, Germany 
 
 Vienna, Austria 
 
 Urbana 
 
 Madrid, Spain 
 
 6,143 
 5,108 
 4,461 
 4.407 
 3,814 
 3,392 
 3,365 
 3,258 
 3,126 
 3,000 
 2,929 
 2,850 
 2,815 
 2,565 
 2,434 
 2,198 
 2,160 
 2,015 
 2,000 
 1,924 
 1,914 
 1,887 
 1,808 
 1,761 
 1,726 
 1,680 
 1,669 
 1,645 
 1,629 
 1,620 
 1,616 
 1,576 
 1,499 
 1,477 
 1,467 
 1,429 
 1,424 
 1,424 
 1,398 
 1,353 
 1,345 
 1,343 
 1,342 
 1,316 
 1.313 
 1,289 
 1,283 
 1,267 
 1,247 
 1,233 
 1,226 
 1,218 
 1.150 
 1.149 
 1,144 
 1,143 
 1,128 
 1,115 
 1,098 
 1,092 
 1,088 
 
 1343 
 
 1572 
 1812 
 1673 
 1743 
 1431 
 1527 
 1444 
 1559 
 1804 
 1575 
 1832 
 1456 
 1494 
 1558 
 1834 
 1409 
 1636 
 1665 
 1437 
 1772 
 1209 
 1544 
 1816 
 1853 
 1607 
 1666 
 1722 
 
 1349 
 1865 
 1838 
 1339 
 1537 
 1422 
 1419 
 1460 
 1874 
 
 1850 
 1614 
 1860 
 1683 
 1832 
 1875 
 1540 
 
 Pisa, Italy 
 
 Naples, Italy .... 
 
 Rome, Italy (University Pont.) 
 
 Moscow, Russia 
 
 Nancv, France 
 
 Budapest, Hun garv 
 
 Genoa, Italy 
 
 Munich, Bavaria, Germany 
 
 Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria. 
 
 St. Petersburg, Russia 
 
 Santiago (Chile) 
 
 Oxford, England 
 
 Poitiers, France... 
 
 Athens, Greece .... 
 
 Marburg, Prussia, Germany 
 
 Leipzig, Saxony, Germany 
 
 Catania, Sicily 
 
 Manchester, England (about) 
 
 Geneva, Switzerland 
 
 Cambridge, England .... 
 
 Kasan, Russia 
 
 Edinburgh, Scotland 
 
 Ley den, Holland 
 
 Prague, Austria (Bohemian) 
 
 Zurich, Switzerland 
 
 Kijew, Kieff, Russia ... 
 
 Greif swald, Prussia, Germany 
 Aberdeen, Scotland .. 
 
 Turin, Italy 
 
 Lyons, France ... 
 
 
 Bordeaux, France 
 
 Berne, Switzerland 
 
 Helsingfors, Finland, Russia 
 Copenhagen, Denmark 
 
 Aix-en-Provence, France 
 
 Utrecht, Holland . 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland 
 
 Kiel, Prussia, Germany... 
 
 Rome, Italy (Royal University) 
 
 Caen, France 
 
 Barcelona, 'Spain 
 
 Klausenburg, Hungary 
 
 Toulouse, France 
 
 Valencia, Spain. .. 
 
 
 
 Bonn, Prussia, Germany 
 
 Ghent, Belgium 
 
 Bucharest, Roumania 
 
 Melbourne, Victoria, Australia 
 
 Lou vain, Belgium 
 
 Giessen, Hessia, Germany 
 
 Halle, Prussia, Germany. 
 
 
 Bologna, Italy 
 
 Dijon, France 
 
 Tokyo, Japan 
 
 Kingston.. 
 
 Padua, Italy 
 
 Florence, Italy 
 
 Charkow, Russia 
 
 Odessa, Russia. . . . 
 
 Upsala, Sweden 
 
 Messina, Italy 
 
 Rennes, France 
 
 Grenoble France 
 
 Wiirzburg, Bavaria, Germany 
 
 Lausanne, Switzerland. 
 
 Coimbra. Portugal 
 
 Parma, Italy 
 
 Breslau, Prussia, Germany 
 
 Rostock, Mecklenburg, Germany 
 Basel, Switzerland ". . .. 
 
 Prague (German) 
 Lemberg, Galicia, Austria 
 
 Agram, Croatia, Hungary 
 
 Toronto, Canada 
 
 Belgrade . . 
 
 Pavia, Italy 
 
 Sydney, Australia 
 
 Palermo, Sicily, Italy 
 
 Groningen, Holland. .. 
 
 Montpellier, France 
 
 Jassy , Roumania 
 
 
 Modena, Italy 
 
 Krakow, Galicia, Austria 
 
 Durham, England (about) 
 
 Tubingen, Wiirtemberg, Germany . . . 
 Lille, France 
 
 Czernowitz, Bukowina, Austria 
 
 Macerata, Italy 
 
 Liege, Belgium 
 
 Freiburg, Switzerland 
 
 
 1872 
 1266 
 1777 
 
 1596 
 1411 
 1727 
 1808 
 1422 
 1556 
 
 1671 
 
 Adelaide, Australia. 
 
 
 Perugia, Italy. . 
 
 Havana, Cuba 
 
 Siena, Italv 
 
 Toronto (Victoria University) 
 Cagliari, Italy 
 
 
 Giittingen, Prussia, Germany 
 
 
 
 Camerino, Italy 
 
 Freiburg Baden, Germany 
 
 Clermont, France 
 
 
 Besanp on, France 
 
 Heidelberg, Baden, Germany 
 
 Sassari, Italy 
 
 Strassburg, Alsace, Germany 
 Manchester, Enerland (Owens College) 
 Warsaw, Poland, Russia 
 
 Amsterdam\f ree university) 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 Urbino, Italy 
 
 Humanities are those branches of educa- 
 tion or study which are included in what are 
 called polite or elegant learning, as languages, 
 grammar, philosophy, and poetry, with that 
 pertaining to what is called polite literature, 
 including the ancient classics. The name im- 
 plies that the study cf these branches, in op- 
 position to the physical sciences, which espe- 
 cially develop the intellectual-faculties, has a 
 tendency to humanize man, to cultivate par- 
 ticularly those faculties which distinguish him 
 as man in all his relations, social and moral ; 
 that is, which make him a truly cultured man. 
 
 Animal Worship. Among primitive 
 peoples, all animals are supposed to be en- 
 j dowed with souls which in many cases have 
 J formerly animated human beings. Hence a 
 I likeness is often recognized between an animal 
 j and some deceased friend, and the animal is 
 addressed as the person would have been, and 
 honored with a kind of worship. Many tribes 
 call themselves by the name of, and even de- 
 rive their pedigree from, some animal. Its 
 I cries become the omens of the tribe ; and thus 
 i originate the divination and augury of more 
 civilized nations. In the modern world the
 
 584 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 most civilized people among whom animal- 
 worship vigorously survives lie within the ' 
 range of Brahmanism. Here the sacred cow ! 
 is not merely to be spared ; she is as a deity j 
 worshiped and bowed to daily by the pious 
 Hindoo. Siva is incarnate in Hanuman, the ! 
 monkey god. The divine king of birds, Gar- j 
 uda, is Vishnu's vehicle, and the forms of fish 
 and boar and tortoise assumed in the avatar 
 legends of Vishnu. Perhaps no worship has 
 prevailed more widely than that of the serpent. 
 It had its place in Egypt and among the He- 
 brews ; in Greece and Rome ; among the Celts 
 and Scandinavians in Europe ; in Persia and In- 
 dia; in China and Thibet; in Mexico and Peru ; 
 in Africa, where it still flourishes as the state 
 religion in Dahomey ; in Java and Ceylon ; , 
 among the Fijians and elsewhere in Oceanica ; 
 and even within the limits of Christianity we 
 find the sect of the Ophites, who continued or 
 renewed snake-worship, blended curiously j 
 with purer rites. 
 
 Pyramids. The weight of authority : 
 among modern Egyptologists inclines to the j 
 view that the Pyramids were a new and bold 
 architectural type, invented in its entirety be- 
 tween the fifth and twelfth dynasties, in Mid- j 
 die Egypt, and not the development from j 
 earlier forms of tomb-mounds. " Pyramid," j 
 in its strict geometrical sense, denotes a build- \ 
 ing having a polygonal base, and plain triangu- 
 lar sides which meet in an apex. There are , 
 various forms of ancient tomb-mounds of 
 earth and stone and stepped structures, as the 
 mastaba in Egypt, and early temples and mau- ' 
 solea in Mexico and Assyria, and there are 
 also some inferior imitations of later date ; 
 but the true pyramidal construction is seen 
 only in Egypt, and comprises about seventy 
 structures on the banks of the Nile, none of 
 which are later than the twelfth dynasty (about 
 2000 B. C.). They are all built upon a square 
 base, with the four sides facing the four cardi- ; 
 nal points of the compass, and in the earlier 
 forms are composed of horizontal layers of 
 rough-hewn blocks with a small amount of 
 mortar degenerating in the buildings of the ; 
 sixth and succeeding dynasties to a cellular 
 system of retaining walls filled with loose 
 chips, and finally, in the twelfth dynasty, to a 
 mass of mud bricks. But there was, in all ! 
 cases, on the outside, a casing of fine stone, 
 beautifully polished and jointed, the inner 
 chambers having a similar finish. These casing 
 stones were not a mere veneer or film, but were 
 massive blocks, usually greater in thickness 
 than in height. Inside of each pyramid, al- 
 ways low down, and usually beneath the level 
 of the ground, was built a sepulchral chamber, 
 and this was reached by a downward passage 
 
 from the north side. This passage had a 
 lesser chamber in its course, and was blocked 
 once or of tener with a massive stone portcullis. 
 The interior \vas probably in every case acces- 
 sible to the priests for the purpose of making 
 offerings, the passageway being closed by a 
 stone door turning on a horizontal pivot, the 
 location of which was known to them. The 
 chambers were always roofed by great sloping 
 cantalevers of stone projecting from the north 
 and south sides, on which they rested without 
 pressing on each other along the central ridge, 
 so that there was no thrust, nor indeed any 
 force to disturb the buildings ; and now, after 
 a lapse of four thousand years, in spite of the 
 brutal treatment of enemies and the greed of 
 later builders (who have removed almost all of 
 the casing stones), they still stand as colossal 
 monuments of the work of man. Owing to 
 the loss of the casing stones, their present ap- 
 pearance presents a series of huge, rough steps, 
 and their height has been considerably dimin- 
 ished by the encroachment of the sand of the 
 desert around their bases. Many archaeolo- 
 gists believe these vast piles, especially the 
 great Pyramid of Cheops at Gizeh, to have 
 been constructed under divine inspiration, and 
 to embody in the living rock great astronom- 
 ical facts and mathematical principles, and 
 memorials of a system of weights and meas- 
 ures for universal use. It is also maintained 
 that Masonic emblems and symbols have been 
 found within them. Whatever the builders 
 embodied in the details of their construction, 
 their immediate object and use was undoubt- 
 edly to serve as royal mausolea. As for these 
 theories, future investigations will probably 
 develop or explode them ; but that there is 
 great mathematical knowledge and wonderful 
 accuracy of measurement displayed in them is 
 well established. In the great Pyramid at 
 Gizeh, the four sides have a mean error of 
 only six tenths of an inch, and twelve seconds 
 in angle from a perfect square. This pyramid 
 is the largest of all, and by far the most re- 
 markable in its construction. It is somewhat 
 different from the others in its internal ar- 
 rangement, having the subterranean chamber, 
 which is but half finished, and having also an 
 upward passage leading to two large upper 
 chambers, highly finished with great slabs of 
 polished red granite. Probably both of these 
 chambers contained originally a polished sar- 
 cophagus of the same Syenitic granite ; and 
 the larger one the " King's " although in 
 the very heart of this huge pile, is perfectly 
 ventilated by two air passages about nine 
 inches square, which run to the north and 
 south faces of the Pyramid. It was built by 
 Cheops or Khufii of the fifth dynasty, and its
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 535 
 
 construction is thought to have employed 
 100,000 men for thirty years or more prob- 
 ably half a century. The masonry consisted 
 originally of 89,028,000 cubic feet, and still 
 amounts to 82,111,000. The height is at 
 present 450 feet (originally 479), and the 
 length of the sides 746 feet (originally 764). 
 The King's Chamber is 19 feet 1 inch in 
 height, and in area 34 feet 3 inches by 17 feet 
 1 inch ; the Queen's Chamber is 20 feet 3 
 inches in height, and in area 17 feet by 18 
 feet 9 inches. It is now generally agreed that 
 there were no inscriptions on the external sur- 
 face of any of the pyramids, the casing-stones 
 bearing a smooth polish. The mechanical 
 means employed by the builders have been 
 partly ascertained. The hard stones, granite, 
 diorite, and basalt, were, in all fine work, 
 sawn into shape by bronze saws set with jewels 
 (either corundum or diamonds) ; hollows were 
 made (as in sarcophagi) by tubular drilling 
 with tools like our modern diamond rock-drills, 
 and small articles were turned in lathes fitted 
 with mechanical tool rests and jewel pointed 
 tools. The questions of the transport and 
 management of such huge stones, weighing 
 oftentimes more than thirty tons apiece, re- 
 main still to be answered. 
 
 Septuagiiit. - The most ancient Greek 
 translation of the Old Testament that has come 
 down to us, and the one commonly in use at 
 the time of Christ, was the Septuagint. Its 
 origin is shrouded in deep obscurity. There 
 are a number of myths concerning it, but the i 
 principal one is that it was made during the 
 reign of Ptolemy Philadelphia, 284-247 B. C. j 
 This king, it is stated, anxious to embody in 
 a collection of laws of all nations, on which he 
 was engaged, also those of the Jews, invited 
 72 men of learning and eminence from Pales- 
 tine, who performed the task of translation in j 
 72 days. The facts upon which this legend, ! 
 now rejected as a piece of history, rests, can- 1 
 not well be ascertained. It seems clear, how- ! 
 ever, that Ptolemy, aided by his librarian, i 
 Demetrius Phalereus, did cause a Greek ver- 
 sion of the Pentateuch to be executed, proba- 
 bly during the time of his being co-regent of 
 Ptolemy Lagi ; but the translators were not \ 
 Palestinian but Egyptian Jews. This is evi- i 
 denced from the state of the text from which 
 the translation must have been made, and from 
 the intimate acquaintance with Egyptian man- 
 ners and customs which it evinces. The Sep- 
 tuagint was held in the very highest repute 
 among the Alexandrine Jews, while the Pal- 
 estinians looked upon it as a dangerous inno- 
 vation, and even instituted the day of its com- 
 pletion as a day of mourning. Gradually, 
 however, it also found its way into Palestine. 
 
 It was read and interpreted in the synagogues 
 for some centuries after Christ, until the in- 
 creasing knowledge of the original, fostered by 
 the many academies and schools, and the 
 frequent disputations with the early Christians, 
 brought other and more faithful and literal 
 translations. 
 
 Holy Coat, a garment which is alleged to 
 be the seamless coat of our Saviour, and to 
 have been discovered in the fourth century by 
 the Empress Helena on her visit to Palestine. 
 It was deposited by her at Treves, where it is 
 preserved in the cathedral of that city with the 
 greatest reverence. The Treves relics were con- 
 cealed from the Normans in the ninth century 
 in crypts ; but the Holy Coat was rediscov- 
 ered in 1196, and then solemnly exhibited to 
 the public gaze, which did not take place 
 again till 1512, when Leo X. appointed it to be 
 exhibited every seven years. In 1810 the ex- 
 hibition was attended by 227,000 people, and 
 in 1844 by still greater multitudes. The ex- 
 hibition of the Holy Coat in this latter year 
 led to the secession' of the German Catholics 
 from the Church of Rome. 
 
 Portland Vase. The celebrated Port- 
 land Vase, which is one of the most valued relics 
 of antiquity in the British Museum, was made, 
 it is believed, to hold the ashes of the Roman 
 Emperor Alexander Servius, and was discovered 
 during the sixteenth century in a rich sar- 
 cophagus on Monte del Grano, where it had 
 been for about thirteen hundred years. It is 
 an urn, ten inches high. The groundwork 
 is of blue glass, enameled with white glass cut 
 in cameo, to represent the wedding of Thetis 
 and Peleus. It was placed in the museum by 
 the Duke of Portland in 1810, and in 1845 was 
 maliciously broken by a man named Lloyd. 
 The pieces, however, were collected and ce- 
 mented together, but the vase has not been on 
 exhibition since that date. It was at one time 
 known as the Barberina Vase, and was owned 
 by Sir William Hamilton, who found it in the 
 Barberina Palace, and purchased it in 1770. 
 In time it passed into the possession of the 
 Duchess of Portland, and was disposed of as 
 related. 
 
 Shakers is the popular name given to a 
 religious sect who call themselves the ' ' United 
 Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appear- 
 ing." They were founded in England about 
 the year 1770 by an Englishwoman named 
 Ann Lee, in whose person they believed that 
 Christ has appeared a second time. Shortly 
 before the outbreak of the Revolutionary War a 
 small band of them, with Ann Lee at their 
 head, emigrated to America, and penetrated 
 far into the wilderness to Niskenna, and 
 there founded the settlement, which still exists
 
 536 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 at Watervliet, N. Y. In the spring of 1780, 
 when they had been three years and a half 
 at Niskenna, a religious revival took place 
 at Albany, and spread through the surround- 
 ing districts ; and from Hancock and New 
 Lebanon a deputation was sent to Niskenria, 
 to see what light its inhabitants, enjoyed 
 as to the way of salvation. The deputation 
 consisted of Joseph Meacham and Lucy Wright, 
 subsequently the heads of the Shaker Society. 
 These persons became believers in Ann Lee, 
 and through their agency other converts 
 were won, and a Shaker Society established 
 at New Lebanon. Toward the close of 1780, 
 the Revolutionary War being then in progress, 
 notoriety was given to Ann Lee through an 
 incident seemingly unfavorable. On suspi- 
 cion of being a British spy she was imprisoned 
 for some time at Poughkeepsie, and before she 
 obtained her liberty, in December, 1780, all 
 the colonies had heard of the " female Christ," 
 and in the following year she started on a mis- 
 sionary tour through New England and the 
 adjacent colonies, and made not a few converts. 
 She died in 1784, and was succeeded in the 
 headship of the society by Joseph Meacham 
 and Lucy Wright. Her death was a surprise 
 to many of her followers, who believed that 
 she was to live with them forever. Their doc- 
 trine has been, to some extent, developed as well 
 as systematized since the death of " Mother 
 Ann." They believe that the Kingdom of 
 Heaven has come ; that Christ has come upon 
 earth a second time in the form of " Mother 
 Ann," and that the personal rule of God has 
 been restored. Then they hold that the old 
 law has been abolished and anew dispensation 
 begun ; that Adam 's sin has been atoned ; that 
 man has been made free of all errors except his 
 own ; that the curse has been taken away from 
 labor ; that the earth and all that is on it will 
 fee redeemed. Believers, on going "into 
 union," die to the world and enter upon a new 
 life, which is not a mere change of life but a 
 new order of being. For them there is neither 
 death nor marriage ; what seems death is only 
 a change of form, a transfiguration, which does 
 not hide them from the purified eyes of the 
 saints; and in union, as in Heaven, there is 
 no marrying nor giving in marriage. They 
 believe that the earth, now freed from the curse 
 of Adam, is Heaven; they look for no resur- 
 rection besides that involved in living with 
 them in " resurrection order." The believer, 
 upon entering into union, leaves behind all his 
 earthly relationships and interests, just as if he 
 had been severed from them by death. And 
 since to be in union is heaven, the Shakers 
 hold that no attempt should be made by them 
 to draw men into union. They believe that 
 
 they live in daily communion with the spirits 
 of the departed believers. The Shaker settle- 
 ments are composed of from two to eight 
 "families," or households. A large house, 
 divided through the middle by wide walls, and 
 capable of accommodating from 30 to 150 in- 
 mates, is erected by each family, the male 
 members occupying one end and the female 
 the other. Their meals are taken in a com- 
 mon room, and in silence. They possess an 
 average of seven acres of land to the member, 
 and are very industrious. The settlements are 
 at New Lebanon and Watervliet, N. Y. ; Han- 
 cock. Tyringham, Harvard, and Shirley, Mass. ; 
 Enfield, Conn. ; Canterbury and Eufield, N. 
 H. ; Alfred and Gloucester, Me. ; Union Vil- 
 lage, White Water, and North Union, Ohio ; 
 and at Pleasant Hill and South Union, Ky., 
 and number, in all, 2,400 members. 
 
 Roman Baths, The, were among the 
 most magnificent and extensive architectural 
 ornaments of the city in the time of the 
 Empire. They were erected by different em- 
 perors for the use of the populace, and the 
 vast ruins still existing testify to their great 
 size and the unparalleled luxury of their ar- 
 rangements. In these great thermce, as they 
 were called, the primitive object of bathing 
 was largely lost sight of, and they became 
 favorite places of general resort for pleasure. 
 The most famous were those erected by the 
 Emperors Titus, Caracalla, and Diocletian. 
 Caracalla's baths were 1 ,500 feet long by 1 ,250 
 feet broad, and the swimming bath or natato- 
 rium in those of Diocletian was 200 feet long 
 by 100 feet wide ; and it is calculated that in 
 this entire establishment 18,000 people could 
 bathe at one time. There were separate struc- 
 tures for the exclusive use of women, and in 
 some cases separate apartments in the same 
 building, but these were generally inferior to 
 those for the men. They were built entirely 
 of stone and polished marble, and all the 
 apartments were beautifully ornamented with 
 mosaic, and profusely adorned with painting, 
 stuccowork, and statuary. The public baths 
 of Pompeii were uncovered in 1824 and the 
 complete internal arrangement disclosed, which 
 is probably similar to, though on a smaller 
 scale than, those in Rome. The process of 
 bathing w.'ts this : After undressing in the 
 (ipadyterivm, or "room for urfdressing, " the 
 bather was rubbed and anointed with some 
 of the fragrant oils and ointments used by the 
 ancients, and then proceeded to a spacious 
 apartment devoted to exercises of various 
 kinds, among which games at ball held a 
 prominent place. After exercise, he went into 
 the caldarium, either merely to sweat or to 
 take the hot bath ; and during this part of the
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 537 
 
 process the body was scraped -with strir/iles 
 (small curved instruments usually made of 
 bronze). Being now dried with cloths, and 
 slightly anointed all over with perfumed oils, 
 he resumed his dress, and then passed a short 
 time, successively, iu the tepidarium and the 
 frigidarium, or temperate and cold rooms, 
 which softened the transition from the great 
 heat of the caldarium into the open air. The 
 artificial bath has been used from the most 
 ancient times of which we have any record. 
 It is mentioned in Homer, the vessel for bath- 
 ing being described as of polished marble and 
 the warm baths referred to as effeminate. Pub- 
 lic baths were common in Greece during the 
 historic period, and they were in use at Rome 
 from early times ; but during the Republic they 
 continued small, dark, and inconvenient, and 
 it was not until the time of the Empire that 
 they reached their great size and splendor. 
 
 Russia, Religion of. The Established 
 Church of Russia, to which the great majority 
 of the inhabitants belong, is identical in doc- 
 trine with, and is a branch of, the Greek 
 Church. The liturgy used is the same as that 
 originally used by the Church at Constantino- 
 ple, but it is read, not in Greek, but in the 
 Sclavonic tongue. Previous to the time of 
 Alexander II., dissent in all its forms was not 
 only discouraged but often rigorously repressed 
 and it has only been during very late years that 
 general toleration has been permitted. The 
 Roman Catholic Church has been the object 
 of especial severity in the past, particularly 
 
 during the reign of the Czar Nicholas. Under 
 the laws of Alexander II., all Catholics and 
 Protestants enjoy civil rights with members of 
 [the Established Church, and are equally ad- 
 missible to the highest offices of the empire. 
 Christianity was introduced into Russia in the 
 ninth century. 
 
 Taj Mahal was built by the Shah Jihan of 
 India as a mausoleum for the remains of his wife 
 Nourmahal, and is situated at Agra. It is of 
 i white marble, 100 feet in diameter and 200 feet 
 in height, built in the form of an irregular oc- 
 | tagon, and rising from a marble terrace, under 
 which is a second terrace of red sandstone. 
 At the corners of the marble terrace are lofty 
 minarets, and in the center of the main build- 
 ing rises a dome, ftanked by cupolas of similar 
 form. Every part, even the basement, the 
 dome, and the upper galleries of the minarets, 
 is inlaid with ornamental designs in marble of 
 different colors, principally of pale brown and 
 | bluish violet. Here and there, also, the exte- 
 j rior and interior are decorated with mosaics of 
 precious stones. The whole Koran is said to 
 be written in mosaics of precious stones on the 
 i interior walls. In the construction of this 
 i magnificent building, which, as Bayard Taylor 
 ! says, alone repays a visit to India, 20,000 men 
 ! were employed twenty years. Although the 
 labor cost nothing, over $20,000,000 were ex- 
 pended in its construction. The doors are of 
 solid silver, and an enormous diamond was 
 placed upon the tomb itself. 
 
 STJXDAY-SCHOOL STATISTICS OF ALL COUNTRIES. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Sunday 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Sunday 
 Schools. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 Europe : 
 England and Wales 
 
 37,201 
 
 585,457 
 
 5,976,537 
 
 Asia Continued. 
 Siam 
 
 16 
 
 64 
 
 809 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 6,275 
 
 62,994 
 
 694,860 
 
 China 
 
 105 
 
 1,053 
 
 5,264 
 
 Ireland 
 
 3,584 
 
 27,740 
 
 308,516 
 
 Japan ... . . 
 
 150 
 
 390 
 
 7,019 
 
 Belgium 
 
 89 
 
 310 
 
 4,112 
 
 Central Turkev 
 
 516 
 
 2,450 
 
 25,833 
 
 Austria 
 
 212 
 
 513 
 
 7,195 
 
 
 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 506 
 
 3,043 
 
 55,316 
 
 Africa. ... 
 
 4,246 
 
 8,455 
 
 161,394 
 
 Finland 
 
 6.853 
 
 11,534 
 
 147.134 
 
 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 1.4oO 
 
 3,800 
 
 60.000 
 
 North America : 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,900 
 
 34,983 
 
 749,786 
 
 United States 
 
 123,173 
 
 1,305,939 
 
 9,718,432 
 
 Greece 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 180 
 
 Canada .... 
 
 8,386 
 
 69,521 
 
 576,064 
 
 Italy 
 
 403 
 
 654 
 
 10,9(19 
 
 Newfoundl'nd and Labrador 
 
 359 
 
 2,275 
 
 22,976 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 1.560 
 
 4,600 
 
 163,000 
 
 West Indies 
 
 2,185 
 
 9,673 
 
 110,233 
 
 Norway 
 
 550 
 
 4,390 
 
 63,980 
 
 Central \merica and Mexico 
 
 550 
 
 1,300 
 
 15,000 
 
 Portugal 
 
 11 
 
 56 
 
 1,066 
 
 
 
 
 
 Russia 
 
 83 
 
 777 
 
 15,524 
 
 South America 
 
 350 
 
 3,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 Spain 
 
 88 
 
 180 
 
 3,230 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 5,750 
 
 17,200 
 
 242,150 
 
 Ocean ica: 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 1,637 
 
 6,916 
 
 113,382 
 
 \ustralasia 
 
 4 766 
 
 54 211 
 
 586 029 
 
 European Turkey 
 
 35 
 
 175 
 
 1,564 
 
 Fiji Islands 
 
 1,474 
 
 2 700 
 
 42 909 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 
 
 230 
 
 1,413 
 
 15 840 
 
 Asia : 
 
 
 
 
 Other Islands 
 
 210 
 
 800 
 
 10 000 
 
 
 5 548 
 
 10 715 
 
 197 754 
 
 
 
 
 
 Persia 
 
 in; 
 
 440 
 
 4,876 
 
 The "World 
 
 224 5tV> 
 
 2 239 728 
 
 20,268 933 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The total number of teachers and scholars in the world, according to this report, was 22,508,661. 
 The table does not include the schools of the Roman Catholic and Non-Eyangelical Protestant churches. The 
 number of scholars in Roman Catholic Sunday schools in the United States is estimated by clerics at 800,000.
 
 538 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 RELIGIOUS STATISTICS. 
 
 NUMBERS IN THE WORLD ACCORDING TO CREED. 
 The following estimates, by M. Fournier de Flaix, are the latest that have been made by a competent authority. 
 
 CREEDS. 
 
 No. of Followers. 
 
 CREEDS. 
 
 No. of Followers. 
 
 1 Christianity 
 
 477,080,158 
 
 5 Buddhism 
 
 147,900,000 
 
 2 Worship of Ancestors and Con- 
 
 
 (i Taoism . .. 
 
 43 000 000 
 
 fucianism 
 
 256,000,000 
 
 7 Shintoism 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 
 190,000,000 
 
 
 7 186 000 
 
 4 Mohammedanism 
 
 176,834,372 
 
 :i Polytheism 
 
 117,681,669 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 CHURCHES. 
 
 Total Followers. 
 
 CHURCHES. 
 
 Total Followers. 
 
 Catholic Church 
 
 230,866.533 
 
 Armenian Church 
 
 1,690,000 
 
 Protestant Churches 
 
 143,237.625 
 
 Nestorians ... 
 
 80 000 
 
 Orthodox Greek Church 
 
 98,016.000 
 
 Jacobites 
 
 70 000 
 
 
 3 000 000 
 
 
 
 Coptic Church 
 
 120.0W) 
 
 ; Total 
 
 477,080,158 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF SEMITIC ARYAN RACES. 
 
 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 
 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL .DIVISIONS. 
 
 Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Protestant 
 Churches. 
 
 Orthodox 
 Churches. 
 
 Mohamme- 
 danism. 
 
 Judaism. 
 
 Europe 
 
 160,165,000 
 
 80 812 000 
 
 89,196,000 
 
 6 69 000 
 
 6 456 000 
 
 America 
 
 58,393,882 
 
 57,294,014 
 
 
 
 130 ooo 
 
 Oceanica 
 
 6,574,481 
 
 2,724,781 
 
 
 24,699,787 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 2,655 920 
 
 1 744 080 
 
 
 36 000 000 
 
 400 000 
 
 Asia . 
 
 3,007,250 
 
 662,750 
 
 8,820,000 
 
 109,535,585 
 
 200,000 
 
 Total Followers 
 
 230,866,633 
 
 143,237,625 
 
 98,016,000 
 
 170,834,372 
 
 7,186,000 
 
 RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS OF EUROPE. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Protestant 
 Churches. 
 
 Orthodox 
 Churches. 
 
 Jews. 
 
 Mohamme- 
 dans. 
 
 Unclassified. 
 
 Russia 
 
 9.600,000 
 17,100,000 
 31,100,000 
 35,387,000 
 6,500,000 
 29,8iO.OOO 
 16,850,000 
 5,880,000 
 100,000 
 320,000 
 1,545,000 
 4,300,000 
 1,000 
 1,172,000 
 3,000 
 10,000 
 6,000 
 29,000 
 1,000 
 30,000 
 5,000 
 200.000 
 160,000 
 16,000 
 
 3,400,000 
 29,478,000 
 3.900,000 
 580,000 
 30,100,000 
 62,000 
 29,000 
 15,000 
 15,000 
 11,000 
 2,756,000 
 
 4,698,000 
 1,710,000 
 2,089,000 
 10,000 
 1,000 
 
 1,458,000 
 
 73,310,000 
 3,100,000 
 
 4,800,000 
 1,700,000 
 
 1.930,000 
 1.973,000 
 1,393,000 
 
 700,000 
 290,000 
 
 3,400,000 
 590,000 
 1,700,000 
 49,000 
 100,000 
 38,000 
 5,000 
 3,000 
 400,000 
 60,000 
 83,000 
 
 2',OUO 
 8,000 
 4,000 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 '30,000 
 2,708,000 
 
 45,000 
 15,000 
 571,000 
 
 240,000 
 
 290.000 
 32,000 
 100,000 
 84,000 
 500,000 
 50,000 
 
 2,000 
 55,000 
 70.000 
 16,000 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 10,000 
 4,000 
 
 i',ooo 
 
 2,000 
 1,000 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria- Hungary 
 
 France 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Italy 
 
 Spain 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Ron mania 
 
 Ottoman Empire 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Greece 
 
 Ser via 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Norway 
 
 Roumelia 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 Luxembourg. . . .~. 
 
 Malta 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Total Followers 
 
 160,165,000 
 
 80,812,000 
 
 89,196,00 
 
 6,456,000 
 
 6,629,000 
 
 1,219,000 
 
 The distinction between followers and actual communicants shoiild be observed. 
 
 ENGLISH-SPEAKING RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Episcopalians 
 
 29,200,000 
 
 Lutherans, etc 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 Methodists of all descriptions 
 
 18,650,000 
 
 Unitarians 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 Roman Catholics 
 
 15,500,000 
 
 Minor religious sects 
 
 5,500,000 
 
 Presbvterians of all descriptions.. 
 
 12,250,000 
 
 Of no particular religion 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 
 9 230 000 
 
 
 
 Conprrep'ationalists 
 
 6,150,000 
 
 English-speaking population 
 
 124,130,000 
 
 Free Thinkers 
 
 5,250,000 
 
 
 
 A very large number more than 18,000,000 of Hindoos, Mohammedans, Buddhists, and others in the East 
 also speak and read English. 
 
 The estimates in the last tableare from Whitaker's (London) Almanack, 1895. 
 
 The Encyclopedia Ilritannica, last edition, makes a rough estimate of numbers of Protestants in the work) 
 speaking all'civilized languages, and places the Lutherans at the head, with over 42,000,000 members (mostly in 
 Germany and Scandinavia), and the Anglican Church second, with about 20,000,000 members. 
 
 United States census of 1890.
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 559 
 
 RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Statistics of Churches and Communicants or Members, compiled originally from the census returns of 1890, 
 by Dr. Henry K. Carroll, special agent, with subsequent revisions. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS. 
 
 Churches.* 
 ! 
 
 Value of 
 Church 
 Property, 
 1890. 
 
 Communi- 
 cants or 
 Members. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS. 
 
 Churches.* 
 
 Value of 
 Church 
 Propertv, 
 1890. ' 
 
 Communi- 
 cants or 
 Members. 
 
 Adventists; 
 Evangelical 
 
 30 
 GOO 
 1,015 
 29 
 28 
 
 95 
 
 $61,400 
 465,605 
 645,075 
 1,400 
 16,790 
 
 46,075 
 
 1,147 
 26,250 
 33,169 
 647 
 1,018 
 
 2,872: 
 
 Church Triumphant 
 (Schweinfurth) 
 
 12 
 102 
 
 15 
 7 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 $15,000 
 1,386,455 
 
 36,800 
 15,000 
 10,000 
 3,000 
 
 384 
 6,075 
 
 1,728 
 1,600 
 250 
 200 
 21 
 25 
 20 
 
 205 
 
 Advent Christians 
 
 Church of the New Jerusa- 
 i lemt 
 
 Seventh-Dav 
 
 Church of God 
 
 Life and Advent Union 
 Churches of God in Christ 
 Jesus 
 
 Communistic Societies: (a) 
 Shakers 
 
 All Advent Bodies 
 
 
 1,797 $1,236,345 
 
 7,836 49,524,504 
 17,824 18,152,599 
 12,462 9,082,587 
 18 19,500 
 '.til 265,260 
 1,536 3,115.642 
 167 57,005 
 420 201,140 
 204 80,150 
 24 9.200 
 152 56,755 
 3,500 1,591,551 
 
 473 172,230 
 
 65,103 i 
 
 817,534 
 1,387,060 
 1,292,394 
 937 
 8,531 
 84,381 
 11,864 
 22,000 
 13,209 
 1.599 
 8.254 
 125.000 
 
 12,851 
 
 Harmony- 
 
 Baptists : 
 
 Separatists 
 
 
 Altruists .... 
 
 
 Regular, South 
 
 Adonai Shomo 
 
 6,000 
 36,000 
 
 Regular, Colored. 
 
 Church Triumphant (Kore- 
 shan Ecclesia) 
 
 Six Principles . . 
 
 
 All Communistic Societies 
 Congregationalists 
 
 Freewill 
 
 32 
 5,400 
 8,768 
 
 720 
 130 
 
 130 
 6 
 
 $106,800 
 43,335,437 
 12.206,038 
 
 1,121,541 
 80,770 
 
 145,770 
 14,550 
 
 4,049 
 
 580,000 
 871,017 
 
 62,000 
 4,360 
 
 8,100 
 191 
 
 Original Freewill 
 
 General 
 
 United 
 
 Disciples of Christ 
 
 
 Baptist Church of Christ.. 
 Primitive 
 
 Dunkards : 
 Dunkards or German Bap- 
 tists (Congregational) 
 Dunkards or German Bap- 
 tists (Old Order) 
 
 Old Two Seed in the Spirit 
 Predestinarians 
 
 All Baptist Bodies 
 
 44,707 
 
 78 
 8 
 25 
 
 $82,328,123 
 73,050 
 
 3,785,740 
 
 2,688 
 214 
 525 
 
 Brethren ('River) : 
 Brethren in Christ 
 
 Dunkards or German Bap- 
 tists (Progressive) 
 
 Seventh-Day Baptists, Ger. 
 All Dunkard Bodies 
 
 
 United Zion's Children 
 Total (River) Brethren.... 
 Brethren (Plymouth) : 
 
 8,300 
 
 1,016 
 
 5,803 
 94 
 
 $1,362,631 
 
 81,220,317 
 1,615,101 
 
 74,644 
 
 681,615 
 9,447 
 
 Episcopalians : 
 Protestant Episcopal 
 
 111 
 
 109 
 
 88 
 86 
 31 
 
 $81,350 
 
 3,427 
 
 2.289 
 2.419 
 1,235 
 
 718 
 
 Reformed Episcopal 
 
 Total Episcopalians 
 
 Brethren (II.) 
 
 1.265 
 200 
 
 5,897 
 2,945 
 
 800 
 201 
 53 
 
 $82,835,418 
 4,785,680 
 
 2,795,784 
 1,661,850 
 6,700 
 16,700 
 
 691,092 
 147,849 
 
 81,250 
 21,992 
 4,3L'9 
 232 
 
 Brethren (III.) 
 
 Evangelical Bodies (6) 
 
 Brethren (IV.) 
 
 Total(Plymouth)Brethren 
 
 Catholics : 
 Roman Catholic 
 
 
 Friends : 
 Friends (Orthodox) 
 
 314 
 
 12,293 
 14 
 12 
 3 
 6 
 20 
 8 
 
 $1,465 
 
 118,069,746 
 63.300 
 220,000 
 5,000 
 
 6,661 
 
 7,474,850 
 10.850 
 13,504 
 200 
 335 
 250,000 
 1,000 
 
 Friends (Hicksite) 
 
 Friends (Wilburite) 
 
 Greek Catholic (Uniates). . . 
 
 Friends (Primitive) 
 
 Total Friends 
 
 Greek Orthodox 
 
 1,063 
 4 
 
 55 
 
 978 
 
 325 
 217 
 
 ^4,541,334 
 15,300 
 1,187,453 
 4,614,490 
 
 2,802.050 
 6,952,225 
 
 107,803 
 340 
 36,500 
 175,667 
 
 60.200 
 78,300 
 
 Armenian 
 
 Friends of the Temple 
 German Evang. Protestant 
 German Evang. Synod 
 
 Jewish Congregations : 
 Orthodox 
 
 Old Catholic 
 
 500,000 
 
 Reformed Catholic 
 
 All Catholic Bodies 
 
 
 12,356 
 10 
 47 
 63 
 
 1,300 
 157 
 
 $118,858,046 
 66,050 
 62,000 
 2,700 
 
 1,637,202 
 138,000 
 
 8,000,739 
 1,394 
 
 Catholic Apostolic 
 
 Chinese Temples 
 
 
 1,277 
 
 94.870 
 14.951 
 
 Reformed 
 
 Total Jewish Bodies 
 
 Christians: 
 Christian Connection 
 Christian Church (South). . . 
 
 Total Christians 
 
 542 
 
 552 
 431 
 
 $9,754,275 
 
 825,506 
 226,285 
 
 138,500 
 
 201,587 
 22,000 
 
 Latter-Dav Saints : 
 Church of Jesus Christ of 
 
 1,457 
 13 
 221 
 294 
 
 560 
 
 $1,775,202 
 3,900 
 40.6C6 
 234,450 
 
 643,185 
 
 109,821 
 754 
 8,724 
 18,214 
 
 36,000 
 
 Reorg. Ch. of Jesus Christ 
 of Latter-Day Saints . . . . 
 
 Total Latter-Day Saints. . 
 
 Lutherans : 
 (General Bodies.) 
 General Svnod 
 
 Christian Missionary Asso. 
 Christian Scientists 
 
 983 
 
 1,465 
 382 
 1,720 
 
 $1,051,791 
 
 8,919,170 
 1,114,065 
 11,119,286 
 
 223,587 
 169,871 
 
 a5.no 
 
 302,355 
 
 Christian Union 
 
 Church of God ( Winnebren- 
 
 u rial; ' 
 
 United Svnod in South 
 General Council 
 

 
 540 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Religious Denominations in the United States Continued. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS. 
 
 Churches.* 
 
 Value of 
 Church 
 Property, 
 1890. 
 
 Communi- 
 cants or 
 Members. 
 
 DKNOMINATIONS. 
 
 Churches.* 
 
 Value of 
 Church 
 Property, 
 1890. 
 
 Communi- 
 cants or 
 Members. 
 
 Lutherans Continued. 
 Svnodical Conference 
 
 2,234 
 1,028 
 
 $7,804,313 
 
 1 
 456,883 
 107,830 ( 
 
 71,768 
 52,903 
 3,823 
 14,310, 
 56,221; 
 10,500. 
 7,010 ! 
 5,50:) 
 5.300 
 6,500 
 2,750 
 500 
 18,000 
 
 Moravians . ... 
 
 96 
 
 7,103 
 2,881 
 250 
 188 
 896 
 2,816 
 31 
 127 
 115 
 41 
 4 
 1 
 
 $681,250 
 
 74,455,200 
 3,515.510 
 195,826 
 625,875 
 5,408,084 
 21,120,000 
 29,200 
 211.850 
 1,071,400 
 469,000 
 
 75,000 
 
 12,535 
 
 876,520 
 184,138 
 13,250 
 13,000 
 104,058 
 211,694 
 1,053 
 9,793 
 9,588 
 5.000 
 37 
 600 
 
 Presbyterians : 
 Presb. Ch. in the U. S. of A. 
 Cumberland Presbyterian.. 
 Cumberland Pres. (Colored) 
 Welsh Calvinistic Meth 
 United Presbyterian 
 
 United Norwegian . ... 
 
 (Independent Synods.) 
 Joint Synod of Ohio, etc. . . 
 German of Iowa 
 
 548 
 661 
 31 
 200 
 581 
 135 
 24 
 75 
 23 
 22 
 35 
 7 
 112 
 
 1,639,087 
 
 Buffalo Synod 
 
 84,410 
 214,395 
 806,825 
 129,700 
 111,060 
 44,775 
 7,200 
 94.200 
 12,898 
 
 Hauge's Synod 
 
 Norwegian Ch. in America. 
 Danish Church in America. 
 German Augsburg Synod.. 
 Danish Church Association 
 Icelandic Svnod 
 
 Pres. Ch. in the U.S.(South) 
 Asso. Ch. of No. America.. 
 Asso. Ref. Syn.of the South 
 Ref . Pres. in the U. S. (Syn.) 
 Ref.Pres.inN.A.(Gen. Svn ) 
 Ref. Presb. (Covenanted). . 
 Ref. Presb. in U. S. & Can. 
 
 All Presbyterian Bodies. 
 
 Reformed : 
 Ref. Church in America. . . 
 Ref. Church in the U. S.. . . 
 
 Immanuel Synod 
 
 
 
 Independent Congregations 
 All Lutheran Bodies 
 
 Mennonites : 
 Mennonite 
 
 
 14,453 
 
 589 
 1,658 
 121 
 
 $107,770,945 
 
 10,340,159 
 7,975.583 
 428,500 
 
 1,428,731 
 
 98,882 
 221,473 
 15.598 
 
 
 9,283 
 
 246 
 5 
 97 
 22 
 2 
 34 
 45 
 18 
 15 
 12 
 9 
 45 
 
 $33,810,609 
 
 317,045 
 4,500 
 76,450 
 1,500 
 1,200 
 52,650 
 119,350 
 1,600 
 8,015 
 11,350 
 10,540 
 39,600 
 
 1,327,134, 
 
 17,078' 
 352 
 10,101 
 2,038 
 209 
 1,655 
 5,670 
 471 
 610 
 1,388 
 856 
 1,113' 
 
 Bruederhoef(Communistic) 
 Amish 
 
 All Reformed Bodies 
 
 2,368 
 642 
 4 
 20 
 4 
 334 
 101 
 
 4,097 
 800 
 
 18,744,242 
 38,150 
 12,200 
 
 8,700 
 
 573,650 
 600 
 
 4,292,643 
 644,240 
 
 35,953 
 22,000 
 306 
 913 
 1,064 
 45,030 
 2,500 
 
 215,718 
 30,000 
 
 Old Amish 
 
 Apostolic 
 
 Reformed 
 
 Schwenkfeldians 
 
 Church of God in Christ. . . 
 Old ( Wister) 
 
 Social Brethren 
 
 Bundes Conference 
 
 
 Society for Ethical Cult. . . 
 Spiritualists 
 
 Brethren in Christ^, 
 
 All Mennonite Bodies 
 
 Methodists : 
 Methodist Episcopal 
 
 550 
 
 23,800 
 115 
 4,425 
 41 
 1,605 
 32 
 2,200 
 565 
 16,000 
 3,672 
 89 
 150 
 5 
 24 
 708 
 15 
 11 
 
 $643,800 41,541 
 
 96,723,408 2,530,448 
 187,600 7,031 
 6,468,280 497,350 
 54,440 3,500 
 2,714,128 394,562 
 15,000 2,346 
 3,683,337 162,789 
 393,250 16,492 1 
 18,775,362 1,333,210 
 1,713,366 128,817 
 291,993 5,005 
 41,680 12,150 
 525 1 319 
 3,750 1,059 
 805,085 26,140 
 266,975 2,569 
 2,000 961 
 
 Theosophical Society 
 
 United Brethren: 
 United Brethren in Christ. 
 United Brethren in Christ 
 (Old Constitution) 
 
 Union American M. E 
 African Meth. Episcopal.. 
 African Union Meth. Prot. 
 African M E Zion ... 
 
 Zion Union Apostolic 
 
 Methodist Protestant 
 
 Total United Brethren. . . 
 Unitarians 
 
 4,897 
 437 
 792 
 150 
 156 
 
 $4,937,583 
 10,335,100 
 8,054,333 
 
 1,486,000 
 
 245,71s 
 68,250 
 46,188 
 20,000 
 14,126 
 
 Methodist Episcopal, South 
 Colored Meth. Episcopal. .. 
 Primitive Methodist 
 Congregational Methodist. 
 Congre. Meth. (Colored) 
 New Congregational Meth. 
 
 Universalists 
 
 Waldenstromians 
 
 Independent Methodist 
 Evangelist Missionary 
 
 All Methodist Bodies 
 
 Independent Congreg'ns... 
 Grand Total 
 
 C53.457 
 
 $132,140,179 
 
 5,121,636 
 
 177.4S1 
 
 $698,971,372 
 
 23,467,728 
 
 
 * Or organizations, t Swedenborgians. J Mormons. Seceding Mormons. 
 
 (a) The Bruederhoef Mennonites also observe a communal life. They are reported in connection with other 
 Mennonite branches, (b) Evangelical Association and United Evangelical Churches, (c) Church edifices. 
 
 For January, 1897, The Independent published statistics of churches in the United States from the latest 
 obtainable returns. The aggregate number of communicants of the principal denominations were then as fol- 
 lows: Roman Catholics, 8271.300; Methodist bodies, 5.653.289 ; Baptist bodies, 4,153,857: Presbyterian bodies, 
 1,460,345, 
 tionalists, 
 
 >, Lutheran bodies, 1,420,905; Disciples of Christ,' 1,003,672; Protestant Episcopalians, (36,773; Congrega- 
 ts, 622,557; Reformed bodies, 348,471 ; United Brethren, 271,035; Mormons, 234 000. 
 
 Scriptural Measures of Capacity. 
 
 The measures of capacity referred to in the 
 Scriptures, with their English equivalents, are 
 as follows : The Chomer or Homer in King 
 James's translation was 75,625 gals, liquid, 
 and 32,125 pecks dry. The Ephah or Bath 
 was 7 gals. 4 pts., 15 ins. sol. The Seah=l-3 
 
 of Ephah, 2 gals. 4 pts., 3 ins. sol. The Hin 
 =1-6 of Ephah, 1 gal., 2 pts., 1 in. sol. The 
 Omer=l-10 of Ephah, 5 pts., 0.5 in. sol. 
 The Cab=l-18 of Ephah, 3 pts., 10 ins. sol. 
 The Log=7 1-72 of Ephah, pt., 10 ins. 
 sol. The Metretes of Syria (John ii, 6)= 
 Cong. Rom. 7 pts. The Cotyla Eastern=l-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 541 
 
 100 of Ephah, pt., 3 ins. sol. This Cotyla 
 contains just 10 ozs. avoirdupois of rain water ; 
 Oraer, 100 ; Ephah, 1,000; Chomer or Homer, 
 10,000. 
 
 Scriptural Measures of Length. 
 The measures of length used in the Scriptures, 
 with their English equivalents, are as follows : 
 The great Cubit was 21.888 ins.=l.S24 ft., 
 and the less 18 ins. A span, the longer= a 
 cubit=10.944 ins. =.912 ft. A span, the less 
 =1-3 of a cubit=7.296 ins.= .608 ft. A 
 hand's breadth=l-6 of a cubit=3.684 ins.= 
 .304 ft. A finger's breadth=l-24 of a cubit 
 = .912 ins.= .076 ft. A fathom=4 cubits= 
 7.296 ft. Ezekiel's Reed=6 cubits=10.944 
 feet. Themile=4,000cubits=7,296ft. The 
 Stadium, 1-10 of their mile=400 cubits= 
 729.6 ft. The Parasang, 3 of their miles= 
 12,000 cubits, or 4 English miles and 580 ft. 
 33.164 miles was a day's journey some say 
 24 miles ; and 3,500 ft. a Sabbath day's jour- 
 ney ; some authorities say 3,648 ft. 
 
 Theosophy. The name ' ' theosophy ' ' is 
 from the Greek word theosophia, divine wisdom. 
 The object of theosophical study is professedly 
 to understand the nature of divine things. It 
 differs from both philosophy and theology in 
 that all reasoning processes are excluded as im- 
 perfect, and claims to derive its knowledge from 
 direct communication with God. It does not 
 accept the truths of recorded revelation as im- 
 mutable, but as subject to modification by later 
 direct and personal revelations. It is really 
 but another. name for mysticism, although the 
 latter name implies much more ; and the direct 
 and immediate knowledge or intuition of God 
 to which the Mystics laid claim was, in fact, 
 the foundation of that intimate union with' 
 God, and consequent abstraction from outer 
 things, which they make the basis of their 
 moral and ascetical system. The theosophic 
 system dates from a very high antiquity. Since 
 the Christian era we may class among theoso- 
 phists such sects as Neoplatonists, the Hesy- 
 chasts of the Greek Church, and in later times 
 the disciples of Paracelsus, Thalhauser, Bohme, 
 and Swedenborg. 
 
 Bayeux Tapestry, The, is a web of can- 
 vas or linen cloth upon which is embroidered, 
 in woolen threads of various colors, a represen- 
 tation of the invasion and conquest of England 
 by the Normans. The canvas is 214 feet long 
 by 20 inches broad, and is preserved in the 
 public library at Bayeux. Tradition asserts 
 that it is the work of Matilda, wife of William 
 the Conqueror, and it is believed that if she 
 did not actually stitch the whole of it with her 
 own hands, she at least took part in it, and 
 directed the execution of it by her maids, and 
 afterwards presented it to the Cathedral of 
 
 Bayeux as a token of her appreciation of thp 
 effective assistance which its bishop, Odo, 
 rendered her husband at the battle of Hast- 
 ings. Some antiquarians contend that it was 
 not the work of Queen Matilda (the wife of 
 the Conqueror), who died in 1083, but of the 
 Empress Matilda (the daughter of Henry I.), 
 who died in 1167. The tapestry contains, be- 
 side the figures of 505 quadrupeds, birds, 
 sphinxes, etc., the figures of 623 men, 202 
 horses, 55 dogs, 37 buildings, 41 ships and 
 boats, and 49 trees in all, 1,512 figures. It 
 is divided into 72 distinct compartments, each 
 representing one particular historical occur- 
 rence, and bearing an explanatory Latin in- 
 scription. A tree is usually chosen to divide 
 the principal events from each other. This 
 pictorial history for so it may be called 
 gives an exact and minute portraiture of the 
 manners and customs of the times ; and it has 
 been remarked that the arms and habits of the 
 Normans are, identical with those of the Danes 
 as they appear in the earlier formative periods 
 of the English people. 
 
 Amen is a Hebrew word signifying " Yes," 
 I " Truly." In Jewish synagogues the ameii 
 I is pronounced by the congregation at the con- 
 clusion of the benediction. Among the early 
 Christians the prayer offered by the presbyter 
 was concluded by the word amen, uttered by 
 the congregation. Justin Martyr is the earliest 
 of the fathers who alludes to the use of the re- 
 sponse. According to Tertullian, none but the 
 faithful were permitted to join in the response. 
 A somewhat noisy and irreverent practice pre- 
 vailed in the celebration of the Lord's Supper 
 until the sixth century, after which it was dis- 
 continued. " Upon the reception both of the 
 bread and of the wine, each person uttered a 
 loud 'amen,' and at the close of the conse- 
 cration by the priest, all joined in shouting 
 a loud ' amen.' ' The same custom was ob- 
 served at baptism, when the sponsors and wit- 
 nesses responded vehemently. In the Greek 
 Church the amen was pronounced after the 
 name of each person of the Trinity ; and at 
 the close of the baptismal formula the people 
 responded. At the conclusion of prayer it 
 signifies (according to the English Church Cat- 
 echism) so be it; after the repetition of the 
 creed, so it is. 
 
 Shintuism is the prevailing religion of 
 Japan. Its characteristics are the absence of 
 an ethical and doctrinal code, of idol worship, 
 of priestcraft, and of any teachings concerning 
 a future state. It requires pre-eminently pu- 
 rity of heart and general temperance. The 
 principal divinity is the sun-goddess Amate- 
 rasu, whose descendant and vice-regent on 
 earth is the Mikado, who is therefore wor-
 
 542 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 shiped as a demigod. Their temples are 
 singularly devoid of ecclesiastical parapherna- 
 lia. A metal mirror generally stands on the 
 altar as a symbol of purity. The spirit of the 
 enshrined deity is supposed to be in a case, 
 which is exposed to view only on the day of 
 the deity's annual festival. The worship con- 
 sists merely in washing the face in a font, 
 striking a bell, throwing a few cash into the 
 money box, and praying silently for a few sec- 
 onds. In addition to the chief deity, there 
 are a legion of canonized heroes and benefac- 
 tors who are worshiped. Many Japanese 
 temples are magnificent specimens of archi- 
 tecture in wood, and are remarkable for their 
 vast tent-like roofs and their exquisite wood- 
 carving. 
 
 Arundel Marbles are a collection of an- 
 cient sculptures consisting of 37 statues, 128 
 busts, and 250 inscribed stones, which were 
 found on the island of Paros about 1610. 
 They were collected by Mr. W. Pefty, pur- 
 chased by Lord Arundel, and given by his 
 grandson, Henry Howard afterward Duke 
 of Norfolk to the University of Oxford in 
 1667. These sculptures contain inscriptions 
 in the Greek tongue. In their perfect state 
 they evidently contained a chronological table 
 of the principal events of Grecian history from 
 the time of Cecrops, 1582 B. C., to the archon- 
 shlp of Diognetus, 264 B.C. The chronicle of 
 the last ninety years of this period, however, 
 is lost, and the portion still extant is much 
 corroded and defaced. 
 
 Babel, Tower of. The distinction of 
 being a remnant of the Tower of Babel has 
 been claimed for three different masses, but 
 the majority of opinions are in favor of the 
 Birs Nimrud in Babylonia, the ruins of this 
 temple appearing to more nearly correspond 
 with the conceived notion of that structure. 
 It is of an oblong form, the total circumfer- 
 ence being 762 yards. At the eastern side it 
 is cloven by a deep furrow, and it is not more 
 than 50 or 60 feet high ; but on the western 
 side it rises in a conical figure to the elevation 
 of 198 feet; and on its summit is -a solid pile 
 of brick 37 feet high by 28 in breadth, dimin- 
 ishing in thickness to the top, which is broken 
 and irregular, and rent by a large fissure ex- 
 tending through a third of its height. The 
 fire-burnt bricks of which it is built have in- 
 scriptions on them ; and. so excellent is the ce- 
 ment, which appears to be lime-mortar, that 
 it is nearly impossible to extract a AV hole brick. 
 The other parts of the summit of the hill are 
 occupied by immense fragments of brickwork 
 of no determinate figure, tumbled together, 
 and converted into solid, vitrified masses, as if 
 they had undergone the action of the fiercest 
 
 fire or had been blown up with gunpowder. 
 These ruins stand on a prodigious mound, the 
 whole of which is itself in ruins, channeled by 
 the weather, and strewed with fragments of 
 black stone, sandstone, and marble. Taken 
 in connection with the ancient tradition that 
 the Tower of Babel was rent and overthrown 
 by fire from heaven, this is a curious circum- 
 stance. 
 
 Sunday. The name of the first day of 
 the week is derived from the Saxon Sinmnn 
 flaeg, or day of the sun ; in the Roman calen- 
 dar, dies Soils. We have no definite informa- 
 tion as to when the observance of the first day 
 of the week was substituted by the Christians 
 for that of the seventh day, the ancient Jewish 
 Sabbath. It undoubtedly arose among the 
 earliest practices of the Christian Church, and 
 was regarded as the fittest day to be held as 
 sacred, because, in the words of one of the 
 Fathers, "It is the first day in which God 
 changed darkness and matter, and made the 
 world ; and on the same day, also, Jesus 
 Christ, our Saviour, rose from the dead." 
 Various additional reasons, taken from the 
 Old Testament, were advanced by others of 
 the early Fathers in support of the observance 
 of this day. The first law, either ecclesiastical 
 or civil, by which the sabbatical observance of 
 Sunday is known to have been ordained, is an 
 edict of Constantirie, A. D. 321, forbidding all 
 work but necessary husbandry on the " vener- 
 able Sunday." In the Theodosian Code it is 
 enjoined that ' ' on the' Sunday, rightfully desig- 
 nated by our ancestors as the Lord's Day, all 
 lawsuits and public business shall cease." Since 
 the ninth century, Sunday has been a thor- 
 oughly established institution of the Christian 
 Church as a day of rest and religious exer- 
 cises, and one exempt from any occupations of 
 a purely secular character, except such as were 
 absolutely necessary. 
 
 Peri. According to the mythical lore of 
 the East, a Peri is a being begotten by fallen 
 spirits, which spends its life in all imaginary 
 delights ; it is immortal, but is forever excluded 
 from the joys of Paradise. They take an in- 
 termediate place between angels and demons, 
 and are either male or female ; when the latter, 
 they are of surpassing beauty. One of the 
 finest compliments to be paid to a Persian lady 
 is to speak of her as Perizadeh (born of a Peri ; 
 Greek, Parisatig). They belong to the great 
 family of genii, or jin, a belief in whom is en- 
 joined in the Koran, and for whose conversion, 
 as well as for that of man, Mohammed was 
 sent. 
 
 Peter-Pence, the name given to a tribute 
 
 offered to the Roman pontiff in reverence to 
 
 i the memory of St. Peter, whose successor the
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS.' 
 
 543 
 
 pope is believed by Roman Catholics to be. 
 The first idea of an annual tribute appears to 
 have come from England. It is ascribed by 
 some to Ina (A. D. 721), King of the West 
 Saxons, who went as a pilgrim to Rome, and 
 there founded a hospice for Anglo-Saxon pil- 
 grims, to be maintained by an annual contri- 
 bution from England ; by others, to Offa and 
 Ethelwulf , at least in the sense of their having 
 extended it to the entire Saxon territory. The 
 tribute consisted in the payment of a silver 
 penny by every family possessing land or cattle 
 of the yearly value of thirty pence, and it was 
 collected during the five weeks between St. 
 Peter's and St. Paul's day, and August 1. 
 Since the total annexation of the Papal states 
 to the kingdom of Italy the tribute has been 
 largely increased in France, Belgium, England, 
 and Ireland. 
 
 Public Schools. The origin of the pub- 
 lic school system of America dates back to the 
 time of the settlement of Massachusetts and 
 Connecticut. In the very beginning of their 
 history these colonists made provision for the 
 establishment of schools in every town, and 
 parents were required to send their children to 
 them or educate them otherwise. At first 
 these schools were not entirely free ; that is, 
 those who could pay were required to do so ; 
 but the evil of separating the children into 
 paupers and rate-payers in time became appar- 
 ent, and shortly after the colonies became 
 states the school taxes were increased and the 
 schools were made free. The example of 
 these colonists was quickly followed by other 
 New England colonies ; but in other sections 
 of the country schools were either private or 
 parochial for many years, except in cases 
 where a free school was established and sup- 
 ported by private beneficence. When the vast 
 territories west of the Allegheny mountains 
 came into the possession of the United States, 
 every sixteenth section in each Congressional 
 township was set aside by the government as 
 a nucleus of a public school fund ; later, this 
 was increased to two sections for the benefit of 
 the newer states. The Southern states were 
 the last to embrace the free school system in 
 its entirety, having done so only since the 
 close of the civil war. Maine, Vermont, 
 Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, 
 New York, New Jersey, Kansas, Nevada, Wis- 
 consin, Ohio, Michigan, California, Arizona, 
 Wyoming, and Washington Territory have 
 compulsory educational laws. The average 
 age up to which school attendance is required 
 is, in the United States, fourteen and one half 
 years, which is older than that in any other 
 country. 
 
 Colossus of Memnon. The celebrated 
 
 vocal statue of Memnon, on the plain of Thebes, 
 was originally sixty feet high, and is of a 
 coarse, hard gritstone or breccia. The peculiar 
 characteristic of this statue was its giving out 
 at various times a sound resembling the break- 
 ing of a harp string or a metallic ring. Con- 
 siderable difference of opinion has prevailed as 
 to the reason of this sound, which has been 
 heard in modern times, it being ascribed to 
 the artifice of the priests, who struck the 
 sonorous stone of which the statue is com- 
 posed, the passage of light draughts of air 
 through the cracks, or the sudden expansion 
 of aqueous particles under the influence of the 
 sun's rays. This remarkable quality of the 
 statue is first mentioned by Strabo, who visited 
 it in company with ^Elius Gallus, about 18 B. 
 C. ; and upwards of 100 inscriptions of Greek 
 and Roman visitors, incised upon its legs, 
 record the visits of ancient travelers to witness 
 the phenomenon, from the ninth year of Nero, 
 A. L>. 63, to the reign of the Emperor Severus, 
 when it became silent. 
 
 Colossus of Khodes. The gigantic 
 Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of Apollo, so 
 placed as to bestride the entrance to the har- 
 bor. It is said to have been commenced by 
 Chares of Lindus, a famous pupil of Lysippus, 
 and was completed by Laches. It was formed 
 of metal which was cast in separate pieces, a 
 process which lasted for twelve years, and was 
 finished in 280 B.C. The Colossus was over 
 100 feet high, and its thumb was so large that 
 a man could not clasp it with his arms. It 
 cost 300 talents, and sixty years after its erec- 
 tion it was thrown down by an earthquake. 
 When, after lying on the ground for centuries, 
 it was removed, the metal that composed it 
 loaded 900 camels. The Colossus of Rhodes 
 ranks as one of the Seven Wonders of the 
 World. 
 
 Sanhedrim, as the supreme national tri- 
 bunal of the Jews was called, was established 
 at the time of the Maccabees, and was the 
 court before which Christ was tried for high 
 treason against the Roman Emperor. It was 
 presided Qver by the Nasi (Prince), at whose 
 side was the Ab-Beth-Din (Father of the 
 Tribunal). Its members, of which there were 
 seventy-one, belonged to the different classes 
 of society ; there were priests, elders that is, 
 men of age and experience- scribes, or doc- 
 tors of law, and others exalted by eminent 
 learning, which was the sole condition for 
 admission. The limits of its jurisdiction are 
 not clearly known, but it is believed that the 
 supreme decision over life or death was ex- 
 clusively in its hands. The regulation of the 
 sacred times and seasons was vested in it. It 
 fixed the beginnings of the new moons ; in-
 
 544 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 tercalated the years when necessary ; watched i 
 over the purity of the priestly families by care- 
 fully examining the pedigrees of those priests 
 born out of Palestine, so that none born from 
 a suspicious or ill-famed mother should be 
 admitted to the sacred service. The mode of 
 procedure was extremely complicated ; and 
 such was the caution of the court, especially 
 in matters of life and death, that capital 
 punishment was pronounced in the rarest in- 
 stances only. The Nasi had the supreme 
 direction of the court, and convoked it when 
 necessary. He sat at the head, and at his . 
 right hand was the seat of the Ab-Beth-Din; ' 
 the rest of the seventy-one took their places, i 
 according to their dignity, in front of them, 
 in the form of a semicircle, so that they could 
 be seen by both the chief officers. The meet- 
 ing place of the court was, on ordinary oc- 
 casions, in a hall at the southeast corner of 
 the Temple, but on extraordinary occasions it 
 met in the house of the high priest. It met 
 daily, with the exception of Sabbaths and 
 feast days. After the destruction of the 
 Temple and Jerusalem, the Sanhedrim, after 
 many emigrations, was finally established at 
 Babylon. 
 
 Host. In conformity with the doctrines 
 of the Roman Catholic Church, the consecrated 
 bread of Eucharist is called the Host. In the 
 Latin Church it is a thin circular disk of un- 
 leavened bread, made of the finest flour, and i 
 generally bearing some emblematic device. In 
 the Greek and other Oriental churches, as well } 
 as in the various Protestant communities, the 
 Eucharist is celebrated in leavened bread, only 
 differing from ordinary bread in being of finer 
 quality. 
 
 Schoolmen and Scholastics are the 
 terms applied to the class of learned theolo- 
 gians and philosophers who flourished in Europe, 
 mainly in France and England, during the 
 middle ages. They were largely given to hair- 
 splitting logic and endless argumentations and 
 speculations on points of the most unimpor- 
 tant and often silly nature. Still, in their 
 number were included men of great learning 
 and ability, as Duns Scotus, Thomas Aquinas, 
 and Albertus Magnus, with whom this system 
 of philosophical theological scholasticism cul- 
 minated in the fourteenth century. Johannes 
 Erigena Scotus was not strictly a scholastic ; 
 he lived in the ninth century, in the prepara- 
 tory period of scholasticism. 
 
 Colosseum, The. The Flavian amphi- 
 theater at Rome, known as the Colosseum, was 
 begun by the Emperor Vespasian, and was fin- 
 ished by the Emperor Titus, A. D. 80. It cov- 
 ers about five acres of ground, and contained 
 seats for 87,000 persons and standing room for 
 
 15,000 more. It was in the form of an oval, the 
 longer diameter being 01 2 feet and the shorter 
 diameter 515 feet, and the height of the walls 
 from 1GO to 180 feet. The arena where the 
 gladiators fought and the deadly conflicts with 
 Avild beasts took place was 281 by 178 feet. 
 The exterior consists of three rows of columns, 
 Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and above, a row 
 of Corinthian pilasters. Between the col- 
 umns there are arches which form open galler- 
 ies throughout the whole building, and be- 
 tween each alternate pilaster of the upper tier 
 there is a window. There were four tiers or 
 stories of seats, corresponding to the four ex- 
 ternal stories. The first of these is supposed 
 to have contained twenty-four rows of seats, 
 and the second sixteen. These were separated 
 by a lofty wall from the third story, which is 
 supposed to have contained the populace. 
 Statues, sculptures, figures of chariots, metal 
 shields, and other embellishments adorned the 
 niches and salient points. On the occasion of 
 the dedication of the Colosseum by Titus, 
 5,000 wild beasts were slain in the arena, the 
 games having lasted for nearly 100 days. 
 There were means by which, when the com- 
 bats were ended, the immense arena could be 
 filled with water for the exhibition of sea- 
 fights. During the various persecutions of the 
 early Christians many of these were thrown to 
 the wild beasts in this amphitheater. One of 
 the first of these .was St. Ignatius, who was 
 torn to pieces by lions. In the sixth century, 
 when Christianity gained the ascendancy, the 
 Church put an end to the use of the Colosseum. 
 It still stood entire in the eighth century, but 
 subsequently large quantities of the marble 
 was used in the construction of public and pri- 
 vate buildings. It was consecrated as a mon- 
 ument to the martyrs who had suffered within 
 its walls by Pope Benedict XIV., Avho erected 
 crosses and oratorios within it, and so put an 
 end to the process of destruction. 
 
 Parsees, the followers of the ancient Per- 
 sian religion as reformed by Zerdusht, or Zo- 
 roaster, as he is commonly called. According 
 to Zerdusht there are two intellects, as there 
 are two lives one mental and one bodily; 
 and, again, there must be distinguished an 
 earthly and a future life. There are two 
 abodes for the departed Heaven and Hell. 
 Between the two there is the Bridge of the 
 Gatherer, or Judge, which the souls of the 
 pious alone can pass. There will be a general 
 resurrection, which is to precede the last judg- 
 ment, to foretell which Sosiosh, the son of Zer- 
 dusht, spiritually begotten, will be sent by Ahu- 
 ramazdao. The world, which by that time 
 will be utterly steeped in wretchedness, dark- 
 ness, and sin, will then be renewed. Death.
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 545 
 
 the arch fiend of Creation, will be slain, and 
 life will be everlasting and holy. The Par- 
 sees do not eat anything cooked by a person of 
 another religion. Marriages can only be con- 
 tracted with persons of their own caste and 
 creed. Their dead are not buried, but exposed 
 on an iron grating in the Dokhma, or Tower 
 of Silence, to the fowls of the air, to the dew 
 and to the sun, until the flesh has disappeared, 
 and the bleaching bones fall through into a 
 pit beneath, from which they are afterward 
 removed to a subterranean cavern. The tem- 
 ples and altars must forever be fed with the 
 holy fire, brought down, according to tradi- 
 tion, from heaven, and the sullying of whose 
 flame is punishable with death. The priests 
 themselves approach it only with a half-mask 
 over their faces, lest their breath should defile 
 it, and never touch it with their hands, but 
 with holy instruments. The fires are of five 
 kinds ; but, however great the awe felt by 
 Parsees with respect to fire and light, they 
 never consider these as anything but emblems 
 of Divinity. There are also five kinds of ' ' sac- 
 rifice," which term, however, is rather to be 
 understood in the sense of a sacred action. 
 
 Koran, the sacred book of the Mohamme- 
 dan religion. According to that belief a copy 
 of it, in a book bound in white silk, jewels, and 
 gold, was brought down to the lowest heaven 
 by the angel Gabriel, in the blissful and mys- 
 terious night of Al-Khadr, in the month of 
 Ramadan. Portions of it were, during a space 
 of twenty-three years, communicated to Mo- 
 hammed, both at Mecca and Medina, either by 
 Gabriel in human shape, " with the sound of 
 bells," or through inspirations from the Holy 
 Ghost "in the Prophet's breast," or by God 
 himself, "veiled and unveiled, in waking or 
 in the dreams of night." Mohammed dic- 
 tated his inspirations to a scribe, not, indeed, 
 in broken verses, but in finished chapters, and 
 from this copy the followers of the Prophet 
 procured other copies. The chief doctrine 
 laid down in the Koran is the unity of God 
 and the existence of one true religion with 
 changeable ceremonies. When mankind turned 
 from it at different times, God sent prophets 
 to lead them back to truth ; Moses, Christ, and 
 Mohammed being the most distinguished. 
 Both punishments for the sinner and rewards ] 
 for the pious are depicted with great diffuse- 
 ness, and exemplified chiefly by stories taken 
 from the Bible, the Apocryphal writings, and 
 the Midrash. Special laws and directions, ad- j 
 monitions to moral and divine virtues, more 
 particularly to a complete and unconditional 
 resignation to God's will, legends principally 
 relating to the patriarchs, and almost without 
 exception borrowed from the Jewish writings, 
 
 form the bulk of the book, which throughout 
 bears the most palpable traces of Jewish in- 
 fluence. The outward reverence in which the 
 Koran is held throughout Mohammedanism is 
 exceedingly great. It is never held below the 
 girdle, never touched without previous purifi- 
 cation ; and an injunction to that effect is gen- 
 erally found on the cover. It is consulted on 
 weighty matters ; sentences from it are in- 
 scribed on banners, doors, etc. Great lavish- 
 ness is also displayed upon the material and 
 the binding of the sacred volume. The copies 
 for the wealthy are sometimes written in gold, 
 and the covers blaze with gold and precious 
 stones. Nothing, also, is more hateful in the 
 eyes of a Moslem than to see the book in the 
 hands of. an unbeliever. 
 
 Palace of the Caesars. The palace of 
 Augustus, built upon the site of the houses of 
 Cicero and Catiline, was the beginning of the 
 magnificent pile of buildings known as the 
 Palace of the Cfesars, and each succeeding 
 Emperor altered and improved it. Tiberius 
 enlarged it, and Caligula brought it down to 
 the verge of the Forum, connecting it with 
 the Temple of Castor and Pollux, which he 
 converted into a vestibule for the imperial 
 abode. Nero added to it his "Golden House," 
 which extended from the Palatine to the Caalian 
 Hill, and even reached as far as the Esquiline. 
 This latter portion was afterward used by 
 Titus for his famous baths. The ruins of the 
 palace extend over the three hills of Rome, 
 and cover an area of 1,500 feet in length and 
 1,300 feet in width. The Golden House, as 
 can be imagined from its name, was a build- 
 ing of extraordinary magnificence. It was 
 surrounded by a triple portico a mile in length, 
 and supported by a thousand columns ; and 
 within this lay an immense lake, whose banks 
 were bordered by great buildings, each repre- 
 senting a little city, about which lay green 
 pastures and groves, where sported " all ani- 
 mals, both tame and wild." The ceilings of 
 the banqueting rooms were fretted into ivory 
 coffers made to turn, that flowers might be 
 showered down upon the guests, and also 
 furnished with pipes for discharging perfumes. 
 The principal banqueting room was round, 
 and by a perpetual motion, day and night, was 
 made to revolve after the manner of the uni 
 verse. The interior walls of the palace were 
 covered with gold and precious stones, and 
 adorned with the finest paintings that the 
 world afforded. In the vestibule stood a 
 statue of Nero, 120 feet in height. 
 
 Chinese Burial Customs. Immedi- 
 ately upon the decease of a person in China a 
 priest is called, whose prayers are supposed to 
 free the departed spirit from the necessity of
 
 546 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 going to hell, and to secure his admittance 
 to Paradise. The body is arrayed in the most 
 splendid garments that the family can afford. 
 In one hand is placed a fan, and in the other 
 a prayer written on a piece of paper, which is 
 a letter of recommendation to open the gates 
 of Heaven. The coffin is a very solid, sub- 
 stantial case. The corpse when put in it, is 
 laid in a bed of lime or cotton, or covered with 
 quicklime, and the edges of the lid are closed 
 with mortar in the groove, so that no smell 
 escapes. The nature of the site for burial is 
 regarded as having an important influence on 
 the prosperity of the living, the people fearing 
 ill luck, disease, and accident if the dead are 
 not satisfied with the site of their graves. The 
 selection of propitious sites is made by geoman- 
 cers, a class of quacks who pretend to super- 
 natural wisdom. When the day of burial 
 arrives, which is if a satisfactory place for 
 the tomb has been found the nearest lucky 
 day to the third seventh day after death, the 
 friends assemble at the house. An offering of 
 cooked provisions is laid out near the coffin. 
 This^is intended to occupy the attention of the 
 spirit of the dead, which is supposed to linger 
 near the body, or any other vagrant spirits that 
 may be hovering around, and keep them from 
 doing any mischief or harm to the living. All 
 mourners are dressed entirely in white, and 
 they assemble about the coffin and in turn 
 prostrate themselves before it, a band of music 
 playing meanwhile. The procession is then 
 formed, the coffin going first, borne on an un- 
 wieldy bier carried by sixty-four men, or even 
 more. A man goes before the procession and 
 scatters paper money, to buy tiie good will of 
 any stray, tricky spirits that may be prowling 
 about. Immediately after the coffin, in a sep- 
 arate sedan, is borne the ancestral tablet of the 
 deceased with the offering of food. Different 
 figures, banners, and tablets are also carried, 
 according to the means and rank of the family. 
 When the grave is reached the coffin is let 
 down, and lime is abundantly mixed with the 
 earth thrown in upon it. Crackers are then 
 fired, libations are poured out, prayers are re- 
 cited, and finally paper molds of houses, clothes, 
 horses, money, and everything that the dead 
 man can possibly want in the land of shadows, 
 are burned. The origin of this latter custom 
 is unquestionably the idea that everything that 
 had been enjoyed or used in this life would be 
 desired in the other. The ancient custom was 
 to burn a man's household belongings, to kill 
 upon his grave his favorite horse, hound, or 
 bird, and sometimes his chosen servant, that 
 their shadows might go with him into the life 
 beyond. After the funeral the elaborate dishes 
 that have been borne to the grave are carried 
 
 back, and the mourners feast upon them. 
 Bodies are in some instances kept in or about 
 the house for many years, and incense is 
 burned before them morning and evejiing. 
 
 Delphi, Temple at. The edifice known 
 to have existed at Delphi, Greece, at the be- 
 ginning of the historic period, is said to have 
 been the work of two architects named Tropho- 
 nius and Agamedes. In 548 B. C., this temple 
 having been destroyed, the Amphictyons un- 
 dertook to build another for the sum of three 
 hundred talents, of which the Delphians were 
 to pay one fourth, and the remainder was to 
 be contributed by other cities of Greece. The 
 
 I temple is said to have been of the Doric order 
 without, and the Ionic within. The front 
 
 j was built of Parian marble, and the sculptured 
 decorations were rich and beautiful. The 
 arches above the entrances were adorned with 
 representations of legends of mythology, and 
 similar adornments were carved on the panels 
 of the walls. Images and statues in brass 
 
 I and marble enriched the interior, and the 
 golden shields taken at Marathon, and also in 
 
 ; battles with the Gauls, adorned the architraves. 
 The attempts of the Persians, in 480 B. C., 
 and of the Gauls, in 279 B. C.,to rob the tem- 
 ple, were both, it was said, prevented by the 
 miraculous interference of Apollo, and the 
 sacred character of the place long protected it 
 from other would-be plunderers. It was, how- 
 ever, eventually plundered by Sulla, and again 
 by Nero, who silenced the oracle. It was re- 
 stored by Hadrian, and then despoiled of 
 
 : many of its most beautiful works of art by 
 
 j Constantine the Great, and finally destroyed in 
 
 j the latter part of the fourth century. 
 
 Sinai. The exact position of Sinai, the 
 mount on which God gave to Moses the Ten 
 Commandments and the other laws by which 
 the Israelites were bound, is a matter of somo 
 dispute, but it is probably to be found in the 
 mountains occupying the greater part of the 
 Arabian peninsula, lying between the Gulf of 
 Suez and Akabah. This mountain mass is divis- 
 ible into three groups a northwestern, reach- 
 ing, in Mount Serbel, an elevation of 6,340 
 feet ; an eastern and central, attaining in Jebel 
 Katherin a height of 8,160 feet, and a south- 
 eastern, whose highest peak, Um Shaumer, is 
 the culminating point of the whole Sinaitic 
 range. Serbal, with its five peaks, looks the 
 most magnificent mountain in the peninsula 
 and is identified with Sinai by the early Church 
 Fathers, Eusebius, Jerome, Cosmas, etc. ; but 
 the requirements of the Hebrew narrative are 
 not met by it, and even as early as the time of 
 Justinian, the opinion that the Serbal was the 
 Sinai of Moses had been abandoned, and to a 
 ridge of the second or eastern range that honor
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 547 
 
 had been transferred, the northern summit of 
 which is termed Iloreb ; and the southern, j 
 Jebul-Musa. or Mount of Moses, continues to be 
 regarded by a majority of scholars as the true | 
 Sinai. The famous monastery of Mount Sinai ': 
 stands at the eastern base of Jebul-Musa, in 
 solitary peace. There were numerous other 
 convents, chapels, and hermitages around the | 
 mountain in earlier times. 
 
 Jesuits, Society of, was founded by 
 Ignatius of Loyola, assisted by Peter Le Fevre, 
 a Savoyard ; James Lainez, Francis Xavier, i 
 Nicholas Bobadilla, Spaniards, and a Portu- 
 guese named Rodriguez, in the year 1534. The 
 society, when first conceived, had for its ob- 
 ject a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and the , 
 conversion of the infidels. This purpose, 
 however, was abandoned owing to the warfare 
 existing at that time between the Turks and 
 the Western powers, and Loyola and his as- 
 sociates turned their attention to an organiza- 
 tion designed to labor zealously in resisting 
 the spread of the Reformation. In 1539 the 
 rule of the proposed order "To the greater 
 glory of. God " and the vow by which they 
 bound themselves to go as missionaries to any 
 country which the Pope might indicate was 
 submitted to Paul III., and Loyola was* made 
 the first general of the order. The Society of 
 Jesuits is one of the most celebrated religious 
 orders of the Roman Catholic Church, and its 
 history has been closely identified at times 
 with that of several of the leading countries of 
 Europe. Many good Roman Catholics, how- 
 evev, denounce this order, claiming that Jesu- 
 itism is the synonym of craft and duplicity | 
 a reputation resulting from their avowed prin- 
 ciple that "the end justifies the means." 
 However that may be, it remains a fact that 
 the Jesuits have been driven out of France, 
 Italy, Spain, and many other countries. 
 
 Mosaics. The origin of the art of pro- ; 
 ducing artistic designs by setting small square 
 pieces of stone or glass of different colors, so 
 as to give the effect of painting, is obscure, but | 
 it was much practiced by the Romans, espe- 
 cially for ornamental pavements, specimens of 
 which are almost always found wherever the 
 remains of an old Roman villa are discovered. 
 Under the Byzantine empire it was also much 
 used for the ornamentation of cluirches, in 
 which it formed a large portion of the wall 
 decoration. Christian mosaics admit, says one 
 writer, of two general divisions, the later 
 Roman and the Byzantine styles, the material 
 in use being, in general, cubes of colored glass, 
 inlaid, in the Roman school, on a ground of 
 blue and white, although in the latter the tes- 
 serae are frequently irregular in size and the 
 workmanship coarse. The former style flour- 
 
 ished in Italy chiefly in the fifth and sixth cen- 
 turies, the most splendid specimens being found 
 in the churches of Rome and Ravenna. The 
 Florentine mosaic dates from the time of the 
 Medici, and is made entirely of precious or 
 semi-precious stones, such as amethyst, agate, 
 jasper, onyx, and others, cut and inlaid in 
 forms or thin veneers best suited to produce 
 the effects desired. The objects represented 
 are most frequently birds, flowers, fruits, vases, 
 sometimes buildings, and, more rarely, por- 
 traits and landscapes. In reference to the pres- 
 ent Roman mosaics, it may be said that the 
 smalti or small cubes of colored glass which 
 compose the pictures are stuck into the cement- 
 ing paste, or mastic, in the same manner as 
 were the colored glass, stone, and marble sec- 
 tilia and tesserae of the ancients. Within 
 quite recent years mosaics of surpassing beauty, 
 both in design and material, have been pro- 
 duced by Russian artists in the Imperial Glass 
 Manufactory of Russia. 
 
 Trajan's Column, a celebrated column 
 at Rome, which was reared A. D. 114, by the 
 Roman Senate and people, in honor of the Em- 
 peror Trajan. It is considered not only the 
 greatest work of its architect, Apollodorus, but 
 one of the noblest structures of its kind ever 
 erected. The pedestal is covered with bas- 
 reliefs of warlike instruments, shields, and 
 helmets ; and a very remarkable series of bas- 
 reliefs, forming a spiral around the shaft, 
 exhibits a continuous history- of the military 
 achievements of Trajan. These are in excel- 
 lent preservation, and, independently of their 
 beauty as works of art, they are invaluable as 
 records of ancient costumes. A spiral staircase 
 in the interior of the column leads to its sum- 
 mit. The height of the entire column is 132 
 feet. It stands erect in all its ancient beauty 
 amid the ruins of Trajan's Forum. The sum- 
 mit was originally crowned by a colossal statue 
 of the emperor, which has been incongruously 
 replaced by one of St. Peter. 
 
 Vulgate, The, the Latin translation of 
 the Bible, which is the received version in the 
 Roman Catholic Church. The original Vul- 
 gate was completed in A. D. 405 by Jerome, 
 and between that date and 1546, when it was 
 first declared the authorized version of the 
 Roman Church, it underwent severaj revisions 
 which completely changed the character of the 
 work. In the latter year the Tridentine Coun- 
 cil decreed the preparation of an authentic 
 edition, and the task was andertaken by the 
 Papal Chair; but it was not until 1590 that 
 Sixtns Y. produced the work. This, however, 
 turned out to be so utterly incorrect and faulty 
 throughout that the copies were speedily sup- 
 pressed, and another edition, which appeared
 
 548 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 in 1592, was prepared under Clement VIII., 
 to which, in the next year (1593), that x)ther 
 edition succeeded, which has since remained 
 the normal edition of the Church of Rome, 
 and has been reprinted, unchanged, ever since. 
 The Smithsonian Institution is sit- 
 uated in Washington, D. C., and was organ- 
 ized by act of Congress in August, 1846, to 
 carry into effect the provisions of the will of 
 James Smithson. That celebrated English 
 physician bequeathed to his nephew 120,000, 
 the whole of his property, which, in the event 
 of the death of the latter without heirs, was to 
 revert to the United States, to found at Wash- 
 ington an establishment for " the increase and 
 diffusion of knowledge among men," and 
 which was to be named the Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution. The conditions on which the bequest 
 was to take effect in the United States occurred 
 in 1835 by the death of the nephew without 
 issue, and the Hon. Richard Rush was sent to 
 London to prosecute the claim. On Septem- 
 ber 1, 1838, he deposited in the United States 
 Mint $515,169, being the proceeds of the es- 
 tate. The Institute is governed by regents 
 appointed by the federal government, and con- 
 tains a museum, library, cabinets of natural 
 history, and lecture rooms. It receives copies 
 of all copyrighted books, and exchanges with 
 other countries, and its museum is enriched 
 with the gatherings of national exploring ex- 
 peditions. A portion of its funds is devoted 
 to scientific researches and the publication of 
 works too expensive for private enterprise. 
 There are departments of astronomy, ethnol- 
 ogy, meteorology, and terrestrial magnetism. 
 The courses of public lectures by eminent sci- 
 entific men are among the attractions of the 
 capital. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PRAC- 
 TICE OF LAW. 
 
 Qualifications as to citizenship, personal 
 character, education, and professional attain- 
 ments required by the several states, from 
 those who are admitted to the practice of law. 
 
 From reports to the United States Bureau of 
 Education. 
 
 Alabama. Actual, bona fide citizenship. High 
 moral character as testified to by a member of the pro- 
 fession. Education judged from examination. If the 
 study period is passed in a law office, then the judges of 
 the supreme court must make written examination, ex- 
 cept in the case of those graduating from Alabama Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 Arkansas. Must be a citizen of the state and of 
 good moral character. The liberal education feature is 
 left to court which examines. The circuit and supreme 
 courts are the only bodies authorized to'grant license to 
 practice law. Applicant must stand satisfactory ex- 
 amination in open court, by the supreme court, and by 
 a committee of three lawyers appointed by circuit court 
 when applicant is examined by that court. 
 
 Arizona. A declaration of "citizenship and prooj of 
 good moral character are required, but there is no dis- 
 
 tinction between liberal and professional education. 
 The only thing necessary for admission to practice here, 
 if notarmed either with a diploma or license from an- 
 other jurisdiction, is to stand the examination in open 
 court, and l>y that show such familiarity with the law 
 as will satisfy the court that the applicant is qualified to 
 take care of a practice. 
 
 California. A declaration of citizenship and certif- 
 icate from two attorneys of court to which applicant 
 has applied for admission that he possesses the charac- 
 ter and attainments that entitle him to admission. Ex- 
 :i initiation in open court after filing certificate from 
 two attorneys. 
 
 Colorado. Must declare intention to become a citizen 
 three months before applying ; must have certificate of 
 good moral character; but no special attention paid to 
 liberal education feature. If not a member of the bar 
 of another state, must pass an examination before su- 
 preme court or a committee appointed by it in each 
 judicial district. 
 
 Connecticut. Must be a citizen of the United States. 
 21 years old, and be of good moral character, and must 
 have graduated from a college or secondary school or 
 have been admitted to a college or preparatory school, 
 or passed an examination before committee, for which 
 last he must pay a fee of 5.00. Must have studied law 
 after arriving at the age of 18 for two years, if a college 
 or law school graduate : otherwise, for three years in a 
 law school or under competent professional instruction 
 in the office of a practicing attorney or with the judge 
 of the superior court or both, of which period one 
 year, at least, must be spent in this state. Applicants 
 shall be required to pass a satisfactory examination, 
 before a standing committee of fifteen, upon the law of 
 pleading, practice, and evidence, constitutional law, 
 the law of real and personal property, contracts, torts, 
 equity, criminal law, wills, and administration, corpora- 
 tions, partnership, negotiable paper, agency, bailments, 
 domestic relations, and such additional " subjects as 
 committee shall deem advisable. 
 
 Delaware. Must be a resident of the state and of 
 " fair " character, and must have a general knowledge 
 of English and American history, mathematics, English 
 grammar, and Latin. A legal course in a law office is 
 not necessary. All applicants for admission except 
 practicing lawyers of other states are required to study 
 three years under direction of a lawyer or a judge o'f 
 the state. Examination is made by a "committee of the 
 bar. 
 
 Florida. Must satisfy judge that he is 21 years of 
 age, and of good moral character. Shall be examined 
 by the judge to whom application is made or a commit- 
 tee of two appointed by judge. 
 
 Georgia. Must be a citizen of the circuit wherein he 
 makes application and of good moral character, as 
 shown by a certificate of two attorneys known to court. 
 Must undergo examination before committee appointed 
 by court on common law, pleading, and evidence, 
 equity, and equity pleading and practice, Code of 
 Georgia, United States and State Constitutions, and the 
 rules of court. Diplomas of certain law schools in 
 Georgia will obviate necessity of examining candi- 
 date. 
 
 Idaho. Must be a citizen of the United States ; noth- 
 ing required in the wav of liberal education. He must 
 have a knowledge of the law; it is immaterial how he 
 gets it. A committee appointed by court ascertains 
 fitness. 
 
 Illinois. Must make affidavit that he is of age, a 
 citizen of the state, and a certified transcript from a 
 court of record in this state showing that he is a man 
 of good moral character. Nothing required as to 
 liberal education. Every applicant to practice law, ex- 
 cept those who apply for admission upon a license 
 granted in another state, or upon a diploma issued by a 
 law school in the state, shall present to one of the ap- 
 pellate courts proof that he has studied law two years, 
 the same studies prescribed by the regularly established 
 law schools in the state, or a course equivalent thereto, 
 naming the books studied, under the direction and 
 supervision of one or more licensed lawyers or firms of 
 lawyers, and that the applicant has submitted to satis- 
 factory examinations by such lawyer or lawyers at con- 
 venient intervals during such period of study, covering 
 progressively the entire course studied, such proof to 
 consist of tlie affidavit of the applicant and also of the 
 certificate or certificates of the lawyer. Examination 
 is held in open court. 
 
 Indiana. Every person of good moral character, 
 being a voter, shall be entitled to admission to practice
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 549 
 
 law in all courts of justice. (Constitution, Art. VII., 
 sec. 21.) From the letter of the attorney-general, Hon- 
 orable William A. Ketchum : The words, "being a vo- 
 ter" has been held bv the courts to have no limitation 
 
 previous to applying for admission, which shall be con- 
 ditioned on the applicant's answering correctly seventy 
 per cent, of the questions asked him in a written and 
 oral examination. 
 
 in excluding those who are not voters, and women are Minnesota. Applicant must present hisaffidavit that 
 admitted to practice. The only substantial requirement he is of age and is a citizen of the United States, or has 
 is that the applicant shall be of good moral character, i declared his intention to become such. Also affidavits 
 and at times this may not be very rigidly insisted upon. : from two practicing attorneys that he is a person of 
 It seems to be the theory that it is not very important | good moral character. Board" shall examine applicants 
 who is admitted to practice law, as after he has been ad- in such branches of general education as it may deem 
 mitted to practice if he does not know enough to justify ; expedient. Must be examined by state board of ex- 
 his admission, he will not get any practice anyhow. I aminers in law of real property, conveyances and 
 
 Iowa. Must be a citizen (of the state) and of good ' trusts, equity jurisprudence, pJea'ding and practice, 
 moral character. There is no provision regarding a lib- common law, statute law, code pleading and practice, 
 eral education, but the want of it is considered in deter- < constitutional law, international law, criminal law, 
 mining the applicant's qualifications. Must pursue a \ contracts, sales, bailments and negotiable instruments, 
 regular course in the study of law for at least two years i landlord and tenant, insurance, partnership, agency, 
 in the office of a practicing attorney of this state, or a i suretyship, frauds, damages and liens, torts, domestic 
 course of two years of thirty-six weeks each in some : relations, executors, administrators, and wills. Attor- 
 reputable law school in the United States. Examina- ; neys of five years' standing from any other state or 
 tion is conducted by three members of the bar, one of j territory of the United States or District of Columbia 
 whom must be attorney-general. The written questions j may, in'the discretion of the board, be admitted with- 
 are prepared by the supreme court; the oral examina- ! out examination, 
 tion is conducted in open court. Missouri. Must be an actual resident and of good 
 
 Kansas. Any person being a citizen of the United character. No particular qualification as to liberal edu- 
 States, who has read law for two years, the last of which cation. Graduates of the St. Louis, Kansas City, and 
 must be in the office of a regularly practicing attorney, j Columbia law schools are exempted from examination, 
 who shall certify as to the good character and domicil j Others are required to pass an examination in open 
 of the applicant, after passing a satisfactory examina- court. 
 
 tion before anv district court of the state, and taking i Montana. Must be a resident of the United States, 
 the prescribed oath, shall be admitted to practice. ' or have made a bonafide declaration of his intention to 
 Graduates of the School of Law of the University of become such, and that he is of age ; must have testimo- 
 Kansas are admitted to practice in the district and nials of good moral character, and have studied law for 
 inferior courts without further examination. two years, as certified to by two reputable counselors 
 
 Louisiana. Must be citizen of state; present cer- at law. The examination is conducted in open court, 
 tificate of good moral character. Must present certifi- Nebraska. Must be a resident, of age, of good re- 
 cate that twoyears have been spent instudy of law. The pute, and have studied law for two years. Must at least 
 court will not'be satisfied with the qualifications of a can- have a good common school education, which is judged 
 didate in point of legal learning unless it shall appear from his composition and spelling at examination, 
 that he is well read in the following course of studies at Graduates of the College of Law of the University of 
 least: Constitution (Story), Law of Nations (Vattel or Nebraska shall be admitted, as far as prof essional learn- 
 Wheaton), History of the 'Civil Law in Louisiana, Louis- ing is concerned, without examination. Others are ex- 
 iana Civil Code, Code of Practice, General Statutes, In- amined by court. 
 
 stitutesof Justinian, Domat's Civil Law, Pothier on Ob- Nevada. Resident of the state and of good moral 
 ligations, Blackstone's Commentaries (fourth book), character. A general education only required. Tamil- 
 Kent's Commentaries, Mercantile Law (Smith), Insur- iarity with the various branches and general practice of 
 ance (Wood), Negotiable Paper (Story, or Parsons and the law required, and to this end study in law office is 
 Daniel), Evidence (Greenleaf.Starkie or Phillips), Crimes desirable, although not required. The examination is 
 (Russell), criminal procedure (Bishop), and the Jurispru- by court or committee, 
 dence of Louisiana. 'New Jersey. Must take the oath of allegiance, be of 
 
 Maine. Nothing in the way of citizenship or liberal age, and of good moral character. Must have served a 
 education, but character must "be satisfactory to justice clerkship of four years with some practicing attorney 
 presiding at time of examination. Must have studied (X the state unless he is a graduate of some college or 
 law twoyears in a lawyer's office or law school, and must university in the United States, when his clerkship 
 be vouched for by tlie member of bar with whom the may be acquitted in three years. During the clerkship 
 student has read. The examining committee is com- he must not have been engaged in any other business 
 posed of three members of the bar in each county. incompatible with the full and fair bona fide service of 
 
 Maryland. Must have been a citizen two years (of his clerkship. No person shall be recommended for 
 state), and be of good moral character. No liberal edu- license as a counselor at law in this state, unless he first 
 cation required by law. Must have been a student of submit himself to examination and give satisfactory 
 law for the two years immediately preceding his appli- evidence of his knowledge of the principles and doc- 
 cation, and must be examined by court, if not a gradu- trines of the law, and of nis abilities as a pleader, nor 
 ate of a law school instate. The court selects the ex- shall any be admitted to such examination until he 
 amining committee. shall have practiced as an attorney for three years at 
 
 Massachusetts. Must be a citizen of the state, or least. The examination for attorneys and counselors 
 have declared his intention to become such, and must shall be both written and oral. The examining commit- 
 be of good moral character. Undoubtedly, applicant's tee is composed of six counselors, two going out each 
 command of English, as shown in examination .papers, year. 
 is of weight. Must pass a thorough examination. New Mexico. Must be a citizen of the United 
 
 Michigan. Must be a resident in the state, a citizen States or have declared intention to become such, of 
 of the United States, and of good moral character (afti- food moral character, and bonafide resident of New 
 davit of at least two members of the bar of the state in Mexico. Must undergo an examination in open court, 
 good standing). The board of examiners will regard New York. Must be a citizen and present certificate 
 applicants who have received bachelors' degrees from of good moral character. Liberal education is required, 
 any reputable college or university as having prima For college graduates two years' study of law is re- 
 facie the requisite general educational qualifications quired (for others, three years) either in law school or in 
 for admission to the bar. So also as to graduates of office. There is a state board of law examiners. 
 Michigan normal or high schools, or other reputable in- North Carolina. One year residence in the state re- 
 stitutions ot similar character. Recent first grade teach- quired, as also a certificate of good moral character, 
 ers' certificate will also be accepted. Otherwise ap- signed by two members of the bar. All must undergo 
 plicant must pass examination, especially in arithmetic, an examination and must have read law in a law office 
 grammar, elementary algebra, general American and or in a law school for twelve months at least. Supreme 
 English history, civil government, composition and court conducts examination, 
 rhetoric, and English literature. If the professional North Dakota. Must be a resident, of good moral 
 
 igan University or Detroit College of Law, both having taken as a year). Supreme court examines applicants, 
 a three years' course, are admitted to bar on their di- Ohio. Must be a citizen of the United States or have 
 ploma. Others must have studied law for three years declared intention, have resided one year in state, and
 
 550 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 be a person of good moral character. Nothing in the 
 way of liberal education. All must pass an examina- 
 tion, to which those only are admitted who have studied 
 law three years either in an office or in a law school. ! 
 Supreme court appoints a committee of nine members 
 to examine applicants. 
 
 Oklahoma. Must possess a good moral character. 
 Must have acquired the requisite learning. This fact is 
 ascertained through examination by the court. Appli- 
 cant is examined in open court by committee. 
 
 Pennsylvania. He must be a citizen of the United 
 States and of a good moral character as certified to by 
 two persons. He must have a good English education 
 and a knowledge of the elements of Latin as evidenced 
 by examination. In most counties the rules of court re- 
 quire a two or three years' course of study (prior to final 
 examination, by a committee) in the office of a member 
 of the local bar and require at least one year's actual 
 work in an office, even for students of regular law 
 schools. 
 
 South Carolina. Citizenship required. Must be of 
 age and of a good moral character. Graduates at the 
 law school of the State University are admitted without 
 examination; others must undergo the examination 
 upon the course of study prescribed by supreme court. 
 
 South Dakota. Must be a resident of the state, of 
 age, and of good moral character. All are required to 
 pass an examination in open court. 
 
 Tennessee. Must be of age and of good moral char- 
 acter. No other requirement. The professional attain- 
 ments of the applicant are ascertained by any two 
 judges. 
 
 Texas. Six months' residence in the state required. 
 Applicant must be of age, and have a good reputation. 
 Graduates from the University of Texas are admitted 
 without examination. Others are examined by a com- 
 mittee on Blackstone's Commentaries, Kent's Com- 
 mentaries, Stephens on Pleading, Story's Equity Plead- 
 ing, first volume of Greenleaf , Story on Notes, Story on 
 Partnership, Story's Equity Jurisprudence, or book's of 
 like character. He is expected to have some knowledge 
 of the Constitution and statutes of Texas and the 
 practice of her courts. 
 
 Utah. Citizen of United States or one having de- 
 clared intention to become a citizen. Must be of age 
 and of good moral character. All applicants are strictly 
 examined in open court. 
 
 "Vermont. Must have resided in Vermont six 
 months, be of age, and of good moral character. All 
 are examined in open court by a committee of the bar ; 
 but applicant must have studied three years in the 
 otti-ie of a practicing attorney, though not more than 
 two of these years may be spent in attendance at a law 
 school chartered by any state of .the United States. 
 
 Virginia. Must have resided in state six months, be 
 of age, and a person of honest demeanor. It appears 
 that all are subject to examination by the supreme 
 court of appeals on common law, equity, commercial 
 law, and practice, and the Code of Virginia, but the 
 diploma of a law school duly incorporated by one of the 
 United States " is considered." 
 
 Washington. Must be a citizen of the United States, 
 have resided in state one year, have a good moral char- 
 acter, and be 21 years of "age. The supreme court, by 
 two of its judges, satisfies itself that the applicant has 
 sufficient general learning, but an attorney of the state 
 must certify that applicant has studied law for two 
 years previous to his application and that he believes 
 him to be a person of sufficient legal knowledge and 
 ability to discharge the duties of an attorney and coun- 
 selor at law. 
 
 West Virginia. Must be a citizen, one year a resi- 
 dent of the county, and have a good moral character. 
 All applicants are now (1897) examined by the law 
 faculty of the University of West Virginia for the su- 
 preme court. 
 
 Wisconsin. Must be a resident of the state and be 
 of good moral character. Graduates of the law depart- 
 ment of the University of Wisconsin are admitted on 
 their diplomas; others are examined by state board of 
 examiners, if they have studied law at 'least two years 
 prior to the examination. 
 
 Wyoming. Must be a citizen, of age, of good moral 
 character, and learned in the law, all of which must be 
 passed upon by the standing committee on admission of 
 each court. An examination is made into the private 
 character and unprofessional literary attainments of 
 applicant. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SCIENCE. 
 
 The following are the claims of Christian 
 Science, as stated by Mrs. Laura Lathrop, 
 C. S. D., New York: 
 
 The revelation of Christian Science came to 
 Rev. Mary Baker G. Eddy in the year 1866, 
 and its truth and power were immediately 
 demonstrated by signs following. For thirty- 
 two years sinners have been reclaimed, de- 
 praved appetites for opium and intoxicating 
 drinks have been destroyed, the sick have been 
 healed of every disease, including insanity ; 
 the blind have received their sight, the deaf 
 their hearing, shortened limbs have been 
 elongated, crooked spines have been straight- 
 ened, and law after law of the human mind 
 has been broken. The one great text-book of 
 this science is" Science and Health," with 
 key to the Scriptures, by Mary Baker G. Eddy, 
 supplemented by another book by the same 
 author called "Miscellaneous Writings." 
 " Science and Health " is now in its one hun- 
 dred and sixtieth edition, and the demand 
 for it is increasing daily. The Christian 
 Science Publishing House is at 95 Falmouth 
 street, Boston, Mass., and here are published, 
 besides the two books above mentioned, other 
 works by the same author, also The Chris- 
 tian Science Monthly Jnnnidl, The Chrixt'nin 
 Science Weekly, and the "Christian Science 
 Bible Lessons." In the October Journal 
 for 1898 there were mentioned 1,916 prac- 
 titioners, 289 regularly organized churches, 
 113 services where no church has as yet been 
 organized, and 81 institutes. One hundred 
 and twenty of these practitioners are in Greater 
 New York, and sixty-seven in Manhattan 
 Borough. There are six regularly organized 
 churches of this denomination in New York 
 city, three of which own church buildings. A 
 beautiful building is now being erected at the 
 corner of Central Park West and Sixty-eighth 
 street by the Second Church of Christ Scientist, 
 New York city. 
 
 Flourishing churches have been organized in 
 London, England ; Paris, France ; Dresden 
 and Hanover, Germany, and in Canada, Bra- 
 zil, and Scotland. Many handsome church 
 edifices have been built in different cities, and 
 many others are in process of erection. The 
 mother church is located in Boston, Mass., 
 and those all over the country are its branches. 
 Their services are uniform, consisting of two 
 meetings on Sunday and one on Wednesday 
 evening. No sermons are preached by a per- 
 sonal pastor, but a sermon made, up of selec- 
 tions from the Bible and "Science and 
 Health," with key to the Scriptures, is read by 
 two readers, called the first and second read- 
 ers. This church is emphatically a healing
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 551 
 
 church, and many cases of restoration to health 
 have been testified to during the past few 
 years, brought about by attendance on one of 
 these meetings. 
 
 Christian Science is demonstrable Christian- 
 ity. Through the spiritual understanding of 
 the teachings of Christ Jesus, its followers are 
 enabled to obey his command to "heal the 
 sick " and do the works he and his disciples 
 did. The omnipotence, omnipresence, and 
 omniscience of God are proved to be true. 
 Christian Science is not mind cure, as that is 
 popularly understood, because it recognizes but 
 one mind, God. It is not faith cure, because it 
 does not perform its wonderful works through 
 blind faith in u personal God, but through the 
 understanding of man's relation to God. It is 
 not mesmerism nor hypnotism, because it de- 
 nies absolutely the power of the human mind 
 and human will, and claims no will but God's. 
 Through recognizing the one mind and man as 
 the reflection of that mind, it forever estab- 
 lishes the brotherhood of man. It is the per- 
 fect salvation from sin, disease, and death 
 Christ Jesus came to bring. In " Rudimental 
 Divine Science," Mrs. Eddy defines Christian 
 Science "as the law of God, the law of good, 
 interpreting and demonstrating the principle 
 and rule of eternal harmony." 
 
 REQUIREMENTS FOR PRACTICE 
 OF MEDICINE. 
 
 Qualifications as to citizenship, personal 
 character, education, and professional attain- 
 ments required by the several states from those 
 who are licensed to practice medicine. From 
 reports to the United States Bureau of Educa- 
 tion. 
 
 California. No qualifications are specified except 
 that the individual must be a graduate of a " recog- 
 nized" college; that is, one recognized by the Associa- 
 tion of American Medical Colleges. 
 
 Colorado. Diploma of recognized reputable school, 
 or ten years' practice of medicine as a business. Anat- 
 omy, chemistry, physiology, pathology, surgery, prac- 
 tice of medicine, and obstetrics and diseases of "women. 
 
 Connecticut. He may be a common drunkard, a no- 
 torious libertine, or a criminal abortionist as far as the 
 letter of the law disqualifies him. Anatomy, physiol- 
 ogy, medical chemistry, obstetrics, surgery, pathology, 
 diagnosis, and therapeutics, including practice and 
 materia medica. No attention pai*l to college diplomas. 
 
 Delaware. Must furnish proof of good moral char- 
 acter and good common school education. Must have 
 studied medicine at least four years, including three 
 regular courses of lectures in different years in some 
 legally incorporated college or colleges, prior to his hav- 
 ing received a diploma. 
 
 Florida. Diploma of n college recognized (by the 
 American Medical Association); but any holder of a 
 diploma of a medical college may demand an examina- 
 tion, which all must pass. 
 
 Georjjia. Three courses in a regular medical college 
 and successful passage of examination before board. 
 
 Idaho. Citizen of United States or has declared in- 
 tention of becoming such, and evidence of good moral 
 character. But said board may also refuse a. license for 
 unprofessional conduct, etc. " The words " unprofes- 
 sional conduct, etc.," is declared to mean First. The 
 procuring or aiding or abetting in procuring a crim- 
 
 inal abortion. Second. The employment of what are 
 popularly known as ''cappers" or "' steerers " in pro- 
 curinjr practice. Third. The obtaining a fee on the 
 assurance that a manifestly incurable disease can be 
 permanently cured. Fourth. The willful betrayal of a 
 professional secret to the detriment of a patient. Fifth . 
 All advertisements of medical business in which un- 
 truthful and improbable statements are made. Sixth. 
 All advertisements of any medicine or means whereby 
 the monthly periods of women can be regulated or the 
 menses can be re-established if repressed. Seventh. 
 Conviction of any offense involving moral turpitude. 
 Eighth. Habitual intemperance in the use of ardent 
 spirits, narcotics, or stimulants. Diploma of a reputa- 
 ble medical college and an examination. 
 
 Illinois. Good nioral character. A diploma or certifi- 
 cation of graduation from a high school or evidence of 
 having passed the matriculation examination to a recog- 
 nized literary or scientific college, or a certificate of suc- 
 cessful examination by the faculty of any reputable uni- 
 versity or college, or by the state superintendent of 
 public instruction in the following branches : English 
 grammar, arithmetic, elementary physics, United States 
 history, geography, Latin (equivalent to one year in a 
 high school). One year is allowed in which to cure de- 
 fects in Latin, but the student must be provided with a 
 certificate of proficiency in this branch of learning from 
 the designated authorities before he can be accepted as 
 a second course student. (Medical Practice Act.)" Diplo- 
 mas of colleges recognized by the state board of health 
 as being in "good standing." Diplomas from condi- 
 tional collegesare recognized, but must be supplemented 
 by an examination in medicine, surgery, gynecology, 
 and obstetrics, a percentage of 80 being required. 
 Graduates of colleges in the United States that are not 
 recognized by the board are required to pass an exami- 
 nation in all the branches of medicine. Graduates of 
 Canadian colleges and foreign colleges and universities 
 are required to supplement their diplomas with an ex- 
 amination in practice, surgery, gynecology, and ob- 
 stetrics, unless they present evidence of their right to 
 practice medicine "and surgery in the province and 
 country in which the college is located from which they 
 receive their diplomas. 
 
 Indiana. Must reside within the state and possess a 
 good moral character, attested by two freeholders un- 
 der oath. After July 1, 1899, no medical college will be 
 recognized as in good standing which does not require 
 the entrance qualifications "prescribed by the Associa- 
 tion of American Medical Colleges as a prerequisite for 
 matriculation. (Same as Illinois.) Since 1899, July 1, no 
 diploma will be recognized if given by a college pos- 
 sessing an inadequate equipment for teaching medicine, 
 which has not clinical and hospital facilities, and which 
 does not have an active and competent faculty, embrac- 
 ing the departments of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, 
 materia medica, therapeutics, medicine, surgery, ob- 
 stetrics, histology, pathology, bacteriology, ophthalmol- 
 ogy, otology, gynecology, laryngology, dermatology, 
 hygiene, and state medicine, and which does not en- 
 join attendance upon 80 per cent, of four regular courses 
 of instruction of not less than twenty-six weeks each in 
 four different years, and which does not exact an aver- 
 age grade of 75 per cent, on an examination as a condi- 
 tion of graduation. 
 
 Iowa. Certificate refused to one who is incompetent, 
 convicted of felony, grossly immoral, or is an habitual 
 drunkard. Good character must be certified to by two 
 physicians of the state. Literary qualifications same as 
 those of Illinois. Diploma of recognized medical col- 
 lege teaching in a four or more years' course anatomy, 
 physiology and hygiene, chemistry, materia medica and 
 therapeutics, theory and practice of medicine, pathol- 
 ogy and pathological anatomy, surgery, obstetrics and 
 gynecology, bacteriology and microscopy, and medical 
 jurisprudence. Each course shall continue for twenty- 
 six weeks. 
 
 Kansas. Good moral character is required. A di- 
 ploma of a recognized medical school. 
 
 Louisiana. A good moral character, average educa- 
 tion, as shown by technical examination before board. 
 Must have diploma from medical college ingootl repute, 
 having three courses of six months each in different 
 years. An examination before the board on all the 
 branches of medicine. 
 
 Maine. Certificate of good moral character, only so 
 far as the board may take it upon itself to decide. All 
 must pass an examination on anatomy, physiology, pa- 
 thology, materia medica, therapeutics, surgery, the prin- 
 ciples 'and practice of medicine, obstetrics, or such
 
 552 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 branches thereof as the board may deem necessary that 
 the applicant should possess. 
 
 Maryland. Testimonials to moral character. The 
 candidate should at least possess a high school educa- 
 tion. Must be a graduate of some reputable medical 
 school having a three years' course, but an effort is be- 
 ing made to extend the course to four years. Non- 
 graduates of a couege of medicine are e'xamined in 
 practice, surgery, anatomy, materia medica, therapeu- 
 tics, physiology, chemistry, jurisprudence, obstetrics, 
 gynecology, hygiene, and pathology. 
 
 'Massachusetts. Good moral character and twenty- 
 one years old. All applicants are required to pass a 
 satisfactory examination in surgery, physiology, pa- 
 thology, obstetrics, and practice of medicine. College 
 diplomas not a factor in testing an applicant's qualifi- 
 cations for practice. 
 
 Michigan. Every graduate of any legally author- 
 ized medical college in the state, or in any one of the 
 United States, or in any other country, shall be deemed 
 qualified to practice medicine and surgery in all its de- 
 partments after having registered. 
 
 Mi n iii-sot :i. Good moral character. Evidence of igno- 
 rance in ordinary spelling and writing count against a 
 candidate, at option of examiner. The applicant for 
 license must present evidence of having attended upon 
 three separate courses of medical study at a college 
 having not less than six months' duration each. Study 
 with physician not necessary. [Other] applicants are 
 required to pass an examination in anatomy, physiology, 
 histology, pathology, chemistry, medical jurisprudence, 
 preventive medicine, obstetrics, practice, surgery, dis- 
 eases of women and children, materia medica, eye and 
 ear diseases, toxicology. 
 
 Missouri. The law' prescribes no qualifications ; but 
 in regard to personal character and citizenship the board 
 has made a rule, which has not been questioned, accord- 
 ing to which an applicant must present two letters of 
 recommendation from physicians as to his moral and 
 professional character, and he must be a resident of 
 the state unless he makes affidavit that he resides in 
 a county of another state, which county lies upon the 
 border of Missouri. Under a recent decision of the 
 supreme court it is necessary only to be the possessor of 
 a diploma from a legally chartered medical school in 
 good standing to be admitted to registration. The good 
 standing of the school to be determined, like the repu- 
 tation of an individual, by testimony. The court de- 
 cided that the law did not authorize the board to set up 
 a standard. 
 
 Montana. None; but board may refuse to grant li- 
 cense on moral grounds. Applicants must possess a 
 diploma from a reputable school of medicine, whose 
 professors and teachers are graduates of a school of that 
 kind, and which, after July 1, 1898, requires attendance 
 upon four courses of lectures of at least six months 
 each, no two terms in one year. No credit for practice 
 of or study with a physician is given. 
 
 Nevada. A medical education and a diploma from 
 some regularly chartered medical school, said school to 
 have a bona fide existence at the time when said diploma 
 was granted. 
 
 New Hampshire. Good moral character and twenty- 
 one years of age. Must have graduated from a registered 
 college or satisfactorily completed a full course 111 a reg- 
 istered academy or high school, or had a preliminary 
 education considered and accepted by the regent (state 
 superintendent of education) as fully equivalent. Our 
 state pays now (1899) no attention to medical college di- 
 plomas e'xcept from Dartmouth. Since 1893 Dartmouth 
 graduates have been obliged to stand examination. Ap- 
 plicant must have studied medicine not less than four 
 full school years of at least nine months each, including 
 four satisfactory courses of at least six months each, in 
 four different calendar years, in a medical college reg- 
 istered as maintaining at the time a satisfactory stand- 
 ard. The regent shall accept as the equivalent for any 
 part of these requirements or those concerning a liter- 
 ary education, evidence of five or more years of reputa- 
 ble practice provided that such substitution be specified 
 in the license, or has either received the degree of bach- 
 elor or doctor of medicine from some registered medi- 
 cal school, or a diploma or license conferring full right 
 to practice medicine in some foreign country. (Recent 
 law.) 
 
 New Jersey. Nothing as to citizenship, but at least 
 two physicians, one of New Jersey, must vouch for 
 personal character. Candidates must be graduates from 
 an accredited literary or scientific college, or have com- 
 pleted satisfactorily not less than a three years' course 
 
 in an accredited high school or academy, or have re- 
 ceived a preparatory education covering* the following 
 branches, viz., orthography, arithmetic, English gram- 
 mar and composition, geography, history of the I'nited 
 States, algebra, and physics, or what this board of ex- 
 aminers may consider their equivalent. Candidates 
 must have received a diploma conferring the degree of 
 doctor of medicine from some legally incorporated med- 
 ical college (which in the opinion of the board was in 
 good standing at the time of issuing said diploma) in 
 the United States or a diploma or license conferring the 
 full right to practice all the branches of medicine and 
 surgery in some foreign country, and have also studied 
 medicine four years, including three courses of lectures 
 in different years in some legally incorporated Ameri- 
 can or foreign medical college or colleges prior to the 
 granting of said diploma or foreign license; provided, 
 however, that two courses of medical lectures, both of 
 which shall be either begun or completed within the 
 same calendar year, shall not be considered as satisfy- 
 ing the above requirements. All examinations shall be 
 written in the English language and the questions 
 shall be, except in materia medica and therapeutics, 
 such as can be answered in common by all schools of 
 practice. 
 
 New Mexico. Two certificates well accredited as 
 to personal character and professional standing. Our 
 board disproves of medical schools doing their own ex- 
 amination of candidates for matriculation. It requires 
 that each candidate for admission to a medical school 
 shall furnish as a minimum a high school certificate 
 preferably a college degree. No study with a physician 
 required. As to professional study our board has not 
 specified at length its requirements except as to time 
 (four years), and terms ot lectures [courses] (four) and 
 conditions for matriculation. [A diploma of a legally 
 chartered medical institution in good standing will 
 admit to practice law.] 
 
 New York. Certificate of good moral character 
 from not fewer than two physicians in good standing; 
 also evidence that applicant has the general educa- 
 tion required preliminary to receiving the degree of 
 bachelor or doctor of medicine in this state (medical 
 student certificate), or graduation from a registered 
 college, or satisfactory completion of a full course in a 
 registered academy or high school, or had a preliminary 
 education considered and accepted by the regents of the 
 University of the State of New York as equivalent to 
 such high school course. Evidence that applicant has 
 studied medicine not less than four full years of at least 
 nine months each, including satisfactory courses of at 
 least six months each, in four different calendar years 
 in a medical school registered as maintaining at the 
 time a satisfactory standard. The applicant for license 
 to practice medicine in New York state [not a grad- 
 uate] must pass examinations in anatomy, physiology, 
 hygiene, chemistry, surgery, obstetrics, pathology, and 
 diagnosis, therapeutics, practice, and materia medica. 
 
 North Carolina. Certificate of good moral charac- 
 ter from some one known to the board. Education 
 decided by character of papers handed in on examina- 
 tion. No attention paid to diplomas. Satisfactory ex- 
 amination in all branches of medicine. No study with 
 physician required. Examinations are comprehensive 
 but are liberal; 80 per cent, is necessary to pass how- 
 ever. 
 
 Ohio. Good moral character from two registered 
 physicians of the state. All medical colleges of the 
 United States requiring a minimum of three years of 
 study of medicine and two courses of lectures for 
 graduation prior to 18!-'6, and possessing proper facili- 
 ties for teaching and a faculty embracing the chairs of 
 anatomy, physiology, chemistry, materia medica, ther- 
 apeutics, medicine, surgery, and obstetrics, shall be 
 recognized as in good standing, and diplomas issued by 
 the same and properly verified shall entitle the holders 
 thereof to register as' graduates in medicine. For the 
 ten years ending in February, 1896, all medical colleges 
 exacting the foregoing requirements and possessing 
 facilities and a faculty as sped tied above shall, by virtue 
 of such facts, be recognized as in good standing to and 
 including the year ls-,12, but that no medical college 
 shall be recognized as in good standing which has not 
 since 1892 possessed the foregoing facilities and faculty, 
 and HI addition has not exacted an entrance qualifica- 
 tion and attendance upon three regular courses of lec- 
 tures :i ^ a condition of graduation. On and alter July 
 1. 199, no medical college will be recognized as in good 
 standing which does not require the entrance qualifica- 
 tion prescribed by the Association of American Medical
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FIXE ARTS. 
 
 553 
 
 Colleges as a prerequisite for matriculation, which does 
 not possess an adequate equipment for teaching medi- 
 cine, which has not clinical and hospital facilities 
 based upon a minimum municipal population of 50,000, 
 and which does not have an active faculty embracingthe 
 departments of anatomy, physiology, 'chemistry, ma- 
 teria medica and therapeutics, medicine, surgery, ob- 
 stetrics, histology, pathology, bacteriology, ophtha'lmol- 
 njry and otology, gynecology, laryngology, hygiene, and 
 state medicine, "and which does not enjoin "attendance 
 upon 80 per cent, of four regular courses of instruction 
 of not less than twenty-six weeks each, in four different 
 years, and which does not exact an average grade of 75 
 per cent, on an examination as a condition of gradua- 
 tion, providing that the rule relative to population as a 
 basis for clinical and hospital facilities shall not apply 
 to institutions understate control and which by virtue 
 of such control receives gratuitously patients from all 
 parts of the state in which such colleges are located. 
 
 Oklahoma. Certificate of good moral character, and 
 that holder is not an habitual drunkard. None, if a 
 graduate from a medical college in good standing j if I 
 not a graduate, applicant must have ueen a practicing 
 physician for five years, and pass an examination before 
 the board on the several branches of medicine. 
 
 Oregon, (iood moral character required. No atten- j 
 tion paid to college diplomas. All must stand an exami- i 
 nation before state medical board on anatomy, phys- ! 
 iology, etc. 
 
 Pennsylvania. Applicant must be twenty-one years ] 
 of age, of good moral character, and have a competent ' 
 '"inmonschool education. Four >ears'study of medicine, ! 
 including three years in some legally incorporated medi- I 
 cat college of the United States, or a diploma or license 
 conferring the full right to practice all the branches of i 
 medicine and surgery in some foreign country. Others 
 must stand an examination before board. 
 
 Rhode Island. Citizenship is a new question, and 
 has never occurred to us before, but will now receive 
 attention. Personal character has not been required. 
 It is difficult to establish [true] character of applicant, 
 but we do not issue certificate until applicant .has been 
 in practice for three months in this state, and if be torn 
 out an advertising, charlatanic person we refuse to grant 
 certificate. A high school or academic education is re- 
 quired of all colleges in "good standing." Examina- 
 tion on eleven branches of medicine required. Appli- 
 cant [for examination] must have obtained diploma 
 from a school having a four years' course in medicine 
 during the year of graduation". One year at a veterinarv- 
 or dental school will not pass for a year of study in medi- 
 cine. School must have a course" of twenty-six weeks, 
 teach all main and supplementary branches. Study 
 with physician not required, nor is it accepted as a part 
 of the four years. Diplomas of schools located in cities 
 of fewer than fifty thousand people not accepted. 
 
 South Carolina. None but graduates of a medical 
 school entitled to an examination ; and the state board j 
 examines on all the branches of medicine. 
 
 South Dakota, (iood moral character, and must not ] 
 be an habitual drunkard. Anyone who is a graduate of | 
 a lawful medical college, who has attended three full 
 courses of medical lectures of six months each. No two 
 full courses to be taken within the same year. 
 
 Tennessee. Must be a bona fide resident of the state, 
 and located at some designated place. We have no law 
 allowing us to examine into personal character. Ap- 
 plicant must have a fair education, of which the board 
 may be the judge. Law pays no attention to diplomas, 
 but requires all applicants "to stand an examination on 
 anatomy, physiology, etc. 
 
 Texas. Must have an education equal to that given 
 in a high school . A diploma from any college or univer- 
 sity is held by the higher courts as equal to a certificate 
 fro'm one of the district examining boards. 
 
 Utah. No special requirements other than a diploma 
 from a reputable medical college ; and passing an exam- 
 ination in all the branches of medicine and surgery. 
 
 Vermont. Diploma from a reputable and recognized 
 school and passing examination before a state board of 
 examiners on anatomy, physiology, surgery, chemistry, 
 niateria medica, practice, obstetrics, and pathology. 
 
 Washington. Board has la rge powers of discretion 
 as to estimating moral character. The state medical 
 examining board does not regard a diploma [of a school] 
 of any state as sufficient to entitle holder of same to 
 practice in this state, but will consider such diploma in 
 connection with the examination of the holder of the 
 same for a license. All applicants are examined in 
 nervous diseases, obstetric diseases of women and chil- 
 
 dren, anatomy, practice, histology, surgery, physiology, 
 medical jurisprudence, materia medica, chemistry, dis- 
 eases of the eye and ear, preventive medicine. 
 
 West Virginia. Good moral character and English 
 education. Diplomas are not recognized. All must 
 pass examination by state board. 
 
 Wisconsin. Must not have been convicted of crime 
 in course of professional business. All are examined 
 save those who possess a diploma from a medical col- 
 lege having three or more courses of lectures of six 
 months each, and after the year 1904 at least four courses 
 of not less than six months each, no two courses to be 
 taken during the same year. 
 
 Wyoming. None. "No person shall be allowed to 
 practice medicine, surgery, or obstetrics who has not 
 received a medical education and a diploma from some 
 regularly chartered medical school, said school to have 
 a bona fide existence at the time when said diploma was 
 granted. 
 
 Windsor Castle is situated on the right 
 bank of the Thames, twenty-three miles west 
 of London, near the town of Windsor. The 
 royal residence and the buildings connected 
 with it cover twelve acres of ground, and stand 
 in the midst of a park known as '* Little 
 Park," which is four miles in circumference, 
 and is connected by a long avenue of trees, 
 south of the castle, with the "Great Park," 
 which is eighteen miles in circuit. The castle 
 was founded by William the Conqueror. The 
 original plans were enlarged upon and com- 
 pleted by Henry I., and the castle was first 
 used as a royal residence about 1110. The 
 history of the existing edifice, however, begins 
 in the reign of Henry III., but it was not until 
 the time of Edward III. that all its portions 
 were completed. The buildings may be said 
 to be grouped in three portions the middle 
 ward containing the Round Tower, which was 
 built by Edward III., in the eighteenth year 
 of his reign, to receive the Round Table of the 
 Knights of the newly formed Order of the 
 Garter ; the lower ward, on the west, contain- 
 ing St. George's chapel, which was begun by 
 Henry III., completed by Edward III., rebuilt 
 by Henry VII., and added to by Cardinal 
 Wolsey, and the houses of the military 
 knights, cloisters, etc. ; and the upper ward, 
 on the east, containing the sovereign's private 
 apartments. Some additions were made to 
 the buildings by Henry VIII., and Queen 
 Elizabeth formed the terraces and built the 
 gate now called by her name. The Star build- 
 ing was erected by Charles II. In 1824-'28, 
 the castle was repaired and enlarged ; but little 
 alteration has since been made. The park and 
 forest immediately adjoining contain many 
 historical trees such as Elizabeth's Oak; 
 Shakespeare's Oak ; the Long Walk, made in 
 the reign of Charles II. ; and Queen Anne's 
 Ride of Elms, three miles long. Herne's Oak, 
 rendered so famous by Shakespeare, was blown 
 down in September, 1863, and a stone and a 
 young tree now mark the spot. The oldest 
 planted timber in England that of the reign 
 of Elizabeth is also in Windsor Park ; and
 
 554 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 there are many oaks of which it is well estab- 
 lished the age must be one thousand years. In 
 the royal vaults connected with St George's 
 chapel a number of kings and queens are 
 buried. 
 
 Vedas and Puranas, as the great body 
 of the sacred literature of the Hindoos is 
 called, are written in poetry in the most ancient 
 form of the Sanskrit language. The Vedas, 
 which were believed to be inspired, treat of the 
 thirty-three gods of the heavens, of the air, 
 and of the earth ; of the creation of all things, 
 of the relation of the gods to each other, and 
 the relations and duties of men to each other 
 and to the gods ; of surgery, medicine, music, 
 dancing, war, architecture, mechanical arts, 
 astronomy, astrology, grammar, poetry, etc. 
 The Puranas are eighteen in number, and are 
 regarded with great reverence as the produc- 
 tion of holy men . They treat of law, theology, 
 including histories of their gods, logic, and 
 metaphysics in general, but are filled in the 
 main with superstitions and silly and disgust- 
 ing narratives. 
 
 Unitarians. The Unitarians of the pres- 
 ent day, like almost all Christian sects, must 
 be divided into two classes a conservative 
 and a progressive class or, as they are often 
 called, an old and new school. The former 
 adopt the old rule of the sufficiency of Scrip- 
 ture, though with such qualifications as the 
 scientific criticism of the Bible has rendered 
 indispensable. The most conservative Unita- 
 rian, for example, would not contend for the 
 literal truth of the first chapter of Genesis, nor 
 for the doctrine of verbal inspiration in any 
 shape. " The Bible is not, but it contains, the 
 Word of God, " is the form which best expresses 
 their position on this subject. They generally 
 hold the simple humanity of Christ, and even 
 reject the supernatural birth, thinking the part 
 of the gospels which record that event to be 
 less authentic than the parts referring to the 
 ministry, the death, and resurrection of Christ. 
 What, however, chiefly distinguishes the Unita- 
 rians of this school from tliose of the new or 
 progressive school is the place which they give 
 to the miracles as supernatural sanctions of 
 the truth of Christianity. Denying that man 
 has any immediate knowledge of the intuition 
 of spiritual things, they regard Christianity as 
 a system of moral and religious truth external 
 to man's nature, and requiring, in proof of its 
 divine origin, certain evidences beyond its in- 
 herent credibility and adaptation to human 
 wants. This evidence they find in the mira- 
 cles, which they accept as well-attested facts, 
 on the same ground on which, all historical 
 facts are accepted. The Unitarians of the 
 progressive school, so far from regarding man 
 
 as entirely dependent upon his reasoning pow- 
 ers for his knowledge of religion, rather look 
 upon him as standing in a living relationship 
 with the one infinite source of all truth, and 
 as having within his own nature the germs of 
 the highest religious faith. To this view of 
 Christianity the miracles are not felt to be 
 essential as proofs. Generally speaking, the 
 Unitarians of this school are disposed to regard 
 with favor the freest criticism of the Bible. 
 Unitarians of all shades of opinion are agreed 
 in rejecting the entire orthodox scheme in- 
 cluding the doctrines of the Trinity, the vica- 
 rious atonement, the deity of Christ, original 
 sin, and everlasting punishment as both 
 unscriptural and irrational. They celebrate 
 the Lord's Supper in their churches, not as a 
 sacrament, but as a service commemorative 
 of Christ's death and expressive of spiritual 
 communion with him. 
 
 St. Nicholas and Christmas. The 
 origin of the idea that presents are presented 
 at Christmas time by St. Nicholas, or Santa 
 Claus, probably originated from the following 
 circumstance : St. Nicholas is said to have 
 been Bishop of Myra, and to have died in the 
 year 326. He was noted for his fondness for 
 children, and became their patron saint, and 
 the young were universally taught to revere 
 him. He is said to have supplied three desti- 
 tute widows with marriage portions by secretly 
 leaving money at their windows, and as this 
 occurred just before Christinas, he thus became 
 the purveyor of the gifts of the season to all 
 children in Flanders and Holland, who hung 
 up their shoes and stockings in the confidence 
 that Knecht Globes, as they called him, would 
 put in a prize for good conduct. Formerly, 
 and still, in some parts of Germany, the prac- 
 tice is made of all the parents in a small village 
 sending the presents to some one person, who, 
 in high buskins, a white robe, a mask, and an 
 enormous flax wig, goes from house to house 
 on Christinas eve, and, being received with 
 great pomp and reverence by the parents, calls 
 for the children and bestows the intended 
 gifts upon them, after first severely question- 
 ing the father and mother as to the character 
 | and conduct of the child. As this custom be- 
 came less frequent, the custom of children 
 hanging up their stockings was substituted; 
 and, as the purveyor no longer visited the 
 houses, it was necessary to explain it by tell- 
 ing the children that he came into the house 
 at night, coming down the chimney and leav- 
 ing their presents and departing. The custom 
 of decking the houses and churches at Christ- 
 mas with evergreens is derived from ancient 
 Druidical practices. It was an old belief that 
 sylvan spirits flock to the evergreens and re-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 main unnipped by frost until a milder season, 
 and it was probably on account of the good 
 omen attached to the evergreen that Christinas 
 trees came into use. 
 
 Valeiitiiiiaiis, a, Gnostic sect or school 
 [see GNOSTIC] founded by Valentinus, who 
 went from Alexandria to Rome about A. D. 
 140. The distinguishing feature of his system 
 lies, in the first place, in his recognizing hea- 
 thenism as a preparatory stage of Christianity, 
 and then his dividing the higher spiritual 
 world into fifteen pairs of aeons, each consist- 
 ing of a male and a female. The first pair, 
 or syzygy, is made up of Bythos, or God in 
 himself, and Ennoia, or God as existing in his 
 own thoughts. From these emanated, next, 
 Nous (Intelligence) and Aletheia (Truth), 
 and so on. As the last feon, Sophia, trans- 
 gressed the bounds that had been laid down by 
 the aeon Heros, and apart of her being became 
 lost in Chaos, there was formed a crude being 
 called Achanroth, which, through the Demiur- 
 gos that emanated from it, created the cor- 
 poreal world. Heros now imparted to the 
 souls of men (for all the bodies composing the 
 corporeal world are possessed of souls) a pneu- 
 matic, or spiritual, element ; but this only 
 attained to full activity when Christ, a col- 
 lective emanation from all the seons, appeared 
 as a Saviour and united himself with the man 
 Jesus. In the end, all that is pneumatic, and 
 even the originally psychic, or soul element, in 
 as far as it has assimilated itself to the psychic, 
 will return into the Pleroma. 
 
 Viiiversalists. The distinctive peculiar- 
 ity of the Universalist faith consists in the 
 belief that "evil" will ultimately be erad- 
 icated from the world, and that all erring 
 creatures will be brought back to God through 
 the irresistible efficacy of Christ's divine love. 
 They argue that when an infinite, wise, holy, 
 and benevolent God resolved to create man, 
 it could only be with a view to his everlast- 
 ing good ; that if he did allow him to be 
 tempted and to fall, it must have been because 
 he foresaw that through sorrow and suffering 
 man could rise to higher degrees of perfection ; 
 that, therefore, all punishment is of necessity 
 designed as a remedial agent, and not intended 
 to satisfy God's indignation as a sovereign at 
 the disobedience of his subjects ; that no other 
 view of the subject is compatible with the 
 scriptural, and especially the New Testament, 
 representation of God as a "Father," or with 
 the oft-repeated declaration (in various terms) 
 that Jesus Christ was a propitiation for the sins 
 of the whole world. Universalism, as a mode 
 of belief, is of very ancient origin, and its 
 modern adherents, beside urging its congruity 
 with the divine plan of redemption as revealed 
 
 in Scripture, point to the earliest Christian 
 writings, e.g., the Sibylline oracles of Rome, 
 and cite passages in favor of the doctrine from 
 many of the Church fathers. Universalism 
 was preached in the United States as early as 
 1741, but the first separate Universalist 
 church was not established until 1780, when 
 the Rev. John Murray started one at Glouces- 
 ter, Mass. Since his time an important body 
 has sprung up which contains many able, 
 learned, and pious divines. 
 
 Roman Catholic Church, the name gen- 
 erally given to that very numerous body of Chris- 
 
 | tians who acknowledge the Pope, or Bishop of 
 Rome, as head of their church. This name also 
 signifies that the Roman Catholic Church is 
 " Roman in its center and Catholic in its cir- 
 cumference." The foundation of this church 
 is uncertain. St. Peter is said to have been 
 the first Bishop of Rome, and tradition says 
 that he was martyred there. The mighty im- 
 portance of the city of Rome naturally gave its 
 bishop a great position, but the fact that it 
 became for a while the arbiter and ruler of 
 all Christendom is the most remarkable fact in 
 the history of Christianity. The controversy 
 between Rome and Protestantism involves two 
 
 j main questions : In the first place, Protes- 
 tants deny the authority of a pope over them 
 at all ; and, secondly, a large portion of the 
 doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church is re- 
 jected, as being a corruption of Apostolic 
 Christianity. The Roman church recognize 
 seven sacraments, viz. : Baptism, Confirma- 
 tion, the Holy Eucharist, Penance, Extreme 
 Unction, Holy Orders, Matrimony. One of 
 the chief characteristics of this religion is that 
 of invoking help of the Virgin and Saints. 
 
 | With regard to all matters relating to faith, 
 
 ! Roman Catholics draw a sharp line between 
 what is of doctrine and what of discipline. 
 
 1 Doctrine is what was taught by Christ and his 
 apostles ; discipline, the different rules laid 
 down by the various councils of the church, 
 and liable to change at any time. There are 
 various religious orders, both for men and 
 women, who are obliged to take the three 
 vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. 
 Their work consists in superintending charita- 
 ble institutions, such as asylums, orphanages, 
 and hospitals, and some of the orders have 
 large schools attached to them. The number 
 of Roman Catholics all over the world is about 
 
 ! two hundred and twenty million. The growth 
 of the Roman church in the United States in 
 recent years has been rapid, owing to immigra- 
 tion. The church has over eight million ad- 
 herents in this country. Since the Vatican 
 Council of 1870, when Pius IX. put forth the 
 doctrine of the infallibility of the pope, the
 
 556 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 utterances of the pontiff have been taken as the 
 groundwork of the faith and practice of the 
 church. His pronouncements are regarded as 
 infallible when he defines a doctrine regarding 
 faith and morals to be held by the whole church. 
 The work of the church in the world is directed 
 immediately by the bishops, who receive their 
 jurisdiction from the pope. The power in- 
 herent in the Episcopal character and order is 
 received from God directly and immediately. 
 When established in a diocese by the pope, the 
 bishop, by virtue of his title, receives the power 
 of governing and of taking cognizance of all 
 spiritual causes which regard his flock, whether 
 laymen or ecclesiastics, with the exception of 
 what is specially reserved to the head of the 
 church, and he possesses and exercises these 
 prerogatives under the jurisdiction of and in 
 dependence on the pope. 
 
 The Reformation, term universally ap- 
 plied by Protestants denoting change from Ro- 
 man Catholic to the Protestant religion , which 
 was originated in Germany by Luther, A. D. 151 7, 
 but had been begun in England by Wycliffe, and 
 was afterwards completed by Henry VIII., who 
 assumed the title of " Head of the Church." 
 
 Luther's conflict with the Church of Rome 
 began when he boldly attacked the doctrine 
 of indulgences. The proclamation of indul- 
 gences was not new in Germany, nor was oppo- 
 sition to it on the part of the people and of 
 both civil and ecclesiastical authorities new. 
 The struggle was precipitated, however, when 
 Albert of Brandenburg appointed John Tetzel, 
 of Leipsic, a learned and eloquent Dominican, 
 to preach the indulgences among the people. 
 . New opposition at once broke out, and Luther 
 took the lead. He drew up his objections in 
 the shape of ninety-five propositions, which 
 he fastened to the door of the Castle church at 
 Wittenberg, on All Saints' Eve (Oct. 31, 1517). 
 In these he attacked the abuse, not the doc- 
 trine, of indulgences, pronouncing anathema on 
 whosoever spoke against the truth of papal 
 indulgences. Nevertheless the propositions 
 contained the germs of his future heresy and 
 gave rise to the movement known as the Prot- 
 estant Reformation. He at once gained a 
 number of adherents, among them men of 
 influence both in church and state. A. vigor- 
 ous and oftentimes exceedingly discourteous 
 controversy followed which led to Luther's 
 being summoned to Rome to defend himself. 
 At the request of the Elector Frederick, the 
 Diet of Augsburg was substituted for Rome as 
 the place of the trial, and Cardinal Cajetan, 
 papal legate, was appointed to represent the 
 pope at the Diet. Luther claimed that he had 
 said naught against the Scriptures, the doctrine 
 of the church, the decrees of popes, or reason. 
 
 In short, made a complete retraction, and fled 
 from Augsburg angry at heart. In 1520 he 
 launched out pamphlet after pamphlet assail- 
 ing in virulent terms the whole office and dig- 
 nity of the papacy, setting out that the Bible 
 was the only source of faith. These doctrines 
 caught the hearts of the multitudes. Luther 
 appealed strongly to the spirit of nationality 
 and aggrandizement. He addressed the em- 
 peror, the nobles, and the people. He urged 
 the emperor to overthrow the power of the 
 pope, confiscate the wealth of the church, 
 abolish feasts and holidays and masses for the 
 dead. On June 15, 1520, the pope issued a 
 bull specifically condemning Luther's teach- 
 ings, and excommunicating him if he refused 
 to retract within sixty days. Luther appealed 
 from the authority of the pope to a general 
 council, and publicly burned the pope's bull 
 at Wittenberg, consigning the pope himself to 
 " fire eternal." The Diet of Worms placed 
 him under the ban of the empire as a heretic, 
 but the circumstances of the time and the oppo- 
 sition of the German States rendered the edict 
 ineffective. From these beginnings the Refor- 
 mation spread throughout the German Em- 
 pire and thence to various other countries. 
 
 Christianity is based upon a new and 
 specific revelation in the person of Jesus Christ. 
 Its aim is to restore to mankind the lost fel- 
 lowship with God in an eternal kingdom, set 
 up here on earth, and called the Church, to be 
 brought to its full and perfect consummation 
 in the world to come. The foundation of a 
 Christian's faith and practice is ultimate, and, 
 in truth, the only appeal must be to the facts, 
 the doctrines, and the precepts of the Scriptures, 
 especially those of the New Testament. The 
 history of Christianity, then, is the record of 
 the facts pertaining to the nature and growth 
 of the Kingdom of God upon earth, in their 
 external and internal relations. This history 
 falls into three main divisions : Ancient, 
 Mediaeval, and Modern. The Ancient history 
 of Christianity is the narrative of the suprem- 
 acy won by the church over Greek culture 
 and the Roman Empire. It closes and the 
 Mediaeval history begins, with the epoch of 
 the Carlovingian dynasty. The Medieval com- 
 prises the victories of the church over the 
 Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonian, and Scandinavian 
 tribes in the center and north of Europe, the 
 conflicts and rupture of the eastern and western 
 branches of the church, and the contest be- 
 tween the imperial and papal powers for suprem- 
 acy. This period closes with the Reformation. 
 The Modern history recites the struggles 
 between Catholicism and Protestantism, be- 
 tween Christianity and philosophy, and the 
 growth of Protestant civilization.
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 557 
 
 The history of the vorld presents no phe- 
 nomenon so striking as the rise and early 
 progress of Christianity. Originating in a 
 country not remarkable for any political, com- 
 mercial, or literary influence, emanating from 
 One who occupied an humble sphere in the 
 community amidst which he appeared, and 
 announced in the first instance by men of 
 mean extraction, of no literary culture, and 
 not endowed with any surpassing gifts of in- 
 tellect, it nevertheless spread so rapidly that 
 in an incredibly short time it had been diffused 
 throughout the whole civilized world, and in 
 the fourth century of its existence became 
 recognized as the established religion of the 
 Roman Empire. When it is remembered that 
 this result was achieved not only without the 
 aid of any worldly influence, but in the face of 
 the keenest opposition on the part of all the 
 learning, wealth, and power of the most en- 
 lightened and mightiest nations, the conclu- 
 sion is strongly forced upon us that a power 
 beyond that of man was concerned in its suc- 
 cess, and that its early and unexampled tri- 
 umphs afford an incontestable proof of its 
 inherent truth and its divine origin. The 
 continual and steady growth of Christianity, 
 its vigorous life in spite of various seasons of 
 unavoidable ebb, and notwithstanding the 
 presence of many forms of corruption, and its 
 continual rejuvenescence, are no ordinary 
 proof of its supreme fitness for the position in 
 the world which it claims to occupy. 
 
 Harvard University, the oldest school 
 in America, was founded in 1636, six years 
 after the first settlement of Boston. The 
 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, through its 
 General Court, in that year made a grant of 
 400 pounds " to advance learning and perpet- 
 uate it to posterity," and in the following year 
 appointed twelve of the principal men in the 
 colony "to take order for a college at Xew- 
 town." Two years afterward the Rev. John 
 Harvard, a Xon-Conformist clergyman of 
 Charlestown, who the year before had gradu- 
 ated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge Uni- 
 versity, England, gave by his will the sum of 
 779 pounds, and 300 books, more than half of 
 his estate. Xine students entered the first 
 class. All of these distinguished themselves 
 in after life, one of them, Sir George Down- 
 ing, achieving the unenviable distinction of 
 serving both the Commonwealth and the king 
 in the English Revolution. John Harvard's 
 bequest was followed by other gifts, such as a 
 font of letters, books, silver spoons, cooking 
 utensils, garden tools, and others, varying in 
 value from 3 shillings to 200. The first 
 gift of real estate was two and one half acres of 
 land given by the town of Cambridge, thereby 
 
 changing the nominal location from Xewtown 
 to Cambridge. The General Court, in lieu of 
 the money it had promised, granted to Har- 
 vard College the right of ferry between Charles- 
 town and Boston. In 1642, the board of 
 overseers, consisting of the governor and dep- 
 uty governor of the colony, the magistrates 
 then in jurisdiction, the president of the col- 
 lege, and the teaching elders, was constituted; 
 In 1643 the present seal of the University and 
 its motto, " Christoet Ecclesise," was adopted. 
 The college charter was granted in 1650, and 
 the college corporation created. In 1653 Rev. 
 Henry Dunster, the first president, fell under 
 suspicion of favoring the Anti-paedo Baptists 
 and as a consequence was indicted by the 
 grand jury for disturbing the ordinance of in- 
 fant baptism in the Cambridge church. He 
 was tried, convicted, and besides being com- 
 pelled to resign, and being laid under bonds 
 for good behavior, was sentenced to receive 
 an admonition once a year. Previous to this, 
 Nathaniel Eaton, the first person in charge of 
 the institution, was dismissed for beating his 
 usher. The presidents in succession, with 
 their terms of office, have been as follows : 
 Henry Dunster, 1640-1654; Charles Chauncy, 
 1654-1672; Leonard Hoar, 1672-1675; Urian 
 Oakes, acting president, 1675-1679 ; president, 
 1679-1681; John Rogers, 1682-1684 ; Increase 
 Mather, acting president, 1685-1686 ; rector, 
 1686-1692 ; president, 1692-1701 ; Charles 
 Morton, vice-president, 1697-1698 ; Samuel 
 Willard, vice-president, 1700-1707 ; John 
 Leverett, 1707-1724 ; Benjamin Wadsworth, 
 1725-1737; Edward Holyoke, 1737-1769; 
 Samuel Locke, 1770-1773 ; Samuel Langdon, 
 1774-1780; Joseph Willard, 1781-1804 ; Sam- 
 uelWebber, 1806-1810 ; John Thornton Kirk- 
 land, 1810-1828 ; Josiah Quincy, 1829-1845; 
 Edward Everett, 1846-1849; Jared Sparks, 
 1849-1853; James Walker, 1853-1860; Cor- 
 nelius Conway Felton, 1860-1862; Thomas 
 Hill, 1862-1868 ; Charles William Eliot, 1869 
 to the present time. 
 
 During the term of the second president, a 
 hall, costing 350, was erected, for the pur- 
 pose of giving instruction to Indians, but 
 one Indian only applied for admittance and was 
 graduated by the college. Before this, a single 
 building had served all the purposes of the col- 
 lege. All the college halls that were erected after 
 this during the seventeenth century were sub- 
 sequently razed or destroyed, so that the oldest 
 building now standing on the Harvard yard is 
 Massachusetts Hall, erected in 1720. Harvard 
 College, from that time on, prospered, and now 
 has property and endowment aggregating 
 almost fifteen million dollars. The University 
 is divided into the following departments, with
 
 558 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 sepai -tte faculties or board of administration : 
 Harvard College, Lawrence Scientific School, 
 Graduate School, Divinity School, Law School, 
 Medical School, Dental School, School of Veter- 
 inary Medicine, Bussey Institution (a school of 
 agriculture), Arnold Arboretum, University 
 Library, Museum of Comparative Zoology, 
 University Museum, Botanic Garden, Herba- 
 rium, Astronomical Observatory, Peflbody Mu- 
 seum of American Archeology and Ethnology. 
 Radcliffe College, formerly known as the Har- 
 vard Annex for women, though intimately con- 
 nected with the University, is still a separate 
 institution. The degrees granted by the Uni- 
 versity are : Bachelor of arts, of agricultural 
 science, of divinity, of laws, of science, mas- 
 ter of arts, and doctor of philosophy, science, 
 laws, medicine, veterinary medicine, and den- 
 tistry. Since the foundation of Harvard Col- 
 lege, nearly twenty thousand students, in all, 
 have been graduated, of whom some eleven 
 thousand are alive. 
 
 Yale University was founded in 1701 by 
 the Revs. John Pierrepont, Andrew, and 
 Russel, of Branford and Milford, three grad- 
 uates of Harvard, assisted by Cotton and 
 Increase Mather, Eleazor Kimberly, John 
 Eliot, and the judges of the General Court 
 then in session at New Haven. The first gift 
 to the projected school consisted of books from 
 the libraries of each of the three founders, and 
 of 637 acres of wild land given by Major James j 
 Fitch, who also agreed to furnish, without 
 cost, the glass and nails for the college house, i 
 The trustees first placed the school at Saybrook, i 
 provided for a baccalaureate course of three 
 years, with three further years for the mas- i 
 ter's degree, and fixed the price of tuition at 
 thirty shillings for undergraduates and ten 
 shillings for graduates. The first degree was 
 given to Nathaniel Chauncy, who passed all 
 examinations, after mere private study. In 
 1717 the college was removed to the town of 
 New Haven, which had offered 2,000 and 
 eight acres, but, owing to the division between 
 the trustees concerning the best site, some of 
 the students went to Saybrook, others to East 
 Guilford, others to Wethersfield and Hartford, 
 and others again to New Haven, accord- j 
 ing to their preferences and those of their J 
 tutors. As a consequence, two commence- 
 ments were held in 1717, one at Wethersfield 
 and one at New Haven. The controversy was 
 ended by the gift of Elihu Yale, the former 
 governor of Madras, whose official conduct and j 
 rapid acquisition of wealth had led to his 
 recall to England. Cotton Mather wrote to | 
 him for help, promising the adoption of his 
 name by the new college, and Governor 
 Yale accordingly sent to New Haven three , 
 
 bales of goods, a portrait of George I., the 
 royal coat of arms, and a box of books. In 
 1721 Elihu Yale died, leaving 500 to the 
 school that bore his name ; but for certain rea- 
 sons the will could not be probated, and the 
 money was lost to the college. In 1722, Rec- 
 tor Cutler and several of the tutors changed 
 their faith from the Congregational church to 
 the Episcopal church, which led to their 
 enforced resignation. Asa consequence there 
 ensued an interregnum of three years, during 
 which the college was without rector or proper 
 instruction. At the end of this period the 
 charter was amended. In 1729 the college 
 received valuable gifts from Bishop Berkeley, 
 the philosopher, and in 1752 Benjamin Frank- 
 lin added a collection of books. By a new 
 charter of 1744, the Collegiate School became 
 Yale College. During the War of the Revo- 
 lution, the college was twice suspended. When 
 Washington came to New Haven the students 
 formed a company, and, with Noah Webster 
 as their cornet, gave Washington the first mil- 
 itary escort in New England. Commencements 
 were not resumed until 1781. Professional 
 schools were added during the presidency of 
 Day. Advanced instruction for graduates was 
 begun in 1847. The first degrees in philos- 
 ophy were given three years later. The Shef- 
 field Scientific School was organized in 1859. 
 The Art School, succeeding the Trumbull Ark 
 Gallery, was erected in 1864, with the Peabody 
 Museum and Conservatory of Music following 
 shortly afterward. 
 
 The rectors and presidents all clergymen, 
 the first six of whom were Harvard graduates, 
 all the rest graduating from Yale have been : 
 Abraham Pierson, 1701-1707; Samuel An- 
 drew, 1707-1719 ; Timothy Cutler, 1719-1722 ; 
 Samuel Andres, 1724-1725 ; Elisha Williams, 
 1725-1739 ; Thomas Clapp, 1739-176<i : Xnph- 
 tali Daggett, 1766-1777; Ezra Styles, 1777- 
 1795 ; Timothy Dwight, 1795-1817*; Jeremiah 
 Day, 1817-1846 ; Theodore D. VToolsev, 1846- 
 1871; Noah Porter, 1871-1886; Timothy 
 Dwight, 1886-1899 ; Arthur T. Hadley, LL.D., 
 1899-. The University comprises four depart- 
 ments, each under a distinct faculty, to wit : 
 Philosophy and art, theology, medicine, and 
 law. The first embrace* the academical de- 
 partment of Yale College, with the Sheffield 
 Scientific School, Graduate School, and the 
 School of Fine Arts and Music, each with its 
 own organization and corps of instructors. The 
 library, Peahody Museum, and observatory 
 have independent organizations. The degrees 
 are: B.A.. B.S., M.A., B.D., LL.B., Ph.B., 
 C.E., M.E.. M.I)., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., 
 with further degrees in fine arts and music. 
 In all departments, nearly seventeen thousand
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 559 
 
 alumni have been graduated, of whom more 
 than ten thousand are living. 
 
 Princeton University. The first char- 
 ter was granted in 1746, and the second, mak- 
 ing the trustees a self-perpetuating body, in 
 1748. The college was opened at Elizabeth- 
 town, near Xe\v York, with Rev. Jonathan Dick- 
 inson as president, and was removed to New- 
 ark, and soon afterward, in 1753, to Princeton. 
 During the next two years Nassau Hall was 
 erected. Though this hall has twice been dam- 
 aged by fires, in 1802 and 1855, it still stands. 
 The presidents have been : Jonathan Dickin- 
 son, 1747 ; Aaron Burr, 1748-1757 ; Jonathan 
 Edwards, 1757-1758 ; Samuel Davies, 1759- 
 1761 ; Samuel Finley, 1701-1766 ; John With- 
 erspoon, 1768-1794 ; Samuel Stanhope Smith, 
 1795-1812 ; Ashbel Green, 1812-1822 ; James 
 Carnaha'n, 1823-1854 ; John MacLean, 1854- 
 1868 ; James McCosh, 1868-1888 ; Francis Lan- 
 dey Patton, S.T.D., LL.D., 1888, to the pres- 
 ent. The Green School of Science was added 
 in 1873, and a department of engineering in 
 1875. The sesqui centennial of the college 
 was celebrated in 1896, which marked a mate- 
 rial increase of the endow r ment ; the trustees 
 transformed the college into a university, 
 changing its name from the College of New 
 Jersey to Princeton University. The degrees 
 conferred are: A.B., A.M., "Ph.D., L.H.D., 
 Litt.D., and LL.D. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania. Through 
 the efforts of Benjamin Franklin a fund was 
 raised in 1 749 to change Penn's Charity School, 
 begun in 1720, into an academy. It was opened 
 in 1751, and four years later received a college 
 charter. The first commencement was held in 
 1~.")7. The school languished for several years 
 so that Provost Smith had to be sent to Eng- 
 land to raise funds. He there met the com- 
 missioner of King's College, now Columbia 
 University, and they both agreed to share the 
 proceeds of their joint efforts, some six thou- 
 sand pounds. After his return Provost Smith 
 sided with the "War Party," and was cast 
 into prison for publishing an alleged libelous 
 pamphlet against the Assembly. While in 
 jail he continued to give lectures to his classes, 
 but in 1759 was compelled to flee to England, 
 where he was received with great honor, and 
 made a doctor by Oxford University. He re- 
 turned after a peaceful settlement of his dif- 
 ferences with the Assembly with twenty 
 thousand pounds funds for the college. In 1791 
 the college w r as amalgamated with the new 
 school, which was the first to be called a uni- 
 versity in this country. The Medical School 
 dates from 1765. A German school was added 
 in 1785, and a law school in 1790. The col- 
 lege continued as an old fashioned classical 
 
 college until 1868, when the elective system 
 was introduced. In 1872 the Department of 
 Arts was reorganized, and the Department of 
 Science, known as the Towne Scientific School, 
 was established. In 1877 a department of 
 music, and in 1878 one of dentistry were 
 added. The provosts and presidents have 
 been : Benjamin Franklin, 1749-1756 ; Rich- 
 a-rd Peters, 1756-J764; James Hamilton, 1764; 
 John Penn, 1764-1771 ; James Hamilton, 
 1771-1773 ; Richard Penn, 1773-1774 ; John 
 Penn, 1774-1779 ; Benjamin Franklin, 1789- 
 1790; William White, 1790-1791; John 
 Ewing, 1791-1802; John McDowell, 1802- 
 1810; Dr. Andrews, 1810-1813; Frederick 
 Beaseley, 1813-1828; William H. DeLancey, 
 1828-1833; John Ludlow, 1833-1853; Henry 
 Vethake, 1853-1860; Daniel R. Goodwin, 
 1860-1868; Charles J. Stille, 1868-1880; 
 Charles C. Harrison, LL.D., the present in- 
 cumbent. 
 
 The University buildings, twenty-two in 
 number, are situated on forty-eight acres of 
 ground in West Philadelphia. The General 
 Library, containing more than 150,000 vol- 
 umes and 50,000 pamphlets, contains a num- 
 ber of private collections. The most notable 
 of these are the Colwell collection, one of the 
 most complete finance libraries in the world, 
 and the Bechstein Library containing 15,000 
 books on German philology and literature. 
 The Museum of Archaeology and Paleontology 
 contains collections of American, Asiatic, and 
 Egyptian antiquities of great value. Its 
 Babylonia collection is declared to rank equal 
 with those of the British Museum and the 
 Louvre. Houston Hall, a clubhouse for stu- 
 dents, was finished in 1896, and has proved a 
 valuable aid to college discipline. The usual 
 academic and technical degrees are conferred. 
 Cornell University was incorporated by 
 the Legislature of the State of New York, 
 April 27, 1865, and opened October 7, 1868. 
 The existence of the University is due to the 
 combined bounty of the United States, the 
 state of New York, and Ezra Cornell. Ezra 
 
 | Cornell's wish was to found an institution 
 where any person could find instruction in anj 
 study ; while the state stipulated that the col- 
 lege should be strictly non-sectarian, and that 
 it should annually receive from each Assem- 
 bly district of the state, one student free of 
 charge. The first gift of Ezra Cornell was 
 $500,000 with 200 acres of land. The first 
 college buildings were built by the students; 
 women were admitted, and a large dormitory 
 known as Sage College was erected for them 
 in 1872. There are no other dormitory build- 
 ings on the campus proper, the situation of 
 
 I which, on a plateau between two waterfalls,
 
 SCO 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 overlooking Cayuga Lake, and the settled val- 
 ley at its head, is unique. In 1890, after a 
 long lawsuit, the large property left to the Uni- 
 versity by Mrs. Jennie McGraw Fiske, was 
 withheld from it by a ruling of the supreme 
 court of the United States. To make up for 
 this, Henry W. Sage, a previous benefactor of 
 Cornell, gave $560,000 for the cost and en- 
 dowment of the new University Library. In 
 addition to this the University has received 
 other large benefactions. The presidents have 
 been: Andrew D. White, 1865-1885; Charles 
 K. Adams, 1885-1890; Jacob Gould Schur- 
 man, 1890 to the present. 
 
 Columbia University. King's College, 
 as Columbia University was formerly called, 
 was founded in 1754, under royal charter. 
 The college was established on a grant of land 
 known as the King's Farm, the property of 
 Trinity Church overlooking the Hudson river. 
 It was then declared by travelers to have the 
 finest site of any college in the world. In 
 1857 it was removed to a block between 49th 
 and 50th streets, New York city, overlooking 
 the East river. From the beginning this loca- 
 tion was regarded as temporary. The present 
 site on Morningside Heights, between 116th 
 and 120th streets, was the field of the battle 
 of Harlem. It overlooks the Hudson river on 
 one side, and north New York on the other, 
 and is once more declared to be one of the 
 finest sites in the world. The original charter 
 made the college non-sectarian. The first 
 class w 7 as graduated in 1760 with eight stu- 
 dents. During the Revolutionary war instruc- 
 tion had to be suspended, the president of the 
 college, a royalist, having been forced to flee to 
 England. Names and terms of the presidents 
 are as follows : Samuel Johnson, 1754-1763; 
 Myles Cooper, 1763-1775 ; Benjamin Moore, 
 1775-1776; William Samuel Johnson, 1787- 
 1800; Charles H. Wharton, 1801; Benjamin 
 Moore, 1801-1811; William Harris, 1811- 
 1829; William Alexander Duer, 1829-1842; 
 Nathaniel F. Moore, 1842-1849; Charles 
 King. 1849-1864; Frederick A. P. Barnard, 
 1864-1889 ; Seth Low, LL.D., 1890-. 
 
 A medical faculty was established in King's 
 College in 1767 and consisted at first of six 
 professors. In 1860 the College of Physicians 
 and Surgeons became the medical department 
 of Columbia University. Instruction in law 
 was given in 1793. The School of Mines, now 
 the School of Applied Science, through the 
 efforts of Thomas Eggleston, was founded in 
 1863. In 1880 a School of Political Science 
 was opened. Barnard College, where instruc- 
 tion is given to women, was founded in 1889. 
 The School of Philosophy was established in 
 1890, and that of Pure Science in 1892. The 
 
 degrees conferred in the various schools are, 
 B.A., B.S., LL.B., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., 
 L.H.D., and LL.D. 
 
 Catholic University of America was 
 
 founded in 1884 after a gift by Miss Caldwell 
 of $300,000 to the American Episcopate. 
 From 1889 to 1895 its educational activity was 
 confined to the School of Divinity. In 1895, 
 after the pope had expressed a hope that the 
 University might be able to adapt its work to 
 modern educational needs in a wider sense, 
 schools of philosophy and the social sciences 
 were opened, with departments of philosophy, 
 letters, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biol- 
 ogy, technology, sociology, economics, polit- 
 ical science, and law. During the last few 
 years twelve chairs for the teaching of the arts 
 and sciences have been endowed by individuals. 
 The University is governed by seventeen di- 
 rectors and a chancellor, who is at present 
 Cardinal Gibbons of Baltimore. With the 
 directors, who are for the most part prom- 
 inent members of the Catholic clergy, are as- 
 sociated by virtue of their office all the 
 Catholic archbishops in the country. The 
 School of Divinity grants baccalaureate, licen- 
 tiate, and the doctor's degrees; the School of 
 Philosophy confers degrees in letters and 
 philosophy ; the School of Social Science, de- 
 grees of B.A. and M.A. ; the Law School, 
 degrees of LL.B., LL.M., D.C.L., J.C.D., 
 J.U.D., and LL.D. ; while in the Institute of 
 Technology, degrees in civil, electrical, and 
 mechanical engineering, with corresponding 
 master's degrees are conferred. The present 
 rector is Very Reverend Thos. J. Conaty, 
 D.D., J.C.D. 
 
 University of California was instituted 
 by a law which received the approval of the 
 governor, March 23, 1868. Instruction was 
 begun iu Oakland in the autumn of 1869. 
 The commencement exercises of 1873 were 
 held at Berkeley, July 16, when the University 
 was formally transferred to its permanent 
 home. Instruction began at Berkeley in the 
 autumn of 1873. The new constitution of 
 1879 made the existing organization of the 
 University perpetual. The College of Califor- 
 nia, which had been organized several years 
 before the University, transferred its property 
 and students upon terms which were mutually 
 agreed upon, and closed its work of instruction 
 in 1869. It had been incorporated in 1855, 
 and through its agency a part of the Oakland 
 property of the University, and the Berkeley 
 site now owned and occupied by the latter, 
 were secured ; a domain of about two hundred 
 and fifty acres, situated on the slope of the 
 Contra Costa hills, about five miles from Oak- 
 land, facing the Golden Gate. The under-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FIXE ARTS. 
 
 561 
 
 graduate colleges were the only ones actually 
 iacluded in the original organization. The 
 
 professional colleges in San Francisco have 
 been added from time to time. The Lick Ob- 
 servatory was formally transferred to the Uni- 
 versity in June, 1888. The Mark Hopkins 
 Institute of Art, in 1803. The University com- 
 prises the following departments : College of 
 Letters, College of Social Sciences, College of 
 Natural Sciences, College of AgricuHure, Col- 
 lege of Mechanics, College of Mining, College 
 of Civil Engineering, College of Chemistry, 
 Lick Astronomical Department, Mark Hop- 
 kins Institute of Art, Hastings College of Law, 
 Medical Department, Post Graduate Medical 
 Department, College of Dentistry, and Cali- 
 fornia College of Pharmacy. The curricula 
 of the various departments lead to degrees ol 
 B.A., B.L., U.S., M.A., C.E., D.D.S., D.V.S., 
 LL.B., M.S., M.E., M.D., Ph.G., Ph.B., and 
 Ph.D. The president is Benjamin Ide Wheeler, 
 Ph.D., LL.D. 
 
 University of Chicago. The first Uni- 
 versity of Chicago was founded in 1857, by + le 
 Baptist Society of Chicago, and was presided 
 over for many years by the Rev. Dr. Bur- 
 roughs. In 1880 its doors were closed, owing 
 to lack of funds. Its successor, the present 
 University of Chicago, was founded by John 
 D. Rockefeller, who subscribed $600,000 of its 
 original endowment fund of one million dol- 
 lars, to which he afterward added three and a 
 half million dollars in bonds. The original 
 site, valued at $1:25,000, was given by Mar- 
 shall Field, who also gave 8100,000 in money. 
 More than one million dollars for new schools 
 and buildings have since been donated or be- 
 queathed to the University. A president for 
 the University, AVilliam R. Harper, Ph.D., 
 LL.D., was elected in the spring of 1891. 
 Work on the new buildings began in the au- 
 tumn of the same year. On October 1, 189:2, 
 the new school opened its doors to some six 
 hundred students. Cobb Lecture Hall and 
 two dormitories for graduates were the only 
 buildings then ready for use. Since that time 
 fifteen of the projected forty-two buildings 
 have been erected, while the number of stu- 
 dents has risen to over two thousand. The 
 University includes five divisions : the uni- 
 versity proper ; the university extension ; the 
 university libraries, laboratories, and museums ; 
 the university press ; the university affiliations. 
 The university proper includes: the Gradu- 
 ate School of Arts and Literature, the Ogden j 
 School of Science, the Divinity School, the j 
 School of Law. School of Medicine, the School , 
 of Technology, the School of Fine Arts, and 
 i he School of Music ; the colleges of arts, lit- 
 erature, and science. 
 
 Iceland Stanford, Jr., University was 
 
 founded in 1884, by Leland Stanford and Jane 
 | Lathrop Stanford, who determined to found a 
 university for both sexes, and with all colleges, 
 schools, seminaries, institutes, museums, and 
 collections appropriate thereto. In the follow- 
 ing year the Legislature of California passed 
 an authorizing act, and in 1885 the grant was 
 made. The corner stone was laid in 1887, at 
 Palo Alto, some three miles from the sea, near 
 the Monte Diable Mountain, thirty-three miles 
 from San Francisco. David Starr Jordan, the 
 present president, was installed in 1891. The 
 suit for fifteen million dollars or the original 
 endowment, between the University and the 
 federal Government, was decided in the Uni- 
 versity's favor, in 1895. An additional en- 
 dowment was made by deed of Jane Lathrop 
 Stanford, amounting to more than ten million 
 dollars, in 1899. In the same year the num- 
 ber of women to be admitted to the University 
 in any one year was restricted to five hundred. 
 The University is governed by twenty-four trus- 
 tees chosen for life. The various courses of 
 instruction lead to the degrees : B. A., B.S., 
 and C.E., while the degrees M.A., M.E., and 
 Ph.D. are conferred after resident post gradu- 
 ate work. No honorary degrees are conferred. 
 University of Virginia was the first 
 State University established in this country. 
 Thomas Jefferson, after great opposition from 
 all other Virginia colleges, founded the Uni- 
 versity in 1819. It was then united with Cen- 
 tral College, and, after full acceptance of Jeffer- 
 son's original plans, opened its doors to students 
 in 1825. The University buildings were fin- 
 ished by Italian sculptors, whom Jefferson had 
 imported. Dr. Thomas Cooper, the first pro- 
 fessor of the new university, by reason of his 
 heterodox views, was forced to resign immedi- 
 ately after his election, to Jefferson's great 
 chagrin. The founder thereupon turned to 
 Europe for new material, calling no less than 
 four professors from England. In 1824 the 
 new school was visited by George Ticknor of 
 Harvard College, who is believed to have there 
 assimilated the reforms in regard to discipline 
 and elective study, which were afterward intro- 
 duced by him at Harvard. Two years later, 
 Thomas Jefferson died, after having had sole 
 charge of the University for one year as its first 
 rector. He was buried on the roadside of the 
 highway leading from his house to the Univer- 
 sity, and his grave is marked by a monument, 
 erected by Congress, bearing the inscription : 
 " Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author 
 of the declaration of American independence, 
 of the statute of Virginia for religious free- 
 dom, and father of the University of Virginia. 
 Born April 2, 1743, o. s. Died July 4, 1826."
 
 562 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 After Jefferson's death, the University be- 
 came heavily indebted, until the state legisla- 
 lature freed its annual appropriation from all 
 incumbrances. A medical school was added 
 in 1827, which has since been enlarged by 
 schools of medical jurisprudence, of surgery, 
 and anatomy. In 1851 the Law School was 
 created, followed in 1856, by the two schools of 
 language and of history, the last of which was 
 endowed with $50,000 by W. W. Corcoran. 
 A school of technology was added in 1867, 
 followed in 1870 by the establishment of a 
 school of agriculture, on Samuel Miller's en- 
 dowment of $100,000. An astronomical ob- 
 servatory was given by Leander J. McCormick 
 in 1882. Connected with it was Professor 
 Sylvester, the famous mathematician. During 
 the war, instruction in the University was sus- 
 pended. In October, 1895, the Rotunda and 
 Annex built by Jefferson were destroyed by fire, 
 including many books and works of art. Since 
 that time sufficient funds have been raised 
 among the alumni to restore these buildings, 
 and to erect a public hall, physical and chemi- 
 cal laboratories, costing in all, $250,000. The 
 Rotunda, henceforth, is to be used for library 
 purposes only. 
 
 Westminster Palace was erected in 1840 
 on' the site of the old houses of Parliament, 
 which were destroyed by fire in 1834. it is 
 900 feet long by 300 feet wide, is built of 
 limestone from the Yorkshire quarries, and 
 cost about $8,000.000. The palace contains 
 the House of Lords and the House of Com- 
 mons, which are separated by an octagonal 
 hall with a diameter of 70 feet. . The House 
 of Lords is 100 feet long, 45 feet wide, and 45 
 feet high. The room is profusely decorated, 
 and in niches between the windows are statues 
 of barons who signed the Magna Charta 
 eighteen in number. The gorgeous gilt and 
 canopied throne which is occupied by the 
 Queen when she opens Parliament is in this 
 room, as is also the wool-sack a large, square 
 bag of wool covered with red cloth of the 
 Chancellor of Great Britain. The House of 
 Commons is not as handsome as the House of 
 Lords in the matter of decorations, and is not 
 so long, but is the same height and width. 
 The palace also contains a number of other 
 rooms, among which are the Queen's robing 
 room, the guard room, the libraries, commit- 
 tee rooms, etc. In the center of the edifice, 
 above what is known as the Octagon Hall, is a 
 tower 300 feet high. At the southwest corner 
 is the Victoria tower, 346 feet high. At the 
 northwest corner is the clock tower, which is 
 surmounted by a belfry spire 320 feet high. 
 In this tower is a clock with four faces, each 
 30 feet in diameter, and the hours are struck 
 
 on a bell called "Big Ben," which weighs 
 nine tons. At the southwestern extremity of 
 the building is the state entrance of the Queen, 
 which communicates directly with what are 
 known as the royal apartments. The entrance 
 to the Octagon Hall is by a passage known as 
 Saint Stephen's Hall, which communicates 
 also with Westminster Hall, a much older 
 building, on the north. 
 
 West Point Academy. Each Congres- 
 sional District and Territory, also the District 
 of Columbia, is entitled to have one cadet at 
 the United States Military Academy at West 
 Point, the cadet to be named by the represent- 
 ative in Congress. There are also ten ap- 
 pointments at large, specially conferred by the 
 President of the United States. The number 
 of students is thus limited to 344. The course 
 of instruction, which is quite thorough, re- 
 quires four years, and is largely mathematical 
 and professional. The discipline is very strict 
 even more so than in the army and the 
 enforcement of penalties for offenses is inflexi- 
 ble rather than severe. Academic duties be- 
 gin September 1st and continue until June 1st. 
 From the middle of June to the end of August 
 cadets live in camps, engaged only in military 
 duties, and receiving practical military instruc- 
 tion. Cadets are allowed but one leave of 
 absence during the four years' course, and this 
 is granted at the expiration of the second year. 
 The pay of a cadet is $540 a year. Upon 
 graduation, cadets are commissioned as second 
 lieutenants in the United States Army. 
 
 Music. The cradle of music was Egypt. 
 The Hebrews took with them to Palestine the 
 songs they had learned there, and many of 
 the hymns of the early Christian Church were 
 necessarily old Temple melodies. Ambrose, 
 Archbishop of Milan (374), and after him 
 Pope Gregory the Great (590), were the fathers 
 of music in the Western Church. Harmonies 
 were introduced in the ninth century ; the 
 present musical notation was invented by Guido 
 Aretino (ft. 1055) ; counterpoint was perfected 
 by the Belgian Josquin Despres (<1. 1521), and 
 the Italian Palestrina (1555) ; and Italian 
 opera was founded ir. 1600. The influence of 
 the Italian school spread all over Europe ; but 
 in the sixteenth century England had a na- 
 tional school of her own, comprising such 
 names as Tallis, F arrant, and Orlando Gib- 
 bons. Among the great composers of the 
 seventeenth century were Monteverde in Italy, 
 Lully in France, and Purcell in England. In 
 the eighteenth century music made enormous 
 advances, especially in Germany. Church 
 music attained to its highest development 
 j under Bach, the oratorio under Handel (1685- 
 1.1759), the opera under Mozart and Gluck,
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FIXE ARTS. 
 
 563 
 
 and orchestral music under Haydn and Bee- 
 thoven (1770-1827). The nineteenth century 
 has been illustrated by such names as Men- 
 delssohn, Weber, Meyerbeer, Auber, Schubert, 
 Spohr, Schumann, Chopin, Rossini, Bellini, 
 Verdi ; and in England, Sterndale, Bennett, 
 and Macfarren. Of the later German school 
 
 the chief exponents have been Wagner 
 (1813-'83) and Liszt (<l. 1886). Other lead- 
 ing composers are Gounod, in France ; Boito, 
 in Italy ; Rubinstein and Brahms, in Ger- 
 many ; Dvorak, in Bohemia ; Grieg, in Scan- 
 dinavia, and Sullivan, Mackenzie, Stanford, 
 and Cowen, in England. 
 
 The Xame of God in Forty-Eight Languages. 
 
 Hebrew Eleah, 
 
 Jehovah 
 
 French 
 
 Dieu 
 
 Slav 
 
 . . . Buch 
 
 Chaldaic 
 
 . . . Eiliah 
 
 Spanish.. 
 
 Dios 
 
 Polish 
 
 Boa* 
 
 Assyrian 
 
 Eleah 
 
 Portuguese. . . 
 
 
 
 
 Syrian and Turkish 
 
 Alah 
 
 Old German 
 
 . Diet 
 
 
 
 Malay 
 
 Alia 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arabic 
 
 ... Allah 
 
 Low Breton 
 
 
 
 As 
 
 Languages of the Magi . . 
 
 Orsi 
 
 Italian 
 
 Dio 
 
 Zemblian 
 
 Fetiza 
 
 Old Egyptian 
 
 Teut 
 
 Irish 
 
 Dia 
 
 Pannonian 
 
 Istu 
 
 
 . . Teuti 
 
 Olotu tongue 
 
 Deu 
 
 Hindoostanee 
 
 Rain 
 
 Modern Kgyptian 
 
 ... Teun 
 
 German and Swiss . ... 
 
 Gott 
 
 Coromandel . 
 
 
 Greek . 
 
 Theos 
 
 Flemish 
 
 . ...God 
 
 Tartar 
 
 .. Mairatai 
 
 Cretan ... 
 
 ....Thios 
 
 Dutch 
 
 God 
 
 Persian 
 
 Sire 
 
 
 . . Ilos 
 
 English 
 
 God 
 
 Chinese 
 
 
 
 .. .Deus 
 
 Teutonic 
 
 .Goth 
 
 Japanese 
 
 
 
 Diex 
 
 Danish and Swedish 
 
 Gud 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 Zannar 
 
 Celtic Gaelic 
 
 Diu 
 
 Norwegian 
 
 Gud 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 Puchecammae 
 
 The Salvation Army. The Salvation 
 Army is a missionary organization set on foot 
 in England by William Booth, who was called 
 the "General" of the Army. The plan of 
 operation is for a company to march about 
 cities, towns, and villages, singing popular 
 sacred songs and speaking between whiles for 
 about five minutes. The Army has also a large 
 number of religious periodicals and small books. 
 Air. Booth was a minister of the Methodist N^\v 
 Connexion, which he left in 1861 to begin " re- 
 vivalistic services " in a tent in Whitechapel. 
 In 1865 his little band of followers called them- 
 selves " The East London Christian Revival 
 Society," afterwards changed to " The Chris- 
 tian Mission." In 1869 the Mission made ex- 
 peditions to provincial towns. Lastly, in 1873, 
 the name was changed to "The Salvation 
 Army." Its literary organ, called The Cltrixtitm 
 Mi.i.-tiim, first appeared monthly in 1874. In 
 1879 it was called The S<i!r<itii,n!xt and in the 
 same year its title was changed into The War 
 Cry. Its flag now flies in thirty-four countries 
 or colonies, where, under the leadership of 
 11,149 men and women, whose lives are 
 entirely given tip to the work, 49,800 religious 
 meetings are held every w r eek. The Army has 
 27 weekly newspapers and 15 magazines, with 
 a total annual circulation of 49,015,044. It 
 has accumulated 84,015,085 worth of property, 
 pays rentals amounting to 1. 100, 000 per an- 
 num for its meeting places, and has a total in- 
 come from all sources of 83.750,000. The 
 Army literature is issued in 15 languages and 
 services are held in 29 languages. The num- 
 ber of local officers, bandsmen, and office em- 
 ployees is 23,540. The United States branch 
 was established in 1880. There are now in 
 
 ' this country 536 corps and outposts and 1,487 
 l officers, and 15,000 adherents. The value of 
 the property held by the United States wing of 
 the Army is 8175,000. 
 
 United States Xaval Academy at 
 Annapolis. There are allowed at the Acad- 
 emy one naval cadet for each member or 
 delegate of the United States House of Repre- 
 sentatives, one for the District of Columbia, 
 and ten at large. The appointment of cadets 
 at large, and for the District of Columbia, is 
 made by the President. The Secretary of the 
 Navy, as soon after March 5 in each year as 
 possible, must notify in writing each member 
 and delegate of the House of Representatives 
 of any vacancy that may exist in his district. 
 The nomination of a candidate to fill the vacancy 
 is made on the recommendation of the member 
 or delegate, by the Secretary. Candidates 
 must be actual residents of the districts from 
 which they are nominated. 
 
 The course of naval cadets is six years, the 
 last two of which are spent at sea. Candidates, 
 at the time of their examination for admission, 
 must not be under fifteen nor over twenty 
 years of age, and physically sound, well formed, 
 and of robust condition. They enter the 
 Academy immediately after passing the pre- 
 scribed examinations, and are required to sign 
 articles binding themselves to serve in the 
 United States Navy eight years (including the 
 time of probation at the Naval Academy), un- 
 less sooner discharged. The pay of a naval 
 cadet is five hundred dollars a year, beginning 
 at the date of admission. 
 
 Appointments to fill all vacancies that occur 
 during a year in the lower grades of the Line 
 and Engineer Corps of the Navy and of the
 
 564 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Marine Corps are made from the naval cadets, 
 graduates of the year, at the conclusion of 
 their six years' course, in the order of merit as 
 determined by the Academic Board of the 
 Naval Academy. At least ten appointments 
 from such graduates are made each year. 
 Surplus graduates who do not receive such 
 appointments are given a certificate of gradua- 
 tion, an honorable discharge, and one year's 
 sea pay. 
 
 The Academy was founded in 1845, by the 
 Hon. George Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy 
 in the administration of President Polk. It 
 was formally opened October 10th of that 
 year, with Commander Franklin Buchanan as 
 superintendent. During the civil war it was 
 removed from Annapolis, Md., to Newport, 
 R. I., but was returned to the former place in 
 1865. It is under the direct supervision of 
 the Navy Department. 
 
 Royal Academy. 
 
 1'resident Sir Edward John Poynter. Keeper E. Crofts 
 rick A. Eaton. Registrar G. McLean. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMICIANS. 
 
 1891 
 
 Treasurer J. C. Horsley. Secretary Frede- 
 
 1808 Abbey, Edwin Austin. 
 
 1898 Aitcliison, George. 
 
 1879 Alma-Tadema, Lawrence. 
 
 1879 Armstead, Henry Haugh. 
 
 1896 Boughton, George Henry. 
 
 1891 Brock, Thomas. 
 
 1867 Cooper, Thomas Sidney. 
 
 1896 Crofts, Ernest. 
 
 1877 Davis, Henry Win. Banks. 
 
 1891 Dicksee, Frank. 
 
 1887 Fildes, S. Luke. 
 
 1895 Ford, Edward Onslow. 
 
 1893 Gilbert, Alfred M. V. O. 
 
 1863 Goodall, Frederick. 
 
 Gow, Andrew Carrick. 
 1881 Graham, Peter. 
 1898 Gregory, Edward John. 
 1890 Herkomer, Hubert, 
 I860 Hook, James Clarke. 
 1896 Jackson, Thomas Graham. 
 
 1898 Leader, Benj. Williams. 
 
 1876 Leslie, George Dunlop. 
 1898 Lucas, John Seymour. 
 1893 MacWhirter, John. 
 
 1877 Orchardson, Wm. Quilter. 
 1881 Ouless, Walter William. 
 1880 Pearson, John Lou'bor'ugh. 
 1876 Poynter, Sir Edward John. 
 
 Honorary Retired Academicians 1853, William Powell Frith ; 1857, Frederick R. Pickersgill ; 1864, Thomas 
 Faed ; 1867, George F. Watts ; 1864, John Calcott Horsley. 
 
 1894 Prinsep, Valentine C. 
 
 1895 Richmond, Sir William Blake, 
 
 K. C. B. 
 
 1881 Riviere, Briton. 
 
 1869 Sant, James. 
 
 1897 Sargent, John Singer. 
 
 1877 Shaw, Richard Norman. 
 1H87 Stone, Marcus. 
 
 1888 Thornycroft, Wm. Hamo. 
 
 1885 Waterhouse, Alfred. 
 
 1895 Waterhouse, John William. 
 
 1870 Wells, Henry Tanworth. 
 1893 Woods, Henry. 
 
 1878 Yeames, Wm. Frederick. 
 
 ASSOCIATES. 
 Hacker, Arthur. 
 Henry, Charles N. 
 Hunter, Colin. 
 La Thangue, Henry H. 
 Macbeth, Robert Walker. 
 Morris, Philip Richard. 
 Murray, David. 
 North, John W. 
 
 Bates, Harry (sculptor). 
 Blomneld, Sir Arthur William. 
 Bodley, George Frederick. 
 Bramley, Frank 
 Brett, John. 
 Clausen, George. 
 Crowe, Eyre. 
 Forbes, Stanhope A. 
 Frampton, George James. 
 
 Honorary Retired Associates Henry Le Jeune, Erskine Nicol, Frederic Stacpoole. 
 
 Presidents of the Royal Academy 1768, Sir Joshua Reynolds; 1792, Beniamin West; 1805, James Wyatt: 
 1806, Benjamin West ; 1820, Sir Thomas Lawrence ; 1830, Sir Martin A. Shee ; 1850, Sir Charles Eastlake ; 1866, Sir 
 Edwin La ndseer. elected, declined, Sir Francis Grant; 1878, Sir Frederic Leighton (Lord Leighton); 18!6, Sir 
 John Everett Millais, Bart ; 1896, Sir Edward John Poynter. 
 
 Parsons, Alfred. 
 Shannon, James J. 
 Smythe, Lionel P. 
 Solomon, J. Solomon. 
 Storey, George Adolphus. 
 Swan, John MacAllan. 
 Waterlow, Ernest Albert. 
 Wyllie, W. L. 
 
 The Se\en Bibles of the World are 
 
 the Koran of the Mohammedans, the Eddas of 
 the Scandinavians, the Try Pitikes of the 
 Buddhists, the Five Kings of the Chinese, the 
 Three Vedas of the Hindoos, the Zendavesta, 
 and the Scriptures of the Christians. The | 
 Koran is the most recent of these seven Bibles, 
 and not older than the seventh century of our I 
 era. It is a compound of quotations from the ! 
 Old and New Testaments, the Talmud, and ! 
 the Gospel of St. Barnabas. The Eddas of ! 
 the Scandinavians were first published in the 
 fourteenth century. The Pitikes of the Bud- 
 dhists contain sublime morals and pure aspira- 
 tions, and their author lived and died in the 
 sixth century before Christ. There is nothing 
 of excellence in these sacred books not found 
 in the Bible. The sacred writings of the Chi- 
 nese are called the Five Kings, king meaning 
 web of cloth, or the warp that keeps the 
 threads in their place. They contain the best 
 
 sayings of the best sages on the ethico-political 
 duties of life. These sayings cannot be traced 
 to a period higher than the eleventh century 
 before Christ. The Three Vedas are the most 
 ancient books of the Hindoos, and it is the 
 opinion of Max M uller, Wilson, Johnson, and 
 Whitney that they are not older than the 
 eleventh century before Christ. The Zenda- 
 vesta of the Persians is the grandest of all the 
 sacred books, next to our Bible. Zoroaster, 
 whose sayings it contains, was born in the 
 twelfth century before Christ. Moses lived 
 and wrote his Pentateuch in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury before Christ, and therefore has a clear 
 margin of three hundred years older than the 
 most a-ncient of the sacred writings. 
 
 Nationality of the Popes. The vari- 
 ous nations of Europe are represented in the 
 list of Popes as follows : English, 1 ; Dutch, 1 ; 
 Swiss, 1 ; Portuguese, 1 ; African, 2 ; Aus- 
 trian, 2; Spanish, 5; German, 6; Syrian, 8;
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 565 
 
 Greek, 14; French, 15; Italian, 197. Eleven 
 Popes reigned over 20 years ; 69, from 10 to 
 20; 57, from 5 to 10; and the reign of -116 
 was less than 5 years. The reign of Pius IX. 
 was the longest of all, the only one exceeding 
 25 years. Pope Leo XIII. is the 258th Pontiff. 
 The full number of the sacred college is 70, 
 namely : cardinal bishops, 6 ; cardinal priests, 
 50 ; cardinal deacons, 14. At present there 
 are 62 cardinals. The Roman Catholic hier- 
 archy throughout the world, according to 
 official returns published at Rome in 1884, 
 consisted of 11 patriarchs, and 1,153 arch- 
 bishops and bishops. Including 12 coadjutor 
 or auxiliary bishops, the number of Roman 
 Catholic archbishops and bishops now holding 
 office in the British Empire is 134. The num- 
 bers of the clergy are approximate only. 
 
 William and Mary College was es- 
 tablished at Williamsburg, Va., in 1693, and 
 next to Harvard College is the oldest institu- 
 tion of learning in America. At its endow- 
 ment it was placed under the patronage of the 
 King and Queen of Great Britain. The trus- 
 tees of the Hon. R. Doyle, the English philoso- 
 pher, who left his personal estate for " char- 
 itable and pious uses," presented a great part 
 of it to this college for the education of 
 Indians. During the Revolutionary war the 
 college lost most of its possessions, and its 
 buildings were used by the French troops as a 
 hospital. Among the noted men who were 
 graduated from William and Mary, were Presi- 
 dents Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, Chief 
 Justice Marshall, and General Scott. 
 
 Sculpture, the art of giving form and ex- 
 pression, by means of the chisel and other im- 
 plements, to masses of stone or other hard 
 substances, so as to represent figures of every 
 description, animate and inanimate. It is 
 generally thought that sculpture had its origin 
 from idolatry, as it was found necessary to 
 place before the people the images of their gods 
 to enliven the fervor of their devotion. But 
 to form conclusions concerning the rise and 
 progress of the arts and sciences, without the 
 aid of historical evidence, by analogies which 
 are sometimes accidental, and often fanciful, 
 is a mode of reasoning which, at best, must 
 ever be liable to suspicion. In whatever coun- 
 try the earliest attempts were made, the Egyp- 
 tians were the first who adopted a certain style 
 of art. Their works were gloomy and grave, 
 but still they were full of deep sentiment, and 
 connected, as would appear by the hieroglyph- 
 ics which covered them, with poetry and his- 
 tory, and by the mummies, with the belief of 
 immortality. Interesting as the subject would 
 doubtless prove, it is far beyond our limited 
 means to trace the progress of this beautiful 
 
 art through all its stages in the classic days of 
 Greece, till its decline m Rome, where, though 
 all the treasures of the Grecian sculptors had 
 been carried to deck the Roman capital, the art 
 never became naturalized. During the long 
 and gloomy interval of barbarism that suc- 
 ceeded the downfall of Imperial Rome, sculp- 
 ture, with the sister arts, lay dormant and for- 
 gotten. At length, however, through the 
 genius of Michael Angelo Buonarroti, and the 
 skill and perseverance of some of his dis- 
 tinguished successors, seconded by the patron- 
 age of the illustrious house of Medici, the 
 treasures of antiquity were collected, and 
 modern art nobly tried to rival the grace and 
 sublimity which existed in the ancient models. 
 Though till within the last century it could 
 hardly be said that a British school of sculp- 
 ture existed, yet the talent that has been suc- 
 cessfully called into action has produced many 
 works of sterling merit. The names of Flax- 
 man, Chantrey, Baily, and Westmacott, are 
 alone sufficient to redeem the national charac- 
 ter in this department of art. In the United 
 States, the productions of Greenough. Powers, 
 and other distinguished artists, have been re- 
 ceived with admiration by the most fastidious 
 connoisseurs. The very essence of sculpture is 
 correctness ; and when to correct and perfect 
 form is added the ornament of grace, dignity 
 of character, and appropriate expression, as in 
 the Apollo, the Venus, the Laocoon, the Moses 
 of Michael Angelo, and many others, this art 
 may be said to have accomplished its purpose. 
 
 SCHOOLS OF ART. 
 
 Certain modes of drawing and painting, fol- 
 lowed by pupils of a great master, have led to 
 the foundation of well defined "schools "of 
 painters, since the revival of the Art among 
 the Byzantine and Tuscan painters of the 
 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which 
 diverged into the Florentine and Genoese 
 schools (Cimabue and Giotto taking the head 
 of the former), and the schools of Umbria and 
 Bologna. The fifteenth century was the great 
 period of artistic development, whence we may 
 trace modern excellence, commencing with the 
 Florentine School, at the head of which were 
 Fiesole and Masaccio. This school diverged 
 into the different styles, consisting of 1. 
 Such as studied exact natural truth, and whose 
 first exponent was Ghirlandajo ; 2. Such as 
 combined therewith a species of poetic treat- 
 ment, as Fra Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli, 
 and Benozzo Gozzoli ; 3. Such as adopted a 
 sculpturesque treatment of the figure, as seen 
 in works of Andrea del Castagno, Antonio 
 Pollajuolo, and Andrea Veroccio. During the 
 first half of the sixteenth century, this school
 
 566 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF PACTS. 
 
 was adorned by the genius of Leonardo da 
 Vinci and Michael Angelo. 
 
 The Roman School (into which that 
 Bologna Romagna merged) is the most im- 
 portant for its solid and legitimate effect ; a 
 result which maybe attributed to the purity of 
 study and delicacy of feeling engendered by 
 its great head, Raffaelle Sanzio d'Urbino, fol- 
 lowed out by Giulio Romano, Mazzolina di 
 Ferrara, Zucchero, Baroccio, Carlo Maratti, 
 and others. 
 
 The Venetian School gloried in its 
 color, and the magic pencil of Titian gave it a 
 position for which Giorgione and Sebastian 
 del Piozbino had but prepared it. The pupils 
 and successors of him who ' ' dipped his pencil 
 in the rainbow," viz. Bonifazio, Bordone, Tin- 
 toretto, Paul Veronese, Bassano, Garofalo, and 
 others, followed in his footsteps, and gave this 
 school a European renown. 
 
 The Lombard School, also known as 
 that of the Eclectics, was established by the 
 Caracci, the principles of which have been ex- 
 plained by Agostino in a sonnet of his own 
 composing, which may be thus translated : 
 "Adopt the design of the Romans, with the 
 color of the Lombard school, adding the mo- 
 tion and shade of that of Venice. Join the 
 just symmetry of Raphael with the power of 
 Michael Angelo, the purity of Correggio, the 
 truth of Titian, the decorum and solidity of 
 Tebaldi, the learned invention of Primatlccio, 
 and a little of Parmigiano's grace." To this 
 school belong Correggio and Parmigiano, and 
 such were the painters from whom the Car- 
 racci were induced to select the qualities of 
 the Eclectic style ; " for Agostino and Annibal 
 were, at the commencement of their career, 
 unacquainted with the works of the originators 
 of the beauties which they professed to imitate. 
 Before opening their celebrated school, however, 
 they visited Parma and Venice, and became 
 familiar with the works of Correggio and Titian ; 
 but it was only mediately, through the works 
 of the masters above mentioned, that they could 
 demonstrate their principles to their scholars. 
 The St. Cecilia of Raphael was not, and could 
 not have been, taken as a standard of that 
 great master. Lodovico is the real founder 
 of the Bolognese school ; he was the guide 
 and instructor of his cousins, who were some 
 years his juniors." Their style of proceeding 
 in " making up " a painter according to their 
 own recipe above given, has been severely com- 
 mented upon by Fuseli in the eleventh lecture. 
 Certainly with the age of the Macchinisti be- 
 gan the decadence of that great and pure Art 
 revived again by the genius of Raphael ; and a 
 meretricious and untrue style, in which the 
 dictum of the school took the place of the 
 
 teachings of nature, and led to the adoption of 
 individual whims, which, following so rapidly 
 one upon another, caused the school to sink 
 from Guido Reni, and Guercino, to Giordano. 
 Nicolas Poussin endeavored to prop its fall by 
 a reversion to the purer principles of classic 
 Art ; but neither his genius, nor that of the 
 men who had ranked themselves as opposers of 
 the school under the name of Naturalisti, 
 could prevent the decay of Italian Art. '* This 
 decline resulted with many painters from a 
 light and pleasing but superficial invention, 
 accompanied by a corresponding skillful but 
 decorative treatment ; in others, it proceeded 
 from a close but spiritless adherence to a set of 
 obsolete rules, which destroyed the peculiarity 
 of individuals as well as of schools. With few 
 exceptions, sound technical science, as the 
 basis of manipulation in painting, was lost." 
 
 The German School may be said to 
 have originated with the versatile genius of 
 Albert Durer, and was followed by Lucas 
 van Leyden, Holbein, Netscher, Mengs and 
 others. It was remarkable for a strict adher- 
 ence to nature, and for much power of draw- 
 ing, qualifications which still remain the chief 
 characteristics of its modern disciples, under 
 Cornelius, Kaulbach, and Overbeck. 
 
 The Flemish School combines with Ger- 
 man after the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 Its early history begins with the Van Eycks, 
 who have given to the world a school of their 
 own in Roger of Bruges, Hans Hemling, Jan 
 Mabuse, and Quentin Matsys. Its great 
 glories center in Rubens and Vandyke ; their 
 works are remarkable for brilliance of color, 
 exactness of drawing, and great command of 
 chiaro-oscuro ; but Rubens wants grace, and 
 in founding his style on nature, relying on his 
 power of exhibiting her as he saw her, he fre- 
 quently lacks dignity. Teniers excelled in 
 arrangement and harmony, though he very 
 frequently lost his proper position in the low- 
 ness of his subjects. Steinwick, Spranger, 
 Snyders, Neeffs, and others, may be particular- 
 ized as among the remarkable men of a school 
 which may be considered as the legitimate 
 descendant of the Venetian school of colorists. 
 
 The Dutch School is even lower in refine- 
 ment ; but the great genius displayed by its 
 principal painter, Rembrandt, elevated it into 
 importance. His marvelous power over light 
 and shade was what the world had never before 
 seen, and it has died with him who first exhib- 
 ited it. It was too much the fault of this 
 school to select the vulgarest scenes of life for 
 the employment of the pencil ; thus we find 
 great power of drawing, coloring, and a per- 
 fect mastery of the mechanism of Art, com- 
 bined with high artistic feeling, devoted to
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 567 
 
 some unworthy subject, which no genius can 
 redeem, and which but excites a feeling of 
 regret to see talent so misdirected. Ostade, 
 Gerard Dow, the two Breughels, Karel du 
 Jardin, Pieter Laer (called Bamboccio), Jan 
 Lingelbach, Nicolas Maas, Gabriel Metzu, 
 Frans van Mieris, Eglon van der Neer, Gaspar 
 Netscher, Cornelius Poelemburg, Paul Potter, 
 Godfried Schalken, Pieter van Slingeland, Jan 
 Steen, Gerard Terburg, and Philip Wouver- 
 man may be named as the principal exponents 
 of the power of this school. Of the landscape 
 and marine painters of the same period, the 
 following were the principal : Ludolph Bak- 
 huyzen, Nicolas Berghem, Jan and Andries 
 Both, Albert Cuyp, Simon van der Does, Jan 
 van Goyen, Aart van der Neer, Jacob Ruis- 
 dael, Mindert Hobbema, Herman Swanevelde, 
 Adam Pynacker, Adrian, and the two Wil- 
 liams Vandervelde, and Antony Waterloo. Of 
 architectural painters : G. Hoekgeest, Jan van 
 der Heyden, Pieter Neefs, Hendrik van Yliet, 
 and Hendrik van Steenwyck. Of painters of 
 birds, still life, fruit, flowers, etc., the follow- 
 ing : Jan Davidszde Heem, Melchior de Hon- 
 dekoeter, Jan van Huysum, Rachel Ruisch, Jan 
 Weenix, Jan Wynants, Adrian van Utrecht, 
 and Willem Kalf. 
 
 The Spanish School, while it possesses 
 great power, has for its characteristics a certain 
 gloom and wildness belonging to the national 
 mind. This peculiar school of painting ap- 
 pears to have been one of the more recently 
 established of the modern schools of Europe ; 
 in its prevailing characteristics, it exhibits a 
 close connection with some of the schools of 
 Italy, especially those of Venice and Naples, 
 though its earlier development seems to have 
 been due to the immigration of Flemish artists 
 into Spain. The principal works undertaken 
 in Spain date from the time of Philip II. ; 
 they were chiefly executed by Italians, and the 
 principal Spanish painters studied in Italy, i 
 Titian spent a few years in Spain in the reign 
 of Charles V. ; but the works he executed 
 were oil pictures, and chiefly easel pieces, 
 which, though guides in coloring to the Span- 
 ish painters, were less the models of the great 
 masters of Spain than those executed in Philip's 
 time. The painters of Spain have been classi- 
 fied into three principal schools, but these 
 divisions are as much local as characteristic ; 
 they are those of Valencia, Madrid, and Se- 
 ville. The following are the principal mas- 
 ters of these several schools, with the names of 
 the places where they chiefly resided, and 
 worked, arranged chronologically, from the 
 sixteenth century, inclusive ; Of the sixteenth : 
 Antonio del Rincon, Toledo; Alonso Berru- 
 guete, Castile and Toledo; Luis de Vargas, 
 
 ' Seville ; Alonso Sanchez Coello, Madrid ; Luis 
 | de Morales, el Divino, Badajoz ; Dominico Theo- 
 j tocopuli, el Greco, Toledo ; Vicente Joanes, 
 Valencia ; Miguel Barrosa, Escorial and To- 
 ledo ; and Alonso Vazquez, Seville. Of the 
 seventeenth century : Pablo de Cespedes, Cor- 
 dova and Seville ; Juan de las Roelas, Seville ; 
 Francisco de Ribalta, Valencia ; Juan del Cas- 
 tillo,Seville ; Francisco Pacheco, Seville ; Alon- 
 so Cano, Andalusia and Madrid ; Antonia de 
 Pereda, Madrid ;' Diego Velasquez, Madrid; 
 Juan de Pereja, Madrid ; Francisco Zurbaran, 
 Seville and Madrid ; Francisco Rizi, Madrid ; 
 Claudio Coello, Madrid and Zaragoza ; Juan 
 de Valdes Leal, Madrid ; Antonio Palomino y 
 Velasco (the Spanish Vasari), Cordova; Bar- 
 tolome Esteban Murillo, Seville ; and Francisco 
 de Herrera, el Mozo (the Young), Madrid and 
 Seville. This list comprises all the great 
 painters of Spain ; there were no very distin- 
 guished Spanish masters in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. The following are the most distinguished 
 of those above mentioned : Antonio del Rin- 
 con, Luis de Vargas, Morales, Joanes, Cespe- 
 des, Roelas, Ribalta, Pacheco, Alonso Cano, 
 Velasquez, Zurbaran, and Murillo. 
 
 The French School of painting was, 
 until the latter part of the eighteenth century, 
 in all respects a branch of the schools of Italy. 
 The earliest mature development dates from 
 the reign of Francis I., who employed many 
 distinguished Italian artists in France ; and 
 what is termed the French school arose from 
 the examples left by these Italians at Fontaine- 
 bleau. The masters who engrafted the Italian 
 principles of art among the French were II 
 Rosso, Primaticcio, and Niccolo dell'Abate. 
 The earliest French painters of distinction, and 
 the only two who cannot be said to belong to 
 this Italianized school of the sixteenth century, 
 were Jean Cousin and Francois Clouet, called 
 Jeannet, who belonged to what is termed the 
 Gothic school, and painted in the manner of 
 the Italian quattro-centisti. The three great- 
 est names in French art are Claude Lorraine, 
 Nicolas Poussin, and Anthony Watteau. L 
 Brun, Le Sueur, Dufresnoy, Jouvenet, and 
 others, can but be considered as the people of 
 a transition period, whose works picture the 
 taste of an age, rather than the exposition of 
 true art. It was with J. L. David that a new 
 era commenced in art, which may possibly 
 have been generated by the revived classicali- 
 ties of a revolutionary mania which convulsed 
 France. The Greek ideal of a monumental 
 kind was adopted by him for historic painting, 
 and has been happily characterized as "a 
 morbid imitation of the antique." He was 
 followed in his stiff insipidities by Gros, Gi- 
 rodet, and Guerin ; but nature again appealed
 
 568 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 to the world in the work of Guerin's celebrated 
 pupil, Gericault, whose "Wreck of the Me- 
 dusa " appalled by its truth to nature and power 
 in art. Leopold Robert followed in the same 
 track, and produced some remarkable and life- 
 like scenes. Paul Delaroche, took up his won- 
 drous pencil, to delineate history with the 
 power of a genius and the truthfulness of a 
 historian, and nature again appeared on the 
 walls of the French exhibition room*. No 
 painters excel the modern French school in 
 history ; but in landscape they are inferior to 
 those of England and Belgium. 
 
 The English School is the youngest of 
 the cycle of Arts ; but its youthful vigor has 
 given it a wondrous position in a compara- 
 tively short time. The first great native gen- 
 ius, who neither copied in a school nor followed 
 its rules, who struck out his own path, in 
 which he has hitherto been alone, and whose 
 thoughts, subjects, and sympathies were all 
 essentially English, was William Hogarth. 
 " Hogarth," says Walpole, " had no model to 
 follow and improve upon. He created his art, 
 and used colors instead of language. His 
 place is between the Italians, whom we con- 
 sider as epic poets and tragedians, and the 
 Flemish painters, who are as writers of farce 
 and editors of burlesque nature." Hogarth's 
 was the period of the revival of painting in 
 England in every department of the art ; the 
 hitherto brightest names in the annals of 
 English painting were his contemporaries 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, Gainsborough, Wilson, 
 West, Romney, Cotes, Cosway, Barry, and 
 Mortimer ; to whom may be added the for- 
 eigners De Loutherbourg, Zoffany, Cipri- 
 ani, Moser, and Fuseli, all domiciliated in 
 England. Toward the end of the century, the 
 most conspicuous masters in the department of 
 history were Opie, Northcote, Westall, Cop- 
 ley, Harlow, Hilton, and others ; in portrait 
 Sir T. Lawrence, Hoppner, Jackson, and Rae- 
 burn ; in genre Wilkie, Bird, Smirke, and 
 Newton; and in landscape Constable, Call- 
 cott, and Collins. 
 
 The American School has been more or 
 less influenced by the French, and has not yet 
 attained to the distinction of independent char- 
 acteristics. The most noted names are : 
 Malbone (1777-1807), Copley (1738-1815), C. 
 W. Peale (1741-1827), Gilbert C. Stuart 
 (1756-1828), J. Trumbull (1756-1843), W. 
 Allston (1779-1843), Thomas Cole (1801-48), 
 Rembrandt Peale (1778-1860), W. M. Hunt 
 (1824-79), W. Page (1811-85), I). Hunting- 
 don (1816), S. R. Gifford (1823-80), Eastman 
 Johnson (1S24)> Elihu Vedder (1836), Bier- 
 stadt (1830). 
 
 Russian art, dormant since the Byzantine 
 
 period, has during the last forty years produced 
 Swedomsky Verestchagin (1842), and Kram- 
 skoe. 
 
 Scandinavian art has been represented in 
 modern times by Uhde, and Edelfeldt. 
 
 Pyramids. The great pyramid of Gizeh 
 is the largest structure of any kind ever 
 erected by the hand of man. Its original di- 
 mensions at the base were 764 feet square, 
 and its perpendicular height in the highest 
 point is 488 feet ; it covers four acres, one 
 rood and twenty-two perches of ground, and 
 has been estimated by an eminent English 
 architect to have cost not less than 30,000,000, 
 which in United States currency would be 
 about $145,200,000. Internal evidences prove 
 that the great pyramid was begun about the 
 year 2170 B. C., about the time of the birth 
 of Abraham. It is estimated that about 
 5,000,000 tons of hewn stones were used in its 
 construction. 
 
 Sphinx. The word sphinx is from the 
 Greek and means the strangler, and was ap- 
 plied to a fabled creature of the Egyptians, 
 which had the body of a lion, the head of a 
 man or an animal, and two wings attached to its 
 sides. In the Egyptian hieroglyphs the sphinx 
 symbolized wisdom and power united. It has 
 been supposed that the fact that the overflow 
 of the Nile occurred when the sun was in the 
 constellations Leo and Virgo gave the idea of 
 the combinations of form in the sphinx, but 
 this idea seems quite unfounded. In Egypt 
 the reigning monarch was usually represented 
 in the form of a sphinx. The most remarkable 
 sphinx is that near the pyramids at Gizeh. It 
 is sculptured from the rock, masonry having 
 been added in several places to complete the 
 form. It is 172 feet long by 53 feet high, 
 but only the head of this remarkable sculpture 
 can now be seen, the rest of the form having 
 been concealed by the heaped up sands of the 
 desert. 
 
 Obelisks. The oldest of all the obelisks 
 is the beautiful one of rosy granite which 
 stands alone among the green fields upon the 
 banks of the Nile, not far from Cairo. It is 
 the gravestone of a great ancient city which 
 has vanished and left only this relic behind. 
 The city was the Bethshemesh of the Scrip- 
 tures, the famous On, which is memorable to all 
 Bible readers as the residence of the priest of 
 Potipherah, whose daughter, Asenath, Joseph 
 married. The Greeks called it Heliopolis. 
 
 Cleopatra's Needle. The two obelisks 
 known as Cleopatra's Needles were set up at 
 the entrance of the Temple of the Sun, in 
 Heliopolis, Egypt, by Thothmes III., about 
 1831 B. C. We have no means of knowing 
 when they were built, or by whom, except
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FIXE ARTS. 
 
 569 
 
 from the inscriptions on them, which indicate 
 the above time. The material of which 
 they were cut is granite, brought from Syene, 
 near the first cataract of the Nile. Two cen- 
 turies after their erection Rameses II. had the 
 stones nearly covered with carving setting 
 out his own greatness and achievements. 
 Twenty-three years before Christ, Augustus 
 Caesar moved the obelisks from Heliopolis to 
 Alexandria and set them up in the Caesarium, 
 a palace, which now stands, a mere mass of 
 ruins, near the station of the railroad to 
 Cairo. In 1819 one of these obelisks was pre- 
 sented by the Egyptian government to Eng- 
 land, but, as no one knew how to move them, 
 it was not taken to London until 1878. 
 Subsequently the other obelisk was presented 
 to the United States. 
 
 Parthenon, a celebrated temple at Athens, 
 on the summit of the Acropolis, and sacred to 
 Minerva. The Parthenon in beauty and 
 grandeur surpassed all other buildings of the 
 kind, and was constructed entirely of Pentelic 
 marble. It was built during the splendid era 
 of Pericles, and the expense of its erection was 
 estimated at 6,000 talents. It contained in- 
 numerable statues raised upon marble pedes- 
 tals, and other works of art. The colossal 
 statue of Minerva, which was in the eastern 
 end of the temple, was thirty-nine feet high, 
 and was composed of ivory and gold, the value 
 of the latter being forty-four talents, or about 
 $465,000. The temple was reduced to ruins 
 in 1687. A part of the matchless friezes, 
 statues, etc.. of the Parthenon now form the 
 most valuable and interesting portion of the 
 Britisli Museum, they having been taken from 
 the temple by Lord Elgin in 1800, and by him 
 sold to the British Government. 
 
 German Philosophers. Leibnitz, the 
 founder of modern German philosophy, was a 
 marvelous specimen of precocious genius, his 
 first philosophical treatise being written at the 
 age of seventeen. His system of philosophy 
 supposed the mind and body to be two distinct 
 machines, acting independently of but in har- 
 mony with each other. He also held to the 
 theory of " monads " that is, the indestruc- 
 tible entities of matter and of mind claiming 
 the Deity to be the prime monad, and asserted ; 
 that all ideas were innate. He lived from 
 1646 to 1716. The great opponent of Leibnitz 
 was Christian Wolf, who founded all his : 
 philosophy on logical propositions, and set 
 aside those very doctrines on which Leibnitz 
 grounded all his reasoning. After these two 
 philosophers had passed away there was a 
 term of quiescence in German philosophy, 
 broken by the teachings of Emanuel Kant, the 
 philosopher of ' ' Pure Reason , ' ' and the father 
 
 of modern philosophical criticism. The cen- 
 tral point of his system lies in the proposition 
 that before we can know anything concerning 
 objects we must understand how we perceive 
 objects, and what degree of knowledge percep- 
 tion can give us. Fichte was a disciple of 
 Kant, but went beyond his master in trans- 
 forming all knowledge into pure idealism. 
 Schelling was the next writer to gain a general 
 influence. He was at first simply an ex- 
 pounder of Fichte, but gradually developed a 
 philosophy of his own, founded on the theory 
 | that the true sources of knowledge are not 
 1 experience or reflection, but intellectual in- 
 ' tuition. Hegel, who succeeded Schelling as 
 | the leader in German philosophy, was a more 
 vigorous and logical thinker. The foundation 
 of his system is that the union of assertion 
 and negation, the harmonizing of every propo- 
 sition with its contradictory, is the source of 
 all knowledge. The Hegelian system has been 
 modified largely by the speculations of Schleier- 
 macher, Schubert, and others, but it still re- 
 mains the most powerful school of German 
 philosophy. The principal opposing system 
 is that of Schopenhauer, whose fundamental 
 doctrine is that the only essential reality in the 
 universe is trill, all phenomena being but 
 manifestations of the single original will. 
 
 Classification of Mankind. In re- 
 gard to religion, mankind maybe divided into 
 two general classes : Monotheistic, those who 
 worship one god, and polytheistic, those who 
 worship more than one god, also called pagans, 
 or heathen. Of the first class we have : (1) 
 i the Christian, which recognizes the Bible as the 
 j revealed word of God, and Jesus Christ as 
 the Son of God ; (2) the Jewish, which rec- 
 ognizes the Old Testament as the word of 
 God, but does not acknowledge Christ ; (3) 
 the Mohammedan, or the religion of Islam, 
 whose two articles of faith are, " There is no 
 god but God, and Mohammed is the prophet 
 of God." 
 
 Of the second class there are : (1) Brah- 
 minism, or Hindooism, the religion of the peo- 
 ple of India, a very ancient religion which has 
 many good moral doctrines, but strange ideas 
 of a future state ; (2) Buddhism, an offshoot of 
 Brahminism, now practiced by the people of 
 China and Japan, founded by Sakya-Muni, 
 who adopted the title of Buddha (the enlight- 
 ened), a religion which has been more en- 
 thusiastic in making converts than any other, 
 except Christianity, and has many good moral 
 precepts, but is practically atheistic ; (3) Fetich- 
 ism, a very low form of superstition, which 
 consists in the worship of material objects, 
 either living or dead, as animals or idols of 
 wood or stone.
 
 570 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 In regard to general culture and intelligence, 
 mankind may be divided into : (1) Savages, 
 those who are scarcely elevated above the 
 brutes, live in tribes, and subsist by hunting 
 and fishing; (2) Barbarians, those who have 
 possessions, as flocks and herds, and practice 
 agriculture to some extent, yet have made no 
 progress in arts and sciences ; (3) Half-civilized, 
 those who have made some progress in the arts, 
 have towns and cities, but depend chiefly upon 
 agriculture ; (4) Civilized, those who have made 
 considerable progress in science and art, engage 
 in commerce, and have a written language ; (5) 
 Enlightened, those who stand at the head of 
 the scale, have a division of labor, systems of 
 education, and have made the greatest progress 
 in science, art, and in morality. 
 
 The Jewish Religion. In their relig- 
 ious observances modern Jews adhere to the 
 rules of the Mosaic dispensation. Their serv- 
 ice consists chiefly in reading the law in their 
 synagogues, together with a variety of prayers. 
 They abstain from the meats prohibited by the 
 Levitical law, and they continue to observe 
 the ceremonies of the Passover, as nearly as 
 possible. They offer prayers for the dead, 
 because they believe that the souls of the 
 wicked go to a place of temporary punishment, 
 where they remain under trial a year, and 
 they think that very few will be condemned to 
 suffer eternally. We give a summary of the 
 confession of faith, in which all orthodox Jews 
 must live and die. It is made up of thirteen 
 articles, and was drawn up in the eleventh 
 century by a celebrated rabbi named Maimoni- 
 des. These articles declare in substance : (1) 
 That there is one God, creator of all things, 
 who may exist without any part of the uni- 
 verse, but without whom nothing can main- 
 tain existence ; (2) that God is uncompounded 
 and indivisible, but different from all other 
 unities ; (3) that God is an immaterial being, 
 without any admixture of corporeal substance ; 
 (4) that God is eternal, but everything else 
 had a beginning in time ; (5) that God alone 
 ought to be worshiped, without mediators or 
 intercessors ; (6) that there have been inspired 
 prophets, and may be more ; (7) that Moses 
 was the grandest prophet that ever appeared ; 
 
 (8) that the law of Moses was, in every sylla- 
 ble, dictated by the Almighty, not only in its 
 written letter, but in traditionary exposition ; 
 
 (9) that this law is immutable, neither to be 
 added to nor diminished ; (10) that God 
 knows all our actions and governs them as lie 
 will; (11) that the observance of the law is 
 rewarded and its violation punished in this 
 world, but in a greater degree in the next ; 
 (12) that a Messiah is yet to appear, the time 
 of whose coming may not be prescribed or 
 
 foretold ; and (13) that God will raise the 
 dead at the last day and pass judgment upon 
 all. 
 
 Quakers. The Society of Friends or 
 Quakers was founded in 1646, by George 
 Fox, a shoemaker of Drayton, in Leicester- 
 shire. They believe in the main fundamental 
 principles of what is called "Orthodox Chris- 
 tianity," but they express their religious creed 
 in the very words of the New Testament 
 Scripture, and each member has the liberty of 
 interpreting the words. Their main specialty 
 is the belief of " The Light of Christ in man," 
 and hence they entertain a broader view of the 
 Spirit's influence than other Christians. In 
 morals, propriety of conduct, good order, and 
 philanthropy, the Quakers are a pattern so- 
 ciety. 
 
 The Peahody Education Fund. In 
 1867 and 1869 George Peabody established a 
 fund of $3,500,000 to be devoted to education 
 in the Southern states of the Union. Unfor- 
 tunately, $1,380,000 of this amount was in 
 Mississippi and Florida bonds, which those 
 states have repudiated. The fund was placed 
 in the charge and control of fifteen trustees, of 
 which the Hon. Robert C. Winthrop of Massa- 
 chusetts was the chairman. Mr. Peabody died 
 in London in 1869. The trustees hold meet- 
 ings annually, usually in New York. They 
 fill vacancies caused by death or resignation. 
 But one oi. the original trustees survives Ex- 
 Senator Evarts. The present trustees are : 
 William M. Evarts, who is president of the 
 board; Chief .Justice Fuller, first vice-presi- 
 dent ; lit. Rev. Bishop Whipple, second vice- 
 president ; Hon. Jabez L. M. Curry, LL. D., 
 general agent; Joseph H. Choate, J. Pier- 
 pont Morgan, of New York ; ex-President 
 Grover Cleveland, of New Jersey; Samuel A. 
 Green, Richard Olney, and George F. Hoar, 
 of Massachusetts ; William Wirt Henry, of 
 Virginia ; ex-Mayor William A. Courtenay, of 
 South Carolina ; James D. Porter, of Tennes- 
 see ; Henderson iM. Somerville, of New York ; 
 President D. C. Gilman, of Johns Hopkins 
 University ; George Peabody Wetmore, of 
 Rhode Island, and Charles E. Fenner, of Lou- 
 isiana. Dr. Curry is general agent of the 
 fund, with headquarters at Washington, I). C., 
 and has charge of the distribution of the fund 
 in the several Southern states. In its earlier 
 history the chief aim of the fund was to en- 
 courage and secure the establishment of public 
 school systems for the free education of all 
 children. That having been accomplished, 
 the income of the fund is now used for the 
 training of teachers through normal schools 
 and teachers' institutes. At its session in 
 Octpber , 1896, the board declared it to be in-
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS, 
 
 571 
 
 expedient to close the Trust in February, 1897, 
 the power to do which was left to its discre- 
 tion. In the thirty years since the organ- 
 ization of the trust, over $2,500,509 have 
 been spent, as the income of the sum left by 
 Mr. Peabody. Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan is the 
 treasurer. 
 
 The John F. Slater Tumi In 1882 
 Mr. John F. Slater, of Connecticut, placed in 
 the hands of trustees the sum or $1,000,000, 
 for the purpose of " uplifting the lately eman- 
 cipated population of the Southern states 
 and their posterity." For this patriotic and 
 munificent gift the thanks of Congress were 
 voted, and a medal was presented. Neither 
 principal nor income is expended for land or 
 buildings. Education in industries and the 
 preparation of teachers are promoted in in- 
 stitutions believed to be on a permanent basis. 
 
 The board consists of D. C. Gilman, of Johns 
 Hopkins University, as president ; Chief 
 Justice Fuller, as vice-president; Morris K. 
 Jesup, as treasurer ; J. L. M. Curry, as secre- 
 tary and general manager, and Bishops Potter 
 and Galloway, and Messrs. William E. Dodge, 
 William A. Slater, John A. Stewart, Alexander 
 E. Orr, ex-Governor Northen, and Win. L. 
 Wilson. The fund is a potential agency in 
 working out the problem of the education of 
 the negro, and over half a million dollars 
 has already been expended. Schools es- 
 tablished by states, denominations, and in- 
 dividuals are helped by annual donations. 
 Among the most prominent are the Hampton 
 Normal and Industrial, the Spelman, the 
 Tuskegee, and schools at Orangeburg, S. C., 
 Tougaloo, Miss., Marshall, Tex., the Meharry 
 Medical College at Nashville, Tenn., etc. 
 
 National Academy of Design. 
 
 COUNCIL, 1898-1899. 
 
 President, Thomas W. "Wood; Vlrc-Prt'Kiilpnt, James M. Hart; Corresponding Secretary, H. TV. "Watrous; 
 Recording Secretary, George H. Smillie ; Treasurer, James D. Smillie ; J. Carroll Beckwith/C. D. Weldon, J. C. 
 Nicoll, F. S. Church, Frederick Dielman, H. Bolton Jones ; Clerk of Academy, H. G. Grannis. 
 
 Elected. 
 
 NATIONAL ACADEMICIANS. 
 Elected. 
 
 J862. Beard, William II. ,51 West 10th St. 
 
 1894. Beckwith, J. Carroll. 58 West 57th St. 
 
 1860. Bierstadt, Albert, 1271 Broadway. 
 1888. Blashtield, Edwin H., 58 West 57th St. 
 1859. Blauvelt, Charles F., Annapolis, Md. 
 
 1893. Blum, Robert, 90 Grove St. 
 
 1871. Boughton, George H., London, Eng. 
 
 1872. Brandt, Carl L., Hastings-on-Hudson, N. Y. 
 1863. Brevoort, J. R., 52 East 23d St. 
 
 1881. Bridgman, Frederick A., Paris, France. 
 1875. Bristol, John B., 52 East 23d St. 
 
 1863. Brown, J. G., 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1873. Butler, George B., Century Club. 
 1S75. Calverley, Charles, 107 P:ast 27th St. 
 
 1890. Chase, William M., 234 East 15th St. 
 1849. Church, Frederic E., Hudson, N. Y. 
 1885. Church, F. S., 1512 Broadway. 
 1898. Clinedinst, B. West, 110 Fifth Ave. 
 
 1862. Colman. Samuel, Newport, R. I. 
 
 1851. Cropsey, J. F., Hastings-on-Hudson, N. Y. 
 
 1863. Dana, W. P. W., Paris, France. 
 
 1888. Dewing, Thos. TV., 911 Seventh Ave. 
 1883. Dielman, Frederick, 1512 Broadway. 
 1849. Flagg, JaredB.,37West22dSt. 
 
 1882. Gaul, Gilbert, 170th St., near Tenth Ave. 
 1878. Gifford, R. Swain. 152 West 57th St. 
 186V. Griswold, C. C., 139 West 55th St. 
 
 1865. Guy, Seymour Joseph, 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1868. Hail, Ge'orge Henry, Rome, Italy. 
 
 1889. Hamilton, Hamilton, Baldwin's', L. I. 
 
 1859. Hart, James M., 11 East 14th St. 
 
 1891. Hartley, J. S.,145 West55th St. 
 IM'.l. Hazeltine, W. Stanley, Boston, Mass. 
 1863. Hennessy, TV. J., London, Eng. 
 
 1869. Henry, E. L., Century Club. 
 1865. Homer, Winslow, Scarboro, Me. 
 1897. Howe, Wm. H., Brorrxville, N. Y. 
 
 1882. Howland, Alfred C., 52 East 23d St. 
 1840. Huntington, Daniel. 49 East 20th St. 
 
 1861. Johnson, David, 69 West 13Ist St. 
 
 1860. Johnson, Eastman, 65 West 55th St. 
 1851. Jones, Alfred, 86 Trinity Place. 
 
 1894. Jones, Francis C., 253 West 42d St. 
 
 1883. Jones, H. Bolton, 253 West 42d St. 
 1869. Lafarge, John, 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1897. Lippincott, Wm. H., 286 West 84th St. 
 Low, Will H., 42 West 15th St. 
 
 1876. Magrath, William, 11 East 14th St. 
 
 1875. Martin, Homer D., Century Club. 
 
 1885. Maynard, Geo. W. , 156 East 36th St. 
 
 1875. Miller, Charles H., 108 West 23d St. 
 
 1885. Millet, F. D., Broadway. Eng. 
 
 1895. Moeller, Louis, Mount Vernon, N. Y. 
 
 1?84. Moran, Thomas, 37 West 22d St. 
 
 1891. Mowbray, H. Siddons, 66 West llth St. 
 
 1887. Murphy, J. Francis, 222 West 23d St. 
 
 1870. Nehlig," Victor, Paris, France. 
 
 1885. Nicoll, J. C., 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1897. Palmer, Walter L., 5 Lafayette St., Albany, N. Y. 
 
 1884. Parton, Arthur, 52 West 23d St. 
 
 1869. Perry, E. Wood, 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1880. Porter, Benj. C., 3 North TVashington Sq. 
 
 1851. Richards, T. Addison, National Academy. 
 
 1878. Robbins, Horace Wolcott, 56 East 57th St. 
 
 1863. Rogers, John, New Canaan, Ct. 
 
 1897. Sargent, John S., 33 Tite St., London, Eng. 
 
 1875. Sellstedt, L. G., Buffalo, N. Y. 
 1861. Shattuck, Aaron D., Granby, Ct. 
 
 1888. Shirlaw, Walter, 3 North Washington Sq 
 
 1890. Shurtleff , R. M. , 44 West 22d St. 
 
 1882. Smttlie, George H., 51 East 59th St. 
 
 1876. Smillie, James D., 156 East 36th St. 
 1861. Sonntag, William L., 120 East 22d St. 
 
 1889. St. Gaudens, Augustus, 148 West 36th St. 
 
 1858. Tait, Arthur F., 82 Waring Place, Yonkers, N. Y. 
 
 1880. Tiffany, Louis C., 335 Fourth Ave. 
 
 1891. Tryon, D. TV., 226 West 59th St. 
 
 1886. Turner, C. Y., 35 West 14th St. 
 
 1883. Van Elten, Kruseman, 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1865. Vedder, Elihu, Rome, Italy. 
 
 1891. Vinton, Frederic P., Boston, Mass. 
 
 1891. Walker, Horatio, 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1883. Ward, Edgar M.. 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1863. Ward, J. Q. A., 119 West 52d St. 
 
 1895. Watrous, Harry TV., 58 West 57th St. 
 
 1886. Weir, J. Alden", 146 West 55th St. 
 
 1866. Weir, John F., New Haven, Ct. 
 
 1861. Whittredge, Worthington, Summit, N. J. 
 
 1898. Wiles, Irving R., 106 West 55th St. 
 
 1873. Wilmarth, Lemuel E., 352 Adelphi St., Brooklyn, 
 N. Y. 
 
 1871. Wood, Thomas Waterman, 51 West 10th St. 
 1880. Yewell, George H., 51 West 10th St. 
 
 1890. 
 
 The addresses of members of the Academy given in the list refer to the city of New York when not otherwise 
 specified. Th National Academy was founded in 1826.
 
 572 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 University Extension has for its object 
 the provision of " the means of higher educa- 
 tion for persons of all classes, and of both 
 sexes engaged in the regular occupations of 
 life."^ This movement commenced with the 
 University of Cambridge in 1872, and was 
 subsequently taken up by Oxford University, 
 the London Society for the extension of Uni- 
 versity Teaching, Dublin University, Owens 
 College, Manchester, the Scottish Universities, 
 the University of Sydney, New South Wales, 
 and the Chautauqua Home Reading Club in 
 the United States. In 1890 Cambridge, Ox- 
 ford, and the London Society had two hundred 
 and twenty-seven centers, seventy-nine lec- 
 turers, and 40,336 students attending lectures. 
 The lecture study system was organized in the 
 United States at the University of Pennsylva- 
 nia. Other institutions, notably the Uni- 
 versity of Chicago and the University of Wis- 
 consin, have engaged in the work, and many 
 centers for lectures and study in history, 
 science, art, and literature have been formed. 
 
 Columbian University, Washington, 
 D. C., originated with the Rev. Luther Rice, 
 who, in 1819, with a number of associates, 
 paid $7,000 for a tract of land adjoining 
 the city of Washington, with the understand- 
 ing that it should be held for higher educa- 
 tional purposes. John Quincy Adams, John C . 
 Calhoun, thirty-two members of Congress, and 
 leading citizens of Washington, were among 
 the contributors to this fund. A charter was 
 procured from Congress in February, 1821, 
 during the presidency of James Monroe, 
 "erecting the Columbian College in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia." The construction of a 
 college building had been commenced in 1820, 
 and it was completed in 1822, at a cost of 
 $35,000. Dr. Stoughton, a native of England, 
 and an eminent pulpit orator, was the first 
 president of the institution. Agents were 
 sent to Europe, and among the contributors to 
 the founding of the college were several Eng- 
 lishmen prominent in politics and literature, 
 including the chancellor of the exchequer and 
 Sir James Mackintosh, the historian. 
 
 The first commencement of the college was 
 held December 15, 1824, and was attended by 
 the President of the United States and mem- 
 bers of both Houses of Congress and General 
 Lafayette ; a formal address of welcome being 
 made to General Lafayette by the president of 
 the college. Upon the conclusion of the ex- 
 ercises, General Lafayette and his suite, Secre- 
 tary John Quincy Adams, Secretary John C. 
 Calhoun, Henry Clay, and other distinguished 
 citizens dined with the faculty and board of 
 trustees at the house of President Stoughton. 
 
 Dr. Stoughton resigned the presidency in 
 
 1827, after a rather stormy period, during 
 which the college was at times greatly embar- 
 rassed for money, and in 1828 llev. Steven 
 Chapin, D.D., was chosen his successor. The 
 presidents since that time have been : Rev. 
 Joel S. Bacon, D.D., elected 1843; Rev. 
 Joseph G. Binney, D.D., elected 1855; Rev. 
 George W. Samson, D.D., elected 1859 ; James 
 C. Welling, LL.D., elected 1871 ; Benaiah L. 
 Whitman, M.A., D.D., LL.D., elected 1895. 
 
 March 3, 1873, Congress passed an act sup- 
 plemental to the organic act of 1821, provid- 
 ing that the corporation "shall hereafter be 
 known and called by the name of the Columbian 
 University. " In 1879 it was decided to remove 
 all departments of the University into the heart 
 of Washington, and in 1884 the present uni- 
 versity buildings, at the corner of 15th and II 
 streets, were occupied by the academic, law, 
 and scientific schools of the University. 
 
 John Quincy Adams was among the earliest 
 friends of the college to lend aid during its 
 periods of financial need. He loaned it $18,- 
 000, apart of which debt he remitted. From 
 1835 to 1861 John Withers of Virginia made 
 frequent gifts to cancel debts, to repair build- 
 ings, and for general purposes, amounting in 
 the aggregate to nearly $70,000. In 1865 
 William W. Corcoran presented the college 
 with a building for its Medical School, valued 
 at $30, 000. His subsequent gifts have reached 
 about $150,000, in grateful memory of which 
 was established, in 1884, the Corcoran Scientific 
 School. 
 
 The University comprises the following divi- 
 sions : The Columbian College, the Corcoran 
 Scientific School, the School of Graduate 
 Studies, the Law School, the School of Juris- 
 prudence and Diplomacy, the Medical School, 
 the Dental School, the Graduate Veterinary 
 School, and the Summer School. 
 
 In 1898, as an organic part of the University, 
 there was established a School of Comparative 
 Jurisprudence and Diplomacy, the first of that 
 character in the United States. Such a school 
 had been a long cherished hope of the Univer- 
 sity authorities, and owed its germinal concep- 
 tion to a former president of the University, 
 James Clarke Welling. LL.D. The design of 
 the school is to afford a training in the sub- 
 jects of higher legal knowledge, comparative 
 government, applied economics, and the his- 
 tory, science, and practice of diplomacy. Two 
 courses are now given, leading respectively to 
 the degrees Doctor of Civil Law (D. C. L.) and 
 Master of Diplomacy (M. Dip.), depending 
 upon the emphasis awarded to jurisprudence 
 or diplomatic studies. The lecturers, together 
 with their assignment of subjects, are as fol- 
 lows :
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 
 
 573 
 
 Benaiah L. Whitman, D.D., LL.D.. Presi- fourth century a canon of the first council of 
 dent ; Politirn/ lligturi/ <nnl Science. Constantinople, held in 381, assures to it, on 
 
 Charles W. Needham, LL.D., Dean; The the ground that Constantinople is the "new 
 Common Law ; Transportation and Commerce. ,Rome," the precedence of honor next after 
 Hon. John M. Harlan, LL.D., Conflict of the ancient Rome. The present total number 
 
 of adherents of the Greek Church is about 
 90,000,000. 
 
 College de France, founded by Francis 
 I., 1530, is now a very important educational 
 institution, giving instruction over a very wide 
 
 Comparative Constitutional Law. 
 
 Hon. David J. Brewer, LL.D., International 
 Law. 
 
 Hon. John W. Foster, LL.D., Diplomacy 
 an'f Treaties of the United States. 
 
 Hon. David Jayne Hill, LL.D., European 
 
 Howe, LL.D., An- 
 Law ; Modern Civil 
 
 Diplomacy and Treaties. 
 
 Hon. William Wirt 
 dent, Roman, Mediaeval 
 Law. 
 
 Hon. Lyman J. Gage, LL.D., Lecturer on 
 Public Finance. 
 
 Hon. William P. Wilson, Sc.D., Interna- 
 tional Trade and Commercial Geography. 
 
 Joseph French Johnson, B.A., Money, 
 Credits, and Foreign Exchange. 
 
 Hon. Edward H. Strobel, M.A., LL.B., 
 Lecturer on the Jurisprudence of France and 
 Spain . 
 
 Hon. Martin A. Knapp, LL.D., Lecturer on 
 Interstate Commerce Laic. 
 
 Hon. Carroll D. Wright, PH.D., LL.D., 
 Social Economics and Statistics. 
 
 Special lecturers are provided upon the 
 Jurisprudence of England, France, Germany, 
 Austria-Hungary, and Italy, who are authori- 
 ties in their respective subjects. 
 
 Greek Church, The, taken in its widest 
 
 field of literature, history, and science. It is 
 independent of the L T niversity of France, 
 directly under the Minister of Public Instruc- 
 tion, and is supported by the government. As 
 in the Sorbonne, the lectures are gratuitous, 
 and for the most part are designed to attract 
 auditors older than ordinary university stu- 
 dents. The College comprises two faculties, 
 one literary, one scientific; each has about 
 twenty professors. Among the professors are 
 some of the 7nost distinguished scholars and 
 scientists in France. The subjects mainly 
 covered are political economy, Assyrian and 
 Egyptian archaeology, Arabic, Slavonic litera- 
 ture, French literature, physiology, anatomy, 
 and embryology. 
 
 Escurial, The, is a famous monastery of 
 New Castile, Spain, in the province of Madrid. 
 This solitary pile of granite lias been called 
 the eighth wonder of the world, and at the time 
 of its erection surpassed every building of the 
 kind in size and magnificence. It owes its 
 origin, it is said, to an inspired vow made by 
 
 sense, comprehends ail those Christians follow- ; Philip II. during the battle of St. Quentin. 
 ing the Greek, or Greco-Slavonic rite, who re- On that occasion he implored the aid of St. 
 ceive the first seven General Councils, but reject Lorenzo, on whose day the battle was fought ; 
 the authority of the Roman pontiff and the later and vowed that should victory be granted to 
 councils of the Western church. The Greek him he would dedicate a monastery to the 
 Church calls itself l; The Holy Orthodox Cath- saint. The Escurial was begun in 1563 and 
 olic and Apostolic Church," and includes three finished in 1584, and was intended to serve as 
 distinct branches the church within the Otto- a palace, mausoleum, and monastery. It has a 
 man empire, subject directly to the Patriarch of splendid chapel, with three naves. The Pan - 
 Constantinople ; the church in the kingdom theon, or royal tomb, is a magnificently dec- 
 of Greece ; and the Russo-Greek Church in the orated octagonal chamber, in the eight sides 
 dominions of the czar. of which are numerous black marble sar- 
 The proper history of the Greek Church, as cophagi. Something of the immensity of the 
 a separate body, dates from the commence- Escurial may be conceived when it is stated 
 ment of the Greek schism, or, rather, from the that it has 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows, 
 commencement of the efforts on the part of and its cost was 6,000,000 ducats, or nearly 
 the Church of Constantinople to establish $14,000,000. Its library, previous to the sack 
 for itself a distinct jurisdiction and an inde- of the Escurial by the French in 1808, con- 
 pendent headship in the eastern division of the tained 30,000 printed and 4,300 manuscript 
 empire. The ecclesiastical preeminence of volumes, mainly treasures of Arabic literature. 
 Constantinople followed upon the political dis- In 1872 the Escurial was struck by lightning 
 tinction to which it rose as the seat of the and partially destroyed. 
 
 imperial residence and the center of the impe- Jewish Temple, The, at Jerusalem, was 
 
 vial government. Originally Byzantium (called erected by Solomon, and, from the descriptions 
 
 Constantinople after 330 A. D.) was but a sini- which have come down to us, probably 
 
 pie episcopal see, but the rank rose with the equaled in magnificence and dimensions any 
 fortunes of the city ; and before the close of the i similar building in the ancient world. The
 
 574 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 influence of the Assyrian and Egyptian styles 
 of architecture was probably exhibited in its 
 construction, and at no time did the Jews 
 possess a style which might be called their own. 
 It was consecrated 1004 B. C.; pillaged by 
 Shishak, 971 ; restored by Joash, 856 ; polluted 
 by Ahaz, 740 ; again restored by Hezekiah, 
 726 ; pillaged and burned by Nebuchednezzar, 
 588-587 ; rebuilt, 536, at the period of the 
 return from captivity ; pillaged by Antiochus, 
 168 ; rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; and finally de- 
 stroyed by Titus, A. D. 70. Its supposed site 
 is now covered by the Mosque of Omar. 
 
 GLOSSARY OF ART AND MUSI- 
 CAL TERMS. 
 
 Accompaniment. A secondary part added to the 
 principal for the improvement of the general effect. 
 
 Acanthus. A plant, the ornamental foliage of which 
 is largely employed for architectural decoration, espe- 
 cially on the Corinthian capital. There are two princi- 
 pal species, acanthus mollis and acanthus spinosa, the 
 latter somewhat resembling a thistle. 
 
 Acropolis. A fortified city, or the fortified part of a 
 city, on the summit of a hill. 
 
 Adagio. A slow movement. 
 
 Ad i.ibif inn. Implies that the time of the move- 
 ment is left to the discretion of the performer. 
 
 Allegretto. AVith cheerful quickness. 
 
 Amphiprostyle. A Greek temple, having two open 
 porticos in front and rear projecting beyond the side 
 walls. 
 
 Amphitheater. A building for gladiatorial and 
 other shows, generally elliptical in form. 
 
 Amphora. A wide earthenware jar with two han- 
 dles. 
 
 Andante. Somewhat sedate ; slowly. 
 
 Animato, Animaso, or Con Animata. Animated; 
 with spirit. 
 
 Angels. In mediaeval art divided into nine degrees : 
 Serapnim, Domination, Princedom, Cherubim, Virtues, 
 Archangels, Thrones, Powers, Angels. The Cupid-like 
 angels were only introduced in the time of the Renas- 
 cence. 
 
 Antae. Rectangular pilasters forming the ends of 
 the walls of the cella of a Greek temple, and supporting 
 the extremities of the architrave. A temple of this 
 form was called a temple " in antis " 
 
 Annulus, ) Rings of moldings above the lower part 
 
 Annulet. ) of the echinus of Doric capitls. 
 
 Anteflxa. Terra cotta ornaments placed above the 
 cornice and on the ridge of the roof of Greek temples. 
 
 Apse. The extremity of a church, generally semicir- 
 cular in form and surmounted by a semi-dome. 
 
 Aquatint. A process of engraving by acid laid on in 
 even washes with a brush, upon a broken surface formed 
 by a crackled film of resin on the copper. 
 
 Arabesque. An ornament composed of stems, foli- 
 age, leafage of plants, scrolls, and fantastic animals. 
 Not, as its name implies, an Arab invention but found 
 in Greek and Roman architecture. 
 
 Arcade. A series of arches. 
 
 Arch. A curved structure, generally a segment or 
 segments of the circle. Semicircular arches were used 
 by the Romans ; horseshoe arches by the Byzantines and 
 Moors; pointed arches formed of two intersecting seg- 
 ments of circles by the Gothic builders. 
 
 Archaic. The early period of art when forms were 
 stiff, conventional, and symbolic. 
 
 Architrave. The horizontal part of a structure rest- 
 ing immediately on the capital of column or pilaster. 
 
 Assiii. Very; used as an adverb with another word. 
 
 Astragal. A small semicircular molding at the top 
 of a column beneath the capital, also used to divide the 
 architrave horizontally into parts. Named, from its 
 supposed resemblance to a row of knucklebones. 
 
 A Temp. In regular time. 
 
 Atlantes. Human male figures, employed instead of 
 columns to support the architrave. 
 
 Atrium. A covered court in a Roman house, with an 
 opening in the center (compluvium) and roof sloping ia- 
 wards. 
 
 Baldachino. A canopy over seats and other places 
 of honor. 
 
 Barrel Vault. A vault of cylindrical form. 
 
 Baroque. Rococo. 
 
 Base. The lower division of a column on which the 
 shaft is placed ; absent in the Doric order. 
 
 Basilica. A rectangular hall divided by rows of col- 
 umns into three naves, and used by the 'Romans as a 
 court of justice. Adopted as the typical form of early 
 Christian chvirches. 
 
 Bas Relief. (Basso relievo.) Figures sculptured on 
 panel projecting less than half their proportions from 
 the surface. 
 
 Bastion. A projecting polygonal buttress on a forti- 
 fication. 
 
 Battlement. A parapet of a fortification, consisting 
 of alternate raised portions and spaces, the latter called 
 crenels or embrasures. 
 
 Bay. A portion of a structure marked off by the di- 
 vision of the vaulting, the arches, or the buttresses. 
 
 Beat. An indication of a certain duration of time. 
 
 Ben. Implying well, as ben marcato. 
 
 Body Color. In water-color painting, color made 
 opaque by intermixture with white. 
 
 Boss. An architectural ornament of ceilings, placed 
 generally where the ribs of the vault meet. 
 
 Buttress. A piece of wall built at right angles to the 
 wall of a building to strengthen the structure, either 
 immediately against the wall or connected by an arch 
 called a flying buttress. 
 
 Byzantine. The style of architecture and painting 
 in use at Constantinople from the sixth to the twelfth 
 century 
 
 Calando. A gradual diminution in speed and tone. 
 
 Caduceus. A wand of laurel or olive on which two 
 snakes are intertwined ; the emblem of Hermes. 
 
 Capital. The, usually ornamented, member which 
 crowns the top of a column or pillar, and by the form of 
 which the different orders are characterized. 
 
 Caryatides. Female figure, employed instead of col- 
 umns to support the architrave. 
 
 Cella. The internal part inclosed by the walls of a 
 Greek temple. 
 
 Chromatic. Proceeding or formed by semi-tones. 
 
 Chevron. A zigzag molding used in Romanesque 
 architecture. 
 
 Chevet. A form of apse inclosed by an arcade with 
 a series of chapels round it, common in Romanesque 
 and Gothic churches in France. 
 
 Chiaro-oscuro. The distribution of light and shade. 
 
 Cinquefoil. An ornamental foliation, consisting of 
 five projecting cusps. 
 
 Clerestory. The row of windows forming the third 
 or upper division of the nave wall of a church, rising 
 above the roof of the outer portion of the structure. 
 
 Cloister. A quadrangular covered vvalk, forming ;i 
 portion of a monastic building. 
 
 Clustered Column. A pier formed by a number of 
 shafts clustered together, either united, or separate. 
 
 Con. With ; as Con expressione. 
 
 Column. A column consists of three principal parts : 
 base, shaft, and capital. 
 
 Composite. The last of the five Roman architectural 
 orders, formed by the combination of the Ionic volute 
 with the foliage capital of the Corinthian. 
 
 Corinthian. The third order in thy Roman classifi- 
 cation, of Greek origin. Shaft slender and smooth; 
 capital richly decorated with acanthus leaf ornaments. 
 
 Cornice. 'The horizontal molded projection termi- 
 nating a building. 
 
 Corona. A molding forming part of a conical, with 
 lower part grooved to form a dripstone. 
 
 Crescendo. A gradual increase in tone. 
 
 Crypt. A subterranean chapel beneath a church. 
 
 Cupola. A concave roof. 
 
 Cusp. Pointed foliations in arch? tectural tracery. 
 
 Cyma. An undulated molding, formed of a concave 
 and' convex arc. When the upper arc is convex it is 
 called oyma reversa; when the upper is hollow, it is 
 called cyma recta. 
 
 Da. By. 
 
 Dales, or Dal. In a soft, quiet m? nner. 
 
 Damascened. Metal ornamente 1 by inlaying an- 
 other metal. 
 
 Delicato. With delicacy. 
 
 Decorated. The second of the pointed or Gothic 
 styles of architecture in England.
 
 RELIGION, EDUCATION, "FItffc AfcTS. 
 
 575 
 
 Dentils. Ornaments in the form of small cubes or 
 teeth. 
 
 Diaper. A mode of decoration by a repeated pattern, cred. 
 
 Doloroso. In a melancholy, sad style. 
 
 Doric. The oldest and simplest of the Greek orders 
 of architecture. 
 
 Loggia. The gallery or corridor of a palace. 
 Lotus. A water lily. In Egypt and India held 
 
 Dormer. A gable window in the sloping side of a 
 roof. 
 
 Dry-Point. Direct engraving upon copper with the 
 etching needle. 
 
 Echinus. The ovolo molding of a capital. 
 
 Elevation. The vertical plan of a building. 
 
 Entablature. The horizontal superstructure which 
 lies upon the columns in classic architecture. 
 
 Kut asis. The swelling of the shaft of a column. 
 
 Kpiiiaos. The portico situated at the back of a tem- 
 ple. 
 
 Espressivo, or Con Espressinne. With expression. 
 
 Etching. Engraving by tin- action of acid on a cop- 
 
 Kerplate covered with a wax ground on which lines have 
 eeii scratched by the etching needle. 
 
 Facade. The face or front of a building. 
 
 Fan Tracery. Elaborate carved work spread over an 
 arched surface. 
 
 Fine. The end. 
 
 Fillet. A plain band used in architecture to separate 
 ornaments and moldings. 
 
 I inial. An ornament of carved work representing 
 foliage on a pinnacle or spire. 
 
 Flamboyant. The style of French architecture pe- 
 culiar to the fifteenth century, contemporary with per- 
 pendicular in England. 
 
 Flutes. Small semicircular grooves or channels cut 
 in the shafts of columns or pilasters. 
 
 Forte, or For. Strong, loud. 
 
 Fresco. Painting executed on a freshly laid ground 
 of stucco. 
 
 Fret. An angular, interlaced architectural orna- 
 ment. 
 
 Frieze. (1) The middle division of an entablature 
 which lies between the architrave and cornice. (U) Any 
 horizontal sculptured band. 
 
 Furioso. With great animation. 
 
 Gable. The triangular end of a house from the eaves 
 to the top. 
 
 Genre. Scenes from domestic life. 
 
 Giusto. In perfect tinie. 
 
 Grave. The slowest time or movement. 
 
 Gri!>aille. A style of painting in gray by which solid 
 bodies are represented as if in relief. 
 
 Groin. The angular curve formed at the intersec- 
 tions of a vaulted roof. 
 
 Gusto, Con Gusto. With style; taste. 
 
 Gymnasium. A large building used by the Greeks 
 in which gymnastics were taught and practiced. 
 
 Helix. A small volute like the tendril of a vine 
 placed under the Corinthian abacus. 
 Hypostyle. A roof supported by columns. 
 
 II. The. 
 
 Irnpetuoso. Impetuously. 
 
 Impasto. The thickness of the body of pigment laid 
 on to a painting. 
 
 In. In ; as in tempo. 
 
 Iiitrado, or Iiitroduzione. An introduction to a 
 piece of music. 
 
 Intaglio. A stone in which the design is sunk be- 
 neath the surface, and gives impression of a has relief. 
 
 Ionic. The second order in Greek architecture. Dis- 
 tinguished by the voluted ornaments of its capital. 
 
 Jamb. The side of any opening in a wall. 
 
 Keystone. The top stone of an arch. 
 
 Klaft. A royal I'.gyptian headdress forming a kind 
 of hood and terminating in two Haps, which form over 
 the breast. 
 
 Largo. A slow and solemn degree of time. 
 
 Lancet. A pointed arch, obtuse at the point, resem- 
 bling a surgeon's lancet. 
 
 Lantern. A small turret above the roof of a building 
 having windows all round it. 
 
 Legato. In a smooth, even manner. 
 
 Leggiando. Lightly. 
 
 Lintel. The stone or beam placed across the top of a 
 door or window. 
 
 Marcato. In a marked manner. 
 
 Mansard. A roof with two sets of rafters of which 
 the upper part is less steep than the lower. Named af- 
 ter a French architect. 
 
 Marquetry. Inlaid work of ornamental woods and 
 stones of various colors. 
 
 Mausoleum. (1) The tomb of Mausolus, king of 
 Caria. (2) Any tomb of imposing size and magnificence. 
 
 Meme. The same. 
 
 Mezzo. In a medium degree ; as mezzo forte. 
 
 Medallion. A circular or oval tablet on the face of a 
 building. 
 
 Metope. A kind of panel between the triglyphs in 
 the Doric frieze. 
 
 Mezzo Kelievo. Sculpture in relief in which half of 
 the figure projects. 
 
 Mezzo Tiiito. A method of engraving by smoothing 
 away the lights from a ground mechanically roughened. 
 
 Moderate. Moderately. 
 
 Molto. Very; :is motto forte. 
 
 Movimento. Movement; time. 
 
 Monolith. An object formed of a single block of 
 stone. 
 
 Mosaic. Animitation of painting by joining together 
 minute pieces of hard substances of different colors. 
 
 Mullioii. The slender pieces which separate a win- 
 dow- into compartments. 
 
 Mntule. An architectural ornament of the Doric 
 order, consisting of a square block placed at equal in 
 tervals in a Doric cornice. 
 
 Naos. The interior apartment of a Greek temple. 
 
 Xave. The middle part or body of a church from the 
 choir to principal entrance between the aisles. 
 
 Nimbus. A halo or circular disk around the head of 
 sacred personages. After the eighth century, living 
 persons were in Italy distinguished by a square" nimbus, 
 which sometimes assumes the form" of a scroll partly 
 unrolled. The heads of statues of gods and of Roman 
 emperors were decorated with a crown of ravs. The 
 same is found in the Oriental representation of iinddhu. 
 
 Obbligato. An essential portion of a composition. 
 
 Ogee. An arch described with four centers so as to 
 be concave in lower and convex in upper part. 
 
 Ogive. A pointed arch. 
 
 Order, An, in architecture consists of two parts : the 
 one, vertical, consisting of a column and its base and 
 capital; the other, a horizontal entablature, consisting 
 of architrave, frieze, and cornice. The word is only used 
 when the order is one of the five whose dimensions and 
 details were fixed and defined by 1'alladio and other ar- 
 chitects of the sixteenth century; these are the Doric, 
 Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan (supposed to be a simpler form 
 of Doric), and Composite (a Roman modification of Cor- 
 inthian). 
 
 Oriel. A projecting angular window, generally tri- 
 angular or pentagonal in shape. 
 
 Ottava, or 8va. An octave. 
 
 Ovolo. A convex molding much used in classical 
 architecture. 
 
 Pagoda. A religious building of the Hindoos. 
 
 Palaestra. A place for wrestling, formerly part of 
 the gymnasium. 
 
 Pedale, or Ped. Signifies that performer must press 
 down pedal. 
 
 Pen. A little. 
 
 Pediment. A triangular crowning of a portico usu- 
 ally supported by a row of columns. 
 
 Peiidentive. " The part of a vault between two arches 
 supporting a dome. 
 
 Peripteral. A name given to a temple which had a 
 portico of six columns on each front and a detached 
 colonnade of 11 on each side of the cella. 
 
 Peristyle. A building, the interior of which is sur- 
 rounded "with columns. 
 
 Perspective. The art of representing on a flat sur- 
 face the appearance of objects from one given point of 
 view. 
 
 Piano, or P. Soft. 
 
 Pianissimo, or PP. Very soft. 
 
 Pier. Perpendicular supports from which arches 
 spring. 
 
 Pilaster. Square pillar on a wall partly imbedded in 
 it, lesa than one fourth of its thickness projecting.
 
 576 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Pinnacle. A small spire. 
 
 Piscina. A stone basin usually placed in a niche in 
 the wall of the chancel at which the priest might wash 
 his hands. 
 
 Plus. More. 
 
 Plinth. The lower projecting base of a column. 
 
 Poco a Poco. Gradually ; by a regular gradation. 
 
 Pomposo. Pompously. 
 
 Precipitate. Very quickly; hurriedly. 
 
 Premiere. First; as premiere fois ; first time. 
 
 Presto. Very quick. 
 
 Primo. First, as violino primo, first violin. 
 
 Pronaos. The portico situated in front of a temple. 
 
 Propylaea. Gateway or entrance to an Egyptian 
 temple. 
 
 auasi. In the manner of ; like. 
 uieto. With repose, quietly. 
 
 Quatrefoil. An ornament in pointed architecture, 
 consisting of four foils. 
 
 Rapido. Rapidly. 
 
 Rinforzando. Rinf . or Rf., with increase. 
 
 Ritenente, Ritenato. Decreasing in speed. 
 
 Rococo. A style of decoration distinguished by a 
 superfluity of confused and discordant detail. 
 
 Romanesque. The debased style of architecture and 
 ornament adopted in the later Roman empire, and the 
 styles founded upon it. 
 
 Rose Window. A large, circular window divided 
 into compartments by curved mullions. 
 
 Rubble. Rough stones and broken bricks, used to 
 fill up between walls. 
 
 Rustication. Hewn stone masonry, the joints of 
 which are rendered conspicuous by grooves or channels. 
 
 Sarcophagus. A stone coffin. 
 
 Scumbling. The process of going over a painting 
 with a brush, nearly dry, to soften and blend the tints. 
 
 Segno. Sign, as al segno, go back to sign. 
 
 Sempre. Always, as sempre piano. 
 
 Serioso. Seriously. 
 
 Shaft. The body of a column. 
 
 Solo, Sola. Alone. A composition rendered by one 
 person. 
 
 Sostenuto or Sost. Prolonged, sustained. 
 
 Spirito. With spirit. 
 
 Sphinx. A human head on a lion's body, typifying 
 the union of intellectual and physical power. An Egyp- 
 tian emblem, signifying the religious mystery. 
 
 Staccato. Each note to be distinctly marked. 
 
 Stesso. The same. 
 
 Stylobate. The common base of a row of columns. 
 
 Syncopation. Connecting the last note of a bar with 
 
 the first note of the following, thus forming one pro- 
 longed note with a duration equal to the two. 
 Syncopate. In a syncopated style. 
 
 Tanto or Ton. Not so much. 
 
 Tardo. Slowly. 
 
 Taenia. A band which separates the Doric frieze 
 from the architrave. 
 
 Tempo Comodo. Conveniently. 
 
 Tempera. Painting with pigments mixed with chalk 
 or clay, and diluted with size. 
 
 Theme. A subject. 
 
 Thalamus. The nuptial chamber in a Rome house. 
 
 Torso. The trunk of the statue of a human figure. 
 
 Tranquillo. Tranquilly. 
 
 Tremendi. With terrific expression. 
 
 Tremando, Tremolo. The rapid striking of a note 
 so as to produce a tremulous effect. 
 
 Trille, or Trillo. A trill or shake. 
 
 Trio. A composition for three performers. 
 
 Triplet. A group of three notes equal in duration of 
 time to two notes of the same value. 
 
 Tracery. Geometrical ornament. 
 
 Transept. A transverse nave, passing in front of 
 the choir, and crossing the longitudinal nave of a church. 
 
 Transom. The horizontal cross bar in a window. 
 
 Trefoil. An ornament of three foils. 
 
 Triforium. The second or middle story of the nave 
 wall of a Gothic church, consisting of a gallery over the 
 ceiling of the side aisle and below its roof. 
 
 Triglyph. An ornament, consisting of three flutings 
 or upright groupings, separating the metopes in a Doric 
 frieze. 
 
 Triptych. A form of pictures in three panels. 
 
 Tymp'anum. The triangular space between the 
 horizontal and sloping cornices. The name is also 
 given to the space included between the lintel of a door 
 and the arch over it. 
 
 Un. A, as un poco, a little. 
 
 Vault. An arched ceiling or roof of stone. 
 Veloce. Rapidly. 
 Velocissiino. With great rapidity. 
 Vigoroso. With vigor. 
 Vivace. Vivamented; briskly. 
 Volti Subito. Turn over quickly. 
 Volute. A spiral scroll. 
 
 Voussoirs. The wedge-shaped stones used in con- 
 structing an arch. 
 
 , ) (Lit. bearing animals.) A continuous 
 
 00 'us, f frieze! decorated with figures of ani- 
 nials, conventional and real.
 
 Book VIII. 
 
 Miscellaneous Facts ^a Figures.
 
 Miscellaneous Facts and Figures. 
 
 Signers of the Declaration of Independence. 
 
 f 
 
 NAME. 
 
 < 
 
 _ 
 Colony. 
 
 4 
 
 :> 
 
 Occupation. 
 
 Born.. 
 
 Birthplace. 
 
 Died. -i 
 4 
 
 
 6 Massachusetts Bay.. 
 2 Massachusetts Bay.. 
 9 New Hampshire. .". . . 
 1 Virginia 
 
 Lawyer Oct. 19,1735 
 Merchant... Sep. 22,1722 
 Physician.. Nov., 1729 
 Planter Sep. 10, 1736 
 Lawyer Sep. 20, 1737 
 Lawyer \pr. 17, 1741 
 Lawyer Feb. 15, 1726 
 Merchant... Jan. 24,173!) 
 Lawyer Dec. 22, 1727 
 Farmer Dec. 17, 1734 
 Printer Jan. 17,1706 
 Merchant... July 17, 1744 
 Merchant... 1 1732 
 Merchant. . . Jan. 12. 1737 
 
 Braintree ^Nlas*. 
 
 July 4, 1826 92 
 Oct. 3. 1803 81 
 Mav 1!), 1795 67 
 Oct. 10, 1797 61' 
 Nov. 14, 1832 96 
 Junel9, 1811 71 
 Sep., 179469 
 Jan. 23,181375 
 Feb. 15, 1820 93 
 Aug. 1. 18-Jl 87 
 Apr. 17, 179085 
 Nov. I 1 ::. 181471 
 May 27, 1777 45 
 Oct. 8, 1793 57 
 1784 53 
 
 Adams, Samuel 
 
 Boston Mass 
 
 Amesbury Mass. 
 
 
 Newlngton Va. 
 Annapolis Mel. 
 Somerset Co Mil. 
 Kli/.abcthtovn.. .X. ,1. 
 Philadelphia Pa. 
 Newport I! 1 
 
 Carroll, Charles. C 
 
 1 : Mary land 
 4 Maryland 
 4 New Jersey 
 8 Pennsylvania 
 2 R. I. and Prov. Plan. 
 5 New York 
 6 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 Clark, Abraham 1 
 
 Clymer, George C 
 
 Ellerv, William 5 
 Floyd, William 
 
 Setauket N. Y. 
 Boston Mass. 
 Marblehead Mass. 
 England 
 Braintree Mass. 
 
 
 Gerry, Elbridge 
 
 8 Massachusetts Bay. . 
 Georgia 
 1 Massachusetts Bay. . 
 7 Georgia 
 4 Virginia 
 
 Gwinnett, Button ^ 
 Hancock, John. 
 
 Hall, Lyman 
 
 Physician . 
 
 1731 
 
 
 Farmer 
 
 1740 
 
 Berkeley Va 
 
 April, 179151 
 17M) (5 
 Nov. 10, 1779 49 
 March, 180963 
 Oct., 179049 
 ,Iulv 13. 178579 
 May 1M79154 
 Jan. 5, 1796 64 
 .July 4,182683 
 June 19, 1794 63 
 April, 1797 63 
 Dec. 30, 1803 91 
 Junel2, 1778 63 
 1779 3C 
 June24, 1817 84 
 Jan. 1,178844 
 Jan. 22, 1798 72 
 Mav 8, 1806 73 
 April, 1777 53 
 Jan. 4, 1789 51 
 171)9 59 
 May 11, 181484 
 Sep., 1788 48 
 
 1798 C4 
 
 Hart, John : 
 Hewes, Joseph 
 
 3 New Jersey 
 5 North Carolina 
 6 South Carolina 
 3 North Carolina. . . 
 
 Farmer.. 
 
 1715 
 
 Hopewell N. J. 
 Kingston N. J. 
 St. Luke's S. C. 
 Boston .. ... Mass. 
 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawver. .. 
 
 1730 
 1746 
 June 17 1742 
 
 Heyward, Jr., Thos I 
 Hooper AVin *2 
 
 Hopkins, Steph 12 R. Land Prov. Plan. Farmer 
 Hopkinson Francis 29 New Jersey. T.awx'er 
 
 Mar. 7, 1707 Sri mate Mass. 
 1737 Philndftlnliin. Pa 
 
 Huntington, Sam'l 11 Connecticut 
 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Soldier. .. 
 
 July 3, 1732 
 Apr. 13, 1743 
 Jan. 20, IT32 
 
 Windham.... Conn 
 
 Jefferson, Thos 32 Virginia 
 Lee Richard Henry 4 1 * Virginia 
 
 Shadwell . . ., Va. 
 
 Sri-Mtforil V:i 
 
 Lee, Francis Liglltfoot 55 Virginia Farmer 
 
 Oct. 14, 1734 Stratford Va. 
 
 
 7 New York 
 
 Merchant.. . 
 Merchant. . . 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer. . 
 
 March, 1713 
 Jan. 15, 1716 
 Aug. 5, 1749 
 Mar. 19, 1734 
 1743 
 
 Llandaff Walrs 
 
 
 3 New York 
 
 Albany N. Y. 
 
 Lynch, Jr., Thos 43 South Carolina 
 M'Kean, Thos 39 Delaware , 
 Middleton, Arthur 50 South Carolina.. 
 
 Pr. George's Co..S. C. 
 New London Pa. 
 Middleton PI S. C. 
 Morrisania N. Y. 
 
 Morris, Lewis 15, New York 
 Morris, Robert 24! Pennsylvania 
 
 Farmer 
 Merchant. . . 
 Surveyor . . 
 
 1726 
 Jan. 20, 1734 
 1724 
 
 Lancashire Eng. 
 Ridley Pa 
 
 
 6 Pennsylvania 
 
 Nelson Jr Thos 4 
 
 
 Statesman.. 
 Lawver 
 
 Dec. 26, 1738 
 Oct. 31, 1740 
 1731 
 
 York Va. 
 Wye Hall Md. 
 Boston Mass. 
 Caroline Co Va . 
 
 Paca, William 28 Maryland 
 
 Paine, Robert Treat i 
 Penn, John 1 
 
 4 Massachusetts Bay. . 
 8;North Carolina 
 1 Delaware.. . . 
 
 Lawyer 
 
 Lawyer. . . .'. 
 Lawyer. 
 
 May 17, 1741 
 1734 
 
 Read, George . 4 
 
 Cecil Co Md 
 
 Rodney, Caesar 
 Ross, George 3 
 
 2 1 Delaware 
 7 Pennsylvania 
 
 General 
 
 1730 
 
 Dover . . ... Dpi . . 1 783 s.< 
 
 Lawver 
 
 1730 Newcastle Del. 
 
 July. 177949 
 Apr. 19, 1813 68 
 Jan. 23, 1800 51 
 July 23, 1793 73 
 July 11, 1806 96 
 Feb. 28, 1781 51 
 Oct. 5, 1787 45 
 Feb. 23, 1781 65 
 June 24, 1803 89 
 Feb. 2, 1804 64 
 Nov. 28, 1785 55 
 Aug. 2. 1811 81 
 Aug. 28, 1798 56 
 Nov. 15, 1794 73 
 Dec. 1, 1797 7'_> 
 June 8, 1806 80 
 
 Rush, Benjamin < 
 Rutledge, Edward 3 
 
 6, Pennsylvania 
 4 South Carolina 
 9 Connecticut 
 
 Physician . . 
 Lawyer 
 Shoe'maker. 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 Lawyer 
 
 Dec. 24, 1745 
 Nov., 1749 
 Apr. 19, 1721 
 1710 
 Oct. 1, 1730 
 1742 
 
 Berberry. . Pa 
 
 Charleston S. C. 
 Newton.. Mass 
 
 
 Smith, James 3 
 Stockton, Richard 1 
 Stone, Thomas 3 
 Taylor, Geo '3 
 Thornton. Matthew. .1 
 
 6 Pennsylvania 
 New Jersey 
 Maryland 
 3 Pennsylvania 
 7 New Hampshire 
 3 Georgia 
 Connecticut 
 
 6 Connpct.ir.iit, 
 
 Ireland 
 Princeton N. J. 
 Pointoin Manor... Md. 
 Ireland 
 Ireland 
 Frederick Co Va. 
 Kittery Me. 
 
 Physician . . 
 Physician . . 
 Lawyer 
 
 1716 
 1714 
 1740 
 
 Walton, George g 
 Whipple, William 2 
 Williams, William . .2 
 
 Sailor 
 Statesman.. 
 Lawyer 
 
 1730 
 Apr. 8,1731 
 174-> 
 
 Wilson, James 42 Pennsylvania 
 
 St. Andrews Scot. 
 Yester Scot. 
 Windsor Conn. 
 Elizabeth Co Va. 
 
 Witherspoon, John 21 New .Tersev 
 
 Minister.... Feb. 5,1722 
 Physician . . Nov. 26, 1726 
 Lawyer 1726 
 
 Wolcott, Oliver 2 
 
 5 Cnnnpet.iciit. . 
 
 Wythe, George 45 Virginia 
 
 Order in which they signed. t Age at death. 
 
 Position of the Center of Population. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 North 
 Latitude. 
 
 West 
 Longitude. 
 
 Approximate Location by Important To^vns. 
 
 Westward Movement 
 During 
 Preceding Decade. 
 
 1790 
 
 39 16.5' 
 
 76 11.2' 
 
 23 miles east of Baltimore, Md 
 
 
 1800 
 
 39 16.1 
 
 75 56 5 
 
 18 miles west of Baltimore, Md 
 
 41 miles. 
 
 1810 
 
 39 11.5 
 
 77 37.2 
 
 40 miles northwest by west of Washington, D. C. .. 
 
 36 " 
 
 1820 
 
 39 5.7 
 
 78 33 
 
 16 miles north of Woodstock, Va 
 
 50 " 
 
 1830 
 
 38 67 9 
 
 7! 16 9 
 
 ID miles west-southwest of Moorefield, W Va 
 
 39 " 
 
 1840 
 
 39 2.0 
 
 80 18.0 
 
 l(i miles south of Clarksburg. \\.Ya 
 
 55 ' 
 
 1850 
 
 38 59.0 
 
 81 19 
 
 23 miles southeast of Parkorsburg, W. Va 
 
 55 ' 
 
 1860 . . 
 
 39 04 
 
 82 48 8 
 
 20 miles south of Chillicothe. Ohio . . . 
 
 81 ' 
 
 1870 
 
 39 12.0 
 
 83 35.7 
 
 48 miles cast by north of Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 4" 
 
 1880 
 
 39 41 
 
 84 39 7 
 
 
 58 ' 
 
 1890 
 
 39 11.9 
 
 85 32.9 
 
 20 miles east of Columbus, Ind 
 
 48 '
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 579 
 
 THE ARMY Dl'IUXO THE CIVIL 
 WAR. 
 
 The following tal>le sho\vs the dates of the 
 President's proclamations for men, the num- 
 ber of men called for, and the number secured. 
 
 DATE <>r !' 
 DENT'S I'UOO.AMA- 
 TIOX. 
 
 Number 
 Called for. 
 
 Period 
 
 of 
 Service. 
 
 Number 
 Obtained. 
 
 April 15, 1861 
 
 May ;{. 1861 
 
 July 22and2.~i. IMII.. 
 May and June, 1862. 
 
 July 2. 1862 
 
 August 4, 1862 
 
 June 15, 1863 
 
 October 17,1-';.; 
 
 February 1.1*14 
 
 March 14, 1864 
 
 April 23,1864 
 
 July 18,1864 
 
 December 19,1864... 
 
 75,003 
 
 .v.'.74< I 
 500,000) 
 
 300,000 
 300,COO 
 100,000 
 300.000 ( 
 200,000 ) 
 200,000 
 85,000 
 600,000 
 200,000 
 
 3 months 
 3 years 
 
 3 months 
 3 years 
 9 "months 
 6 months 
 
 2 years 
 
 3 years 
 100 clays 
 1,2, 3 years 
 1. 2. ;t years 
 
 93,326 
 714,231 
 
 15,007 
 
 431,958 
 
 87,588 
 
 16,361 
 
 374,807 
 284.021 
 
 384.882 
 204.C68 
 
 Total 2.942,748 
 
 2,690,401 
 
 NUMBER OF MEN IN THE UNION ARMY FUR- 
 NISHED BY EACH STATE AND TERRITORY, 
 FROM APRIL 15, 1861, TO CLOSE OF WAR. 
 
 STATES AND TERRI- 
 TORIES. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Men 
 Furnished. 
 
 Aggregate 
 Reduced to a 
 ! Three Years' 
 Standing. 
 
 Alabama 2,556 
 
 Arkansas >.2>:i 
 
 California 15,725 
 
 Colorado 4,903 
 
 Connecticut 55,864 
 
 Delaware 12,284 
 
 Florida 1,290 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 259,092 
 
 Indiana 196,363 
 
 Iowa 76,242 
 
 Kansas > 20.149 
 
 Kentucky 7.1. 7>n 
 
 Louisiana 5.224 
 
 Maine 70,107 
 
 Maryland 46.638 
 
 luisetts 146,730 
 
 Michigan | 87,364 
 
 Minnesota 24. 1 120 
 
 Mississippi 545 
 
 Missouri 109,111 
 
 Nebraska 3.157 
 
 Nevada j 1,080 
 
 New Hampshire 33,937 
 
 New Jersey j 76,'si4 
 
 New York.' > > 448,850 
 
 North Carolina | 3156 
 
 Ohio ! 313,180 
 
 Oregon ; i.gio 
 
 Pennsylvania 337,936 
 
 Rhode Island 23,236 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 -t-e 31,092 
 
 Texas 1,965 
 
 Vermont 33 288 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 32,068 
 
 Wisconsin ;il _-y- 
 
 Dakota , * ' 2 oc 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Indian Territory 3,530 
 
 Montana ' 
 
 New Mexico C J561 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington 961 
 
 U. S. Army 
 
 II. S. Volunteers 
 
 U. S. Colored Troops 93,4ii 
 
 Total 2.77>.:u 
 
 1.611 
 
 7,836 
 15,725 
 
 3,697 
 50,623 
 10,322 
 
 1,290 
 
 214,133 
 
 153,576 
 
 68.630 
 
 18,706 
 
 70,832 
 
 4,654 
 
 5*i.77t; 
 
 41,275 
 
 124.104 
 
 80,111 
 
 19,693 
 
 545 
 
 86,03 ' 
 
 2,175 
 
 1,080 
 
 30,849 
 
 57.ii s 
 
 39_'.270 
 
 :;.i5t; 
 
 210.514 
 
 1.77,'i 
 
 2i">.517 
 
 17.866 
 
 26,394 
 
 1.632 
 29,068 
 
 27'.714 
 
 79,260 
 
 206 
 
 1.506 
 
 3,530 
 
 4,432 
 '964 
 
 91,789 
 
 The number of casualties in the volunteer 
 and regular armies" of the United States, dur- 
 ing the Avar of 1861-'65, according to a state- 
 ment prepared by the Adjutant-General's 
 office, was as follows : Killed in battle, 67,058 ; 
 died of wounds, 43,012 ; died of disease, 
 199,720; other causes, such as accidents, 
 murder, Confederate prisons, etc., 40,154; 
 total died, 349,944 ; total deserted, 199,105. 
 Number of soldiers in the Confederate service 
 who died of wounds or disease (partial state- 
 ment), 133,821. Deserted (partial statement), 
 104,428. Number of United States troops 
 captured during the war, 212,608 ; Confed- 
 erate troops captured, 476,169. Number of 
 United States troops paroled on the field, 
 16,431 ; Confederate troops paroled on the 
 field, 248,599. Number of United States 
 troops who died while prisoners, 30,156 ; Con- 
 federate troops who died while prisoners, 
 30,152. 
 
 The Strength of the Federal Army. 
 
 2,320,168 
 
 DATE. 
 
 On Dutv. 
 
 January 1, 1861 
 
 July 1/1861 
 
 January 1,1862 
 
 January 1, 1863 
 
 January 1, 1864 
 
 January 1,1865 
 
 May 1,1865 , 
 
 14,663 
 183,588 
 527,204 
 698,802 
 611,250 
 620.924 
 797,807 
 
 Absent. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,704 
 3,1(3 
 48.714 
 219.389 
 249,487 
 338.536 
 202,709 
 
 16,367 
 186,751 
 575.917 
 918.181 
 860,737 
 959,460 
 1,000,516 
 
 The Union losses at Bull Run (first Ma- 
 nassas), July 21, 1861, were: Killed, 470, 
 wounded, 1,071 ; captured and missing, 1,793 ; 
 aggregate, 3,334. 
 
 The Confederate losses in particular engage- 
 ments were as follows : Bull Run (first Ma- 
 nassas), July 21, 1861, killed, 387; wounded, 
 1,582; captured and missing, 13 ; aggregate. 
 1,982. Fort Donelson, Tenn., February 14- 
 16, 1862, killed, 466 ; wounded, 1,534; cap- 
 tured and missing, 13,829 ; aggregate, 15,- 
 829. Shiloh, Tenn., April 6-7, 1862, killed, 
 1,723 ; wounded, 8,012 ; captured and miss- 
 ing, 959; aggregate, 10,694. Seven Days' 
 Battle, Virginia, June 25-July 1, 1862, killed, 
 3,478; wounded, 16,261; captured and miss- 
 ing, 875 ; aggregate, 20,614. Second Ma- 
 nassas, August 21 -September 2, 1862, killed, 
 1,481; wounded and missing, 7,627; cap- 
 tured and missing, 89: aggregate, 9,197. 
 Antietam campaign, September 12-20, 1882, 
 killed, 1,886; wounded, 9,348; captured and 
 missing, 1,367; aggregate, 12,601. Fred- 
 erick sburg, December 13, 1862, killed, 596 ; 
 wounded, 4,068 ; captured and missing, 651 ; 
 aggregate, 5,315. Stone River, Tenn., De- 
 cember 31, 1862, killed, 1,294; wounded, 
 7,945; captured and missing, 1,027; aggre-
 
 580 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 gate, 10,266. Chancellorsville, May 1-4, 
 1863, killed. 1,665; wounded, 9,081; cap- 
 tured and missing, 2,018; aggregate, 12,764. 
 Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, killed, 2,592; 
 wounded, 12,706 ; captured and missing, 5,- 
 150 ; -aggregate, 20,448. Chickamauga, Sep- 
 tember 19-20, 1863 ; killed, 2,268 ; wounded, 
 
 13,613; captured and missing, 1,090; aggre- 
 gate, 16,971. 
 
 ' ' Gettysburg was the greatest battle of the 
 war ; Antietam the bloodiest. The largest 
 army was assembled by the Confederates at 
 the seven days' fight ; by the Unionists at the 
 Wilderness." 
 
 THE GREAT BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 As to the loss in the Union armies, the greatest battles in the war were : - 
 
 DATE. 
 
 BATTLE. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Wounded.* 
 
 Missing. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 July 1-3, 1863 
 May 8-18, 1864 
 
 Gettysburg 
 Spottsylvania 
 
 3,070 
 2,725 
 2,246 
 2,108 
 1,606 
 1,656 
 1,844 
 1,284 
 1,747 
 1.754 
 1.730 
 1,688 
 
 14,497 
 13,413 
 
 12,037 
 9.549 
 9,762 
 9,749 
 9,077 
 9600 
 8,452 
 8,408 
 7.802 
 8.513 
 
 5,434 
 2,258 
 3,383 
 753 
 5,919 
 4,774 
 1,816 
 1,709 
 4,263 
 2,885 
 3,717 
 1,185 
 
 23,001 
 18,396 
 17,666 
 12.410 
 17,287 
 16,179 
 32,737 
 12,653 
 14,462 
 13,047 
 13,249 
 11,386 
 
 May 5-7, 1864 
 
 Wilderness 
 
 September 17, 1862 
 
 Antietamf 
 
 May 1-3, 1863 
 
 Chancellorsville 
 
 September 19,20, 1863. . . . 
 June 1-4, 1864 
 
 Chickamauga 
 
 Cold Harbor 
 
 December 11-14, 18(52 
 August 28-30, 1862 
 
 Fredericksburg 
 Manassast. . . 
 
 April 6-7 1862 Shilnh 
 
 December 31 1862 
 
 Sf.onfi KiverS 
 
 June 15-19, 1864 Petersburg (assault) 
 
 * Wounded in these and the following returns includes mortally wounded, 
 t Not including South Mountain or Crampton's Gap. 
 j Including Chantilly, Rappahannock, Bristol Station, and Bull Run Bridge. 
 Including Knob Gap and losses on January 1 and 2, 1863. 
 
 Secession and Readmission of Con- 
 federate States. 
 
 Seceded. Readmitted. 
 
 South Carolina Dec. 20, I860.... June 11,1868 
 
 Mississippi Jan. 9, 1861.. ..Feb. 3,1870 
 
 Alabama Jan. 11,1861 June 11,1868 
 
 Florida Jan. 11, 1861... June 11, 1868 
 
 Georgia Jan. 19, 1861.... April 20, 1870 
 
 Louisiana Jan, 26, 1861 . . . .June 11, 1868 
 
 Texas Feb. 1, 1861 . . . .Mar. 15, 1870 
 
 Virginia Aprilie, 1861. ...Jan. 15, 1870 
 
 Arkansas May 6, 1861 June 20, 1868 
 
 North Carolina May 21, 1861.... June 11, 1868 
 
 Tennessee June 24, 1861 July, 1866 
 
 The whole number of men obtained by 
 draft was 168,649. The whole number of 
 colored troops obtained was 186,097. The 
 greatest number in active service in the army 
 at any one time was 797,807. 
 
 The Diplomatic Service. The diplo- 
 matic service of the United States, all of which 
 is in charge of the Secretary of State, consists 
 of Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Pleni- 
 potentiary, Ministers Resident, Charges d'Af- 
 faires, Consuls-General, Consuls and Commer- 
 cial Agents. 
 
 The highest class of ministers are those 
 sent to France, Germany, Great Britain, and 
 Russia ; they are paid $17,500 per year. The 
 second class ($12,000 a year) are sent to Aus- 
 tria, Hungary, Brazil, China, Italy, Japan, 
 Mexico, and Spain. The third class ($10,000 
 a year) go to Chile, Peru, and the Central 
 American States. Ministers Resident receive 
 
 $7,500 (with the exception of the one in 
 Bolivia, $5,000, and the one in Liberia, 
 $4,000), and are in the Argentine Republic, 
 Belgium, Colombia, Hawaiian Islands, Hayti, 
 the Netherlands, Sweden and Norway, Turkey 
 and Venezuela. Charges d' Affaires have$5,000 
 a year, and are in Denmark, Portugal, Swit- 
 zerland, Uruguay, and Paraguay. There are 
 five Consuls-General in British dominions, at 
 Calcutta, Melbourne, London, Halifax, and 
 Montreal ; two in Germany, at Berlin and 
 Frankfort ; two in Turkey, at Cairo and 
 Constantinople ; and one each in Paris, Vi- 
 enna, Rome, St. Petersburg, Bucharest, 
 Bangkok, Shanghai, Kanagawa, and Mex- 
 ico. Their salaries range from $2,000 to 
 $6,000. There are the following ranks of 
 consulates: Five at $6,000 a vear ; two at 
 $5,000 ; one at $4,500 ; six at $"4,000; eight 
 at $3,500; twenty-one at $3,000; sixteen at 
 $2,500; thirty-seven at, $2,000; forty-seven 
 at $1,500; and twenty at $1,000. All con- 
 suls receiving a fixed salary pay into the 
 treasury all fees received by virtue of their 
 office. But there are many consuls and 
 agents whose only compensation comes from 
 fees. Such officers are usually allowed to go 
 into business. 
 
 Mason and Dixon's Line. A name 
 given to the southern boundary line of the 
 free state of Pennsylvania which' formerly
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 581 
 
 separated it from the slave states of Maryland 
 and Virginia. It was run with the excep- 
 tion of about twenty-two miles by Charles 
 Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English 
 mathematicians and surveyors, between Nov. 
 15, 1763, and Dec. 26, 1767. During the ex- 
 cited debate in Congress, in 1820, on the ques- 
 tion of excluding slavery from Missouri, the 
 eccentric John Randolph of Roanoke made 
 great use of this phrase, which was caught up 
 and re-echoed by every newspaper in the land, 
 and thus gained a celebrity which it still re- 
 tains. 
 
 Famous Giants and Dwarfs. The 
 most noted giants of ancient and modern 
 times are as follows : 
 
 Height, 
 Name. Place. Feet. Period. 
 
 Goliath Palestine.. 11.0 B. C. 1063. 
 
 Galbara Rome 9.9 Claudius Caesar. 
 
 John Middleton England. . 9.3 A. D. 1578. 
 
 Frederick's Swede Sweden... 8.4 
 
 Cu.ianus Finland... 7.9 
 
 Gilly Tyrol 8.1 
 
 Patrick Cotter Cork 8.7 1806. 
 
 Chang Gow Pekiu 7.8 1880. 
 
 Many of the great men of history have been 
 rather small in stature. Napoleon was only 
 about 5 ft. 4 in., while Grant was 5 ft. 7 in. 
 One of the greatest of American statesmen, 
 Alexander H. Stephens, never excelled 115 
 pounds in weight, and in his old age his 
 weight was less than 100 pounds. 
 
 The more notable human mites are named 
 below : 
 
 Height, Date of Place of 
 
 Name. Inches. Birth. Birth. 
 
 Count Borowlaski 39 1739 Warsaw. 
 
 Tom Thumb (.Chas. S. Stratton) 31 1837 New York. 
 
 Mrs. Tom Thumb 32 1842 New York. 
 
 Che-Man 25 1838 China. 
 
 Lucia Zarate 20 1863 Mexico. 
 
 General Mite 21 18(54 New York. 
 
 Summer Heat in Various Countries. 
 
 The following figures show the extreme 
 summer heat in the various countries of the 
 world : Bengal and the African desert, 150 
 Fahrenheit ; Senegal and Guadaloupe, 130 ; 
 Persia, 125 ; Calcutta and Central America, 
 120 ; Afghanistan and the Arabian desert, 
 110 ; Cape of Good Hope and Utah, 105 ; 
 Greece, 104 ; Arabia, 103 ; Montreal, 103 ; 
 New York, 102 ; Spain, India, China, 
 Jamaica, 100 ; Sierra Leone, 94 ; France, 
 Denmark, St. Petersburg, Shanghai, the Bur- 
 man Empire, Buenos Ayres, and the Sand- 
 wich Islands, 90 ; Great Britain, Siam, and 
 Peru, 85 ; Portugal, Pekin, and Natal, 80 ; 
 Siberia, 77 ; Australia and Scotland, 75 ; 
 Italy, Venezuela, and Madeira, 73 ; Prussia 
 and New Zealand, 70 ; Switzerland and Hun- 
 gary, 66 ; Bavaria, Sweden, Tasmania, and 
 Moscow, 65 ; Patagonia and the Falkland 
 j 55 i Iceland, 45 : Nova Zembla, 34. 
 
 Curious Misnomers. Arabic figures 
 were not invented by the Arabs, but the early 
 scholars of India. 
 
 Cleopatra's needles were not erected by that 
 queen, neither do they commemorate any event 
 in her history. They were set up by Rameses 
 the Great. 
 
 The Jerusalem artichoke has no connection 
 whatever with the holy city of the Jews. It is 
 a species of sunflower, and gets its name from 
 girasole, one of the scientific names of that 
 genus of plants. 
 
 The \vord "pen " means a feather, and is 
 from the Latin penna, a wing. Surely the ex- 
 pression ' ' a steel pen ' ' could be improved 
 upon. 
 
 Galvanized iron is not galvanized at all, but 
 is coated with zinc by being plunged into a 
 bath of that metal and muriatic acid. 
 
 Pompey's pillar at Alexandria was neither 
 erected by Pompey nor to his memory. 
 
 Common salt is not a salt and has long since 
 been excluded from the class of bodies denom- 
 inated " salts." 
 
 Rice paper is not made from either rice or 
 straw, but from a pithy plant called tungtsua, 
 found in China, Corea, and Japan. 
 
 Brazil grass neither comes from nor grows 
 in Brazil. It is strips from a species of Cuban 
 palm. 
 
 Rare United States Coins and their 
 Value. The rarest of the Half-cents are as 
 follows : 1793 valued at $1 : 1796 valued at 
 110 ; 1831, 1836, 1840 to 1849, and 1852, val- 
 ued at $4. 
 
 The rarest of the Cents are as follows : 1793 
 with wreath is valued at $2.50 ; 1793 with 
 chain valued at $3.50 ; 1793 with liberty cap, 
 valued at $4 ; 1799 valued at $25 ; 1804 valued 
 at $200; 1809 valued at $1. 
 
 The rarest of the Silver Dollars are as fol- 
 lows : 1794 valued at $35; 1798, with small 
 eagle, valued at $2 ; 1799, with five stars fac- 
 ing, valued at $2 ; 1804 valued at $800 ; 1836 
 valued at $5; 1838 valued at $25; 1839 val- 
 ued at $15 ; 1851 valued at $20 ; 1852 valued 
 at $25 ; 1854 A r alued at $6 ; 1855 valued at $5 ; 
 1856 valued at $2 ; 1858 valued at $20. 
 
 The rarest of the Silver Half Dollars are as fol- 
 lows : 1794 valued at $5 ; 1796 valued at $40 ; 
 1797 valued at $30 ; 1801 valued at $2; 1802 
 valued at $2; 1815 valued at $4 ; 1836 reeded, 
 valued at $3 ; 1 838 Orleans, valued at $5 ; 
 1">52 valued at $3 ; 1853, no arrows, valued at 
 $15. 
 
 The rarest of the Silver Quarter Dollars are 
 as follows : 1796 valued at $3 ; 1804 valued at 
 $ 5 ; 1823 valued at $50 ; 1853, no arrows, val- 
 ued at xL 
 
 The rarest of the Silver Twenty-cent pieces
 
 582 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 are as follows : 1874 proof, valued at $10 ; 1877 
 proof, valued at $2 ; 1878 proof, valued at $2. 
 
 The rarest of the Silver Dimes, or Ten-cent 
 pieces, are as follows : 1796 valued at f 3 ; 1797, 
 16 stars, valued at $4 ; 1797, 13 stars, valued 
 at |4. 50; 1798 valued at $2; 1800 valued at 
 $4; 1801 to 1804, each valued at $3; 1804 
 valued at $5 ; 1805 to 1811, each valued at 50 
 cents ; 1811 valued at 75 cents ; 1822 valued at 
 $3; 1846 valued at $1. 
 
 The rarest of the Silver Half- Dimes, or Five- 
 cent pieces, are as follows : 1794 valued at $3 ; 
 1795 valued at 75 cents; 1796 and 1797 val- 
 ued at $2 each ; 1800 valued at 75 cents ; 1801 
 valued at $1.50; 1802 valued at $50; 1803 
 valued at $1.50 ; 1805 valued at $3 ; 1846 val- 
 ued at $1 . 
 
 The rarest of the Silver Three-cent pieces 
 are as follows : 1851 to 1855 valued at 15 cents 
 each; 1855 valued at 25 cents; 1856 to 1862 
 valued at 15 cents each; 1863 to 1873 valued 
 at 50 cents each. 
 
 Feminine Height and Weight. It is 
 often asked how heavy a woman ought to be 
 in proportion to her height. A very young 
 girl may becomingly be thinner than a matron, 
 but the following table gives a fair indication 
 of proper proportions : 
 
 Pounds. 
 Five ft. in height,about 100 
 
 Five ft. one inch 
 Five ft. two inches 
 Five ft. three in. 
 Five ft. four in. 
 Five ft. five inches 
 Five ft. six inches 
 
 106 
 113 
 119 
 130 
 Io8 
 144 
 
 Pounds. 
 Five ft. seven in. .about 150 
 
 Five ft. eight in. 
 Five ft. nine in. 
 Five ft. ten inches 
 Five ft. eleven in. 
 Six feet 
 Six feet one inch 
 
 155 
 1G3 
 169 
 176 
 
 ISO 
 
 186 
 
 Great Financial Panics. The most 
 remarkable crises since the beginning of the 
 present century have been as follows : 1814, 
 England, two hundred and forty banks sus- 
 pended ; 1825, Manchester, failures two mil- 
 lions ; 1831 , Calcutta, failures fifteen millions ; 
 1837, United States, "Wild-cat" crisis, all 
 banks closed ; 1839, Bank of England saved by 
 Bank of France ; severe also in France, where 
 ninety-three companies failed for six millions ; 
 1844, England, state loans to merchants, 
 Bank of P^ngland reformed ; 1847, England, 
 failures twenty millions, discount thirteen per 
 cent. ; 1857, United States, 7,200 houses failed 
 for one hundred and eleven millions; 1866, 
 London, Overend-Gurney crisis, failures ex- 
 ceeded one hundred millions; 1869, Black 
 Friday in New York (Wall street), Septem- 
 ber 24. 
 
 Yankee-Doodle. The air known as 
 "Yankee-Doodle" wa originally " Nankee- 
 Doodle," and is as old as the time of Crom- 
 well. It was known in New England before 
 the Revolution, and is said to have been 
 played by the English troops in derisive allu- 
 sion to the then popular nickname of the New 
 
 Englanders ; and afterwards the New England- 
 ers, saying that the British troops had been 
 made to dance to "Yankee-Doodle," adopted 
 the air. 
 
 Yankee, Origin of the Name. The 
 theories which have been advanced as to the 
 origin of this name are numerous. According 
 to Thierny it was a corruption of Jankin, a 
 diminutive of John, which was a nickname given 
 by the Dutch colonists of New York to their 
 neighbors in the Connecticut settlements. In 
 a history of the American war, written by Dr. 
 William Gordon, and published in 1789, was 
 another theory. Dr. Gordon said that it was 
 a cant word in Cambridge, Mass., as early as 
 1713, used to denote especial excellence as a 
 Yankee good horse, Yankee good cider, etc. 
 He supposed that it was originally a byword 
 in the college, and, being taken by the students 
 into parts of the country, gradually obtained 
 general currency in New England, and at 
 length came to be taken up in other parts of 
 the country, and applied to New Englanders 
 as a term of slight reproach. Aubury, an 
 English writer, says that it is derived from a 
 Cherokee word eankke which signifies cow- 
 ard and slave. This epithet was bestowed on 
 the inhabitants of New England by the Vir- 
 ginians for not assisting them in a war with 
 the Cherokees. The most probable theory, 
 however, is that advanced by Mr. Heckewelder. 
 that the Indians, in endeavoring to pronounce 
 the word English, or Anglais, made it Yen- 
 gees, or Yangees, and this originated the term. 
 
 The World's Fairs. 
 
 WHERE 
 HELD. 
 
 London, ..... 
 
 Paris ........ 
 
 London ...... 
 
 Paris ........ 
 
 Vienna ...... 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Paris ........ 
 
 Sydney ..... 
 
 Melbourne .. 
 
 Fisheries Ex- 
 hibit ion, 
 London --- 
 
 Health Exhi- 
 bition, Lon- 
 don ........ 
 
 Inventi on s 
 Exhibition, 
 London ..... 
 
 Colonial and 
 Indian, 
 London.. .. 
 
 Area 
 Cov- 
 ered.* 
 
 Acres. 
 21 
 
 24V 2 
 23% 
 37 
 40 
 CO 
 60 
 26 
 
 Paris ....... 
 
 Chicago ..... 
 
 lxr.1 
 lWi5 
 180'.' 
 
 187H 
 1S7! 
 
 1SSII 
 
 1883 
 1884 
 1885 
 
 1880 13 
 
 1SS8 .... 
 
 1889 751/2 
 
 1893 633 
 
 13,037 
 20.831) 
 28,653 
 50,226 
 50,000 
 30,864 
 40,366 
 9,345 
 
 3,000 
 
 6,039,195 
 
 5,162,330 
 
 6,211,103 
 
 8,805,969 
 
 6,740,500 
 
 10,164,489 
 
 16,032,725 
 
 1,117,536 
 
 1,330,279 
 
 2,703,051 
 4,153,390 
 3,760,581 
 
 /- = 
 
 ^ 
 
 141 jS 1,780, 000 
 200| 644,100 
 '"- 1 1,614,260 
 2,103,675 
 1,032.385 
 3.813,724 
 2,681,650 
 200,000 
 
 585,000 
 892,545 
 750,000 
 
 5.550,745 164 1.025.000 
 
 5,748,379 161 560,330 
 
 55,000 28,149,353 185 8.310.000 
 
 27.5:;9,521 1*4 14,000,0110 
 
 * Ktiildings and covered structures. 
 t The largest number of visitors in any one day was 
 400.000 in Paris, and 716,881 in Chicago. 
 t Receipts for admission.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 583 
 
 The Average Velocities of Various 
 Bodies. A man walks 3 miles per hour or 
 4 feet per second. A horse trots 7 miles per 
 hour or 10 feet per second. A horse runs 20 
 miles per hour or 29 feet per second. Steam- 
 boat runs 20 miles per hour or 26 feet per 
 second. Sailing vessel runs 10 miles per hour 
 or 14 feet per second. Rapid rivers flow 3 
 miles per hour or 4 feet per second. A mod- 
 erate wind blows 7 miles per hour or 10 feet 
 per second. A storm moves 36 miles per hour 
 or 52 feet per second. A hurricane moves 80 
 miles per hour or 117 feet per second. A rifle 
 ball moves 1,000 miles per hour or 1,466 feet 
 per second. Sound, 743 miles per hour or 
 1,142 feet per second. Light, 192,000 miles 
 per second. Electricity, 288,000 miles per 
 second. 
 
 Table of the Principal Alloys. A 
 combination of copper and tin mak'es bath metal. 
 
 A combination of copper and zinc makes 
 bell metal. 
 
 A combination of tin and copper makes 
 bronze metal. 
 
 A combination of tin, antimony, copper, 
 and bismuth makes britannia metal. 
 
 A combination of tin and copper makes 
 cannon metal. 
 
 A combination of copper and zinc makes 
 Dutch gold. 
 
 A combination of copper, nickel, and zinc, 
 with sometimes a little iron and tin, makes 
 German silver. 
 
 A combination of gold and copper makes 
 standard gold. 
 
 A combination of gold, copper, and silver 
 makes old standard gold. 
 
 A combination of tin and copper makes gun 
 metal. 
 
 A combination of copper and zinc makes 
 mosaic gold. 
 
 A combination of tin and lead makes pewter. 
 
 A combination of lead and a little arsenic 
 makes sheet metal. 
 
 A combination of silver and copper makes 
 standard silver. 
 
 A combination of tin and lead makes solder. 
 
 A combination of lead and antimony makes 
 type metal. 
 
 A combination of copper and arsenic makes 
 white copper. 
 
 How to Mix Printing Inks and 
 Paints in the Preparation of Tints. 
 The first named color always predominates. 
 
 Mixing dark green and purple makes bottle 
 green. 
 
 Mixing white and medium yellow makes 
 buff tint. 
 
 Mixing red, black, and blue makes dark 
 brown . 
 
 Mixing bronze, blue, lemon yellow, and 
 black makes dark green. 
 
 Mixing, white, medium yellow, and black 
 makes drab tint. 
 
 Mixing white, lake, and lemon yellow makes 
 flesh tint. 
 
 Mixing lemon yellow and bronze blue makes 
 grass green. 
 
 Mixing white and black makes gray tint. 
 
 Mixingwhite and purple makes lavender tint. 
 
 Mixing red, black, and medium yellow 
 makes maroon. 
 
 Mixing lake and purple makes magenta. 
 
 Mixing medium yellow and purple makes 
 olive green. 
 
 Mixing medium yellow and red makes 
 orange. 
 
 Mixing white, ultramarine blue, and black 
 , makes pearl tint. 
 
 Mixing white and lake makes pink. 
 
 Mixing ultramarine blue and lake makes 
 | purple. 
 
 Mixing orange, lake, and purple makes 
 russet. 
 
 Mixing medium yellow, red, and " white 
 makes sienna. 
 
 Mixing white and ultramarine blue makes 
 sky blue. 
 
 Mixing ultramarine blue, black, and white 
 makes slate. 
 
 Mixing vermilion and black makes Turkey 
 red. 
 
 Mixing white, yellow, red, and black makes 
 umber. 
 
 Durability of Different Woods. 
 Experiments have been lately made by driving 
 sticks, made of different woods, each two feet 
 long and one and one half inches square, into 
 the ground, only one half an inch projecting 
 outward. It was found that in five years all 
 those made of oak, elm, ash, fir, soft mahogany, 
 and nearly every variety of pine, were totally 
 rotten. Larch, hard pine, and teak wood 
 were decayed on the outside only, while acacia, 
 with the exception of being also slightly at- 
 tacked on the exterior, was otherwise sound. 
 Hard mahogany and cedar of Lebanon were 
 in tolerably good condition ; but only Virginia 
 cedar was found as good as when put in the 
 ground. This is of some importance to build- 
 ers, showing what woods should be avoided, 
 and what others used by preference in under- 
 ground work. 
 
 The durability of wood when kept dry is 
 very great, as beams still exist which are 
 known to be nearly 1,100 years old. Piles 
 driven by the Romans prior to the Christian 
 era have been examined of late, and found to 
 be perfectly sound after an immersion of nearly 
 2,000 years.
 
 584 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The wood of some tools will last longer than 
 the metals, as in spades, hoes, and plows. In 
 other tools the wood is first gone, as in wagons, 
 wheelbarrows, and machines. Such wood 
 should be painted or oiled ; the paint not only 
 looks well, but preserves the wood ; petroleum 
 oil is as good as any other. 
 
 Hard wood stumps decay in five or six years ; 
 spruce stumps decay in about the same time ; 
 hemlock stumps in eight to nine years ; cedar, 
 eight to nine years ; pine stumps, never. 
 
 Cedar, oak, yellow pine, and chestnut are 
 the most durable woods in dry places. 
 
 Timber intended for posts is rendered almost 
 proof against rot by thorough seasoning, char- 
 ring, and immersion in hot coal tar. 
 
 Time in Which Money Doubles. 
 
 SIMPLE 
 INTEREST. 
 
 50 years 
 
 2% 40 years 
 
 COMP. 
 INTEREST. 
 
 35 years 
 28yrs26 da 
 
 ' 33 yrs 4 mo 23yrs lC4da 
 3% 28 yrs 208da { 20 yrs 54 da 
 4 25 years 17yrs246da 
 4V 2 22 yrs 81 da 15 yrs273da 
 
 SIMPLE 
 INTEREST. 
 
 20 years 
 
 COMP. 
 INTEREST. 
 
 14 yrs 75 da 
 
 16 yrs 8 mo]llyrs327da 
 14 yrs 104da 10 yrs 89 da 
 12% years 9 yrs 2 days 
 9 11 yrs 40 da 8 yrs 16 da 
 10 1 10 years |7yrslOOda 
 
 "A Dollar Saved, a Dollar Earned." 
 
 The way to accumulate money is to save 
 small sums with regularity. A small sum 
 saved daily for fifty years will grow at the 
 following rate : 
 
 Daily Savings. 
 
 One cent 
 
 Ten cents . 
 
 Result. 
 
 9,504 
 
 Daily Savings. Result. 
 
 Sixty cents $57,024 
 
 Seventy cents 66,528 
 
 Eighty* cents 76,032 
 
 Ninety cents 85,537 
 
 One dollar 95,208 
 
 Twenty cents 19,006 
 
 Thirty cents 28,512 
 
 Forty cents 38,015 
 
 Fifty cents 47,520 
 
 Pecuniary Value of Metals. Few 
 
 people have any idea of the value of precious 
 metals other than gold, silver, and copper, 
 which are commonly supposed to be the most 
 precious of all. There are many metals more 
 valuable and infinitely rarer. The following 
 table gives the names and prices of all the 
 known met-.nls of pecuniary worth : 
 
 Trice, Av. Pound 
 
 Gallium $68,600.00 
 
 Vanadium 10 780.00 
 
 Rubidium........ 9,800.00 
 
 Thorium 8,330.00 
 
 Glucinium 5,800.00 
 
 Calcium 4,900.00 
 
 Lanthanum 4,900.00 
 
 Lithium 4.900.00 
 
 Indium 4,410.00 
 
 Tantalum 4,410.00 
 
 Yttrium 4,410.00 
 
 Didymium 4,410.00 
 
 Strontium 4,200.00 
 
 Arium 3,6 T 5.00 
 
 Erbium 3,6 T 5.00 
 
 Ruthenium 2,695.00 
 
 Niobium 2, ,,50.00 
 
 Rhodium 2,i50.00 
 
 Barium 1,96000 
 
 Titanium 1.102.00 
 
 Zirconium 1,040.00 
 
 Osmium 1,040.00 
 
 Uranium 980.00 
 
 $0.00 
 
 Price, Av. Pound 
 
 Tellurium !5490.00 
 
 Chromium 490.00 
 
 Gold 300.00 
 
 Molybdenum 245.00 
 
 Platinum 141.00 
 
 Thallium 122.50 
 
 Iridium 112.00 
 
 Tungsten 36.00 
 
 Potassium 28.00 
 
 Selenium 18.80 
 
 Cobalt 8.00 
 
 Matrnesium 4.50 
 
 Bismuth 2.75 
 
 Sodium 2.50 
 
 Cadmium 1.30 
 
 Manganese 1.10 
 
 Arsenic . 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 Tin 
 
 Copper 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Lead 
 
 VALUE OF METALS AS CONDUCTORS. 
 
 Heat. Electricity. 
 . 37 16 
 
 Heat. Electricity. 
 Gold 100 94 
 
 Platinum... 98 
 
 Silver 97 
 
 Copper 90 
 
 16 
 74 
 
 100 
 
 Iron 
 
 Zinc 36 
 
 Tin 30 
 
 Lead 18 
 
 TENACITY OF METALS. 
 
 A wire, 0.84 of a line in diameter, will sustain weights 
 as follows : 
 
 Lead 28 Ibs. 
 
 Tin 35 " 
 
 Zinc 110 " 
 
 Gold 150 " 
 
 Silver 187 Ibs. 
 
 Platinum 274 " 
 
 Copper 302 " 
 
 Iron 549 " 
 
 FLUID DENSITY OF METALS. 
 
 Zinc 6.48 
 
 Iron 6.88 
 
 Tin 7.03 
 
 Copper 8.22 
 
 Silver 9.51 
 
 Lead 10.37 
 
 Mode of Execution in Every Country. 
 
 Country. Mode. Publicity. 
 
 Austria Gallows Public. 
 
 Bavaria Guillotine Private. 
 
 Belgium Guillotine Public. 
 
 Brunswick Ax Private. 
 
 China Sword or cord Public. 
 
 Denmark Guillotine Public. 
 
 Ecuador Musket Public. 
 
 France Guillotine Public. 
 
 Great Britain Gallows Private. 
 
 Hanover Guillotine Private. 
 
 Italy Sword or gallows* Public. 
 
 Netherlands .... Gallows Public. 
 
 Oldenberg Musket Public. 
 
 Portugal Gallows Public. 
 
 Prussia Sword Private. 
 
 Russia Musket, gallows, or sword.. .Public. 
 
 Saxony Guillotine Private. 
 
 Spain Garrote Public. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Fifteen cantons . . Sword Public. 
 
 Two cantons Guillotine Public. 
 
 Two cantons Guillotine Private. 
 
 United States (other 
 than New York and J Mostly 
 
 Massachusetts) Gallows ( Private. 
 
 New York and Mass. Electricity Private. 
 
 * Capital punishment abolished in 1876. 
 
 Great Fires and Conflagrations. 
 
 London, September 2-6, 1666. Eighty-nine 
 churches, many public buildings, and 13,200 
 houses destroyed ; 400 streets laid waste, 200,- 
 000 persons homeless. The ruins covered 436 
 acres. 
 
 New York, Dec. 16, 1835 600 buildings; 
 loss, $20,000,000. Sep. 6, 1839. $10,000,- 
 000 worth of property. 
 
 Pittsburg, April 10, 18451,000 build- 
 ings ; loss, $6,000,000. 
 
 Philadelphia, July 9, 1850. 350 buildings ; 
 loss, $1 ,500,000 ; 25 persons killed ; 9 drowned ; 
 120 wounded. 
 
 St. Louis, May 4, 1851. Large portion of 
 the city burned ;" loss, $15,000,000. 
 
 San Francisco, May 3-5, 1851. 2,500 
 buildings; loss, $3,500,000; many lives lost. 
 June 22, 1851. 500 buildings; loss, $3,000,- 
 000. 
 
 Santiago (Spain), Dec. 8, 1863. A fire in 
 the church of the Campania, beginning amid 
 combustible ornaments ; 2,000 persons killed, 
 mostly women. 
 
 Charleston, S. C., Feb. 17, 1865. Almost
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 585 
 
 totally destroyed, with large quantities of dam it cut trees away as if they were stalks of 
 naval and military stores. mullein. 
 
 Richmond, Va., April2and3, 1865. Ingreat A Woman's Chance of Marrying. 
 part destroyed by fire at time of Confederate Every woman has some chance to marry ; it may 
 evacuation. be one to fifty, or it maybe ten to one that she 
 
 Portland, Me., July 4, 1866. Almost en- will- Representing her entire chance at one 
 tirely destroyed ; loss, $15,000,000. j hundred at certain points of her progress in 
 
 Chicago, Oct. 8 and 9, 1871 Three and time it is found to be in the following ratio : 
 
 one half square miles laid waste; 17,450 Between the ages of 15 and 20 years 144 per cent. 
 
 hiiilrlincrsHpstrnvpH OfiO r,prnnQlHllor> OS ^nn Between the ages of 20 and 25 years 52 per cent. 
 
 tniUdings destroy ed , JUU persons killed ,9,500 Between the ages of 25 and 30 years ISpercent. 
 
 made homeless. July 14, 1874 Another Between the ages of 30 and a5 years 15/ 2 per cent. 
 
 crrpat firp lnQ *1 ftOO nnf> Between the ages of 35 and 40 years 3% per cent. 
 
 great nre , loss, f*,UyO,UUU. Between the ages of 40 and 45 years 2% per cent, 
 
 Great forest fires in Michigan and Wiscon- Between the ages of 45 and 50 years % of l per cent. 
 
 Sin, Oct. 8-14, 18712,000 lives lost. Between the ages of 50 and 56 years y 4 of 1 per cent. 
 
 Boston, Nov. 9-11, 1872. 800 buildings ; After sixty it is one tenth of one per cent., 
 loss, $73,000,000 ; 15 killed. or one chance in a thousand. 
 
 Fall River, Mass., Sept. 19, 1874 Great Tn e Great Waterfalls. According to 
 
 factory fires ; 60 persons killed. a recent calculation, the highest waterfalls in 
 
 St. John, N. B., June 20, 1877 Loss, the world are the losemite Falls, California, 
 
 $12,500,000. 1,500 feet. Krimbs Falls have a total height 
 
 Brooklyn Theater burned, Dec. 5, 1876 of 1,148 feet. The three falls next in height 
 
 300 lives lost. are found in Scandinavia the Verme Fuss, 
 
 Seattle and Spokane, Wash., 1889. About in Romsdal, 984 feet; the Vettis Foss, on the 
 10,000,000 each. Sogne Fiord, 853 feet ; the Rjuken Foss, in 
 
 Great Floods and Inundations. An Thelemarken, 804 feet. With a decrease in 
 inundation in Cheshire, England, A. D. 353. height of 213 feet, the three Velino Falls, 591 
 3,000 persons perished. feet, near Zerni (the birthplace of Tacitus), 
 
 Glasgow, A. D. 758 More than 400 fami- follow next in order, and they are succeeded by 
 
 lies drowned. the three Tessa Falls, in the Yal Formazza, 
 
 Dort, April 17, 1421. 72 villages sub- 541 feet. The Gastein Falls, in the Gastein 
 merged ; 100,000 people drowned. Valley, 469 feet, rank between the Skjaggedal 
 
 Overflow of the Severn, A. D. 1483, lasting Foss, in the Hardanger Fiord, 424 feet, and 
 ten days Men, women, and children carried the Boring Foss, in the same fiord. If the 
 away in their beds, and the waters covered the width of the falls is taken into consideration, 
 tops of many mountains. the most imposing are those of the Victoria 
 
 General inundation in Holland, A: D. Falls of the Zambesi, which are 391 feet high, 
 1530. By failure of dikes; 400,000 said to with a width of 3, 200 feet. A long way behind 
 have been' drowned. these falls come the Niagara Falls, 177 feet 
 
 At Catalonia, A. D. 1617. 50,000 drowned, high and 1,968 feet wide. 
 
 Johnstown, Pa., May 31, 1889. By the Weight of Eggs. The following table 
 bursting of a huge reservoir on the mountains, of the weight of eggs per pound of various 
 the town was almost entirely destroyed, and breeds of fowls and the number of eggs laid 
 about 6,000 persons perished. The water in in a year is approximately fair, though it may 
 its passage to Johnstown descended about two vary under exceptionally adverse or favorable 
 hundred and fifty feet. The theoretical veloc- [ conditions : 
 ity due to this descent would be about one hun- j varieties ^voand* 
 
 dred and twenty-seven feet per second, or Light Brahmas 7 
 
 between eighty-six and eighty-seven miles an partridgl h cochins 
 
 hour. According to the best accounts from Black, white, Buff Cochins 7 
 
 fifteen to seventeen minutes were occupied in H^"^"* Rocks ' | 
 
 the passage to Johnstown, a distance of about LaFleche 7 
 
 twelve miles. Thus the average velocity could p[|g^ Spanish '."' '. '.'. 
 
 not have been far short of fifty miles an hour. .Leghorns 8 
 
 The impetus of such a mass of water was ioominicmes 8 
 
 irresistible. As the flood burst through the Games .............: .....*... & 
 
 I Bantams 16 
 
 Life Insurance. 
 
 130 
 130 
 130 
 120 
 150 
 155 
 135 
 145 
 155 
 160 
 150 
 135 
 140 
 90 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Insurance in 
 Force. 
 
 Year's 
 Premiums. 
 
 Lome's 8 | COUNTRIES. 
 
 Insurance in 
 Force. 
 
 Year's 
 Premiums. 
 
 Year's 
 Losses. 
 
 United States 
 
 $14 125 548 072 
 
 339 280,913 
 
 $165 718 804 Austria 
 
 $370,621,530 
 
 $14,613,420 
 
 $4,098 025 
 
 Great Britain 
 Germany.. 
 
 3,290;52l',720 
 1 320 163 685 
 
 126,458,455 
 50 313 925 
 
 78.496,735 Scandinavia... 
 16 767 830 Russia .... 
 
 128,213,755 
 47 925 979 
 
 4,365,360 
 1 767 681 
 
 1,147,995 
 584 707 
 
 France 
 
 695,231,550 
 
 40,351,080 
 
 lo',647',060 Switzerland... 
 
 70,390,250 
 
 3,025,100 
 
 1,170,225
 
 586 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Wars of the United States. 
 
 STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF UNITED STATES TROOPS ENGAGED. 
 
 WARS. 
 
 From 
 
 To 
 
 Regulars. 
 
 Militia and 
 Volunteers. 
 
 Total.* 
 
 War of the Revolution 
 
 April 19, 1775 
 
 April 11, 1783 
 
 130,711 
 
 164,080 
 
 309,781 
 
 Northwestern Indian Wars 
 
 Sept. 19, 1790 
 
 Aug. 3,1795 
 
 
 
 8,983 
 
 War with France 
 
 July 9, 1798 
 
 Sept 30, 1800 
 
 
 
 t4,693 
 
 War with Tripoli ' 
 
 June 10, 1801 
 
 June 4, 1805 
 
 
 
 t3,330 
 
 
 July 27,1813 
 
 Aug. 9, 1814 
 
 600 
 
 13,181 
 
 13,781 
 
 War of 1812 with Great Britain 
 
 June 18, 1812 
 
 Feb. 17,1815 
 
 85,000 
 
 471,622 
 
 576 622 
 
 
 Nov. 20, 1817 
 
 Oct. 21, 1818 
 
 1,000 
 
 6,911 
 
 7,911 
 
 Black Hawk Indian War 
 
 April 21,1831 
 
 Sept. 31, 1832 
 
 1,339 
 
 5,126 
 
 6,465 
 
 Cherokee disturbance or removal 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 
 9,494 
 
 9,494 
 
 ''Jreek Indian War or disturbance 
 
 May 5, 1836 
 
 Sept. 30, 18S7 
 
 935 
 
 12,483 
 
 13,418 
 
 Florida Indian War 
 
 Dec. 23, 1835 
 
 Aug. 14, 1843 
 
 11,119 
 
 29 953 
 
 41 122 
 
 .Aroostook disturbance 
 
 1836 
 
 1839 
 
 
 1,500 
 
 1 500 
 
 War with Mexico 
 
 April 24, 1846 
 
 July 4, 1848 
 
 30,954 
 
 73,776 
 
 112,230 
 
 Apache, Navajo, and Utah War ,.. 
 
 1849 
 
 1855 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,0(11 
 
 2,561 
 
 Seminole Indian War 
 
 1856 
 
 1858 
 
 
 3,687 
 
 3,687 
 
 Civil War $ 
 
 1861 
 
 1865 
 
 
 
 2,772,408 
 
 * Including all branches of the service, t Naval forces engaged, J The number of troops on the Confederate 
 side was about 600,000. 
 
 Percentage of Al 
 Tuiqi 
 
 Scotch Whisky 54.53 
 Irish Whisky 53.9 
 Rum 53.68 
 
 cohol in Various 
 lors. 
 
 Currant Wine 20.50 
 Port 22.90 
 Madeira 22.27 
 
 Common Sizes of Flat Papers. 
 
 NAME. SIZE. NAME. SIZE. 
 Flat Letter 10 x 16 Medium 18x23 
 Small Cap 13x16 Double Small Cap. . .16 x 26 
 Flat Cap 14x17 Royal lit x 24 
 
 Gin 51.6 
 Brandy 53.39 
 Burgundy 14 57 
 
 Teneriffe 19.79 
 Sherry 19.17 
 Claret 15.1 
 
 Folio 
 
 s 
 
 TERM. 
 Five-column 
 Six-column 
 Six-column 
 Seven-column 
 Seven-column 
 Eight-column 
 Nine-column 
 Four-column 
 Five-column 
 Six-column 
 Seven-column 
 
 The 
 
 Arbor Vitse 
 
 17x22 
 
 izes of Newspapers. 
 
 SIZE. 
 Folio. .... 20 x 26 inches 
 
 Cape Muscat 18.25 
 Champagne (still) 13.80 
 
 Elder 8.79 
 Ale 6.87 
 
 Champagne (sp'rkl'ngil2.61 
 Cider 5.2 to 9.8 
 
 Porter 4.02 
 
 Malaga 17.26 
 
 Folio 22 x 31 inches 
 
 Constantia 19.75 
 
 Rhenish 12 8 
 
 Folio, extra margin 22 x 32 inches 
 Folio 24x35 inches 
 
 Gooseberry Wine 11.48 
 
 Small Heer . . 1 28 
 
 Quantity of Seeds Required per Acre. 
 
 Wheat lV 2 to2bu. Beets 3 Ibs. 
 
 Folio, extra margin 24 x 36 inches 
 Folio 26 x 40 inches 
 
 Folio .. . 28 x 44 inches 
 
 
 Rve IVjj ' 
 
 Carrots 2 " 
 
 
 Oats 3 ' 
 
 Ruta-baga % " 
 Millet 1/2 bu. 
 
 
 Barley 2 
 
 
 Peas 2 to 3 ' 
 
 Clover, white.. 4 qts. 
 Clover, red 8 " 
 Timothy 6 " 
 
 Language of Flowers. 
 
 SINGLE FLOWERS. 
 
 Unchanging friendship. 
 
 White beans.. .H/ 2 ' 
 Buckwheat... . % 
 Corn, bro'dc'st.4 
 Corn, in drills .2 to 3 ' 
 Corn, in hills. .4 to 8 qts. 
 Broom corn.. . l / bu. 
 Potatoes 10~tol5 " 
 
 Orchard grass. 2 bu. 
 Red top 1 to 2 pks. 
 
 Blue grass 2 bu. 
 Mix'd lawn gr.l to 2 " 
 Tobacco 2 oz. 
 
 Wood for Fuel. In regard to the rela- 
 tive values of woods as heat producers, different 
 woods vary some by different methods of exper- 
 imenting. The most accurate would be their 
 value as steam producers. The following test 
 was made from a fire tubular horizontal 
 boiler : 
 
 Shellbark Hickory 100 
 
 Pignut Hickory . .' 95 
 
 White Oak 84 
 
 White Ash 77 
 
 Dogwood 75 
 
 Scrub Oak 73 
 
 White Hazel 72 
 
 Apple Tree 70 
 
 Red Oak 67 
 
 White Beech . 65 
 
 Yellow Oak 60 
 
 Hard Maple 69 
 
 White Elm 58 
 
 Red Cedar 56 
 
 Wild Cherry 55 
 
 Yellow Pine 54 
 
 Chestnut 52 
 
 Yellow Poplar 51 
 
 Butternut 43 
 
 White Birch 43 
 
 White Pine 30 
 
 These figures are from air-dried wood. No 
 accurate result could be obtained from green 
 wood, as it is not in a proper condition, and 
 would vary considerably from any figures that 
 might be made. 
 
 Candytuft Indifference. 
 Carnation, White Disdain. 
 China Aster Variety. 
 Clover, Four-Leaf Be mine. 
 Clover, White Think of me. 
 Clover, Red Industry. 
 Columbine Folly. 
 Daisy Innocence. 
 Daisy, Colored Beauty. 
 Dead Leaves Sadness. 
 Deadly Nightshade Falsehood. 
 Fern Fascination. 
 Forget-me-not. 
 Fuchsia, Scarlet Taste. 
 Geranium, Horseshoe Stupidity . 
 Geranium, Scarlet Consolation. 
 Geranium, Rose Preference. 
 Golden-rod Be cautious. 
 Heliotrope Devotion. 
 Hyacinth, White Loveliness.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 587 
 
 Hyacinth, Purple Sorrow. 
 
 Ivy Friendship. 
 
 Lily, Day Coquetry. 
 
 Lily, White Sweetness. 
 
 Lily, Yellow Gayety. 
 
 Lily, Water- Purity of heart ; elegance. 
 
 Lily of the Valley Unconscious sweetness. 
 
 Mignonette Your qualities surpass your 
 
 charms. 
 
 Monkshead Danger is near. 
 Myrtle Love. 
 Oak . Hospitality. 
 Orange Blossoms Chastity. 
 Pansy Thoughts. 
 Passion Flower Faith. 
 Primrose Inconstancy. 
 Rose Love. 
 
 Rose, Damask Beauty ever new. 
 Rose, Yellow Jealousy. 
 Rose, White I am worthy of you. 
 Rosebud, Moss Confession of love. 
 Smilax Constancy. 
 Straw Agreement. 
 Straw, Broken Broken agreement. 
 Sweet Pea Depart. 
 Tuberose Dangerous pleasures. 
 Thistle Sternness. 
 Verbena Pray for me. 
 White Jasmine Amiability. 
 Witch Hazel A spell. 
 
 IN COMBINATIONS. 
 
 Weights and Measures. 
 
 MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. Ys. Pis. Ch. Fs. 
 
 A Palm 3 
 
 
 A Hand 4 
 
 
 Foot 12 
 
 
 Yard 36 
 
 3 
 
 Rod, pole, or perch 198 
 
 161/2 5 l/ 2 
 
 Chain 792 
 
 66 22 4 
 
 Furlong 7,920 
 
 660 220 40 10 
 
 Mile 63,360 5,280 1,760 320 80 8 
 
 PARTICULAR MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 12 lines 1 inch. 
 
 A fathom 6 feet. 
 
 3 inches I palm. 
 4 inches 1 hand. 
 
 A cable's length 240 yards. 
 A degree 69V 8 miles = 60 
 
 A cubit 18 inches. 
 
 nautical knots or geo- 
 
 A pace, military, 2 feet 6 
 inches. 
 
 graphical miles. 
 A league 3 miles. 
 
 A pace, geometrical, 5 feet. 
 
 
 SQUARE OR SURFACE MEASURE. 
 
 In. 
 
 Ft. Yds. Pis. Ch. R. 
 
 Square foot 144 
 
 1 
 
 Square yard 1,296 
 
 9 1 
 
 Rod, pole, or perch. 39,204 
 
 2721/4 30V 4 1 
 
 Square chain 627,204 
 
 4,356 484 16 1 
 
 Rood 1,568,160 
 
 10,890 1.210 40 21/2 1 
 
 Acre 6,272,640 
 
 43,5(iO 4,P40 160 10 4 
 
 Moss Rosebud, 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Mignonette, 
 
 Colored Daisy. 
 
 Lily of the Valley, 
 
 Ferns. 
 
 Yellow Rose, 
 
 Broken Straw, 
 
 Ivy. 
 
 Scarlet Geranium, 
 
 Passion Flower, 
 
 Purple Hyacinth, 
 
 Arbor Vitse. 
 
 Columbine, 
 Day Lily, 
 Broken Straw, 
 Witch Hazel, 
 Colored Daisy. 
 White Pink, 
 Canary Grass, 
 Laurel. 
 Golden-rod, 
 Monkshead, 
 Sweet Pea, 
 Forget-me-not. 
 
 A confession 
 of love. 
 
 Your qualities surpass 
 your charms of beauty. 
 Your unconscious sweet- 
 ness has fascinated me. 
 Your jealousy 
 has broken 
 our friendship. 
 I trust you will find con- 
 solation, through faith, in 
 vour sorrow : 
 
 be assured of my unchang- 
 (^ing friendship. 
 TYour folly and 
 
 coquetry have 
 J broken 
 
 the spell of your 
 [^beauty. 
 
 Your talent 
 
 and perseverance 
 
 will win you glory 
 
 f Be cautious ; 
 J danger is near ; 
 1 I depart soon ; 
 
 ^ forget me not. 
 
 A square mile contains 610 acres, 2,560 roods, 6.400 
 chains, 102,400 rods, poles, or perches, or 3,097,600 square 
 yards. 
 
 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHTS AND MEASURES BY 
 WHICH MEDICINES ARE COMPOUNDED. 
 
 20 Grains =1 Scruple 3 = 20 grs. 
 
 3 Scruples =1 Drachm 3 = 60 " 
 
 8 Drachms .*.=! Ounce 3 = 480 " 
 
 12 Ounces =1 Pound Ib =5750 ' ' 
 
 Drugs are purchased by Avoirdupois Weight. 
 
 FLUID MEASURE. 
 
 Marked. 
 
 60 Minims TT\, =1 Fluid Drachm f 3 
 
 Drachms =1 Ounce f 3 
 
 20 Ounces =1 Pint O 
 
 8 Pints =1 Gallon gal. 
 
 PARTICULAR WEIGHTS. 
 
 A Stone, Horseman's weight = 14 Ibs. 
 
 A Firkin of Butter = 56 " 
 
 A Firkin of Soft Soap = 64 " 
 
 A Barrel of Raisins =112 " 
 
 A Barrel (or pack) of Soft Soap =256 " 
 
 A Fodder of Lead, London and Hull = 19% cwt. 
 
 " " Derby = 22y 2 " 
 
 " Newcastle = 2iy 2 " 
 
 A Sack Potatoes, 168 Ibs.; Coals, 224 Ibs.; Flour, 
 280 Ibs. 
 
 MEASURE OF TIME. 
 
 60 Seconds =1 Minute. 
 
 60 Minutes =1 Hour. 
 
 24 Hours =1 Day. 
 
 7 Days =1 Week. 
 
 28 Days =1 Lunar Month. 
 
 28, 29, 30, or 31 Days =1 Calendar Month. 
 
 12 Calendar Months =1 Year. 
 
 365 Days =1 Common Year. 
 
 366 Days =1 Leap Year. 
 
 ANGULAR MEASURE. 
 
 60 Seconds. 
 60 Minutes. . 
 30 Degrees. . 
 90 Degrees.. 
 
 = 1 Minute. 
 = 1 Degree. 
 = 1 Sign. 
 = 1 Quadrant. 
 
 4 Quadrants, or 360. . . . = 1 
 Circumference, or Great 
 Circle. 
 
 CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 
 
 1728 Cubic Inches =1 Cubic Foot. 
 
 27 Cubic Feet =1 Cubic Yard. 
 
 40 Do. of Rough, or I _ T T d 
 
 50 Do. of Hewn Timber } ~ 
 
 42 Cubic Feet of Timber =1 Shipping Ton. 
 
 108 Cubic Feet =1 Stack of Wood. 
 
 128 Cubic Feet =1 Cord of Wood. 
 
 40 Cubic Feet = 1 Ton Shipping.
 
 588 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 LIQUID MEASURES. 
 
 Gals. Qts. Pts. 
 
 Four Gills, one Pint ... 1 
 
 Quart 1 2 
 
 Gallon 148 
 
 Firkin or Quarter Barrel 9 36 72 
 
 Kilderkin or Half Barrel 18 72 144 
 
 Barrel 36 144 288 
 
 Hogshead of Ale (I 1 /, barrel) 54 216 432 
 
 Puncheon 72 288 576 
 
 Butt of Ale (3 barrels) 108 432 864 
 
 Practically, the only measures in use are 
 gallons and quarts, the others are merely nom- 
 inal ; e. g., the hogshead of 54 gallons, old 
 measure, contains but 52 gallons, 1 quart, 1 
 pint, and 3.55 gills imperial measure, and of 
 wine six nominal quart bottles go to the gal- 
 lon. Of imported wines the following are 
 the usual measurements : 
 
 Pipe of Port or Masdeu 
 
 Teneriffe 
 
 " Marsala 
 
 " Madeira and Cape 
 
 Butt of Lisbon and Bucellas 
 
 " Sherry and Tent 
 
 Aum of Hock and Rhenish 
 
 Hogshead of Claret 
 
 115 Gallons. 
 
 : 109 " 
 : 93 " 
 
 92 
 117 
 108 
 
 30 
 
 46 
 
 DRY OR CORN MEASURE. 
 4 Quarts = 
 
 2 Gallons = 
 
 4 Pecks = 
 
 3 Bushels (four of corn) = 
 
 12 Sacks = 
 
 8 Bushels, or two sacks = 
 
 5 Quarters = 
 
 1 Gallon. 
 1 Peck. 
 1 Bushel. 
 1 Sack. 
 1 Chaldron. 
 1 Quarter. 
 1 Load. 
 
 MEASURES OF WEIGHT. Avoirdupois. 
 
 27% Grains =1 Drachm = 27% ) 
 
 16 Drachms = 1 Ounce = 437y 2 \ Grains. 
 
 16 Ounces = 1 Pound = 7000 ) 
 
 8 Pounds =1 Stone of Butcher's Meat. 
 
 14 Pounds =1 Ordinary Stone. 
 
 28 Pounds = I Quarter (qr.). 
 
 4 Quarters =1 Hundredweight (cwt.). 
 
 20 Cwt =lTon. 
 
 This weight is used in almost all commer- 
 cial transactions, and common dealings. 
 
 TROY WEIGHT. 
 
 3J Grains =1 Carat. 
 
 24 Grains = 1 Pennyweight. 
 
 20 Pennyweights =1 Ounce 480 grs. 
 
 12 Ounces = 1 Pound 5770" 
 
 HAY AND STRAW. 
 
 Truss of Straw, 36 Ib. 
 Truss of Old Hay, 56 Ib. 
 Truss of New Hay, 60 Ib. 
 
 Load, 36 Trusses = Straw, 11 cwt. 2 qrs. 8 Ib. ; Old Hay, 
 18 cwt. ; New Hay, 19 cwt. 1 qr. 4 Ib. 
 
 7 Pounds 
 
 2 Cloves 
 
 2 Stones 
 
 6V 2 Tods 
 
 12 Sacks 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 . . . . =1 Clove . . . , 
 
 = 1 Stone 
 
 .... = 1 Tod 
 
 .... =1 Wey .:.... 
 =1 Last.. . 
 
 Ctrl. Qr. Lb. 
 
 .... 
 ... 
 .... 
 
 .... 1 
 
 ....39 
 
 Boxes of Different Measure. A box 
 
 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 28 
 inches deep, will contain a barrel (3 bushels). 
 
 A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, 
 and 14 inches deep, will contain half a barrel. 
 
 A box 16 inches square, and 8 2-5 inches 
 deep, will contain one bushel. 
 
 A box 16 inches by 8 2-5 inches wide, and 
 8 inches deep, will contain half a bushel. 
 
 A box 8 inches by 8 2-5 inches square, and 
 8 inches deep, will contain one peck. 
 
 A box 8 inches by 8 inches square, and 4 1-5 
 inches deep, will contain one gallon. 
 
 A box 7 inches by 4 inches square, and 4 4-5 
 inches deep, will contain half a gallon. 
 
 A box 4 inches by 4 inches square, and 4 1-5 
 inches deep, will contain one quart. 
 
 In purchasing anthracite coal, 20 bushels 
 are generally allowed for a ton. 
 
 The Longest Tunnels. The Mount St. 
 Gothard Tunnel, Italy, is 48,840 feet long, or 
 nearly 10 miles long, and the longest in the 
 world. 
 
 Mount Cenis Tunnel, Italy, is 39,840 feet 
 long, or about seven and one-half miles long. 
 
 Hoosac Tunnel, Mass., is 25,080 feet long, 
 or about 4f miles. 
 
 The Nochistongo Tunnel, is 21,659 feet long, 
 or about four miles. 
 
 The Sutro Tunnel is 21,120 feet long, or 
 four miles. 
 
 Thames and Medway, Eng., is 11,880 feet 
 long, or about two miles. 
 
 Variations in Time. 
 
 Washington, D. C., 12.00 m. 
 Athens, Greece, 6.43 p. m. 
 Auckland, New 
 
 Zealand, 4.51 a. m. 
 
 Augusta, Me., 12.29 p. m. 
 Austin, Texas, 10.37 a. m. 
 Batavia, Java, 12.15 a. in. 
 Bombay, India, 10.00 p. m. 
 Boston, Mass., 12.24 p. m. 
 Berlin, Germany, 6.01 p. m. 
 Calcutta, India," 11.01 p. m. 
 Canton, China, 12.41 a. m. 
 Charleston, S. C., 11.49 a. m. 
 Chicago, 111., 11.18 a. m. 
 Constantinople, 
 
 Turkey, 
 Copenhagen, 
 
 Denmark, 
 Denver, Col., 
 Dublin, Ireland, 4.43 p. m. 
 Gibraltar, Spain, 4.51 p. in. 
 Glasgow, Scot., 4.51 p. in. 
 Halifax, N. S., 12.54p.m. 
 Harrisburg, Pa., 12.01 p. m. 
 Lima, Peru, 12.00 in. 
 London, Eng., 5.07 p. m. 
 
 7.04 p. m. 
 
 5.58 p. m. 
 10.07 a. m. 
 
 Madrid, Spain, 4.53 p. m. 
 
 Mecca, Arabia, 7.49 p. in. 
 
 Mexico, Mexico, 10.27 a. in. 
 
 New Orleans, La. ,11.08 a. m. 
 
 New York, N. Y., 12.12 p. m. 
 
 Olympia, Wash- 
 ington, 8.57 a. in. 
 
 Omaha, Neb., 10.44 a. m. 
 
 Paris, France, 5.42 p. m. 
 
 Pekin, China, 12.54 a. m. 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 Pa., 12.13p.m. 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa., 11.48 a. m. 
 
 Rio Janeiro, Bra. ,2. 16 p. m. 
 
 Rome, Italy, 5.58 p. m. 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., 11.07 a. m. 
 
 St. Petersburg, 
 Russia, 7.09 p. m. 
 
 Salt Lake City, 
 Utah, 9.40a.m. 
 
 San Francisco, 
 Cal., i 8.58 a. m. 
 
 Tallahassee, Fla., 11. 30 a. m. 
 
 Toronto, Can., 11 51 a. m. 
 
 Valparaiso, Chile, 12.21 p. m 
 
 Yeddo, Japan, 2.27 a. m. 
 
 Alcoholic Liquors. A table of the 
 comparative consumption of alcoholic liquors 
 was compiled by the London Times recently, 
 with some interesting "results. The average 
 yearly consumption per head is given in liters 
 (a liter is a little less than a quart) : 
 
 Spirits. Wine. Beer. 
 
 Liters. Liters. Liters. 
 
 Canada 3.08 0.29 8.51 
 
 Norway 3.!iO i.oo 15.30 
 
 United States 4.79 2.64 31.30 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 5.37 2.09 143.92 
 
 Austria-Hungary 5.76 22.40 28.42 
 
 France 7.28 119.20 21.10 
 
 Russia 8.08 Unknown. 4.65 
 
 Sweden 8.14 0.36 11.00 
 
 German Zollverein. 8.60 6.00 65.00 
 
 Belgium 9.20 3.70 169.20 
 
 Switzerland 15.30 55.00 37.50 
 
 Netherlands 9.87 2.57 27.00 
 
 Denmark 18.90 1.00 33.33
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 589 
 
 Belgium, it seems, contains the greatest num- i feet high. The cost of building was nearly 
 
 ber of beer drinkers, with Great Britain sec- $15,000,000. 
 
 ond in this list, and Germany, contrary to The cantalever bridge, over the Niagara, is 
 
 built almost entirely of steel. Its length is 
 910 feet ; the total weight is 3,000 tons, and 
 
 common opinion, only third. France drinks 
 the most wine, and Switzerland comes next, 
 
 while the amount accredited to the United, the cost was $900,000. 
 States, though comparatively small, yet ex- 
 ceeds that of Great Britain. Canada is the 
 most moderate drinker of all. 
 
 Cost of the British Royal Family. 
 The annuities paid by the British people to 
 the royal family for its support are as follows : 
 The Queen, $1,925,000; Prince of Wales, 
 
 $200,000 ; Princess of Wales, $50,000 ; Dowager 
 Empress Frederick of Germany, $40,000 ; Duke 
 of Edinburgh, $50,000 ; Princess Christian, 
 $30,000 ; Princess Louise, $30,000 ; Duke of 
 Connaught, 1125,000 ; Princess Beatrice, $30,- 
 000 ; Duke of Cambridge (the Queen's cousin), 
 $60,000 ; Duchess of Albany, $30,000 ; Duchess 
 of Mecklenbnrg-Strelitz (the Queen's cousin), 
 $15,000 ; children of the Prince of Wales, $180,- 
 000. Total, $2,765,000. The Queen also re- 
 ceives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster. 
 During recent years these have amounted to 
 
 The Niagara suspension bridge was built by 
 Roebling, in 1852-55, at a cost of $400,000. 
 It is 245 feet above water, 821 feet long, and 
 the strength is estimated at 1 ,200 tons. 
 
 The bridge at Havre de Grace, over the Sus- 
 quehanna, is 3,271 feet long, and is divided 
 into twelve wooden spans, resting on granite 
 
 pers. 
 
 The Britannia bridge crosses the Menai 
 strait, Wales, at an elevation of 103 feet above 
 high water. It is of wrought iron, 1,511 feet 
 long, and was finished in 1850. Cost, 
 $3,008,000. 
 
 The new London bridge is constructed of 
 granite, from the designs of L. Rennier. It 
 was commenced in 1824, and completed in 
 about seven years, at a cost of $7,291,000. 
 
 The old London bridge was the first stone 
 bridge. It was commenced in 1176, and corn- 
 
 about $250,000 per annum. When the royal pleted in 1209. Its founder, Peter of Cole- 
 
 children marry, dowries are usually provided 
 for them. The last of the Queen's children to 
 marry, Princess Beatrice, received $150,000 as 
 dowry from the British people by Parliamen- 
 tary grant. The Duchess of Teck, the Queen's 
 
 cousin, who died in 1 897, enjoywdnart>annuity 
 nf ao^ (\i\f\ sin< " 
 
 jnei 
 
 the new building in..Nqveitob0c,.ieife\(en;|)is a 
 
 ater. The actual cost bf HH- l.nildini: was 
 
 The'Bi^Jg 
 
 . 'Wfi&f Vbtfftt ftl : 'fl58>9 4 g 10 ^filr,* *i,I ,,l 
 
 Bridge of 'the Htl)y<- ) T*hi%f, lit 
 
 or ox- cnce. wasn ; Wilt-'Jh-l569l'i^ft^s 7 J 3G& l fet itolgp 
 
 '' 
 
 Library of Congress 
 
 ing for the Library; pi 
 
 for by an act nf Congress, 
 
 15. 1880. The library was 
 
 lie in 
 
 years later. The actual cost nf l!,, ,, lll ,.., Jli _ 
 
 was 16,033,124.04, or W.'.. 1 1;',. in less thai. 
 
 the limit fixed by law. The book she.lvin_ 
 
 231.080 running feet, or about A 1 milusi, tvlwqh^.haH of 
 
 will accommodate 2.i;OO.oi'K),$ 
 
 completely filled, the library, without 
 
 croaching on pavilions, reading morns, o - 
 
 hibition halls, will accommodate. 4-. .100.0(10 constructed of- w4iile; 
 
 volumes, occupying a little less'tliaii 1" -ivaled ft 
 
 of shelving. The library embraces 8OO.OOO The COVKIV 
 
 printed books, in which is included the law eino. was buil 
 
 library of 1-00,000 volumes. There : are also roof is held b 
 
 240.000 pamphlets. 2.1.000 original in ami- The St. 1>< 
 
 scripts, 60,.000 graphic aYts. -j 10. OHO ].i>ci>s of is 1.*>2I fV ( >t 
 
 nwgdc, 45;, 000 bound volumes of 
 
 and ]>eriodicals.-- -There is 
 
 t$&j blind; '.tfpen; daily,; with 
 
 books in- raised letters, fu-junoi/; .-nm^i 
 
 oilo.st- ; ; Notable; ; ; ; Bridges,, 1 I ^$rBfJkly^- ) ra l i^, 1 , 
 bridge was commenced, under thai direction' of rotttt fef 
 "V^iA.'Rpebling, in 1870, and coinplet^l in about | markv " : 
 thirteen yeaw. It is 3,4^5 ieet 
 
 church, was buried in the crypt of the chapel 
 erected on the center pier. 
 
 Coalbrookdale bridge, England, is the first 
 cast iron bridge. It was built over the Severn 
 in ,17^79. 
 
 -Tib^'bridge at,<Burton, over the Trent, was 
 
 )l,545|i&eit(5f It isinow pautny rem0ifd. Built 
 
 The Kiallo, at \enioe?i;Bt said to,rara/;heetea 
 
 he dejftty ^^^Mi 
 single marble arch, 98 1-2 feet long, an 
 K**n;>I>ia'ri*I 
 
 a work of nrt,?.if)-&iW'i'}tn avft ; 008,1$ 
 erHfl l,riclg<> 
 
 wl* 
 
 'I'here are thrc 
 
 hed 
 
 ' ! f4et'. r 
 
 ftttet. 
 
 ei 000 t ai$ .yeuoriuee-^ add iol ai 000,^$
 
 590 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Rush street bridge, Chicago, 111., erected in 
 1884, at a cost of $1:52,000, is the largest general 
 traffic drawbridge in the world. Its roadway 
 will accommodate four teams abreast, and its 
 footways are seven feet wide. 
 
 The Victoria bridge, Montreal, one of the 
 most famous in the world, is nearly two miles 
 in length. 
 
 The Cleveland (O.) viaduct is 3,211 feet in 
 length, 64 feet wide, 42 feet of which is road- 
 way ; the drawbridge is 332 feet in length, 46 
 feet wide, and is 68 feet above ordinary stage 
 of water. 
 
 Politics of the Presidents. The sub- 
 joined table will be found interesting, as a 
 reference, to many of our readers. Of course 
 the name of Washington heading the list does 
 not mean that he was the candidate of any 
 party or faction, but is placed there to com- 
 plete the roll : 
 
 NAME. INAUGURATION. POLITICS. 
 
 George Washington, April 30, 17S9, Unanimous. 
 
 John Adams, March 4, 1797, Federal. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, March 4, 1801, Democrat. 
 
 James Madison, March 4, 1809, Democrat. 
 
 James-Monroe, March 4, 1817, Democrat. 
 
 John Quincy Adams, March 4, 182C, Federal. 
 
 Andrew Jackson, March 4, 1829, Democrat. 
 
 Martin Van Buren, March 4, 1837, Democrat. 
 
 Wm. Henry Harrison, March 4, 1841, Whig. 
 
 John Tyler, April C, 1841, Whig. 
 
 James K. Polk, March 4, 1845, Democrat. 
 
 Zachary Taylor, March 5, 1849, Whig. 
 
 MillardFillmore, July 9, 1850, Whig. 
 
 Franklin Pierce, March 4, 1853, Democrat. 
 
 James Buchanan, March 4, 1857, Democrat. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, March 4, 1861, Republican. 
 
 Andrew Johnson, April 16, 1865, Republican. 
 
 U. S. Grant, March 4, 1869, Republican. 
 
 R. B. Hayes, March 5, 1877, Republican. 
 
 James AlGarfield, March 4, 1881, Republican. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur, Sept. 20, 1881, Republican. 
 
 Grover Cleveland, March 4, 1885, Democrat. 
 
 Ben j. Harrison, March 4, 1889, Republican. 
 
 Grover Cleveland, March 4, 1893, Democrat. 
 
 William McKinley, March 4, 1896, Republican. 
 
 The President's Salary. Most people 
 believe that the $50,000 a year which the 
 president gets as his salary is the sum total. 
 This is a mistake. $36,064 is given him, in 
 addition to his salary of $50,000, to pay the 
 salaries of his subordinates and clerks. His 
 private secretary is paid $3,250, his assistant 
 private secretary, $2,250 ; his stenographer, 
 $f,800 ; five messengers, each, $1,200 ; a stew- 
 ard, $1,800; two doorkeepers, each, $1,200; 
 four other clerks, at good salaries ; one tele- 
 graph operator, two ushers, $1,200 and $1,400 ; 
 a night usher, $1,200; a watchman, $900; 
 and a man who takes care of the fires, who 
 receives $864 a year. In addition to this, there 
 is given him $8,000 for incidental expenses, 
 such as stationery, carpets, and the care of 
 the presidential stables. And under another 
 heading there is given him nearly $40,000 
 more. Of this, $12,500 is for repairs and re- 
 furnishing the White House ; $2,500 is for fuel ; 
 $4,000 is for the greenhouse, $15,000 is for gas, 
 
 matches, and the stable. The White House, all 
 told, costs the country, in connection with the 
 president, considerably over $125,000 a year. 
 
 Insanity. It is estimated that the number 
 of insane persons in the United States is 168,- 
 900 ; in Germany, 108,100 ; in France, 93,900 ; 
 in England, 81,600 ; in Russia, 80,000 ; Italy, 
 44,100; Austria, 35,000; Ireland, 19,500; 
 Scandinavia, 18,100 ; Spain and Portugal, 13,- 
 000 ; Scotland, 11,600 ; Belgium and Holland, 
 10,400; Canada, 7,300; Australia, 4,900; 
 Switzerland, 3,100. 
 
 Causes of Insanity. Hereditary, 24 per 
 cent. ; drink, 14 per cent. ; business, 12 per 
 cent.; loss of friends, 11 per cent.; sickness, 
 10 per cent. ; various, 29 per cent. 
 
 The above result is the medium average ar- 
 rived at on comparing the returns for the 
 United States, England, France, and Denmark. 
 
 Height of noted cathedrals, monuments, 
 buildings, etc. : 
 
 FEET. 
 
 Eiffel Tower, Paris 990 
 
 Washington Monument 555 
 
 Pyramid, Cheops, Egypt 543 
 
 Cathedral, Cologne . .". 511 
 
 " Antwerp 476 
 
 " Strasburg 474 
 
 Tower, Utrecht 464 
 
 Steeple, St. Stephen's, Vienna 4(50 
 
 Pyramid, Khaf ras, Egypt 456 
 
 St. Martin's Church, Ba va ria 456 
 
 Chimney, Port Dundas, Glasgow 454 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome 448 
 
 Notre Dame, Amiens 422 
 
 Salisbury Spire, England 406 
 
 Cathedral, Florence 3 
 
 " Cremona 372 
 
 " Freiburg 367 
 
 St. Paul's, London 365 
 
 Cathedral, Seville 360 
 
 Pyramid, Sakkarah, Egypt 356 
 
 Cathedral, Milan .' 355 
 
 Notre Dame, Munich 348 
 
 Invalides, Paris 347 
 
 Parliament House, London 340 
 
 Cathedral, Magdeburg 337 
 
 St. Patrick's, New York 328 
 
 St. Mark's, Venice 328 
 
 Cathedral, Bologna 321 
 
 " Norwich, England 309 
 
 " World " Building, New York 309 
 
 Statue of Liberty, New York 3it5 
 
 Cathedral, Chieh'ester, England 300 
 
 " Lincoln, England 300 
 
 Capitol, Washington 300 
 
 St. James' Cathedral, Toronto 316 
 
 Trinity Church, New Y ork 283 
 
 Cathedral, Mexico 280 
 
 " Montreal 280 
 
 Brooklyn Bridge 278 
 
 Cai'ijianile Tower, Florence 276 
 
 Masonic Temple, Chicago 265 
 
 Column, Delhi 260 
 
 Cathedral, Dantzic 250 
 
 Porcelain Tower, Nankin 248 
 
 Custom House, St. Louis 240 
 
 Canterbury Tower, England 235 
 
 Notre Dame, Paris 232 
 
 Chicago Board of Trade 230 
 
 St. Patrick's, Dublin 226 
 
 Cathedral, Glasgow ' 225 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument 220 
 
 Notre Dame, Montreal 220 
 
 Cathedral, Lima 220 
 
 " Reims 220 
 
 " Garden City, L. 1 219 
 
 Sts. Peter and Paul, Philadelphia 210 
 
 Washington Monument, Baltimore 210 
 
 Vendome Monument, Paris 163
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 591 
 
 Largest Cities of the Earth. 
 
 rolTI.A TION ACCORDING TO THK LATEST OFFICIAL CENSUSES. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 Cen- p,,pu- 
 sus huiim . 
 Year. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 Cen- 
 sus 
 Year. 
 
 Popu- 
 lation. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 Cen- 
 
 BOi 
 
 Year. 
 
 Popu- 
 lation. 
 
 London 
 
 1891 
 1900 
 1896 
 1900 
 1895 
 est. 
 1891 
 1900 
 1895 
 1897 
 est. 
 1897 
 1885 
 1891 
 1891 
 1897 
 1895 
 1X91 
 1897 
 1900 
 Is'C 
 1900 
 1896 
 1H96 
 1892 
 1891 
 1900 
 1891 
 1891 
 1896 
 l-'.'l 
 1895 
 1898 
 1>>7 
 1896 
 1896 
 1891 
 1SSH5 
 1891 
 
 1895 
 18 17 
 
 4,231,431 
 3.437.L>02 
 2,536,834 
 1,698,575 
 1,677,351 
 1,600,000 
 1,364,548 
 1,293,697 
 1,268,950 
 1,267,023 
 1,000,000 
 98 -(,610 
 873,560 
 840,130 
 821,764 
 726,917 
 625,552 
 618,470 
 614.752 
 575,238 
 570,062 
 560,892 
 531,011 
 529,400 
 522,651 
 917,960 
 508.957 
 506,380 
 503,340 
 404,189 
 490,900 
 487.184 
 474,000 
 472,230 
 466,028 
 456,700 
 452,518 
 442,239 
 429,170 
 415,039 
 407,174 
 401,651 
 399.9G3 
 383,390 
 381,768 
 380,000 
 373.206 
 367,510 
 352,219 
 3i8,000 
 :m.377 
 342.782 
 340,101 
 336.440 
 325,902 
 
 :;:!4iM<> 
 
 321.616 
 321,431 
 319,766 
 314,780 
 312,859 
 301,206 
 297,860 
 i;*7,KH 
 286,105 
 -'.-5.70} 
 286,315 
 283,700 
 282.943 
 L'T-vTl^ 
 273,090 
 272.480 
 267.902 
 264,800 
 256,906 
 
 Santiago 
 
 . 1895 
 
 2.56,403 
 255,950 
 248,750 
 246,070 
 245,000 
 232,000 
 229,299 
 225,662 
 225,000 
 222,520 
 221,670 
 221,440 
 216,650 
 216,360 
 216,276 
 215,083 
 214,397 
 211,981 
 210,000 
 209,560 
 207,100 
 206,433 
 204,731 
 202,718 
 200,000 
 200,000 
 200,000 
 200,000 
 200,000 
 199,990 
 198,270 
 198,140 
 193,580 
 191,530 
 193,000 
 188,712 
 187,910 
 186.350 
 186,110 i 
 181,220 
 181,210 
 180,000 
 180,000 i 
 179,670 ; 
 176,870 
 176,720 
 176,024 
 175,597 
 172.391 
 170,760 : 
 170,682 
 1711.25- 
 169,164 
 168,710 
 167,510 
 165,404 
 163,752 
 163,632 
 162,435 
 162,380 
 161,130 
 160,991 
 159,568 
 159.260 
 159,218 
 158.340 
 157,700 
 155.680 
 153.800 
 163,000 
 151,994 
 151,239 
 151,200 
 150,800 
 150,000 
 
 Toulouse 
 
 1896 
 
 1895 
 
 149,963 
 148944 
 145,990 
 143,180 
 142,050 
 ! 141,937 
 140,731 
 i 140,000 
 139,856 
 139,168 
 136,500 
 136,030 
 135,315 
 134,OfcO 
 133,859 
 133,220 
 133,116 
 
 132,393 
 131,822 
 131,508 
 131,460 
 130,920 
 129,896 
 128,850 
 128,420 
 
 m.ioo 
 
 127,002 
 126,930 
 125,639 
 125,560 
 124,661 
 123,902 
 123,330 
 122,447 
 121,870 
 120,340 
 120,060 
 120,000 
 120,000 
 119,470 
 118,760 
 118,421 
 117,910 
 117,350 
 116,606 
 116,460 
 116,304 
 116,400 
 115,138 
 115,000 
 113.540 
 113,219 
 111,486 
 111,232 
 110.489 
 108.f06 
 108,377 
 108,024 
 108,000 
 107,963 
 107,570 
 107,278 
 105,171 
 104,863 
 104,300 
 103,956 
 102.979 
 102,555 
 102,479 
 102,320 
 102,020 
 
 New York 
 
 Belfast 
 
 . 1891 
 
 Altona 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Kief 
 
 . 1897 
 
 Almiadabad 
 
 1891 
 1887 
 1>'J1 
 1895 
 1895 
 est. 
 1890 
 1895 
 1891 
 1896 
 1895 
 1887 
 1900 
 1891 
 1897 
 
 1895 
 1900 
 1897 
 1891 
 1891 
 1900 
 1891 
 1891 
 1896 
 1895 
 1891 
 1895 
 1900 
 1896 
 1896 
 1891 
 1895 
 1891 
 1891 
 1891 
 1885 
 1886 
 1896 
 1891 
 1900 
 1891 
 1896 
 1891 
 1891 
 1895 
 1891 
 1895 
 1891 
 1891 
 1896 
 1896 
 1895 
 1895 
 1897 
 1900 
 1900 
 LS91 
 1896 
 1891 
 1895 
 1900 
 1900 
 1896 
 1891 
 1900 
 1900 
 1900 
 1900 
 1900 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Newark 
 
 .- 1900 
 
 Seville 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Dublin 
 
 . 1891 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Canton 
 
 Bucharest 
 Frankfort-on-Main. . 
 Montevideo 
 
 . 1894 
 . 1895 
 
 . 1893 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Stettin 
 
 
 Fez, Morocco 
 
 
 Genoa 
 
 . 1896 
 
 Oporto 
 
 
 Benares 
 
 . 1891 
 
 Elberfeld 
 
 Peking 
 
 Bristol, England 
 
 1891 
 1891 
 1891 
 1891 
 1896 
 1895 
 1895 
 1891 
 1881 
 1895 
 1896 
 1900 
 1900 
 1900 
 1892 
 est. 
 est. 
 
 1885 
 1891 
 1887 
 1891 
 1891 
 1896 
 1892 
 1891 
 1891 
 1891 
 1891 
 1891 
 is: il 
 1885 
 1881 
 1891 
 ! 1891 
 1891 
 1895 
 1900 
 i 1895 
 ; 1887 
 1897 
 1895 
 1900 
 1891 
 1891 
 1896 
 1900 
 1900 
 1900 
 1895 
 1895 
 1895 
 1897 
 1891 
 i 1896 
 1891 
 1895 
 1891 
 1 1896 
 
 1897 
 1891 
 1896 
 1896 
 est. 
 
 Amritsar, India 
 St. Etienne 
 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 
 Montreal 
 
 Strasburg 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Bradford, England. . . 
 Lille 
 
 Malaga 
 
 
 Denver . 
 
 
 Nagoya, Japan 
 
 Adelaidei.. . 
 
 
 Magdeburg 
 
 Sara toff, Russia 
 Charlottenburg, 
 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 
 Teheran 
 
 St Louis 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Toledo 
 
 
 Florence 
 
 Kazan 
 
 
 Jersey City 
 Louisville 
 
 Oldham 
 
 
 Sunderland 
 
 
 Minneapolis 
 
 Allegheny .... 
 
 Rio de Janeiro 
 
 Bahia 
 
 Cardilf . . 
 
 Bangkok, Siam 
 
 Lembersr 
 
 
 Damascus 
 
 Catania 
 
 Buda Pesth 
 
 Seoul, Korea 
 
 Barmen 
 
 
 Smvrna 
 
 Colombo. . 
 
 
 Hull 
 
 Danzig 
 
 
 Havana 
 
 Columbus 
 
 
 Salford, England 
 Delhi 
 
 Roubaix 
 
 
 Nantes 
 
 
 The Hague 
 
 
 
 Pernambuco 
 
 
 Milan 
 
 Cawnpore 
 
 Bareillv India 
 
 
 Mandelav 
 
 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 
 Birmingham. England 
 
 Prague 
 
 
 Toronto 
 
 
 
 Rangoon 
 
 Havre 
 
 Odessa 
 
 Bagdad 
 Tabriz, Persia 
 
 Meerut 
 Worcester 
 
 
 1895 
 1891 
 1900 
 est. 
 1896 
 1891 
 1900 
 1896 
 1895 
 1900 
 1895 
 1895 
 1900 
 1891 
 1900 
 1H95 
 1897 
 1897 
 1890 
 1S90 
 1896 
 1900 
 1896 
 1900 
 1900 
 1896 
 1897 
 1900 
 1891 
 1897 
 18^6 
 1881 
 1806 
 
 
 Bangalore 
 
 Nagpur.. 
 
 
 Allahabad 
 
 Goteborg, Sweden.. 
 Howrah, India... 
 
 
 Lahore 
 
 
 Dusseldorf 
 
 Baroda 
 
 Leeds 
 
 Providence 
 
 Halle-on-Saal 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Konigsberg. . . 
 
 Brighton 
 
 Turin 
 
 v alencia 
 
 Brims wick, Germany 
 Bolton 
 
 
 Kharkoff , Russia 
 
 
 Yokohama 
 
 Gratz 
 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 Rouen .... 
 
 
 Agra 
 
 
 
 Patna 
 
 Dortmund, Germany 
 
 Sheffield 
 
 Liege 
 
 Pittsbur" . ... 
 
 Kansas Cit v 
 
 Kishineff 
 
 Cologne 
 
 St. Paul..." 
 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Rochester 
 
 
 Lodz, Poland 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Surat 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Kobe, Japan 
 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 Chemnitz 
 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 Vilna 
 
 Krefeld 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Portsmouth, England 
 Ghent 
 
 Paterson 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 Fall River 
 
 
 Trieste 
 
 Leghorn . 
 
 Milwaukee 
 
 Stuttgart 
 
 Lima 
 
 Palermo 
 
 Dundee 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 Riga 
 
 Venice 
 
 Omaha. 
 
 
 Tunis ... 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 
 
 
 
 Christiaiiia 
 
 Scranton 
 
 
 Bologna 
 
 
 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 Salonica, Turkey 
 
 NOTE. The population of Chinese cities other than Canton, Peking, and Shanghai is omitted, because re- 
 ports respecting it are utterH untrustworthy. There are forty or more Chinese cities whose inhabitants are 
 numbered by rumor at from 2oO,Oi0 to 1.000,000 each, but no official censuses have ever been taken ; and setting 
 aside consideration of the Oriental tendency to exaggeration, there is reason to believe that the estimates of 
 population in many instances covered districts of country bearing the same names as the cities, instead of def- 
 inite municipalities.
 
 5S2 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OP PACTS. 
 
 Arizona 16,740 
 
 California 15,283 
 
 Colorado 1,034 
 
 Connecticut 24 
 
 Florida 215 
 
 Georgia 2 
 
 Idaho 3,909 
 
 Illinois 1 
 
 Indiana 71 
 
 Indian Territory .... 8,708 
 Five Civilized Tribes 66,289 
 
 Iowa 397 
 
 The American Indian. 
 
 (Population in 1890, as Reported by the Census.) 
 
 Kansas 
 
 ... 1,437 New Mexico 
 
 . . 2(1.521 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 132 
 
 Pueblos 
 
 . . 8,278 
 
 
 140 
 
 New York . . 
 
 28 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 145 
 
 Six Nations 
 
 . . 5 304 
 
 Michigan 
 
 . . . 6,1(91 
 
 North Carolina. . . 
 
 231 
 
 
 . . . 7,065 
 
 Cherokees 
 
 . . 2.885 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 . .. 1,404 
 
 North Dakota.... 
 
 . . 7,952 
 
 Missouri 
 
 14 
 
 Oklahoma. . 
 
 . 5,689 
 
 Montana 
 
 . . . 10,573 j Oregon 
 
 . . 4,282 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 . . . 3.8C4 South Dakota ... 
 
 19 845 
 
 
 4 956 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 Texas 258 
 
 Utah 2,489 
 
 Washington 10,837 
 
 Wisconsin 8,896 
 
 Wyoming 1,806 
 
 AVar Department 
 
 Apaches, Mt. Ver- 
 
 non Barracks. 
 
 Indians in prison 
 
 384 
 
 1*4 
 
 Total... 249,273 
 
 INDIAN POPULATION IN DETAIL. 
 
 The total Indian population of the United States, exclusive of Alaska, but including 32,567 counted in the 
 general census, being the taxed or taxable Indians, numbers 249,273. The following table gives the division of 
 the Indians in detail : 
 
 Indians on reservations or at school, under control of the Indian office (not taxed or taxable) 133,382 
 
 Indians incidentally under the Indian office, and self-supporting: 
 
 The five civilized tribes, Indians and colored Cherokees, 29,599 ; Chickasaws, 7.182; Choctaws, 14,397; 
 Creeks, 14,632; Seminoles, 2,561 ; total, 68,371. Total Indians, 52,065 ; total colored Indian citizens 
 
 and claimants, 14,224 ; grand total 66,289 
 
 Pueblos of New Mexico 8,278 
 
 Six Nations, Saint Regis, and other Indians of New York 5,304 
 
 Eastern Cherokees of North Carolina 2,886 
 
 Indians taxed or taxable, and self-sustaining citizens, counted in the general census (98 per cent, not on 
 
 reservations) 32,567 
 
 Indians under control of the War Department, prisoners of war (Apaches at Mount Vernon Barracks) 384 
 
 Indians in State or Territorial prisons i 184 
 
 Total 249,273 
 
 "Uncle Sam." The practice of calling 
 the United States Government "Uncle Sam" 
 is believed to have originated in the following 
 manner : During the Revolutionary war a man 
 named Samuel Wilson was a beef inspector at 
 Troy, N. Y., and was very popular with the 
 men in his employ, who always called him 
 Uncle Sam. After the inspection of the beef, 
 it was shipped by him to a contractor named 
 Elbert Anderson, and was always marked 
 " E. A. U. S." A joking workman, being 
 asked what those letters were the abbreviations 
 of, replied that he did not know, unless they 
 were for filbert Anderson and " Uncle Sam." 
 The joke was kept up and spread, until it 
 became common to refer to all packages marked 
 "U.S." as belonging to "Uncle Sam." 
 
 Expectation of Life. 
 
 Expecta- 
 tion in 
 years. 
 
 a; 
 be 
 
 < 
 
 Expecta- 
 tion in 
 years. 
 
 
 U 
 
 <! 
 
 &a . 
 o~ 
 
 
 
 as* 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 M 
 
 < 
 
 Expecta- 
 tion in 
 years. 
 
 
 bO 
 
 <! 
 
 *c . 
 
 ".S IB 
 
 u 
 
 2 e ?a 
 
 P* 
 
 28.15 
 
 JO 
 
 34.22 
 
 40 
 
 26.04 
 
 (ill 
 
 15.45 
 
 80 
 
 5.85 
 
 36 78 
 
 21 
 
 33.84 
 
 41 
 
 25.61 
 
 <;i 
 
 14.86 
 
 81 
 
 5.50 
 
 38.74 
 
 J-J 
 
 33.46 
 
 4'J 
 
 25.19 
 
 (12 
 
 14.26 
 
 S2 
 
 5.16 
 
 40.01 
 
 J3 
 
 33.08 
 
 t;f 
 
 24.77 
 
 <!3 
 
 13.66 
 
 S3 
 
 4.87 
 
 40.73 
 
 24 
 
 32.70 
 
 44 
 
 24.35 
 
 <J4 
 
 13.05 
 
 M 
 
 4.66 
 
 40.88 
 
 25 
 
 32.33 
 
 45 
 
 23.92 
 
 66 
 
 12.43 
 
 ws 
 
 4.57 
 
 40.69 
 
 26 
 
 31.!I3 
 
 41! 
 
 23.37 
 
 IK) 
 
 11.96 
 
 86 
 
 4.21 
 
 40.47 
 
 27 
 
 31.50 
 
 47 
 
 22.83 
 
 (>7 
 
 11.48 
 
 *7 
 
 3.00 
 
 40.14 
 
 2s 
 
 31.08 
 
 48 
 
 22.27 
 
 C,S 
 
 11.01 
 
 88 
 
 3.67 
 
 39.72 
 
 29 
 
 30.66 
 
 4! 
 
 21.72 
 
 C.! 
 
 10.50 
 
 S!) 
 
 3.56 
 
 39.23 
 
 M 
 
 30.25 
 
 60 
 
 21.17 
 
 70 
 
 10.06 
 
 DO 
 
 3.43 
 
 38.64 
 
 81 
 
 29.83 
 
 51 
 
 20.61 
 
 71 
 
 9.60 
 
 !H 
 
 3.32 
 
 38.02 
 
 32 
 
 29.43 
 
 52 
 
 20.05 
 
 71' 
 
 9.14 
 
 82 
 
 3.12 
 
 37.41 
 
 S3 
 
 29.02 
 
 SB 
 
 19.49 
 
 73 
 
 8.69 
 
 93 
 
 2.40 
 
 36.79 
 
 .".4 
 
 28.62 
 
 54 
 
 18.92 
 
 74 
 
 8.25 
 
 !(4 
 
 1.98 
 
 36.17 
 
 35 
 
 28.22 
 
 55 
 
 18.35 
 
 75 
 
 7.83 
 
 '.ft 
 
 1.62 
 
 35.76 
 
 :i 
 
 27.78 
 
 5G 
 
 17.78 
 
 Tli 
 
 7.40 
 
 
 
 35.37 
 
 37 
 
 27.34 
 
 67 
 
 17.20 
 
 77 
 
 6.99 
 
 
 
 34.98 
 
 38 
 
 26.91 
 
 58 
 
 16. 3 
 
 78 
 
 6.59 
 
 
 
 34.59 
 
 39 
 
 26.47 
 
 59 
 
 16.04 
 
 79 
 
 6.21 
 
 
 
 Rubicon, the ancient name of a small 
 stream thought to be the modern Fiumicino 
 which formed the boundary between Italy and 
 Cisalpine Gaul. It is celebrated from C;esar's 
 having hesitated about crossing it with his 
 army, and initiating civil war, in the year 49 
 B.C. When he came to the river he paused 
 upon the brink, but finally, saying, " The die 
 is cast ! " he spurred on his horse, and dashed 
 into the water. Hence, " To pass the Rubi- 
 con " has become a proverbial phrase, todeifote 
 the taking of the first step in a momentous 
 undertaking, from which one cannot or will 
 not recede. 
 
 Illegitimacy. The percentage of illegiti- 
 mate births for various countries, as stated by 
 Mulhall, is asfollows : Austria, 12.9 ; Denmark, 
 11.2; Sweden. 10.2; Scotland, 8.9; Norway, 
 8.05 ; Germany, 8.04 ; France, 7.02 ; Be'l- 
 gium, 7.0; United States, 7.0; Italy, 6.8; 
 Spain and Portugal, 5.5 ; Canada, 5.0; Switz- 
 erland, 4.6 ; Holland, 3.5 ; Russia, 3.1 ; Ire- 
 land, 2.3; Greece, 1.6. 
 
 Positivism. The system of philosophy 
 known as positivism, taught by Auguste Comte 
 (1799-1 857) , discarding the possibility of know- 
 ing the beginning and the end of anything, 
 concerns itself only with what lies between. 
 It accepts neither atheism, theism, nor panthe- 
 ism. It may be divided into two parts: The 
 historic conception and the co-ordination of 
 the sciences. The former is this : That the 
 human mind passes through three stages, viz., 
 the theological, the metaphysical, and the 
 positive. In all subjects capable of experi- 
 ment it passes from metaphysics to experi-
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 593 
 
 mental verification or exact science. In re- 
 gard to the co-ordination of the sciences the 
 basis is mathematics ; then follow astronomy, 
 physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. 
 Take the last : The science of society is im- 
 possible without the science of life. The 
 science of life is impossible without chemistry. 
 Chemistry presupposes physics, physics as- 
 tronomy, and astronomy mathematics. 
 
 Executive Civil List. 
 
 umber. 
 
 21 
 
 62 
 
 122 
 
 15,163 
 
 14,967 
 
 704 
 
 Department, Bureau, Office, or Commission. J 
 Executive Office 
 
 Civil Service Commission 
 
 State Department 
 
 Treasury Department 
 
 "War Department 
 
 Department of Justice 
 
 Post Office Department 
 
 Navy Department 
 
 Positions registered under Navy Department 
 
 regulations 
 
 Interior Department 
 
 Pension Examining Surgeons 
 
 Department of Agriculture 
 
 Department of Labor 
 
 Commission of Fish and Fisheries 
 
 Interstate Commerce Commission 
 
 Smithsonian Institution 
 
 Library of Congress 
 
 Superintendent State, War, and Navy Building. 
 
 Total Departmental Service 62,669 
 
 General Statement. 
 
 Departmental Service 62,669 
 
 Post Office Service 104,811 
 
 Government Printing Office 2,852 
 
 Custom House Service 5,103 
 
 Internal Revenue Service 3,282 
 
 1,252 
 
 5,003 
 
 9,713 
 
 4,120 
 
 2,241 
 
 95 
 
 183 
 
 142 
 
 292 
 
 39 
 
 25 
 
 Total Executive Civil List, United States . . . 178,717 
 
 The Defective Classes. The Insane. 
 The total number of insane in the United 
 States on June 1, 1890 (census of the United 
 States), was 106,485 whites, 99,719; ne- 
 groes, 6,535 ; Chinese, Japanese, and civili/ad 
 Indians, 231. The number of insane males 
 was 5-3.473, and of insane females 53,012. 
 The total number of insane reported in 1880 
 was 91,950. The number of insane in each 
 100,000 of the population in 1890 was 387.0 
 for the foreign whites, 140.5 for the native 
 whites, and 88.6 for the colored. In 1880 the 
 corresponding figures were 398.8, 161.9, and 
 91.2. 
 
 The proportion of insanity was much greater 
 among the whites than among the negroes, and 
 very much greater among the foreign born than 
 among the native born. 
 
 The number of insane in asylums in 1890 
 was 74,028 whites, 69,729 ; negroes, 4,299. 
 The number of insane in asylums in each 1,000 
 of insane was : whites, 699 ; negroes, 658. 
 
 The number of insane admitted to public 
 institutions from 1881 to 1889, inclusive, was 
 190,458. The number admitted to private in- 
 stitutions in the same period, 33,833. 
 
 Reports from thirty states to the Committee 
 on States of the National Conference of Chari- 
 
 ties and Correction showed 102,000 insane per- 
 sons in 1896. At this rate the whole United 
 States would have 145,000 insane. 
 
 The Feeble Minded. The total number of 
 feeble minded in the United States on June 1 , 
 1890, was 95,609 whites, 84,997; negroes, 
 10,574 ; males, 52,962 ; females, 42,647 ; na- 
 tive born whites, 75,910 ; foreign born whites, 
 9,087. 
 
 The Deaf and Dumb The total number of 
 deaf mutes in the United States on June 1, 
 1890, was 40,592 whites, 37,447 ; negroes, 
 3,115; others, 30; males, '22,429 ; females, 
 18,163 ; native born whites, 33,278 ; foreign 
 born whites, 4,169. 
 
 The number of persons so deaf as to be 
 unable to hear loud conversation on June 1, 
 1890, was 121,178, of whom 80,611 were able 
 to speak. The latter were 49,278 males, 3,1,- 
 338 females, 77,308 whites, 3,308 negroes. 
 
 The Blind The total number of blind in 
 the United States on June 1, 1890, was 50,568 
 whites, 43,351 ; negroes, 7,060 ; others, 
 157; males, 28,080; females, 22,488 ; native 
 born whites, 34,205 ; foreign born whites, 
 9,146. The number of blind in one eye only 
 was 93,983. 
 
 The number of insane persons in England 
 in 1889, according to Mulhall, was 84,345, or 
 2,907 per million population; in Scotland, 
 11,954, or 2,890 per million. The number 
 of insane in Germany in 1884 was 108,100 ; 
 France, 93,900; Russia, 80,000; Austria, 
 44,500. 
 
 Holidays. The legal holidays in the 
 United States are as follows : 
 
 New Year's Day, January 1. In all states 
 and territories, except Arkansas, Delaware, 
 Georgia, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, 
 New Hampshire, North Carolina?T5oiith Caro- 
 lina, and Rhode Island. 
 
 Anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans, 
 January 8. In Louisiana. 
 
 Lincoln's Birthday, February 12. In Louis- 
 iana. 
 
 Washington's Birthday, February 22. In all 
 states and territories except Alabama, Arkan- 
 sas, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Kansas, 
 Maine, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, Texas, 
 Oregon, and Tennessee. 
 
 Shrove Tuesday, March 1. In Louisiana, 
 and cities of Mobile, Montgomery, and Selma, 
 Ala. 
 
 Anniversary of Texan Independence, March 
 2. In Texas. 
 
 Firemen's Anniversary, March 4. In Louis- 
 iana. 
 
 Good Friday, April 15. In Florida, Louis- 
 iana, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania. 
 
 Memorial Day, April 26. In Georgia.
 
 594 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Battle of San Jacinto, April 21. In Texas. 
 
 Decoration Dai/, May 30. In Colorado, 
 Maine, Vermont, Connecticut, Michigan, New 
 Hampshire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, New 
 York, Pennsylvania, and District of Columbia. 
 
 Fourth of July. In all states and terri- 
 tories. 
 
 General Election Day, generally on Tuesday 
 after first Monday in November. In Califor- 
 nia, Maine, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, 
 Oregon, South Carolina, and Wisconsin. 
 
 Thanksgiving Day, usually last Thursday in 
 November, and Fast days whenever appointed 
 by the president are legal holidays in all states 
 and territories. 
 
 Christmas Day. In all the states and ter- 
 ritories. 
 
 Labor Day, first Monday in September. All 
 stales. 
 
 Weight and Specific Gravities of 
 Liquids. 
 
 Liquids at 32 Fahr. 
 
 Weight 
 one cubic 
 foot. 
 
 Weight of 
 one gallon. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 848.7 
 
 Pounds. 
 136.0 
 
 Water=l. 
 13 596 
 
 
 185 1 
 
 29 7 
 
 2 966 
 
 Sulphuric acid, max. concen- 
 
 114 9 
 
 IS 4 
 
 1 ?4 
 
 
 96 8 
 
 15 5 
 
 1 55 
 
 
 95 5 
 
 15 3 
 
 1 53 
 
 Water of the Dead Sea 
 
 77.4 
 
 12 4 
 
 1 24 
 
 Nitric acid , of commerce 
 Acetic acid, maximum con- 
 
 76.2 
 67 4 
 
 12.2 
 10 8 
 
 1.22 
 1 08 
 
 Milk .. 
 
 64 3 
 
 10 3 
 
 1 03 
 
 Sea water, ordinary 
 
 64.05 
 
 10.3 
 
 1 06 
 
 Pure water ( distld.) at 39 1 F. 
 Wine of Bordeaux 
 
 62.425 
 62 1 
 
 10.0 
 9 9 
 
 1.000 
 094 
 
 
 61 !> 
 
 9 
 
 991 
 
 Linseed oil 
 Poppy oil 
 
 58.7 
 58.1 
 57 4 
 
 9.4 
 9.3 
 9 2 
 
 0.94 
 0.93 
 92 
 
 Whale oil .... 
 
 57 4 
 
 9.2 
 
 02 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 57 1 
 
 9.15 
 
 915 
 
 Turpentine oil 
 
 54 3 
 
 8.7 
 
 87 
 
 Potato oil 
 
 51 2 
 
 8.2 
 
 8'' 
 
 Petroleum 
 
 549 
 
 8.8 
 
 88 
 
 Naphtha 
 
 53 1 
 
 8.5 
 
 85 
 
 Ether, nitric 
 
 69 3 
 
 11.1 
 
 1 11 
 
 Ether, sulphurous 
 
 67 4 
 
 10.8 
 
 1 08 
 
 Ether, nitrous 
 
 55 6 
 
 8.9 
 
 89 
 
 Ether, acetic 
 
 55 6 
 
 8.9 
 
 89 
 
 Ether, hvdrochloric 
 
 54 3 
 
 8.7 
 
 87 
 
 Ether, sulphuric 
 
 44 9 
 
 7.2 
 
 o -> 
 
 Alcohol, proof spirit 
 
 67 4 
 
 9.2 
 
 92 
 
 Alcohol, pure 
 
 49.3 
 
 7.9 
 
 79 
 
 Benzine 
 
 53 1 
 
 8.5 
 
 85 
 
 Wood spirit 
 
 49.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 n.so 
 
 The World's Seven Wonders. The 
 
 seven wonders of the world are : The Pyramids, 
 the Colossus of Rhodes, Diana's Temple at 
 Ephesus, the Pharos of Alexandria, the Hang- 
 ing Gardens at Babylon, the Statue of the 
 Olympian Jove, and the Mausoleum by Art- 
 temisia at Halicarnassus. The Pyramids are 
 numerous, and space forbids anything like 
 even a list of them. The great piles were 
 
 constructed of blocks of red orsyenitic granite, 
 and of a hard calcareous stone. These blocks 
 were of extraordinary dimensions, and their 
 transportation to the sites of the pyramids and 
 their adjustment in their places, indicate a 
 surprising degree of mechanical skill. The 
 Great Pyramid covers an area of between 
 twelve and thirteen acres. The masonry con- 
 sisted originally of 89,028,000 cubic feet, and 
 still amounts to about 82,111,000 feet. The 
 present vertical height is 450 feet, against 479 
 feet originally, and the present length of the 
 sides is 746 feet, against 764 feet originally. 
 The total weight of the stone is estimated at 
 6,316,000,000 tons. The city of Rhodes was 
 besieged by Demetrius Poliorcetes, King of 
 Macedon, but, aided by Ptolomy Soter, King 
 of Egypt, the enemy were repulsed. To ex- 
 press their gratitude to their allies and to their 
 tutelary deity, they erected a brazen statue to 
 Apollo. It was 105 feet high, and hollow, 
 with a winding staircase that ascended to the 
 head. After standing fifty-six years, it was 
 overthrown by an earthquake, 224 years before 
 Christ, and lay nine centuries on the ground, 
 and then was sold to a Jew by the Saracens, 
 who had captured Rhodes, about the middle 
 of the seventh century. It is said to have re- 
 quired nine hundred camels to remove the metal, 
 and from this statement it has been calculated 
 its weight was 720,000 pounds. The Temple 
 of Diana, at Ephesus, was built at the com- 
 mon charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief 
 architect was Chersiphon, and Pliny says that 
 220 years were employed in completing the 
 temple, whose riches were immense. It was 
 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported 
 by 125 columns of Parian marble (sixty feet 
 high, each weighing 150 tons), furnished by 
 as many kings. It was set on fire on the night 
 of Alexander's birth by an obscure person 
 named Erostratus, who confessed on the rack 
 that the sole motive which prompted him was 
 the desire to transmit his name to future ages. 
 The temple was again built, and once more 
 burned by the Goths in their naval invasion, A. 
 D. 256. The colossal statue of Jupiter in the 
 temple of Olympia, at Elis, was by Phidias. 
 It was in gold and ivory, and sat enthroned 
 in the temple for 800 years, and was finally 
 destroyed by fire about A. I). 475. From the 
 best information, it is believed that the Mau- 
 soleum at Halicarnassus was a rectangular 
 building surrounded by an Ionic portico of 
 thirty-six columns, and surmounted by a pyra- 
 mid, rising in twenty-four steps, upon the 
 summit of \vliichwasacolossal marble quad- 
 riga \\ith a statue of Mausolus. The magnif- 
 icent structure was erected by Artemisia, who 
 was the sister, wife, and successor of Mausolus.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 595 
 
 The Blarney Stone. Blarney is a vil- 
 lage in Ireland, in the County of Cork, about 
 five miles from the far famed city of that 
 name. It is chiefly celebrated as giving the 
 name to a peculiar kind of eloquence which i 
 said to be characteristic of the light-hearted 
 natives of the Emerald Isle. The old castle 
 at Blarney contains the identical stone, the 
 kissing of which is believed to give the person 
 peculiar skill in speech. It is one of those 
 superstitions which can be traced back until 
 the mind of man runneth not to the contrary. 
 
 The Coal Area of the World The 
 coal area of the world is distributed as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Sq. Miles. I Sq. Miles. 
 
 United States 192,000 | Germany 1,800 
 
 British America 18,000 Belgium 518 
 
 Great Britain 12,000 | Rest of Europe 100,000 
 
 Spain 4,000 j China 2,000 
 
 France 2,000 | Japan 5,000 
 
 Salaries Paid to Heads of Govern- 
 ments. Various governments pay their 
 chiefs as follows : The United States, $50,000 
 a year; Persia, $30,000,000 ; Russia, $10,000,- 
 000; Siam, $10,000,000; Spain, $3,900,000; 
 Italy, $3,000,000 ; Great Britain, $3,000,000 ; 
 Morocco, $2,500,000; Japan, $2,300,000; 
 Egypt, $1,575,000; Germany, $1,000,000; 
 Saxony, $700,000 ; Portugal, Sweden, and 
 Brazil, each $600,000 ; France, $200,000 ; 
 Hayti, $240,000 ; Switzerland, $3,000. 
 
 Train Management. STANDARD CODE. 
 A train while running must display two 
 green flags by day and two green lights by 
 night, one on each side of the rear of the train. 
 
 After sunset, or when obscured by fog or 
 other cause, must display headlight in front, 
 and two red lights in rear. 
 
 Two green flags by day and two green lights 
 by night, displayed in the places provided for 
 that purpose on the front of an engine, denote 
 that the train is followed by another train run- 
 ning on the same schedule, and entitled to the 
 same time-table rights as the train carrying the 
 signals. 
 
 Two white flags by day or two white lights 
 by night, carried in the same manner, denote 
 that the train is an extra. 
 
 A blue flag by day and a blue light by night, 
 placed on the end of a car, denotes that car 
 inspectors are at work under or about the car 
 or train, and that it must not be coupled to or 
 moved until the blue signal is removed. 
 
 Colored Flag or Lantern Signals Torpedoes. 
 STANDARD CODE. -Red signifies danger. 
 
 Green signifies caution, go slowly. 
 
 White signifies safety. 
 
 Green and white signifies stop at flag sta- 
 tions for passengers or freight. 
 
 One cap or torpedo on rail means stop im- 
 mediately. 
 
 Two caps or torpedoes on rail means reduce 
 speed immediately, and look out for danger 
 signal. 
 
 Telescopes. The largest refracting tele- 
 scope in the world was presented by Charles 
 T. Yerkes to the University of Chicago, in 
 1893. It has a lens 40 inches in diameter. 
 The column and head of cast iron rise to a 
 height of 43 feet, and weigh 50 tons. The 
 tube is of steel, 64 feet long, and 52 inches 
 in diameter at the center, tapering towards 
 the ends. Its weight is 6 tons. The total 
 weight of the telescope is 75 tons. Cost $250,- 
 000. The lens of the telescope at Lick Obser- 
 vatory is 36 inches in diameter. The largest 
 reflector is that of Lord Ross in England, 72 
 inches. 
 
 Divorces in Different Countries. 
 In Australia divorces have never been sanc- 
 tioned. 
 
 Divorces are scarcely ever known to occur 
 in modern Greece. 
 
 In Hindostan either party, for a slight cause, 
 may leave the other party and marry. 
 
 In the olden times the Jews had a discre- 
 tionary power of divorcing their wives. 
 
 Divorces are scarcely allowed in Thibet, un- 
 less with the consent of both parties. Re- 
 marriage is forbidden. 
 
 In Cochin China the parties desiring divorce 
 break a pair of chopsticks in the presence of 
 witnesses, and the thing is done. 
 
 Two kinds of divorces are granted in Cir- 
 cassia. By the first, the parties can immedi- 
 ately marry again ; by the second, not for a 
 year. 
 
 Among some tribes of American Indians the 
 sticks given witnesses of the marriage are 
 broken as a sign of divorce. 
 
 If the wife of a Turkoman asks his permis- 
 sion to go out, and he says " Go," without 
 adding, " Come back again," they are di- 
 vorced. 
 
 In Siberia, if a man is dissatisfied with the 
 most trifling acts of his wife, he tears a cap or 
 veil from her face, and that constitutes a di- 
 vorce. 
 
 In Siam the first wife may be divorced, but 
 not sold as the others maybe. She may claim 
 the first child. The others belong to the hus- 
 band. 
 
 Among the Moors, if the wife does not be- 
 come the mother of a boy, she may be divorced 
 with the consent of the tribe, and can marry 
 again. 
 
 In the Arctic regions a man who wants a di- 
 vorce leaves home in anger, and does not return 
 for several days. The wife takes the hint, and 
 departs. 
 
 In China divorces are allowed in all cases of
 
 596 
 
 THE CENTUKY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 criminality, mutual dislike, jealousy, incom- 
 patibility of temperament, or too much lo- 
 quacity on the part of the wife. 
 
 Among the Tartars, if the wife is ill-treated, 
 siie complains to the magistrate, who, attended 
 by the principal people, accompanies her to 
 the house and pronounces a divorce. 
 
 Books were originally made of boards, or 
 the inner bark of trees; afterwards of skins 
 and parchment. Papyrus, an indigenous' 
 plant, was adopted in Egypt. Books with 
 leaves of vellum were invented by Attains, 
 king of Pergarnus, about 198 B. C., at which 
 time books were in volumes or rolls. The 
 MSS. in Herculaneum consists of papyrus, 
 rolled and charred and matted together by the 
 fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, 
 two, or three inches in diameter, each 
 being a separate treatise. The first printed 
 books were printed on one side only, the 
 leaves being pasted back to back. 
 
 Title pages to printed books in England 
 were not introduced until shortly before 1490 ; 
 they were used by Wynkyn de Worde, but 
 not by Caxton in the fifteenth century. 
 
 The prices of ancient books were enormous. 
 Jerome (who died 420 A. D.) states that he 
 had ruined himself by buying a copy of the 
 works of Origen. A large estate was given 
 by Alfred the Great for a book on cosmogra- 
 phy, about 872. The Roman de la Rote was 
 sold for about 30 ; and a homily was 
 exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of 
 
 wheat. Books frequently brought double or 
 treble their weight in gold. In 1400 they 
 sold at prices varying from 10 to 40 each. 
 
 Bookbinding is supposed to have begun 
 about 050 A. I)., the earliest to be bound 
 being the book of St. Cuthbert. A Latin 
 Psalter was bound in oak boards in the ninth 
 century. Velvet was the covering in the four- 
 teenth century, and silk soon after. Vellum 
 was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; 
 and leather came into use about the same time. 
 
 Minimum "Wcig'lits of Produce. 
 The following are minimum weights of certain 
 articles of produce, according to the laws of 
 the United States : 
 
 Per Bushel. 
 
 Per Bushel 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 GO Ibs. 
 
 Dried Apples, 26 Ibs 
 
 Corn, in the ear, 
 
 70 ' 
 
 Clover Seed, 60 
 
 Corn, shelled, 
 
 66 
 
 Flax Seed, 56 
 
 Rye, 
 
 56 
 
 Millet Seed, 50 
 
 Buckwheat, 
 
 48 
 
 Hungarian Grass 
 
 Barley, 
 
 48 
 
 Seed, 50 
 
 Oats, 
 
 32 
 
 Timothy Seed, 45 
 
 Pease, 
 
 60 
 
 Blue Grass Seed, 44 
 
 White Beans, 
 
 60 
 
 Hemp Seed, 44 
 
 Castor Beans, 
 
 46 
 
 Salt (see note below). 
 
 White 1'ota toes, 
 
 CO 
 
 Corn Meal, 48 
 
 Sweet Potatoes, 
 
 56 
 
 G round Pease, 24 
 
 Onions, 
 
 57 
 
 Malt, 38 
 
 Turnips, 
 
 55 
 
 Bran, 20 
 
 Dried Peaches, 
 
 33 
 
 
 Salt. Weight per bushel as adopted by dif- 
 ferent states ranges from 50 to 80 pounds. 
 Coarse salt in Pennsylvania is reckoned at 80 
 pounds, and in Illinois at 50 pounds per bushel. 
 Fine salt in Pennsylvania is reckoned at G2 
 pounds, in Kentucky and Illinois at 55 pounds 
 per bushel. 
 
 Railroad Statistics for Year Ending 1898. 
 
 Mileage of Railroads 179,692.57 
 
 Side Tracks and Sidings 57.218.95' 
 
 Total Track (exclusive of elevated railroads 
 
 in State of New York) 236,911.52 
 
 Steel Rails in Track 211,928.31 
 
 24,983.21 
 
 35,810 
 
 25,275 
 
 8,133 
 
 1,229,535 
 
 1,262,743 
 
 Iron Rails in Track . 
 Locomotive Engines, Number. 
 Cars, Passenger 
 
 " Baggage, Mail, etc 
 
 " Freight 
 
 Total Cars . . , 
 
 LIABILITIES. 
 
 Capital Stock $5,453,782,046 
 
 Bonded Debt 5,411,058,525 
 
 Unfunded Debt 374,389,673 
 
 Current Accounts 392.481,496 
 
 Total Liabilities $11 ,631^7117740 
 
 ASSETS. 
 Cost of Railroad and Equipment $10,029,151,607 
 
 Miles of Railroad Operated (exclusive of 
 
 elevated railroads) ..................... 181.132,700 
 
 Passenger Train Mileage ................... ~~3#27"4.4i)S 
 
 Freight " " ................... 500,3-.6,372 
 
 Mixed " " .................. 15.L':;5.n4:i 
 
 Total ...................................... ~85K,OL'.->2'.i 
 
 Passengers Carried ......................... 504,106.5:>5 
 
 Passenger Mileage .......................... 12,494,958 000 
 
 Tons of Freight Moved .................... 788,385,448 
 
 Freight Mileage ............................ 97,842,569,150 
 
 TRAFFIC EARNINGS. 
 
 Passengers .................................. $253,557,936 
 
 Freight ..................................... 780,351,939 
 
 Miscellaneous .............................. 89.636,791 
 
 Total Traffic Revenue .................... 1,123,540^666 
 
 Net Earnings ............................... $338,170,195 
 
 Receipts from Other Sources ............. 95. in::. '.MI; 
 
 Total Available Revenue ................. 
 
 PAYMENTS FUOM AVAILABLE REVENUE. 
 
 Rentals, Tolls, etc 
 Intereston Bonds 
 
 Real Estate, Stocks, Bonds, and Other In- 
 vestments 1,509,841,062 Other Interest 
 
 Other Assets 222,089,700 1 >i vidends on Stock .... 
 
 Current Accounts 170,531,284 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total Assets $lli931,613.653 Total Payments $40670367348 
 
 Excess of Assets over Liabilities $299,901,913 Surplus $27,147,7.54 
 
 $58,000,768 
 231,046,819 
 5,633.298 
 82,630.989 
 28, 124. 474
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 597 
 
 The Public Lands of the United States. 
 
 The following is a tabular statement showing the number of acres of public lands surveyed in the following 
 land States and Territories up to June 30, 1898 ; also the total area of the public domain remaining unsurveyed 
 within the same, etc. 
 
 LAND STATES 
 
 AMD 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 AREA. 
 
 N limber of Acres of 
 Public Land Sur- 
 veyed Up to June 
 30, 1897. 
 
 Total Area of Public 
 and Indian Lands 
 Remaining Unsur- 
 veyed, including 
 the Area of Private 
 Land Claims. 
 
 LAND STATES 
 
 AND 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 ABEA. 
 
 Number of Acres of 
 Public Lands Sur- 
 veyed Up to June 
 30,1897. 
 
 Total Area of Public 
 and Indian Lands 
 Remaining Unsnr- 
 veyed, Including 
 the Area of I'rivate 
 Land Claims. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 Alabama 
 Arkansas 
 California 
 Colorado 
 Florida 
 
 32,462,115 
 33,410,003 
 1 10,992.040 
 66,880.000 
 37,931,520 
 35 4(i.-).0!'3 
 2l,63r,760 
 35,228,800 
 55,228,100 
 51,770,240 
 28,731,090 
 36,128.040 
 5'!,459.840 
 30,179,840 
 
 92ioio!340 
 
 47,408,800 
 
 50,722 
 52,203 
 157,801 
 104,500 
 59,268 
 55,414 
 33,809 
 55,045 
 86,294 
 80,891 
 44,893 
 56,451 
 83,531 
 47,156 
 65,370 
 143,776 
 74,170 
 
 32,462,115 
 33,410,003 
 76,263,293 
 61.391,497 
 30,832,485 
 35,465,093 
 21,637,760 
 35,228,800 
 15,447,631 
 51,770,240 
 27,174,005 
 36,128,640 
 46,505,728 
 30,179,840 
 41,836,931 
 28,945,456 
 47,368,404 
 
 
 Nevada 
 
 71,737,600 
 45,561,600 
 25,581,976 
 60,975.360 
 50,643,200 
 34,511,3(0 
 44,796,100 
 62,645,120 
 309,529,000 
 72,906,240 
 19,575,040 
 77,568,040 
 24,599,080 
 54,064,640 
 
 112.090 
 
 39*972 
 95,274 
 79,130 
 53,924 
 69,994 
 97,883 
 577,390 
 113,916 
 30,586 
 121,201 
 38,437 
 84,476 
 
 36,172,204 
 
 31,880,426 
 25,581,976 
 43,867,232 
 39,692,951 
 34,511,360 
 25,511,597 
 51,890,201 
 1,145 
 17,248,889 
 10,800/40 
 50,378,119 
 24 599,080 
 16,891,242 
 
 35,565,396 
 12,792,723 
 
 
 N.Dakota.... 
 Ohio 
 
 24,540,370 
 5,364,836 
 7,098,836 
 
 Oregon 
 
 16,498,213 
 10,073,171 
 
 S. Dakota.... 
 Wisconsin . . . 
 Washington.. 
 Wyoming 
 Alaska 
 
 
 
 18,870,800 
 10,161.313 
 369.528,455 
 55,610,015 
 8,774,400 
 27,035,470 
 
 Iowa 
 
 
 
 38,632,121 
 j 
 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Louisiana 
 Michigan 
 Minnesota . . . 
 Mississippi... 
 Missouri 
 Montana 
 Nebraska 
 
 1,555,878 
 
 Indian Ter. . . 
 New Mexico.. 
 Oklahoma .... 
 Utah 
 
 Total 
 
 6,467,459 
 
 36,925,128 
 
 62,616,394 
 100,396 
 
 1,815,524,388 
 
 2,836,757 
 
 1,061,075,643 
 
 *748,211,374 
 
 
 * This estimate is of a very general nature, and affords no index to the disposable volume of land remaining 
 nor the amount available for agricultural purposes. It includes Indian and other public reservations, unsurveyed 
 private land claims, as well as surveyed private land claims, in the districts of Arizona, California, Colorado, and 
 New Mexico ; the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections reserved foe common schools ; unsurveyed lands embraced 
 in railroad, swamp land, and other giants ; the great mountain areas ; the areas of unsurveyed rivers and lakes, 
 and large areas wholly unproductive and unavailable for ordinary purposes. 
 
 Present Population of the States and Territories. 
 
 CENSUS OF 1900.* 
 
 STATES AND 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Population. 
 
 STATES AND 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 1 
 Population. 
 
 STATES AND 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 1,828,697 
 63,592 
 122,931 
 1,311,564 
 1,485,053 
 539; 700 
 908,420 
 184,735 
 278,718 
 528,542 
 2,216,331 
 161,772 
 4,821,550 
 2,510,462 
 2,231,853 
 1,470,495 
 2,147,174 
 1,381,625 
 694,466 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1,188,044 
 2,805,346 
 2,420,982 
 1,751,394 
 1,551,270 
 3,106,665 
 24'!, 329 
 1,066,300 
 42,335 
 411,588 
 1,883,669 
 195,310 
 7.2B8.894 
 1,8)3,810 
 319,1)6 
 4,157,545 
 398,331 
 413,536 
 6,302,115 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 428,556 
 1,340,316 
 401,570 
 2.020,616 
 3,048,710 
 276,749 
 343,641 
 1,854,184 
 518,103 
 958,800 
 2,069,042 
 92.531 
 154,001 
 392,060 
 134,476 
 91,219 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 Michigan 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 Mississippi.. . 
 
 Tennessee 
 Texas 
 
 California 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 U tah 
 
 Connecticut 
 Delaware 
 
 Montana 
 Nebraska 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 
 Washington ... 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Wisconsin.... .... 
 
 Idaho 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Indian Reservations . . . 
 In Mil. & Nav. service.. 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Louisiana ." 
 Maine 
 
 Oregon 
 
 76,303,387 
 
 
 
 
 * The United States census of 1890 is tabulated on page 633. 
 
 The Language of Gems. Amethyst. 
 
 Peace of mind. Regarded by the ancients as 
 having the power to dispel drunkenness. 
 
 Bloodstone. I mourn your absence. Worn 
 by the ancients as an amulet or charm, on ac- 
 count of the medicinal and magical virtues it 
 was supposed to possess. 
 
 Diamond. Prid.e. Awarded supernatural 
 
 qualities from the most remote period down to 
 the middle ages. Has the power of making 
 men courageous and magnanimous. Protects 
 from evil spirits. Influences the gods to take 
 pity upon mortals. Maintains concord be- 
 tween husband and wife, and for this reason 
 was held as the most appropriate stone for the 
 espousal ring.
 
 598 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Emerald. Success in love. Mentioned in 
 the Bible as worn in the breastplate of the 
 High Priest as an emblem of chastity. 
 
 Ruby A cheerful mind. An amulet against 
 poison, sadness, evil thoughts. A preserva- 
 tive of health. Admonishes the wearer of im- 
 pending danger by changing color. 
 
 Sapphire. Chastity. Procures favor with 
 princes. Frees from enchantment. Prevents 
 impure thoughts. 
 
 Topaz. Fidelity. Calms the passions. 
 
 Turquoise Success and happiness. Pre- 
 serves from contagion. 
 
 Garnet. Fidelity in every engagement. 
 
 Onyx. Reciprocal love. 
 
 Opal. Pure thoughts. 
 
 Pearl. Purity and innocence. 
 
 Public Lands Vacant, July 1, 1898. 
 
 STATES 
 
 AND 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Florida 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Mexico... 
 North Dakota. 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Oregon 
 
 South Dakota. 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington... 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Surveyed 
 Land. 
 
 522,373 
 
 11,930,820 
 
 3,696,990 
 
 34,272,434 
 
 35,273,705 
 
 1,592,893 
 
 11,268,786 
 
 1,060,883 
 
 690,527 
 
 705,895 
 
 3,246,498 
 
 383,950 
 
 445,911 
 
 16,932,837 
 
 10,548,450 
 
 29,179,480 
 
 42,960,', 93 
 
 H,717,i78 
 
 7,004 ,S62 
 
 24,095,763 
 
 10,890,284 
 
 9,816,110 
 
 5,319,428 
 
 413,799 
 
 42,946,054 
 
 Grand total, acres. ! 316,716,303 262,651,971 *579,368,274 
 
 Unsur- 
 veyed 
 Land. 
 
 42,438,203 
 
 8,230,589 
 
 4,434.846 
 
 164.382 
 
 32,939,163 
 
 ' 65,018 
 2,473,828 
 
 54,674,779 
 
 32,179,129 
 13,917,042 
 
 8,857,335 
 
 2,860 
 
 11,802,106 
 
 2,092,542 
 31,121,786 
 
 8,123,154 
 
 6,135,209 
 
 Total Area. 
 
 522,373 
 
 54,369,023 
 
 3,696,990 
 
 42,503,023 
 
 39,708,551 
 
 1,757,275 
 
 44,207,949 
 
 1,060,883 
 
 755,545 
 
 605,895 
 
 5,720,326 
 
 383,950 
 
 445,911 
 
 71,607,616 
 
 10,548,450 
 
 61,358,609 
 
 56,877,835 
 
 20,574,613 
 
 7,007,222 
 
 35,897,869 
 
 12,982,826 
 
 43,937,896 
 
 13,44-2,582 
 
 413,799 
 
 49,081,263 
 
 *This aggregate is exclusive of Ohio, Indiana, and 
 Illinois, in which, if any public land remains, it consists 
 of a few small isolated tracts. It is exclusive of Alaska, 
 containing 577,390 square miles, or 369,529,600 acres. It 
 is also exclusive of military and Indian reservations, 
 reservoir sites, and timber reservations, and tracts cov- 
 ered by selections, filings, railroad grants, and claims as 
 yet unadjudicated.a part of which may in the future 
 be added to the public domain. 
 
 Railroad selections made during the fiscal 
 year ended June 30, 1897, were, in acres: 
 Arizona, 91,518.95 ; Arkansas, 7,024.14 ; Cali- 
 fornia, 42,579.52 ; Colorado, 108,877.71 ; 
 Florida, 281.29; Idaho, 86,526.60 ; Kansas, 
 55,770.65; Louisiana, 165.84; Minnesota, 
 52,698.93; Mississippi, 42,371.55 ; Montana, 
 46,318.85 ; Nebraska, 639.92 ; Nevada, 647,- 
 898.54; North Dakota, 1,313.81; Oregon, 
 13,766.86; Utah, 46,657.62; Washington, 
 114,868.55 ; Wisconsin, 29,552.21 ; Wyoming. 
 149,632.69; Total, 1,538,464.23. 
 
 Indebtedness of the States and Ter- 
 ritories in 1890. 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE ELEVENTH UNITED 
 STATES CENSUS. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 Total Com- 
 bined Debt* 
 Less Sinking 
 Fund. 
 
 / 
 Per Capita of Com- 
 bined Debt. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1890 
 
 1880. 
 
 North Atlantic 
 
 $467,968,615 
 
 $26.89 
 
 137.28 
 
 Maine 
 
 15,600,777 
 8,148,362 
 3,785,373 
 81,550,027 
 13,042,117 
 23,703,478 
 201,763,217 
 49,333,589 
 71,041,675 
 
 166,107,113 
 
 23.60 
 21.64 
 11.39 
 36.42 
 37.75 
 31.76 
 33.64 
 34.14 
 13.51 
 
 18.64 
 
 $36.81 
 
 31.10 
 13.54 
 51.55 
 46.91 
 35.33 
 43.06 
 43.66 
 25.03 
 
 22.10 
 
 New Hampshire.. 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 South Atlantic 
 
 Delaware 
 
 $2,919,084 
 42,175,408 
 19,781,050 
 50,837,315 
 2,532,460 
 11,117,445 
 13,295,637 
 20.272,095 
 2,176,619 
 
 320,238,281 
 
 $17.32 
 40.46 
 85.86 
 30.70 
 3.32 
 6.87 
 11.55 
 11.03 
 5.56 
 
 14.32 
 
 $16.17 
 44.31 
 
 1-26.66 
 30.09 
 2.65 
 12.83 
 14.25 
 12.74 
 T9.89 
 
 14.17 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Dist. of Columbia. 
 Virginia... 
 
 . West Virginia 
 North Carolina 
 South Carolina 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida 
 
 North Central 
 
 Ohio 
 
 $71,065,386 
 24,442.631 
 41.841,649 
 1C,941,928 
 10,440,580 
 26,050,929 
 11,275,319 
 51,557,568 
 3,842,790 
 6,613,707 
 15,536.772 
 40,629,022 
 
 138,255,311 
 
 si !i. 432 ,885" 
 29,543,843 
 18,930,867 
 6,011,347 
 33,335,497 
 20,172,003 
 10,828,809 
 
 43,641,122 
 
 $19.3,-) 
 11.15 
 10.94 
 8.09 
 6.19 
 20 01 
 5.90 
 19.24 
 21.03 
 20.11 
 14.67 
 28.47 
 
 12.60 
 
 $10.46 
 16.71 
 12.51 
 4.66 
 29.80 
 9.02 
 9.60 
 
 14.41 
 
 |16.5fl 
 
 9.28 
 15.07 
 7.36 
 9.19 
 14.51 
 5.01 
 27.79 
 3.57 
 8.82 
 16.56 
 15.97 
 
 16.14 
 99.09 
 
 26.42 
 14.26 
 4.38 
 45.60 
 7.34 
 13.37 
 
 13.85 
 
 !?l'.l.f>4 
 
 9.88 
 18.67 
 .71 
 9.33 
 .81 
 22.48 
 7.05 
 3.19 
 4.86 
 19.18 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Io\va 
 
 Missouri 
 
 North Dakota 
 South Dakota 
 
 Kansas 
 
 South Central . . . 
 
 Kentucky 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Western 
 
 Montana 
 
 i-i2.'.lS.893 
 1,647,381 
 8,411,027 
 2,831,538 
 2,'.)37.!i7l 
 767.501 
 1,337,501 
 1,594.333 
 3,145,658 
 2,479,860 
 15,569,459 
 
 $22.09 
 27.14 
 20.41 
 18.44 
 49.28 
 3.69 
 29.23 
 18.89 
 9.00 
 7.90 
 ' 12.89 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Utah 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 California 
 
 Total 
 
 $1,135,210,442 
 
 $18.13 
 
 $22.40 
 
 Bartholdi's Statue of Liberty. The 
 
 figure of this statue, which is made of repousse", 
 or hammered work that is, thin sheets of 
 copper beaten into shape and fastened about 
 an iron skeleton is 110 1-2 feet high and 
 veighs 100,000 pounds. The uplifted torch, 
 however, is raised 26 feet, and adding to this 
 the pedestal, the tip of the torch is raised 220 
 feet from the ground. The pedestal is of
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 599 
 
 stone, 82 feet high. Some idea of the enor- j resting as many days as they had before trav- 
 
 mous proportions of the statue may be given eled miles in a single day, debarred by the 
 
 from the fact that the forefinger is 8 feet long obstacles that they had encountered. 
 
 and 4 feet in circumference at the second joint. 
 
 The head is 14 feet high, and 40 persons can , r Tlie Highest Mountains. 
 
 .. . Mount Everest, India 29,002 
 
 Stand in it. Dapsang, Thibet 28,278 
 
 The Great Wall of China runs from a Kuchin-junga, India 
 
 . . f ,, r, i* - -r .i Sorata, Andes 20,380 
 
 point of the Gulf of Liantung, an arm of the Aconcagua, Chile 22,422 
 
 Gulf of Pechili, in Northeastern China, west- ii.mam, Bolivia. 2i,780 
 
 .,,,,,'. , Chimborazo, Ecuador 21,420 
 
 erly to the Yellow river, thence makes a great Arequipa, Peru 20,320 
 
 bend to the south for nearly one hundred miles, i lima - N .) ar o, East Africa 19,600 
 
 ,, J ,, , f , Mt. Logan, Canada 19,500 
 
 and then runs to the northwest tor several cotopaxi, Ecuador 18,880 
 
 hundred miles to the Desert of Gobi. Its Elbruz, Russia... 18,526 
 
 ., . ., _ , TI , c J.U- Demavend, Persia 18,500 
 
 length is I,oOO miles. For the most ot this Tolima, Columbia 18,069 
 
 distance it runs through a moimtainous coun- i^ema, East Africa J?'9?5 
 
 , . ,. Mt. St. Elias, Alaska 18,010 
 
 try, keeping on the ridges, and winding over Popocatepetl, Mexico 17,784 
 
 many of the highest peaks. In some places it Orizaba Mexico 17,380 
 
 is only a formidable rampart, but most of the Mt. Brown, Canada'.!!.'!!!.'!!!!!!'.!'!!!'.'.'..'."!.'.".' ie!ooo 
 
 way it is composed of lofty walls of masonry Mt. Blanc, France 16,810 
 
 ^ . IIP Mt. Hooker, Canada 15,700 
 
 and concrete, or impacted lime ana clay, irom Monte Rosa, Italy... 15,208 
 
 twelve to sixteen feet in thickness, and from Mt. Whitney California 14,898 
 
 ,, - ,, . , ,, . , ~ , , '. 1-1. Mt. Ramer, Washington 14,444 
 
 fifteen to thirty or thirty-live feet in height. Mt. Shasta, California 14,440 
 
 The top of this wall is paved for hundreds of Lm^'s 1'eak, Colorado 14,271 
 
 , ... Pike's Peak, Colorado 14,147 
 
 miles, and crowned with crenelated battle- Mauna Loa, Hawaii 13,600 
 
 ments and towers thirty to forty feet high. In M ^^ n s ge ? a Ai a I^ oming }f'{g{j 
 
 numerous places the wall climbs such steep Teiieriffe, Canaries ............................... 12^000 
 
 declivities that its top ascends from height to g^ S^flJ 1 "" li 542 
 
 height in flights of granite steps. An army Mt. Miltseen, Morocco!!!..'.'.'.............!!!. ..... 11^400 
 
 could march on the top of the wall for weeks Mt. Harmon. |^ 8 a tine 1}.W 
 
 and even months, moving in some places ten Olympus, Turkey.... ............................. 9J45 
 
 men abreast. Etna. Sicily.... 9,652 
 
 , - , St. Gothard, Alps 9,080 
 
 Most Northern Point Reached by Mt. Sinai, Turkey , 8,593 
 
 Arctic Explorers.- The following table ||JS\SSS^-::::::::::.v:-:::::::::::::::: S$l 
 
 shows the furthest points of north latitude Mt. Kosciusko, Australia 7,176 
 
 reached by Arctic explorers up to and includ- t a \?. f 1 . ? ic ,' & zo s ^ ;, I'?,!? 
 
 .J Mt. Mitchell, North Carolina 6,711 
 
 ing the .N ansen expedition : Mt. Washington, New Hampshire 6,288 
 
 Year. Explorers. North Latitude. ^ co ' r u i ' * zil V ' \ ' f'JJ? 
 
 1607. Hudson 80d. 23m OOs. Mt. Many .New \ork 5,467 
 
 1773. Phipps (Lord Musgrove). 80d. 48m OOs. Mt. Katandin, Maine 5,385 
 
 irifi Rnontalnr 8lrl 19m 42* Mt. Hecla, Iceland 5,000 
 
 *a Parrv ' ' 82 1 45m 30s' i B en Nevis. Scotland 4!368 
 
 1x74! MeveV(onland). id! 09m Ws! Vesuvius, Italy 3,948 
 
 1st M ^ e k r ham ( Nare ' sex P editio )- gj; ^ 26s. Helght of Lof tiest Volcanoes of the 
 
 l>.-4. Lockwood (Greely's party). 83d. 24m OOs. AVorld. 
 
 1893-06. Nansen. 86d. 13m 36s. . . 
 
 The distance from the farthest point of polar Name of Volcano. in feet. Where Located.' 
 
 discovery to the pole itself is 3 deg. 46 min.24 Sahama 23,000 Peru. 
 
 nrr -i u- u- Llullaillac 21,000 Chile. 
 
 sec., or in round numbers, 260 miles, which is Arequipa 20,500 Peru. 
 
 only about thirty miles greater than the distance Cayambi 19,813 Ecuador. 
 
 , J -., v /, -iir i v, ii v t Cotopaxi 19,500 Peru. 
 
 from iNew lork to \\ ashington, by the line of Antisana 19,200 Ecuador. 
 
 the Pennsylvania railroad, over which the San Jose.. H'i^l .Chile. 
 
 j . , . n , -D A i Mt.St.Elias ...17,900 Alaska. 
 
 traveler rides in about five hours. But this Popocatepetl 17,884 Mexico. 
 
 polar radius, though only 260 miles in extent, Orizaba 17,370 .Mexico. 
 
 . . e Altar 17,126 Ecuador. 
 
 is covered by ice gorges and precipices or gangai 17,120 Ecuador. 
 
 incredible difficulty; and frost is so severe that Kiintcheoskaia 16.-512 Kamtschatka. 
 
 -V ,. Iztacihuatl 15,700 Mexico. 
 
 no instrument oi human invention can meas- Toluco 15,500 Mexico. 
 
 ureits intensity, and it blisters the skin like Shasta!!!!."! u,400 United states. 
 
 - ' Fujivama 14,000 Japan. 
 
 extreme heat. Manna Kea 13,953 Sandwich Islands. 
 
 The greatest progress that has ever been Mauna Loa 13,760 Sandwich Islands. 
 
 1 .Pj ,.,. Teneriffe 12,236 Cauarv Islands. 
 
 made across these wildernesses ot storm, ot fury Mt. St. Helen's ...12,000 rnjt'ed states. 
 
 and desolation, was at the rate of five or six Mt.Hood .. .. United states. 
 
 , ,, ., Peak of Tahit< 10,895 Friendly Islands. 
 
 miles in a day, the explorers often necessarily . Mt. Etna 10,874 ....Sicily.
 
 600 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 St. Peter's Cathedral. . . 
 
 Cathedral of Milan 
 
 St. Paul's Church 
 
 St. Paul's Cathedral 
 
 Church of St. Petronio. 
 Cathedral of Florence.. 
 
 Three of the best known volcanoes of the 
 world, Vesuvius, 3,978 feet; Hecla, 3,970 
 feet, and Stromboli, 3,000 feet, are of much 
 less elevation than many others altogether 
 unfamiliar. 
 
 Capacity of the Largest Churches 
 and Halls. 
 
 .Rome 54,000 
 
 .Milan 37,000 
 
 .Rome 32,000 
 
 .London 25,000 
 
 .Bologna 24,000 
 
 .Florence 24,000 
 
 Cathedral of Antwerp Antwerp 24,000 
 
 Mosque of St. Sophia Constantinople 23,000 
 
 St. John's Lateran Rome 22,000 
 
 Cathedral of Notre Dame ... Paris 21,000 
 
 Cathedral of Pisa Pisa 13,000 
 
 Church of St. Stephen Vienna 12,000 
 
 Church of St. Dominic Bologna 12,000 
 
 Church of St. Peter Bologna 11,400 
 
 Cathedral of Vienna Vienna 11,000 
 
 St. Peter's Cathedral Montreal 10,000 
 
 Madison Square Garden New York 8,433 
 
 Auditorium Chicago 8,000 
 
 Academy of Music Philadelphia 2,862 
 
 Theater Carlo Felice Genoa 2,560 
 
 Boston Theater Boston 2,972 
 
 Covent Garden London 2,684 
 
 Academy of Music New York 2,526 
 
 Music Hall : . . . .Boston 2,585 
 
 Alexander Theater St. Petersburg 2,332 
 
 Opera House Munich 2,307 
 
 San Carlos Theater Naples 2,240 
 
 Imperial Theater St. Petersburg 2,160 
 
 Grand Opera Paris 2,090 
 
 La Scala Milan 2,113 
 
 St. Charles Theater New Orleans 2,178 
 
 Opera House New Orleans 2,052 
 
 Grand Opera House New York 1,883 
 
 Booth's Theater New York 1,807 
 
 McVickar's Theater Chicago 1,790 
 
 Ford's Opera House Baltimore 1,720 
 
 Opera House Berlin 1,636 
 
 Foreign-horn Population. The fol- 
 lowing table shows the origin of the foreign- 
 born population at the census of 1890 : 
 
 England* 
 
 Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Total United 
 Kingdom 
 
 Germany 
 
 Canada and New- 
 foundland., 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Russia 
 
 Italy 
 
 Poland 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Austria 
 
 Bohemia.. 
 
 909,092 
 
 100,079 
 
 242,231 
 
 1,871,509 
 
 3,122,911 
 2,784,894 
 
 980,938 
 478,041 
 322,665 
 182,644 
 182,580 
 147,440 
 132,543 
 123,271 
 118,106 
 
 France 
 
 China 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Holland 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Cuba and AVest 
 
 Indies 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Spain 
 
 South America.... 
 Other Foreign 
 
 Countries 
 
 113,174 
 
 106,688 
 104,069 
 81.828 
 77,853 
 
 23.256 
 
 62,435 
 
 22,63!) 
 
 15,996 
 
 6,185 
 
 5,006 
 
 51,385 
 
 Total 9,249,547 
 
 *Includes Great Britain, not specified. 
 
 The Five Wits. An old and curious 
 standard of mentality is that which credits 
 mankind with having "five wits": common 
 wit, imagination, fantasy, estimation, and 
 memory. 
 
 1. Common wit is that inward sense which 
 judges what the five senses simply discern : 
 thus the eye sees, the nose smells, the ear hears, 
 and so on, but it is "common wit" that in- 
 forms the brain and passes judgment on the 
 goodness or badness of these external matters. 
 
 2. Imagination works on the mind, causing 
 it to realize what has been presented to it. 
 
 3. Fantasy energizes the mind to act in ac- 
 cordance with the judgment thus pronounced. 
 
 4. Estimation decides on all matters per- 
 taining to time, space, locality, relation, and 
 so on. 
 
 5. Memory enables the mind to retain the 
 recollection of what has been imparted. 
 
 Bell Time on Shipboard. 
 
 Time, 
 
 A 
 
 M. 
 
 Time, 
 
 A. 
 
 M* 
 
 Time, 
 
 A 
 
 M. 
 
 1 Bell, 
 
 2 Bells, 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 t; 
 
 7 
 
 12.30 i Bell, 
 1.00 2 Bells, 
 1.303 
 2.004 
 2.305 
 3.006 
 3.30,7 
 4.00I8 
 
 4.30 1 Bell, 
 
 5.00 > Bells, 
 
 5.303 
 
 6.004 
 
 6.305 
 
 7.006 
 
 7.307 
 
 8.30 
 
 9.00 
 
 9.30 
 
 10.00 
 
 10.30 
 
 11.00 
 
 11.30 
 
 Noon 
 
 Time, r. M. 
 
 1 Bell, 
 
 2 Bells, 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Time, P. M. 
 
 12.30 1 Bell, 
 1.00 2 Bells, 
 1.30 3 ' 
 2.00 4 " 
 2.30 1 Bell, 
 3.00 2 Bells, 
 3.30 3 " 
 4.00 4 " 
 
 Time. r.M. 
 
 4.30 1 Bell, 
 5.00 2 Bells, 
 5.303 
 6.004 
 6.305 
 7.00 6 
 7.30 7 
 8.008 
 
 8.30 
 
 9.00 
 
 9.30 
 
 10.00 
 
 10.30 
 
 11.00 
 
 1130 
 
 Midnight 
 
 On shipboard, for purpose of discipline and 
 to divide the watch fairly, the crew is mus- 
 tered in two divisions ; the Starboard (right 
 side, looking toward the head) and the Port 
 (left). The day commences at noon, and is 
 thus divided : Afternoon Watch, noon to 4 p. 
 M. ; First Dog Watch, 4 p. M. to 6 P. M. ; 
 Second Dog Watch, 6 p. M. to 8 p. M.; First 
 Watch, 8 P. M. to Midnight; Middle Watch, 
 Midnight to 4 A. M. ; Morning Watch, 4 A. M. 
 to 8 A. M. ; Forenoon Watch, 8 A. M. to noon. 
 This makes seven Watches, which enables the 
 crew to keep them alternately, as the Watch 
 which comes on duty at noon one day has the 
 afternoon next day, and the men who have 
 only four hours' rest one night have eight hours 
 the next. This is the reason for having Dog 
 Watches, which are made by dividing the 
 hours between 4 p. M. and 8 p. M. into two 
 Watches. Time is kept by means of " Bells " 
 although sometimes there is but one Bell on 
 the ship. 
 
 Pawnbroker's Sign, Origin of. It 
 is generally held that the three golden balls 
 used by pawnbrokers as a sign were adopted 
 from the armorial bearings of the Medici fam- 
 ily of Italy by the Lombard merchants, among 
 whom were several representatives of that fam- 
 ily. This sign was used in London in very 
 early times by some of those merchants who 
 had emigrated from Italy and established the 
 first money-lending establishments in England. 
 
 Indian Folklore, As a specimen of the 
 folklore of our own aborigines none can sur- 
 in interest the story of Hiawatha, the
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AttD FIGURES. 
 
 601 
 
 prophet-teacher, son of Mudjekeewis (the west 
 n-inil) and Wenonah, daughter of Nokomis. 
 He represents the progress of civilization 
 among the North American Indians. Hiawa- 
 tha first wrestled with Mondamin (wai'ce), and, 
 having subdued it, gave it to man for food. 
 He then taught man navigation; then he sub- 
 dued Mishe Xalnna (//,? stun/con}, and taught 
 the Indians how to make oil therefrom for 
 winter. His next exploit was against the ma- 
 gician Megissognon, the author of disease and 
 death; having slain this monster, he taught 
 men the science of medicine. He then mar- 
 ried Minnehaha (Inuf/liiiif/ water}, and taught 
 man to be the husband of one wife, and the 
 comforts of domestic peace. Lastly, he taught 
 man picture-writing. When the white man 
 came with the gospel, Hiawatha ascended to 
 the kingdom of Ponemah, the land of the 
 hereafter. Among many other accomplish- 
 ments, when Hiawatha put on his moccasins, 
 he could measure a mile at a single stride. 
 
 He had moccasins enchanted, 
 Magic moccasins of deer-skin; 
 When he bound them round his ankles 
 At each stride a mile he measured ! 
 
 LONGFELLOW, Hiawatha, iv. 
 
 Barber's Pole. The spiral red stripe on 
 a barber's pole is said to symbolize the winding 
 of a ribbon or bandage around the arm of a 
 patient upon whom the barber had operated in 
 the capacity of surgeon. In former times, 
 when the operation of bleeding was extensively j 
 practiced, blood-letting formed a part of the 
 duties of a barber. 
 
 Caste Among the Hindoos. Caste is 
 a term applied to the division into social classes 
 in India. To each of these classes certain pur- 
 suits are limited by the Laws of Manu, B. C. 
 900. 1'. The Brahmans or sacerdotal class, 
 which " issued from the mouth of Brahma." 
 
 2. The Chuttree or military class, which 
 " sprang from the arm of Brahma." 
 
 3. The Ba'is or mercantile class, which 
 " sprang from the thigh of Brahma." 
 
 4. The Sudras or servile class, which 
 " sprang from the foot of Brahma." 
 
 The Parialx and t'hundalas are nobodies, or 
 worse, for it is pollution to be touched by such 
 " scum of the earth." 
 
 American Flags. It is related that the 
 flag which was raised at Cambridge, January 
 J. 1 77'). by Washington, was composed of thir- 
 teen red and white stripes, with the crosses of 
 St. George and St. Andrew emblazoned on the 
 blue canton in place of the stars. This flag 
 was also carried by the fleet under command of j 
 Commander Esek Hopkins, when it sailed from 
 the Delaware Capes, February 17, 1776. In 
 the following year, June 14, 1777, the Conti- , 
 
 nental Congress passed a resolution " That the 
 flag of the United States be thirteen stripes, 
 alternate red and white ; that the Union be 
 thirteen stars, white on a blue field, represent- 
 ing anew constellation." How or by whom 
 the idea of the star was first suggested is un- 
 certain, although there are some who ascribe 
 it to John Adams, while others claim the en- 
 tire flag was borrowed from the coat of arms of 
 the Washington family. In this flag the stars 
 were arranged in a circle, although no form 
 was officially prescribed. It is supposed that 
 the first display of the National flag at a mili- 
 tary post was at Fort Schuyler, on the site 
 of the village of Rome, Oneida county, N. Y. 
 The fort was besieged early in the month of 
 August, 1777, and the garrison were without a 
 flag. So they made one according to the pre- 
 scription of Congress, by cutting up sheets to 
 form the white stripes, bits of scarlet cloth for 
 the red stripes, and the blue ground for the 
 stars was composed of portions of a cloth cloak 
 belonging to Capt. Abraham Swarthout, of 
 Dutchess county, N. Y. , and the flag was un- 
 furled August 3, 1777. Paul Jones, as com- 
 mander of the "Ranger," to which he was 
 appointed, June 14, 1777, claimed that he was 
 the first to display the stars and stripes on a 
 naval vessel. It is probable that the flag was 
 first unfurled in battle on the banks of the 
 Brandywine, September 11, 1777, the first bat- 
 tle after its adoption. It first appeared over a 
 foreign stronghold, June 28, 1778, when Cap- 
 tain Rathbone, of the American sloop of war 
 "Providence," captured Fort Nassau, New 
 Providence, Bahama Islands. John Singleton 
 Copley, the American painter, claimed to be 
 the first to display the flag in Great Britain. 
 On the day when George III. acknowledged 
 the independence of the United States (De- 
 cember 5, 1782), he painted the flag in the 
 background of a portrait of Elkanah Watson. 
 To Captain Mooers, of the whaling ship " Bed- 
 ford," of Nantucket, is doubtless due the 
 honor of first displaying the stars and stripes 
 in a port of Great Britain. He arrived in the 
 Downs with it flying at the fore, February 3, 
 1783. When Vermont and Kentucky were 
 added to the Union of States, the flag was 
 altered, the number of stripes and stars being 
 increased from thirteen to fifteen. In 1818 a 
 new flag, having thirteen stripes and a star for 
 every state, twenty at that time, was devised by 
 Capt. Samuel C. Reed, and this has remained 
 the form of the United States flag. 
 
 Harbors. San Francisco may fairly claim 
 to have the most capacious natural harbor of 
 any of the world's great trading marts. It is 
 also one of the very safest. It is entered 
 through the Golden Gate, a passage a mile wide,
 
 602 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 and thirty-five feet deep at low tide admit- 
 ting the largest ships afloat without danger of 
 grounding. The landlocked bay, of which this 
 harbor is part, is fifty miles long, and averages 
 five miles in width. There all the shipping of 
 the entire globe could anchor in perfect safety. 
 Port Philip Bay, the chief harbor of Victoria, 
 Australia, is larger than the bay of San Fran- 
 cisco, being about thirty-eight miles long by 
 thirty-three broad, but its very breadth, with 
 its surroundings, leaves it exposed to storms 
 from certain quarters. Port Jackson, on which 
 Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, is lo- 
 cated, is a magnificent harbor, completely land- 
 locked, extending inland in some places fully 
 twenty miles, and having ample depth of water 
 for vessels of the heaviest burden. The har- 
 bors of New York city, Rio Janeiro, Brazil, 
 and Havana, Cuba, are capacious and secure. 
 Next come those of Boston, Norfolk, Va., Port- 
 land, Me., Halifax, N. S., Copenhagen, Con- 
 stantinople, Hong Kong, Yokohama, and Na- 
 gasaki. The great ports situated on the banks 
 of rivers, such as London, Liverpool, Glasgow, 
 Lisbon, Philadelphia, New Orleans, Quebec, 
 Shanghai, Canton, Calcutta, etc., are not in- 
 cluded in the definition of harbors as here con- 
 sidered. 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument. The corner 
 stone of this monument was laid on the fiftieth 
 anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill, June 
 17, 1825, by Lafayette, and the oration was 
 pronounced by Daniel Webster. It is a square 
 shaft of Quincy granite, 221 feet high, 31 feet 
 square at the base, and 15 feet at the top. 
 Inside the shaft is a round, hollow cone, 7 feet 
 wide at the bottom, and 4 feet 2 inches at the 
 top, encircled by a winding staircase containing 
 224 stone steps, which leads to a chamber 11 
 feet in diameter immediately under the apex. 
 The chamber has four windows, and contains 
 two cannons, named Hancock and Adams, re- 
 spectively, which were used in the war. The 
 monument was completed and was dedicated 
 June 17, 1843. 
 
 Commune, Paris, was an organized band 
 of Socialists, who attempted to establish a rev- 
 olutionary government in Paris in 1871. Be- 
 fore they were suppressed by the army of the 
 republic, they became absolute masters of Paris, 
 and committed astrocious acts of cruelty and 
 vandalism. They arrested the Bishop of Paris 
 and other prominent citizens, and imprisoned 
 them. They set fire to the public buildings, 
 and endeavored to destroy the ancient monu- 
 ments and treasures of art. Among the build- 
 ings which were destroyed were the Tuileries, 
 the Palais de Justice, the Palais Royal, and the 
 Hotel de Ville, and the Louvre Gallery was 
 partly burned. The Column Vendome, erected 
 
 in honor of Napoleon, was one of the first mon- 
 uments to fall. Darboy, the Archbishop of 
 Paris, Bonjean, President of the Court of Cas- 
 sation, and others whom they held as hostages, 
 were shot. In short, they seemed to be pos- 
 sessed with a very frenzy of hatred against all 
 government and all order, and wantonly de- 
 stroyed property and human life. The revo- 
 lution was finally suppressed on May 27, and 
 25,000 of the Communists were taken prisoners, 
 some of whom were put to death, while a large 
 number were banished. In justice it must be 
 said that the more intelligent and honest lead- 
 ers of the Commune were discarded before the 
 most astrocious acts were committed. 
 
 Alien Holders of Our Lands. The 
 following is a table of the leading alien hold- 
 ers of lands in the United States, with amount 
 of holdings in acres : 
 
 An English syndicate, No. 3, in Texas 
 
 The Holland Land Company, New Mexico 
 
 Sir Edw. Reid and a syndicate, Florida 
 
 English syndicate in Mississippi 
 
 Marquis of Tweedale 
 
 Phillips, Marshall & Co., London 
 
 German-American syndicate, London 
 
 Bryan H. Evans, of London 
 
 Duke of Sutherland 
 
 British Land Company in Kansas 
 
 Win. Wharley, M.P., Peterboro, England 
 
 Missouri Land Company, Edinburgh, Scotland 
 
 Robert Tennent, of London 
 
 Dundee Land Company, Scotland 
 
 Lord Dunmore 
 
 Benjamin Neugas, Liverpool 
 
 Lord Houghton in Florida 
 
 Lord Dunfaven in Colorado 
 
 English Land Company in Florida 
 
 English Land Company in Arkansas 
 
 Albert Peel, M.P., Leicestershire, England 
 
 Sir J. L. Kay, Yorkshire, England 
 
 Alexander Grant, of London, in Kansas 
 
 English syndicate, Wisconsin 
 
 M. Ellerhauser, of Halifax, in West Virginia.. 
 
 A Scotch syndicate in Florida 
 
 A. Boysen, Danish consul in Milwaukee 
 
 Missouri Land Company, of Edinburgh 
 
 Total i:o,647,000 
 
 To these syndicate holdings, should be added 
 the following : The Arkansas Valley Com- 
 pany in Colorado, a foreign corporation, whose 
 inclosures embrace upwards of 1,000,000 acres ; 
 the Prairie Cattle Company (Scotch) in Col- 
 orado, upwards of 1,000,000; II. H. Metcalf, 
 River Bend, Colorado, 200,000; John W. 
 Powers, Colorado, 200,000 ; McDaniel & Davis, 
 Colorado, 75,000 ; Routchler & Lamb, Colo- 
 rado, 40,000 ; J. W. Frank, Colorado, 40,000 ; 
 Garnett & Langford, Colorado, 30,000; E. C. 
 Tane, Colorado, 50,000 ; Leivesy Brothers, Col- 
 orado, 150,000 ; Vrooman & McFife, Colorado, 
 50,000; Beatty Brothers, Colorado, 40,000; 
 Chick, Brown & Company, Colorado, 30,000 ; 
 Reynolds Cattle Company, Colorado, 50,000 ; 
 several other cases in Colorado, embracing 
 from 10,000 to 30,000; Coe & Carter, Ne- 
 braska, fifty miles of fence ; J. W. Wilson, 
 Nebraska, forty miles ; J. \V. Boster, twenty 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 1,800.000 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 750,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 425,000 
 
 320,000 
 
 310,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 230,000 
 
 247,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 165,000
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 603 
 
 miles ; William Humphrey, Nevada, thirty 
 miles ; Nelson & Son, Nevada, twenty-two 
 miles; Kennebec Ranch, Nebraska, from 20,- 
 000 to 50,000 acres. 
 
 Largest Islands in the World. 
 
 Area. Popula- 
 
 Sq. miles. tion. 
 
 NewGuinea 325,000 690,000 
 
 Borneo 290,000 1,846,000 
 
 Madagascar 228.570 3,000,000 
 
 Sumatra 168.000 5,000,000 
 
 GreatBritain 83,826 29,710,000 
 
 Celebes 66,750 4,000,000 
 
 Java 50,260 17,500,000 
 
 Saghalien (used as a penal settlement 
 
 only) .- 47,500 13,500 
 
 New Zealand, North Island 44,750) K vn nt*\ 
 
 South Island 55.224 } 570,000 
 
 Cuba 45,700 2,000,000 
 
 Niphon (Japan) 42,000 27,250,000 
 
 Newfoundland 40.200 180,000 
 
 Luzon (Philippines) 40,000 4,500,000 
 
 Iceland 40,000 72,438 
 
 Jesso 35,000 163,355 
 
 Ireland 31,874 5,174,83t> 
 
 Hay ti or San Domingo 29,830 393,200 
 
 Tasmania 26,215 130,541 
 
 Ceylon 25,635 3,000,000 
 
 Tier ra del Fuego 21,260 2,000 
 
 Government Salary List. The salary 
 of the president of the United States is $50,000 
 a year ; the vice-president, 8,000 ; cabinet offi- 
 cers, 8,000. Senators receive $5,000 and 
 mileage. Congressmen, $5,000 and mileage. 
 The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court re- 
 ceives $10,500; Associate Justices, $10,000. 
 The diplomats get good pay : Ministers to 
 Germany, Great Britain, France, and Russia, 
 17,500 ; Ministers to Brazil, China, Austro- 
 Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Japan, and Spain, 
 12,000 ; Ministers to Chile, Peru, and Central 
 America, $10,000 ; Ministers to the Argen- 
 tine Confederation, Belgium, Hayti, Colom- 
 bia, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey, and 
 Venezuela, 7,500 ; Ministers to Switzerland, 
 Denmark, Paraguay, Bolivia, and Portugal, 
 $5,000 ; Ministers to Liberia, $4,000. The 
 heads of the government departments receive : 
 Superintendent of Bureau of Engraving and 
 Printing, 4,500 ; Public Printer, 4,500 ; Su- 
 perintendent of Census, 5,000 ; Superinten- 
 dent of Naval Observatory, 5,000 ; Superin- 
 tendent of the Signal Service, 4,000 ; Director 
 of Geological Surveys, 80,000 : Director of the 
 Mint, 4,500 ; Commissioner of General Land 
 Office, 4.000 ; Commissioner of Pensioi 
 600; Commissioner of Agriculture, 3,000; 
 Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 3,000 ; Com- 
 missioner of Education, 3,000; Commander 
 of Marine Corps, $3,500 ; Superintendent of 
 Coast and Geodetic Survey. 6.000. 
 
 Tn 1893 the Ministers to Great Britain, Ger- 
 many, and France, were made Ambassadors 
 without increase of pay. 
 
 The pay of army officers is fixed as follows : 
 General. 13,500 ; lieutenant general, 11,000 ; 
 major general, 7,500 ; brigadier general, >'"'.- 
 
 500; colonel, 3,500; lieutenant colonel, 
 $3,000; major, $2,500; captain, mounted, 
 2,000; captain, not mounted, 1,800; regi- 
 mental adjutant, $1,800; regimental quarter- 
 master, $1,800; first lieutenant, mounted, 
 $1,600 ; first lieutenant, not mounted, $1,500 ; 
 second lieutenant, mounted, $1,500; second 
 lieutenant, not mounted, $1,400; chaplain, 
 1 ,500. The navy salaries are : Admiral, $13,- 
 000 ; vice-admiral, $9,000 ; rear admiral, $6,- 
 000 ; commodore, $5,000 ; captain, $4,500 ; 
 commander, $3,500 ; lieutenant commander, 
 *-J.SOO; lieutenant, $2,400; master, $1,800; 
 ensign, $1,200; midshipman, $1,000; cadet 
 midshipman, $500 ; mate, $900 ; medical and 
 pay director, and medical and pay inspector, 
 and chief engineer, $4,400 ; fleet surgeon, fleet 
 paymaster, and fleet engineer, $4,400 ; sur- 
 geon and paymaster, $2,800 ; chaplain, $2,500. 
 
 The White House. The residence of 
 the president of the United States is officially 
 known as the Executive Mansion, which means 
 that it is the residence of the head of the 
 executive branch of the government ; but it is 
 seldom called, in ordinary talk, either by those 
 who live in it, or by the American people in 
 general, anything but the White House. This 
 is a very unpretentious title, and it is interest- 
 ing to note how the residence of the president, 
 I in a country which is full of white houses, 
 came to bear this simple name as its special 
 property. 
 
 The explanation is easily found. The first 
 Executive Mansion at Washington was occu- 
 pied in 1800. It was built of freestone, and 
 was unpainted ; but in 1814 the British army 
 occupied Washington, and burned, with other 
 public buildings, the president's house, leav- 
 ing it a blackened ruin. 
 
 The house was rebuilt on the same site, and 
 the same walls were used in its construction ; 
 but they were so discolored by smoke that, on 
 the suggestion of General Jackson, they were 
 painted white, not only to improve their ap- 
 pearance, but in token of the successful defiance 
 of British fire by the American Republic. 
 
 The mansion soon became the " White 
 House" in the mouths of the people, on ac- 
 count of its dazzling color, and from that day 
 to this it has been repainted white every ten 
 years. Its name commemorates a patriotic feel- 
 ing, therefore, as well as serves to describe the 
 j appearance of the mansion, for the original 
 | coat of white paint was a sort of protest against 
 the vandalism of the British, and every subse- 
 quent coat has served to perpetuate the protest. 
 
 Eagle ar, an Emblem. In ancient my- 
 thology the eagle was believed to carry the 
 souls of the dying to their abode on Mount 
 Olympus, and was called the Bird of Jove.
 
 604 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The eagle was first taken as a symbol of royal 
 power by the ancient Etruscans, who bore its 
 image upon their standards. In the year 87 
 B. C. a silver eagle, with expanded wings, 
 poised on the top of a spear, with a thunder- 
 bolt held in its claws, was adopted as the mili- 
 tary standard to be borne at the head of their 
 legions by the Romans. At the time of Ha- 
 drian a golden eagle was substituted for the sil- 
 ver one. A two-headed eagle was adopted by 
 the Byzantine emperors as a symbol of their 
 control of both the East and the West. The 
 double-headed eagle of Russia was adopted on 
 the marriage of Ivan I. with a Grecian princess 
 of the Eastern empire ; that of Austria was 
 first used when the Emperor of Germany took 
 the title of the Roman Emperor. The national 
 standard of Prussia bears a black eagle, that 
 of Poland a white one. Napoleon I. took a 
 golden eagle for his standard, modeled of pure 
 gold, and bearing a thunderbolt, after the pat- 
 tern of the eagle of the Romans. This stand- 
 ard was disused under the Bourbons, but was 
 restored by a decree of Louis Napoleon in 1852. 
 The eagle was first used on American coins in 
 1788, on cents and half-cents issued from the 
 Massachusetts mint. It was adopted in the 
 plan of a national coinage as a design upon all 
 gold coins, and on the silver dollar, half dollar, 
 and quarter dollar. The design of an eagle 
 was at one time suggested for the national flag, 
 but was abandoned. 
 
 Knighthood, originally a military dis- 
 tinction, came, in the sixteenth century, to be 
 occasionally conferred on civilians, as a re- 
 ward for valuable services rendered to the 
 crown or community. The first civil knight in 
 England was Sir William Walworth, Lord 
 Mayor of London, who won that distinction by 
 slaying the rebel, Wat Tyler, in the presence of 
 the king. The ceremonies practiced in con- 
 ferring knighthood have varied at different 
 periods. In general, fasting and bathing were 
 in early times necessary preparatives. In the 
 eleventh century, the creation of a knight was 
 preceded by solemn confession and a midnight 
 vigil in the church and followed by the recep- 
 tion of the Eucharist. The new knight offered 
 his sword on the altar, to signify his devotion 
 to the Church and determination to lead a 
 holy life. The sword was redeemed in a sum 
 of money, had a benediction pronounced over 
 it, and was girded on by the highest ecclesias- 
 tic present. The title was conferred by bind- 
 ing the sword and spurs on the candidate, after 
 which a blow was dealt him on the cheek or 
 shoulder, as the last affront which he was to 
 receive unrequited. He then took an oath to 
 protect the distressed, maintain right against 
 might, and never by word or deed to stain his 
 
 character as a knight or a Christian. Upon 
 the infringement of any part of his oath a 
 knight could be degraded, in which case his 
 spurs were chopped off with a hatchet, his 
 sword broken, his escutcheon reversed, and 
 some religious observances were added during 
 which each piece of armor was taken off in 
 succession and cast from the recreant knight. 
 Knighthood is now generally bestowed by a 
 verbal declaration of the sovereign, accom- 
 panied with a simple ceremony of imposition 
 of the sword. 
 
 Latin Union was formed in 1865 and orig- 
 inally embraced France, Italy, Belgium, and 
 Switzerland, but was joined by Greece in 1868, 
 Spain in 1871, and subsequently Servia and 
 Roumania. The object of this combination 
 was to regulate the amount of silver to be 
 coined yearly in each country, and to secure a 
 uniform coinage which would be received with- 
 out discount throughout the Union. The unit 
 of coinage in the Latin Union is the franc, arid 
 although it is known in other countries under 
 different names the value is always the same. 
 The perfect decimal system of France is also 
 used. The convenience of this coinage system 
 has led to its adoption by about 148,000,000 
 people. In 1874 the States, by mutual con- 
 sent, practically suspended the coinage of sil- 
 ver. 
 
 Blue Stockings. The term ' ' blue stock- 
 ing " originated in England about a century 
 ago. Its invention is traced to the days of 
 Doctor Johnson and was applied then as now 
 to ladies who cultivated learned conversation, 
 and found enjoyment in the discussion of ques- 
 tions which had been monopolized by men. It 
 is said by Dr. John Doran, who, in his work 
 " A Lady of the Last Century," gave an ac- 
 count of Mrs. Montagu and the " blue stock- 
 ings " of her time, that in 1757 it was quite 
 the thing for ladies to form evening assem- 
 blies, when they might participate in talk with 
 literary and ingenious men. One of the best 
 known and most popular members of one of 
 these societies was said to have been a Mr. 
 Stillingfleet, who always wore blue stockings, 
 and when at any time he happened to be ab- 
 sent from these gatherings it was usually re- 
 marked that "we can do nothing without blue 
 stockings"; and by degrees the term "blue 
 stockings " was applied to all clubs of the kind 
 described, and eventually to the ladies who at- 
 tended their meetings. 
 
 Mound Builders. It is generally be- 
 lieved that the Mississippi valley and the 
 Atlantic coast were once populated by an agri- 
 cultural and partially civilized race quite dif- 
 ferent from the nomadic Indians, though 
 possibly the progenitors of some of the Indian
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 605 
 
 tribes, and that, after centuries of occupation, 
 they disappeared at least a thousand, and 
 perhaps many thousand, years before the ad- 
 vent of Europeans. The theory has been 
 advanced that these people migrated from 
 Asia ; that they passed over Asia to Siberia, 
 across Behring Straits, down the Pacific coast 
 of America from Alaska, and to the Mississippi 
 valley, and down to Mexico, Central America, 
 and Peru. The remains of the Mound Build- 
 ers, as this vanished people are called, are 
 scattered over most of the states of the central 
 and lower Mississippi valley, along the banks 
 of the Missouri, and on the sources of the Alle- 
 gheny. They are most numerous in Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri, Arkan- 
 sas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Ala- 
 bama, Georgia, Florida, Texas, and are found 
 in the western part of New York, and in Mich- 
 igan and Iowa. These mounds vary greatly in 
 size, and in some instances are very extensive 
 and exceedingly intricate, notably those of the 
 Licking valley, near Newark, Ohio, which 
 cover an area of two square miles ; in other 
 localities there are some which reach a height 
 of ninety feet. It is not believed that these 
 people had any written language, as no in- 
 scriptions or tablets yet discovered indicate 
 this. Many of these mounds have been found 
 to contain skeletons, numerous implements 
 and ornaments, usually composed of stone, 
 sometimes of copper in its native state 
 and occasionally shell and bone ; also coarse 
 and rude pottery of curious design. In sub- 
 stantiation of the belief that these people came 
 from Asia, is the fact that in Siberia mounds 
 have been found similar to those in the Missis- 
 sippi valley. 
 
 Vegetable Origins. Spinach is a Per- 
 sian plant. 
 
 Horse-radish is a native of England. 
 
 Melons were found originally in Asia. 
 
 Filberts originally came from Gresce. 
 
 Quinces originally came from Corinth. 
 
 The turnip originally came from Rome. 
 
 The peach originally came from Persia. 
 
 Sage is a native of the south of Europe. 
 
 Sweet marjoram is a native of Portugal. 
 
 The bean is said to be a native of Egypt. 
 
 Damsons originally came from Damascus. 
 
 The nasturtium came originally from Peru. 
 
 The pea is a native of the south of Europe. 
 
 Ginger is a native of the East and West 
 Indies. 
 
 The gooseberry is indigenous to Great Brit- 
 ain. 
 
 Coriander seed came originally from the 
 East. 
 
 Apricots are indigenous to the plains of 
 America. 
 
 The cucumber was originally a tropical vege- 
 table. 
 
 The walnut is a native of Persia, the Cau- 
 casus, and China. 
 
 Capers originally grew wild in Greece and 
 northern Africa. 
 
 Pears were originally brought from the 
 East by the Romans. 
 
 The clove is a native of the Malacca Islands, \ 
 as is also the nutmeg. 
 
 Cherries were known in Asia as far back as 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 Garlic came to us first from Sicily and the 
 shores of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Asparagus was originally a wild seacoast 
 plant, and is a native of Great Britain. 
 
 The tomato is a native of South America, 
 and it takes its name from a Portuguese word. 
 
 Parsley is said to have come from Egypt, and 
 mythology tells us it was used to adorn the 
 head of Hercules. 
 
 Apples were originally brought from the 
 East by the Romans. The crab apple is in- 
 digenous to Great Britain. 
 
 The onion was almost an object of worship 
 with the Egyptians 2,000 years before the 
 Christian era. It first came from India. 
 
 Cloves came to us from the Indies, and take 
 their name from the Latin clativis, meaning a 
 nail, to which they have a resemblance. 
 
 The cantaloupe is a native of America, and 
 so called from the name of a place near Rome, 
 where it was first cultivated in Europe. 
 
 Lemons were used by the Romans to keep 
 moths from their garments, and in the time of 
 Pliny they were considered an excellent poison. 
 They are a native of Asia. 
 
 Slavery in the Xorth. The first state 
 to abolish slavery within her borders was Ver- 
 mont, which adopted a plan for gradual eman- 
 cipation in 1777, before she had joined the 
 Union, and in 1800 slavery in that state had 
 entirely ceased. The new Massachusetts con- 
 stitution, adopted in 1780, contained a clause 
 declaring that "all men are born free and 
 equal, and have certain natural, essential, and 
 inalienable rights, among which may be reck- 
 oned the right of enjoying and defending their 
 lives and liberties," which had the effect of 
 freeing all the slaves, a very small number, 
 then held within the borders of that state. 
 In 1780 there were 4,000 slaves in Pennsylva- 
 nia, and in that year their gradual emancipa- 
 tion was provided for by legislative enactment. 
 Sixty-four of these were still living in bond- 
 age, however, in 1840. Rhode Island and 
 Connecticut followed the example of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and the former had but five slaves left 
 in 1840, and the latter seventeen. New York 
 passed a gradual emancipation act in 1799, at
 
 606 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 which time she had upward of 20,000 slaves, 
 and slavery was totally abolished in the state 
 from July 4, 1827. In 1850 there were still 
 236 persons living in bondage in New Jersey, 
 although the state had adopted the gradual 
 emancipation plan in 1804. The census of 
 1810 showed that there were no slaves held in 
 Massachusetts, New Hampshire., or Vermont, 
 New Hampshire having emancipated the few 
 slaves held in the state between 1800 and 
 1810. In Pennslyvania, New York, and New 
 Jersey, large numbers of slaves who could not 
 be held in those states were nefariously sold to 
 Southern slave-dealers by unprincipled owners, 
 notwithstanding the fact that each state had 
 adopted, at the time of emancipation, the most 
 stringent laws regarding the exportation of 
 slaves. By the census of 1860 it was shown 
 that slavery was entirely abolished north of 
 Mason and Dixon's line. 
 
 Mardi-Gras. The Mardi-Gras is the fes- 
 tival preceding the first day of Lent, or Ash 
 Wednesday. Most of the distinctive ceremo- 
 nies now annually performed in New Orleans 
 were originally introduced by the French pop- 
 ulation as early as 1827. The day is a legal 
 holiday, and the entire city is for the time 
 ostensibly placed under the control of a king 
 of the carnival, the great "Rex." There are 
 two principal pageants. The first, in the day- 
 time, is the escort of the "beloved Rex," 
 through his favorite city ; the other, or night 
 pageant, is known as the " Mystick Krewe of 
 Comus." This has a character altogether 
 unique. The first display was in 1857. On 
 Twelfth night (January 6), the "Knights of 
 Momus " have a display analogous "to the 
 Mardi-Gras, but more exclusively burlesque, 
 and in which they satirize the follies of the 
 age. The arrangements for these celebrations 
 come within the control of quite an elaborate 
 organization. The Mardi-Gras is held on 
 Shrove Tuesday, a day of pleasure in most 
 Roman Catholic countries. It is the carnival 
 of the Italians, the Mardi-Gras of the French, 
 and the Pancake Tuesday of former times in 
 England. 
 
 Suicides. In European cities the number 
 of suicides per 100,000 inhabitants is as fol- 
 lows : Paris, 42 ; Lyons, 29 ; St. Petersburg, 
 7 ; Moscow, 11 ; Berlin, 36 ; Vienna, 28 ; Lon- 
 don, 23 ; Rome, 8 ; Milan, 6 ; Madrid, 3 ; 
 Genoa, 31; Brussels, 15; Amsterdam, 14; 
 Lisbon, 2 ; Christiania, 25 ; Stockholm, 27 ; 
 Constantinople, 12 ; Geneva, 11 ; Dresden, 51. 
 Madrid and Lisbon show the lowest, Dresden 
 the highest, figure. 
 
 The average annual suicide rate in countries 
 of the world per 100,000 persons living is 
 given by Barker as follows: Saxony, 31.1 ; 
 
 Denmark, 25.8 ; Schleswig-Holstein, 24.0 ; 
 Austria, 21.2; Switzerland, 20.2; France, 
 15.7; German Empire, 14.3; Hanover, 14.0; 
 Queensland, 13.5 ; Prussia, 13.3 ; Victoria, 
 11.5; New South Wales, 9.3; Bavaria, 9.1 ; 
 New Zealand, 9.0 ; South Australia, 8.9 ; Swe- 
 den, 8.1; Norway, 7.5; Belgium, 6.9 ; Eng- 
 land and Wales, 6.9; Tasmania, 5.3; Hun- 
 gary,^. 2 ; Scotland, 4.0 ; Italy, 3.7 ; Nether- 
 lands, 3.6; United States, 3.5; Russia, 2.9; 
 Ireland, 1.7 ; Spain, 1.4. 
 
 The causes of suicide in European countries 
 are reported as follows : Of 100 suicides : Mad- 
 ness, delirium, 18 per cent.; alcoholism, 11; 
 vice, crime, 19 ; different diseases, 2 ; moral 
 sufferings, 6 ; family matters, 4 ; poverty, want, 
 4; loss of intellect, 14; consequence of crimes, 
 3; unknown reasons, 19. 
 
 The number of suicides in the United States, 
 six years, 1882-87, was 8,226. Insanity was 
 the principal cause, shooting the favorite 
 method ; 5,386 acts of suicide were committed 
 in the day, and 2,419 in the night. Summer 
 was the favorite season, June the favorite 
 month, and the llth the favorite day of the 
 month. The month in which the largest num- 
 bor of suicides occur is July. 
 
 The number of suicides in twenty American 
 cities in 1897 was as follows : New York, 436 ; 
 Chicago, 384 ; Brooklyn, 194 ; St. Louis, 162 ; 
 .Philadelphia, 146 ; Boston, 92 ; Cincinnati, 
 69 ; Baltimore, 60 ; Providence, 16 ; Cleveland, 
 54 ; Washington, 52 ; Milwaukee, 62 ; Min- 
 neapolis, 34 ; New Orleans, 40 ; Buffalo, 23 ; 
 Pittsburg, 33 ; Jersey City, 24. Total, with 
 ten smaller cities, 2,014. The same cities in 
 1896, 1,999 ; increase 15, or .75 of one per- 
 cent. These figures are by Frederick L. Hoff- 
 man, in the New York Spectator for July 1, 
 1898. 
 
 Facts About the Earth. According 
 to Clark, the equatorial semi-diameter is 20,- 
 926,202 feet=3,963.296 miles, and the polar 
 semi-diameter is 20,854,895 feet=3,950.738 
 miles. One degree of latitude at the pole= 
 69.407 miles. One degree of latitude at the 
 equator=68.704 miles. 
 
 POPULATION OF THE EARTH BY CONTINENTS. 
 
 CONTINENTAL DI- 
 VISIONS. 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 INHABITANTS. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Per Sq. 
 Mile. 
 
 Africa 
 
 11,514,000 
 6,446,000 
 6,837,000 
 14,710,000 
 3,288,000 
 3,555,000 
 4,888,800 
 
 127,000,000 
 89,250,000 
 36,420,000 
 850,000,000 
 4,730,000 
 380,200,000 
 300,000 
 
 11.0 
 13.8 
 5.3 
 57.7 
 1.4 
 106.9 
 0.7 
 
 America, North 
 
 America, South 
 
 Asia 
 
 Australasia 
 
 Europe 
 
 Polar Region 
 
 
 Total 
 
 51,238,800 
 
 1,487,900,000 
 
 29.0 

 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 607 
 
 The above estimate was made by Ernest 
 Jeorge Kavenstein, F.R.G.S., the geographer 
 and statistician, and is for 1890. 
 
 An estimate of population of the earth, 
 made by Drs. Wagner and Supan, editors 
 of Bevolkerunq der Enle (Perthes, Gotha, 
 1891), is as follows: Europe, 357,379,000; 
 Asia, 825,954,000 ; Africa, 163,953,000 ; 
 America, 121,713,000; Australia, 3,230,000; 
 Oceanic Islands, 7,420,000; polar regions, 
 80,400. Total, 1,479,729,400. The estimate 
 of area of the continents and islands by the 
 same authorities is 52,821,684. 
 
 Ravenstein's estimate of the earth's fertile 
 region, in square miles, is 28,269,200 ; steppe, 
 13,901,000; desert, 4,180,000; polar regions, 
 4,888,800. 
 
 The population of the earth at the death of 
 the Emperor Augustus, estimated by Bodio, 
 was 54,000,000. The population of Europe 
 hardly exceeded 50,000,000 before the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 The area and cubic contents of the earth, 
 according to the data of Clark, given above, 
 are: Surface, 196,971,984 square miles; 
 cubic contents, 259,944,035,515 cubic miles. 
 
 Murray (Challenger expedition) states the 
 greatest depth of the Atlantic Ocean at 27,- 
 366 feet; Pacific Ocean, 30,000 feet; Indian 
 Ocean, 18,582 feet; Southern Ocean, 25,200 
 feet ; Arctic Ocean, 9,000 feet. The Atlantic 
 Ocean has an area, in square miles, of 24,- 
 536,000 ; Pacific Ocean, 50,309,000 ; Indian 
 Ocean, 17,084,000; Arctic Ocean, 4,781,000; 
 Southern Ocean, 30,592,000. The highest 
 mountain is believed to be Deodhunga, one of 
 
 archies, China, Korea, Morocco, Persia, Russia, 
 Siam, Turkey ; limited monarchies, Austria- 
 Hungary, Belgium, British Empire, Denmark, 
 Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, 
 Portugal, Roumania, Servia, Sweden and 
 Norway, Spain ; republics, Argentine Repub- 
 lic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa 
 Rica, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Hayti, 
 Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Orange Free 
 State, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, San Do- 
 mingo, Switzerland, Transvaal, United States 
 of America, Uruguay, Venezuela. Besides 
 these, are the undefined despotisms of Central 
 and South Africa, and a few insignificant in- 
 j dependent States. 
 
 The average duration of human life is about 
 33 years. One quarter of the people on the 
 earth die before age 6, one half before age 16, 
 and only about 1 person of each 100 born, lives 
 to age 65. The deaths are calculated at 67 
 per minute, 97,790 per day, and 35,639,835 
 per year ; the births, at 70 per minute, 100,800 
 per day, and 36,792,000 per year. 
 
 Statistics of the Press Rowell's 
 A merican Newspaper Directory for 1 898 reports 
 the number of newspapers published in the 
 United States and Canada as 21,360. Of these, 
 899 were Canadian publications. The follow- 
 ing was the frequency of issue : Weekly, 15,- 
 324; monthly, 2,734; daily, 2,214; semi- 
 monthly, 324; semi-weekly, 415; quarterly, 
 156; bi-weekly, 80; bi-monthly, 57; tri- 
 weekly, 43; total, 21,360. 
 
 The following table exhibits the number of 
 papers printed in the several states and Can- 
 ada in 1898: 
 
 me Himalayas, ztj.uuz ieeo. .LIOIU. rveiviu 
 estimates the age of the solid earth to be be- 
 tween 20,000,000 and 30,000,000 years, and of 
 the human race the same. 
 
 POPULATION OF THE EARTH ACCORDING TO 
 RACE. 
 
 (Estimated by John Barthlomew, F. R. G. S., Edin- 
 burgh). 
 
 Alabama 
 
 219 
 
 Montana 
 
 93 
 
 Alaska 
 
 5 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 .. 599 
 
 Arizona 
 
 48 
 
 Nevada 
 
 28 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 263 
 
 New Hampshire . . . 
 New Jersey ... 
 
 .. 103 
 .. 391 
 
 California 
 
 ... 684 
 
 Canada 
 Colorado 
 
 899 
 310 
 
 New Mexico 
 New York 
 
 57 
 .. 2,018 
 
 
 201 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 .. 254 
 
 Delaware 
 
 40 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 .. 142 
 
 District of Columbia. 71 
 Florida 164 
 
 Ohio 
 
 .. 1,192 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 .. 108 
 
 RACE. 
 
 LOCATION. 
 
 NUMBER. 
 
 Georgia 
 Idaho 
 
 3&7 
 74 
 
 Oregon 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 204 
 .. 1,430 
 
 
 .. 1,619 
 
 Rhode" Island . ... 
 
 69 
 
 Indian Territory 
 Indiana 
 
 70 
 850 
 
 
 
 Indo - Germanic or 
 
 Europe, Persia, etc. 
 
 Greater Part of Asia 
 North Africa, Arabia 
 Central Africa 
 South Africa 
 
 546,500,000 
 
 630,000,000 
 65,000,000 
 150,000,000 
 150,000 
 
 35,000,000 
 15,000,000 
 
 South Dakota .... 
 
 .. 261 
 
 Iowa 
 
 1,053 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 .. 295 
 
 Mongolian or Tu- 
 
 Kansas 
 Kentucky 
 
 703 
 318 
 
 Texas 
 Utah 
 
 753 
 74 
 
 Semiticor Hamitic. 
 Negro and Bantu . . . 
 Hottentot and Bush 
 Malay and Polyne- 
 
 Louisiana 
 Maine 
 
 181 
 165 
 
 Vermont 
 Virginia 
 
 84 
 272 
 
 
 208 
 
 
 213 
 
 
 616 
 
 
 175 
 
 Australasia and 
 
 Michigan 
 
 786 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 .. 619 
 
 Amcrican Indian.. . . 
 Total 
 
 North and South 
 America 
 
 Minnesota 
 Mississippi 
 IVIissouri 
 
 601 
 . ... 211 
 
 1 (13.1 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Tntnl 
 
 41 
 
 91 3T,n 
 
 
 1,440,655,000 
 
 The total number of newspapers published in 
 the world at present is estimated at' about 
 50,000, distributed as follows : United States 
 and Canada, 21,360; Germany, 6,000, Great 
 
 
 
 The human family is subject to forty-five 
 principal governments. As to their form, they 
 
 maybe classified as follows: Absolute mon- 1 Britain, 8,000 ; France, 4,300; Japan, 2,000;
 
 608 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OP PACTS. 
 
 Italy 1,500; Austria-Hungary, 1,200 ; Asia, 
 exclusive of Japan, 1,000 ; Spain 850 ; Russia, 
 800; Australia, 800; Greece, 600; Switzer- 
 land, 450 ; Holland, 300 ; Belgium, 300 ; all 
 others, 1,000. Of these more than half are 
 printed in the English language. 
 
 The Sacred Number. Seven was fre- 
 quently used as a mystical and symbolical 
 number in the Bible, as well as among the 
 principal nations of antiquity, the Persians, 
 Indians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. 
 The origin is doubtless astronomical, or rather 
 astrological, viz., the observation of the seven 
 planets and the phases of the moon, changing 
 every seventh day. As instances of this num- 
 ber in the Old Testament, we find the Creation 
 completed within seven days, whereof the 
 seventh was a day of rest kept sacred. Every 
 seventh year was sabbatical, and the seven 
 times seventh year ushered in the jubilee year. 
 The three Rer/alim, or Pilgrim festivals (Pass- 
 over, Festival of Weeks, and Tabernacles), 
 lasted seven days, and between the first and 
 second of these feasts were counted seven 
 weeks. The first day of the seventh month 
 was a "Holy Convocation." The Levitical 
 purifications lasted seven days, and the same 
 space of time was allotted to the celebration of 
 weddings and the mourning for the dead. In 
 innumerable instances in the Old Testament 
 and later Jewish writings the number is used 
 as a kind of round number. In the Apocalypse 
 we have the churches, candlesticks, seals, stars, 
 trumpets, spirits, all to the number of seven, 
 and the seven horns and seven eyes of the 
 Lamb. The same number appears again, 
 either divided into half (3 years, Rev. xiii. 
 5 ; xi. 3 ; xii. 6, etc.), or multiplied by ten. 
 seventy Israelites go to Egypt, the exile lasts 
 seventy years, there are seventy elders, and at 
 a later period there are supposed to be seventy 
 languages and seventy nations upon earth. 
 To go back to the earlier documents, we find 
 in a similar way the dove sent out the second 
 time seven days after her first mission, Pha- 
 raoh's dream shows him twice seven kine, 
 twice seven ears of corn, etc. 
 ~The Seven Churches of Rev. i.-iii. are 
 Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, 
 Philadelphia,and Laodicea. The Seven Deadly 
 Sins are pride, covetousness, lust, anger, glut- 
 tony, envy, and sloth. The Seven Principal 
 Virtues are faith, hope, charity^ prudence, 
 temperance, chastity, and fortitude. The 
 Seven Gifts of the Holy Ghost are wisdom, 
 understanding, counsel, ghostly strength or 
 fortitude, knowledge, godliness, and the fear 
 of the Lord. 
 
 Among the Greeks the seven was sacred to 
 Apollo and to Dionysus, who, according to 
 
 Orphic legends, was torn into seven pieces ; 
 and it was particularly sacred in Euboea, where 
 the number was found to pervade, as it were, 
 almost every sacred, private, or domestic rela- 
 tion. On the many ancient speculations which 
 connected the number seven with the human 
 body and the phases of its gradual develop- 
 ment and formation, its critical periods of 
 sicknesses, partly still extant as supersti- 
 tious notions we cannot here dwell. The 
 Pythagoreans made much of this number, 
 giving it the name of Athene, Hermes, 
 Ilephaistos, Heracles, the Virgin unbegotten 
 and unbegetting (?'. e., not to be obtained by 
 multiplication), Dionysus, Rex, etc. Many 
 usages show the importance attached to this 
 number in the eyes not only of ancient but 
 even of our own times, and it is hardly neces- 
 sary to add that the same recurrence is found 
 in the folklore of every race. 
 
 Hippocrates (B. C. 400-357) divided the life 
 of man into seven ages, a division- adopted by 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 The Egyptian priests enjoined rest on the 
 seventh day, because it was held to be a dies 
 infaustuft. In Egyptian astronomy there were 
 seven planets, and hence seven days in the 
 week, each day ruled by its own special planet. 
 The people of Peru had also a seven-day week. 
 
 The Persians and Mexicans have a tradition 
 of a flood from which seven persons save. I 
 themselves in a cave, and by whom the world 
 was subsequently repeopled. 
 
 The seven Champions of Christendom .are 
 St. George for England, St. Andrew for Scot- 
 land, St. Patrick for Ireland, St. David for 
 Wales, St. Denis for France, St. James for 
 Spain, St. Anthony for Italy. 
 
 Maelstrom, The, which means, literally, 
 "grinding stream," is situated on the Nor- 
 wegian coast, southwest of the Loffoden Isles, 
 and is the most remarkable whirlpool in the 
 world. It runs between the island of Mos- 
 kenes and a large solitary rock in the middle of 
 the straits. The strong currents, rushing be- 
 tween the Great West Fjord and the outer 
 ocean, through the channels of the Loffoden 
 Isles, produce a number of whirlpools, of 
 which the maelstrom is by far the most dan- 
 gerous. During severe storms from tke west, 
 for instance, the current runs continually to 
 the east at the rate of six knots an hour, with- 
 out changing its direction for rising or falling 
 tide, and the stream will boil and eddy in 
 such mighty whirls that the largest steamer 
 could hardly contend successfully with th 
 waters. The depth of the whirlpool is only 20 
 fathoms, but just outside the straits sound- 
 ings reach from 100 to 200 fathoms. The 
 great danger to vessels is of course not of
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 609 
 
 suction into the heart of the whirlpool, as leg- 
 ends have supposed, but of being dashed to 
 pieces against the rocks. 
 
 Lucky Horseshoe. Most of the houses 
 in the AVest End of London were protected 
 against witches and evil spirits in the seven- 
 teenth century, says John Aubrey, the English 
 antiquary, by having horseshoes fastened to 
 them in various ways. It was the belief that 
 then no witch or evil genius could cross the 
 threshold which was protected by the shoe. 
 The custom of nailing horseshoes, for luck, to 
 all kinds of sailing craft is still, to a certain 
 extent, in vogue, and we all know how fortunate 
 it is considered for anyone to find a horse- 
 shoe, the good luckbeingincreasedbythe num- 
 ber of nails that are attached to the shoe when 
 it is picked up. This superstition can be traced 
 back to about the middle of- the seventeenth 
 century, and then we find it lost in the ob- 
 scurity of the ages. 
 
 Gocliva, Lady, the wife of Leofric, Earl 
 of Mercia and Lord of Coventry. About 1040 
 the earl imposed certain onerous services and 
 heavy exactions upon the inhabitants of Cov- 
 entry, who, inconsequence, loudly complained. 
 Lady Godiva, having the welfare of the town 
 at heart, eagerly besought her husband to give 
 them relief ; and he, in order to escape from 
 her importunities, said he would grant the 
 favor, but only on condition that she would 
 ride naked through the town. Greatly to her 
 husband's surprise she agreed to the conditions ; 
 and on a certain day, after having ordered all 
 the inhabitants to remain within doors and be- 
 hind closed blinds, she rode through the town 
 clothed only by her long hair. This circum- 
 stance was commemorated by a stained glass 
 window, mentioned in 1690, in St. Michael's 
 Church, Coventry; and the legend that an un- 
 fortunate tailor, the only man who looked out 
 of a window, was struck blind, has also found 
 commemoration in an ancient effigy of " Peep- 
 ing Tom of Coventry," still to be seen in a 
 niche of one of the buildings. For many years 
 occasional representations were given of the 
 ride of Lady Godiva, the character being taken 
 by some beautiful woman, clothed, however, in 
 considerable more than her hair, and attended 
 by other historical and emblematic personages. 
 The ceremony has now fallen into disrepute. 
 
 Molly Magiiires. The first organiza- 
 tion of this name was formed in Ireland, with 
 the object, it is believed, of generally misusing 
 process-servers and others engaged in the prose- 
 cution and eviction of tenants, and was com- 
 posed of young men who, in some localities, 
 assumed women's clothing, blackened their 
 faces, and otherwise disguised themselves. It 
 remained, however, for the American "Mol- 
 
 lies " to terrorize whole counties, and leave a 
 blood-red trail behind them in the coal regions 
 of Pennsylvania. To give even a record of the 
 murders and outrages they committed would 
 require an entire volume ; but they were num- 
 bered by hundreds, and the unfortunate vic- 
 tims were, in most cases, well known and re- 
 spected men. The American organization was 
 composed of the restless and reckless element 
 drawn to the coal regions through the opening 
 of the coal fields. There is no recorded in- 
 stance where the disguise of women's clothes 
 was assumed in the United States. Through 
 the efforts of James McParlan, a detective, the 
 secrets of the order were finally revealed, "and 
 many of its members were brought to justice. 
 
 Natural Storm Signals. A continuous 
 south wind in most localities will in a few 
 days cause rain, because being warm, dense, 
 and charged with moisture, it is rarefied and 
 cooled by the atmosphere of more northern or 
 elevated sections, and thus its capability of sus- 
 taining moisture is lessened. On the other 
 hand, a continuous north wind dispels all rain 
 signs for the time being. Flaky clouds, or 
 low-running ones, from any direction but the 
 north, denote rain or snow. Salmon, leaden, or 
 silvery colored clouds denote falling weather ; 
 bright red, clear. When the sunset is followed 
 by bright lances or streaks of light of various 
 hues radiating from the point where the sun 
 disappeared, continuing across the heavens and 
 converging to a common point in the opposite 
 horizon, there exists a storm-cloud in line 
 with the sun, though it may be so distant as to 
 be for a while entirely hidden from view by 
 the rotundity of the earth. If the rays of 
 light are evenly divided north and south of 
 the line between the observer and the radiat- 
 ing point, and continue so until they have 
 faded out, the cloud is approaching. When 
 " heat-lightning " is visible there is a storm- 
 cloud in the same direction, though it may 
 not be seen nor thunder be heard. When the 
 lightning is continuous and very brilliant 
 the storm is a violent one, though the track of 
 the destructive elements may be from 100 to 
 200 miles away. 
 
 Great Bells. In the manufacture of 
 great bells Russia has always taken the lead. 
 The " Giant," which was cast in Moscow in 
 the sixteenth century, weighed 288,000 pounds, 
 and it required twenty-four men to ring it. It 
 was broken by falling from its support, but 
 was recast in' 1654. On June 19, 1706, it 
 again fell, and in 1732 the fragments were 
 used, with new materials, in casting the "King 
 of Bells," still to be seen in Moscow. This 
 bell is nineteen feet, three inches high, meas- 
 ures around the margin sixty feet, nine inches.
 
 610 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 weighs about 443,732 pounds, and its esti- 
 mated value in metal alone is at least <f 300, 000. 
 St. Ivan's bell, also in Moscow, is forty feet, 
 nine inches in circumference, sixteen and one 
 half inches thick, and weighs 127,830 pounds. 
 The bells of China rank next to those of Rus- 
 sia in size. In Pekin there are seven bells, 
 each of which is said to weigh 120,000 pounds. 
 The weight of the leading great bells of the 
 
 world are as follows: "Great Belief Mos- 
 cow," 443,732 pounds; St. Ivan's, Moscow, 
 127,830 pounds; Pekin, 120,000 pounds; 
 Vienna, 40,200 pounds ; Oimutz, Bohemia, 
 40, 000 pounds ; Rouen, France, 40, 000 pounds ; 
 St. Paul's, London, 38,470 pounds; "Big 
 Ben," Westminster, 30, 350 pounds ; Montreal, 
 28,560 pounds; St. Peter's, Rome, 18,600 
 pounds. 
 
 Population of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 CENSUS OF 1891. 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 
 168,704; 
 238,709 
 185,284 
 188,961 
 730,058 
 322,571 
 266,549 
 528,033 
 631,808 
 194,517 
 i .oi<;,r>, r >!> 
 
 Essex 
 
 7S5.445 
 599,947 
 690,097 
 115,949 
 220,162 
 57,751 
 1,142,324 
 3,926,76) 
 373,584 
 472,878, 
 3,251,671 
 
 Momuoutli 
 
 252,416 
 454,516 
 302,183 
 506,030 
 445,823' 
 185,669 
 20,659 
 236,339 
 484,337 
 1,083,408 
 371,235 
 
 Surrey 
 
 1,731,343 
 
 550,446 
 805,072 
 66,098 
 2(V4,97 
 413,760 
 3,^03,82^ 
 
 Berks 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Sussex 
 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 Northampton .... 
 Northumberland. 
 Nottingham 
 Oxford 
 
 Warwick 
 
 Cambridge 
 Chester 
 
 Hereford 
 Hertford 
 Huntingdon 
 Kent 
 
 Westmoreland .. . 
 Wiltshire 
 Worcester 
 
 Cornwall 
 Cumberland 
 
 Rutland 
 Shropshire 
 Somerset 
 
 York 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 27,483,490 
 
 
 
 Stafford.. 
 
 
 Durham 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 2s4,03<; 
 74,085 
 226,386 
 61,684! 
 32,290 
 18,404 
 37,177 
 35,140, 
 98,014: 
 
 Dumfries 
 Edinburgh 
 Elgin 
 
 74,245' 
 434,276 
 4 !,471 
 190,365 
 277,735 
 3r,377 
 91,121 
 35,492 
 6,673 
 
 Kirkcudbright.. . 
 Lanark 
 Linlithgow 
 
 39,985 
 1,105,899 
 52.808 
 9,155 
 
 59,164 
 
 ROSS& Cromarty. 78,727 
 Roxburgh 53,500 
 Selkirk 27,712 
 
 Argyll 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Banff 
 
 
 Nairn . 
 
 Stirliw 118 021 
 
 Berwick 
 
 For far 
 
 Orkney and Shet- 
 land 
 
 Sutherland 21,896 
 
 Bute 
 
 
 Wigtown . ... 36,062 
 
 
 
 
 14,750 
 122,185 
 
 1W',812 
 
 
 Clackmannnn 
 Dumbarton 
 
 
 Perth 
 
 
 Kinross 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 Total 4,0-25.647 
 
 WALES. 
 
 Brecon 
 
 57,031 
 62,630 
 130,566 
 
 Denbigh 
 
 117,872 
 77,277 
 687,218 
 
 Montgomery 
 Pembroke. . . 
 
 58,003 
 89,133 
 
 Total 1 519 035 
 
 
 Flint 
 
 Carmarthen 
 
 Glamorgan 
 
 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 LEINSTER. 
 
 40 936 
 
 Westmeath 
 AVexford . . ... 
 
 65,109 
 111,778 
 
 ULSTER. 
 Antrim 
 
 471,179 
 
 CONNAUGHT. 
 
 Gal way 
 
 Dublin 
 
 419 216 
 
 Wicklow 
 
 62,136 
 
 Armagh 
 
 143,289' 
 
 Leitrim 
 
 
 70 206 
 
 MUNSTFH 
 
 
 Cavan 
 
 111 917 
 
 
 
 87 261 
 
 Clare 
 
 124,483 
 
 Donegal 
 
 185 635 
 
 
 King's 
 
 65,563 
 
 Cork 
 
 438,432 
 
 Down 
 
 224,008 
 
 Sligo 
 
 Longford 
 
 52,647 
 
 
 179,136 
 
 
 74,170 
 
 
 
 71,038 
 
 
 158,912 
 
 
 152,009 
 
 Total 
 
 Meath 
 
 76,987 
 
 
 173,188 
 
 Monaghan 
 
 86,206 
 
 
 Queen's 
 
 64,883 
 
 Waterford 
 
 98,251 
 
 Tyrone 
 
 171,401] 
 
 
 214,712 
 78,6tg 
 219,034 
 114,337 
 98,013 
 
 United States Army Recruiting Re- 
 quirements. Applicants for enlistment in 
 the regular army must be between the ages of 
 twenty-one and thirty years, unmarried, of 
 good character and habits, able-bodied, free 
 from disease, and must be able to speak, read, 
 and write the English language. Age for en- 
 listment of citizen soldiery, eighteen to forty- 
 five years, married or unmarried. 
 
 Minors are not enlisted, except boys between 
 the ages of sixteen and eighteen who may be 
 needed as musicians and who have the written 
 consent of father, only surviving parent, or 
 legally appointed guardian. 
 
 Original enlistments are confined to persons 
 
 who are citizens of the United States, or who 
 have made legal declaration of their intention 
 to become citizens thereof. 
 
 For infantry and artillery the height must be 
 not less than five feet four inches, and weight 
 not less than 120 pounds and not more than 
 190 pounds. 
 
 For cavalry the height must be not less than 
 five feet four inches and not more than five 
 feet ten inches, and weight not to exceed 165 
 pounds. 
 
 All soldiers receive from the Government (in 
 addition to their pay) rations, clothing, bedding, 
 medicines, and medical attendance. The follow, 
 ing is the rate of pay as now established :
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 611 
 
 GRADE. 
 
 Privates Cavalry, artillery, and infantry 
 
 Field Musicians Cavalry, artillery, and infantry 
 
 Wagoners Cavalry, artillery, and' infantry 
 
 Artificers Artillery and infantry, saddlers and farriers, cavalry. 
 
 Corporals Cavalry, artillery, and mfantry 
 
 Sergeants Cavalry, artillery, and infantry- 
 
 First Sergeant of a company Cavalry, artillery, and infantry 
 
 Chief Trumpeter of cavalry" 
 
 Principal Musician Artillery and infantry 
 
 Pay per 
 
 Month. 
 
 si:i 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 Pay per 
 
 Year. 
 si. Mi 
 
 If 6 
 
 168 
 
 180 
 
 180 
 
 216 
 
 300 
 
 264 
 
 264 
 
 Pay per 
 3 Years. 
 
 468 
 504 
 540 
 540 
 648 
 900 
 792 
 792 
 
 ARMY PAY TABLE. 
 
 GRADE. 
 
 PAY OF OFFICERS i>- ACTIVE SERVICE. 
 
 PAY OF RETIRED OFFICERS. 
 
 Yearly Pay. 
 
 Yearly Pay. 
 
 First 5 
 Years' 
 Service. 
 
 AfterS 
 Years' 
 Service. 
 
 s 8 
 
 s- 8 8 
 
 8 g 
 
 S-_ 9> 
 
 After 5 
 Years' 
 Service. 
 
 ""as g 
 
 After 15 
 Years' 
 Service. 
 
 After 20 
 Years' 
 Service. 
 
 2s 
 
 1*$ 
 
 *- 
 <*$ 
 
 v si > 
 
 . - 
 
 *& 
 
 * S3 > 
 
 u * C 
 
 z% 
 
 sg> 
 
 ^$ 
 
 Major-General 
 
 7.500 
 5,500 
 
 10 p. c. 
 
 20 p. c.! 30 p. c. 
 
 40 p. c. 
 
 18,026 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brigadier-General 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,125 
 
 
 
 
 
 Colonel 
 
 3,500 
 3,000 
 2,500 
 2,000 
 1.800 
 1,600 
 1,500 
 1,500 
 1,400 
 
 3,850 
 3,300 
 2,750 
 2,200 
 1.980 
 1,760 
 1,650 
 1.650 
 1,540 
 
 S4.JHO 
 3,600 
 3,000 
 2,400 
 2,160 
 1,920 
 1,800 
 1,800 
 1,680 
 
 *4,500 
 3,900 
 3,250 
 2,600 
 2,340 
 2,080 
 1,950 
 1,950 
 1,820 
 
 $4,566 
 *4,000 
 3,500 
 2,800 
 2,520 
 2,240 
 2,100 
 2,100 
 1.960 
 
 2,625 
 2,250 
 1,875 
 1,500 
 1,350 
 1,200 
 1,125 
 1,125 
 1,050 
 
 $2,887 
 2,475 
 2,062 
 1,650 
 1,485 
 1,320 
 1,237 
 1,237 
 1,115 
 
 3,150 
 2,700 
 2,250 
 1,800 
 1,620 
 1,440 
 1,350 
 1,350 
 1,260 
 
 $3,375 
 2,925 
 2,437 
 1,950 
 1,755 
 1,560 
 1,462 
 1,462 
 1,365 
 
 $3,375 
 3,000 
 2,625 
 2,100 
 1,890 
 1,680 
 1,575 
 1,575 
 1,470 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonel 
 
 Major 
 
 
 
 
 1st Lieutenant, not mounted 
 
 2d Lieutenant, not mounted .... 
 
 * The maximum pay of Colonels is limited to 4,500, and of Lieutenant-Colonels to $4,000. 
 
 The pay of uon-conimissioned officers is from 18 to 34 per month, and of privates 13 per month. 
 
 United States National and Inter- 
 national Salutes, with Cannon. Salute 
 to the Union. This is one gun for each state, 
 and is commemorative of the Declaration of In- 
 dependence. It is fired at noon of the Fourth 
 of July, at every military post, and on board 
 commissioned naval vessels belonging to the 
 United States. 
 
 The National Salute, 21 guns. This is the 
 salute for the national flag, the President of 
 the United States, presidents of foreign repub- 
 lics, or sovereigns of foreign states, visiting the 
 United States. 
 
 Vice-President of the United States, Amer- 
 ican and foreign ambassadors, 19 guns. 
 
 The President of the Senate, Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives, Members of the 
 Cabinet, the Chief Justice, a Congressional 
 Committee, Governors within their respective 
 states or territories, Viceroy or Governor Gen- 
 eral of provinces belonging to foreign states, 
 General of the Army, Admiral of the Navy, 
 and same ranks in foreign armies and navies, 
 17 guns. 
 
 American or foreign Envoys, or Ministers 
 Plenipotentiary, Assistant Secretaries of the 
 Navy or War, Lieutenant General, or a Major 
 General commanding the army, and correspond- 
 ing ranks in the navy, and foreign armies and 
 navies, 15 guns. 
 
 Ministers- Resident accredited to the L'nited 
 States, Major General, Rear Admiral, and cor- 
 
 responding ranks of foreign armies and navies, 
 13 guns. 
 
 Charges d'Affaires, Brigadier General, Com- 
 modore, and corresponding ranks in foreign 
 armies and navies, 11 guns. 
 
 Consul Generals accredited to the L'nited 
 States, 9 guns. 
 
 Salutes are only fired between sunrise and 
 sunset, and not on Sundays, except in interna- 
 tional courtesies. The national colors are al- 
 ways displayed at the time of saluting. The 
 salute of the flag is the only salute which is 
 returned, and this must be done within twenty- 
 four hours. United States vessels do not return 
 salute to the flag in United States waters if 
 there is any fort or battery there to "do it, 
 nor do -United States vessels salute United 
 States forts or posts. 
 
 If there are several batteries or forts within 
 sight or six miles of each other, one of them 
 is designated as the saluting fort, and returns 
 all salutes of foreign men-of-war. In New 
 York, Castle William, on Governor's Island, 
 is the saluting fort. 
 
 Washington Monument. Notwith- 
 standing the fact that the plan of a monument 
 to General Washington was approved by Con- 
 gress in the latter part of December, 1799, 
 nothing was done in the matter tintil 1833, 
 when an association of prominent persons un- 
 dertook the raising of the needed funds by sub- 
 scription, and on July 4, 1848, had so far sue-
 
 612 
 
 THE CENTURY feOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 ceeded in their undertaking that the corner 
 stone of a monument was laid, and during the 
 succeeding eight years the shaft was carried to 
 a height of 156 feet. The work was then sus- 
 pended, at first for lack of funds, then because 
 of the Civil War, and finally because the 
 foundations were believed to be insecure. In 
 1876 Congress undertook the completion of the 
 monument. The base was first strengthened, 
 and the work of rebuilding the shaft was re- 
 sumed in August, 1880, and was finished Au- 
 gust 9, 1884. The shaft is 555 feet high, and 
 the entire height of the monument, including 
 the foundations, is 592 feet. The base is 55 
 feet 1^ inch square. At 500 feet above the 
 ground the monument has four sides, each of 
 which is 35 feet wide. Its area at this point 
 is that of a comfortable six-room house, each 
 room of which might be 12x16 feet. This 
 square forms the base of the pyramidal top 
 which runs from it 55 feet until it terminates 
 in a metallic point. This point is constructed 
 of the largest piece of aluminium ever made. 
 The stones of which the monument is con- 
 structed are great blocks of crystal marble 
 from Maryland, and in some cases are 9 feet 
 long, 2 feet thick, and 3 or more feet wide. 
 There are more than 18,000 of them. The 
 foundation is built of Potomac gneiss, and is 
 81 feet square at the base. One hundred and 
 eighty-one " memorial stones " have from first 
 to last been contributed for use in the monu- 
 ment ; but many were considered unworthy of 
 a place, and one sent by Pope Pius IX., in 1855, 
 was stolen during the Know-Nothing agitation, 
 and was broken into pieces and thrown into 
 the Potomac river. The monument was ded- 
 icated with imposing ceremonies on February 
 22, 1885. Its cost was about $1,500,000, 
 which was raised partially by an appropriation 
 by Congress and partially by private subscrip- 
 tion. It is 30 feet higher than any other work 
 of man except the lofty iron Eiffel Tower 
 erected in Paris for the great Exposition of 
 1889. 
 
 Origin of Visiting Cards. As is the 
 case in many other instances, we owe the in- 
 vention of visiting cards to the Chinese. So 
 long ago as the period of the Tong dynasty 
 (618-907), visiting cards were in common use 
 in China, and that is also the date of the in- 
 troduction of the " red silken cords " which 
 figure so conspicuously on the engagement cards 
 of that country. From very ancient times to 
 the present day the Chinese have observed the 
 strictest ceremony with regard to the paying 
 of visits. The cards which they use for this 
 purpose are very large, and usually of a bright 
 red color. When a Chinaman desires to marry, 
 his parents intimate that fact to a professional 
 
 " match-maker," who thereupon runs through 
 a list of her visiting acquaintances, and selects 
 one whom she considers a fitting bride for the 
 young man ; and then she calls upon the 
 young woman's parents, armed with the bride- 
 groom's card, on which are inscribed his an- 
 cestral name and the eight symbols which de- 
 note the day of his birth. If the answer is an 
 acceptance 'of the suit, the bride's card is sent 
 in return ; and should the oracles prophesy 
 good concerning the union, the particulars of 
 the engagement are written on two large cards, 
 tied together with the red cords. 
 
 Average Annual Temperature in 
 United States. 
 
 I'lace of 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Average 
 Temperature. 
 
 Tucson, Arizona, 69 
 
 Jacksonville, Florida, 69 
 
 New Orleans, La., 69 
 
 Austin, Texas, 67 
 
 Mobile, Alabama, 66 
 
 Jackson, Mississippi, 64 
 
 Little Rock, Arkansas, 63 
 
 Columbia, S. Carolina, 62 
 
 Ft. Gibson, Indian Ter., 60 
 
 Raleigh, N. Carolina, 59 
 
 Atlanta, Georgia, 58 
 
 Nashville, Tennessee, 58 
 
 Richmond, Virginia, 57 
 
 Louisville, Kentucky, 56 
 
 San Francisco, Cal., 55 
 
 Washington, D. C., 55 
 
 St. Louis, Missouri, 55 
 
 Baltimore, Maryland, 54 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa., 54 
 
 Wilmington, Delaware, 53 
 
 Trenton, New Jersey, 53 
 
 Columbus, Ohio, 53 
 
 Portland, Oregon, 53 
 
 Ft. Boise, Idaho, 52 
 
 Place of Average 
 
 Observation. Temperature. 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah , 52 
 
 Romney, West Virginia, 52 
 
 Indianapolis, Indiana, 51 
 
 Leavenworth, Kansas, 51 
 Santa Fe, New Mex. Ter., 51 
 
 Steilacoom, Wash., 51 
 
 Hartford, Connecticut, 50 
 
 Springfield, Illinois, 50 
 
 Camp Scott, Nevada, 50 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa, 49 
 
 Omaha, Nebraska, 49 
 
 Denver, Colorado, 48 
 
 Boston, Massachusetts, 48 
 
 Albany, New York, 48 
 
 Providence, R. I., 43 
 
 Detroit, Michigan, 47 
 
 Ft. Randall, Dakota, 47 
 
 Sitka, Alaska, 46 
 
 Concord, N. H., 46 
 
 Augusta, Maine, 45 
 
 Madison, Wisconsin, 45 
 
 Helena, Montana, 43 
 
 Montpelier, Vermont, 43 
 
 St. Paul, Minnesota, 42 
 
 Gems Symbolic of the Months. 
 
 January, the jacinth or hyacinth, symbolizing 
 constancy and fidelity. 
 
 February, the amethyst, symbolizing peace 
 of mind and sobriety. 
 
 March, the bloodstone or jasper, symboliz- 
 ing courage and success in dangerous enter- 
 prise. 
 
 April, the sapphire and diamond, symbol- 
 izing repentance and innocence. 
 
 May, the emerald, symbolizing success in 
 love. 
 
 June, the agate, symbolizing long life and 
 health. 
 
 July, the carnelian, symbolizing cure of 
 evils resulting from forgetful ness. 
 
 August, the sardonyx or onyx, symbolizing 
 conjugal felicity. 
 
 September, the chrysolite, symbolizing pres- 
 ervation from folly, or its cure. 
 
 October, the aquamarine, opal, or beryl, 
 symbolizing hope. 
 
 November, the topaz, symbolizing fidelity 
 and friendship. 
 
 December, the turquoise or ruby, symboliz- 
 ing brilliant success.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 613 
 
 Some doubt exists between May and June, 
 July and August. Thus some give the agate 
 to May and the emerald to June ; the carnelian 
 to August, and the onyx to July. 
 
 Flying IMitchmaii, The, is the name 
 given by sailors to a phantom ship, supposed 
 to cruise in storms off the Cape of Good Hope. 
 According to tradition, a Dutch captain, bound 
 home from the Indies, met with long-continued 
 head winds and heavy weather off this cape, 
 and refused to put back, as he was advised to 
 do, swearing a very profane oath that he 
 would beat round the cape if he had to beat there 
 till the Day of Judgment. He was taken at 
 his word, and doomed to beat against winds all 
 his days. His sails are believed to have be- 
 come threadbare, and his ship's sides white 
 with age, and himself and crew reduced almost 
 to shadows. He cannot heave to nor lower a 
 boat, but sometimes hails vessels through his 
 trumpet, and requests them to take letters 
 home for him. The superstition had its origin, 
 probably, in the looming or apparent suspen- 
 sion in air of some ships out of sight a 
 phenomenon sometimes witnessed at sea, and 
 caused by unequal refraction in the lower 
 strata of the atmosphere. 
 
 Age of Animals. The exact age at- 
 tained by animals other than those domesti- 
 cated it is, of course, impossible to ascertain. 
 
 It is believed, however, among East Indians, 
 that the elephant lives about 300 years, and 
 instances are on record of the animals having 
 been kept in captivity as long as 130 years, 
 their ages being unknown when they were first 
 taken from the forest. Camels live from 40 
 to 50 years ; horses average from 20 to 30, 
 oxen about 20, sheep 8 or 9, and dogs from 12 
 to 14 years. The age of a whale is ascertained 
 by the size and number of the laminae of cer- 
 tain organs in the mouth, formed of a horny 
 substance commonly called whalebone. These 
 laminae increase yearly, and, if the mode of 
 computation be correct, it is known that whales 
 have attained to the age of 400 years. Some 
 species of birds attain a great age. The swan 
 has been known to live 100 years, and it is re- 
 corded that the raven has exceeded that age. 
 Parrots have been known to live 80 years. 
 Pheasants and domestic poultry rarely exceed 
 12 or 15 years. Among fishes and animals 
 that live in the water great age is often at- 
 tained. The carp has been known to live 200 
 years. Common river trout have been con- 
 fined in a well 30 and even 50 years, and a 
 pike was caught in 1497 in a lake near Heil- 
 bronn, in Swabia, with a brass ring attached 
 to it recording that it was placed in the lake 
 in the year 1230. 
 
 Navies. 
 
 CLASS OF VESSELS. 
 
 ( i rcat 
 Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 If 
 
 i 
 
 Austria- 
 Hungary. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 a 
 
 '3 
 a, 
 
 02 
 
 OS 
 
 Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 1 
 t 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Battle Ships, Fin t Class 
 
 44 
 21 
 9 
 21 
 34 
 
 18 
 18 
 
 4 
 10 
 
 20 
 36 
 31 
 31 
 
 41 
 9 
 
 29 
 90 
 18 
 112 
 
 138 
 
 2,240 
 49.441 
 1.700 
 28,000 
 85,000 
 490 
 2,900 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 17 
 15 
 17 
 
 23 
 4 
 
 16 
 61 
 11 
 
 109 
 
 33 
 910 
 17,300 
 229 
 2,500 
 37,000 
 294 
 1,094 
 
 10 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 8 
 27 
 
 28 
 4 
 
 16 
 57 
 18 
 110 
 
 84 
 811 
 21,300 
 M 
 
 6-20 
 19,000 
 
 1.402 
 
 " 2 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 "39 
 
 50 
 6-10 
 11.451 
 70 
 720 
 4.300 
 
 440 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 5 
 17 
 5 
 4 
 
 16 
 29 
 41 
 21 
 
 82 
 
 
 39 
 90 
 21 
 
 85 
 
 . 130 
 
 1,603 
 40. (11)0 
 51'J 
 3,700 
 49,000 
 512 
 1,346 
 
 1 
 
 " 2 
 1 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 11 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 16 
 8 
 3 
 14 
 
 11 
 680 
 11.320 
 300 
 4,000 
 20,000 
 56 
 402 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Battle Ships, Ser ond Class 
 Battle Ships, Third Class 
 Coast-Defense Ships 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 10 
 6 
 3 
 
 14 
 2 
 
 w 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 7 
 27 
 54 
 27 
 
 16 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 " 5 
 5 
 
 5 
 26 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 " 6 
 
 3 
 19 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 " 2 
 
 9 
 26 
 37 
 
 9 
 
 
 Cruisers, First Class 
 
 Cruisers, Second and Third 
 Classes 
 
 104 
 48 
 54 
 44 
 
 69 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 153 
 M 
 
 78 
 
 112 
 
 2,480 
 81,200 
 803 
 19.200 
 
 Gunboats. Sea-Going 
 
 Gunboats, River 
 
 Transports and Dispatch Boats.. 
 Tugs, Repair, Water, Coal, and 
 Hospital Vessels 
 
 School Ships, Training Ships 
 Subsidized and Auxiliary Ves- 
 sels 
 
 
 19 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 142 
 1,100 
 40 
 300 
 4,000 
 144 
 293 
 
 30 
 17 
 20 
 
 40 
 594 
 8,911 
 64 
 1,720 
 10,000 
 212 
 598 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 400 
 20,600 
 84 
 1,200 
 36,000 
 209 
 312 
 
 13 
 2 
 3 
 
 35 
 102 
 4,000 
 90 
 800 
 8,000 
 120 
 262 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 84 
 3,100 
 36 
 500 
 6,000 
 17 
 80 
 
 31 
 1 
 18 
 
 33 
 390 
 4,000 
 22 
 640 
 4.000 
 16 
 84 
 
 Torpedo Boat Destroyers 
 
 Torpedo Boats, First'Class 
 Torpedo Boats, Second and 
 Third Classes 
 
 Officers Naval 
 
 Seamen Naval 
 Officers Marine 
 
 
 
 81,000 
 1,320 
 5,200 
 
 Heavv Guns 
 
 Secondary Guns 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. The registered number of young men attaining the age of military service in 1896 was 
 314,300. After exemptions, postponements, etc., the number fit for service was found to be 186,700. Of this num- 
 ber 126,000 were drawn for service, as in 1895, namely : Army and navy, 103,000; Landwehr, 23,000. Obligatory 
 service commences on the first day of January of each year.
 
 614 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Armies of Mexico, South America, and Asia. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 China. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Chile. 
 
 Argentine 
 Republic. 
 
 India.* 
 
 Vene- 
 zuela. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 63,400 
 
 ] 
 
 {13,312 
 
 10,428 
 
 16,920 
 
 9,200 
 
 . 138,912 
 
 5,300 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 6,900 
 
 
 5,212 
 
 2,718 
 
 4,600 
 
 2,680 
 
 42,000 
 
 1,400 
 
 Artillery 
 
 8 112 
 
 \- 100,000 
 
 1,640 
 
 4,217 
 
 2,900 
 
 2,900 
 
 23 618 
 
 580 
 
 Engineers and train.. 
 Total peace strength 
 First Reserves 
 
 4,800 
 83,212 
 74,600 
 
 100,000 
 
 982 
 21,144 
 28,000 
 
 1,126 
 24,479 
 26,100 
 
 1,000 
 25,420 
 25,000 
 
 712 
 15,492 
 16,000 
 
 16,000 
 220,530 
 
 480 
 7,760 
 
 Second Reserves 
 
 214,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 117,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total war strength 
 
 371,812 
 
 600,000 
 
 166,144 
 
 100,579 
 
 95,420 
 
 71,492 
 
 420,530 
 
 207,760 
 
 * Including native and white troops. 
 
 The Torpedo Fleets. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING TORPEDO BOATS AND TORPEDO-BOAT DESTROYERS OF NAVIES OF THE 
 
 WORLD. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Torpedo- 
 Boa tDe- 
 stoyers. 
 
 TORPEDO BOATS. 
 
 3 
 I 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Torpedo- 
 Boat De- 
 stroyers. 
 
 TORPEDO BOATS. 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 First 
 Class. 
 
 Second 
 Class. 
 
 Third 
 Class. 
 
 First 
 Class. 
 
 Second 
 Class. 
 
 Second 
 
 Class. 
 
 United States.. 
 
 1C 
 103 
 18 
 10 
 18 
 18 
 2 
 6 
 
 16 
 2 
 
 
 35 
 49 
 
 47 
 98 
 98 
 80 
 30 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 3 
 4 
 
 
 38 
 153 
 
 20 
 7 
 9 
 7 
 4 
 
 14 
 12 
 10 
 
 2 
 105 
 45 
 16 
 71 
 116 
 35 
 19 
 42 
 32 
 18 
 9 
 
 63 
 295 
 263 
 144 
 19t 
 223 
 80 
 35 
 48 
 69 
 89 
 23 
 
 Portugal 
 
 1 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 
 6 
 9 
 5 
 1 
 4 
 7 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 8 
 10 
 10 
 
 6 
 6 
 9 
 
 22 
 7 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 29 
 27 
 5 
 
 27 
 7 
 3 
 4 
 
 15 
 18 
 18 
 
 17 
 22 
 1 
 
 50 
 27 
 12 
 9 
 5 
 31 
 37 
 33 
 1 
 56 
 62 
 27 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Turkey 
 
 France 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 Roumania. 
 
 Italy 
 
 Mexico 
 
 
 Chile 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . 
 Denmark 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Arg. Republic 
 
 
 C osta Rica 
 
 
 China 
 
 
 Japan 
 
 Norway 
 
 British Colonies.. . 
 
 The New Navy of Japan. 
 
 BATTLE SHIPS. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Built. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Built. 
 
 Fuji steel 
 
 12,649 
 
 38 
 
 1896 
 
 Chinyen, steel 
 
 7,355 
 
 20 
 
 1881 
 
 Yashima, steel 
 
 12,517 
 
 38 
 
 1896 
 
 Shikishima, steel... 
 
 15,037 
 
 50 
 
 Building. 
 
 COAST-DEFENSE VESSELS. 
 
 Itsukushima, steel. 
 Matsushima, steel.. 
 
 4,278 
 
 4,278 
 
 1889 
 1890 
 
 Hashidate, steel. 
 
 4,278 
 
 81 
 
 STEEL CRUISERS. 
 
 1891 
 
 Yoshino 
 
 4 216 
 
 36 
 
 1892 
 
 Chiyoda 
 
 2,439 
 
 27 1890 
 
 Puso 
 
 3,777 
 
 26 
 
 1877 
 
 Saiyen 
 
 2,300 
 
 13 1883 
 
 
 3 709 
 
 24 
 
 1885 
 
 Kasagi 
 
 4,978 
 
 30 1898 
 
 
 3,709 
 
 24 
 
 1885 
 
 Chitose 
 
 4,836 
 
 3 ) 1898 
 
 
 3 ISO 
 
 23 
 
 1892 
 
 Akashi 
 
 2,800 
 
 24 Building 
 
 [/.Mini 
 
 2,967 
 
 22 
 
 IKS:! 
 
 
 
 
 GUNBOATS. 
 
 
 667 
 
 g 
 
 1877 
 
 Chinto, steel 
 
 440 
 
 
 640 
 
 10 
 
 1891 
 
 Chinsei, steel 
 
 440 
 
 Mayo, iron 
 
 622 
 
 6 
 
 1886 
 
 Chinhoku, steel 
 
 440 
 
 
 622 
 
 4 
 
 1887 
 
 Chinchn, steel 
 
 440 
 
 
 622 
 
 10 
 
 1888 
 
 Hosho wood 
 
 321 
 
 Chokai.iron 
 
 622 
 
 4 
 
 l*-7 
 
 Kaikyo, wood 
 
 1 .450 
 
 1865 
 1879 
 1883 
 1879 
 1881 
 1871 
 
 OTHER VESSELS. 
 
 Miyako, dispatch boat, steel, 1.800 tons, 12 gnus, building; Congo, corvette; Hiyci, corvette; Heiyen, cor- 
 vette; Tsukuba, cruiser: Katisnragi, sloop ; Vainato, sloop; Musashi, sloop: Kaimon, sloop; Aniaiki, si'' ,> 
 These vessels arc from 2,884 tons to 926 tons displacement, and carry from 19 to 13 guns each. They are built 
 mostly of iron and wood, and their dates a re from 1871 to 1889. 
 
 The Chinyen, Saiyen, Heiyen, Soko, Cliinto, Chinsei, Chinhoku, Chinpen, Chinchu, and Kaikyo, were captured 
 from the Chinese in the war of 18!)5-'96. The number of torpedo boats and destroyers is given in the torpedo-boat 
 table. There are, in addition to the above vessels and torpedo boats, 26 vessels used as receiving ships, hulks, etc.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 615 
 
 Xew York Elevated Railways. In 
 
 1868 an elevated railroad extending a half- 
 mile was constructed on Greenwich street, New 
 York, as an experiment. Three years later 
 the West Side Elevated Railroad Company ob- 
 tained a charter, but shortly afterward sold its 
 right to the New York Elevated Railroad 
 Company. The new organization proceeded 
 rapidly to erect its roads, and in December, 
 1879, its rolling stock consisted of 131 loco- 
 motives, 292 passenger cars, and 8 service cars. 
 In May, 1879, the road was leased to the Man- 
 hattan Railway Company. The Metropolitan 
 Elevated Railroad was first called the Gilbert 
 Elevated Railroad, in honor of its projector, 
 Dr. Rufus H. Gilbert. Although the com- 
 pany obtained its charter in 1872, work was 
 not commenced until March, 1876. In two 
 years it expended 610,300,000 in constructing 
 its lines. In 1879 the road with its rolling 
 stock, consisted of 56 locomotives, 180 passen- 
 ger cars, and 2 freight cars, was leased to the 
 Manhattan Elevated Railroad Company, which 
 now controls and manages the entire elevated 
 railroad system of New York. 
 
 The Famous Connecticut Blue 
 Laws. These laws, enacted by the people 
 of the " Dominion of New Haven," became 
 known as the blue laws because they were 
 printed on blue paper. They were as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 The governor and magistrates convened in 
 general assembly are the supreme power, un- 
 der God, of the independent dominion. From 
 the determination of the assembly no appeal 
 shall be made. 
 
 No one shall be a freeman or have a vote 
 unless he is converted and a member of one of 
 the churches allowed in the dominion. 
 
 Each freeman shall swear by the blessed 
 God to bear true allegiance to this dominion 
 and that Jesus is the only king. 
 
 Xo dissenter from the essential worship of 
 this dominion shall be allowed to give a vote 
 for electing of magistrates or any officer. 
 
 No food or lodging shall lie offered to a 
 heretic. 
 
 No one shall cross a river on the Sabbath 
 but authorized clergymen. 
 
 No one shall travel, cook victuals, make 
 beds, sweep houses, cut hair, or shave on the j 
 Sabbath Day. 
 
 Xo one shall kiss his or her children on the 
 Sabbath or feasting days. 
 
 The Sabbath Day shall begin at sunset Sat- 
 v"lay. 
 
 Whoever wears clothes trimmed with gold, 
 silver, or bone lace above one shilling per yard 
 shall be presented by the grand jurors and the 
 selectmen shall tax the estate 300. 
 
 Whoever brings cards or dice into the domin- 
 ion shall pay a fine of 5. 
 
 No one shall eat mince pies, dance, play 
 cards, or play any instrument of music except 
 the drum, trumpet, or jewsharp. 
 
 No gospel minister shall join people in mar- 
 riage. The magistrate may join them, as he 
 may do it with less scandal to Christ's church. 
 
 When parents refuse their children con- 
 venient marriages, the magistrate shall deter- 
 mine the point. 
 
 A man who strikes his wife shall be fined 
 10. 
 
 A woman who strikes her husband shall be 
 punished as the law directs. 
 
 Xo man shall court a maid in person or by 
 letter without obtaining the consent of her 
 parents; 5 penalty for the first offense; 10 
 for the second, and for the third imprisonment 
 during the pleasure of the court. 
 
 Perpetual Motion. Perpetual motion 
 is a movement which is not only self-active 
 but also self-creative. A machine which when 
 set in motion would continue to move without 
 the aid of external force and without the loss 
 of momentum until its parts were all worn 
 out, might be said to have solved the perpetual 
 motion problem. But even more is expected 
 of this invention should it ever become practi- 
 cable, that it shall go on doing work without 
 drawing on any external source of energy, 
 or shall by its movement continually create 
 power. The impossibility of constructing such 
 a machine has long been demonstrated, but 
 still ignorant and ambitious inventors continue 
 to try for it. As early as the year 1775, the 
 Parisian Academy of Sciences refused to re- 
 ceive any further schemes for perpetual motion, 
 regarding it as an impossibility. There was a 
 time when the perpetual motion problem was 
 worthy the attention of a philosopher, just as 
 there was a time when a man might have been 
 justified in doubting whether the earth was a 
 globe. 
 
 Grangers, or Patrons of Husbandry, as 
 they are properly called, were organized De- 
 cember 4, 1867, by Mr. O. H. Kelley and Mr. 
 AVilliam M. Saunders, both of the Department 
 of Agriculture at Washington. Mr. Kelley 
 was commissioned by President Johnson, in 
 1866, to travel through the Southern States, 
 and report upon their agricultural and mineral 
 resources. He discovered agriculture in a state 
 of great depression, consequent upon the 
 changes made by the Civil War. There was 
 also at the time serious dissatisfaction among 
 the farmery of the West and Northwest in re- 
 gard to the alleged heavy rate and unjust dis- 
 criminations made by railroad companies in 
 their transportation of farmers' products. It
 
 616 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 was also claimed that middle men exacted ex- 
 orbitant prices for agricultural implements, 
 etc. Mr. Kelley concluded that an association 
 made up of those who Were dissatisfied might 
 be organized on some such plan as the Order 
 of Odd Fellows or Masons. He and Mr. Saun- 
 ders devised a plan for an organization to be 
 known as the "Patrons of Husbandry," and 
 its branches to be called "Granges," and on 
 December 4, 1867, the National Grange was 
 organized at Washington. In the spring of 
 1868 granges were founded at Harrisburg, Pa. ; 
 at Fredonia, N. Y. ; at Columbus, Ohio ; at 
 Chicago, 111., and six in Minnesota. The 
 movement became very popular, and they were, 
 in a few years, organized in nearly every state 
 and territory in the Union. The order has its 
 greatest strength, however, in the Northwest- 
 ern and Western States. 
 
 Facts "Worth Knowing. Proper ages 
 of reproduction 1, length of power of repro- 
 duction 2, and periods of gestation 3, in 
 domestic animals : 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shortest. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Longest. 
 
 Horse 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 12 to 15 
 
 Days. 
 
 Days. 
 
 Days. 
 
 Mare 
 
 4 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 287 
 
 347 
 
 419 
 
 Cow 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 283 
 
 321 
 
 340 
 
 Bull 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 Sow 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 109 
 
 115 
 
 143 
 
 Boar 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 Ewe 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 146 
 
 154 
 
 161 
 
 Ram 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 Jackass 
 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 
 
 
 Ass 
 
 4 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 365 
 
 380 
 
 391 
 
 Goat 
 
 2 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 150 
 
 156 
 
 163 
 
 Slut 
 
 2 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 Dog 
 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 
 
 
 Cat 
 
 1 
 
 9 to 10 
 
 
 
 
 Cat. female . . . 
 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 4^ 
 
 50 
 
 56 
 
 The Longest Rivers in the World. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Nile 3,895 
 
 Niger 2,990 
 
 Congo 2,700 
 
 Zambezi 2,300 
 
 Orange 1,152 
 
 AMERICA (NORTH). 
 Mississippi and Mis- 
 souri 4,194 
 
 St. Lawrence 2,120 
 
 Mackenzie 2,120 
 
 Saskatchewan 1,918 
 
 RioGrande 1,800 
 
 Arkansas 1 ,514 
 
 Columbia 1,383 
 
 Ohio and Allegheny... 1,265 
 
 Red River 1,200 
 
 Colorado ....1.000 
 
 AMERICA (SOUTH). 
 
 Amazon 3,5% 
 
 Rio Madeira . . 2,300 
 
 I ''I I' I I ' I O O1 1 
 
 j annul ........^,/ii 
 
 Rio de la Plata 1,800 
 
 AMERICA (So.) Cont. 
 
 San Francisco 1,613 
 
 Rio Negro 1,650 
 
 Orinoco 1,600 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Yenisei 3,688 
 
 HoangHo 2,812 
 
 Lena 2,766 
 
 Obi 2,674 
 
 Amur 2,673 
 
 Euphrates 2,005 
 
 Ganges 1,844 
 
 Indus 1,613 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 Murray 3,000 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Volga 2,351 
 
 Danube 1,992 
 
 Ural 1,099 
 
 Don 1,088 
 
 Dnieper 1,020 
 
 Rhine 876 
 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold was so 
 
 called from the extravagance and display at- 
 tendant upon a meeting of Henry VIII. of 
 
 England and Francis I. of France, in June, 
 1530. The kings met in the field near the 
 small town of Ardres, in France, which was 
 owned by England, and the meeting was held 
 by the request of Francis I., who desired to 
 gain the friendship of Henry to aid him in his 
 projects for curbing the power of his great 
 rival, Charles V., of Germany. The cere- 
 monial was under the direction of Cardinal 
 Wolsey, and the nobility of France and Eng- 
 land vied with eacli other in the gorgeous deco- 
 ration of themselves, their banners and tents, 
 and their retinues of followers. 
 
 Historic Minor Political Parties. 
 The minor American parties which have ap- 
 peared and disappeared during the 1 9th century 
 of our national life are the following: Anti- 
 Renters, a New York party which flourished 
 about 1841. They resisted the collection of 
 back rents on the Van llensselaer manor near 
 Albany. They had strength enough to defeat 
 Wright, the regular Democratic candidate for 
 governor of New York. Barn-lurners, New 
 York, 1846, seceders from the Democratic 
 party. They were opposed to slavery exten- 
 sion. Buck-tails, New York, about 1815 ; they 
 supported Madison. Conservatives, New York 
 and some other states, 1837 ; paper money 
 Democrats. Doughfaces, 1820, Northern mem- 
 bers of Congress, who voted in favor of the Mis- 
 souri compromise. Hunkers, New York, a fac- 
 tion of the Democrats favoring the South, the 
 Barn-burners being the other factor. Knon-- 
 Nothings, New York, 1854, opposed to natural- 
 ization of foreigners unless they had been 
 twenty-one years in the country. Loco- Foe os, 
 New York, 1835 ; a branch of the Democratic 
 party. Liberal RepuMicans, 1872 ; Republicans 
 who joined with the Democrats in support of 
 Greeley for president. Temperance, or Pro- 
 hibition, from 1830 down, in many states ; in 
 favor of preventing or restricting the sale of 
 liquors. Woman's Rights, from 1860 down ; 
 those who favored granting to women the right 
 of suffrage. 
 
 Tax 011 Commercial Travelers. The 
 following is a list of places and amount of tax- 
 ation on commercial travelers: Alabama, 
 $15.50 per year; Arizona, $200 per year; 
 Beaufort, S. C., $10 per visit; Bennettsville, 
 S. C., $1 per visit ; Batesburg, S. C., 75 cents 
 per day ; Charleston, S. C., $10 per month ; 
 Cumberland, Md., $1 per day; Delaware, $25 
 per year ; Deadwood, S. D., $5 per week ; Dar- 
 lington, S. C., $1 ; East St. Louis, $2 per 
 day ; Elkton, Md., per cent, on stock carried ; 
 Florida, $25 per year ; Ilartwell, Ga., $5 per 
 trip ; Johnston, S. C., 50 cents per day ; Lewis- 
 town, Idaho, $5 per trip; Montana, $100 per 
 year for each county; Memphis, Tenn., $1Q
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND 
 
 617 
 
 per week or 825 per month ; Mobile, Ala., $3 
 per day or 7 a week ; Natchez, Miss., 25 cents 
 per day; New Orleans, La., $50 per year; 
 Newport, Ky., 81 per month ; North Carolina, 
 $100 per year; Nevada, $100 per year ; Orange- 
 burg, S. C., 82 per day; St. Matthews, S. C., 
 81 per day ; San Francisco, Cal., 825 per 
 quarter; Texas, 835 a year ; Tucson, Arizona, 
 850 per quarter ; Tombstone, Arizona, 810 per 
 day ; Virginia, 875 per year ; Wilmington, 
 N. C., 83 per day; Washington, D. C., 8200 
 per year ; AValhalla, S. C., 81 per day. 
 
 Kelative Value of Different Foods 
 for Stock. One hundred pounds of good 
 hay for stock are equal to : 
 
 Articles. Pounds. 
 Beets, white silesia 669 
 Turnips 469 
 
 Articles. Pounds. 
 Lucerne 89 
 
 Clover, red, dry 8 
 
 Rve straw 429 
 
 Buckwheat 78 1 /* 
 
 Clover, red, green 373 
 Carrots 371 
 
 Corn 62% 
 
 Oats 59 
 
 Mangolds 368% 
 
 Barley 58 
 
 Potatoes, kept in pit. .350 
 Oat straw . . . .317 
 
 Rye./. 53% 
 
 Wheat 44%" 
 
 Potatoes 360 
 
 Oil-cake, linseed 43 
 
 Carrot leaves (tops) . . . 135 
 Hav English 100 
 
 Pease, dry 37% 
 
 Beans .. ...28 
 
 Colored Troops in U. S. Army during 
 the War. 
 
 Arkansas. . C.526 ' Maine 104 
 
 Alabama 4.969 
 
 New Hampshire 125 
 New York . ... 4,125 
 
 
 Colorado Territory.. 95 
 Delaware 954 
 
 New Jersey 1,185 
 
 North Carolina 5,035 
 Ohio 5,092 
 
 Dist. of Columbia. . 3.26.) 
 Florida 1,0447 
 
 Pennsylvania . 8,612 
 
 Georgia 3,486 
 
 Rh ode" Island 1 ,837 
 Sou th Carolina 5,462 
 Texas 47 
 
 Iowa 440 
 
 
 Illinois 1,811 
 
 Tennessee 20,133 
 
 Kansas 2,080 
 
 Vermont . .. 120 
 
 Kentucky 23703 
 
 Virginia 5,723 
 
 Louisiana. . . 24,052 
 
 West Virginia 196 
 Wisconsin 155 
 
 Maryland 8,718 
 
 Massachusetts 3,966 
 Michigan 1,387 
 
 At large 733 
 Not accounted for . . 5,083 
 Officers 7,122 
 
 Mississippi . . . . 17 869 
 
 Missouri 8,344 
 
 Total... . 18ti.ni 7 
 
 Minnesota 104 
 
 Amount of Oil in Seeds. 
 
 Kinds of Seed. Percent. Oil. Kinds of Seed. Percent. Oil. 
 Rape seed . ..55 flats fii/. 
 
 Sweet almond 47 
 
 Clover ha v 5 
 
 Turnip seed 45 
 
 Wheat bran 4 
 
 White mustard .. . 37 
 
 Oa t s tra w 4 
 
 Bitter almond 37 
 
 Meadow hay 3% 
 Wheat straw 3 
 
 
 Wheat flour 3 
 
 Indian corn... .. 7 
 
 Barley... ...2% 
 
 Acetylene. A substance composed of car- 
 bon and hydrogen and of remarkable powers. 
 It is produced in large quantities from carbide 
 of calcium, a product of the electric furnace. 
 When water is thrown on this substance it 
 gives off acetylene gas. It was found about 
 1895, that this gas, when burned in a suit- 
 able burner, would give the brightest light of 
 any known gas. When placed under strong 
 pressure acetylene becomes a liquid. 
 
 About Ships. SPEED AND DISTANCE. 
 The rapidity with which a rapid sailing 
 
 propelling steamer travels is ascertained by the 
 number of revolutions or movements made per 
 minute in certain portions of the machinery. 
 It is also learned by the dropping of an object 
 attached to a line into the water at the side of 
 the stern of the vessel, which, remaining nearly 
 station ary, allows the operator to know the 
 speed by the number of knots which the line 
 runs out in a certain number of seconds. The 
 drop line, called the log line, contains a small 
 string tied into a knot at a distance of every 
 47 feet and 3 inches ; hence the name " knot." 
 
 STEAMSHIP NAMES. The bow is the ex- 
 treme forward part of the ship. The stern is 
 the after part. Forward is the forepart of the 
 vessel. Aft is the rear part. Amidships is 
 the central part of the vessel. Starboard is 
 the right side of the ship, looking forward. 
 Port, the left side. The Index Guide gives 
 the following description of sails, namely : 
 The masts are the fore mast, main mast, 
 and mizzen mast. The parts of the masts are 
 the fore mast, fore-top mast, fore-topgallant 
 mast, fore-royal mast, and similarly for the 
 other masts ; thus, main mast, main-top mast, 
 mizzen-top mast, etc. Booms are round, 
 heavy wooden spars to which the sails are at- 
 tached the jib-boom extending from the 
 bowsprit, the flying jib-boom being attached 
 to, but extending beyond, the jib-boom. The 
 main and mizzen booms are attached to the 
 main and mizzen masts, the spanker boom ex- 
 tends aft from the mizzen mast. Yards are 
 strong, horizontal, wooden spars, extending 
 crosswise the ship, to which the sails are at- 
 tached along up the masts. The principal 
 sails are the jib and flying jib, long triangular 
 sails extending from the fore-mast to the jib- 
 booms, and along the masts upward from the 
 deck to the try-sail, the fore-course or fore- 
 sail, or fore-top sail, fore-topgallant sail, fore- 
 royal sail, fore-sky sail, and similarly for each 
 of the other masts; thus, main try-sail, main 
 sail, main top-sail, mizzen top-sail, etc., and 
 spanker, the sternmost sail, extending from the 
 spanker boom to the gaff. The ensign or ship's 
 colors are attached to the gaff. Shrouds are 
 the ropes used to sustain the masts and extend 
 from the fore-top to the sides of the ship (the 
 rope ladders). The other ropes used as sup- 
 ports to the masts are designated stays, and 
 are named from that part of the mast to which 
 they are attached, as fore-stay, mizzen-stay, 
 fore royal-stay, mizzen-topgallant-stay, etc. 
 The jib-boom, flying jib-boom, and several of 
 the sails here mentioned, are not required and 
 are not used on the large modern steamers. 
 
 Hero and Leander. Hero was a priest- 
 ess of Venus. Leander was a youth of Abydos, 
 a famous city on the Asiatic side of the strait
 
 618 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 of the Hellespont, nearly opposite the city 
 Sestos, on the European coast. At a festival 
 of Venus and Adonis, held at Sestos, Hero and 
 Leander first saw each other, and were immedi- 
 ately inspired with a mutual passion ; but 
 Hero's office as a priestess and the opposition 
 of her parents stood in the way of their union. 
 Undaunted by these obstacles, Leander every 
 night swam across the Hellespont to visit his 
 beloved, who directed his course by holding a 
 burning torch from the top of a tower on the 
 seashore. After many meetings Leander was 
 drowned on a tempestuous night, and his body 
 was cast up at the foot of the tower where 
 Hero stood expecting him. Heartbroken at 
 the sight, she flung herself from the tower 
 into the sea, and passed with her lover into the 
 immortality of art and song. 
 
 Popular ISames of Cities. The nick- 
 names given to the various prominent cities in 
 the United States are as follows : Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., City of Churches; Boston, Hub of the 
 Universe; Baltimore, Monumental City ; Buf- 
 falo, Queen City of the Lakes ; Chicago, Gar- 
 den City; Cincinnati, Queen City; Cleveland, 
 Forest City ; Detroit, City of the Straits ; 
 Hannibal, Bluff City ; Indianapolis, Railroad 
 City; Keokuk, Gate City; Louisville, Falls 
 City ; Lowell, City of Spindles ; New York, 
 Gotham, Empire City; New Orleans, Crescent 
 City ; Nashville, City of Rocks ; New Haven, 
 City of Elms ; Philadelphia, Quaker City, 
 City of Brotherly Love ; Pittsburg, Iron City ; 
 Portland, Me., Forest City; Rochester, Flour 
 City ; St. Louis, Mound City ; Springfield, 111., 
 Flower City; Washington, D. C., City of 
 Magnificent Distances. 
 
 Principal Exports of Various Coun- 
 tries. ARABIA. Coffee, aloes, myrrh, 
 frankincense, gum arable. 
 
 BELGIUM. Grain, flax, hops, woolens, lin- 
 ens, laces, various manufactures. 
 
 BRAZIL. Cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, 
 gold, diamonds, wheat, and dye-goods. 
 
 CANADA, NOVA SCOTIA, AND NEW BRUNS- 
 WICK. Flour, furs, lumber, fish. 
 
 CAPE COLONY. Brandy, wine, ostrich 
 feathers, hides, tallow. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. Logwood, mahogany, 
 indigo, cocoa. 
 
 CHILE. Silver, gold, copper, wheat, hemp, 
 hides, sugar, cotton, fruits. 
 
 CHINA. -Tea, silks, nankeens, porcelain, 
 opium, articles of ivory and pearl. 
 
 DENMARK. Grain, horses, cattle, beef, 
 pork, butter, cheese. 
 
 EASTERN, WESTERN, AND SOUTHERN 
 AFRICA. Gold, ivory, ostrich feathers. 
 
 EGYPT. Rice, grain, linseed, fruits, in- 
 digo, cotton, sugar. 
 
 ECUADOR AND COLOMBIA Coffee, cotton, 
 indigo, cocoa, fruits, sugar. 
 
 FRANCE. Silks, woolens, linens, cotton, 
 wine, brandy, porcelain, toys. 
 
 (ii-.KMANY. Linen, grain, various manu- 
 factures of silver, copper, etc. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. Woolens, cottons, linens, 
 hardware, porcelain, etc. 
 
 GREENLAND Whale oil, whalebone, seal 
 skins. 
 
 HINDOOSTAN. Cotton, silks, rice, sugar, 
 coffee, opium, indigo. 
 
 HOLLAND* Fine linens, woolens, butter, 
 cheese, various manufactures. 
 
 ITALY. Silks, wine, oil, grain, fruits. 
 
 IRELAND. Linens, beef, butter, tallow, 
 hides, potatoes, barley. 
 
 JAPAX Silk and cotton goods, japanware, 
 porcelai n . 
 
 MEXICO. Gold, silver, logwood, cochineal, 
 fruits. 
 
 PERSIA. Carpets, shawls, wine, silk, cot- 
 ton, rice, rhubarb, guns, swords, etc. 
 
 PERU Silver, gold, Peruvian bark, mer- 
 cury, sugar, cotton, fruits. 
 
 RUSSIA. Hemp, iron, linen, grain, timber, 
 furs, tallow, platina. 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. Silks, wool, wine, 
 oil, fruits, salt. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY Iron, steel, cop- 
 per, timber, fish. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. Watches, jewelry, paper, 
 laces, linen, cotton, and silk goods, etc. 
 
 TURKEY. Grain, fruits, cotton, oil, wines, 
 carpets, muslin, swords. 
 
 UNITED STATES : 
 
 EASTERN STATES. Lumber, beef, pork, 
 
 fish, cottons, woolens, etc. 
 
 MIDDLE STATES. Flour, wheat, salt, coal, 
 
 cottons, woolens. 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES. Cotton, rice, to- 
 bacco, corn, lumber, pitch, fruits. 
 
 WESTERN STATES. Corn, wheat, lead, 
 
 coal, iron, salt, lime, beef, pork. 
 
 VENEZUELA Sugar, coffee, cocoa, cotton, 
 indigo, fruits. 
 
 WEST INDIES. Sugar, rum, molasses, cof- 
 fee, spice, cotton, indigo, fruits. 
 
 AVhat Dynamite is and How it is 
 Made. Few people know what dynamite is, 
 though the word is in common use. It is a 
 giant gunpowder ; that is, an explosive mate- 
 rial, varying in strength and safety of han- 
 dling according to the percentage of nitro-glyc- 
 erine it contains. Nitro-glycerine, wheuice it 
 derives its strength, is composed of ordinary 
 glycerine and nitric acid, compounded together 
 in certain proportions and at a certain temper- 
 ature. Nitro-glycerine, though not the strong- 
 est explosive known, being exceeded in power
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 019 
 
 by nitrogen and other products of chemistry, 
 is thus far the most terrible explosive manu- 
 factured to any extent. Nitro-glycerine by 
 itself is not safe to handle, hence dynamite is 
 preferred. It is extensively made and consumed 
 in the United States under the various names of 
 Giant, Hercules, Jupiter, and Atlas powders, 
 all of which contain anywhere from thirty to 
 eighty per cent, of nitro-glycerine, the residue 
 of the compound being made up of rotten 
 stone, non-explosive earth, sawdust, charcoal, 
 plaster of paris, black powder, or some other 
 substance that takes up the glycerine and 
 makes a porous, spongy mass. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine was discovered by Salvero, 
 an Italian chemist, in 1845. Dynamite is pre- 
 pared by simply kneading with the naked 
 hands twenty-five per cent, of infusorial earth 
 and seventy-five per cent, of nitro-glycerine 
 until the mixture assumes a putty condition, 
 not unlike moist brown sugar. Before mix- 
 ing, the infusorial earth is calcined in a fur- 
 nace, in order to burn out all organic matter, 
 and it is also sifted to free it of large grains. 
 While still moist it is squeezed into cartridges, 
 which are prepared of parchment paper, and 
 the firing is done by fulminate of silver in cop- 
 per capsules provided with patent exploders. 
 
 Nitro-glycerine is made of nitric acid one 
 part and sulphuric acid two parts, to which is 
 added ordinary glycerine, and the mixture is 
 well washed with pure water. The infusion 
 is composed of small microscopic silicious 
 shells which have lost their living creatures. 
 The cellular parts receive the nitro-glycerine 
 and hold it by capillary attraction, both in- 
 side and out. The earth is very light. Water 
 is expelled from it by means of a furnace, and 
 then, in the form of a powder, it is mixed 
 with nitro-glycerine. Nitro-glycerine has a 
 sw r eet, aromatic, pflngent taste, and the pecul- 
 iar property of causing a violent headache 
 when placed in a small quantity on the tongue 
 or wrist. It freezes at 40 degrees Fahrenheit, 
 becoming a white, half crystallized mass, which 
 must be melted by the application of water at 
 a temperature about 100 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Confederate Soldiers Surrendered 
 at end of War. Army of Northern Virginia, 
 27,805; army of Tennessee, 31,243 ; army of 
 Missouri, 7,978 ; army of Alabama, 42,293 ; 
 army of Trans-Mississippi, 17,686 ; at Nash- 
 ville and Chattanooga, 5,029 ; paroled in De- 
 partments of Virginia, Cumberland, Maryland, 
 Alabama, Florida, Tennessee, Texas, etc., 42,- 
 189; Confederate prisoners in Northern pris- 
 ons at the close of the war, 98.802 ; total Con- 
 federate army at close, 273,025. A large and 
 unknown number of Confederate soldiers were 
 not present at surrender. 
 
 Costly Mansion. The largest and cost- 
 liest private mansion in the world is that be- 
 longing to Lord Bute, called Montstuart, and 
 situated near Rothesay, England. It covers 
 nearly two acres ; is built in Gothic style ; the 
 walls, turrets, and balconies are built of stone. 
 The immense tower in the center of the build- 
 ing is 120 feet high, with a balcony around 
 the top. The halls are constructed entirely of 
 marble and alabaster, and the rooms are fin- 
 ished in mahogany, rosewood, and walnut. 
 The fireplaces are all carved marbles of antique 
 designs. The exact cost of this fairy palace is 
 not known, but it has never been estimated at 
 less than $8,000,000. 
 
 Age and Growth of Trees. An oak 
 tree in three years grows 2 feet 10^ inches. 
 A larch 3 feet 7 inches ; at seventy years it 
 is full grown, and a tree of seventy-nine years 
 was 102 feet, high and 12 feet girth, contain- 
 ing 253 cubic feet. Another of eighty years 
 was 90 feet and 17 feet, and 300 cubic feet. 
 An elm tree in three years grows 8 feet 3 
 inches. A beech, 1 foot 8 inches. A poplar, 
 6 feet. A willow, 9 feet 3 inches. An elm 
 is fully grown in 150 years, and it lives 500 or 
 600. Ash is full grown in 100, and oak in 
 200. The mahogany is full grown in 200 years 
 to a vast size. A Polish oak 40 feet round had 
 600 circles. An oak in Dorsetshire in 1755 
 was 08 feet round, two near Cranborne Lodge 
 are 38 feet and 36 feet. There are yews from 
 10 to 20 feet in diameter, whose age is from 
 1,000 to 2,000 years. A lime in the Crisons 
 is 51 feet round and about 600 years old. An 
 elm in the Pays de Vaud is 18 feet in diam- 
 eter and 360 years old. The African baobab 
 is the patriarch of living organizations ; one 
 specimen, by its circles, is estimated at 5,700 
 years old by Adamson and Humboldt. The 
 trunk is but 12 or 15 feet to the branches, and 
 often 75 feet round. A cypress in Mexico is 
 120 feet round, and is estimated by De Can- 
 dolle to be older than Adamson's baobab. The 
 cypress of Montezuma is 41 feetround. Strabo 
 wrote of a cypress in Persia as being 2,500 
 years old. The largest tree in Mexico is 127 
 feet round and 120 high, with branches of 
 30 feet. A chestnut tree on Mount Etna is 106 
 feet round close to the ground, and five of its 
 branches resemble great trees. De Candolle says 
 there are oaks in France 1 ,500 years old. The 
 Wallace oak near Paisley is nearly 800 years 
 old. The yew trees at Fountain's Abbey are 
 about 1,200 years old. That at Crowhurst 
 i 1,500. That at Fortingal, above2,000. That 
 I at Braburn, 2,500 to 3,000. Ivies reach 500 or 
 600 years. The larch the same. The lime 600 
 ! or 700 years. The trunk of a walnut tree 12 
 feet in diameter, hollowed out, and furnished
 
 620 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 as a sitting room, was imported from America 
 and exhibited in London. The trunk was 80 
 feet high without a branch, and the entire 
 height 150 feet, the bark 12 inches thick, and 
 the branches from 3 to 4 feet in diameter. 
 The California pine is from 150 to 200 feet 
 high, and from 20 to 60 feet in diameter. The 
 forests in watered, tropical countries are formed 
 of trees from 100 to 200 feet high, which grow 
 to the water's edge of rivers, presenting a solid 
 and impenetrable barrier of trunks 10 or 
 12 feet in diameter. The dragon tree is in girth 
 from 40 to 100 feet, and 50 or 60 feet high, 
 and a mimosa in South America is described 
 whose head is 600 feet round. 
 
 Mount Etna and Its Eruptions. 
 Mount Etna is a volcano of Sicily, and has 
 been active from the earliest times. The an- 
 cients had a fable that beneath the mountain 
 was buried a mighty giant, Enceladus, whom 
 Jove had hurled from heaven for rebellion, and 
 pinned to earth by tossing a mountain upon 
 him. The flames were the breath of the im- 
 prisoned monster, the loud noises his groans, 
 and earthquakes were caused by his efforts to 
 turn over his enormous body. The first re- 
 corded eruption of Etna occurred before the 
 supposed date of the Trojan war, but its ex- 
 act time is not known. Thucydides, the his- 
 torian, next records three eruptions one in 
 the year 475 B. C., one in 425, and the third 
 at an earlier date not specified. Since those 
 there have been, down to the present time, 
 seventy-eight outbreaks, many of them harm- 
 less. Among the most remarkable of the 
 great eruptions were that of 1169 A. D., when 
 Catania and 15,000 of its inhabitants were 
 destroyed ; that of 1527, in which two villages 
 were destroyed and many human beings per- 
 ished ; and two eruptions of 1669, in which 15 
 villages were destroyed. Many fissures in the 
 earth were made at this time one twelve miles 
 long, which emitted a most vivid light. After- 
 ward five other fissures opened, from which 
 came smoke and loud noises. The city of 
 Catania, at the foot of the mountain, had 
 built a wall sixty feet high on that side to pro- 
 tect it, but the lava rose until it overflowed the 
 wall and poured a current of liquid fire into 
 the houses. This current flowed onward until 
 it reached the sea, 15 miles distant. It was 
 600 yards wide and 40 feet deep. Entering 
 the sea, the water was thrown into violent 
 commotion, the noise of its agitation was as 
 loud as thunder, and clouds of steam darkened 
 the air for many hours. The eruption of 1755 
 was remarkable for an inundation caused by 
 the flow of the hot lava over the snow that 
 covered the mountain. It was imagined at the 
 time that the water was thrown out of the 
 
 crater. A great eruption took place in 1852, 
 immense clouds of ashes being ejected. From 
 two new openings on the east vast torrents of 
 lava poured out, -one of whicli was two miles 
 broad, and in part of its course 170 feet deep. 
 The outbreak of May, 1879, was violent, the 
 clouds of smoke and showers of ashes being 
 followed by the ejection of a stream of lava 
 200 feet wide, which desolated large tracts of 
 cultivated land. There were also eruptions in 
 1883 and 1886, but both subsided before any 
 great damage had been caused. Mount Etna 
 is now 10,868 feet high. It is known that 
 frequent eruptions have broken off large parts 
 of the upper portion of the mountain. Its 
 surface is divided into three distinct regions. 
 The lowest is that of fertile land, producing 
 fruit and grain, which extends 2,000 feet from 
 the base up the mountain side, with a circum- 
 ference of 92 miles. Above this is a strip 
 nearly 4,300 feet wide, covered with large 
 forests, above which to the mountain top there 
 is only a dreary waste of ashes and hardened 
 lava. In spite of its tragic history, the sides 
 of the mountain have a population of over 
 300,000 people in 63 small villages and 2 large 
 cities. 
 
 Postage Stamps, Language of. Of 
 late years the postage stamp has been in- 
 vested with a language of its own. When a 
 stamp is inverted on the right-hand upper cor- 
 ner, it means the person written to is to write 
 no more. If the stamp be placed on the left- 
 i hand upper corner, inverted, then the writer 
 declares his affection for the receiver of the 
 letter. When the stamp is in the center at the 
 top it signifies an affirmative answer to a ques- 
 j tion or the questions, as the case may be ; and 
 ! when it is at the bottom, it is a negative. 
 Should the stamp be on the right-hand corner, 
 at a right angle, it asks the question if the re- 
 ceiver of the letter loves the sender ; while in 
 the left-hand corner means that the writer 
 hates the other. There is a shade of difference 
 between desiring one's acquaintance and friend- 
 ship. For example: the stamp at the upper 
 corner at the right expresses the former, and on 
 | the lower left-hand corner means the latter. 
 | The stamp on a line with the surname is an 
 I offer of love ; in the same place, only reversed, 
 signifies that the writer is engaged. To sav 
 farewell, the stamp is placed straight up and 
 down in the left-hand corner. 
 
 Fabian. Policy. The policy of wearing 
 out the enemy in war by delays, misleading 
 movements, feints of attack, etc., while avoid- 
 ing open battle, is called the ' ' Fabian policy ' ' 
 from the following circumstance : Fabius Max- 
 imus was a Roman General in the second Pu- 
 nic War. Having been appointed just after
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 621 
 
 the Roman army had suffered severe defeat at 
 Lake Thrasymene, he perceived that his dis- 
 heartened troops and bands of raw recruits 
 could not oppose successfully a trained army 
 flushed with victory and led by their great 
 commander Hannibal. He therefore avoided 
 pitched battles, moved his camp from highland 
 to highland, and tired out the enemy with 
 . marches and counter-marches. This he con- 
 tinued until thwarted in his calculations by 
 the impatience of the Roman Senate. 
 
 Character l.y the Month. Here is an 
 old astrological prediction, said to indicate, 
 with tolerable certainty, the character of the 
 girl according to the month she happens to be 
 bora in. 
 
 If a girl is born in January, she will be a 
 prudent housewife, given to melancholy, but 
 good-tempered. 
 
 If in February, a humane and affectionate 
 wife and tender mother. 
 
 If in March, a frivolous chatterbox, some- 
 what given to quarreling. 
 
 If in April, inconstant, not intelligent, but 
 likely to be good-looking. 
 
 If in May, handsome and likely to be happy. 
 
 If in June, impetuous, will marry early, and 
 be frivolous. 
 
 If in July, passably handsome, but with a 
 sulky temper. 
 
 If in August, amiable and practical, and 
 likely to many rich. 
 
 If in September, discreet, affable, and much 
 liked. 
 
 If in October, pretty and coquettish, and 
 likely to be unhappy. 
 
 If in November, liberal, kind, of a mild dis- 
 position. 
 
 If in December, well proportioned, fond of 
 novelty, and extravagant. 
 
 The World's Principal Tin Mines. 
 Pure tin is an elementary metal, as much so 
 as lead, iron, silver, or gold. The principal 
 tin-producing country is England. The Phoeni- 
 cians traded with England for tin 1,100 years 
 before the Christian era. There is reason to 
 believe that they got tin from Spain also ; but 
 England was depended on for nearly all the 
 tin used in Europe until this ore was discovered 
 in Germany in 1240. It was discovered in 
 Northern Africa in the Barbary States in 
 1640, in India in 1740, in Xew Spain in 1782. 
 Tin was mined in Mexico before the Spanish 
 conquest, and used in T shaped pieces for 
 money, and in a bronze composition for sharp 
 tools, the principal mines being at Tasco. 
 Peru has valuable mines of this metal, so have 
 New South Wales, Australia, and Banca, and 
 Malacca in the Malay peninsula. Tin has been 
 discovered in Pennsylvania, Missouri, Califor- 
 
 nia, Dakota, and other states of the Union, but 
 not in quantities to tempt capital to engage in 
 mining it, Avith the exception of Dakota, where 
 the Illinois Steel Mill Company has large in- 
 terests. The chief tin-producing countries are 
 the following, arranged in the order of im- 
 portance : England, about 10,000 tons a year ; 
 Malacca, about 8,500 tons ; Australia, about 
 6,000 tons; Banca, about 4,000 tons; and 
 Billiton, about 3,000 tons. Both of these last 
 named places are islands of the Dutch East 
 Indies. 
 
 St. Valentine's Day. The custom of 
 sending valentines .can, without doubt, be 
 traced, in origin, to a practice among the an- 
 cient Romans. At the feast of the Lupercalia, 
 which was held on the 15th of February, in 
 honor of the great god Pan, the names of all 
 the virgin daughters of Rome were put in a 
 box and drawn therefrom by the young men, 
 and each youth was bound to offer a gift to the 
 maiden who fell to his lot, and to make her 
 his partner during the time of the feast. This 
 custom became allied to the name of St. Val- 
 entine, probably, only through a coincidence 
 in dates. St. Valentine was a bishop of Rome 
 during the third century. He was of most 
 amiable nature, and possessed remarkable gifts 
 of eloquence, and was so very successful in con- 
 verting the pagan Romans to Christianity that 
 he incurred the displeasure of the Emperor, 
 and was martyred by his order February 1 4 , 
 A. D. 270. When the saint came to be placed 
 in the calendar, his name was given to the day 
 of his death, and this was made a festival, to 
 offset that of the Lupercalia, and an effort was 
 made to substitute the names of saints for those 
 of girls in the lottery, but naturally without 
 success. Many other customs of media?val and 
 later times, which have become allied in name 
 to a holy saint of the church, are unquestion- 
 ably of purely secular, even pagan, origin. 
 
 Royal Household. In all mediaeval 
 monarchies of western Europe the -general 
 system of government sprang from, and cen- 
 tered in, the royal household. The sovereign's 
 domestics were his officers of state, and the 
 leading dignitaries of the palace were the 
 principal administrators of the kingdom. The 
 royal household itself had, in its turn, grown 
 out of an earlier and more primitive institu- 
 tion . It took its rise in the comitatus, described 
 by Tacitus, the chosen band of comites or com- 
 panions who, when the Roman historian wrote, 
 constituted the personal following, in peace as 
 well as in war, of the Teutonic princeps or 
 chieftain. In England before the conquest the 
 comites were called thegns. After the conquest 
 the most powerful of the king's thegns became 
 officers of the royal household by heredity.
 
 622 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OP FACTS. 
 
 The Stage. 
 
 BIRTHPLACES AND BIRTH YEARS OF DRAMATIC AND MUSICAL PEOPLE. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Adams, Maude 
 
 Albani, Kmraa 
 
 Aldrich, Louis 
 
 Alexander, George.. 
 
 Anderson, Mary 
 
 Archer, Belle . . " 
 
 Arditi, Luigi 
 
 Arthur, Julia 
 
 Bancroft, Sir S. 13 
 
 Bancroft, Lady 
 
 Bandmann, Daniel E.. . 
 
 Bangs, Frank C 
 
 Barnabee, H. C 
 
 Barrett, Wilson 
 
 Barren, Charles 
 
 Barrymore, Maurice 
 
 Bateman, Isabel 
 
 3ateman, Kate 
 
 Belasco, David 
 
 Bell.Digby 
 
 Bellew, Kyrle 
 
 Bernhardt, Sarah 
 
 Bispham, David 
 
 Boniface, George C 
 
 Booth, Agnes 
 
 Buchanan, Virginia 
 
 Burgess, Neil 
 
 Burroughs, Marie 
 
 Byron, Oliver Doud 
 
 Calve, Emma 
 
 Cameron, Beatrice 
 
 Campbell, Mrs. Patrick. 
 
 Carey, Eleanor 
 
 Cayvan, Georgia 
 
 Ch'anf rau, Mrs. F. S 
 
 Clarke, George 
 
 Clarke, John S 
 
 Claxton, Kate 
 
 Cody, William F 
 
 Coghlan, Rose 
 
 Coquelin, Berioit C 
 
 Crab tree, Lotta 
 
 Crane, William H 
 
 Daly, Augustin 
 
 Daly, Dan 
 
 Damrosch, Walter J 
 
 Daniels, Frank 
 
 D'Arville, Camille 
 
 De Belleville, Frederic.. 
 
 De Merode, Cleo 
 
 De Reszke, Edouard 
 
 De Reszke, Jean 
 
 De Wolfe, Elsie 
 
 Dickinson, Anna 
 
 Dixey , Henry E 
 
 Drew, .John 
 
 Duse, Eleanora 
 
 Eames, Emma Hayden . . 
 
 Earle, Virginia. 
 
 Ellsler, Effie 
 
 Ey tinge, Rose , 
 
 Fawcett, Owen 
 
 Florence, Mrs. W. J. . . . 
 
 Fox, Delia 
 
 Frohman , Charjes 
 
 Frohman, Daniel 
 
 Germon, Eftie 
 
 Gerster, Etelka 
 
 Gilbert, Mrs. G. H 
 
 Gillette, William 
 
 Goodwin, Nat C 
 
 Hackett, James K 
 
 Hading, Jane 
 
 Hammerstein, Oscar 
 
 Harned, Virginia 
 
 Harr,igan, Edward 
 
 Harrison, Maud 
 
 Hauk, Minnie 
 
 Haworth, Joseph S 
 
 Held, Anna.. 
 
 Herbert, Victor 
 
 Heron, Bijou 
 
 Hill, Charles Barton.... 
 Hillimrd, Roberts 
 
 BIRTHPLACE. 
 
 Born. 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 1872 
 
 Chambly. Canada 1851 
 
 Mid-ocean 1843 
 
 Reading, England 1838 
 
 Sacramento, Cal 1859 
 
 Kaston, Pa I860 
 
 Piedmont, Italy 1822 
 
 Canada " 1869 
 
 England 1841 
 
 England 18iO 
 
 Cassel, Germ:i ny 1839 
 
 Alexandria, Va 1836 
 
 Portsmouth, N. Y 1833 
 
 Essex, England 1846 
 
 Boston, Mass 1 841 
 
 India 1847 
 
 Cincinnati, 1854 
 
 Baltimore, Md is4'J 
 
 San Francisco ! 1862 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis > 1851 
 
 London i . 1845 
 
 Paris j 1844 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 1857 
 
 1832 
 1843 
 1846 
 1846 
 1866 
 1847 
 1864 
 1868 
 1864 
 1852 
 1858 
 1837 
 1840 
 1835 
 1848 
 1845 
 1853 
 1841 
 1847 
 1845 
 1838 
 1863 
 1862 
 1860 
 1863 
 1853 
 1874 
 1855 
 1850 
 1865 
 1842 
 1859 
 1853 
 1861 
 1868 
 1ST.'! 
 1858 
 1837 
 1838 
 1846 
 1871 
 1858 
 1850 
 1845 
 1857 
 1820 
 1853 
 1857 
 186!) 
 1861 
 1847 
 18(18 
 1845 
 1868 
 1853 
 1855 
 1873 
 
 NAMK. 
 
 Holland, E. M 
 
 Hopper, De Wolf 
 
 Hoyt, Charles H 
 
 Irving, Isabel 
 
 Irving, Sir Henry 
 
 Irwin, May 
 
 James, Louis 
 
 Janauschek, Francesca. 
 Jefferson, Joseph 
 
 BIRTHPLACE. 
 
 New York city 
 
 New York city 
 
 Concord, N. H 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn 
 
 Keinton, England 
 
 Toronto, Canada 
 
 Tremont, 111 
 
 Prague, Austria 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Born. 
 
 New York city 
 
 Australia 
 
 Cincinnati, O 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 Aveyron, France 
 
 Troy; N.Y 
 
 London 
 
 Chile, S. A 
 
 Bath, Me 
 
 Philadelpia, Pa 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 New York city 
 
 Scott County, Iowa 
 
 Peterboro, England. . . . 
 
 Boulogne, France 
 
 New York city 
 
 Leicester, Ma'ss 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Breslau, Prussia 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Paris 
 
 Warsaw, Poland 
 
 Warsaw, Poland 
 
 New York city 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Vigevano, Italy 
 
 Shanghai, China 
 
 New York citv 
 
 Philadelphia, 'Pa 
 
 Philadelphia. Pa 
 
 London, England 
 
 New York city 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Sandusky, O 
 
 Sandusky, O 
 
 Augusta, Ga 
 
 Kaschau, Hungary 
 
 Rochdale, England 
 
 Hartford, Ct 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Canada 
 
 Marseilles, France 
 
 Berlin, Germany. 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 New York city 
 
 England : 
 
 New Orleans. La 
 
 Providence, R. I 
 
 Paris 
 
 Dublin, Ireland I860 
 
 New York city 1803 
 
 Dover, England 1828 
 
 Brooklyn 180 
 
 Jones, Walter Springfield, O 
 
 Karl, Tom Dublin, Ireland 
 
 Kendal, Mrs. W. II Lincolnshire, England. . 
 
 Keeley, Mrs. Robert I pswich, England 
 
 Kelcey, Herbert H. L. . . London, England 
 
 Kellogg, Clara Louise... Sumpterville, S. C 
 
 Knowles, Edwin II Rhode Island 
 
 Kopacsy, Julie Hungary 
 
 Langtry, Lily St. Helens, Jersey (Eng.i 
 
 Le Moyne, W. J Boston, Mass ". . ' 
 
 Maddern, Minnie New Orleans, La 
 
 Maude, Cyril London 
 
 Mansfield, Richard Heligoland, Germany. . . 
 
 Man tell, Robert B Ayrshire, Scotland 
 
 Marlowe, Julia Caldbeck, England 
 
 Martinot, Sadie Yonkers, N. Y 
 
 Melba, Nellie Melbourne 
 
 Mitchell, Maggie ;New York city 
 
 iModjeska, Helena \ Cracow, Poland 
 
 iMordaunt, Frank Burlington, Vt 
 
 i (Morgan, Edward J Barnes, Surrey, Eng 
 
 Morris, Clara Cleveland, O 
 
 Mounet-Sully France 
 
 Murphy, Joseph Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 Nevada, Emma San Francisco, Cal 
 
 Nilsson, Christine Wederslof , Sweden 
 
 Nordica, Lillian Fannington, Me 
 
 Olcott, Chauncey Providence, R. I 
 
 O'Neil, James ' Ireland 
 
 Paderewski, Ignace J. . . Poland 
 
 Palmer, A. M North Stonington, Ct... 
 
 Pastor, Tony New York city 
 
 Patti, Adeliha Madrid 
 
 Plympton, Eben Boston, Mass 
 
 Ponisi, Madame Huddersfield, England.. 
 
 Powers, James T.. \ New York city 
 
 Itankin, A. McKee Sandwich, Canada 
 
 Reed, Roland. 
 Rehan, Ada. ... 
 Rhea, Madame. 
 Robinson, Frederick 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 Limerick, Ireland. 
 Brussels 
 
 London, England 
 
 Robson, Stuart j Annapolis, Md 
 
 Roze, Marie Paris 
 
 : Russell, Annie New York. city 
 
 j Russell, Lillian Clinton, Iowa 
 
 i Russell, Sol. Smith Brunswick, Mo 
 
 Saleza, Albert Bruges, France 
 
 ISalvini, Tommaso Milan, Italy 
 
 Sanderson, Sibyl \ Sacramento, Cal 
 
 ! Seabrooke, Thomas Q.. . :Mt. Vernon, N. Y 
 
 Sembrich, Marcella jLemberg, Austria 
 
 Skinner, Otis ICambridgeport, Mass.. . 
 
 Smith, Mark Mobile, Ala 
 
 Sorma, Agnes [Germany 
 
 Sothern, Edward H England 
 
 Stanhope, A delaidc Paris, France 
 
 Stanlev, Alma Stuart. . . Jersey, England 
 
 Dublin, Ireland 
 
 Yorkshire, England 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 London 
 
 Plymouth, England 
 
 Coventy, England 
 
 . Girard.'Pa...' 
 
 .'London, England 
 
 . Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 . London. England 
 
 Tree, Beerbohm England 
 
 Van Dyck, Ernest Vntwerp 
 
 Vezln, Hermann Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Walsh, Blanche New York city 
 
 Warde, Frederick.. Wadington, England.. . . 
 
 Wilson, Francis Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Willard, E. S Brighton, England 
 
 Wyndham, Charles England 
 
 Stevenson, Charles A... 
 
 Stoddart, J. H 
 
 Studley, John B 
 
 Sullivan, Sir Arthur... 
 
 Tearle, Osmond 
 
 Terry, Ellen 
 
 Thompson, Deninan 
 
 Thompson, Lydia 
 
 Tlrursby, Einina 
 
 Toole, John L 
 
 1848 
 1862 
 18(10 
 1870 
 1838 
 1862 
 1842 
 1830 
 1829 
 1871 
 1849 
 1849 
 1806 
 1855 
 1842 
 1845 
 1871 
 1852 
 1835 
 1865 
 1862 
 1857 
 1854 
 1865 
 1857 
 1866 
 1832 
 1814 
 1841 
 1871 
 1X4(5 
 1841 
 1839 
 1857 
 1843 
 1858 
 1862 
 1849 
 1860 
 1838 
 1837 
 1848 
 1850 
 1825 
 1862 
 1844 
 1852 
 1860 
 1855 
 1832 
 1836 
 1846 
 1864 
 1860 
 1848 
 1867 
 1830 
 1869 
 1860 
 1858 
 1857 
 1855 
 1865 
 1864 
 1858 
 1860 
 1842 
 1827 
 1883 
 1842 
 1852 
 1848 
 1833 
 1838 
 1857 
 1833 
 1846 
 
 1829 
 1873 
 1851 
 1865 
 1863 
 1841
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 623 
 
 Vaudeville. The name Vaudeville is a 
 corruption of Vaux de A'ire, the name of two 
 picturesque valleys in the Bocage of Normandy, 
 and was originally applied to a song with words 
 relating to some story of the day. These songs 
 were first composed by one Oliver Basselin, a 
 fuller in Vire ; they were very popular, and 
 spread all over France, and were called by the j 
 name of their native place (Les Vaux de Vire). 
 As the origin of the term was soon lost sight 
 of, it at last took its present form. The word 
 is now used to signify a play in which dialogue 
 is interspersed with songs incidentally intro- 
 duced, but forming an important part of the 
 drama. 
 
 The Single Tax. This idea was first 
 formulated by Mr. Henry George, in his book, j 
 "Progress and Poverty," in 1879, and has 
 grown steadily in favor. Single tax men assert, 
 as a fundamental principle, that all men are | 
 equally entitled to the use of the earth ; there- 
 fore, no one should be allowed to hold valuable 
 land without paying to the community the 
 value of the privilege. They hold that this is 
 the only rightful source of public revenue, and 
 they would, therefore, abolish all taxation, 
 local, state, and national, except a tax upon the 
 rental value of land, exclusive of its improve- 
 ments, the revenue thus raised to be divided 
 among local, state, and general governments, 
 as the revenue from certain direct taxes is now 
 divided between local and state governments. 
 
 The single tax would not fall on all land, but 
 only on valuable land, and on that in propor- 
 tion to its value. It would thus be a tax, not 
 on use or improvements, but on ownership of 
 land, taking what would otherwise go to the 
 landlord as owner. 
 
 In accordance with the principle that all 
 men are equally entitled to the use of the earth, 
 they would solve the transportation problem 
 by public ownership, and control of all high- 
 ways, including the roadbeds of railroads, leav- 
 ing their use equally free to all. 
 
 The single tax system would : 
 
 1. Dispense with a horde of taxgatherers, 
 simplify government, and greatly reduce its 
 cost. 
 
 2. Give us with all the world that absolute 
 free trade which now exists between the states 
 of the Union. 
 
 3. Give us free trade in finance by abolish- 
 ing all taxes on private issues of money. 
 
 4. Take the weight of taxation from agri- 
 cultural districts, where land has little or no 
 value apart from improvements, and put it 
 Tipon valuable land, such as city lots and min- 
 eral deposits. 
 
 5. Call upon men to contribute for public 
 expenses in proportion to the natural opportu- 
 
 nities they monopolize, and compel them to pay 
 just as much for holding the land idle as for 
 putting it to its fullest use. 
 
 6. Make it unprofitable for speculators to 
 hold land unused or only partly used, and, by 
 thus opening to labor unlimited fields of em- 
 ployment, solve the labor problem, raise wages 
 in all occupations, and abolish involuntary 
 poverty. 
 
 Printer's Devil. The origin of this 
 term is ascribed to the fact that in the early 
 days of printing the apprentice's duties in- 
 cluded the inking of the forms with bags con- 
 taining ink or besmeared with it. In the 
 performance of this work his face and hands 
 became so daubed with the ink that in appear- 
 ance he suggested the devil. Hence the name. 
 
 Bastille. The famous French prison 
 known by this name was originally the Castle 
 of Paris, and was built by order of Charles V., 
 between 1370 and 1383, as a defense against 
 the English. When it came to be used as a 
 state prison it was provided with vast bulwarks 
 and ditches. The Bastille had four towers, of 
 five stories each, on each of its larger sides, 
 and it was partly in these towers and partly in 
 underground cellars that the prisons were sit- 
 uated. It was capable of containing seventy 
 to eighty prisoners, a number frequently 
 reached during the reigns of Louis XIV. and 
 Louis XV., the majority of them being per- 
 sons of the higher ranks. The Bastille was 
 destroyed by a mob on the 15th of July, 1789, 
 and the governor and a number of his officers 
 were killed. On its site now stands the Column 
 of July, erected in memory of the patriots of 
 1789 and 1830. 
 
 White House Weddings The first 
 wedding to occur in the White House was that 
 of Miss Todd, a relative by marriage of Presi- 
 dent Madison. Then, in their order, came the 
 weddings of Elizabeth Tyler, a daughter of 
 President Tyler ; John Quincy Adams, Jr. ; 
 Miss Easten and Miss Lewis, both during Gen- 
 eral Jackson's administration; Martha Mon- 
 roe ; Nellie Grant ; Emily Platt, a niece of 
 President Hayes; and last, President Cleve- 
 land. 
 
 Dying Sayings of Famous People. 
 
 Addison. "See how a Ckristian dies!" or "See in 
 what peace a Christian can die ! " 
 
 Anaxagoras. " Give the boys a holiday." 
 
 Arria. "MyPaetus, it is not painful." 
 
 Augustus. "" Vos Plaudite." (Alter asking how he 
 had acted his part in life.) 
 
 Beaufort (Cardinal Henry). "I pray you all, pray 
 for me." 
 
 Berry (Mme. de). " Is not this dying with courage 
 and tru'e greatness?" 
 
 Bronte (father of the authoress). " While there is 
 life there is will." (He died standing.) 
 
 Byron. " I must sleep now." 
 
 Ca>snr (Julius). " Et tu, Brute !" (To Brutus, when he 
 stabbed him.)
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Charlemagne. " Lord, into Thy hands I commend 
 my spirit!" 
 
 Charles I. (of England). "Remember." (To William 
 Juxon, Archbishop of Canterbury.) 
 
 Charles II. (of England). "'Don't let poor Nelly 
 starve." (Nell Gwynne.) 
 
 Charles V. "Ah, Jesus ! " 
 
 Charles IX. (of France). "Nurse, nurse, what 
 murder ! what blood ! Oh, I have done wrong. God 
 pardon me." 
 
 Charlotte (the princess). " You make me drink. Pray, 
 leave me quiet. I find it affects my head." 
 
 Chesterfield. " Give Day Rolles a chair." 
 
 Columbus. "Lord, into' Thy hands I commend my 
 spirit!" 
 
 Crome (John). " Oh, Hobbima, Ilobbima, how I do 
 love thee ! " 
 
 Cromwell. " My desire is to make what haste I may 
 to be gone." 
 
 Demonax (the philosopher). " You may go home, the 
 show is over." Lucian. 
 
 Elden (Lord). " It matters not, where I am going, 
 whether the weather be cold or hot." 
 
 Fontenelle. "I suffer nothing, but feel a sort of 
 difficulty in living longer." 
 
 Franklin. " A dying man can do nothing easy." 
 
 Gainsborough. '" We are all going to lieav'en, and 
 Vandyke is of the company." 
 
 George IV. " AVhatty, what is this? It is death, my 
 boy. They have deceived me." (Said to his page, Sir 
 Walthen Waller.) 
 
 Gibbon. " Mon Dieu ! Moil Dieu ! " 
 
 Goethe. " More light ! " 
 
 Gregory VII. "I have loved justice and hated 
 iniquity, therefore I die in exile." 
 
 Grey (Lady Jane). " Lord, into Thy hands I commend 
 my spirit!" 
 
 Grotius. " Be serious." 
 
 Haydn. " God preserve the emperor." 
 
 Hailer. "The artery ceases to beat." 
 
 Hazlitt. " I have led a happy life." 
 
 Hobbes. " Now I am about to take my last voyage 
 a great leap in the dark." 
 
 Hunter (Dr. William). " If I had strength to hold a 
 pen, I would write down how easy and pleasant a thing 
 it is to die." 
 
 Irving. "If I die I die unto the Lord. Amen." 
 
 James V. (of Scotland). "It came with a lass and 
 will go with a lass" (i. e., the Scotch crown). 
 
 Jefferson (of America). " I resign my spirit to God, 
 my daughter to my country." 
 
 Jesus Christ. " It is finished." 
 
 Johnson (Dr.). " God bless you, my dear ! " (To Miss 
 Morris.) 
 
 Knox. " Now it is come." 
 
 Louis I. "Huzihuz!" (Bouquet says, "He turned 
 his face to the wall, and twice cried 'huz! huz!' 
 (out, out> and then died.") 
 
 Louis IX. "I will enter now into the house of the 
 Lord." 
 
 Louis XIV. " Why weep ye? Did you think I 
 should li-'e forever ?" Then, aftera pause, " I thought 
 dying had been harder." 
 
 Lou is XVIII. " A king should die standing." 
 
 Mahomet. " Oh, Allah, be it so ! Henceforth among 
 the glorious' host of paradise." 
 
 Marie Antoinette. " Farewell, my children, forever. 
 I go to your father." 
 
 Mirabeau. " Let me die to the sounds of delicious 
 music." 
 
 Moody (the actor). 
 " Reason thus with life, 
 If I do lose thee, I do lose a thing 
 That none but fools would keep." Shakespeare. 
 
 Moore (Sir John). " I hope my country will do me 
 justice." 
 
 Napoleon III. "Were you at Sedan?" (To Dr. 
 Conneau.) 
 
 Nelson. " I thank God I have done my duty." 
 
 Pitt (William). " Oh, my country, how I love thee ! " 
 
 Pizarro. " Jesu ! " 
 
 Pope. " Friendship itself is but a part of virtue." 
 
 Rabelais. " Let down the curtain, the farce is over." 
 
 Sand (George). " Laissez la verdure." (Leave the 
 tomb green.) 
 
 Schiller. " Many things are growing plain and clear 
 to my understanding." 
 
 Scott (Sir Walter). " God bless you all." (To his 
 family.) 
 
 Socrates. " Crito, we owe a cock to /Esculapius." 
 
 Stael (Mme. de). " I have loved God, my father, and 
 liberty." 
 
 Thiirlow (Lord). " I'll be shot if I don't believe I'm 
 dying." 
 
 William III. (of England). "Can this last long?" 
 (To his physician.) 
 
 Wolfe (General). " What ! do they run already? Then 
 I die happy." 
 
 State Flowers. The following are 
 " State Flowers " as adopted in most instances 
 by the votes of the public school scholars of 
 the respective states : - 
 
 California Colif ornia Poppy 
 
 Colorado Columbine 
 
 Delaware Peach Blossom 
 
 Idaho Syringa 
 
 Indiana Corn 
 
 Iowa Wild Rose 
 
 Maine Pine Cone and Tassel 
 
 Michigan * Apple Blossom 
 
 Minnesota Cypripedhun or Moccasin Flower 
 
 Montana Bitter Root 
 
 Nebraska Golden-rot! 
 
 Nevada Sunflower 
 
 New York, Rose; State t'.;e Maple 
 
 North Dakota Golden-rod 
 
 Oklahoma Territory Mistletoe 
 
 Oregon . .' Golden-rod 
 
 Rhode Island Violet 
 
 Utah Sego Lily 
 
 Vermont Red Clover 
 
 Washington Rhododendron 
 
 Adopted by Sute Legislature, not by public school 
 scholars. 
 
 In other states the scholars or State Legisla- 
 tures have not yet taken action. In Illinois 
 in the vote on the leading State Flower by the 
 pupils of the schools the Rose, Violet, and 
 Golden -rod received the largest number of 
 votes, in the order named, although no state 
 flower was adopted. In Massachusetts the 
 Columbine was strongly urged, but no flower 
 was adopted. In Ohio and Tennessee the 
 Golden-rod is advocated. 
 
 Strength of Modern Powders 
 High Explosives. 
 
 and 
 
 NAME OF EXPLOSIVE. 
 
 Pecentage 
 
 of 
 Strength. 
 
 Perunite I'. 
 
 Peninite C 
 
 Perunite 1) 
 
 Explosive gelatine 
 
 Rack-a-rock 
 
 Hellenic 
 
 Nitro-glycerine, best quality 
 
 Nobel's smokeless powder 
 
 Explosive gelatine made from No. 
 
 glycerine 
 
 United States Navy gun-cotton 
 
 Fulguri te 
 
 Emmensite 
 
 French nitro-f lycerine 
 
 Dynamite No. 1. 
 
 Cannonite 
 
 Amide powder 
 
 Progress! te 
 
 Tonite 
 
 Bellite 
 
 Oxonite 
 
 Atlas powder, >' >. 1 
 
 Melinite 
 
 Silver fulminate 
 
 Mercury fulminate 
 
 liitio powder 
 
 Mortar powder 
 
 i;xsel's mixture 
 
 Amen-anite 
 
 Schnebelite 
 
 100.0 
 91.0 
 83.9 
 81.0 
 79.0 
 78.0 
 730 
 70.0 
 
 68.0 
 67.5 
 C7.0 
 66.0 
 630 
 62.6 
 62.0 
 59.0 
 58.5 
 67.0 
 56.0 
 54.4 
 54.0 
 49.0 
 48.2 
 47.5 
 85.0 
 30.0 
 89.5 
 82.0 
 80.0
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 625 
 
 Absinthe is a spirit flavored with the 
 pounded leaves and flowering tops of worm- 
 wood, together with angelica-root, sweet-flag 
 root, star-anise, and other aromatics. The 
 aromatics are macerated for about eight days 
 in alcohol and then distilled, the result being 
 an emerald-colored liquor. The best absinthe 
 is made in Switzerland, the chief seat of the I 
 manufacture being in the canton of Neufcha- 
 tel. It is chiefly used in France and the 
 United States. The evil effects of drinking 
 this liquor are very apparent ; frequent intox- ; 
 ication, or moderate but steady tippling, ut- 
 terly deranges the digestive system, weakens 
 the frame, induces horrible dreams and hallu- 
 cinations, and may end in paralysis or in 
 idiocy. 
 
 United States Xavy Pay Table. 
 
 RANK. 
 
 Admiral 13.500 For life. 
 
 Rear- Admirals 0,000 $5,000 
 
 Commodores 6,000, 4,000 
 
 Captains 4,500 3,500 
 
 Commanders 3,500 ! 3,000 
 
 Lieu tenant-Commanders : 
 
 First four years* 2.800| 2,400 
 
 After four yearst 3,000; 2,600 
 
 Lieutenants : 
 
 First five years* 2,400; 2,ooo 
 
 After five yearst 2,600 2,600 
 
 Lieutenants (Junior Grade): 
 
 First five years* 1,800 1,500 
 
 After five yearst 2,000 1,700 
 
 Ensigns : 
 
 First five years* 1.200 1,000 
 
 After five yearst 1 .400 1,200 
 
 Naval Cadets 500 500 
 
 Mates ; 900 700 
 
 Medical and Pay Directors and 
 Inspectors and Chief Engineers 
 
 having the same rank at sea .... 4.4 10 
 
 Fleet Surgeons, Fleet-Paymasters, 
 and Fleet-Engineers. . .' 
 
 Surgeons, Paymasters, and Chief 
 Engineers 
 
 On 
 
 At Sea Shore 
 Duty. 
 
 On L,eave 
 
 or Waiting 
 
 Orders. 
 
 Chaplains. 
 
 4.400 
 
 2,800 2,400 
 
 to to 
 
 4..MIO 4.IHK 
 
 2.5001 2,000 
 
 to I to 
 
 12 8no 2.:;oi 
 
 $4,000 
 3,000 
 2,800 
 2,300 
 
 2,000 
 2,200 
 
 1,600 
 1,800 
 
 1,200 
 1,400 
 
 800 
 
 1,000 
 500 
 500 
 
 2,000 
 
 to 
 
 3.000 
 1.600 
 
 to 
 
 Warrant officers are paid from $700 to 1,800, and sea- 
 men, si'-.'s to S2SS per annum. 
 After date of commission. iFrom date of commission. 
 
 United States Xaval Enlistment. 
 
 All applicants for enlistment in the naval serv- 
 ice must be of robust frame, intelligent, of 
 perfectly sound and healthy constitution and 
 free from any of the following physical defects: 
 Greatly retarded development, feeble constitu- 
 tion, inherited or acquired; permanently im- 
 paired general health, decided cachexia, diath- 
 esis or predisposition, weak or disordered 
 intellect, epilepsy or other convulsions within 
 five years, impaired vision or chronic disease 
 of the organs of vision, great dullness of hear- 
 ing or chronic disease of the ears, chronic nasal 
 catarrh, ozena, polypi or great enlargement 
 of the tonsils, marked impediment of speech, 
 decided indications of liability to pulmonary 
 disease, chronic cardiac affections, large vari- 
 
 cose veins of lower limbs, chronic ulcers, un- 
 natural curvature of the spine, permanent 
 disability of either of the extremities or artic- 
 ulations from any cause, defective teeth. 
 
 Following are the requirements for the vari- 
 ous classes of the service, and monthly wages 
 paid : 
 
 Class. Age. Wages. 
 
 Landsmen 18 to 25 $16 
 
 Ordinary Seamen 18 to 30 ' 19 
 
 Seamen 21 to ^5 24 
 
 Painter ,. 21t<>35 30 
 
 Bugler 21to35 30 
 
 Shipwright 21 to 35 25 
 
 Carpenter's mate 21 to 35 40 to 50 
 
 Chief yeoman 60 
 
 Yeoman 30 to 40 
 
 Musicians 21 to 35 32 
 
 Cooks 21 to 35 40 
 
 Mess attendants 21 to 30 16 
 
 Sailmakers 21 to 35 25 
 
 Machinist 40 to 70 
 
 Boilermaker 21 to 35 60 
 
 Blacksmith 21 to 35 50 
 
 Firemen 21 to 35 30to35 
 
 Coal passers 21 to 35 22 
 
 Slavery and Serfdom. Some of the 
 wealthy Romans had as many as 10,000 slaves. 
 The minimum price fixed by the law of Rome 
 was $80, but after great victories they could 
 sometimes be bought for a few shillings on the 
 field of battle. The day's wages of a Roman 
 gardener were about sixteen cents, and his 
 value about $300, w^hile a blacksmith was val- 
 ued at about $700, a cook at $2,000, an actress 
 at $4,000, and a physician at $11,000. 
 
 The number of slaves emancipated in the 
 British Colonies in 1834 was 780,993, the in- 
 demnity aggregating, in round figures, $100,- 
 000,000. In Brazil, in 1876, there were 1,- 
 510,800 slaves, 15 per cent, of the entire pop- 
 ulation. These were held by 41,000 owners, 
 averaging 37 to each owner. In 1882 the 
 number of slaves was 1,300,000. Owing to 
 the gradual abolition of slavery in Brazil by 
 law, it is expected that it will be entirely ob- 
 solete in 1900. 
 
 SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 Year. Number. Year. Number. 
 
 1791 697.900 1830 2,009,030 
 
 1800 .- 81)3,040 I 1840 ..2,487,500 
 
 1MO 1,191,400 ! 1850 3.204300 
 
 1820 1,538,100 ; 1860 3,979,700 
 
 Serfdom in Russia. There were 47,- 
 932,000 serfs in Russia in 1861, as follows: 
 Crown serfs, 22,851,000 ; appanage, 3,320,000 ; 
 held by nobles, 21,755,000. The cost of re- 
 demption was, in round numbers, about $325,- 
 000,000, as follows : 
 
 Paid by serfs .... So2,00e,000 
 Balance due 20,00;), 000 
 
 Mortgages remit- 
 ted ?152.00'),000 
 
 Gov'ment scrip.. 101,000,000 
 
 The indemnity to the nobles was $15 per 
 serf. The lands are mortgaged to the state till 
 1912. The lands ceded to crown serfs are 
 mortgaged only till 1901. The item of " mort-
 
 626 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 gages remitted " is the amount due by nobles 
 to the Imperial Bank and canceled. 
 
 AUSTRIAN SERVITUDE (1840). 
 
 Value. 
 
 Labor (two days per week) $175,000.000 
 
 Tithe of crops, etc 60,000,000 
 
 Male tribute, timber 7,000,000 
 
 Female tribute, spun wool 9,000,000 
 
 Fowl, eggs, butter 5,000,000 
 
 Total r$256,000,000 
 
 There \vere 7,000,000 serfs, whose tribute 
 averaged more than f 35 per head, which was, 
 in fact, the rent of their farms. Some Bohe- 
 mian nobles had as many as 10,000 serfs. The 
 redemption was effected by giving the nobles 
 5 per cent. Government scrip, and land then 
 rose 50 per cent, in value. 
 
 Average Annual Rainfall in United 
 States. 
 
 Place. Inches. 
 
 Neah Bay, Wash 123 
 
 Sitka, Alaska 3 
 
 Ft. Haskins, Oregon 66 
 
 Mt. Vernon, Alabama. . . 66 
 Baton Rouge, Louisiana 60 
 
 Meadow Valley, Cal 57 
 
 Ft. Tonson, Indian Ter.. 57 
 
 Ft. Myers, Florida 56 
 
 Washington, Arkansas.. 54 
 Huntsville, Alabama.. . 54 
 Natchez, Mississippi.. . 53 
 New Orleans, Louisiana 51 
 Savannah, Georgia... . 48 
 Springdale, Kentucky . 48 
 Fortress Monroe, Va.. . 47 
 Memphis, Tennessee.. . 45 
 Newark, New Jersey.. . 44 
 Boston, Massachusetts . 44 
 
 Brunswick, Maine 44 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 44 
 
 New Haven, Conn 44 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 44 
 
 Charleston, S. Carolina. 43 
 New York City, N. Y.... 43 
 
 Gaston, N. Carolina 43 
 
 Richmond, Indiana 43 
 
 Marietta, Ohio 43 
 
 St. Louis, Missouri 43 
 
 Muscatine, Iowa 42 
 
 Baltimore, Maryland ... 41 
 
 New Bedford, Mass 41 
 
 Providence, R. 1 41 
 
 Ft. Smith, Arkansas 40 
 
 Place. Inches. 
 
 Hanover, N. H 40 
 
 Ft. Vancouver, Wash 38 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 37 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa 37 
 
 Washington, D. C 37 
 
 W. Sulphur Springs, Va.37 
 Ft. Gibson, Indian Ter... 36 
 
 Key West, Florida 36 
 
 Peoria, Illinois 35 
 
 Burlington, Vermont.... 34 
 
 Buffalo, New York 33 
 
 Ft. Brown, Texas 33 
 
 Ft. Leavenworth, Kan. ..31 
 
 Detroit, Michigan 30 
 
 Milwaukee, Wisconsin. . .30 
 Penn Yan, New York 28 
 
 Ft. Kearney, Neb 25 
 
 Ft. Snelling, Minnesota.. 25 
 Salt Lake City, Utah ... .23 
 
 Mackinac, Michigan 23 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 21 
 
 Dallas, Oregon 21 
 
 Sacramento, California. .21 
 Ft. Massachusetts, Col.. .17 
 Ft. Marcy , New Mex. Ter. 16 
 
 Ft. Randall, Dakota 16 
 
 Ft. Defiance, Arizona 14 
 
 Ft. Craig, New Mex. Ter..ll 
 San Diego, California 9 
 
 Ft. Colville, Wash 9 
 
 Ft. Bliss, Texas 9 
 
 Ft. Bridger , Utah 6 
 
 Ft. Garland, Colorado... 6 
 
 Tariff. Import duties, general aver- 
 age : 
 
 Ratio to 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Per cent. 
 United Kingdom.... 6 1 /. 
 
 France 6% 
 
 Germany 6 
 
 Russia 18 
 
 Austria 5 
 
 Italy 11 
 
 Spam 24 
 
 Portugal 26 
 
 Holland 1 
 
 Ratio of 
 Imports. 
 Per cent. 
 
 Belgium 1% 
 
 Denmark 9 
 
 Sweden and Norway . 12 
 
 Europe 7V 4 
 
 United States 33% 
 
 Canada 15 
 
 Australia 13 
 
 Brazil 44 
 
 Argentine Republic. 37 
 
 Rabbit's Foot. The legends of " Br'er 
 Rabbit " among the negroes, his clever devices 
 in outwitting his natural enemies the dog, 
 fox, and wolf and thwarting every scheme 
 designed for his own punishment, are almost 
 without number. From these legends of the 
 preternatural sagacity of the living rabbit came 
 the idea that the dead rabbit had certain magic 
 
 powers. The negroes believe that to carry a 
 rabbit's foot in the pocket is not only a talisman 
 for good luck, but is a specific for diseases. 
 The left hind foot of the rabbit is believed to 
 have the most efficacy, and if it be taken from 
 a rabbit that runs in a graveyard, its super- 
 natural properties are believed to be quite 
 irresistible. 
 
 Number of Years Seeds retain their 
 Vitality. 
 
 Vegetables. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Cucumber 8 to 10 
 
 Melon 8 to 10 
 
 Pumpkin 8 to 10 
 
 Squash 8 to 10 
 
 Broccoli 5 to 6 
 
 Cauliflower 5 to 6 
 
 Artichoke 5 to 6 
 
 Endive 5 to 6 
 
 Pea 5 to 6 
 
 Radish 4 to 5 
 
 Beets 3 to 4 
 
 Cress 3to 4 
 
 Lettuce 3 to 4 
 
 Mustard 3 to 4 
 
 Okra 3 to 4 
 
 Rhubarb 3 to 4 
 
 Spinach 3 to. 4 
 
 Turnip 3to 6 
 
 Vegetables. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Asparagus 2to3 
 
 Beans 2 to 3 
 
 Carrots 2 to 3 
 
 Celery 2to3 
 
 Corn (on cob) 2 to 3 
 
 Leek 2 to3 
 
 Onion . . 
 
 ...2to3 
 
 Parsley 2 to 3 
 
 Parsnip 2 to 3 
 
 Pepper 2 to 3 
 
 Tomato 2 to 3 
 
 Egg plant 1 to 2 
 
 HERBS. 
 
 Anise 3 to 4 
 
 Caraway 2 
 
 Summer Savory 1 to 2 
 
 Sage 2 to 3 
 
 Acquisition of Territory. The in- 
 crease in area of the United States, by war 
 and treaty, is shown in the annexed table : 
 
 When. 
 
 How. 
 
 Whence. 
 
 What. 
 
 Sq.Miles. 
 
 1776) 
 1783 J ' ' 
 1803.... 
 1819.... 
 
 War... 
 
 Treat v. 
 Treaty. 
 
 England. 
 
 France . . 
 Spain .... 
 
 ( Thirteen origi- ) 
 | nal States a.. ) 
 Louisiana b 
 Florida c 
 
 820,680 
 
 899.579 
 66.900 
 
 1845.... 
 1846 
 
 Union.. 
 Treaty. 
 
 Mexico.. 
 England. 
 
 Texas d 
 Oregon 
 
 318,000 
 308,052 
 
 1846) 
 1848) " 
 1853.. 
 1867 . . 
 
 War . . . 
 
 Treaty. 
 Treaty. 
 
 Mexico.. 
 
 Mexico . . 
 
 Russia. . 
 
 I California and ) 
 1 New Mexico e } 
 Gadsden Purchase/ 
 Alaska fj 
 
 522,955 
 
 45,535 
 580,107 
 
 1898.. 
 1898 . 
 1898.. 
 
 Treaty. 
 War . . . 
 War . . . 
 
 Hawaii . . 
 Spain 
 Spain 
 
 Hawaii 
 Porto Rico 
 Philippines 
 
 6,740 
 3,600 
 120,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,092,148 
 
 Estimated cost of War of Independence. $168,000,000. 
 ft Purchased for 15,000,000. c Cost 3,000.000. 
 d Debt of Texas on admission into the Union, $7,500,- 
 000. 
 
 e Estimated cost of the Mexican War, $15,000,000. 
 / Cost $10,000,000. g Cost $7,200,000. 
 
 The Capital of the United States 
 
 has been located at different times at the fol- 
 lowing places : At Philadelphia from Septem- 
 ber 5, 1774, to December, 1776 ; at Balti- 
 more from December 20, 1776, to March, 
 1777 ; at Philadelphia from March 4, 1777, to 
 September, 1777 ; at Lancaster, Pa., from 
 September 27, 1777, to September 30, 1777 ; 
 at York, Pa., from September 30, 1777, to 
 July, 1778 ; at Philadelphia from July 2, 1778, 
 to June 30, 1783 ; at Princeton, N. J., June 
 30, 1783, to November 20, 1783 ; Annapolis, 
 Md., November 26, 1783, to November 30, 
 1784 ; Trenton from November, 1784, to Janu- 
 ary, 1785 ; New York from January 11, 1785, 
 to 1790 ; then the seat of government was re-
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 627 
 
 moved to Philadelphia, where it remained until 
 1800, since which time it has been in W ash- 
 in gton. 
 
 Wireless Telegraphy. Of the several 
 systems for telegraphing without wires, that 
 devised by Signer Marconi has been most 
 before the public. Early in 1899 messages 
 were successfully sent by this system from 
 South Foreland, England, across the English 
 channel to Boulogne, France, a distance of 32 
 miles. A full description of the apparatus 
 used and of the experiments themselves was 
 published in a paper by Signer Marconi, read 
 before the Institute of Electrical Engineers of 
 London. In September, 1899, Signer Marconi 
 and several assistants came to America to 
 report the international yacht races off Sandy 
 Hook by wireless telegraphy. Sending appa- < 
 ratus were placed on two steamers which fol- j 
 lowed the yachts, and receiving apparatus 
 were placed, one on the cable r ship Mackau- 
 Bennett, anchored near the Sandy Hook light- 
 ship, and the other on shore at the Highlands 
 of Xavesink. Bulletins of the progress of the 
 races were sent from the following steamers 
 to the receiving stations, and from them by 
 wire to the office of the New York Herald. 
 After the yacht races, tests were made by 
 Signer Marconi in conjunction with the 
 Signal Corps of the United States Army and 
 with the Navy Department. The report of 
 the inspecting board in the Navy Department 
 tests was quite favorable to the utility of the 
 system for communicating between vessels at 
 sea. 
 
 The system is well adapted for use in 
 squadron signaling under conditions of rain, 
 fog, darkness, and motion of ship. 
 
 Marconi's system has been the means of 
 stimulating a number of investigators. 
 
 Capacity of Cisterns. 
 
 FOR EACH 10 INCHES IX DEPTH. 
 
 Twenty-five feet in diameter holds 3059 gallons 
 
 Twenty feet in diameter holds 1958 gallons 
 
 Fifteen feet in diameter holds 1101 gallons 
 
 .fourteen feet in dia meter holds 959 gallons 
 
 Thirteen feet in diameter holds 827 gallons 
 
 Twelve feet in diameter holds 705 gallons 
 
 Eleven feet in diameter holds 592 gallons 
 
 Ten feet in diameter holds 4S9 gallons 
 
 Nine feet in diameter holds 396 gallons 
 
 Eight feet in diameter holds 313 gallons 
 
 Seven feet in diameter holds 239 gallons 
 
 Six and one half feet in diameter holds 206 gallons 
 
 Six feet in diameter holds 176 gallons 
 
 Five feet in diameter holds 122 gallons 
 
 Four and one half feet in diameter holds. . . 99 gallons 
 
 Four feet in diameter holds 78 gallons 
 
 Three feet in diameter holds 44 gallons 
 
 Two and one half feet in diameter holds 30 gallons 
 
 Two feet in diameter holds 19 gallons 
 
 The Roman Month was divided into 
 Calends, Nones, aridities. The Calends always 
 fell upon the first of the month : in March, May. 
 July, and October, the Nones on the 7th and 
 
 the Ides on the loth, and in the remaining 
 months, the Nones on the 5th and the Ides on 
 the 13th. The Roman year began with March, 
 and the months corresponded with ours ex- 
 cept that their fifth and sixth months were 
 called Quintilis and Sextilis. Afterwards they 
 were changed to July and August in honor of 
 the emperors Julius and Augustus. 
 
 The Limits of Vision vary with eleva- 
 tion, conditions of the atmosphere, intensity 
 of illumination, and other modifying elements 
 in different cases. On a clear day an object 
 one foot above a level plain may be seen at a 
 distance of 1.31 miles; one 10 feet high, 4.15 
 miles ; one 20 feet high, 5.86 miles ; one 100 
 feet high, 13.1 miles ; one a mile high, as the 
 top of a mountain, 95.23 miles. This allows 
 7 inches ; or, to be exact, 6.99 inches, for the 
 curvature of the earth, and assumes that the 
 size and illumination of the object are suffi- 
 cient to produce an image. 
 
 Mottoes of the States. Arkansas. 
 Regnant populi : The people rule. California. 
 Eureka: I have found it. Colorado. Nil 
 sine numine : Nothing without the Divinity. 
 Connecticut. Qui transtulit sustinet : He who 
 has transferred, sustains. Delaware. Liberty 
 and Independence, Florida. In God is our 
 trust. Georgia. Wisdom, Justice, Modera- 
 tion. Illinois. State Sovereignty and Na- 
 tional Union. Iowa. Our liberties we prize, 
 and our rights we will maintain. Kansas. 
 Ad astro per aspera : To the stars through rug- 
 ged ways. Kentucky. United we stand, di- 
 vided we fall. Louisiana. Union and Con- 
 fidence. Maine. Dirigo: I direct. Mary- 
 land. Crescite et multiplicamini : Increase and 
 multiply. Massachusetts. Ense petit placidam 
 sub liberlate quietem: By her sword she seeks 
 under liberty a calm repose. Michigan. Si 
 qu&ris peninsulam amcenam circumspice : If thou 
 seekest a beautiful peninsula, look around. 
 Minnesota. L'Etoile du Nord: The Star of 
 the North. Missouri. Salus populi suprema 
 lex esto : Let the welfare of the people be the 
 supreme law. Nebraska. Popular Sovereignty. 
 Nevada. Volens et potens : Willing and able. 
 New Jersey. Liberty and Independence. New 
 York. Excelsior: Higher. Ohio. Imperium 
 in imperio : An empire within an empire. 
 Oregon. Alis volat propriis : She flies with her 
 own wings. Pennsylvania. Virtue, Liberty, 
 Independence. Rhode Island. Hope. North 
 C'lniltna. Esse quam videri : To be, rather 
 than to seem. South Carol in r.. Animis opibus- 
 que parati : Ready with our lives and property. 
 Tennessee. Agriculture, Commerce. Ver- 
 mont. Freedom and Unity. Virginia. Sic 
 semptr tyrannis : So be it ever to tyrants. West 
 Virginia. Montani semper liberi : The ruoun-
 
 628 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 taineers are always free. Wisconsin. For- 
 ward. United States. E plitribus unum : From 
 many, one. Annuit cceplls ; God has favored 
 the undertaking. Norus ordo seculoruin : A 
 new order of ages. The first named on one side 
 of the great seal, the other two on the reverse. 
 
 Barrenness. One woman in 20, one man 
 in 30 about 4 per cent. It is found that one 
 marriage in 20 is barren 5 per cent. Among 
 the nobility of Great Britain, 21 per cent, have 
 no children, owing partly to intermarriage of 
 cousins, no less than 4 per cent, being mar- 
 ried to cousins. 
 
 Meteoric Stones. A meteoric stone, 
 which is described by Pliny as being as large as 
 a wagon, fell nearJCgospotami, in Asia Minor, 
 in 467 B. C. About A. D. 1500 a stone 
 weighing 1,400 pounds fell in Mexico, and is 
 now in the Smithsonian Institution at Wash- 
 ington. The largest meteoric masses on record 
 were heard of first by Captain Ross, the Arctic 
 explorer, through some Esquimaux. These 
 lay on the west coast of Greenland, and were 
 subsequently found by the Swedish Exploring 
 Expedition of 1870. One of them, now in 
 the Royal Museum of Stockholm, weighs over 
 50,000 pounds, and is the largest specimen 
 known. Two remarkable meteorites have 
 fallen in Iowa within the past thirteen years. 
 On February 12, 1875, an exceedingly bril- 
 liant meteor, in the form of an elongated 
 horseshoe, was seen throughout a region of at 
 least 400 miles in length and 250 in breadth, 
 lying in Missouri and Iowa. It is described 
 as ' ' without a tail, but having a sort of flow- 
 ing jacket of flame. Detonations were heard, 
 so violent as to shake the earth and to jar the 
 windows like the shock of an earthquake," as 
 it fell, at about 10.30 o'clock P. M., a few 
 miles east of Marengo, Iowa. The ground 
 for the space of some seven miles in length by 
 two to four miles in breadth was strewn with 
 fragments of this meteor, varying in weight 
 from a fewouncesto seventy-four pounds. On 
 May 10, 1879, a large and extraordinarily lumi- 
 nous meteor exploded with terrific noise, fol- 
 lowed at slight intervals with less violent 
 detonations, and struck the earth in the edge 
 of a ravine near Estherville, Emmet County, 
 Iowa, penetrating to a depth of fourteen feet. 
 Within two miles other fragments were fownd, 
 one of which weighed 170 pounds and another 
 thirty-two pounds. The principal mass 
 weighed 431 pounds. All the discovered parts 
 aggregated about 640 pounds. The one of 170 
 pounds is now in the cabinet of the State Uni- 
 versity of Minnesota. The composition of 
 this aerolite is peculiar in many respects ; but, 
 as in nearly all aerolites, there is a considerable 
 proportion of iron and nickel. 
 
 "Woman Suffrage. The constitution of 
 the Colony of New Jersey granted suffrage to 
 all inhabitants, under certain qualifications, 
 irrespective of sex. This act was repealed, 
 however, in 1807. The first Woman's Rights 
 convention was held July 19, 1848, at Seneca 
 Falls, N". Y., and its claims for women were 
 based upon the Declaration of Independence. 
 On October 23, 1850, a National Woman's 
 Rights Convention was held at Worcester, 
 Mass. From that time until 1863 the subject 
 was agitated in America and England, but no 
 decisive action was taken. In the latter year 
 the American Equal Rights Association pre- 
 sented the first petition for woman suffrage to 
 Congress. Two years later (18G8) the New 
 England Woman Suffrage Association was 
 formed, and the work of memorializing Legis- 
 latures and Congi'ess, holding conventions and 
 circulating documents, began in earnest. By 
 1870 the agitation had assumed such propor- 
 tions that the Republican Convention in Mas- 
 sachusetts, held October 5th of that year, ad- 
 mitted Lucy Stone and Mary A. Livermore as 
 regularly accredited delegates. Since then sev- 
 eral State conventions have indorsed woman 
 suffrage. December 10, 1869, the Legislature 
 of the territory of Wyoming granted the right 
 of suffrage to women. The same right was 
 granted in 1883 in the territory of Washington 
 but has since been declared unconstitutional. 
 Woman suffrage, limited to school elections or 
 school meetings, has been conferred in the 
 states of Kansas, Washington, Nebraska, New 
 Hampshire, Texas, Vermont, Arizona, the Da- 
 kotas, Montana, Colorado, Minnesota, Wis- 
 consin, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Michigan, 
 and New York. In the two latter states the 
 law requires that they be tax-payers. Widows 
 and unmarried women may vote as to special 
 district taxes in state of Idaho if they hold 
 taxable property. In Kentucky any white 
 widow having a child of school age is a quali- 
 fied school voter ; if she has no child, but is a 
 tax-payer, she may vote on the question of 
 taxes. In Oregon widows having children and 
 taxable property may vote at school meetings. 
 Widows, or unmarried women not minors who 
 pay taxes and are listed as parents, guardians, 
 or heads of families, may vote at school meet- 
 ings in Indiana. They have full municipal 
 suffrage in Kansas, and vote on the sale of liq- 
 uor in Arkansas and Mississippi. In England, 
 Scotland, and Wales women (unless married) 
 vote for all elective officers, except member of 
 Parliament, on like terms with men. In Ire- 
 land women vote everywhere for poor-law 
 guardians ; in Dundalk and other seaports, for 
 harbor boards ; in Belfast, for all municipal 
 officers. In Sweden their suffrage is about the
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 629 
 
 same as in England, except that they vote in- 
 directly for members of the House of Lords. 
 In Russia women (heads of households) vote 
 for all elective officers and on all local questions. 
 In Austria-Hungary they vote (by proxy) at 
 all elections. In Italy widows vote for mem- 
 bers of Parliament. In all the countries of 
 Russian Asia women vote wherever a Russian 
 colony settles. Municipal woman suffrage ex- 
 ists in New Zealand, Victoria, New South Wales, 
 Queensland, and South America. Iceland, the 
 Isle of Man, and Pitcairn Island have full 
 woman suffrage. Tasmania, Sicily, Sardinia, 
 and a host of islands elsewhere, have partial 
 woman suffrage. 
 
 Consumption. Of the total number of 
 deaths, the percentage traceable to consumption 
 in the several states and territories is as fol- 
 lows : Alabama, 9.6 ; Arizona, 6.1 ; Arkansas, 
 
 6.4 ; California, 15.6 ; Colorado, 8.2 ; Connec- 
 ticut, 15.1 ; Dakota, 8.8 ; Delaware, 16.1 ; Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, 18.9 ; Florida, 8.3 ; Georgia, 
 7.9 ; Idaho, 6.8 ; Illinois, 10.3 ; Indiana, 12.6 ; 
 Iowa, 9.9 ; Kansas, 7.3 ; Kentucky, 15.7 ; 
 Louisiana, 10.4 ; Maine, 19.2 ; Maryland, 14.0 ; 
 Massachusetts, 15.7 ; Michigan, 13.02 ; Min- 
 nesota, 9.3 ; Mississippi, 8.8 ; Missouri, 9.8 ; 
 Montana, 5.6; Nebraska, 8.8; Nevada, 6.3; 
 New Hampshire, 5.6; New Jersey, 8.9; New 
 Mexico, 2. 4; New York, 8.1 ; North Carolina, 
 
 9.5 ; Ohio, 13.8 ; Oregon, 12.1 ; Pennsylvania, 
 12.6 ; Rhode Island, 14.6 ; South Carolina, 
 9.8 ; Tennessee, 14.5 ; Texas, 6.5 ; Utah, 2.8 ; 
 Vermont, 16.1 ; Virginia, 12.2 ; Washington, 
 13.2; West Virginia, 13.0; Wisconsin, 10.4 ; 
 Wyoming, 2.6. Average, 12.0. 
 
 Presidents Inaugurated Irregularly. 
 George Washington, April 30, 1789 ; James 
 Monroe, second term, March 5, 1821 ; John 
 Tyler, April 6, 1811 ; Zachary Taylor, March 
 5, 1849; Millard Fillmore, July 10, 1850; 
 Andrew Johnson, April 15, 1865 ; R. B. Hayes, 
 March 5, 1877. 
 
 Women, Myths of the Origin of. 
 Woman's first appearance has been a fruitful 
 subject of legends. The Phoenician myth of 
 creation is found in the story of Pygmalion 
 and Galatea. There the first woman was 
 carved by the first man out of ivory, and then 
 endowed with life by Aphrodite. The Greek 
 theory of the creation of woman, according to 
 Hesiod, was that Zeus, as a cruel jest, ordered 
 Vulcan to make woman out of clay, and then 
 induced the various gods and goddesses to in- 
 vest the clay doll with all their worst qualities, 
 the result being a lovely thing, with a witchery 
 of mien, refined craft, eager passion, love of 
 dress, treacherous manners, and shameless 
 mind. The Scandinavians say that as Odin, 
 Vill, and Ve, the three sons of Bor, were walk- 
 
 ing along the sea beach, they found two sticks 
 of wood, one of ash, and one of elm. Sitting 
 down, the gods shaped man and woman out of 
 these sticks, whittling the woman from the 
 elm, and calling her Ernia. One of the strang- 
 est stories touching the origin of woman is 
 told by the Madagascarenes. In so far as the 
 creation of man goes, the legend is not unlike 
 that related by Moses, only that the fall came 
 before Eve arrived. After the man had eaten 
 the forbidden fruit, he became affected with a 
 boil on the leg, out of which, when it burst, 
 came a beautiful girl. The man's first thought 
 was to throw her to the pigs ; but he was com- 
 manded by a messenger from heaven to let her 
 play among the grass and flowers until she 
 was of marriageable age, then to make her his 
 wife. He did so, called her Baboura, and she 
 became the mother of all races of men. The 
 American Indian myths relative to Adam and 
 Eve are numerous and entertaining. Some 
 traditions trace back our first parents to white 
 and red maize ; another is that man, searching 
 for a wife, was given the daughter of the king 
 of muskrats, who, on being dipped into the 
 waters of a neighboring lake, became a woman. 
 
 Gotham. The origin of the name 
 " Gotham," as applied to the city of New York, 
 is contained in a humorous book called "Salma- 
 gundi," written by Washington Irving, .his 
 brother William, and James K. Paulding, and 
 is used to signify that the inhabitants were given 
 to undue pretensions to wisdom. This defini- 
 tion of the word is taken from a story regarding 
 the inhabitants of Gotham, a parish in Not- 
 tinghamshire, England, who were as remark- 
 able for their stupidity as their conceit. The 
 story relates that when King John was about 
 to pass through Gotham toward Nottingham, 
 he was prevented by the inhabitants, who 
 thought that the ground over which a king 
 passed became forever a public road. When 
 the king sent to punish them they resorted to 
 an expedient to avert their sovereign's wrath. 
 According to this, when the messengers arrived 
 they found the people each engaged in some 
 foolish occupation or other, so they returned 
 to court and reported that Gotham was a vil- 
 lage of fools. In time a book appeared entitled 
 "Certain Merry Tales of the Mad Men of 
 Gotham, "compiled in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 by Andrew Borde, a sort of traveling quack, 
 from whom the occupation of the "Merry 
 Andrew " is said to be derived. Among these 
 tales is the story of "The Three Wise Men 
 of Gotham," who went to sea in a bowl. 
 
 Hallows Eve, or Halloween, is the night 
 of October 31st, the eve of All Saints', or All- 
 hallows Day, which is November 1st, and is 
 probably a relic of pagan times or of mediaeval
 
 030 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 superstitions, as it has nothing -whatever to do 
 with the church festival. In England and 
 Scotland it is especially selected as the time for 
 trying spells and divinations in love affairs. 
 The superstitious tradition regarding it is 
 that it is the night of all others when super- 
 natural influences prevail ; when spirits of the 
 invisible and visible world walk abroad, for 
 on this mystic evening it was believed that the 
 human spirit was enabled, by the aid of super- 
 natural power, to detach itself from the body 
 and wander through the realms of space. 
 There is a similar superstition in Germany 
 concerning "Walpurgis night" the night 
 preceding the first of May. On this night, the 
 German peasants believe that there is a witch 
 festival, or gathering of evil spirits, on the 
 summit of the Brocken, in the Hartz Moun- 
 tains, and the malign influence of this convo- 
 cation was believed to be felt all over the sur- 
 rounding country. It was an old custom, and 
 still observed in some places, to light great 
 bonfires of straw or brush on that night, to 
 drive away the spirits of darkness supposed to 
 be hovering in the air. Considering that All 
 Saints' Day was originally kept on May 1st, 
 there would appear to be but little doubt that 
 Allhallow eve and Walpurgis night have a 
 common origin, which, doubtless, dates back 
 to the earliest belief in a personal and all- 
 powerful Evil One the Chaldean's Power of 
 Darkness. 
 
 Mammoth Cave, The, is situated in Ed- 
 mondson County, near Green River. Kentucky, 
 and extends some nine miles. It contains a suc- 
 cession of wonderful avenues, chambers, domes, 
 abysses, grottoes, lakes, rivers, and cataracts. 
 One chamber, the Star, is about 500 feet long, 
 70 feet wide, and 70 feet high ; the ceiling is 
 composed of black gypsum, and is studded with 
 innumerable white points, that by a dim light 
 resemble stars ; hence the name. There are 
 avenues one and a half and even two miles in 
 length, some of which are incrusted with 
 beautiful formations, and present a most 
 dazzling appearance. There is a natural tun- 
 nel about three quarters of a mile long, 100 
 feet wide, covered with a ceiling of smooth 
 rock, 45 feet high. Echo River is some 
 three fourths of a mile in length, 200 feet in 
 Width at some points, and from 10 to 30 feet 
 in depth, and runs beneath an arched ceiling 
 of smooth rock about 15 feet high ; while the 
 Styx, another river, is 450 feet long, from 15 
 to 40 feet wide, and from 30 to 40 feet deep, 
 and is spanned by a natural bridge. Lake 
 Lethe has about the same length and width as 
 the river Styx, varies in depth from 3 to 40 
 feet, lies beneath a ceiling some 90 feet above 
 its surface, and sometimes rises to a height of 
 
 60 feet. There is also a Dead. Sea. The en- 
 trance to the cave is reached by passing down 
 a wild, rocky ravine through a dense forest. 
 To visit the portions of this wonderful cave 
 already traversed requires, it is said, 150 to 
 200 miles of travel. 
 
 Yosemite Valley, or, as it is also called. 
 Yoharnite, is situated in the eastern portion of 
 California, and is from 8 to 10 miles long, and 
 a little more than a mile wide. In some places 
 the valley is filled with noble oaks ; in others it 
 opens out into broad, grassy fields. The 
 natural beauties of this region are of world- 
 wide report. It has pine-covered mountains, 
 towering, with very steep slopes, to the height 
 of 3,500 feet, a precipice, or bluff, in one place 
 rising perpendicularly 3,089 feet above the 
 valley ; in another, a rock, almost perpendicu- 
 lar, 3,270 feet high ; waterfalls pouring over 
 its sides from heights of 700 to almost 1,000 
 feet ; and one great waterfall broken into three 
 laps, but of which the whole height is 2,550 
 feet. Of the other waterfalls on the sides of 
 the valley, the Pohono, or Bridal Veil Water- 
 fall, is particularly to be remarked for its 
 beauty, as well as for its height, which is 940 
 feet, and almost unbroken. The Yosemite 
 Valley was first entered by white men in 1855, 
 but now, like the valleys of Switzerland, has 
 its hotels and guides, and is yearly visited by 
 American and foreign tourists. 
 
 Great Eastern, The. The largest ship 
 in the world, the Great Eastern, was con- 
 structed by the Eastern Navigation Company 
 of London. The work of construction com- 
 menced May 1, 1854, and the work of launch- 
 ing her, which lasted from November 3, 1857, 
 to January 31, 1858, cost 60,000, hydraulic 
 pressure being employed. Her extreme length 
 is 680 feet ; breadth, 82 1-2 feet, and includ- 
 ing paddle-boxes, 118 feet ; height, 58 feet, or 
 70 feet to top of bulwarks. She has 8 engines, 
 capable in actual work of 11,000 horse power, 
 and has, besides, 20 auxiliary engines. The 
 ship's history presents a singular series of vicis- 
 situdes. She left the Thames September 8, 
 1859, on her trial trip across the Atlantic ; an 
 explosion of steam pipes took place off Hast- 
 ings ; seven persons were killed, and several 
 wounded ; and the voyage abruptly came to an 
 end at Weymouth. After a winter spent in 
 costly repairs, the ship started again on June 
 17, 1860. Leaving Southampton on that day, 
 she crossed the Atlantic in eleven days, and 
 reached New York on the 28th. During the 
 ren-iiinderof 1860, and the greater part of 1861, 
 she made many voyages to and fro, losing 
 money by the insufficiency of the receipts to 
 meet the current expenses, and constantly re- 
 quired repairs. In December of the latter
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 631 
 
 year she was used as a troop ship to convey from Mercury, which carried them through 
 troops to Canada. The years 1862 to 1864 ; the air over sea and land. Helle fell into the 
 were a blank as concerns the history of the sea, and it was named Hellespontus. Phrixus 
 steamer. In 186-4 she was employed by the I went on to Colchis, where he was kindly re- 
 Atlantic Telegraph Company as a cable-laying ceived, and sacrificed the ram to Jupiter Phyx- 
 ship, and continued in such service during ius, and gave the golden fleece to ^Eetes, who 
 1865 and 1866. In 1867, when the prepara- nailed it to an oak in the grove of Mars, where 
 tions for the Paris International Exhibition , it was watched over by a sleepless dragon, 
 were approaching completion, a body of specu- j Jason, by' heralds, announced the great under- 
 lators chartered the Great Eastern for a certain I taking throughout the land, and all the heroes 
 number of months, to convey visitors from New i of Greece flocked to his assistance, and the 
 York to Havre and back; but the speculation i famous company were called the " Argo- 
 
 proved an utter failure, there being neither 
 wages for the seamen and engineers, nor profits 
 for the speculators. In 1868 the ship was 
 again chartered by the Telegraph Construction 
 and Maintenance Company. On October 28, 
 1885, the Great Eastern was sold at public 
 auction for 8126,000. 
 
 Giant's Causeway. The name Giant's 
 Causeway is often applied to the entire range 
 of cliffs in the County Antrim, on the north- 
 east coast of Ireland, but it properly belongs 
 to only a small portion of them, which is a 
 
 nauts," from the name of their ship, Argo, 
 which was built for them by Argus, with the 
 aid of Minerva. After a voyage of varied 
 adventure the heroes reached Colchis, and 
 Jason explained the cause of his voyage to 
 .ZEetes ; but the conditions on which he was to 
 recover the golden fleece were so hard that the 
 Argonauts must have perished had not Medea, 
 the king's daughter, fallen in love with their 
 leader. She had a conference with Jason, and 
 after mutual oaths of fidelity Medea pledged 
 herself to deliver the Argonauts from her 
 
 platform of basalt in closely arranged columns, i father's hard conditions if Jason would marry 
 from fifteen to thirty-six feet high, which ex- i her and carry her with him to Greece. He 
 
 tends from a steep cliff down into the sea till 
 it is lost below low- water mark. This plat- 
 form is divided across its breadth into three 
 portions, the Little, Middle, and Grand Cause- 
 way, these being separated from each other by 
 dikes of basalt. The columns are generally 
 hexagonal prisms, but they are also found of 
 five, seven, eight, and nine sides, in almost 
 every instance being fitted together with the 
 utmost precision, even so that water cannot 
 penetrate between adjoining columns. The 
 name " causeway " was given to the platform 
 because it appeared to primitive imagination 
 to be a road to the water, prepared for giants. 
 Golden Fleece, The. According to 
 Greek tradition, Pelias, King of lolcos, in 
 Thessaly, dethroned the rightful King xEson 
 and endeavored to kill his son Jason, who was, 
 however, saved by his parents, who conveyed 
 him by night to the cave of the centaur Chiron, 
 to whose care they committed him, and then 
 gave out that he was dead. He remained with 
 Chiron until he was twenty years of age and 
 then went to claim his father's crown. Pelias 
 agreed to surrender the kingdom to Jason pro- 
 vided he brought him the golden fleece from 
 
 was to tame two bulls which had brazen feet 
 and breathed flame from their throats. When 
 he had yoked these, he was to plow with them 
 a piece of ground, and sow the serpent's teeth 
 
 which 2Eetes possessed, 
 performed in one day. 
 
 All this was to be 
 Medea, who was an 
 enchantress, gave him a salve to rub on his 
 body, shield, and spear. The virtue of this 
 salve would last an entire day, and protect 
 alike against fire and steel. She further told 
 him that when he had sown the teeth a crop 
 of armed men would spring up and prepare to 
 attack him. Among these she desired him to 
 fling stones, and while they were fighting with 
 one another about them, each imagining that 
 the other had thrown the stones, to fall on and 
 slay them. All of these things were done by 
 Jason, but .ZEetes refused to give the fleece, 
 and meditated burning the Argo, Jason's ves- 
 sel, and slaying her crew. Medea, anticipat- 
 ing him, led Jason by night to the golden 
 fleece ; with her drugs she put to slep the 
 serpent which guarded it ; and then, taking 
 her little brother Absyrtus out of his bed, she 
 embarked with him in the Argo, and the ves- 
 sel set sail while it was yet night. They were 
 
 Colchis, expectingthat he would never attempt pursued by ^etes, when Medea killed her 
 it, or, if he did, would surely perish in the rash j brother and threw his body into the sea piece 
 adventure. One of the myths of the fleece is ' by piece, thus delaying the king, who stopped 
 that Ino, second wife of Athamas, King of j to gather up the remains, leaving the Argo- 
 Orchomenus, in Boeotia, wished to destroy nauts to escape. After many months of toil 
 
 Phrixus, son of Athamas ; but he and Helle 
 were saved by their mother, Nephele, who gave 
 
 and numerous trials they at last reached lolcos, 
 and the Argo was consecrated by Jason, on the 
 
 them a golden fleeced ram she had obtained Isthmus of Corinth, to Neptune
 
 632 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 The Armed Strength of Europe. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING RESOURCES IN THE EVENT OF A GENERAL CONFLICT. 
 
 LAND FORCES. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 France. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Austria- 
 Hungary. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Great 
 Britain.* 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 ACTIVE ARMY AND RESERVE. 
 Officers 
 
 22,803 
 
 22, 106 
 
 17,600 
 
 17,328 
 
 27,912 
 
 7,786 
 
 9,300 
 
 Non-com. Officers and Men 
 Non-combatants 
 
 1,963,517 
 168,410 
 
 1,998,604 
 34,654 
 
 652,612 
 10,000 
 
 749,868 
 12.315 
 
 1,120,602 
 42,000 
 
 197,925 
 8,145 
 
 192,000 
 
 Horses 
 
 107,960 
 
 112,800 
 
 56,700 
 
 59,800 
 
 162,100 
 
 29,000 
 
 31,000 
 
 Guns 
 
 2,864 
 
 3,400 
 
 1,268 
 
 1,624 
 
 2,312 
 
 720 
 
 696 
 
 
 33,400 
 
 32,982 
 
 14,600 
 
 17,000 
 
 29,800 
 
 
 
 FIRST RESERVE. 
 Officers 
 
 23,600 
 
 19,402 
 
 18,424 
 
 16,962 
 
 18,790 
 
 , 
 
 f 13,600 
 
 Non-com. Officers and Men 
 
 2,190,672 
 4,201 
 
 t, 91 1,512 
 17,618 
 
 592,112 
 3,700 
 
 364,800 
 3,211 
 
 2,576,?40 
 16,000 
 
 
 | 49 J, 000 
 
 
 93,700 
 
 83,416 
 
 
 23,680 
 
 143,816 
 
 
 64,000 
 
 
 1,920 
 
 1,680 
 
 744 
 
 1,200 
 
 3,636 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,600 
 
 
 
 6,800 
 
 
 
 SECOND RESERVE. 
 Officers 
 
 19,455 
 
 18,960 
 
 18,940 
 
 22,900 
 
 18,964 
 
 . 
 
 
 Non-com. Officers and Men 
 
 992,500 
 
 914,600 
 
 912,100 
 
 497,850 
 
 1,372,416 
 
 18,000 
 
 
 
 
 424 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GRAND WAR TOTAL. 
 Officers 
 
 65,258 
 
 60,468 
 
 54,964 
 
 57,188 
 
 65,6C6 
 
 . 
 
 ( 29,900 
 
 Non-com. Officers and Men 
 Horses 
 
 5,146.689 
 201,660 
 
 4,824,716 
 196,216 
 
 2,556,824 
 68000 
 
 1,612,018 
 83,480 
 
 5,069,858 
 305,916 
 
 4,700 
 
 ( 1,084 000 
 95,000 
 
 
 4,784 
 
 5,504 
 
 2,012 
 
 2,824 
 
 5,948 
 
 
 696 
 
 PEACE ESTABLISHMENT. 
 Infantry 
 
 396,782 
 
 378,914 
 
 130,600 
 
 189,320 
 
 496,000 
 
 146,999 
 
 158,800 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 72,300 
 
 72,100 
 
 28,200 
 
 39,400 
 
 121,400 
 
 19,361 
 
 32,400 
 
 Artillery 
 
 86,516 
 
 83,620 
 
 34,800 
 
 35,100 
 
 112,000 
 
 36,977 
 
 18,200 
 
 Engineers and Train 
 
 36,113 
 
 27,214 
 
 13,860 
 
 15,300 
 
 34,000 
 
 7,900 
 
 28,fOO 
 
 Horses 
 
 120,300 
 
 118,700 
 
 59,000 
 
 67,000 
 
 178,600 
 
 29,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 Guns 
 
 2,864 
 
 3,400 
 
 1,268 
 
 1,624 
 
 2,312 
 
 720 
 
 696 
 
 TOT. PEACE ESTABLISHMENT. 
 Men 
 
 591,715 
 
 561,848 
 
 208,060 
 
 279,120 
 
 761,400 
 
 211,237 
 
 237,400 
 
 Horses 
 
 120,300 
 
 118,700 
 
 59,000 
 
 67,000 
 
 178,600 
 
 29,000 
 
 36,600 
 
 Guns 
 
 2,864 
 
 3,400 
 
 1,268 
 
 1,624 
 
 2,312 
 
 720 
 
 696 
 
 This table does not include fortress guns. * Including regular forces in India and the colonies. 
 
 LAND FORCES. 
 
 CLASSES. 
 
 a 
 I 
 
 GO 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 I 
 
 Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 Sweden 
 and 
 Norway. 
 
 DANUBIAN 
 STATES. 
 
 Rou- 
 
 iii. i n LI . 
 
 Bul- 
 garia. 
 
 Ser- 
 via. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 59,600 
 9,800 
 15,300 
 6,512 
 
 31,690 
 6,213 
 8,740 
 2,600 
 
 43,400 
 4,290 
 12,960 
 1,896 
 
 24.470 
 2,400 
 9,616 
 1,200 
 
 12,000 
 1,200 
 2,800 
 4,100 
 
 120,300 
 3,100 
 9,812 
 6,214 
 
 .... 
 
 22,100 
 2,492 
 4,820 
 1,950 
 
 52,300 
 7,800 
 3,100 
 2,100 
 
 33,112 
 2,300 
 2.000 
 1,620 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Engineers and Train 
 
 Total Active Army 
 
 90,212 
 
 49,273 
 
 62,546 
 46,000 
 
 4,600 
 1,900 
 
 37,686 20,100 
 
 129,426 
 
 38,840 
 
 31,362 
 
 65,300 
 
 39,032 
 
 East Indian Troops 
 
 Sanitary and Administfative 
 Troops 
 
 17.600 
 *52,000 
 17,600 
 
 5,100 
 
 3,200 
 1,400 
 
 1,200 
 
 4,200 
 
 1,600 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,400 
 
 2,700 
 
 West Indian Troops 
 Philippine Troops .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 :::: 
 
 
 First Reserves 
 
 180,000 
 1,000.000 
 
 65,600 
 50,000 
 
 53,000 
 78,001 
 
 42,000 
 48,000 
 
 90,000 
 120,000 
 21,300 
 
 81,000 
 270,000 
 
 90,000 
 125,000 
 
 83,000 
 110,000 
 
 41,000 
 165,000 
 
 84,000 
 132,000 
 
 Second Reserves 
 
 Total Peace Strength 
 
 177,412 r>4.:u:i 
 
 115,040 42.i!*ii 
 
 133,626 
 
 40,440 33,362 
 
 67,700; 41,732 
 
 Total War Strength 
 
 1,357,412 | 169,943 
 
 246,046 132,286 231,300 
 
 484,626 
 
 225,440 226,362 
 
 173,700 257,732 
 
 * Remaining in Cuba November 30, 1898. 
 
 CONDITIONS OF SERVICE AND AVAILABLE STRENGTH OF POWERS. 
 
 Every year the young men who attain the age in which they are available for military service are enrolled, in 
 advance, in every European country. These ages run generally from 21 to 45, and this time is divided up by serv- 
 ice; first, in the active army, which answers to our regular establishment; second, in the reserve to the active 
 army; third, in the Landwehr ; fourth, in the Landsturm, in which they are never called out, except in time of 
 war, and then for defense of the fatherland only. 
 
 Liberty Bell was cast in London in 1752 
 by order of the Pennsylvania Assembly, for 
 use in their State House. The bell reached 
 Philadelphia the following year, but it cracked 
 without any apparent reason when it was rung 
 to test the sound, and it was necessary to have 
 
 it recast. This was done by Philadelphia 
 workmen, and in June, 1753, it was again 
 hung in the belfry of the State House. On 
 July 4, 1776, when the Continental Congress 
 declared the colonies independent of Great 
 Britain, the bell was rung for two hours, so
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 633 
 
 the story goes, by the old bellman, who was so 
 filled with enthusiasm and excitement that he 
 could not stop. It was taken down when the 
 British threatened Philadelphia in 1777, and 
 removed to Bethlehem, Pa., but was returned 
 to the State House in 1778, and a new steeple 
 was built for it. A few years afterward it 
 cracked under a stroke of the hammer, and 
 although an attempt has been made to restore 
 its tone by sawing the crack wider, it has been 
 unsuccessful. During the World's Fair in 
 New Orleans in 1885, the bell was sent there 
 for exhibition. It left Philadelphia, January 
 24th, in the charge of three custodians ap- 
 pointed by the mayor of the city, who did not 
 leave it day or night until it was returned in 
 June of the same year. The train carrying 
 the bell was preceded over the entire route by a 
 pilot engine. The following words are in- 
 scribed around it : " By order of the Assembly 
 of the Province of Pennsylvania, for the State 
 House, in the City of Philadelphia, 1752," 
 and underneath, "Proclaim liberty through 
 all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof 
 Levit. xxv. 10." Its weight is about 2,000 
 pounds. 
 
 Sizes of Books. The name indicates 
 the number of pages in the sheet, thus : in a 
 folio book, 4 pages or 2 leaves= 1 sheet; a 
 quarto, or 4to, has 8 pages or 4 leaves to a 
 sheet ; an octavo, or 8vo, 16 pages or 8 leaves 
 to a sheet. In a 12mo, 24 pages or 12 leaves 
 = one sheet, and the 18mo, 36 pages, or 18 
 leaves = 1 sheet, and so on. The following 
 are the approximate sizes of books : 
 
 Royal Folio 19 inches 
 
 Demy 18 
 
 Super Imp. Quarto (4to) 15y 2 
 
 Royal 4to 12V 2 
 
 Demy 4to lli/ 2 
 
 Crown 4to 11 
 
 Royal Octavo 10V Z 
 
 Medium 8vo 9V 2 
 
 Demy 8vo 9 
 
 Crown 8vo 7 J ._, 
 
 Foolscap 8vo 7 
 
 12mo 7 
 
 16mo 6*4 
 
 Square 16mo 4V 2 
 
 Royal 24mo 514 
 
 Demy 24mo 5 
 
 Roya'l 32mo 5 
 
 Post 32mo 4 
 
 Demy 48mo 3% 
 
 Boomerang is an instrument of war or of 
 the chase used by the aborigines of Australia. 
 It is of hard wood, of a bent form ; the shape 
 is parabolic. It is about two and a half inches 
 broad, a third of an inch thick, and two feet 
 long, the extremities being rounded. The 
 method of using this remarkable weapon is 
 very peculiar. It is taken by one end, with 
 the bulged side downward, and thrown for- 
 ward as if to hit some object twenty-five yards 
 in advance. Instead of continuing to go di- 
 
 x 12 
 x H 
 
 X 13 
 X 10 
 
 X & 'o 
 
 X 8 
 
 X 6V 2 
 
 X 6 
 
 X 5% 
 
 X 4V 2 
 
 X 4 
 
 X 4 
 
 X 4 
 
 X 3i/ 2 
 
 x 314 
 
 X 2% 
 
 X 3 
 
 X 2V 2 
 
 X 2V 4 
 
 rectly forward, as would naturally be expected, 
 it slowly ascends in the air, whirling round and 
 round, and describing a curved line till it 
 reaches a considerable height, when it begins 
 to retrograde, and finally sweeps over the head 
 of the projector and falls behind him. This 
 surprising motion is produced by the reaction 
 of the air upon a missile of this peculiar shape. 
 The boomerang is one of the ancient instru- 
 ments of war of the natives of Australia. They 
 are said to be very dexterous in hitting birds 
 with it the birds, being, of course, behind 
 them, and perhaps not aware that they are ob- 
 jects of attack. 
 
 United States Census of 1890. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Ohio ; 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode" Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsi n 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Delaware, Raritan, and New 
 York Bavs 
 
 Popula- Square 
 
 tion. Miles. 
 
 1.513,017 52,250 
 
 1,128,179 53,850 
 
 1,208,130 158,360 
 
 412,198 103,925 
 
 746,258 4,990 
 
 168,493 2,050 
 
 391,422 58,680 
 
 1,837,353 59,475 
 
 84.385 84,800 
 
 3,826,351 56,050 
 
 2,192.404 36,350 
 
 1,911,896 56,025 
 
 1,427,096 82,080 
 
 1,858,635 40,400 
 
 1,118.587 48.720 
 
 661,086 33,040 
 
 1,042,390 12.210 
 
 2,238.943 8,315 
 
 2,093,889 58,915 
 
 1,301.826 83,365 
 
 1,289.600 46,810 
 
 2,679,184 69,415 
 
 132,159 146,080 
 
 1,058.910 77,510 
 
 45,761 110,700 
 
 376530 9,305 
 
 1,444.933 7,815 
 
 5,997,853 49,170 
 
 1,617,947 52,250 
 
 182,719 68,645 
 
 3,672,316 41,060 
 
 313,767 96,030 
 
 5,258,014 45,215 
 
 345,506 1,250 
 
 1,151.149 30.570 
 
 328,808 79.800 
 
 1,766,518 42,050 
 
 2,235.523 265,780 
 
 332.422 9,565 
 
 1,655,980 42,450 
 
 349,390 69,180 
 
 762,794 24,780 
 
 1,686.880 56,040 
 
 60,705 97,890 
 
 720 
 
 TOTAL, STATES. 61,908,906 2,634,530 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Arizona 59,620 113,020 
 
 District of Columbia 230,392 70 
 
 New Mexico 153,593 122,580 
 
 Oklahoma 61,834 39,450 
 
 Utah 207,905 84,970 
 
 Elector- 
 al vole. 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 12 
 3 
 22 
 15 
 13 
 
 9 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 14 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 36 
 11 
 
 3 
 23 
 
 3 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 12 
 13 
 
 4 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 420 
 
 TOTAL, TERRITORIES, 713,344 
 Excluding Alaska, Indian Ter. 
 
 360,090 
 
 and Indians. .Grand Total, 62,622,250 
 
 Straslmrg Clock. The celebrated as- 
 tronomical clock of Strasburg is in the minster, 
 or cathedral, and was originally designed by 
 an astronomer named Isaac Habrecht, in the
 
 634 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 early part of the sixteenth century. Previous 
 to this time, in fact as early as 1.354, Stras- 
 burg had an astronomical clock. It was in 
 three parts. The lower part had a universal 
 calendar, the central part an astrolabe, and in 
 the upper division were figures of the three 
 Magi and the Virgin. At every hour the 
 Magi came forward and bowed to the Virgin ; 
 at the same time a chime was played, and a 
 mechanical cock crew. This Clock of the 
 Magi, as it was called, stopped in the early 
 part of the sixteenth century, and was replaced 
 by the clock made by Habrecht, which ran un- 
 til 1789, when it stopped, and all attempts to 
 put its works in order failed. In 1838 a clock- 
 maker named Schwilgue undertook to remodel 
 the internal machinery, and finished it in 1842. 
 The case of the clock made by Habrecht was 
 retained. A perpetual calendar, forming a 
 ring around a dial thirty feet in circumference, 
 occupies the central part of the lower division 
 of the clock. At midnight, December 31st, 
 the clock regulates itself (for the new year) 
 for 365 or 366 days, as the case may be even 
 the omission of the bissextile day every 400 
 years being provided for. The disk within the 
 calendar shows the eclipses of the sun and 
 moon, calculated for all time to come. On 
 one side Apollo points with an arrow to the 
 date and name of the saint for the day. On 
 the opposite side stands Diana, the goddess of ! 
 night. Above the calendar is a niche in which, 
 on each day, the mythological deity of the day 
 appears Apollo on Sunday, Diana on Monday, 
 Mars on Tuesday, Mercury on Wednesday, 
 Jupiter on Thursday, Venus on Friday, and 
 Saturn on Saturday. Above this is a dial 
 marking the mean time in hours and quarters, 
 with two genii, one on each side, the one 
 striking the first stroke of every quarter, the 
 other turning over the hourglass at the last stroke 
 of the last quarter. Then follows an orrery, 
 showing the revolution of the seven visible plan- 
 ets around the sun, and, above, a globe giving the 
 phases of the moon. Still above this, in a niche, 
 four figures revolve around the skeleton image of 
 Death, in the center. Childhood strikes the 
 first quarter, Youth the second, Manhood the 
 third, and old Age the last Death strikes 
 the hour. In a higher niche stands the image 
 of our Saviour. At twelve o'clock the Twelve 
 Apostles pass before Him in line, and He raises 
 His hands to bless them. St. Peter closes the 
 procession, and, as he passes, the mechanical 
 cock on top of the case flaps his wings and crows 
 three times. The left turret of this wonderful 
 clock contains the weights and machinery, and 
 has in its lower part the portrait of Schwilgue, 
 above this the figure of Copernicus, and yet 
 above, the muse Urania. At the foot of the 
 
 case is a celestial globe, calculated for observa- 
 tion at the latitude of Strasburg. The clock 
 is wound up every eight days. The mythical 
 story of the city fathers of Strasburg putting out 
 the eyes of the clockmaker to prevent his build- 
 ing a similar clock refers to Isaac Habrecht. 
 
 Age. A man's working life is divided into 
 four decades : 20 to 30, bronze ; 30 to 40, silver ; 
 40 to 50, gold; 50 to 60, iron. Intellect and 
 judgment are strongest between 40 and 50. 
 The percentages of population to age in various 
 countries are shown thus : 
 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION. 
 
 Average age 
 of all living, 
 Years. 
 
 Tinder 
 20 Years. 
 
 From 
 20 to 60 
 
 Over 60. 
 
 United States... 
 England ... . 
 
 50 
 46 
 46 
 46 
 36 
 43 
 44 
 43 
 48 
 42 
 46 
 40 
 43 
 42 
 43 
 43 
 
 45 
 47 
 45 
 43 
 52 
 49 
 49 
 50 
 47 
 52 
 45 
 50 
 49 
 50 
 49 
 48 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 9 
 11 
 12 
 8 
 7 
 7 
 5 
 6 
 9 
 10 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 9 
 
 24.9 
 27.1 
 27.4 
 28.6 
 32.2 
 28.0 
 27.6 
 27.7 
 25.5 
 27.2 
 27.3 
 29.7 
 28.3 
 28.4 
 28.0 
 28.0 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Italy 
 
 Austria 
 
 Greece 
 
 Spain 
 
 Brazil ^ 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Holland 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 The Americans are the youngest, the French the 
 oldest. 
 
 Garter, Order of The, was founded in 
 1344, some writers say 1350, by Edward III. 
 The original number of knights was twenty- 
 five, his majesty himself making the twenty- 
 sixth. It was founded in honor of the Holy 
 Trinity, the Virgin Mary, St. Edward the 
 Confessor, and St. George. The last, who 
 had become the tutelary saint of England, was 
 considered its special patron, and for this rea- 
 son it has alway borne the title of ' ' The Order 
 of St. George," as well as that of " The Gar- 
 ter." The emblem of the order is a dark blue 
 ribbon, edged with gold, bearing the motto, 
 Honisoit qui mal ypense, in golden letters, with 
 a buckle and pendant of gold richly chased. 
 It is worn on the left leg below the knee. 
 Regarding the adoption of this emblem and 
 motto, the story is that the Countess of Salis- 
 bury let fall her garter when dancing with the 
 king, and that he picked it up and tied it round 
 his own leg, but that, observing the jealous 
 glances of the queen, he restored it to its fair 
 owner, with the exclamation, Honi soit qui mal 
 y pense. The Order of the Garter, though not 
 the most ancient, is one of the most famous 
 military orders of Europe. It is said to have 
 been devised for the purpose of attracting to 
 the king's party such soldiers of fortune as 
 might be likely to aid in asserting the claim 
 which he was then making to the crown of 
 France, and intended as an imitation of King
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 335 
 
 Arthur's Round Table. The officers of the 
 order are the Prelate, the Chancellor, the Reg- 
 ister, the Garter King of Arms, and the Usher 
 of the Black Rod. 
 
 Number of Miles from New York to 
 
 903 
 
 785 
 
 262 
 
 1,385 
 
 840 
 
 1,354 
 
 1,430 
 
 507 
 
 900 
 
 261 
 
 404 
 
 1,121 
 
 1,049 
 
 1.289 
 
 1,100 
 
 996 
 
 1.370 
 
 1,193 
 
 454 
 
 275 
 
 1,085 
 
 903 
 
 181 
 
 32 
 
 53 
 
 76 
 
 1.550 
 
 744 
 
 162 
 
 45 
 
 1,455 
 
 237 
 
 17 
 
 1,072 
 
 378 
 
 88 
 
 431 
 
 344 
 
 193 
 
 1,176 
 
 976 
 
 669 
 
 128 
 
 356 
 
 386 
 
 1,093 
 
 264 
 
 238 
 
 2,900 
 
 1,384 
 
 1,084 
 
 1,441 
 
 252 
 
 2,410 
 
 3,038 
 
 642 
 
 182 
 
 974 
 
 142 
 
 1,062 
 
 138 
 
 828 
 
 486 
 
 14.3 
 
 302 
 
 210 
 
 1,190 
 
 912 
 
 742 
 
 463 
 
 58 
 
 148 
 
 237 
 
 1,542 
 
 230 
 
 522 
 
 116 
 
 604 
 
 192 
 
 
 775 
 610 
 143 
 238 
 1,551 
 434 
 92 
 1,060 
 222 
 716 
 1,368 
 1,018 
 328 
 407 
 887 
 951 
 188 
 482 
 382 
 1,320 
 424 
 658 
 215 
 272 
 1,037 
 236 
 215 
 632 
 433 
 74 
 1,122 
 280 
 239 
 91 
 377 
 2,800 
 246 
 874 
 ' 235 
 980 
 911 
 645 
 744 
 640 
 581 
 744 
 624 
 308 
 745 
 
 Lafavette, Ind 
 
 
 Lansing, Mich 
 
 Albany N Y 
 
 Lawrence, Mass 
 
 Alexandria, Va 
 
 Leaven worth, Kan. . . 
 Lexington, Ky 
 
 
 
 Lexington, Mo 
 
 Allentown, Pa 
 
 Little Rock, Ark 
 Lockport, N. Y 
 
 Alton 111 
 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich 
 
 Lowell, Mass 
 
 Lynchburg, Va 
 
 
 Macon, Ga 
 
 
 Madison, Wis 
 
 
 Memphis, Tenn 
 
 
 Milledgeville, Ga 
 Milwaukee, Wis . 
 
 
 
 Mobile, Ala 
 
 Bangor, Me 
 
 Montgomery, Ala 
 Montpelier, Vt 
 
 Bath Me 
 
 Baton Rouge, La 
 Belfast Me 
 
 Nashua, N. H 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 Bellefontaine, Ohio.. 
 Binghamton, N. Y. . . 
 Blackstone, Mass 
 Bloomington, 111 
 
 New Albany, Ind 
 New Bedford, Mass.. 
 New Brunswick, N. J.. 
 Newburgh, N. Y 
 
 New Haven , Conn 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 Bristol, R. I 
 
 
 Newport, Ky 
 
 Buffalo NY 
 
 Newport, R. I 
 
 Burlington, N. J 
 Burlington, Iowa 
 
 Norwalk, Conn 
 
 Omaha, Neb ... . 
 
 Oswego, N. Y 
 
 Cambridge, Mass 
 
 Paterson, N. J 
 
 Peoria, 111 
 
 Canandaigua, N. Y. . . 
 Carson City, Nevada. 
 Chambersburg, Pa. . . 
 Charleston S C 
 
 Petersburg, Va 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 Pittsburg, Pa 
 
 Portland, Me 
 
 Charlestown, Mass. . . 
 Chattanooga, Tenn... 
 Chicago 111 
 
 Providence, R. I 
 
 Quincy, 111 
 
 Kacine, W r is 
 
 Chillicothe, Ohjo 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 Circleville, Ohio 
 
 Raleigh, N. C 
 
 Reading, Pa 
 
 Richmond, Va 
 
 Cleveland Ohio 
 
 Rochester, N. Y . 
 
 Columbia, S. C 
 
 Rock Island, 111 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 
 
 Rome, N. Y 
 
 
 
 
 Sacramento, Cal .... 
 
 Cumberland, Md 
 
 364 
 1,093 
 804 
 1,980 
 1,251 
 679 
 304 
 1,100 
 460 
 274 
 508 
 1,021 
 180 
 218 
 1,598 
 763 
 296 
 1,083 
 1,076 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo 
 
 Davenport, Iowa 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 St Paul, Minn 
 
 
 Salem, Mass... 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah. 
 San Francisco, Cal 
 Sandusky, Ohio 
 
 Dover N H 
 
 
 Saratoga, N. Y 
 
 Dunkirk, N. Y 
 
 Savannah, Ga 
 Scranton , Pa 
 
 Elmira, N Y 
 
 Erie, Pa 
 
 Springfield, 111 
 
 Evansville, Ind 
 
 Springfield, Mass 
 Springfield, Ohio 
 Staunton, Va 
 
 Fall River, Mass 
 
 Fitchburg, Mass 
 Fort Kearney, Neb. . . 
 Fort Wayne, Ind 
 Fredericksburg, Va.. 
 Galena, 111 
 
 Stonington, Conn 
 Syracuse, N. Y 
 Taunton, Mass 
 
 Tallahassee, Fla 
 Terre Haute, Ind... . 
 
 Galesburg, 111 
 
 Galveston, Tex 
 
 1,900 
 228 
 766 
 182 
 112 
 115 
 838 
 1,498 
 1,210 
 839 
 1,361 
 88 
 
 Toledo, Ohio 
 
 Georgetown, D. C 
 Hamilton, Ohio 
 
 Tonawanda, N. Y 
 Trenton, N. J 
 Troy, N. Y 
 
 Hartford, Conn 
 
 Utica, N. Y 
 
 
 Vicksburg, Miss 
 Washington, D. C 
 Wheeling, AV. Va 
 Wilmington, Del 
 Wilmington, N. < . . . . 
 Worcester, Mass 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind 
 
 Jefferson City, Mo... 
 Kalamazoo, Mich 
 Kansas City , Mo 
 Kineston. N. Y. .. 
 
 Number of Miles by Water 
 New York to 
 
 from 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Boston 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Canton 
 
 Cape Horn 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Columbia River 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Halifax 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Havana 
 
 Havre 
 
 3,510 
 
 660 
 
 11,574 
 
 310 
 
 7,110 
 
 12,425 
 
 13,900 
 
 8,115 
 
 6,830 
 
 750 
 
 15,965 
 
 5,140 
 
 3,225 
 
 3,300 
 
 612 
 
 3,775 
 
 1,420 
 
 3,210 
 
 Kingston 1,640 
 
 Lima 11,310 
 
 Liverpool 3,210 
 
 London 3,375 
 
 Madras 11,850 
 
 Naples 4,330 
 
 New Orleans 2,045 
 
 Panama 2,358 
 
 Pekin 15,325 
 
 Philadelphia 240 
 
 Quebec 1,400 
 
 Rio Janeiro 3,840 
 
 Round the Globe 25,000 
 
 Sandwich Islands. . . 15,300 
 
 San Francisco 15,858 
 
 St. Petersburg 4,420 
 
 Valparaiso 9,750 
 
 Washington 400 
 
 Patents Issued Since 1852. 
 
 
 TATENTS AND CERTIFICATES OF REGISTRATION ISSUED 
 
 Year 
 
 Patents 
 
 Designs 
 
 Reis- 
 sues 
 
 Total 
 Talents 
 
 Trade- 
 marks 
 
 Labels 
 
 Total 
 Certin- 
 cntes 
 
 1852 
 
 890 
 
 109 
 
 20 
 
 1,019 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1860 
 
 4,363 
 
 183 
 
 232 
 
 4,778 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 12,157 
 
 737 
 
 439 
 
 13,333 
 
 121 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 1880 
 
 12,926 
 
 515 
 
 506 
 
 13,947 
 
 349 
 
 203 
 
 552 
 
 1890 
 
 25.322 
 
 886 
 
 84 
 
 26,292 
 
 1,415 
 
 304 
 
 1,719 
 
 1891 
 
 22,328 
 
 836 
 
 80 
 
 23,244 
 
 1,762 
 
 a 137 
 
 1,899 
 
 1892 
 
 22,661 
 
 817 
 
 81 
 
 23,559 
 
 1,737 
 
 6 
 
 1,743 
 
 1893 
 
 22,768 
 
 902 
 
 99 
 
 23,769 
 
 1,677 
 
 
 
 1,677 
 
 1894 
 
 19,875 
 
 928 
 
 64 
 
 28,867 
 
 1,806 
 
 
 
 1,806 
 
 1895 
 
 20,883 
 
 1,115 
 
 59 
 
 22,057 
 
 1,829 
 
 3 
 
 1,832 
 
 1896 
 
 21,867 
 
 1,445 
 
 61 
 
 23,273 
 
 1,813 
 
 b\ 
 
 1,846 
 
 1897 
 
 22,098 
 
 1,631 
 
 65 
 
 23,794 
 
 1,671 
 
 c!4 
 
 1,701 
 
 1898 
 
 20,404 
 
 1,803 
 
 60 
 
 22,267 
 
 1,238 
 
 d200 
 
 1,473 
 
 a Registration of labels practically ceased May 27, 
 1891, under decision of United States Supreme Court in 
 Higgins et al. v. Keuffel etal. (55 O. G., 1139). 
 b 32 Prints. c 16 Prints. d 35 Prints. ' 
 NOTE. The number of patents granted prior to the 
 commencement of this series of numbering (July 28, 
 1836) was 9957. 
 
 The whole number of original patents, in- 
 cluding designs, issued up to Dec. 31, 1898, 
 was 646,785. 
 
 Scales of Different Thermometers. 
 
 Reaumur. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Water Boils. 
 
 80 
 
 100" 
 
 212 
 
 (Bar. at 30 inch.) 
 
 76 
 
 95 
 
 203 
 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 194 
 
 
 68 
 
 85 
 
 185 
 
 
 63V 2 
 
 79% 
 
 174 
 
 Alcohol Boils. 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 167 
 
 
 56 
 
 70 
 
 158 
 
 
 52 
 
 65 
 
 149 
 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 140 
 
 
 44 
 
 65 
 
 131 
 
 
 43 
 
 53 
 
 127 
 
 Tallow Melts. 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 122 
 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 113 
 
 
 34 
 
 42^ 
 
 108 
 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 104 
 
 Fever Heat. 
 
 29 
 
 37 
 
 98 
 
 Blood Heat. 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 95 
 
 
 253/4 
 
 321/4 
 
 90 
 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 86 
 
 
 2114 
 
 26% 
 
 80 
 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 77 
 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 76 
 
 Summer Heat. 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 68 
 
 
 IS 3 /* 
 
 171/4 
 
 63 
 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 59 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 10 
 
 55 
 50 
 
 Temperate. 
 Temp, of Spring 
 
 5% 
 
 71^ 
 
 45 
 
 Water. 
 
 3J/3 
 
 4% 
 
 40 
 
 
 I/a 
 
 2 
 
 35 

 
 636 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 Water Freezes, 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 23 
 
 5>/ 2 
 
 7 
 
 20 Wine Freezes. 
 
 8 
 
 -10 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 -12/ 2 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 Zero, Fahr. 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 '25 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 -37 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 40 Mercury Freezes. 
 
 -103 
 
 -130 
 
 -200 Pure Alcohol Freezes. 
 
 Xo. Brick Required to Construct any 
 
 Building. 
 
 (Reckoning 7 Brick to each superficial foot.) 
 
 Superficial Feet 
 of Wall. 
 
 Number of Cricks to Thickness of 
 
 4 inch. 
 
 8 inch. 12 inch. 16 inch. 
 
 20 inch. 
 
 24 inch 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 15 
 23 
 30 
 
 38 
 45 
 53 
 60 
 68 
 75 
 150 
 225 
 300 
 375 
 450- 
 525 
 600 
 C75 
 750 
 1,500 
 2 2TO 
 3.000 
 
 15 
 30 
 45 
 60 
 75 
 90 
 105 
 120 
 135 
 150 
 300 
 450 
 600 
 750 
 900 
 1,050 
 1,200 
 1,350 
 1,500 
 3,000 
 4,500 
 6,000 
 7,500 
 9,000 
 10,500 
 12,000 
 13,500 
 15.000 
 
 23 
 
 45 
 68 
 90 
 113 
 135 
 158 
 180 
 203 
 225 
 450 
 675 
 900 
 1,125 
 1,350 
 1,575 
 1,800 
 2,025 
 2,250 
 4,00 
 6.750 
 9,000 
 11.250 
 13500 
 15,750 
 18,000 
 20.250 
 22,500 
 
 30 
 60 
 90 
 120 
 150 
 180 
 210 
 240 
 270 
 300 
 600 
 900 
 1,200 
 1,500 
 1,800 
 2,100 
 2,400 
 2,700 
 3,000 
 6,000 
 9,000 
 12,000 
 15,000 
 18,000 
 21/00 
 24.000 
 27.000 
 30,000 
 
 38 
 75 
 113 
 150 
 
 188 
 225 
 263 
 300 
 338 
 375 
 750 
 1,125 
 1,500 
 1,875 
 2,250 
 2,625 
 3,000 
 3,375 
 3,750 
 7 500 
 11,250 
 15,000 
 18,750 
 22,500 
 26,250 
 30,000 
 33,750 
 37,500 
 
 45 
 90 
 135 
 180 
 
 225 
 270 
 315 
 360 
 405 
 450 
 900 
 1,350 
 1,800 
 2.250 
 2,700 
 3.150 
 3,600 
 4,050 
 4,500 
 9,000 
 13,500 
 18,000 i 
 22,500 
 'J7.000 
 31.500 
 36 000 
 40.500 
 45,000 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 3,750 
 4 500 
 5,250 
 6000 
 K.750 
 7,500 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 
 Comparative Yield of Various Grains, 
 Vegetables, and Fruits. 
 
 . Lbs. per acre.' Lbs. per acre. 
 Hops 44'2 firnss 7 ftfto 
 
 Wheat 1,2CO 
 
 'arrota 
 Potato* 
 
 6 800 
 
 Barley 1,600 
 
 '8 7,500 
 
 Oats 1.^40 Apples 8,OCO 
 
 Pease 1,920 Turnips 8.420 
 
 Beans 2,000 Cinquefoil grass 9,600 
 
 Plums 2,000 Vetches, green 9,800 
 
 Cherries 2,000 Cabbage 10,900 
 
 Onions 2,800 Parsnips 11,200 
 
 Hay 4,000 Mangel-Wurzel 22,000 
 
 Pears 5,000 
 
 Yellowstone Park is situated, the 
 greater part, in Wyoming, the remainder partly 
 in Montana and partly in Idaho, and comprises 
 3,575 square miles. The adaptability of this 
 section of the country to the purposes of a 
 national park was first brought prominently 
 before the public by a company of surveyors 
 who visited the region in the year 1869. In 
 1870 and 1871 the territory was again ex- 
 plored by scientific expeditions, and the re- 
 ports of the first visitors were confirmed. The 
 expedition of 1871 was headed by Profes- 
 
 sor Ilayden, and upon his representations an 
 act was passed by Congress, and approved 
 March 1, 1872, by which what is now known 
 as the Yellowstone National Park was "re- 
 served and withdrawn from settlement, occu- 
 pancy, or sale, and dedicated and set apart as a 
 public park or pleasure-ground for the benefit 
 and enjoyment of the people." This great park 
 contains the most striking of all the mountains, 
 gorges, falls, rivers, and lakes in the whole 
 Yellowstone region. The mountain ranges 
 rise to the height of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet, 
 and are always covered with snow. The banks 
 of the Yellowstone river abound with ravines 
 and canyons, which are carved out of the heart 
 of the mountains through the hardest rocks. 
 The most remarkable of these is the canyon of 
 Tower Creek and Column Mountain, which is 
 about ten miles in length, and is so deep and 
 gloomy that it is called " The Devil's Den." 
 The Grand Canyon, which beginswhere Tower 
 Creek ends, is twenty miles in length, is im- 
 passable throughout, and is inaccessible at the 
 water's edge except at a few points, and its 
 depth is so profound that no sound ever reaches 
 the ear from the bottom. The Park contains 
 a great multitude of hot springs of sulphur, 
 sulphate of copper, alum, etc. There are at 
 least 50 geysers that throw columns of water to 
 the height of from 50 to 200 feet, and the falls 
 of this wonderland are considered marvelous. 
 The altitude of the entire Park is 6,000 feet or 
 more above the sea level. 
 
 Aqueducts. Among modern works the 
 most famous are : 
 
 Length. Million gal's 
 
 Miles. daily. 
 
 Croton (New York) 41 88 
 
 Madrid 47 40 
 
 Marseilles 51 60 
 
 Glasgow 34 50 
 
 Washington 16 90 
 
 Rome, in the time of the Ca?sars, had nine 
 aqueducts, measuring 249 miles in the aggre- 
 gate, and with a daily capacity of 320,000,000 
 gallons, or 200 gallons per inhabitant. The 
 great aqueduct of Peru, built by the Incas, 
 was 360 miles long. 
 
 Watches of the Night. The Jews, like 
 the Greeks and Romans, says the Rev. Dr. 
 William Smith in his " Bible Dictionary," 
 divided the night into watches instead of hours, 
 each watch representing the period for which 
 sentinels or pickets remained on duty. The 
 proper Jewish reckoning recognized only three 
 such watches, entitled the first or " beginning 
 of the watches " (Lamentations ii, 19), the 
 middle watch (Judges vii, 19), and the morn- 
 ing watch (Exodus xiv, 24 ; I Samuel xi, 11). 
 These would last, respectively, from sunset to 
 ten o'clock p. M., from ten o'clock P. M. to 
 
 Cost. 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 11,500,000 
 
 2,250,000 
 
 7,775,000
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 637 
 
 two o'clock A. M., and from two o'clock A. M. 
 to sunrise. After the establishment of the 
 Roman supremacy the number of the watches 
 was increased to four, which were described 
 either according to their numerical order, as in 
 the case of the " fourth watch " (Matthew xiv, 
 25), or by the terms "even," "midnight," 
 " cockcrowing, " and " morning " (Mark xiii, 
 35). These terminated, respectively, at nine 
 o'clock P. M., midnight, three o'clock A. M., 
 and six o'clock A. M. 
 
 Walkyries. The name " Walkyries " is 
 derived from the old Norse val, which signifies 
 a heap of slaughtered men, and kjora, to 
 choose. In the Scandinavian mythology the 
 Walkyries, also called battle-maidens, shield- 
 maidens, and wish-maidens, are beautiful 
 young women, who, adorned with golden orna- 
 ments, ride through the air in brilliant armor, 
 order battles and distribute the death-lots ac- 
 cording to Odin's command. Fertilizing dew- 
 drops on the ground from the manes of their 
 hcrses, light streams from the points of their 
 lances, and a flickering brightness announce 
 their arrival in the battle. They rejoice the 
 glazing eye of the hero with their charming 
 glances, and lead him to Walhalla, where they 
 act as his cup-bearers. Some of the Walky- 
 ries spring from elves and other superhuman 
 beings ; some, also, are the daughters of 
 princes. They ride generally in companies of 
 three, or of three times three, or four times 
 three, and have the gift of changing them- 
 selves into swans. Whoever deprives a Walky- 
 rie of her swan-robe gets her into his power. 
 
 Mourning Customs. From the earliest 
 times the manner of expressing grief at death 
 has differed in different countries. The He- 
 brew period of mourning was usually seven 
 days ; but in some instances, as at the death 
 of Moses and Aaron, it was extended to thirty 
 days. The mourners tore their clothing, cut 
 off the hair and beard, strewed ashes on their 
 heads, and cast themselves on the ground, 
 weeping and smiting their breasts. The Greeks 
 mourned thirty days, except in Sparta, where 
 the mourning period was limited to ten days, and 
 wore coarse black garments, cut off their hair, 
 and secluded themselves from the public gaze. 
 In the event of the death of a great general, 
 the whole army cut off their hair, and also the 
 manes of their horses. The Roman mourning 
 period lasted only a few days ; but if the death 
 was that of some great ruler or general, all 
 business was stopped, and the forum and the 
 schools were closed. Among the Fiji Island- 
 ers the women are required to burn their 
 bodies on the death of a chief, and in the 
 Sandwich Islands the people go into mourning 
 by knocking out the front teeth and by paint- 
 
 ing the lower part of the face black. The 
 mourning color among the Romans under the 
 republic was black or dark blue for both sexes, 
 but during the empire the women wore white. 
 In Europe and America the color is black ; in 
 Turkey, it is violet ; in China, white ; in Egypt, 
 yellow ; in Ethiopia, brown. It is customary 
 for the courts in all European countries to go 
 into mourning on the occasion of the death of 
 a member of a royal family. The custom of 
 draping buildings on the death of a great man 
 : or a hero of national reputation has always 
 prevailed in the United States. 
 
 Xatural Gas. The earliest use of natu- 
 ral gas of which there is any record is in 
 China, where for centuries it has been con- 
 veyed from fissures in salt-mines to the surface 
 through hollow bamboos and used for burning 
 purposes. There are also places in Asia, near 
 i the Caspian Sea, where it is seen to issue from 
 the earth, and a similar phenomenon is to be 
 seen in the Szalatna salt-mine in Hungary. 
 The first discovery of natural gas made in 
 i America was in the neighborhood of Fredonia, 
 | Chautauqua County, New York, early in this 
 century. In 1821 a small well was bored in 
 ; the village and the gas was conducted through 
 | pipes to the houses and used for illuminating 
 purposes, and, on the occasion of Lafayette's 
 visit in 1824, it is said that the village was 
 illuminated with this gas. Although this dis- 
 covery was widely known it did not lead to 
 any further experiments, either in the neighbor- 
 hood or in other places, till fully twenty years 
 after. In the early part of the present century 
 I it was found that the wells which were bored 
 for salt in the Kanawha Valley yielded large 
 j quantities of gas, but it was not utilized as 
 fuel until 1841. In 1865, a well which was 
 sunk for petroleum at West Bloomfield, New 
 York, struck a flow of natural gas. An effort 
 i was made to utilize this, and it was carried in 
 ' a wooden main to the city of Rochester, a dis- 
 I tance of twenty-four miles, in 1870, for the 
 purpose of illuminating the city, but the ex- 
 periment was a failure. In 1873, a well in 
 Armstrong County, Pennsylvania, was so ar- 
 ranged that the gas could be separated from 
 the water with which it was discharged, and 
 ! conveyed through pipes to several mills in 
 I that vicinity, where it was extensively used for 
 I manufacturing purposes for the first time, 
 i From that date to the present day the use of 
 natural gas, both for fuel and illuminating, has 
 increased very rapidly, it having been discov- 
 ered in other parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 
 Indiana. 
 
 Associated Press was organized about 
 
 thirty years ago by the following New York 
 
 ' city papers : Herald, Tribune, World, Times,
 
 638 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Sun, Evening Express, and Journal of Com- 
 merce, for the purpose of facilitating the col- 
 lection of news. The general agent of the 
 Association is located in New York, and asso- 
 ciate agents in Chicago, Washington, Cincin- 
 nati, and other news centers. There is also a 
 complete reportorial staff, and the news col- 
 lected is used not only by the syndicate of pa- 
 pers, but is transmitted by telegraph to others 
 in almost every city in the country who have 
 secured the privilege by purchase. 
 
 All Fools' Day. The origin of the cus- 
 tom of April fooling cannot be traced with any 
 degree of certainty. In the literature of the 
 last century there are found many references to 
 it, and yet beyond that it is scarcely possible to 
 go. One suggestion is that the custom of 
 playing tricks on the first day of April was 
 derived from some ancient pagan custom, such 
 as the Huli festival among the Hindoos, or the 
 Roman Feast of the Fools. One fact, how- 
 ever, we do know, and that is that the practice 
 prevails in many countries, under various 
 names, which would seem to indicate that it 
 dates away back to the early history of the race. 
 
 Palmistry. The art of studying the lines 
 in the palm, to discover the character and 
 fortunes of a person, was practiced in ancient 
 India and Greece. The subject "was noticed 
 by Aristotle, Pliny, Paracelsus, Albertus 
 Magnus, and Cardan. A work by Johann 
 Hartlieb was published in Augsburg, in 1475. 
 M. le capitaine d'Arpentigny and M. Adrien 
 Desbarrolles are chief modern authorities. L. 
 Cotton's " Palmistry " was published in 1890, 
 and Dr. Francis Galton published his study of 
 "FingerPrints" in 1893. 
 
 Pavements. The Carthaginians are said 
 to have been the fir3t who paved their towns 
 with stones. The Romans, in the time of 
 Augustus, had pavement in many of then- 
 streets ; the Appian way. a paved road, was 
 constructed 312 B. C. In England there 
 were few paved streets before the time of 
 Henry VII. London was first paved about 
 1533. It w 7 as paved with flagstones between 
 1815 and 1825. Among modern paving 
 materials are brick, stone, wood, asphaltum, 
 and many kinds of concrete. 
 
 Bookkeeping. The system by double 
 entry, called originally Italian bookkeeping, 
 was taken from the course of algebra pub- 
 lished by Burgo, in the fifteenth century, at 
 Venice. John Gowghe, a printer, published 
 a treatise on "Debitor and Creditor," in 
 London, 1543. This was the earliest English 
 work en bookkeeping, and the forerunner of 
 many improved efforts. 
 
 Democrats, advocates of government 
 
 by the people themselves, is a term first 
 adopted by the French republicans in 1790 ; 
 they termed their opponents aristocrats. The 
 name Democrats was also adopted by the pro- 
 slavery party in the United States, and the 
 abolitionists were called Republicans. Into 
 these two parties a number of smaller ones 
 were absorbed at the presidential election in 
 1856. 
 
 The Twentieth Century began at mid- 
 night of December 31, 1900 ; the year 1901 is 
 therefore the first year of the century. It will 
 contain 25 leap years, and will have 36,525 
 days, which are equal to 5,218 weeks, lacking 
 one day. It began on Tuesday, and will end 
 on Sunday. February will have five Sundays 
 in 1920, 1948, and 1976. 
 
 Sizes of Paper. 
 
 FOLDED. 
 Billet Note 6x8 T.t.t.pr 10 -y IR 
 
 Octavo Note 7x9 
 Commercial Note. 8 x 1Q 
 Packet Note 9 x 11 
 
 Com'rcial Letter. 11 x 17 
 Packet Post HV 2 x 18 
 Foolscap 12% x 16 
 
 Bath Note 8y 2 x 14 
 
 re of Ground. 
 
 8 feet apart. 680 hills 
 6 1.210 ' 
 5 1,732 ' 
 31/2 3,556 ' 
 3 4,840 < 
 2V Z 6,969 
 2 10.890 ' 
 1 43, SCO ' 
 
 Anniversary. 
 
 the Cotton Wedding 
 
 Hills in an Ac 
 
 40 feet apart 27 hills 
 
 35 " 35 
 
 30 " 48 
 
 25 " 69 
 20 " 108 
 
 15 " 193 
 
 12 " 302 
 
 10 " 435 
 
 The Wedding 
 
 At end of First Year comes 
 Second Year 
 
 ...Paner Weddintr 
 
 Third Year Leather Wedding 
 
 Fifth Year Wooden Wedding 
 
 Seventh Year Woolen Wedding 
 
 Tenth Year Tin Weddinsr 
 
 Twelfth Year S 
 
 ilk and Fine Linen Wedding 
 ...Crvstal Weddinsr 
 
 Fifteenth Year 
 
 Twentieth Year China Wedding 
 
 Twentv-flf th Year Silver Wedding 
 
 Thirtieth Year Pearl Wedding 
 
 Fortieth Year Ruby Wedding 
 
 Fiftieth Year Golden Wedding 
 
 Seventy-fifth Year ... . . .Diamond Wedding 
 
 Pensions. The total number of pension- 
 's classified and compared for the years 1898 
 id 1897 are as follow : 
 
 .Vidows, Revolutionary soldiers 
 
 ' aughters, Revolutionary soldiers 
 
 survivors of War of 1812 
 
 Widows, War of 1812 '..... 
 
 nrvivors, Indian wars, 1832-'42 
 
 Widows, Indian wars, 1832-'42 
 
 Survivors, Mexican War 
 
 Widows, Mexican War 
 
 Under general laws: 
 
 Army invalids 
 
 Widows, army 
 
 Navy invalids 
 
 Widows, navy 
 
 Act of June 27, 1890: 
 
 Army invalids 
 
 Army widows 
 
 Navy invalids 
 
 Navy widows 
 
 Arrriy nurses 
 
 Total 
 
 1898 
 
 3 
 
 2,407 
 2,019 
 4,067 
 10,012 
 8,143 
 
 327,080 
 !L>,. r ,-45 
 4,833 
 2,300 
 
 399.3H6 
 
 119,785 
 
 14,543 
 
 5,944 
 
 655 
 
 1897 
 
 993,714 
 
 7 
 9 
 7 
 
 2,810 
 2,373 
 4,288 
 10,922 
 8,072 
 
 336,299 
 94,602 
 
 4,788 
 2,375 
 
 378.609 
 
 110,593 
 
 13,831 
 
 5,766 
 
 663 
 
 976,014
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 639 
 
 Paper Table for Printers' and Pub- 
 lishers' Use. Showing the quantity of 
 paper required for printing 1,000 copies (in- 
 cluding 56 extra copies to allow for wastage), 
 of any usual size book, from 8vo down to 
 32mo. If the quantity required is not found 
 in the table, double or treble some suitable 
 number of pages or quantity of paper. 
 
 0> 
 
 a 
 
 ii 
 
 8vo 
 Pages. 
 
 12mo 
 Pages. 
 
 16mo 
 Pages. 
 
 24mo 
 Pages. 
 
 32mo 
 Pages. 
 
 1,000 
 Copies. 
 
 Kins. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 72 
 
 96 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
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 96 
 
 128 
 
 4 
 
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 40 
 
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 120 
 
 160 
 
 5 
 
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 6 
 
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 72 
 
 96 
 
 144 
 
 192 
 
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 112 
 
 168 
 
 224 
 
 7 
 
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 8 
 
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 96 
 
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 256 
 
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 320 
 
 11 
 
 
 11 
 
 88 
 
 132 
 
 176 
 
 264 
 
 352 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 144 
 
 192 
 
 288 
 
 384 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 104 
 
 156 
 
 08 
 
 312 
 
 416 
 
 14 
 
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 448 
 
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 368 
 
 
 
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 480 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 Carrier Pigeons. That pigeons have 
 been used for a great many years for the 
 transmission of messages is well known, but 
 with what nation the custom originated it is 
 impossible to discover. The Romans used the 
 birds for this purpose, they were in use among 
 the Asiatics, and we have the assertion of the 
 poet Tasso for believing that they were em- 
 ployed during the siege of Jerusalem in 1099 ; 
 and it is a historical fact that they were used 
 during the crusade of St. Louis, in 1250. 
 Their most remarkable use in modern times 
 was during the siege of Paris, in 1870. In 
 Turkey they have been more generally used 
 than in any other country, and it is said that 
 there the art of training them is carried to its 
 highest perfection. Pigeons intended for this 
 use are taken, when they have acquired full 
 strength of wing, in a covered basket to a dis- 
 tance of about half a mile from their home, 
 and then set at liberty and thrown into the 
 
 air. If they return home they are then taken 
 to greater distances, progressively increased 
 from forty to fifty miles. When the bird is 
 able to accomplish this flight he maybe trusted 
 to fly any distance, overland, within the limits 
 of physical power. It is the general plan to 
 keep the birds in a dark room for some hours 
 before they are used. They are then fed spar- 
 ingly, but are given all the water they can 
 drink. The paper on which the message is 
 written is tied around the upper part of the 
 bird's leg, or to one of the large feathers of 
 the tail, so as not to impede its flight. The 
 feet are washed in vinegar to keep them from 
 getting too dry, so that the bird will not be 
 tempted to descend to water and thus possibly 
 ruin the message. The rate of flight is from 
 twenty to thirty miles an hour, though the 
 bird has been known to pass over great distances 
 much more rapidly. When thrown up in the 
 air, the pigeon at first flies round and round, 
 as though for the purpose of sighting some 
 landmark that it knows. When this is dis- 
 covered, it flies toward it, and thence onward 
 to its home. 
 
 Emancipation in Great Britain. 
 The system of slavery was abolished through- 
 out all the British Colonies by act of Parlia- 
 ment in 1833, when a bill was passed which 
 gave freedom to all classes and indemnified 
 their owners with an award of 20,000,000. 
 According to this act, slavery was to cease on 
 August 1, 1834, but the slaves were to con- 
 tinue with their former owners as apprentices 
 for a certain period. This apprenticeship, 
 however, did not work satisfactorily to either 
 side, and complete emancipation took place in 
 1838. In 1787 the subject of the suppression 
 of the slave trade was agitated in London and 
 received the support of Mr. Pitt, the Prime 
 Minister, and William Wilberforce, a member 
 of Parliament, and in 1791 a bill forbidding 
 the further importation of slaves was offered 
 by Wilberforce in Parliament, but was not 
 passed. The conquest of the Dutch colonies 
 in America by the British led to such an in- 
 crease in the British slave-trade that in 1805 
 the traffic w r as forbidden in the conquered colo- 
 nies ; and in 1806 the friends of emancipation 
 gained still another step by the passage of an 
 act forbidding British subjects to engage in the 
 trade, and the following year a general aboli- 
 tion bill making all slave-trade illegal after 
 January 1, 1808, was adopted by Parliament. 
 \ This, however, did not have the desired effect, 
 as British subjects still continued the trade 
 under the flags of other nations. So, in 1811, 
 ! it was made a felony, punishable with im- 
 prisonment at hard labor or transportation ; 
 and subsequent laws made it piracy, to be
 
 6-10 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 punished with transportation for life. From 
 this time until the passage of the Emancipa- 
 tion bill the subject was continually pressed 
 upon the attention of Parliament. Slavery 
 existed in Great Britain in Saxon and Norman 
 times, when the peasantry were sold in the 
 market like cattle for exportation, and were 
 looked upon as mere chattels, to be bought and 
 sold with the land upon which they toiled. In 
 Scotland, even as late as 1780, a law existed 
 which compelled colliers, on entering a mine, 
 to perpetual service there, the right to their 
 labor passing with the mine to an inheritor or 
 purchaser, arid their children being in like 
 manner attached to the mine, and forbidden 
 under severe penalty to seek other employment. 
 
 Trojan War. The legend regarding the 
 Trojan war has, undoubtedly, a historical ori- 
 gin, in the fact of the actual destruction of 
 Troy by a Grecian military expedition. About 
 1194-'84 B. C., according to the traditions, 
 Paris, one of the sons of Priam, enticed Helen, 
 the beautiful wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta, 
 away from her husband, and, at the call of 
 Menelaus all the heroes of Greece flew to arms 
 to avenge this wrong. The Grecian host num- 
 bered 100,000 warriors, among whom were 
 Ulysses, Achilles, Ajax, Diomed, and Aga- 
 memnon, who, as brother of Menelaus, was 
 chosen to lead the expedition. The siege of 
 the city of Priam lasted ten years. Finally the 
 Greeks, by the device of Ulysses, built an im- 
 mense wooden horse, in which they concealed a 
 number of their warriors, and left it on the plain 
 in sight of the city, and then retired to their 
 ships as though abandoning the siege. The 
 Trojans, believing that the statue was left as 
 a propitiatory offering to their gods, carried it 
 within their walls, and at night the concealed 
 warriors issued from the horse and opened the 
 gates of the city to their returned comrades, 
 and Troy was sacked and burned. The king 
 and all his sons were killed ; in fact, according 
 to the legend, ^Eneas, and his father, Anchises, 
 and a few devoted followers, were the only ones 
 to escape, and these, after long wanderings by 
 sea and land, finally settled on the shores of 
 Etruria, in Italy. The battles which were fought 
 before the walls of Troy have been immortalized 
 by Homer in the "Iliad." 
 
 Bride, Throwing Shoe after The 
 
 custom of throwing a shoe after a departing 
 bride and groom originated so far back in the 
 dim and mystical past that the memory of man 
 stretcheth not back to its beginning. It is by 
 some thought to typify an assault, and is a 
 lingering trace of the custom among savage 
 nations of carrying away the bride by violence. 
 Others claim that it has a likeness to a Jewish 
 custom mentioned in the Bible. Thus, in 
 
 Ruth, when the kinsman of Boaz gave up his 
 claim to the inheritance of Ruth, and to Ruth 
 also, he indicated his assent by plucking off 
 his shoe and giving it to Boaz. Also, we read 
 in Deuteronomy that when the brother of a 
 dead man refused to marry his widow she as- 
 serted her independence of. him by " loosing 
 his shoe." 
 
 Captain Kidd was born in Scotland, and 
 took to the sea when a mere boy. In 1695 a 
 company composed of leading gentlemen in 
 Great Britain and in the Colonies was formed 
 to make a business of privateering and reap 
 the profits, which were known to be immense. 
 The "Adventure," a galley of 287 tons, quite 
 a large vessel for those days, was purchased, 
 and the command given to Kidd, who sailed 
 with two commissions, one of which empow- 
 ered him to act against the French, and the 
 other to cruise against pirates. Besides these 
 commissions under the Great Seal, he had the 
 ordinary letters of marque from the-Commis- 
 sioners of the Admiralty. The king was to 
 have one tenth of all the booty, and the rest 
 was to be divided between the shareholders and 
 Kidd in certain specified proportions. A por- 
 tion was to be appropriated to the crew, who 
 were to receive no regular pay. Kidd left Plym- 
 outh April 23, 1696, captured a French fish- 
 ing vessel off Newfoundland, and in July 
 reached New York, where he remained until 
 September, when he sailed for Madagascar, 
 then one of the strongholds of the buccaneers. 
 In January of the following year he arrived at 
 the island, and in 1698 reports were abroad in 
 England that he had raised the black flag, and 
 orders were dispatched to the effect that he be 
 apprehended should he come within reach. 
 April, 1699, found him in the West Indies, 
 whither he had gone in a vessel called the 
 " Quidah Merchant." This he secured in a 
 lagoon in the island of Saona, near Hayti, and 
 re-embarked in a small doop named the " San 
 Antonio," for the Colonies of America. He 
 sailed up Long Island Sound to Oyster Bay, 
 after making a landing in Delaware Bay, and 
 there took aboard a New York lawyer named 
 James Emott, whom he afterward sent to 
 Boston to the Earl of Bellamont, who had be- 
 come governor of the Colonies. Emott was 
 Kidd's advance agent, sent forward to ascer- 
 tain how the privateersman would be received. 
 While the lawyer was absent on this mission, 
 Kidd buried some bales of goods and treasure 
 on Gardiner's Island. To the inquiries of the 
 | New York lawyer Bellamont made evasive 
 answers, and then later induced Kidd to pro- 
 ceed to Boston, where he landed July 1, 1699. 
 Five days later, Kidd, who was examined by 
 the Council, was sent to England, where he
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 641 
 
 was given something of the form of a trial. 
 He was permitted to have no counsel, was not 
 allowed to send for papers or witnesses, and 
 was, of course, found guilty of piracy and of 
 the murder of one of his crew, and was hanged 
 at Execution Dock, with nine of his associates. 
 Bellamont fitted out another vessel to go in 
 search of the " Quidah Merchant," but news 
 came before the search began that the latter 
 had been stripped and burned by the men left 
 with it by Kidd. The treasure which was 
 secured on Gardiner's Island, with what was 
 found with Kidd on the " San Antonio," 
 amounted to 70,000. 
 
 Bridge of Sighs is the bridge connect- 
 ing the palace of the Doge with the state 
 prison in Venice. It was so called because 
 prisoners once having crossed it from the 
 Judgment Hall were never seen again, and it 
 was supposed that many of them were dropped 
 through a trap-door into the dark and deep 
 waters of the canal flowing beneath. 
 
 Scaral><eus, a peculiar beetle held sacred 
 by the Egyptians. Several mystical ideas were 
 attributed to it ; the number of its toes, 30, 
 symbolized the days of the month ; the time it 
 deposited its ball, which contained its eggs, 
 was supposed to refer to the lunar month ; the 
 movement of the clay-ball referred to the 
 action of the sun on the earth, and personified 
 that luminary. It was supposed to be only of 
 the male sex, hence it signified the self-exist- 
 ent, self -begotten generation, or metamorphosis, 
 and the male or paternal principle of nature. 
 In this sense it appears on the head of the 
 Pygmaean deity Ptah-Socharis Osiris, the 
 Demiurgos, and in astronomical scenes and 
 sepulchral formulas. In connection with the 
 Egyptian notions, the Gnostics and some of 
 the Fathers called Christ the scarabseus. The 
 insect during its life was worshiped and after 
 death embalmed. 
 
 Tammany, Society of, or Columbian 
 Order, was formed in 1789, being the effect of 
 a popular movement in New T York, having pri- 
 marily in view a counterweight to the so-called 
 "aristocratic" Society of the Cincinnati. It 
 was essentially anti-Federalist or Democratic 
 in its character, and its chief founder was Wil- 
 liam Mooney, an upholsterer, and a native-born 
 American of Irish extraction. It took its title 
 from a noted, ancient, wise, and friendly chief 
 of the Delaware tribe of Indians, named Tarn- 
 many, who had, for the want of a better subject, 
 been canonized by the soldiers of the Revolu- 
 tion as the American patron saint. The first 
 meeting was held May 12, 1789. The act of 
 incorporation was passed in 1805. The Grand 
 Sachem and thirteen Sachems were designed 
 to typify the President and the Governors of 
 
 the thirteen original States. The society is 
 nominally a charitable and social organization, 
 and is distinct from the general committee of 
 the Tammany Democracy, which is a political 
 organization. 
 
 Salutation, Forms of. The custom of 
 shaking hands, which is the most common 
 among civilized nations, comes undoubtedly 
 from remote barbarism, when two men, meet- 
 ing, gave each other their weapon hands as a 
 security against treachery or sudden attack. 
 In the East and among the Slavic nations the 
 character of salutations is quite different. 
 Among the Persians, the custom of throwing 
 one's self upon the ground and kissing the 
 feet of the monarch prevails. In China, an 
 inferior upon horseback meeting a superior 
 dismounts and waits until the latter has passed. 
 In Japan the inferior removes his sandals 
 when meeting his superior, crosses his hands 
 by placing the right hand in the left sleeve, 
 and, with a slow, rocking motion of his body, 
 i cries out, " Augh ! Augh ! " (Do not hurt 
 me.) In Siam, the inferior throws himself 
 ; upon the ground before his sxiperior ; the latter 
 sends forward one of his slaves to see whether 
 the former has been eating anything, or car- 
 I ries with him any smell at all offensive. If he 
 i does, he is immediately kicked out without 
 j ceremony ; but if not, the attendant raises him 
 up. In Ceylon, the inferior, on meeting a 
 superior, throws himself upon the ground, re- 
 peating the name and djgnity of the latter. 
 Among some tribes of the American Indians 
 the custom is to salute by rubbing noses 
 together. This form is also common in the 
 Friendly and Society Islands, where it is re- 
 turned by each taking the hand of the other 
 and rubbing it upon his own nose and mouth. 
 The Moors of Morocco ride at full speed toward 
 a stranger, as if they intended to run him 
 down, and, on arriving near, suddenly stop 
 and fire a pistol over his head. The Arabians 
 shake hands six or eight times ; but if persons 
 of distinction they embrace and kiss several 
 times, also kissing their own hands. In Tur- 
 key, it is the custom to place the hand upon 
 the breast and bow r to the person saluted. In 
 Burmah, when a gentleman meets a lady or 
 another gentleman he applies his mouth and 
 nose closely to their cheek and draws in a long 
 breath, as if smelling a delightful perfume 
 with both mouth and nose. In the greater 
 portion of Germany it is an act of politeness 
 to kiss the hand of a lady ; but this privilege is 
 allowed in Italy only to near relatives, while 
 in Russia it is extended to kissing the fore- 
 head. On the European continent, it is usual 
 for men who are intimate friends to kiss one 
 another. The Pelew Island inhabitants grasp
 
 642 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 either the hand or foot of the one they wish to 
 salute and rub their faces against it ; while 
 Yemen persons of rank permit their fingers to 
 be kissed, after long refusal. 
 
 Nihilism. The term "Nihilist" was prob- 
 ably first used by the Russian novelist Tur- 
 geneff, and was given to the party now known 
 as Nihilists in derision, because its members 
 sought the destruction of all existing order 
 and government without proposing and appar- 
 ently without intending to substitute any de- 
 fined scheme or organization in its place. The 
 earliest advocate of this doctrine was Michael 
 Bakunin, who, as early as 1847, advocated a 
 Russian republic, and in 1868 founded the 
 "International Alliance of Revolution," a 
 secret society having for its object a popular 
 uprising against all monarchical governments. 
 This society was undoubtedly the parent of the 
 many secret organizations that have since 
 sprung into existence throughout Europe. 
 Though Alexander II. introduced a much more 
 liberal policy than any of his predecessors, it 
 came so far short of the desires of the party of 
 progress that the spirit of discontent seemed 
 stimulated, and the existence of a revolution- 
 ary conspiracy was proved in 1877, when, after 
 a great trial lasting eighteen months, 135 per- 
 sons out of 183 arrested were found to belong 
 to such an organization. In 1878, when Vera 
 Sassulitch shot General Trepoff, chief of the 
 secret police, the Nihilists began to attract at- 
 tention as a really formidable society. Her ac- 
 
 quittal was followed by a series of outbreaks 
 and assassinations which were only checked after 
 the Czar himself had fallen at the hands of a 
 Nihilist assassin. The doctrines and objects 
 of the Nihilists must be taken from the decla- 
 rations of their leaders. Bakunin, in a speech 
 at Geneva in 1868, announced that he was the 
 bearer of a new gospel, whose mission was to 
 destroy the lie at the beginning of which was 
 God. Having got rid of this belief, the next 
 lie to be destroyed was right, a fiction invented 
 by might to strengthen her power. " Our first 
 work," he said, " must be destruction of every- 
 thing as it now exists, the good and the bad ; 
 for, if but an atom of this old world remains, 
 1 the new will never be created." 
 
 Bacteria is the name given to certain 
 forms found in animal and vegetable fluids be- 
 cause of their "shape, and is derived from a 
 Greek word meaning a club. They are mere 
 points of organized matter, and constitute the 
 lowest form of organic life. They are found 
 in the sap of plants, in the blood of man and 
 of the lower animals, and are abundant in 
 eggs. They bear an important part in healthy 
 as well as morbid processes, in the ripening of 
 fruit as well as decay. They also exist in sus- 
 pension in the air, and the festering of an open 
 sore is occasioned by the entrance of bacteria 
 from the surrounding air. They also act as 
 powerful organic ferments in the transforma- 
 tion of starch into sugar, of sugar-cane into 
 glucose, etc. 
 
 Temperature and Rainfall of Foreign Cities. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 Mean 
 Annual 
 Temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Annual 
 Average 
 Rainfall, 
 Inches. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 Mean 
 Annual 
 Temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Average 
 Rainfall, 
 Inches. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 Mean 
 Annual 
 Temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Annual 
 Average 
 Rainfall, 
 Inches. 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 69.0 
 
 10 
 
 Florence. . . . 
 
 59 2 
 
 41 
 
 Munich 
 
 48.4 
 
 
 Algiers 
 
 C4.3 
 
 27 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 50.0 
 
 
 Naples 
 
 60.3 
 
 30 
 
 Amsterdam .... 
 
 49 9 
 
 
 Geneva . 
 
 52 7 
 
 32 
 
 Nice 
 
 58.0 
 
 29 
 
 Archangel 
 
 33 
 
 
 Genoa 
 
 61 1 
 
 47 
 
 Odessa 
 
 48.0 
 
 
 Astrakhan 
 
 50 1 
 
 6 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 49 8 
 
 44 
 
 Para 
 
 81 
 
 71 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 
 Paris 
 
 51 3 
 
 22 
 
 Bagdad 
 
 74.0 
 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 47 
 
 
 Pekin 
 
 53.0 
 
 27 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 63.0 
 
 
 Havana 
 
 79.1 
 
 91 
 
 Port Said 
 
 
 2 
 
 Berlin 
 
 48 2 
 
 24 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 73 
 
 101 
 
 Prague 
 
 50.2 
 
 14 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 72.0 
 
 P5 
 
 Honolulu 
 
 75 
 
 
 Queoec 
 
 40.3 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 Iceland . 
 
 39 
 
 30 
 
 Quito 
 
 60.9 
 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 48.2 
 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 62.6 
 
 16 
 
 Rio de Janeiro. . 
 
 77.2 
 
 29 
 
 Bombay 
 
 81 3 
 
 75 
 
 Lima 
 
 73 3 
 
 
 Rome 
 
 60.5 
 
 31 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 57.0 
 
 30 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 61.4 
 
 27 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 51.0 
 
 23 
 
 Brussels 
 
 50 
 
 29 
 
 London 
 
 50 8 
 
 25 
 
 San Domingo.... 
 
 81.3 
 
 108 
 
 Budapest 
 
 51 9 
 
 17 
 
 Lyons 
 
 53 
 
 28 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 59.0 
 
 
 
 62 8 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 25 
 
 Smvrna 
 
 60.0 
 
 24 
 
 Cairo 
 
 72 2 
 
 
 Madrid 
 
 58 2 
 
 9 
 
 St. Petersburg . . 
 
 39.6 
 
 17 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 824 
 
 76 
 
 Malta 
 
 C6 
 
 20 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 423 
 
 20 
 
 
 71 
 
 39 
 
 
 48 8 
 
 36 
 
 
 65.8 
 
 49 
 
 Cape Town 
 
 62 
 
 23 
 
 
 78 4 
 
 
 Tobolsk 
 
 32.0 
 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 
 116 
 
 Maranham 
 
 
 277 
 
 Trieste 
 
 55.0 
 
 43 
 
 Cherrapongee*. . 
 
 
 610 
 
 
 58 3 
 
 23 
 
 Valdivia 
 
 52.0 
 
 106 
 
 Christiania 
 
 41.5 
 
 
 Melbourne 
 
 57.0 
 
 29 
 
 Valparaiso 
 
 64.0 
 
 
 Constantinople.. 
 
 56.5 
 
 
 
 609 
 
 
 Venice 
 
 55.4 
 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 46.6 
 
 19 
 
 Milan 
 
 55.1 
 
 38 
 
 Vera Cruz 
 
 77.0 
 
 180 
 
 Delhi 
 
 77.0 
 
 24 
 
 
 62 
 
 44 
 
 Vienna 
 
 51 
 
 19 
 
 Dublin 
 
 50 1 
 
 29 
 
 
 44 6 
 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 56.2 
 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 471 
 
 38 
 
 Moscow 
 
 40.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 * In Southwestern Assam. It is the wettest place in the world. In 1861 the rainfall there reached 905 inches. 
 NOTE. The mean annual temperature of the globe is 50 Fahrenheit. The average rainfall is 36 inches.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 643 
 
 List of Ships of the United States Navy. 
 
 [Abbreviations Propulsion : S., screw; T. S., twin screw; Tr. S., triple screw; P., paddle; I. H. P., indi- 
 cated horse power.] 
 
 FIRST RATE. 
 
 NAME ANI> DATE OF 
 LAUNCHING. 
 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 (tons). 
 
 TYPE. 
 
 Hull. 
 
 I. H. P. 
 
 11 
 K" 
 
 *t 
 
 -So. 
 
 Ill 
 
 fl 
 
 Guns(Main 
 Battery). 
 
 Guns (Sec- 
 ondary 
 Battery). 
 
 Iowa 1896 
 
 11,340 
 
 1st class battleship 
 
 Steel 
 
 12,105 
 
 T. S. 
 
 17.08 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 Indiana 18'.i3 
 
 10,288 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 9,738 
 
 T S 
 
 15 54 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 Massachusetts 1893 
 
 10,288 
 
 i< 
 
 Steel 
 
 10,403 
 
 T. S 
 
 16 21 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 Oregon 1893 
 
 10,288 
 
 it 
 
 Steel 
 
 11,111 
 
 T S. 
 
 16.79 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 Brooklyn 1895 
 
 9,215 
 
 Armored cruiser 
 
 Steel 
 
 18,769 
 
 T. S. 
 
 21.91 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 New York 1891 
 
 8,200 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 17,401 
 
 T. S. 
 
 21. 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 Columbia 1892 
 
 7,375 
 
 Protected cruiser 
 
 Steel 
 
 18,509 
 
 Tr. S. 
 
 22.8 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 Minneapolis 1893 
 
 7,375 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 20,862 
 
 Tr. S. 
 
 23.07 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 Texas 189^ 
 
 6,315 
 
 2d class battleship 
 
 Steel 
 
 8,610 
 
 T. S. 
 
 17.08 
 
 g 
 
 25 
 
 Puritan 1882 
 
 6,060 
 
 Double-turret monitor 
 
 Iron 
 
 3,700 
 
 T. S. 
 
 12.04 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 Olympia 1892 
 
 5,870 
 
 Protected cruiser 
 
 Steel 
 
 17.313 
 
 T. S. 
 
 21.68 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 SECOND RATE. 
 
 Chicago 1885 
 
 4,500 
 
 Protected cruiser 
 
 Steel 
 
 9,000 
 
 T.3. 
 
 18. 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 Baltimore 1888 
 
 4,413 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 10,064 
 
 T. S. 
 
 20.09 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 Philadelphia 1889 
 
 4,324 
 
 ii it 
 
 Steel 
 
 8,815 
 
 T. S. 
 
 19.67 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 Monterey 1891 
 
 4,084 
 
 Barbette turret, low free- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Newark 1890 
 
 4,098 
 
 board monitor 
 Protected cruiser 
 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 
 5,244 
 8 869 
 
 T. S. 
 T S 
 
 13.6 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 15 
 
 San Francisco 1889 
 
 4,098 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 9,913 
 
 T S 
 
 19 52 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 Charleston 1888 
 
 3,730 
 
 K ii 
 
 Steel 
 
 6,666 
 
 T. S. 
 
 18.20 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 Miantonomoh 1876 
 
 3,990 
 
 Double-turret monitor 
 
 Iron 
 
 1,426 
 
 T. S. 
 
 105 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 Ampliitrite 1883 
 
 3,990 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 1,600 
 
 T. S. 
 
 10.5 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 Monadnock 1883 
 
 3,990 
 
 it ii 
 
 Iron 
 
 3,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 12. 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 Terror 1883 
 
 3,990 
 
 ii 11 
 
 Iron 
 
 1,600 
 
 T. S. 
 
 10.5 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 New Orleans 18J6 
 
 3,437 
 
 Protected cruiser 
 
 Steel 
 
 7,500 
 
 T. S. 
 
 20. 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 
 3.437 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 7,500 
 
 T. S. 
 
 20. 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 
 3,250 
 
 Cruiser 
 
 Wood 
 
 1,000 
 
 S. 
 
 9.6 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 Cincinnati 1892 
 
 3,213 
 
 Protected cruiser 
 
 Steel 
 
 10,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 19. 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 Raleigh 1892 
 
 3,213 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 10,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 19. 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 Atlanta 1884 
 
 3,000 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Steel 
 
 4,030 
 
 S. 
 
 16.60 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 Boston 1884 
 
 3,000 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Steel 
 
 4,030 
 
 S. 
 
 15,60 
 
 
 13 
 
 THIRD RATE. 
 
 Hartford 
 
 2,790 
 
 Cruiser 
 
 Wood 
 
 2,000 
 
 S. 
 
 12. 
 
 13 
 
 
 Mayflower 
 
 2,690 
 
 
 
 4,700 
 
 T. S. 
 
 16.8 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 Katahdin 1893 
 
 2,155 
 
 Harbor-defense ram 
 
 Steel 
 
 5,068 
 
 T. S. 
 
 16.11 
 
 4 
 
 
 Ajax 
 
 2,100 
 
 Single-turret monitor 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 S. 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 Canonicus 
 
 2,100 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 S. 
 
 6. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Mahopac 
 
 2,100 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 S. 
 
 6. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 2,100 
 
 ii a 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 s 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 Detroit 1891 
 
 2,089 
 
 Unprotected cruiser 
 
 Steel 
 
 5,227 
 
 T. S 
 
 18.71 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 Montgomery 1891 
 
 2,089 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 5,580 
 
 T S. 
 
 19.05 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 Marblehead 1892 
 
 2,089 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Steel 
 
 5.451 
 
 T. S. 
 
 18.44 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 Moh ican 
 
 1,900 
 
 Cruiser 
 
 Wood 
 
 1,100 
 
 S. 
 
 10.65 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 1,875 
 
 Single-turret monitor 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 s 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 Cat skill 
 
 1,875 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 s. 
 
 6. 
 
 2 
 
 
 Jason 
 
 1,875 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 s. 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Lehigh 
 
 1,875 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Iron 
 
 310 
 
 s. 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1,875 
 
 ii it 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 s. 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Nahant 
 
 1,875 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 s. 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 875 
 
 ii ii 
 
 
 340 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 l..75 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 
 2 
 
 Bennington 1890 
 
 1,710 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 Steel 
 
 3,436 
 
 T S. 
 
 17.5 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 Concord 1890 
 
 1.710 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 3,405 
 
 T. S. 
 
 16.8 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 Yorktown ... . 1888 
 
 1,710 
 
 ii 
 
 Steel 
 
 3,392 
 
 T S 
 
 16.4 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 Topeka 1881 
 
 1,700 
 
 ii 
 
 Iron 
 
 2 000 
 
 S. 
 
 16. 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 Dolphin 1884 
 
 1.486 
 
 Despatch boat 
 
 Steel 
 
 2253 
 
 S. 
 
 15.50 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 Wilmington 18as 
 
 1,392 
 
 Light-draft gunboat 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,894 
 
 T. S. 
 
 12.88 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 Helena . . 1896 
 
 1 392 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 1 988 
 
 T S 
 
 15.50 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 Adams 
 
 1 375 
 
 Cruiser 
 
 Wood 
 
 800 
 
 S. 
 
 9.8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Alliance 
 
 1 375 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 800 
 
 S. 
 
 9.98 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Essex 
 
 1 375 
 
 ii 
 
 Wood 
 
 800 
 
 s 
 
 104 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 Enterprise 
 
 1 375 
 
 11 
 
 Wood 
 
 800 
 
 s. 
 
 11.4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Nashville 1805 
 
 1 371 
 
 Light-draft gunboat 
 
 Steel 
 
 2,536 
 
 T. S. 
 
 16.30 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Monocacv 
 
 1 370 
 
 
 
 850 
 
 p 
 
 11.2 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Cast inc.." 1892 
 
 1 177 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 Steel 
 
 2 199 
 
 T S. 
 
 16.03 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 Machias 1891 
 
 1 177 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 2,046 
 
 T. S. 
 
 15.46 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 Ale-t 
 
 1 020 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 s 
 
 10. 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Ranger 
 
 1 00 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 500 
 
 S. 
 
 10. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Annapolis 1896 
 
 1 000 
 
 Composite gunboat 
 
 Comp 
 
 1,227 
 
 s. 
 
 13.17 
 
 6 
 
 
 Virkslmrg 1896 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 Comp 
 
 1.118 
 
 s. 
 
 12.71 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Wheeling 1897 
 
 1,000 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Comp 
 
 1,081 
 
 T. S. 
 
 12.88 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Marietta 1897 
 
 1.000 
 
 H H 
 
 Comp 
 
 1,054 
 
 T. S. 
 
 13.03 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Newport 1S!*> 
 
 1 000 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Comp 
 
 1,008 
 
 S. 
 
 12.29 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Princeton 1897 
 
 1.000 
 
 ii ii 
 
 Comp 
 
 800 
 
 S. 
 
 12. 
 
 6 
 
 7
 
 644 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 List of Ships of the United States Navy Continued. 
 
 FOURTH RATE. 
 
 NAME AND DATE OF 
 LAUNCHING. 
 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 
 (tons). 
 
 TYPE. 
 
 Hull. 
 
 I. H. P. 
 
 II 
 
 " 
 
 Speed in 
 Knots per 
 Hour. 
 
 Guns(M:iin 
 Battery). 
 
 Guns (Sec- 
 ondary 
 Battery). 
 
 Vesuvius SS88 
 
 929 
 
 Dynamite-gun vessel 
 
 Steel 
 
 3,795 
 
 T. S. 
 
 21.42 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Petrel 1888 
 
 892 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,095 
 
 S. 
 
 11.79 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 
 840 
 
 Training ship 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 S. 
 
 9. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Bancroft 1892 
 
 839 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,213 
 
 T. S. 
 
 14.37 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 
 685 
 
 Cruiser 
 
 Iron 
 
 365 
 
 P. 
 
 10.5 
 
 4 
 
 
 Pinta 
 
 550 
 
 Gunboat 
 
 Iron 
 
 310 
 
 S. 
 
 8.5 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 TORPEDO BOATS. 
 
 Cushing (No. 1) 1890 
 
 105 
 
 Torpedo boat 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,720 
 
 T. S. 
 
 22.5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Ericsson (No. 2) 1894 
 
 120 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,800 
 
 T. S. 
 
 24. 
 
 a3 
 
 4 
 
 Foote(No.3) 1896 
 
 142 
 
 it 
 
 Steel 
 
 2,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 24.53 
 
 a3 
 
 3 
 
 Rodgers (No. 4^ 1896 
 
 142 
 
 it 
 
 Steel 
 
 2,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 24 5 
 
 a3 
 
 3 
 
 Winslow(No. 5) 1897 
 
 142 
 
 M 
 
 Steel 
 
 2,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 24.5 
 
 
 3 
 
 Porter (No. 6) 1896 
 
 165 
 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 
 T. S. 
 
 28.63 
 
 a3 
 
 4 
 
 Dupont(No. 7) 1897 
 
 165 
 
 ii 
 
 Steel 
 
 
 T. S. 
 
 28 E8 
 
 a 3 
 
 4 
 
 Morris (No. 14) 1F97 
 
 105 
 
 ii 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,750 
 
 T. S. 
 
 24. 
 
 a 3 
 
 3 
 
 Talbot(No 15) .. 1897 
 
 46i 
 
 ii 
 
 Steel 
 
 850 
 
 S. 
 
 21 15 
 
 o2 
 
 1 
 
 Gwin(No 16) 1897 
 
 46 
 
 H 
 
 Steel 
 
 850 
 
 S. 
 
 20 88 
 
 a2 
 
 1 
 
 Mackenzie (No. 17) 1898 
 
 65 
 
 II 
 
 Steel 
 
 850 
 
 S. 
 
 20. 
 
 a2 
 
 1 
 
 McKee(No. 18) 1898 
 
 65 
 
 II 
 
 Steel 
 
 850 
 
 S. 
 
 19.82 
 
 o2 
 
 2 
 
 Manly (No 22) 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 1 
 
 
 Somers (No. 23) 
 
 145 
 
 II 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,900 
 
 S. 
 
 23. 
 
 
 
 Stiletto 
 
 31 
 
 " 
 
 Wood 
 
 359 
 
 S. 
 
 18.22 
 
 a2 
 
 
 a In ordinary. 
 TUGS. 
 
 Fortune 
 
 450 
 
 Tug. 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 S. 
 
 10. 
 
 
 
 Iwana 1892 
 
 192 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 300 
 
 S. 
 
 11 5 
 
 
 
 Ley den 
 
 450 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 S. 
 
 10. 
 
 
 
 Narkeeta 1892 
 
 192 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 300 
 
 S. 
 
 11 5 
 
 
 
 Nina 
 
 357 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 388 
 
 S. 
 
 11.12 
 
 
 
 Rocket 
 
 187 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 147 
 
 S. 
 
 8.5 
 
 
 
 Standish 
 
 450 
 
 
 Iron 
 
 340 
 
 S. 
 
 10. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Traffic 
 
 280 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 S. 
 
 10. 
 
 
 
 Triton 
 
 212 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 300 
 
 S. 
 
 13. 
 
 * 
 
 
 Wahneta 
 
 192 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 300 
 
 S. 
 
 11 5 
 
 
 
 Unadilla 1895 
 
 345 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 500 
 
 S. 
 
 12. 
 
 
 
 Samoset 1897 
 
 L'Jo 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 450 
 
 S. 
 
 12. 
 
 
 
 SAILING SHIPS. 
 
 Monongahela 
 
 2 100 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 Sails 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 Constellation 
 
 1,186 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 9 
 
 Jamestown 
 
 1,150 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 1,125 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 ii 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 Saratoga 
 
 1.025 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 St. Marv's 
 
 1,025 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 RECEIVING SHIPS. 
 
 Franklin 
 
 5,170 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 1 050 
 
 S. 
 
 9. 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Wabash 
 
 4,650 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 950 
 
 S 
 
 9 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 Vermont 
 
 4 150 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 Sails 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Independence 
 
 3.270 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 Pensacola 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 980 
 
 S. 
 
 9. 
 
 
 
 Richmond 
 
 2,700 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 692 
 
 S. 
 
 9.5 
 
 2 
 
 
 UNSERVICEABLE. 
 
 Omaha 
 
 2 400 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 95 
 
 S. 
 
 
 
 
 Constitution 
 
 2 200 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 Sails 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Iroquois 
 
 1,575 
 
 Cruiser 
 
 Wood 
 
 1,202 
 
 S. 
 
 10.7 
 
 
 
 Nipsic 
 
 1,375 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 839 
 
 S. 
 
 10.7 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 830 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 Sails 
 
 
 
 
 Dale 
 
 675 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mi nnesota 
 
 4 700 
 
 Cruiser 
 
 Wood 
 
 i,noo 
 
 S. 
 
 9.25 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 Marion 
 
 1,900 
 
 
 Wood 
 
 1,100 
 
 S. 
 
 11.25 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 Thetis 
 
 1,250 
 
 ii 
 
 Wood 
 
 530 
 
 S. 
 
 7.55 
 
 
 
 Yantic 
 
 900 
 
 " 
 
 Wood 
 
 310 
 
 S. 
 
 8.30 
 
 4 
 
 
 UNDER CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Kearsarge 1898 
 
 n.r.-T) 
 
 1st class battleship 
 
 Steel 
 
 10,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 10. 
 
 22 
 
 32 
 
 Kentucky 1898 
 
 11,525 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 10,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 16. 
 
 22 
 
 32 
 
 Illinois 1898 
 
 11 ,525 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 10,000 
 
 T.S. 
 
 16. 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 Alabama 1898 
 
 11,525 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 10.000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 16. 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 11,525 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 10,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 16. 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 Maine 
 
 12,500 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 16.0CO 
 
 T. S. 
 
 18. 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 Missouri 
 
 12,500 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 16,000 
 
 T S. 
 
 18. 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 Ohio 
 
 12,500 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 16,000 
 
 T. S. 
 
 18. 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 Plunger 1897 
 
 168 
 
 Suomarine torpedo boat 
 
 Steel 
 
 1,200 
 
 T. S. 
 
 8. 
 
 2 
 
 .... 
 
 Panacook 
 
 225 
 
 Tug 
 
 Steel 
 
 450 
 
 S. 
 
 

 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 645 
 
 List of Ships of the United States Navy. Continued. 
 
 UNDER CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 NAME AND DATE OF 
 LAUNCHING. 
 
 Displace- 
 ment 
 (tons). 
 
 TYPE. 
 
 Hull. 
 
 I. H. P. 
 
 fj 
 
 * 
 
 Speed in 
 Knots per 
 Hour. 
 
 Guns(Main 
 Battery). 
 
 3> >>>, 
 
 i - - 
 & <D 
 
 CO "^ 4^ 
 
 s 5 ts 
 
 s 
 
 Pawtucket 
 
 225 
 1,175 
 
 Tug 
 Sailing ship 
 Gunboat 
 Monitor 
 
 Torpedo boat destroyer 
 Torpedo boat 
 
 Steel 
 Comp 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Steel 
 Sieel 
 
 450 
 
 s.- 
 
 Sails 
 
 
 
 
 Chesapeake 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Gunboat (No. 16) 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 2.700 
 2,700 
 2 700 
 2,700 
 420 
 420 
 420 
 420 
 420 
 408 
 408 
 435 
 435 
 420 
 420 
 420 
 420 
 433 
 433 
 433 
 182 
 146 
 146 
 273 
 132 
 132 
 340 
 247J 
 
 2,400 
 2,400 
 2,400 
 2.400 
 8.000 
 8.000 
 8,000 
 8,000 
 8,000 
 7,206 
 7,200 
 8,400 
 ' 8,400 
 7,000 
 7,000 
 7,000 
 8,000 
 8.300 
 8,300 
 8300 
 3,200 
 4,200 
 4,200 
 5,600 
 1,750 
 1,750 
 7,200 
 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T-. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 T. S. 
 
 12. 
 12. 
 12. 
 12. 
 29. 
 29. 
 29. 
 28. 
 28. 
 29. 
 29. 
 30. 
 30. 
 29. 
 29. 
 29. 
 29. 
 30. 
 30. 
 30. 
 26. 
 30.5 
 - 30.5 
 30. 
 22.5 
 22.5 
 80. 
 30. 
 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 a3 
 a2 
 a2 
 a2 
 a 2 
 o2 
 a2 
 a 2 
 a2 
 a2 
 a2 
 2 
 a2 
 n2 
 a 2 
 2 
 fi3 
 a2 
 a 2 . 
 o2 
 a 3 
 a 3 
 a2 
 2 
 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 3 
 7 
 4 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Flori da 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Ba'inbridge 
 
 Barry 
 
 Chauncev 
 
 Dale 
 
 Decatur 
 
 Hopkins 
 
 Hull 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Macdonough 
 
 Paul Jones.. 
 
 Perrv 
 
 Preble 
 
 Stewart 
 
 Truxtun 
 
 Whipple 
 
 Worden 
 
 Rowan (No. 8) 1818 
 
 Dahlgren (No. 9) .... 
 
 T. A. M. Craven (No. 10) 
 Farragut (No. 11) 1808 
 
 Davis (No. 12) 
 
 Fox (No. 13) 1898 
 
 Stringham (No 19).. 
 
 Goldsborough (No. 201. . . 
 
 a Torpedo tubes. 
 
 Losses From War in Twenty-five 
 Years (1855-80.) 
 
 Killed in battle, or died 
 of wounds and disease. 
 
 Crimean war 150,000 
 
 Italian war, 1859 
 
 War of Schleswig-Holstein 
 
 American civil war the North 
 
 " " " the South 
 
 War between Prussia, Austria, and 
 
 Italy, in 1866 
 
 Expeditions to Mexico, Cochin-China, 
 
 Morocco, Paraguay, etc 
 
 Franco-German war, 1870-71 France. . . 
 " " " " Germ'ny. 
 
 Russian and Turkish war of 1877 
 
 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 
 
 45,000 
 
 3,0(10 
 
 280.000 
 
 520,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 65,000 
 155,000 
 
 60,000 
 225,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 Total 1,588,000 
 
 Roman and Arabic Numerals, 
 
 I 
 
 ii 
 
 in 
 
 iv 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII 
 
 VIII 
 
 IX 
 
 X 10 CCC 
 
 XI . 11 ! CCCC 
 
 1 XXX 
 
 2 XL 
 
 3 L 
 
 4 j LX 
 
 5 LXX 
 
 6 LXXX orXXC 
 
 7 XC 
 
 8 C 
 
 CC. 
 
 XII. 
 
 12 D. 
 
 Size of Oceans, Seas, Bays, and 
 Lakes. 
 
 Oceans. Sq. Miles.! Oceans. Sq. Miles. 
 
 Pacific, about 80,000,000 Southern, about . . . 10,000,000 
 
 Atlantic, " 40,000.000 Arctic, " ...5,000,000 
 
 Indian, " 20,000,000; 
 
 The seas, bays, gulfs, etc., connected with 
 each ocean, are included in the foregoing esti- 
 mate. The exact superficial extent of the 
 several oceans is not known with certainty, 
 nor the exact proportion of land and water. 
 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 60 
 70 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 200 
 oOO 
 400 
 500 
 
 X111 13iDC 600 
 
 XIV 14 i DCC :... 700 
 
 XV 15 DCCC 800 
 
 XVI 16 CM 900 
 
 XVII 17 M 1000 
 
 XVIII 18 MM 2000 
 
 XIX 19 MDCCCXCIX 1899 
 
 XX 20| 
 
 Seas. Length in Miles. Seas. Length in Miles. 
 
 Mediterranean, about. .2,000 Caspian, about 640 
 
 Caribbean, about 1,800 Baltic, " 600 
 
 China, " 1,700 Okhotsk, " 600 
 
 Red, " 1,400 White, " 450 
 
 Japan, * " .......1,000 Aral, " 250 
 
 Black, " 932 
 
 Bays. L< 
 
 Hudson, abo 
 Baffin's, ' 
 
 ;rigth in Miles, 
 ut 1,200 
 
 Bays. Length in Miles. 
 Chesapeake, about 250 
 
 600 
 
 Lakes. 
 
 Length 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Width 
 Miles. 
 
 Lakes. 
 
 Length 
 Miles. 
 
 Width 
 Miles. 
 
 Superior 
 Baikal 
 Michigan. . . 
 Great Slave. 
 Huron 
 Winnipeg... 
 Erie 
 
 380 
 360 
 330 
 300 
 250 
 240 
 270 
 200 
 180 
 150 
 
 120 
 35 
 60 
 45 
 90 
 40 
 50 
 20 
 40 
 60 
 
 Great Bear. 
 Ladoga 
 Champlain. 
 Nicaragua . 
 Lake of the 
 Woods . . 
 Geneva... . 
 Constance . 
 Cayuga. .. . 
 George .... 
 
 150 
 125 
 123 
 120 
 
 70 
 50 
 46 
 36 
 36 
 
 40 
 75 
 12 
 40 
 
 25 
 10 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 :; 
 
 Athabaska.. 
 Ontario 
 Maracavbo..
 
 646 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 Distances Between European Cities. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 LIVERPOOL 
 
 202 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PARIS 
 
 489 
 
 287 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MADRID 
 
 908 
 
 1397 
 
 1195 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LISBON: 415 
 
 1323 
 
 1812 
 
 1610 
 
 TRAVELING DISTANCES 
 
 ANTWERP 
 
 1530,1119 
 
 211 
 
 472 i 270 
 
 B 
 
 ETU 
 
 'KEN 
 
 THE 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 [AMBDRG 
 
 412 
 
 1804 1495 
 
 587 
 
 859 
 
 657 
 
 PRINCIPAL CITIES IN EUROPE 
 
 BERLINJ 178 
 
 497 
 
 1889 ; 1582 
 
 674 
 
 948 
 
 746 
 
 
 IN 
 
 MIL 
 
 ES. 
 
 
 
 BE 
 
 RNE 
 
 611 j 678 
 
 460 
 
 1602,1183 
 
 359 
 
 848 
 
 646 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TURIN 
 
 297 
 
 837 839 
 
 719 
 
 1506 1073 
 
 500 
 
 989 1 787 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VIENNA j 720 
 
 535 
 
 427 i 605 
 
 727 
 
 2157 1 1668 
 
 849 
 
 1182 
 
 980 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mu: 
 
 flCH 
 
 266 | 470 
 
 296 
 
 401 579 
 
 522 
 
 1897 1477 
 
 582 
 
 970 
 
 768 
 
 
 
 
 
 ROME 
 
 647 
 
 840 414 
 
 639 
 
 1048 1180 
 
 1033 
 
 1746:1223 
 
 907 
 
 1397 
 
 1195 
 
 
 
 
 TRIESTE | 510 
 
 487 
 
 370 ; 391 
 
 533 
 
 888 1066 
 
 1009 
 
 1828 ! 1416 
 
 863 
 
 1352 
 
 1150 
 
 
 
 
 WARSAW 
 
 806 : 1276 
 
 702 
 
 436 1156 
 
 1021 
 
 398 576 
 
 895 
 
 2593:1925 
 
 1067 
 
 1557 
 
 1355 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE \ 1205 
 
 1725 2138 
 
 1564 
 
 1298 2018 
 
 1883 
 
 1699 1903 
 
 2025 
 
 3345 2718 
 
 1899 
 
 2232 
 
 2030 
 
 
 OD] 
 
 ESSA 
 
 363! 842 
 
 1330 1800 
 
 1226 
 
 960 1680 
 
 1545 
 
 1240 1418 
 
 1737 
 
 311 7 i 2625 
 
 1760 
 
 2119 
 
 1917 
 
 Moscow 
 
 950 
 
 1339 ' 811 
 
 1617 2087)1513 
 
 1247 1967 
 
 1832 
 
 1209 1387 
 
 170fi 
 
 3414 2904 
 
 1843 2117 
 
 1915 
 
 ST. PETERSBURG 
 
 406 
 
 1356 
 
 17331 693 
 
 1769 2239 
 
 1395 
 
 399 2119 
 
 1714 
 
 1091 1269 
 
 1588 
 
 3281! 2874 
 
 1699 
 
 1976 
 
 1774 
 
 STOCK HOLM | 430 
 
 836 
 
 1510 
 
 2408 1082 
 
 1171 1731 
 
 1084 
 
 1110 1337 
 
 1176 
 
 685 580 
 
 993 
 
 2384 1972 
 
 1219 
 
 1491 
 
 1289 
 
 COPENHAGEN] 416, 846 1252 
 
 1510 
 
 1510| 668 
 
 1067113181 671 
 
 697 ; 1047 
 
 8851 270 208 
 
 620 
 
 2012 1600 
 
 812 
 
 1181 
 
 979 
 
 Greatest Altitude in Each State. 
 
 FROM THE RECORDS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 
 
 STATE OR 
 TERRITORY. 
 
 Name of Place. 
 
 nt-i-'t, 
 Feet. 
 
 STATE OR 
 TERRITORY. 
 
 Name of Place. 
 
 HeiK't, 
 Feet. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Cheauha Mt. (Talladega Co.).. 
 *Not named. 
 
 2.407 
 19,500 
 12,794 
 2,800 
 14,898 
 14,464 
 2,355 
 282 
 400 
 263 
 4,798 
 12,073 
 1,009 
 1,140 
 2,600 
 
 Montana 
 
 Mt. Douglas 
 
 11,300 
 4,876 
 13,036 
 6,286 
 1,630 
 14,269 
 5,379 
 6,703 
 2,707 
 1,376 
 t 
 11,225 
 2,826 
 805 
 3,600 
 7,368 
 6,612 
 7,730 
 13,694 
 4.389 
 5,719 
 14,500 
 4,800 
 1,732 
 13,790 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 White River Summit 
 
 Arizona 
 
 San Francisco Mt 
 
 Nevada 
 New Hampshire. 
 New Jersey 
 New Mexico 
 New York 
 
 Wheeler Peak 
 Mt. Washington 
 
 Arkansas 
 California 
 
 Magazine Mt 
 Mt. Whitney 
 Blanca Peak 
 
 Kittatinnv Mt. 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Cerro Blanco 
 
 Connecticut 
 Delaware 
 
 Bear Mt 
 
 Mt. Marcy (Adirondack) 
 
 Dupont 
 
 ! North Carolina.. 
 North Dakota . . . 
 Ohio 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Mt. Mitchell 
 
 Dis. of Columbia 
 Florida 
 
 Tenley 
 
 Sentinel Butte 
 
 Mossyhead 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Enota Mt 
 Hyndman Peak 
 
 Oregon 
 Pennsylvania 
 Rhode Island 
 South Carolina. . 
 
 Mt. Hood 
 Negro Mt 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Warren 
 
 Indiana 
 Indian Territory 
 Iowa 
 
 Haley 
 Sugarloaf 
 
 DurfeeHill 
 
 Rocky Mt. (Pickens Co.) 
 
 Ocheyedan 
 
 1,554 
 3,906 
 4,100 
 321 
 5,200 
 3,400 
 3,535 
 2,023 
 2,000 
 566 
 1,675 
 
 South Dakota 
 Tennessee 
 Texas 
 
 Harney Peak 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kanarado 
 
 Mt. Leconte 
 Chinati .... 
 
 
 Big Black Mt. (Harlan Co.). .. 
 Mansfield 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Utah 
 Vermont 
 Virginia. 
 
 Mt. Emmons 
 Mt. Mansfield 
 Mt. Rogers (Grayson Co.) 
 Mt. Rainipr 
 
 Maine 
 
 Katahdin Mt 
 
 Massachusetts . . 
 Michigan 
 
 Mt. Greylock 
 Porcupine Mt 
 
 AVa ^h i n gton 
 
 West Virginia... jSpruce Mt. (Pendleton Co.) 
 Wisconsin. . . . Summit Lake 
 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 Missouri 
 
 Pontotoc Ridge 
 Cedar Gap 
 
 Wyoming Fremont Peak 
 
 
 
 * Mt. St. Elias, supposed to be the highest point in Alaska, is now believed to be in Canadian territory, 
 are reports of mountains in Alaska far to the northwest higher than Mt. St. Elias, but not yet verified. 
 + Western end of Beaver County, Oklahoma, reaches 5,000 feet elevation. 
 
 There 
 
 All the Famous Diamonds. Follow- 
 ing is an accurate list of the largest diamonds 
 in the world : 
 
 CARATS CUT. NAME. POSSESSOR. 
 
 (UNCUT). 
 
 1680 Braganza King of Portugal . 
 
 _ 367 Rajah of Mattan. 
 
 (Borneo.) 
 
 254 Star of the South. . . 
 
 194 Orloff Czar of Russia. 
 
 139% Florentine Empress Austria. 
 
 138'^ King of Portugal. 
 
 410 13634 Pitt King of Prussia. 
 
 793% lOe^ Koh-i-noor Queen of Engl'nd. 
 
 86 Shah Czar of Russia. 
 
 82V 4 Pigott Messrs. Rundell 
 
 and Bridge. 
 
 78 Nassac L'd Westminster. 
 
 112 67% Blue 
 
 63 Sancy Czar of Russia. 
 
 88% 44% Dudley Earl of Dudley. 
 
 40 Pacha of Egypt Khed' ve of Eg'pt. 
 
 Treasure Cost in Recent Wars. 
 
 The cost of recent wars, according to figures 
 furnished by the London Peace Society, is as 
 follows : 
 
 Crimean war $1,700,000,000 
 
 Italian war, 1859 300,000,000 
 
 American civil war North 4,700,000,000 
 
 " " " South 2,300,000,000 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein war 35,000.000 
 
 Austrian and Prussian war, 1866 330,000,000 
 
 Expeditions to Mexico, Morocco, Para- 
 guay, etc. (say only) 200,000,000 
 
 Franco-Prussian war 2,500,000,000 
 
 Russian and Turkish war, 1877 1,100,000,000 
 
 Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879 50,000,000 
 
 $13,265,000,000 
 
 This would allow $10 for every man, woman, 
 and child on the habitable globe, It would 
 make two railways all round the world at 
 $250,000 per mile each.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 647 
 
 Grocer's Table. followed, and then the magistrates, priests, sen- 
 
 12 things make l dozen. , ators, and knights laid hold of the ropes and 
 
 \2 gr^sTnSke 6 : '.. '.\ great gross. < m Ved the mi g ht y stone to its P r P er Position . 
 
 20 things make l score. In a hollow cut in the stone were placed ingots 
 
 2 ^P^l%f&^orkma- k e-::::::: IS: of gold silver, and other metals which had not 
 
 135 pounds of potatoes or apples make.. 1 barrel. been melted in any furnace. With the Jews 
 
 280 pounds of salt make... l barrel. ^ ne corne r stone was considered an emblem of 
 
 400 pounds of molasses make I barrel. . , 
 
 200 pounds of sugar make l barrel. power, and they also performed ceremonies at 
 
 S8SSS8S "sh^ 6 :::::::::::::::: iSSSo. ; ts v la ?s- * m di f val * raes *J e rite was 
 
 100 pounds of nails make l keg. taken up by the Order of Free Masons, and 
 
 SSpSSSSSSSie:::::::::::::: iSS: 5 as by them been brought down to modem 
 
 2 pounds of cigars make l box. days. I he Masonic ceremony of laying a cor- 
 
 SJS^ B S&::::::::::::: JSS: ner stone is symbolical. The formof the stone, 
 
 25 pounds of tobacco make i box. a square on the surface and a perfect cube ; its 
 
 62 pounds of tea make 1 box. nlapp nt thp rmrthpat rnrnpr of thp qtrnptnro 
 
 60 pounds of saleratus make 1 box. ce ' a ] re ' 
 
 25 pounds of chocolate make i box. the testing it with a square, level, and plumb, 
 
 "SJSSSSSf sK SSS::::::::::::" \^ u - and the p. ourin s of libations of ^m, wine, and 
 
 lioo pounds of rice make 1 tierce. oil over it, all have their hidden meaning. 
 
 2150.41' cubic inches make 1 bushel. The rMKstom of lavino- thp r>ornpr stnnp with 
 
 231 cubic inches make 1 gallon. [ la >j n g 
 
 ceremonies is usually observed at the com- 
 
 Xoted National Xicknames. Pupils | mencement of any public building, when coins 
 in United States history and the general reader, of the current year, newspapers, and important 
 who is at times puzzled to know who is meant, | documents are placed within the stone to serve 
 will take interest in the following list : as valuable historical relics when the building 
 
 The Father of his Country Washington | shall be destroyed. 
 
 Old Man Eloquent J. Q. Adams f'Viillori fsietl** <vf ia n r-plpKrntprl raatlo 
 
 The Sage of Monticello /Jefferson miion, I/ a 8 tie OX, IS a c 
 
 OldHickory Jackson and fortress of Switzerland, in the canton of 
 
 Grea n t g p"cifter ry '.'. Clay Vaud ' six miles southeast of Vevay. It is sit- 
 
 Mad Anthony ".'.Wayne uated at the east end of the Lake of Geneva, on 
 
 Old Rough and Ready Taylor an ic/Ylatprl rnplr almost pntirplv snrrrmnHprl hv 
 
 Expounder of the Constitution Webster an lsolatea rocK > aimos entirely surrounded by 
 
 Unconditional Surrender Grant U. S. Grant deep water, and IS connected with the shore by 
 
 Poor Richard Franklin a wonrJpn hrirlfrp Thp ntlp i eairJ tr> Viavo 
 
 Political Meteor Randolph f MOC ld p' , 
 
 Little Mac McClellan been built bv Amadeus I V ., of Savoy, in 1238, 
 
 H^n^riV,; T ' J- T^!!? n I an d ^ ] on g served as a state prison . It is built 
 
 .cat -r\.i)c i_jlIlCOlll !i i p 
 
 Rock of Chickamauga Thomas ; ot white stone, but though large is not of very 
 
 8!dTe u cu mS eh :::::::: :::::::::si52 ; im p sin g appearance, as its foundations only 
 
 Light Horse Harry Henrv Lee rise a few feet above the water. The lake 
 
 r^uinfj^::: ^H^Llr i here is 80 feet dee p- Over one of the en - 
 
 Bayard of the South Marion trances to the castle the Bernese inscribed, in 
 
 The Little Magician Van Buren i -i fMQ ; n ^^ fiorman lantmao-p tViA -upm-^a 
 
 Father of the Constitution James Madison J *? 1] tne ^ erma ti language, tne \sords, 
 
 The Superb Hancock ' ' The Lord God save those who come in and 
 
 The Rail Splitter Lincoln . mi f T n fV-p rrlnnmv rliirnrpnnq arp still tr 
 
 Great American Commoner Thad. Stevens % Ut ' Omy a 
 
 Old Ossawatomie John Brown be seen the stone pillars, with strong iron rings 
 
 Old Public Functionary James Buchanan n ft a pV, pr l tn whir-h thp nn>iar>nv nrinnpr<s WPPP 
 
 Carolina Game Cock Sumter a ea, to wn nnappypri, 
 
 Teacher President Garfield ! fettered. Chillon is famous as the prison of 
 
 Father of Greenbacks Samuel P. Chase TJnnnivarrl thp nrinr nf St Victor who hav 
 
 LittleGiant S.A.Douglas 1 nivara, tt &t. VIC ,or, wno, nav- 
 
 Colossus of American independence John Adams ing by his efforts to free the Genevese rendered 
 
 Sage of Chappaqua Greeley hJmoplf obnoxious to the Dnkp of vSavov was 
 
 Prince of American Letters W.Irving 1 vov ' 
 
 Mill Boy of the Slashes Clay carried off by emissaries of that potentate, and 
 
 Pathfinder Of the Rockies Fremont ^nnfinorl hprp fr>r eiY -t-paro ntthppnrl nf whiVh 
 
 Cincinnati^ of the West Washington connne slx years, attneena 
 
 Great Indian Apostle Eliot time the castle was forced to surrender to the 
 
 Motoax Kin S Phillip Bernese and Genevese, when Bonnivard se- 
 
 Corner Stones. The custom of laying cured his liberty. Since 1738 the castle has 
 the corner stone of a public building with cer- been employed as a magazine for military 
 emonies was practiced by the ancients. We stores. Chillon has been immortalized by 
 are told that at the laying of the corner stone Byron's poem, "Prisoner of Chillon," refer- 
 when the capitol of Rome was rebuilt a pro- ring to the Bonnivard mentioned above, 
 cession of vestal virgins, robed in white, sur- Pilgrim Fathers and Mothers. The 
 rounded the stone and consecrated it with liba- names of the passengers who came over to 
 tious of living water. A prayer to the gods America in the Mayflower on her first trip, in
 
 648 
 
 THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS. 
 
 the year 1620, were as follows : 
 
 John Alden ; Mr. Isaac Allerton, Mary, his 
 wife, Bartholomew, a son, and Remember and 
 Mary, daughters ; John Allerton ; Mr. William 
 Bradford, the second governor, and Dorothy, 
 his wife ; Mr. William Brewster, their ruling 
 elder, Mary, his wife, and Love and Wrestling 
 Brewster, his sons ; John Billihgton, his wife, 
 Ellen, and two sons, John and Francis ; Peter 
 Brown ; Richard Britteridge ; Mr. John Car- 
 ver, who was chosen first governor, and Katha- 
 rine, his wife ; Francis Cooke ; John Cooke ; 
 Humility Cooper ; James Chilton, his wife, 
 and daughter Mary ; John Crackston and his 
 son, John; Richard Clarke; Robert Carter; 
 Edward Dorey ; Francis Eaton and his wife, 
 Sarah ; Samuel Eaton ; Ely ; Thomas 
 English ; Mr. Samuel Fuller, physician ; 
 Edward Fuller, his wife, and son, Samuel ; 
 Moses Fletcher ; John Goodman ; Richard 
 Gardiner : John Hooke ; John Rowland ; Mr. 
 Stephen Hopkins, his wife, Elizabeth, two sons, 
 Giles and Damarius, and two daughters, Con- 
 stantia and Oceanus ; William Holbrook ; Ed- 
 ward Leister ; John Langmore ; William La- 
 tham ; Mr. Christopher Martin and wife ; Mr. 
 William Mullins, his wife, a son, Joseph, and a 
 daughter, Priscilla ; Edmund Margeson ; Rich- 
 ard More and brother ; Ellen More ; Jasper 
 More ; Degory Priest ; Solomon Power ; Thomas 
 Rogers and son, Joseph ; John Ridgedale and 
 his wife, Alice ; Capt. Myles Standish and Rose, 
 his wife ; Henry Sampson; George Soule ; Elias 
 Story ; Edward Thompson ; William Trevor ; 
 Edward Tilly, his wife, Anne, and daughter, 
 Elizabeth ; John Tilly and his wife ; Thomas 
 Tinker, his wife and son ; John Turner and his 
 two sons ; Roger Wilder ; Mr. Edward Wins- 
 low, sometime governor, and Elizabeth, his wife ; 
 Desire Winter ; Mr. William White, his wife, 
 Susanna, and a son, Resolved ; Mr. Richard 
 Warren ; Thomas Williams ; Gilbert Winslow. 
 
 Nautical Vocabulary. 
 
 Abaft. Toward the stern. 
 
 About. To take the opposite tack. 
 
 Anchor ; The heavy piece of iron which holds the ship 
 at rest. 
 
 Alee. On the side away from the wind. 
 
 Astern. In the direction of the stern. 
 
 Athwart. In a line across the ship. 
 
 Beating. Sailing against the wind by tacking. 
 
 Roiv. The front of a vessel. 
 
 Bend. To fasten ; as, to bend on a rope. 
 
 Berth. A ship's anchorage, or a narrow shelf for 
 sleeping on. 
 
 Block. A pulley. 
 
 Bolt Rope. The'rope surrounding the sail to which it is 
 sewed . 
 
 Boom . The spar at the bottom of a sail by which it i 
 extended. 
 
 Brace. A rope attached to a boom or yard by which 
 they are moved. 
 
 Bulkhead. A partition within the hull. 
 
 Bulwarks. The sides of a vessel surrounding and ex- 
 tending above the deck. 
 
 Cable. A strong rope or chain. 
 
 Caboose. A kitchen on deck. 
 
 Calk. To make tight the seams of a vessel. 
 
 Camel. An arrangement for assisting a ship over 
 shoals. 
 
 Carry Away. To break or lose a rope or spar. 
 
 Cat Block. The tackle block for hoisting the anchor. 
 
 Cat's Paw. A light puff of wind. 
 
 Clew . To bind up. 
 
 Clew Lines. Ropes for clewing. 
 
 Combings. The raised edges around the hatches. 
 
 Cock Pit. A room for wounded men in a war vessel. 
 
 Companion Way. The cabin stairway, 
 
 Compass. An instrument showing the vessel's course. 
 
 Coxswain. The steerer of a small boat. 
 
 Deadlight. An iron shutter covering a porthole. 
 
 Dead Reckoning. The keeping the course of a vessel 
 with the use of log line and compass. 
 
 Deck. The covering: or floor to a ship. 
 
 Draught. The depth of water required to float a ves- 
 sel. 
 
 Fathom. Six feet. 
 
 Fender. A piece of wood or other material to prevent 
 the contact of two vessels. 
 
 Footrope. A rope extending along and under a yard 
 on which the seamen stand. 
 
 Fore and Aft. From bow to stern. 
 
 Forecastle. That part forward of the foremast. 
 
 Foremast. The mast nearest the bow. 
 
 Forge. To move slowly ahead. 
 
 Founder. To sink. 
 
 1'url. To roll up. 
 
 <!nff. The upner spar holding up a fore and aft sail. 
 
 Galley. The kitchen. 
 
 Gangway. An entrance to a ship. 
 
 Grapnel. A small anchor. 
 
 Halyards. Ropes for hoisting sails. 
 
 Hatch, or Hat rli >ray. An opening in the deck. 
 
 Heave To. To stop by bringing a ship's bow to the wind. 
 
 Hold. The interior "of a vessel. 
 
 Hull. The body only of a vessel. 
 
 Jaw. The mast end of a boom or gaff. 
 
 Jib. A triangular sail at a ship's bow. 
 
 Jurymast. A temporary mast. 
 
 Jibe-. To shift a sail from one side to the other. 
 
 Keel. The lowest timl er in a ship. 
 
 Knot. A nautical mile. 
 
 Larboard. The left hand of a ship looking toward 
 the bow. 
 
 Launch. To let a ship slide into the water. 
 
 Lead. A mass of lead used in sounding. 
 
 Lee. Away from the wind. 
 
 Leeu-ay. The lee motion or space of water. 
 
 Locker. A chest or box. 
 
 Log or Log Line. A rope used for measuring the speed 
 of a vessel. 
 
 Log or Log Book. The ship's record or diary. 
 
 Luff. To bring a ship nearer to the wind. 
 
 Manrope. A rope used in going up or down the 
 ship's side. 
 
 Mast. An upright piece of timber set in a ship for 
 supporting sails, rigging, etc. 
 
 Masthead. The head or top of a mast. 
 
 Mess. A number of men eating together. 
 
 Mid ships. The middle, or widest part of a ship. 
 
 Mi-.-i-ntnttst : Mizzensail. The hindmost when there 
 are three. 
 
 Moor. To secure a ship in any position. 
 
 Nip. A short turn, as in a rope. 
 
 Painter. A rope used to secure a boat to anything. 
 
 Pay Out. To slacken or give out, as to j-ay out a rope. 
 
 I'l-iik. The upper and outer corner of a boom sail . 
 
 r/iitlf. The bolt on which a rudder is hung. 
 
 Port. The same as larboard. 
 
 Port or Porthole. An opening in a ship's side to ad- 
 mit light and air 
 
 Quarter. The stern portion of a ship's side. 
 
 llnki". The inclination of a mast. 
 
 Hf'ff. A portion of the sail which is clewed up when 
 the \\ ind is too high to expose the whole. 
 
 Reef. To take up such a portion. 
 
 /,'< eve. To pass the end of a rope through a pulley, etc. 
 
 1'iijging. A term applied generally to a vessel's ropes, 
 etc. 
 
 llotiil. An open space of water where ships may 
 anchor. 
 
 Hnir/ix-k. Arrangement for giving purchase to an oar 
 in rowing. 
 
 lindiler. The contrivance which steers a vessel. 
 
 Xniil. To sail before a heavy wind or gale. 
 
 .s'ri/'/. The sheet of canvas* which is exposed to the 
 wind and gives motion to the vessel.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 649 
 
 Seams. Where the ship's planks join. 
 
 Sheet. A rope for controlling ana moving a sail. 
 
 Allure. A prop under a beam. 
 
 s/cij'ipcr. The name given generally to the master of 
 a small vessel. 
 
 Sloop. A vessel with hut one mast. 
 
 Sound. To ascertain the depth of the water. 
 
 Spar. A name applied to a mast, boom, gaff, yard, etc. 
 
 Stern. The rear portion of a vessel. 
 
 stfty. A rope supporting or keeping in place a mast. 
 
 Tack. To go against the wind in a zigzag course, and 
 to change a ship's course by shifting lier rudder and 
 sails. 
 
 Taut. Tight. 
 
 Tit icarts. A boat's seats. 
 
 Tiller. A bar for moving a rudder. 
 
 Trick. A sailor's duration of time in steering. 
 
 Warp. To move a vessel by a line fastened at the end 
 ti> an anchor. 
 
 Watch. A certain portion of time for duty. 
 
 ll'n I,'-. The track left in the water by a moving vessel. 
 
 Weather. Toward the wind. 
 
 Wfiffh Anchor. To raise the anchor. 
 
 Waist. That portion of the deck between the quar- 
 ter deck and forecastle. 
 
 Windlass. A machine for raising the anchor or cargo. 
 
 Windward. The point from whence the wind blows. 
 
 Yacht. A sailing vessel used for pleasure. 
 
 Yard. A spar supporting and extending a sail. 
 
 Yardarm. Either half of a yard. 
 
 Yaw. A movement causing a temporary change oi 
 course. 
 
 Pension Statistics. 
 
 
 Num-' 
 ber. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 
 Num- 
 ber. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 3,780 
 
 505,098.27 
 
 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 
 
 Continued . 
 
 
 
 Alaska 
 
 65 
 
 8,970.14 
 
 Brazil 
 
 6 
 
 $1,341.73 
 
 Arizona 
 
 619 
 
 87,895.31 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 1 
 
 6,00 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 10,949 
 
 1,521.527.82 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 1 
 
 300.00 
 
 California 
 
 16,981 
 
 2,442,231.65 
 
 Canada 
 
 2,192 
 
 332,088.47 
 
 Colorado 
 
 7,307 
 
 1,001.617.20 
 
 Chile 
 
 10 
 
 966.53 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 12 015 
 
 1 410 115 59 
 
 China . 
 
 16 
 
 3,138.93 
 
 Dela ware 
 
 2,740 
 
 419 917.57 
 
 Comora Islands . 
 
 1 
 
 180.0 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 8,629 
 
 1,532,120 97 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 3 
 
 468.00 
 
 Florida 
 
 3,121 
 
 426,058 07 
 
 Cuba 
 
 4 
 
 405.00 
 
 Georgia 
 
 3 770 
 
 495 737 d7 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 2 
 
 165.87 
 
 Idaho 
 
 1 218 
 
 177 297 17 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 2 
 
 4*11111. 
 
 Illinois 
 
 70 767 
 
 10 371,293 73 
 
 Denmark 
 
 23 
 
 3,484.51 
 
 Indiana 
 
 67.139 
 
 10 902,433.06 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 1 
 
 
 Indian Territory 
 
 2 682 
 
 369 728 01 
 
 Dutch West Indies 
 
 2 
 
 330.00 
 
 Iowa 
 
 37 977 
 
 5 549 978 61 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 3 
 
 338.00 
 
 Kansas 
 Kentucky 
 
 41,629 
 28 980 
 
 6,472,994.49 
 4 309 049 75 
 
 England 
 Egvpt 
 
 320 
 1 
 
 48,479.25 
 120.00 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 5 285 
 
 868 234 (>5 
 
 Finland ... 
 
 1 
 
 180.00 
 
 Maine 
 Maryland 
 
 20,935 
 12 905 
 
 3,127,655.53 
 1 789 363 91 
 
 France 
 Germany 
 
 62 
 632 
 
 9,392.75 
 95,748.45 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 38 692 
 
 5 606 197 45 
 
 Greece 
 
 5 
 
 732.00 
 
 Michigan 
 Minnesota 
 
 45,436 
 16 650 
 
 7,209,436.93 
 2 420 956 67 
 
 Guatemala 
 Hawaii 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 549.00 
 4,393.50 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 4 V2 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 763.00 
 
 Missouri 
 
 53 649 
 
 7 455 C81 72 
 
 India 
 
 2 
 
 372.00 
 
 Montana 
 
 1 39^ 
 
 203 951 89 
 
 Ireland /. ... 
 
 428 
 
 64,842.75 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 17 6 9 7 
 
 7(^1 Qg^ "Jft 
 
 Isle of Man 
 
 a 
 
 276.00 
 
 Nevada 
 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 34 
 
 5,151.00 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 9 204 
 
 
 Japan 
 
 12 
 
 2,195.70 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 
 
 Korea 
 
 1 
 
 360.00 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 1 483 
 
 219 114 38 
 
 Liberia 
 
 6 
 
 639.00 
 
 New York 
 
 
 
 Madeira .... 
 
 4 
 
 552.00 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 
 Malta 
 
 2 
 
 288.00 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 1 
 
 96.00 
 
 Ohio 
 
 105 864 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 112 
 
 16,968.25 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 6 67 
 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 10 
 
 2,607.20 
 
 Oregon 
 
 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 8 
 
 978.00 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 2 
 
 1,084.47 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 10,259.53 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 1 
 
 907.73 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 
 
 Peru 
 
 7 
 
 1,084.60 
 
 Ten nessee 
 
 
 
 Portugal 
 
 7 
 
 1,362.00 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 Russia 
 
 4 
 
 690.75 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 
 San Salvador 
 
 1 
 
 552.00 
 
 Vermont 
 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 84 
 
 12,726.00 
 
 Virginia . ... 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 324.00 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 
 Siam . 
 
 2 
 
 468.00 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 
 
 South African Republic 
 
 3 
 
 576.00 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 
 Spain * . 
 
 7 
 
 1,069.50 
 
 Wvoming 
 
 
 
 St Helena 
 
 1 
 
 144.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 6,817.50 
 
 Total in States and Territories 
 
 989,343 
 
 143,982,017.24 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 74 
 
 11,211.00 
 
 FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 
 
 Tahiti 
 Turkey 
 
 
 1,007.00 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 27 
 
 $4 090 15 
 
 
 3 
 
 144 00 
 
 Algiers 
 
 2 
 
 540.00 
 
 
 3 
 
 54R.OO 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 4 
 
 487.20 ! 
 
 
 13 
 
 1,834.20 
 
 Australia 
 
 39 
 
 5,908.85 
 
 West Indies 
 
 14 
 
 2,130.00 
 
 Azores Islands 
 Bahamas 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 164.40 
 240 00 
 
 Total in Foreign Countries. . . 
 
 4,371 
 
 669,862.56 
 
 Belgium 
 
 15 
 
 2,272 50 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 993,714 
 
 144 651 879 80 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 8 
 
 1.099 33 
 
 
 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 1 
 
 521.47 
 
 

 
 650 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 
 
 Degrees in Freemasonry. 
 
 YORK RITE. 
 
 SCOTTISH RITE. 
 
 
 Lodge. 
 
 
 Lodge of Perfection. Councils of Princes of 
 
 Consistories of Sublime 
 
 I. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Entered Apprentice. 
 Fellow Craftsman. 
 Master Mason. 
 
 4 
 5 
 8 
 
 Jerusalem (Continued). 
 Secret Master. 
 Perfect Master. 16. Prince of Jerusalem. 
 Intimate Secretary. 
 
 25. 
 
 Princes of the Royal 
 Secret (Continued). 
 Knight of the Brazen 
 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 7. 
 
 Chapter. 
 Mark Master. 
 Past Master. 
 Most Excellent Master. 
 Royal Arch Mason. 
 
 Council. 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 JO 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 Provost and Judge. Chapters of Rose Croix. 
 Intendant of the Build- 17 Knight Qf ^ Eagt and 
 
 Etecfc of Ninp West. 
 Etect of Fifteen. 18 ' Knight of the Rose 
 Sublime Knight Elect. n - K - u - M - 
 Grand Master Archi- Consistories of Sublime 
 tect. Princes of the Royal 
 Knight of the Ninth Secret 
 
 2(5. 
 27, 
 
 28. 
 29. 
 80. 
 
 Serpent. 
 Prince of Mercv. 
 Commander o"f the 
 Temple. 
 Knight of the Sun. 
 Knight of St. Andrew. 
 Grand Elect Knight, 
 K. H., or Knight of 
 the Black and White 
 
 8. 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 Royal Master. 
 Select Master. 
 Super Excellent Master. 
 
 14 
 
 Grinl 1 ' Elect, Perfect'"- ra ? d P , O V?; 
 and Sublime Mason. 20- Master Ad Vitam. 
 21. Patriarch Noachite. 
 
 81. 
 
 32. 
 
 Eagle. 
 Grand Inspector In- 
 quisitorCommander. 
 Sublime Prince of the 
 
 
 Commandery. 
 
 
 Councils of Princes of 22- Prince of Libanus. 
 Jerusalem. 23. Chief of the Taber- 33. 
 
 Royal Secret. 
 Sovereign Grand In- 
 
 11. 
 
 Red Cross Knight. 
 
 
 nacle. 
 
 
 spector-General of 
 
 12. 
 
 Knight Templar. 
 
 15. 
 
 Knight of the East or 24. Prince of the Taber- 
 
 the 33d and Last 
 
 13. 
 
 Knight of Malta. 
 
 
 Sword. i nacle. 
 
 Degree. 
 
 Cities of the United States, above 25,OOO. 
 
 TWELFTH CENSUS, 1900. 
 
 Chicago, 111 
 
 1,698,575 
 
 Lynn, Mass 
 
 68,513 
 
 Quincy 111 
 
 36 252 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 1.293,697 
 
 Oakland, Cal 
 
 66,960 
 
 South Bend, Ind 
 
 35 999 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 575,238 
 
 Lawrence, Mass 
 
 62,559 
 
 Salem, Mass 
 
 35 956 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 560,892 
 
 New Bedford, Mass 
 
 62442 
 
 Johnstown, Pa 
 
 35 936 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 508,957 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa .... 
 
 62,139 
 
 Elmira, N. Y.. 
 
 35 672 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 381,768 
 
 
 62 059 
 
 Allentown, Pa 
 
 35 416 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 352,219 
 
 
 61,643 
 
 Davenport, Iowa 
 
 35 254 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 
 
 342,782 
 
 Troy, N. Y... 
 
 60,651 
 
 McKeesport, Pa 
 
 34 ''27 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio ... 1 
 
 325,902 
 
 Hoboken N J 
 
 59,364 
 
 Springfield, 111 
 
 34 159 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa 
 
 321 616 
 
 
 59 007 
 
 Chelsea, Mass 
 
 34 072 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 287 104 
 
 
 56 987 
 
 Chester Pa 
 
 33 988 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 285 704 
 
 Utica, N Y 
 
 56383 
 
 Maiden, Mass . 
 
 33 6(54 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 285315 
 
 Peoria, 111.. .. 
 
 56 100 
 
 York, Pa 
 
 33 654 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 278 718 
 
 Charleston S C 
 
 55 807 
 
 Topeka, Kan. 
 
 33 gog 
 
 Newark, N. J 
 
 246 070 
 
 
 54244 
 
 
 33 537 
 
 Jersey City, N. J 
 
 206 433 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 
 
 53 531 
 
 
 33 111 
 
 Louisville, Kv 
 
 204*731 
 
 San Antonio, Tex 
 
 53321 
 
 Bayonne, N J 
 
 32 722 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn 
 
 202 718 
 
 Duluth, Minn 
 
 52,969 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn... . 
 
 32 637 
 
 Providence, R. I 
 
 175 597 
 
 Erie, Pa 
 
 52,733 
 
 Chattanooga, Tenn 
 
 32 490 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind 
 
 169*164 
 
 Elizabeth, N. J 
 
 52,130 
 
 Schenectadv, N. Y 
 
 31 682 
 
 Kansas Citv, Mo 
 
 163 752 
 
 Wilkesbarre, Pa 
 
 51,721 
 
 Fitchburg, Mass 
 
 31 531 
 
 St Paul Minn 
 
 163 632 
 
 Kansas City, Kan 
 
 51,418 
 
 Superior Citv, Wis 
 
 31 091 
 
 
 162435 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa 
 
 50,167 
 
 Rockf ord, 111 
 
 31 051 
 
 
 133*859 
 
 Portland, Me 
 
 50,145 
 
 Taunton, Mass 
 
 31 036 
 
 Toledo, Ohio 
 
 131 822 
 
 Yonkers, N. Y 
 
 47,931 
 
 Joliet, 111 
 
 30 720 
 
 
 129 896 
 
 Norfolk, Va 
 
 46,624 
 
 Canton, Ohio 
 
 30 667 
 
 
 125*560 
 
 Waterbury, Conn 
 
 45,859 
 
 Butte, Montana 
 
 30 470 
 
 
 118 421 
 
 Holyoke, Mass 
 
 45 712 
 
 Montgomerv, Ala. 
 
 30 346 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y 
 
 108,374 
 
 Fort Wayne, Ind 
 
 45,115 
 
 Auburn, N. *Y 
 
 30,345 
 
 New Haven, Conn 
 
 108 027 
 
 Youngstown, Ohio 
 
 44,885 
 
 East St. Louis, 111 
 
 29 655 
 
 
 105 171 
 
 Houston, Tex 
 
 44 633 
 
 Sacramento, Cal 
 
 29 282 
 
 Fall River, Mass . . 
 
 104 863 
 
 Covington, Ky ... 
 
 42,938 
 
 Racine, Wis 
 
 29 102 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo 
 
 102 979 
 
 Akron, Ohio 
 
 42,728 
 
 La Crosse, Wis ... . 
 
 28 g95 
 
 Omaha, Neb 
 
 102,555 
 
 Dallas, Tex 
 
 42,638 
 
 Williamsport, Pa 
 
 28,757 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal 
 
 102,479 
 
 
 42,345 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla 
 
 28,429 
 
 Memphis, Tenn 
 
 102.320 
 
 Lancaster, Pa 
 
 41,459 
 
 Newcastle, Pa. 
 
 28,339 
 
 Scranton, Pa 
 
 102,026 
 
 
 40,169 
 
 
 28,301 
 
 Lowell, Mass 
 
 94,969 
 
 Brockton, Mass 
 
 40,063 
 
 Oshkosh, Wis 
 
 28,284 
 
 Albany, N. Y 
 
 94,151 
 
 
 39.647 
 
 
 28,204 
 
 Cambridge, Mass 
 
 91,886 
 
 Augusta, Ga ... 
 
 39,441 
 
 Pueblo Col 
 
 28,157 
 
 Portland, Oregon 
 
 90,426 
 
 Pawtucket, R.I 
 
 39,231 
 
 Atlantic City, N. J 
 
 27,838 
 
 Atlanta, Ga 
 
 89,872 
 
 Altoona Pa 
 
 38,973 
 
 Passaic, N J 
 
 27,777 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich 
 
 87,565 
 
 Wheeling, W. Va 
 
 38,878 
 
 Bay Citv, Mich 
 
 27,628 
 
 Dayton, Ohio 
 
 85,333 
 
 Mobile Ala 
 
 38 469 
 
 Fort Worth, Tex 
 
 26,688 
 
 Richmond, Va 
 
 85,050 
 
 Birmingham, Ala 
 
 38,415 
 
 Lexington, Ky 
 
 26,369 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 80,865 
 
 Little Rock Ark 
 
 38 307 
 
 
 26,121 
 
 Seattle, Wash 
 
 80,671 
 
 Springfield Ohio . 
 
 38,253 
 
 South Omaha, Neb 
 
 26,001 
 
 
 79 850 
 
 
 37 789 
 
 
 25 098 
 
 Reading, Pa 
 
 78,961 
 
 Tacoma, Wash ... 
 
 37 714 
 
 Council Bluffs Iowa 
 
 25,802 
 
 Wilmi ngton, Del 
 
 76 508 
 
 
 37 175 
 
 
 25 656 
 
 Camden, N. J. 
 
 75,935 
 
 
 36 848 
 
 Easton, Pa 
 
 25,238 
 
 Trenton, N. J 
 
 73,307 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind 1 
 
 36.673 
 

 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abbeys and Monasteries, 283 
 
 Abbreviations in General Use, . . . 181 
 
 Abderit, 126 
 
 Aberdeen, University of, 283 
 
 Aboukir, 283 
 
 Abraham's Bosom 126 
 
 Absinthe, 625 
 
 Abydos, 283 
 
 Abyla and Calpe, 126 
 
 Abyssinian War, The, 273 
 
 Academics, . 126 
 
 Academy, The French, 126 
 
 National, of Design, 571 
 
 Royal, 564 
 
 West Point 562 
 
 Acadia, 126 
 
 Accent Marks, 123 
 
 Acetate of Lead, Liquor of, .... 401 
 
 Acetic Acid, 395 
 
 Acoustics, 300 
 
 Actium, 283 
 
 Acre, 283 
 
 Adam and Eve, 502 
 
 Adam's Apple, 126 
 
 Addison, Dying Saying of, .... 623 
 
 Admirable Crichton, The, 126 
 
 Admiral, 126 
 
 Adrianople, 283 
 
 ^Eneid, 126, 169 
 
 ^Eolian Harp, 302 
 
 Aerial Navigation, 302 
 
 ^Esthetics, 522. 
 
 Africa, Division among European Powers, 111 
 
 Age, 634 
 
 of Animals, 613 
 
 Ages, . 126 
 
 Agincourt, Battle of, 283 
 
 Air, 300, 366 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, 283 
 
 Alabama, 126, 283 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 76 
 
 Aladdin's Window, 126 
 
 Alaska, 283 
 
 Albans, St 283 
 
 Albany Regency, 126 
 
 Albany, State Capitol at, 512 
 
 Albigenses, 514 
 
 Albino, 126 
 
 Albinos, . . . 283 
 
 Albion, 126 
 
 Alcoholic Drinks, 300 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alcoholic Liquors, 588 
 
 Alderton Moor, 283 
 
 Aldine Press, . 126 
 
 Ale, 378 
 
 Alessandria, 283 
 
 Alexandria, 283 
 
 Alexandrian Codex, 513 
 
 Alexandrian Library, . . . . 126, 283 
 
 Alexandrine Age, 126 
 
 Algebra, 300 
 
 Algiers, 283 
 
 Alhambra, The, 126, 283 
 
 Allah, 126 
 
 All Fool's Day 638 
 
 Allhallowmas, 197 
 
 All-Hallows, 126 
 
 Alliance, La Belle, . 290 
 
 Alloys, Table of the Principal, ... 583 
 
 All Souls' Day, 197 
 
 Allspice, 416 
 
 Almacks, 126 
 
 Almanacs, 300 
 
 Almighty Dollar, .126 
 
 Aloes, Barbadoes, 396 
 
 Alphabets, 143 
 
 Alsatia, 126 
 
 Altars, 283 
 
 Altitude, Greatest in Each State, . . 646 
 
 Alto-Relievo, 126 
 
 Alum 397 
 
 Amazons, 283 
 
 Ambrosia, 126 
 
 Amen, 541 
 
 America, Catholic University of, . . . 560 
 
 History of, 218, 283 
 
 Printing in, 345 
 
 American Battles, Calendar of, ... 223 
 
 American Cheese, 418 
 
 American Civil War, 274 
 
 American Clocks and Watches, . . . 302 
 
 American Coinage, Early, 447 
 
 American Flags, 601 
 
 American Indians, The, 592 
 
 American Literature, 166 
 
 American Mine, Oldest, . . . . 459 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci, 283 
 
 Ammonia, 429 
 
 Liniment of, 40 
 
 Liquor of, 
 
 Sesqui-Carbonate of, 397 
 
 Spirit of, 404 
 
 Anachronism, 126 
 
 Anacreontics, 126 
 
 Anatomy, 
 
 Anaxagoras, Dying Saying of, ... 623
 
 652 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ancient Regime, 126 
 
 Anglesey, 283 
 
 Angling, 301 
 
 Angling, The Father of, 126 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, 283 
 
 Angular Measure, 587 
 
 Animal Productions, 466 
 
 Animal Worship, 533 
 
 Animals, Age Attained, ... . 613 
 
 Anjou, Battle of, 283 
 
 Annapolis, U. S. Naval Academy at, . 563 
 
 Anniversaries, 200 
 
 Anniversary, The Wedding, .... 638 
 
 Annus Mirabilis, 126 
 
 Anointing, . 283 
 
 Antidotes for Poisons, 427 
 
 Antimony, Potassio-Tartrate of, . . . 397 
 
 Antioch, 283 
 
 Antoninus, The Wall of, 126 
 
 Antonio, Battle of, 283 
 
 Apocrypha, The, 499 
 
 Apollo Belvedere, 126 
 
 Apostles, Deaths of, 497 
 
 Apostrophe, The 123 
 
 Apothecary's Weights, 587 
 
 Appian Way, 126, 283 
 
 Apples, Golden, 126 
 
 Apples of Sodom, 126 
 
 Applications : Patent Office, ... 33 
 
 Civil Service, U. S., 37 
 
 Apprenticeship, Law of, 118 
 
 Approx. Value Gold & Silver, U. S., ; 97, 455 
 
 Aqueducts, 636 
 
 Arabesque, 126 
 
 Arabic Literature, 149 
 
 Numerals, 645 
 
 Arbela, Battle of 284 
 
 Arbor Day 198 
 
 Arcadian, 126 
 
 Arcadians, 284 
 
 Archimedes, Principle of, 302 
 
 Architecture, 505 
 
 Chinese, 508 
 
 Egyptian, 506 
 
 Gothic or Pointed, 509 
 
 Grecian, 507 
 
 Italian, 508 
 
 Modern British, 510 
 
 Modern Gothic, 509 
 
 Norman, 509 
 
 Roman, . . 508 
 
 Saracenic, 509 
 
 Saxon, 509 
 
 Architecture in the United States, . . 511 
 
 Art Museum at Cincinnati, .... 513 
 
 Art School at Yale, 513 
 
 Bureau of Printing and Engraving, . 511 
 
 Capitol at Hartford, 512 
 
 Capitol at Washington, 511 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Architecture, Cathedral St. John, N. Y., 513 
 
 City Hall, Philadelphia, 512 
 
 Congressional Library, 511 
 
 Grace Church, New York, .... 512 
 
 Harvard College, 513 
 
 MasoTiic Temple, Philadelphia, . . 513 
 
 Memorial Hall, Harvard, .... 513 
 
 Museum Fine Arts, Boston, . . . 513 
 
 Pension Bureau, 511 
 
 St. Patrick's Cathedral, 512 
 
 State Capitol, Albany, 512 
 
 Stone Hall, Wellesley, 513 
 
 Temple Emmanuel, N. Y., . . . . 513 
 
 Treasury and Patent Office, . . . 511 
 
 Trinity Church, New York, ... 512 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, . . . 513 
 
 Arctic Explorers, Most North 'n Pt. R'ch'd, 599 
 
 Area and Population of Cuba, ... 19 
 
 Hawaii, 15 
 
 Porto Rico, 16 
 
 Areopagus, 284 
 
 Argentine Republic, 85 
 
 Justice, 86 
 
 Local Government, 86 
 
 Religion and Instruction, .... 86 
 
 Argentria, 284 
 
 Argo, 126 
 
 Argonauts, 126 
 
 Argus-eyed, 126 
 
 Arithmetic, 301 
 
 Arizona, 284 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 76 
 
 Arkansas, 284 
 
 Divorce Laws of, . 74 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 . Property Rights of Married Women, . 76 
 
 Ark of the Covenant, 516 
 
 Armada, The Spanish, .... 126,284 
 
 Armed Strength of Europe, .... 632 
 
 Armies, Asia, 614 
 
 Mexico, 614 
 
 South America, 614 
 
 Armor, 303 
 
 Arms, Coats of, 284 
 
 Army, 284 
 
 during Civil War, 579 
 
 Colored Troops in U. S., .... 617 
 
 Pay Table, 611 
 
 Recruiting Requirements, U. S., . . 610 
 
 Strength of the Federal 579 
 
 The Salvation, 563 
 
 Arquebus, Origin of, 329 
 
 Arria, Dying Saying of, 623 
 
 Art, Schools of, 565 
 
 American, 568 
 
 Dutch 566 
 
 English, 568
 
 INDEX. 
 
 653 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Art, Flemish, 566 
 
 French, . . 567 
 
 German, 566 
 
 Lombard, * 566 
 
 Roman, 566 
 
 Spanish, 567 j 
 
 Venetian, 566 
 
 Art Terms, Glossary of, 574 
 
 Artesian Well, 126 
 
 Artillery, 304 
 
 Arundel Marbles 542 
 
 Aryans, 126 
 
 Asafoetida, Gum, 397 
 
 Ascalon, Battle of, 284 
 
 Asia, Armies, 614 
 
 Assaying, 301 
 
 Assignment of Demand for Wages or Debt, 67 
 
 Assignment of a Lease, 66 
 
 Assignment of a Mortgage 67 
 
 Assignment of a Patent, 67 
 
 Assignment of a Policy of Insurance, . 67 
 
 Associated Press, 637 
 
 Assyria, 284 
 
 Astor Library, 126 
 
 Astronomy, 304 
 
 Athens. , 284 
 
 The Modern, 126 
 
 Atlantic Cables 303 
 
 Atlantic Ocean Passage, Fastest, . . 475 
 
 Attorneys-General, 281 
 
 Augustan Age, 126 
 
 Augustus, Dying Saying of 623 
 
 Auld Reekie, 126 
 
 Aurora Borealis, 303 
 
 Austerlitz, 284 
 
 Australian Federation, 110 
 
 Austria, 284 
 
 Austria-Hungary, 86 
 
 Affairs Common to the Two States, . 86 
 
 Instruction, 87 
 
 Justice, 87 
 
 Legislative Power, 86 
 
 Ministries, The, 86 
 
 Religion, 87 
 
 Austrian Servitude, 626 
 
 Automobile, 301 
 
 Avalon, 126 
 
 Avignon, 284 
 
 Axminster Carpets, . 419 
 
 Axe-Wedge, 304 
 
 Ayrshire Poet, The, 126 
 
 Aztecs, 284 
 
 Babelmandeb, Straits of, 295 
 
 Babel, Tower of, 542 
 
 Babylon, 284 
 
 Babylon, Hanging Gardens of, . . . 522 
 
 Babylonish Captivity, 126 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bacon, 406 
 
 Baconian Philosophy, 126 
 
 Bacteria, . . 642 
 
 Baldness, 421 
 
 Balloon, Air, Origin of, 329 
 
 Balmoral Castle 126 
 
 Baltimore, Battle of, 284 
 
 Banana, 388 
 
 Banking System, National, 451 
 
 Banking, Origin of, 329 
 
 Bank Law, The National, 112 
 
 'Bank of England, 126 
 
 Banks, 449 
 
 Wild-Cat, .455 
 
 United States, 451 
 
 Bannockburn, Battle of, 284 
 
 Barbers, 284 
 
 Barber's Pole, 601 
 
 Barcelona, 284 
 
 Bard of Avon, 126 
 
 Barmecide's Feast, 126 
 
 Barnburners, 126 
 
 Barometers, Origin of, 329 
 
 Baron, 284 
 
 Baronets, . . . 284 
 
 Barrenness, . 628 
 
 Basilisk, 126 
 
 Basso Relievo, 126 
 
 Bastille, 12G, 284, 623 
 
 Bath, 378 
 
 Shower, 379 
 
 Sponge, . . 380 
 
 Warm, 379 
 
 Battering Ram, Origin of, 320 
 
 Battery, The, .126 
 
 Battle of the Books, ....... 126 
 
 Battle of the Kegs, 126 
 
 Battle of Lake Erie, 284 
 
 Battles, Great, of the Civil War, ... 580 
 
 Some Famous Naval, 282 
 
 Bayonets, Origin of, 329 
 
 Bayeux Tapestry, 541 
 
 Bays, Size of , 645 
 
 Beacon Street, 126 
 
 Beaufort, Dving Saying of 623 
 
 Beauty and th Beast, .... 126, 169 
 
 Bedlam, 126 
 
 Bedouins, 284 
 
 Bedrooms, 430 
 
 Beds, 305 
 
 Beds and Bedding, 412 
 
 Pillows, 413 
 
 Pillow Cases, 413 
 
 Sheets, 413 
 
 Springs, 413 
 
 Beef, 405 
 
 Beelzebub, 126 
 
 Beer, Origin of 304 
 
 Bee, The Attic, 126
 
 654 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bee, The Busy, 126 
 
 Begging the Question, ........ 126 
 
 Belgium, 87, 284 
 
 Chamber of Representatives, ... 88 
 
 Executive Government, 88 
 
 Instruction, . 89 
 
 Justice, 89 
 
 Local Government, 88 
 
 Religion, 88 
 
 Belgrade, Battle of, 284 
 
 Belgravia, 126 
 
 Belle France, La, 126 
 
 Bell the Cat, 126 
 
 Bell, Liberty, 632 
 
 Bell, The Passing, 126 
 
 Bellows, Origin of, 329 
 
 Bells 305 
 
 Great, 609 
 
 Beloved Disciple, The, .126 
 
 Benedictines, 505 
 
 Benefit of Clergy, 498 
 
 Benzine, 431 
 
 Benzoic Acid, 395 
 
 Bermuda Islands, 284 
 
 Berry, Mme. de, Dying Saying of, . . 623 
 
 Bess, Good Queen, 126 
 
 Bible, English Translations, .... 497 
 
 Bible Societies, 284 
 
 Bibles, The Seven of the World, . . 564 
 
 Bibliotheque National, 126 
 
 Billiards, 306 
 
 Billingsgate, 126 
 
 Bill of Fare: April 19, 385 
 
 1 July 4, 385 
 
 Thanksgiving Day, 385 
 
 Washington's Birthday, 385 
 
 Bills of Lading, 118 
 
 Biography, Dictionary of, 233 
 
 ^Bishop of Rome, The, 100 
 
 j Bismuth, Trisnitrate of, 397 
 
 ;Bithynia, 284 
 
 'Black Death, 126 
 
 Black Friday, 126 
 
 Black Hole of Calcutta, 126 
 
 Blacklisting, Anti- Laws, ..'... 44 
 
 Black Prince, The, 126 
 
 Black Republicans, 127 
 
 Black Teas, 417 
 
 Blarney Stone, The, 127, 595 
 
 Blenheim, Battle of, 284 
 
 Blind, Education of the, 520 
 
 Blood, Circulation of, 304 
 
 Bloodstone, 597 
 
 Bluebeard, 127, 169 
 
 Blue Laws, 127 
 
 Famous Connecticut, 615 
 
 Blue Stocking, 127, 604 
 
 Boadicea, 285 
 
 Bodily Exercise, Kinds of, 373 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bohemian, 127 
 
 Bois de Boiilogne, 127 
 
 Bombs, Origin of, 329 
 
 Bonnet, 304 
 
 Books, The World's Best, 135 
 
 Antiquities, Art, and Music, . . . 135 
 
 Classics, Poetry, and Drama, . . . 140 
 
 Education, 135 
 
 Essays and Criticisms, 140 
 
 Fiction and Description, . . . . 138 
 
 History and Biography, .... 136 
 
 Language and Literature, .... 135 
 
 Philosophy and ^Esthetics, . . . , 141 
 
 Political Science, Economics, and Law, 142 
 
 Reference Books and Dictionaries, . 135 
 
 Religion, Theology, and Mythology, . 137 
 
 Science and Travels, 141 
 
 Size of, 633 
 
 Boomerang, 633 
 
 Boots, 306 
 
 Borax, 397 
 
 Border Minstrel, The, 127 
 
 Border States, 127 
 
 Border, The, 127 
 
 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, . . . 513 
 
 Botanic Gardens, 305 
 
 Botany, 306 
 
 Bottles, 306 
 
 Boulevard, 127 
 
 Boulogne, 285 
 
 Bourgeoisie, . 127 
 
 Bourse, 127 
 
 Bow Bells, 127 
 
 Bowery, The, 127 
 
 Boxers, The, 519 
 
 Boycott, 127 
 
 Anti-Laws, 44 
 
 and Boycotting, 458 
 
 Boyne, Battle of, 285 
 
 Brackets, 123 
 
 Brain, The, . . . . '. . . 305, 596 
 
 Overworking the Undeveloped, . . 375 
 
 Brandy, 388 
 
 Brandy Nose, 127 
 
 Brazil, 89, 285 
 
 Chamber of Deputies, ....'. 89 
 
 Executive Authority, 89 
 
 Instruction, . 90 
 
 Legislative Authority, 89 
 
 Local Government, 90 
 
 Religion, 90 
 
 Bread, 306 
 
 Breakfast, 382 
 
 Breakfasts, Family, 382 
 
 Breakfast Parties, 383 
 
 Breeches Bible, 127 
 
 Brick Required to Construct Building, . 636 
 
 Bricks, 306 
 
 Bride of the Sea, 127
 
 INDEX. 
 
 655 
 
 127 
 
 Bride, Throwing Shoes after, . 
 
 Bridge of Sighs, 
 
 Bridges, Most Notable, 
 
 Origin of, 
 
 British Columbia, Exemption Laws of, . 
 
 British Customs Tariff, 
 
 British Empire, The, 
 
 Cabinet Officers, The, 
 
 House of Commons, The, .... 
 
 House of Lords, The, 
 
 Local Government, 
 
 Territorial Extent of, 
 
 British Museum, 
 
 Broadway, 
 
 Brochs, 
 
 Bront6, Dying Saying of, 
 
 Brook Farm, 
 
 Brother Jonathan, 
 
 Brussels Carpet, 
 
 Buddhism, 
 
 Buenos Ayres, 
 
 Bulgarians, 
 
 Bullets, Origin of, 
 
 Buncombe, 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument, ... 127 
 
 Burgundy, 
 
 Business Law and Forms : Agency, 
 
 Checks, 
 
 Common Carriers, 
 
 Currency, 
 
 Deeds, 
 
 Forms of Deeds, 
 
 Forms of Powers of Attorney, . 
 
 Guaranty, 
 
 Kinds, 
 
 Notes, 
 
 Business Terms, Dictionary of, ... 
 
 Butter, 
 
 Byron, Dying Saying of 
 
 Byzantine Architecture, 
 
 Byzantium, 
 
 Cabinet Officers : 
 Attorneys-General, 
 Postmasters-General, . 
 Secretaries of Agriculture, 
 Secretaries of the Interior, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 640 
 
 , 641 
 
 589 
 
 329 
 
 74 
 
 43 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 127 
 
 127 
 
 285 
 
 623 
 
 127 
 
 127 
 
 419 
 
 503 
 
 285 
 
 285 
 
 329 
 
 127 
 
 , 602 
 
 425 
 
 53 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 57 
 
 53 
 
 55 
 
 481 
 
 306 
 
 623 
 
 509 
 
 285 
 
 281 
 281 
 
 281 
 281 
 
 Secretaries of the Navy, 280 
 
 Secretaries of State, 279 
 
 Secretaries of the Treasury, . . . 280 
 
 Secretaries oi ? War, 280 
 
 Cables, Cuba, 21 
 
 Owned by Nations, 476 
 
 Submarine of the World, .... 476 
 
 Caesar, Dying Saying of, 623 
 
 Cachet, Lettres de, 127 
 
 Caledonia, 127, 285 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Calico Printing, 306 
 
 California, 285 
 
 Discovery of Gold in, 313 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 76 
 
 University of, 560 
 
 Calomel, 397 
 
 Calumet, 127 
 
 Cambridge, University of, 501 
 
 Camera Obscura, Origin of, .... 329 
 
 Campagna, 127 
 
 Camphor, 397 
 
 Liniment of, 401 
 
 Tincture of, 404 
 
 Canada, 285 
 
 Area, etc., of the Provinces, ... 85 
 
 Capital, 84 
 
 Constitution and Government, . . 82 
 
 Executive Officers, 83 
 
 House of Commons, 83 
 
 Instruction, 84 
 
 Justice, 84 
 
 Money and Credit, ...... 84 
 
 Naturalization, 84 
 
 Productions and Industry, .... 84 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 79 
 
 Provincial Government, 83 
 
 Religion, 84 
 
 Rulers since 1867, 83 
 
 Senate, 83 
 
 Canals, 480 
 
 Canary Islands, 285 
 
 Cancer, 429 
 
 Candia, 285 
 
 Candlemas, 197 
 
 Candles, 307 
 
 Canna, Battle of, 285 
 
 Cantharides, Plaster of, 398 
 
 Capacity, Scriptural Measure of, . . . 540 
 
 Capital Letters, 121 
 
 Capital of U. S., 626 
 
 Capsicum, 398 
 
 Captain Kidd, 640 
 
 Carbolic Acid, ........ 396 
 
 Carbonari, 127 
 
 Carmagnole, 127 
 
 Carpets, 419 
 
 Axminster, 419 
 
 Brussels, 419 
 
 Dutch, 420 
 
 Ingrain, 420 
 
 Kidderminster, 420 
 
 Moquette, 420 
 
 Persian and Turkish, 420 
 
 Printed Felt, 420 
 
 Rag, 420 
 
 ubstitute for, 430
 
 656 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAOE 
 
 Carpets, Tapestry, 420 
 
 Three Ply, 420 
 
 Velvet, 420 
 
 Wilton, 420 
 
 Wood, 420 
 
 Carrier Pigeons, 639 
 
 Cartesian Philosophy, 127 
 
 Carthage, 285 
 
 Castle of Chillon, 047 
 
 Castle Garden, 127 
 
 Castor Oil, 398 
 
 Catacombs, 127, 498 
 
 Catalonia, 285 
 
 Catawba Wine, 426 
 
 Cathartics, 428 
 
 Cathedral of St. John, New York, . . 513 
 
 Cathedrals, European, 496 
 
 Height of Noted, ....... 590 
 
 Catholic University of America, . . . 560 
 
 Cavalier Servente, 127 
 
 Cave, Mammoth, 630 
 
 Caveats, Patent Office Procedure, . . 34 
 
 Cecilia, St., 127 
 
 Ceilings, 435 
 
 Celebrated Paintings, 502 
 
 Celestial Empire, 127 
 
 Celluloid, 307 
 
 Census, U. S., 1890, 633 
 
 Central America, 285 
 
 Central and South American Trade, . . 463 
 
 Central Park, 127 
 
 Cerate, 398 
 
 Cerate of Acetate of Lead, .... 398 
 
 Cerate of Resin, 398 
 
 Cerate of Spermaceti, 398 
 
 Chaldeans, 285 
 
 Chalk, Prepared, 398 
 
 Chamomile Flowers, 398 
 
 Chamomile, Infusion of, 400 
 
 Champagne, . 424 
 
 Champ de Mars, 127, 285 
 
 Champs Elysees, 127 
 
 Channel Islands, Local Government, . 81 
 
 Character Indicated by the Month, . . 621 
 
 Charcoal, Poultice of, 403 
 
 Charing Cross, 285 
 
 Charlemagne, Dying Saying of, ... 624 
 
 Charles I. of England, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Charles II. of England, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Charles V., Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Charles IX. of France, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Charlotte, Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Charter Oak, 127 
 
 Chartists, 285 
 
 Chauvinism, 127 
 
 Cheapside, 127 
 
 Checks, 55 
 
 Cheese, 418 
 
 American, . 418 
 
 Cheese, Dutch, 
 
 English, 
 
 French, 
 
 German, 
 
 Italian, 
 
 Scotch, 
 
 Swiss, 
 
 Chemical Substances, Com. Names of, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Chess, Origin of, 
 
 Chesterfield, Dying Saying of, ... 
 
 Chicago, University of, 
 
 Childermas, 
 
 Children, Rights of, 
 
 Chile, 
 
 Instruction. Justice, 
 
 Local Government, 
 
 Religion, 
 
 Chillon, 
 
 Castle of, 
 
 Chiltern Hundreds, 
 
 Chimneys, Origin of, 
 
 China, 91 
 
 Great Wall of, 
 
 Origin of, 
 
 Instruction, 
 
 Local Government, 
 
 Religion, 
 
 Chinese Burial Customs, 
 
 Chinese Immigration Law, .... 
 
 Chinese Literature, 
 
 Chinese Styles of Architecture, 
 
 Chloride of Zinc, 
 
 Chocolate, 
 
 Christ Church, 
 
 Christian Association, Young Men's, 
 Christian Names, Meaning of, ... 
 Christian Science, 
 
 Science Churches, 
 
 Christianity, 
 
 Christmas, 
 
 Christmas Day, 
 
 Chronograph, Origin of, 
 
 Chronometer, Origin of, 
 
 Chronological Eras, 
 
 Church of England, 
 
 Church, Greek, 
 
 Roman Catholic, 
 
 Churches, Capacity of Largest, 
 
 Cid Campeador, 
 
 Cid, The, 
 
 Cimbri, 
 
 Cinchona Bark, 
 
 Decoction of, 
 Cincinnati, The, 
 
 Art Mxiseumat, 
 
 Cinnamon, 
 
 Cisterns, Capacity of, 
 
 Cities, Distance between European, . 
 
 PAGE 
 418 
 418 
 418 
 418 
 418 
 418 
 418 
 307 
 308 
 307 
 624 
 561 
 197 
 118 
 90 
 91 
 91 
 91 
 285 
 617 
 127 
 329 
 , 285 
 599 
 329 
 92 
 92 
 92 
 545 
 114 
 143 
 508 
 398 
 417 
 127 
 520 
 190 
 550 
 550 
 556 
 554 
 198 
 329 
 329 
 196 
 520 
 573 
 555 
 600 
 170 
 127 
 286 
 398 
 399 
 127 
 513 
 399 
 627 
 646
 
 INDEX. 
 
 657 
 
 PAGE | 
 
 Cities, Largest of the Earth, .... 591 
 
 Popular Names of , 618 
 
 Rainfall of Foreign, 642 
 
 Temperature of Foreign, .... 642 
 
 United States, 650 
 
 Citizen King, The, 127 
 
 Citric Acid, 396 { 
 
 Civil Service, United States : Applications, 37 i 
 
 Appointments, 38 
 
 Divisions of, 37 
 
 Examination, 37 
 
 Excepted Places, 38 
 
 Extent of, 37 
 
 Political Activity of Officials, ... 39 
 
 Preference Claimants, 38 
 
 Political Discrimination, .... 39 
 
 Unclassified Executive, 39 
 
 Civil War, American, 274 
 
 Civil War, Army during, 579 
 
 Great Battles of, 580 
 
 Claret, 425 
 
 Classic and Romantic Literature, . . . 171 
 
 Classification of Mankind, 569 
 
 Cleanliness, 372 
 
 Clearing House, 455 
 
 Cleopatra's Needle, 568 
 
 Clepsydra, Origin of, 329 
 
 Clergy, Benefit of, 498 
 
 Climate, 308 
 
 Altitude, 308 
 
 Character of Soil, 308 
 
 Distribution of Land and Water, . . 308 
 
 Elevation of the Land, 309 
 
 Land and Water, 309 
 
 Latitude, 308 
 
 Length of Day, 308 
 
 Moisture, 309 
 
 Mountain Ranges, 308 
 
 Ocean Currents, 308 
 
 Prevailing Winds, 308 
 
 Rotation of the Earth, 309 
 
 Slope of Land, 308 
 
 Temperature, 309 
 
 Philippine Islands, 18 
 
 Porto Rico, 16 
 
 Clock, Strasburg, 633 
 
 Clocks, American, 302 
 
 Origin of, 329 
 
 Cloth of Gold, Field of the, . . . . 616 
 
 Cloth, Woolen, Origin of, 331 
 
 Cloves, Infusion of, 400 
 
 Coaches, 309 
 
 Coal Area of World 595 
 
 Mines, Origin of 329 
 
 Production of, 473 
 
 Cockagne, Land of 127 
 
 Cocoa, 430 
 
 Cod, 405 
 
 Cod Liver Oil, 399 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Coffee, 415, 480 
 
 Its Uses and Medicinal Qualities, . . 414 
 
 Origin of, 329 
 
 Coffins, '. ... 309 
 
 Coin, 309 
 
 Coins, Rare U. S. and Value, .... 581 
 
 Coinage, United States Mints, . . . 453 
 
 Early American, ........ 447 
 
 Coined Money of Great Britain, . . , 446 
 
 Cold Bath, 379 
 
 College de France, 573 
 
 College, William and Mary, .... 565 
 
 Colocynth, 399 
 
 Colon, The, 122 
 
 Colorado, 286 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 76 
 
 Colosseum, The, 544 
 
 Colossus of Memnon, ...... 543 
 
 Colossus of Rhodes 127,543 
 
 Columbia, 127 
 
 Columbia University, 560 
 
 Columbian University, 572 
 
 Columbus, Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Column of Vendome, 127 
 
 Combustion, Spontaneous, 351 
 
 Comedy, 286 
 
 Comets', 309 
 
 Comma, The, * 122 
 
 Commerce and Industry : Cuba, . . 20 
 
 Philippine Islands, 18 
 
 Porto Rico, 17 
 
 Hawaii, 15 
 
 Commerce Law, Interstate, .... 52 
 
 Commercial Travelers, Tax on, . . . 616 
 
 Common Carriers, 54 
 
 Common Domestic Fowls, 406 
 
 Common Sense in Summer, .... 382 
 
 Commune, Paris, 602 
 
 Commune, The, .286 
 
 Communism and Socialism, .... 459 
 
 Compass, The, 310 
 
 Confederate Money, How Price Dropped, 462 
 
 Confederate States, 127, 580 
 
 Confucianism, 504 
 
 Congress, Library of, 
 
 589 
 
 Conium, 399 
 
 Connecticut, 286 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Famous Blue Laws, 615 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 76 
 
 Congressional Library 127, 511 
 
 Consols, . . 127 
 
 Constantinople, 286 
 
 Constitution and Government : Canada, 82
 
 58 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Constitution and Government : Hawaii, 15 
 
 United States, 10 
 
 Constitution, Expounder of, .... 128 
 
 Constitution of the United States, . . 23 
 
 Amendment to, 29 
 
 Ratification of, 31 
 
 Ratification of Amendment, ... 31 
 
 Consumption, 629 
 
 Contracts, 59 
 
 Forms of, 61 
 
 Convention, 286 
 
 Cook, Captain, 286 
 
 Copaiba Balsam, 399 
 
 Co-Partnership, Articles of, .... 65 
 
 Copenhagen, 286 
 
 Copernican System, 311 
 
 Copper, Production of, 473 
 
 Copperheads, 127 
 
 Copyright Law, United States, ... 31 
 
 Cordova, 286 
 
 Corncrackers, The, 127 
 
 Corn Law Rhymer, The, 127 
 
 Cornell University, 559 
 
 Corner Stones, 647 
 
 Corpulence, Treatment of, 380 
 
 Corsets, 311 
 
 Corsica, 286 
 
 Corso, 127 
 
 Cosmetics, 427 
 
 Cosmos, Origin of, -529 
 
 Cotton, "... 311 
 
 Councils, General, 200 
 
 Countries of the World, Statistics of, . 110 
 
 Divorces in Different, 595 
 
 Summer Heat in Various, .... 581 
 
 Covent Garden, 286 
 
 Crabs, 405, 428 
 
 Crapaud Johnny, . ' 127 
 
 Credit Mobilier, 127, 458 
 
 Cremation, 311 
 
 Creosote, 399 
 
 Ointment of, 402 
 
 Crockery, 311 
 
 Printing, 344 
 
 Crocodile Tears, 127 
 
 Crome, John, Dying Saying of, ... 624 
 
 Cromwell, Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Crusade, Children's, 515 
 
 Crusades, 286 
 
 Cryolite, 312 
 
 Cuba: Area and Population, ... 19 
 
 Cables, 21 
 
 Commerce and Industry, .... 20 
 
 Finances, 20 
 
 Government, 19 
 
 Minerals, 20 
 
 Ports, 21 
 
 Railways, 20 
 
 Cubic Measure, 587 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cumberland, 127 
 
 Curfew Bell, 127, 286 
 
 Curious Book, A, 171 
 
 Curious Misnomers, 581 
 
 Currency, 55 
 
 Currency, Early Forms of, 444 
 
 Curtains, 431, 434 
 
 Customs Duties, 39 
 
 Customs, Baggage Regulations, ... 47 
 
 Customs, Mourning, 637 
 
 Dado, 435 
 
 Daguerreotype, 312 
 
 Dakotas, , 286 
 
 Damascus Steel, 312 
 
 Damask Linens and Silks, 312 
 
 Damocles' Sword, 127 
 
 Dandelion, Decoction of, 399 
 
 Dandruff, 426 
 
 Danes, 286 
 
 Dante, 171 
 
 Darby and Joan , 127 
 
 Darwinian Theory, 127 
 
 Dash, The, 123 
 
 Dates, Some Interesting, 350 
 
 Day and Night, 312 
 
 Day, All Fool's 638 
 
 Days of the Week, Origin of, . . . . 199 
 
 Debatable Ground, 127 
 
 Debt, Assignment of Demand for, . . 67 
 
 Imprisonment for, 458 
 
 Decemvirs, 286 
 
 Decisive Battles of History, .... 273 
 
 Declaration of Independence, ... 21 
 
 Signers of, 578 
 
 Decoration, 434 
 
 Decoration Day, 198 
 
 Deeds, 53 
 
 Forms of, 53 
 
 Defective Classes, The, 593 
 
 Delaware, 286 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Wonum, 70 
 
 Delft, 286 
 
 Origin of, - .... 329 
 
 Delphi, 286 
 
 Temple at, 546 
 
 Demonax, Dying Saying of, .... 6:24 
 
 Denmark, 286 
 
 De Profundis, 127 
 
 Design, National Academy of, . . . 571 
 
 Devil, Printer's, 623 
 
 Dew, 312 
 
 Diamond, 597 
 
 Diamonds, Famous, 646 
 
 Diana, 286 
 
 Dictionary, 313
 
 INDEX. 
 
 659 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Diet of Advanced Life, ...... 391 
 
 Brain Workers, 370 
 
 Childhood and Youth, 390 
 
 Infancy, 389 
 
 Middle Life 390 
 
 Diet of Worms, 504 
 
 Dill Water, 400 
 
 Dinner, 383 
 
 Family, 386 
 
 Dionysius, 286 
 
 Diplomatic Service, 580 
 
 Directory, The French, 127 
 
 Disinfectants and How to Use, . . . 393 
 
 District of Columbia : Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 76 
 
 Diving Bells, 313 
 
 Divorce Laws, 74 
 
 Divorces in Different Countries, . . . 595 
 
 Dixie, The Land of , ....... 127 
 
 Dizzy, 127 
 
 Doctors' Commons, 127 
 
 Doctrinaire, 127 
 
 Doe, John, 128 
 
 Dollar, Saved, 584 
 
 Dominion Executive Officers, .... 83 
 
 Donnybrook Fair, 128 
 
 Doomsday Book, 128, 286 
 
 Douay Bible, The, 128 
 
 Downing Street, 128 
 
 Draco's Laws, 114 
 
 Drugs, 395 
 
 Acid, Acetic, 395 
 
 Acid, Benzoic, 395 
 
 Acid, Carbolic, 396 
 
 Acid, Citric, 396 
 
 Acid, Gallic, 396 
 
 Acid, Hydrochloric, 396 
 
 Acid, Sulphuric, 396 
 
 Acid, Tartaric, 396 
 
 ^Ether, Sulphuric, 396 
 
 Aloes, Barbadoes, 396 
 
 Alum, 397 
 
 Ammonia, Liquor of, 397 
 
 Ammonia Sesqui-Carbonate, . . . 397 
 
 Antimonj r , Potassio-Tartrate, . . . 397 
 
 Asafoatida, Gum, 397 
 
 Bismuth, Trisnitrate of, . . . . . 397 
 
 Borax, 397 
 
 Calomel 397 
 
 Camphor, 397 
 
 Cantharides, Plaster of, 398 
 
 Capsicum, 398 
 
 Castor Oil, 398 
 
 Cerate, 398 
 
 Cerate of Acetate of Lead, .... 398 
 
 Cerate of Resin, 398 
 
 Cerate of Spermaceti, 398 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Drugs : Chalk, Prepared, 398 
 
 Chamomile Flowers, 398 
 
 Chloride of Zinc, 398 
 
 Cincona Bark, 398 
 
 Cinnamon, 399 
 
 Cod Liver Oil, 399 
 
 Colocynth, 399 
 
 Conium, 399 
 
 Copaiba Balsam, 399 
 
 Creosote, 399 
 
 Decoction of Cinchona, 399 
 
 Decoction of Dandelion, .... 399 
 
 Decoction of Iceland Moss, . . . 399 
 
 Decoction of Logwood, 399 
 
 Decoction of Poppyheads, .... 399 
 
 Decoction of Sarsaparilla, .... 400 
 
 Dill Water, 400 
 
 Extract of Gentian, 400 
 
 Extract of Henbane, 400 
 
 Extract of Hop, 400 
 
 Extract of Sarsaparilla, 400 
 
 Gamboge, 400 
 
 Horse-radish, 400 
 
 Infusion of Chamomile, 400 
 
 Infusion of Gentian, 400 
 
 Infusion of Linseed, . . . . . 400 
 
 Infusion of Orange-Peel, .... 400 
 
 Infusion of Quassia, 401 
 
 Infusion of Rhubarb, 401 
 
 Infusion of Roses, 401 
 
 Infusion of Senna, ...... 401 
 
 Ipecacuanha, the Root, 401 
 
 Jalap, the Root, 401 
 
 Laudanum, 401 
 
 Liniment of Ammonia, 401 
 
 Liniment of Camphor, 401 
 
 Liniment of Turpentine, .... 401 
 
 Liquor of Acetate of Lead, .... 401 
 
 Magnesia, Carbonate of, . . . . ' . 401 
 
 Magnesia, Sulphate of, 402 
 
 Marsh Mallows, 402 
 
 Mercury, Ammonia-Chloride of, . . 402 
 
 Mercury, Mild Chloride of , . . . . 402 
 
 Mercury, Nitric Oxide of, .... 402 
 
 Mint-Water, 402 
 
 Mixture of Chalk, 402 
 
 Mixture of Iron 402 
 
 Ointment of Creosote, 402 
 
 Ointment of Galls, 402 
 
 Ointment of Green Iodide of Mercury, 402 
 
 Ointment of Nitric Oxide of Mercury, 402 
 
 Ointment of Zinc, 402 
 
 Olive Oil, 402 
 
 Peruvian Balsam, 403 
 
 Pill of Mercury, 403 
 
 Pill of Rhubarb, 403 
 
 Pitch, Burgundy, 403 
 
 Poultice of Charcoal, 403 
 
 Poultice of Hemlock, 403
 
 660 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Drugs : Poultice of Linseed, .... 403 
 
 Poultice of Mustard, 403 
 
 Poultice of Yeast, 403 
 
 Powder of Ipecacuanha, 403 
 
 Quinine, Sulphate of, 403 
 
 Rhubarb, 403 
 
 Saffron, 403 
 
 Senna, 403 
 
 Simple Cerate, 398 
 
 Soda, Bicarbonate of, 404 
 
 Soda, Sulphate of, 404 
 
 Spirit of Ammonia 404 
 
 Spirit of Horse-radish, 404 
 
 Spirit of Nitric p:ther, 404 
 
 Squill, 404 
 
 Syrup of Iodide of Iron, 404 
 
 Tincture of Camphor, 404 
 
 Tincture of Ginger, 404 
 
 Tincture of Iodine, 404 
 
 Tincture of Myrrh, 404 
 
 Tincture of Opium, 404 
 
 Tincture of Quinine, 404 
 
 Tincture of Rhubarb, 404 
 
 Tincture of Valerian, 404 
 
 Tolu, Balsam of, 404 
 
 Turpentine, Spirit of, 404 
 
 Valerian, 405 
 
 Wine of Iron, 405 
 
 Wine of Opium, 405 
 
 Wine of Potassio-Tartrate of Antimony, 405 
 
 Zinc, Chloride of, 405 
 
 Zinc, Sulphate of, 405 
 
 Drury Lane Theater, 128 
 
 Dry Measiire 588 
 
 Dublin, . 287 
 
 Ducks, 406 
 
 Duke, . . .' 287 
 
 Durability of Different Woods, . . . 583 
 
 Dutch Carpet, 420 
 
 Dutch Cheeses, 418 
 
 Dutchman, Flying 613 
 
 Dwarfs, Famous, 581 
 
 Dyeing, 314 
 
 Dying Gladiator, 128 
 
 Dynamite, 314, 618 
 
 Gun, 314 
 
 E 
 
 Eagle as an Emblem 603 
 
 Earth, Facts about the, 606 
 
 Largest Cities of the, 591 
 
 Population According to Race, . . 607 
 
 Population by Continents, .... 606 
 
 Earthenware, 428 
 
 Earthquakes, 315 
 
 Earth's Surface, The, 314 
 
 Avalanche, 314 
 
 Glaciers, 314 
 
 PAC.E 
 
 Earth's Surface, The, Lowlands, . . 314 
 
 Mountain Chains, 314 
 
 Mountain Pass, 314 
 
 Mountains, 314 
 
 Silvas, 314 
 
 Easter, 497 
 
 Eastern States, 128 
 
 Eating, Effects of Excessive, .... 389 
 
 Ecce Homo, 128 
 
 Ecole Polytechnique, 128,505 
 
 Eden, Garden of, 503 
 
 Education, Compuls'y in For. Countries, 524 
 
 Compulsory in United States, . . . 523 
 
 John F. Slater Fund, 571 
 
 The Peabody Fund, 570 
 
 Eggs, Weight of 586 
 
 Egypt, 287 
 
 Egyptian Architecture, 506 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws, 44 
 
 Elden, Lord, Dying Saying of, ... 624 
 
 El Dorado, 128 
 
 Electric Light, 315 
 
 Electricity, 316 
 
 Storage of, 317 
 
 Terms in, 359 
 
 Electroplating 317 
 
 Elephant, Seeing the 128 
 
 Elevated Railways, New York, . . . 615 
 
 Elgin Marbles 128 
 
 Emancipation in Great Britain^ . . . 639 
 
 Embalming, 318 
 
 Emblem, Eagle as an, 603 
 
 Embrocations, 429 
 
 Embroidery, 318 
 
 Emerald, 598 
 
 Emery, 318 
 
 Engines, Compressed Air, 310 
 
 England, 287 
 
 and Wales 81 
 
 Justice, 81 
 
 Local Government, 80 
 
 English Cheeses, 418 
 
 English Language, The, 121 
 
 English Royal Incomes, . . . . . 621 
 
 Engraving, 318 
 
 Enlistment, United States Naval, . . 625 
 
 Entomology, 318 
 
 Envelopes, Origin, 329 
 
 Epirus, 287 
 
 Epochs, Eras, Periods, Date of Beginning, 196 
 
 Escurial, The 128, 573 
 
 Etching, Art of, 319 
 
 Eternal City, The, 128 
 
 Ether, 319 
 
 Ethnology, 319 
 
 Etna, Mount, 620 
 
 Eureka, 128 
 
 Europe, Armed Strength of 632 
 
 European Cities, Distances between, . 646
 
 INDEX. 
 
 6G1 
 
 PAGE 
 
 European Sovereigns, Civil List of, . . 108 
 
 Evangelists, Symbols of the, .... 128 
 
 Evolution Theory, The, 320 
 
 Exclamation Point, The, 123 
 
 Exclusion, Bill of, 128 
 
 Execution, Mode of, 584 
 
 Executive, Civil List, 593 
 
 U. S. Government, 10 
 
 Exemption Laws, 71 
 
 Exercise, 373 
 
 Kinds of Bodily, 373 
 
 Mental, 376 
 
 Repose Demanded by, 374 
 
 Running as an, 374 
 
 Expectation of Life, 592 
 
 Explosives, Strength of, 624 
 
 Exports, Principal, of Various Cities, . 618 
 
 Expounder of the Constitution, . . . 128 
 
 Express, Origin of 329 
 
 Extension, University, 572 
 
 Eyes, Care of the, 418 
 
 Fabian Policy, 128, 620 
 
 Fabius, The American, 128 
 
 Facts about theEarth 606 
 
 Worth Knowing, 616 
 
 Faineants, Les Rois 128 
 
 Fairmount Park, 128 
 
 Fairs, The World's, 582 
 
 Faith, Defender of the, 127 
 
 Falernian, 128 
 
 Falk Law, 287 
 
 Familiar Allusions, 126 
 
 Famous Diamonds, 640 
 
 Famous Dwarfs, 581 
 
 Famous Giants, 581 
 
 Famous Xaval Battles, 282 
 
 Famous People, Dying Sayings of, . . 623 
 
 Famous Retreat, The, 287 
 
 Faneuil Hall, 128 
 
 Farmer George, 128 
 
 Fata Morgana, . 128 
 
 Father of His Country, 128 
 
 Fathers of the Latin Church, .... 128 
 
 Faubourg St. Antoine, 128 
 
 St. Germain, 128 
 
 Federal Army, Strength of the, . . . 579 
 
 Federal Bankruptcy Act, 51 
 
 Feeg, Patent Office Procedure, ... 34 
 
 Feminine Height, 582 
 
 Feminine Weight, 582 
 
 Fenians, 128 
 
 Feudal Law, 287 
 
 Fever, Spring, 381 
 
 Field of the Cloth of Gold, . . 128,01(3 
 
 Fifth Avenue, 128 
 
 Fighting Joe, 128 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Figures, Origin of, 329 
 
 Finances, Cuba, 20 
 
 Financial and Ind. Cond., Philippine Is., 17 
 
 Finding, Law of, 47 
 
 Fire, Fire Engines, 321 
 
 Fire Insurance, 470 
 
 Fires, Great, 584 
 
 First Day of the Year, 200 
 
 First Gentleman in Europe, .... 128 
 
 First Newspapers, 189 
 
 | First Railroads, 321 
 
 Fish, Fresh Water, 405 
 
 Five Points, 128 
 
 Five Wits, The, 600 
 
 Flag, Origin of, 329 
 
 Flags, American, 601 
 
 Flagellants, 128 
 
 Fleet, The, 128 
 
 Fleets, Torpedo, The, 614 
 
 Flies Walking on the Ceiling, .... 321 
 
 Floods, Great, 585 
 
 Florida, 287 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 76 
 
 Flounders, . . 405 
 
 Flowers, Language of, ....*.. 586 
 
 State, 624 
 
 Flowery Kingdom, The, 128 
 
 Fluid Measure, 587 
 
 Flying Dutchman, 128, 613 
 
 Folklore, . . . * 205 
 
 Indian, 600 
 
 Fontenelle, Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Food, 366 
 
 Choice of Articles of, 405 
 
 Classification of, 371 
 
 Composition of Various, .... 370 
 
 Digestibility of, 369 
 
 Kinds of, . 368 
 
 Medicinal, 380 
 
 Nutritiousness of, 369 
 
 Quantity of, 370 
 
 Seasonable, 406 
 
 Foods, Relative Value for Stock, . . . 617 
 
 Foreign Cities, Rainfall of, .... 642 
 
 Temperature of, 642 
 
 Foreign Coins, Value in U. S. Money, 453 
 
 Foreign Trade of the United States, . 464 
 
 Foreign Words and Phrases, . . . . 174 
 
 Forks, 322 
 
 Forte, 128 
 
 Fort Sumter 128 
 
 Fourierism, 128 
 
 France, 92, 287 
 
 Chamber of Deputies, 93 
 
 College de, 573 
 
 Colonies and Dependencies, .... 94 
 
 Instruction, 94
 
 662 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAOE 
 
 France, Justice, 95 
 
 Local Government, 93 
 
 Ministry, . 92 
 
 Religion, 94 
 
 Rulers from Revolution of 1792, . . 231 
 
 Senate, 93 
 
 Franco-German War, 275 
 
 Franklin, Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Franks, . . . 287 
 
 Frauds, Statute of, 60 
 
 Freedman's Bank, 456 
 
 Freemasonry, . . 650 
 
 Freemasons, 287 
 
 Freezing, Fusing, and Roiling Points, . 321 
 
 French Academy, 168,518 
 
 Forty Immortals, 189 
 
 French Cheeses, 418 
 
 French Cookery, Terms Used in, . . 408 
 
 French-English Dishes 410 
 
 French Literature, 155 
 
 French Renaissance, 518 
 
 French Revolution, 287 
 
 Freshmen, 128 
 
 Friedland, 287 
 
 Fruits, Comparative Yield of, ... 636 
 
 Fuel, Wood for, 586 
 
 Funk, Peter, 128 
 
 Furnishing, 432 
 
 Bedrooms, 433 
 
 Border, 435 
 
 Ceilings, 435 
 
 Curtains 434 
 
 Dado, 435 
 
 Decoration, 434 
 
 Dining Room, The, 433 
 
 Gas Fixtures, 433 
 
 General Advice, 436 
 
 Hall, The, 432 
 
 Library, The, * . . 433 
 
 Nursery, The, 433 
 
 Papers, 435 
 
 Parlor, The, 432 
 
 Pictures, 435 
 
 Remarks on Various Rooms, . . . 435 
 
 Servants' Rooms, 433 
 
 Upholstery, 434 
 
 Fur Trade, American, 460 
 
 Gadshill, 128 
 
 Gainsborough, Dying Saying of, . . . 624 
 
 Gallic Acid, 396 
 
 Galls, Ointment of, 402 
 
 Galvanized Iron, 322 
 
 Gamboge, 400 
 
 Games, 287 
 
 Secular, 132 
 
 Garnet, 598 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Garter, Order of the 634 
 
 Gas Fixtures, 433 
 
 Natural, 637 
 
 Gasolene, 322 
 
 Geese, 406 
 
 Genre Painting, 128 
 
 Gems, Language of, 597 
 
 Amethyst, 597 
 
 Bloodstone, 597 
 
 Diamond, 597 
 
 Emerald, 598 
 
 Garnet, 598 
 
 Onyx, 598 
 
 Opal, 598 
 
 Pearl, 598 
 
 Ruby, 598 
 
 Sapphire, 598 
 
 Symbolic of the Months, .... 612 
 
 Topaz, 598 
 
 Turquoise, 598 
 
 General Councils, . 200 
 
 Genoa, 287 
 
 Gentian, Extract of, 400 
 
 Infusion of, 400 
 
 Geographical Formation, Porto Rico. . 16 
 
 Geography, 322 
 
 Geologic Ages, 322 
 
 Geometry, 323 
 
 George IV., Dying Saying of, . . . . 624 
 
 George, St., and the Dragon, .... 128 
 
 Georgia, 288 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women , . 77 
 
 German Cheeses, 418 
 
 German Empire, 95 
 
 Constitution, The, 95 
 
 Foreign Dependencies, 96 
 
 Instruction, 96 
 
 Justice, 96 
 
 Religion 96 
 
 Secretaries of State, 95 
 
 German Literature, 158 
 
 German Philosophers, 569 
 
 Germany, 288 
 
 Gerrymander, . 128 
 
 Gesta Romanorum, 169 
 
 Geysers, 323 
 
 Ghent, 288 
 
 Ghetto, 128 
 
 Ghibelline, 128 
 
 (Hants' Causeway, *631 
 
 Giants, Famous, 581 
 
 Gibbon, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Gibraltar, 288 
 
 Ginger, Tincture of, 404 
 
 Girondins, 288 
 
 Girondists, 128 
 
 Glacial Period, . . , , .... 323
 
 INDEX. 
 
 663 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Glass, 324 
 
 Glass, Discovery of, 324 
 
 Glencoe, 128 
 
 Glossary of Mining and Milling Terms, . 462 
 
 Art Terms, 574 
 
 Musical Terms, 574 
 
 Glucose, 324 
 
 Gnostic, 521 
 
 Gobelins, 128 
 
 God, The Name of, in Different Languages, 563 
 
 Godiva, Lady, 128, 609 
 
 Goethe, 171 
 
 Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Golconda, 128 
 
 Gold and Silver, Facts about, .... 462 
 
 World's Production in 1897, . . . 454 
 
 Gold Exports, 460 
 
 Gold Fever, 128 
 
 Golden Age, .128 
 
 Golden Gate, 128 
 
 Golden Horn, 128 
 
 Golden Fleece, The, 631 
 
 Good Friday, 198 
 
 Gordian Knot, 128, 288 
 
 Gordon Riots, The, 128 
 
 Gotham, 128 
 
 The Wise Men of, 128 
 
 Gothic Style of Architecture, .... 509 
 
 Goths, 288 
 
 Government, Cuba, 19 
 
 Revenues of the, 456 
 
 Salary List, 603 
 
 Governments of the World, Heads of, . 109 
 
 Salaries Paid to Heads of, .... 595 
 
 State, 51 
 
 Territorial, 51 
 
 Grace Church, New York, 512 
 
 Grain, 324 
 
 Grains, Comparative Yield of, ... 636 
 
 Granada, 288 
 
 Grangers, 615 
 
 Graphite, 324 
 
 Graphophone, 325 
 
 Gravitation, 325 
 
 Great Bells, 609 
 
 Great Britain, Coined Money of, . . . 446 
 
 Emancipation in, 639 
 
 Population of, 610 
 
 Great Commoner, The, 128 
 
 Great Duke, The, 128 
 
 Great Eastern, The, 128, 630 
 
 Great Financial Panics, 582 
 
 Great Fires, 584 
 
 Great Floods, 585 
 
 Great Men's Works, 134 
 
 Great Pyramid, The, 129 
 
 Great Waterfalls, The, 585 
 
 Grecian Architecture, 507 
 
 Grecian Monarchy, ..,,,. 288 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Greece, 97, 288 
 
 Constitution, The, 97 
 
 Instruction, 98 
 
 Ministry, 97 
 
 Religion, 98 
 
 Greek Church, 573 
 
 Greek Literature, 144 
 
 Greenbacks, 129 
 
 Green Iodide of Mercury, Ointment of, . 402 
 
 Green Isle, The, 129 
 
 Green Teas, 417 
 
 Greenwood, 129 
 
 Gregorian Year, 129 
 
 Gregory VII., Dying Saying of, ... 624 
 
 Gretna Green, 129, 288 
 
 Grey, Lady Jane, Dying Saying of , . . . 624 
 
 Grocer's Table, 647 
 
 Grotius, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Ground, Hills in an Acre of, .... 638 
 
 Grub Street, 129, 168 
 
 Guam (Ladrones), 19 
 
 Guaranty, 57 
 
 Forms of, 59 
 
 Guelphs, 129 
 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines, 288 
 
 Guildhall, 129 
 
 Guillotine, 325 
 
 Gun-Barrels, 325 
 
 Gunpowder, Discovery of, 326 
 
 Gunpowder Plot, 129 
 
 Guns, Origin of, 329 
 
 Air, Origin of, ........ 329 
 
 Gutta-Percha, 326 
 
 Gyges' Ring, 129 
 
 Gymnastics and Physical Culture, . . 391 
 
 Gypsy Tribes, 288 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act, The, 129 
 
 Hades, 521 
 
 Hair, 423 
 
 Treatment of The, ...... 422 
 
 Halacha, 524 
 
 Halcyon Days, 129 
 
 Haller, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Hallows Eve, 629 
 
 Halls, Capacity of Largest, .... 600 
 
 Hampshire Shakers, 525 
 
 Handicap, 129 
 
 Handkerchiefs, Origin of, 330 
 
 Hanging Gardens of Babylon. . . . 522 
 
 Hansard, 129 
 
 Hanseatic League, 129, 289 
 
 Hanse Towns, 129 
 
 Harbors, 601 
 
 Hare, Mad as a March, 129 
 
 Hari-Kari, 129 
 
 \ Harpies, ..,...,.., J29
 
 664 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Hartford, Capitol at, 512 
 
 Harvard College, 513 
 
 College Memorial Hall, 513 
 
 University, 557 
 
 Harvest Months of the World, . . . 462 
 
 Harvest Moon, 129 
 
 Hats and Caps, 326 
 
 Hawaii, Area and Population, ... 15 
 
 Commerce, Shipping, etc., .... 15 
 
 Constitution and Government, ... 15 
 
 Haydn, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Hazlitt, Dying Saying of, . . . . . 624 
 
 Heads of the Governments of the World, 109 
 
 Hearse, 326 
 
 Heat in Various Countries, .... 581 
 
 Heathen Chinee, The, 129 
 
 Hebrew Literature, 146 
 
 Hebrew Race, 289 
 
 Hegira, 129 
 
 Heidelberg Castle, 129 
 
 Height, Feminine, 582 
 
 Heliography, 326 
 
 Hemlock, Poultice of, 403 
 
 Henbane, Extract of, 400 
 
 Heptarchy, 289 
 
 Herculaneum, 289 
 
 Hero and Leander, 617 
 
 Herrings, 405 
 
 High Church, 129 
 
 High Seas, The, 129 
 
 Highest Mountains, 599 
 
 Hills in an Acre of Ground, . . . . 638 
 
 Hindoos, Caste mong the, .... 601 
 
 Sacred Books of the, 172 
 
 Historic Treaties, 297 
 
 History, Decisive Battles of, .... 273 
 
 Dictionary of, 283 
 
 of America, 218 
 
 and Biography, 196 
 
 The Father of, 129 
 
 Hittites, 289 
 
 Hivites, 289 
 
 Hobbes, Dying Saying of, ..'... 624 
 
 Hobson's Choice, 129 
 
 Hog Products Exported from U. S. . . 479 
 
 Holborn, 129 
 
 Holidays, .......... 593 
 
 Old English, 197 
 
 Holland, 289 
 
 Holy Alliance, 129, 289 
 
 Holy Coat, 535 
 
 Holy Family, The, .129 
 
 Holy Grail, 526 
 
 Holy Land, The, 129 
 
 Holy League, The, 129 
 
 Homoaopathy, Origin of, 330 
 
 Honi soit qui mal y pense, 129 
 
 Honors of War, 129 
 
 Hop, Extract of, 400 
 
 Horse-radish, 
 
 Spirit of, 
 
 Horseshoe, Lucky, 
 
 Horseshoes, Origin of, 
 
 Host, . 
 
 Hot Bath, 
 
 Hotel de Ville, 
 
 Hottentots, 
 
 Houris ; 
 
 House, Location of, 
 
 Housekeeper's Time-Table, . 
 
 Huguenots, 
 
 Human Body, Chemical Composition of. 
 Human Family, 
 
 African Race, 
 
 Indo-European Race, 
 
 Mongolian Race, 
 
 Human Pulse, The '. 
 
 Humanities, 
 
 Hundred Days, 
 
 Hungarian Literature, 
 
 Hungary, 
 
 Huns, 
 
 Hunter, Dr. Wm., Dying Saying of, 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid, 
 
 Hydrometer, Origin of, 
 
 Hyphen, The, 
 
 Hypnotism, 
 
 PAGE 
 400 
 404 
 609 
 330 
 544 
 379 
 129 
 289 
 129 
 381 
 410 
 289 
 371 
 327 
 327 
 327 
 327 
 376 
 533 
 129 
 173 
 289 
 289 
 624 
 396 
 330 
 123 
 328 
 
 Iceland Moss, Decoction of, .... 399 
 
 Iconoclast, 129 
 
 Idaho, 289 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 77 
 
 Igneous Rocks, 328 
 
 Ignis-Fatuus, 328 
 
 Iliad, 129, 169 
 
 Illegitimacy, 592 
 
 Illinois, 290 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 74 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 77 
 
 Illiteracy of Nations, 522 
 
 Important Origins, 329 
 
 Inaugurations, Irregular, 629 
 
 Incomes, Royal English, 621 
 
 Indebtedness of Nations, Ill 
 
 of States, 598 
 
 of Territories, 598 
 
 Independence Day, 198 
 
 Declaration of, 129 
 
 Hall, 129 
 
 Signers of Declaration of, .... 578 
 
 Independents, 289
 
 INDEX. 
 
 665 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Index Expurgatorius, 129 
 
 India Rubber, 462 
 
 Indian, The American, 592 
 
 Indian Folklore, 600 
 
 Indian Mutiny, 273 
 
 Indian Summer, 331 
 
 Indian Territory, 289 
 
 Indian War, 289 
 
 Indiana, , . . . . 289 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 77 
 
 Indies, 290 
 
 Indorsements, 59 
 
 Indulgences, 500 
 
 Infusoria, 331 
 
 Ingrain Carpet, 420 
 
 Inns and Innkeepers, 68 
 
 Inns of Court, 129 
 
 Inquisition, ........ 129, 499 
 
 Insanity, 590 
 
 Insurance, . ... 470 
 
 Fire, 470 
 
 Life, 471, 585 
 
 Marine and Transit, 471 
 
 Insurance Policy, Assignment of, . . . 67 
 
 Inter-Communication, Porto Rico, . 16 
 
 Interest Laws, . 68 
 
 Interrogation Point, The 122 
 
 Interstate Commerce Law, 52 
 
 Iodide of Iron, Syrup of, 404 
 
 Iodine, Tincture of, 404 
 
 Iowa, 290 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 77 
 
 Ipecacuanha, Powder of, 403 
 
 The Root, 401 
 
 Ireland, 290 
 
 Justice, 81 
 
 Population of, 610 
 
 Irish Agitator, 129 
 
 Iron City, The, 129 
 
 Iron Crown of Lombardy, 290 
 
 Iron, Discovery of, 331 
 
 Iron Duke, The 129 
 
 Iron, Galvanized, 322 
 
 Iron Mask, Man in the, 129 
 
 Iron, Wine of, 405 
 
 Irving, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Islam, 514 
 
 Islands, Largest in the World, . . . 603 
 
 Isle of Man, Local Government, ... 81 
 
 Israel, 290 
 
 Issus, 290 
 
 Italian Architecture, 508 
 
 Italian Cheeses, 418 
 
 Italian Literature, 150 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Italy, 98, 290 
 
 Constitution, 98 
 
 Executive Power, 99 
 
 Instruction, 100 
 
 Justice, 100 
 
 Local Government, 99 
 
 Parliament, 98 
 
 Religion, 99 
 
 See and Church of Rome, .... 99 
 The Bishop of Rome, 100 
 
 Jack Ketch, 129 
 
 Jack Robinson, 129 
 
 Jack, The American, or Union, . . . 129 
 
 Jack, The Giant Killer, 129 
 
 Jacobins, 129,290 
 
 Jacobites, 129,290 
 
 Jacquard Loom, 331 
 
 Jalap, the Root, 401 
 
 Jamaica, 290 
 
 James V. of Scotland, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Japan, 100,290 
 
 House of Peers, 100 
 
 House of Representatives, .... 101 
 
 Instruction, 101 
 
 Justice, 101 
 
 New Navy of, 614 
 
 Religion, 101 
 
 System of Government, 100 
 
 Jardin des plantes, 129 
 
 Jardin Mabille, 129 
 
 Jefferson, Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Jelly Fishes, 331 
 
 Jericho, Gone to, 129 
 
 Jerusalem, 290 
 
 Delivered, 129 
 
 Jesuits, Society of, 547 
 
 Jewish Religion, The, 570 
 
 Temple, The, ........ 573 
 
 Jingo, Jingoism, 129 
 
 John Bull, 129 
 
 Chinaman, 129 
 
 Johnny Cakes, 130 
 
 Johnson, Dr., Dying Saying of, . . . 624 
 
 Jubilee, Year of, . 130 
 
 Judiciary, United States Government, . 13 
 
 Juggernaut, 130,515 
 
 Jugurthine War, L90 
 
 Julian Era, The, 130 
 
 Junius, Letters of, 130 
 
 Juries, 290 
 
 Jury, Trial by, 114 
 
 Justice of the Peace, 290 
 
 Justices of the Peace, Jurisdiction of, . 46 
 
 Justinian Code 290
 
 666 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 K 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Kansas, 290 
 
 Bleeding, 130 
 
 Kansas, Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 77 
 
 Kensington Gardens, 130 
 
 Kentucky, 290 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 77 
 
 Kidd, Captain, 640 
 
 Kidderminster Carpets, 420 
 
 Kilkenny Cats, The, 130 
 
 King Can Do No Wrong, The, . . . 130 
 
 King Cole, 130 
 
 King Cotton, 130 
 
 King's Evil, 130 
 
 King Log, 130 
 
 King-Maker, The, 130 
 
 King of Yvetot 130 
 
 King Stork, 130 
 
 Kings and Queens of England, Table of, 2d2 
 
 Kissing the Book, 517 
 
 Kit Kat Club, The, 130 
 
 Knickerbocker, 130 
 
 Knighthood, 604 
 
 Knights of Malta, 130 
 
 Knights Templars, 290 
 
 Know Nothings, 130 
 
 Knox, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Koh-i-Noor, 130 
 
 Koran, 130, 171, 545 
 
 Kremlin, The, 130 
 
 Labor Day, 198 
 
 Labor, Anti-Blacklisting Laws, ... 44 
 
 Anti - Boycotting Laws, 44 
 
 Legislation, 44 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws, 44 
 
 Labyrinth, The, 130 ; Egyptian, . . 514 
 
 Lace-Making, 332 
 
 Lace, Origin of, 330 
 
 Laconic, 130 
 
 Lacrymal Christi, 130 
 
 Lady Day, 197 
 
 Lake Erie, Battle of, 284 
 
 Lake School, The, 130, 517 
 
 Lakes, Size of, 645 
 
 Lamb, 405 
 
 Lammas Day, 197 
 
 Lamps, 332 
 
 Landlord and Tenant, 70 
 
 Land, Alien Holders of Our, .... 602 
 
 o' Cakes, The, 130 
 
 of Bondage, The, 130 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Land of Nod, The, 130 
 
 of Promise, The, 130 
 
 Lands, Mortgage of ........ 65 
 
 Lands, Public, Vacant, 598 
 
 Lang Syne, 130 
 
 Language of Postage Stamps, .... 620 
 
 Languages, Classification of, .... 120 
 
 of the World, 168 
 
 English, 168 
 
 French, 168 
 
 German, 168 
 
 Latin, 173 
 
 Langue d' Oc, 130 
 
 Langue d' CEil, 130 
 
 Laocoon, The, 130 
 
 Laodicean, . . . . 130 
 
 Lares and Penates, 130 
 
 Last Judgment, The, 130 
 
 Last Supper, The, 130 
 
 Lateran Palace, The, ISO 
 
 Latin Language, 173 
 
 Latin Union, 604 
 
 Latitude, 332 
 
 Latter Day Saints, 516 
 
 Laudanum, 401 
 
 Laughing Philosopher, The, .... 130 
 
 Law of Apprenticeship, 118 
 
 of the Road, The, 69 
 
 of Subscription, The, 116 
 
 of Trade-Marks, The, 52 
 
 Parliamentary, Condensed, .... 113 
 
 Requirements for the Practice of, . . 548 
 
 Terms, Dictionary of, 481 
 
 Laws, Famous Connecticut Blue, . . 615 
 
 Laws, Naturalization, 34 
 
 Leaning Tower of Pisa, . . . 130, 516 
 
 Learned Blacksmith, The, .... 130 
 
 Lease, Assignment of, 66 
 
 Leather, Tanning, Origin of, . . . . 330 
 
 Lee's Birthday, 198 
 
 Legal Holidays in the United States, . 197 
 
 Admission Day, 198 
 
 All Saints' Day, 198 
 
 Anniversary Battle of New Orleans, . 197 
 Anniversary Battle of San Jacinto, . 198 
 Anniversary Signing of the Mecklen- 
 burg Declaration of Independence, . 198 
 Anniversary of Texan Independence, . 198 
 
 Arbor Day, 198 
 
 Bennington Battle Day, 198 
 
 Christmas Day, 198 
 
 Confederate Memorial Day, .... 198 
 
 Decoration Day, 198 
 
 General Election Day, 198 
 
 Good Friday, 198 
 
 Independence Day, 198 
 
 Jefferson Davis 's Birthday, .... 198 
 
 Labor Day, 198 
 
 Lee's Birthday, 198
 
 INDEX. 
 
 667 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Legal Holidays : Lincoln's Birthday, . 198 
 
 Mardi-Gras 198 
 
 New Year's Day, 197 
 
 Patriots' Day, 198 
 
 Pioneers' Day, 198 
 
 Spring Election, 198 
 
 State Election Day, 198 
 
 Thanksgiving Day, 198 
 
 Washington's Birthday, 198 
 
 Legend, 205 
 
 Legislation, Labor, 44 
 
 Legislative, U. S. Government, ... 11 
 
 Leland Stanford, Jr., University, . . 561 
 
 Length, Measure oi| 587 
 
 Particular Measure of, 587 
 
 Scriptural Measure of, 541 
 
 Leonine Verses, 130 
 
 Libby Prison, 130 
 
 Liberia, 290 
 
 Liberty, Bartholdi's Statue of, ... 598 
 
 Liberty Bell, 632 
 
 Library of Congress, 589 
 
 Libraries, Foreign, 519 
 
 Life, Expectation of , 592 
 
 Life Insurance, 471 
 
 Origin of, 332 
 
 Life- Boats, Origin of, 330 
 
 Light, Undulatory Theory of , . . . . 360 
 
 Lightning Rods, Origin of, .... 330 
 
 Ligny, Battle of, 290 
 
 Lilliput, 130 
 
 Limitations, Statutes of, 68 
 
 Limits of Vision, 627 
 
 Lincoln's Birthday, 198 
 
 Lincoln's Inn, 290 
 
 Line, Mason and Dixon's, ..... 580 
 
 Linen, Origin of, 330 
 
 Lingua Franca, 130 
 
 Linseed, Infusion of, 400 
 
 Poultice of, 403 
 
 Lion and Unicorn, 130 
 
 Lion of the North, 130 
 
 Lion's Share, 130 
 
 Liquid Air, 333 
 
 Liquid Measures, 588 
 
 Liquids, Specific Gravities and Weight of, 594 
 
 Liquors, Alcoholic, 588 
 
 Percentage of Alcohol in, .... 586 
 
 Literary Pseudonyms, 188 
 
 Literature, . . 120 
 
 American, 166 
 
 Arabic, 149 
 
 Chinese, 143 
 
 Classic, 171 
 
 Early, 143 
 
 English, 163 
 
 French, 155 
 
 German, 158 
 
 Greek, 144 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Literature, Hebrew, 146 
 
 Hungarian, ..... . 173 
 
 Italian, 150 
 
 Persian, . 150 
 
 Polish, 162 
 
 Portuguese, 154 
 
 Roman, 147 
 
 Romantic, . . . 171 
 
 Russian, 161 
 
 Sanskrit, 148 
 
 Scandinavian, 160 
 
 Spanish, 152 
 
 Literature, Celebrated Characters in, . 183 
 
 Lithography, Origin of, 330 
 
 Little Corporal, The, 130 
 
 Little Giant, The, 130 
 
 Liverpool Docks, 459 
 
 Living, Cost of, 472 
 
 Lloyds, 130 
 
 Lobsters, 405 
 
 Local Government, British Empire, . . 80 
 
 Locomotives, Weight and Cost, . . . 460 
 
 Logwood, Decoction of, 399 
 
 Lollards or Lollhards, 518 
 
 Lombard Street, 130 
 
 Lombardy, 291 
 
 London, 291 
 
 Lone Star State, The, 130 
 
 Long Parliament, 130 
 
 Looms, Ribbon, Origin of, 330 
 
 Lord's Prayer, The, 134 
 
 Lorelei, 130, 169 
 
 Losses from Wars, 645 
 
 Lotus-Eaters, The, 130 
 
 Louis I., Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 IX., Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 XIV., Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 XVIII., Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Louisburg, 291 
 
 Louisiana, 290 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 77 
 
 Louvre, The, 130 
 
 Low Church, The, 130 
 
 Lucky Horseshoe, 609 
 
 Lunch, -386 
 
 Lusiad, The, 130 
 
 Lycurgus, 291 
 
 Lynch Law, 130 
 
 M 
 
 Mab, Queen, 130 
 
 Macadamize, 130 
 
 Macaronic Verse, 130 
 
 Macchiavellism, 130 
 
 Machines, Ruling, 330 
 
 Machines, Sewing, Origin of, . . . . 330 
 
 Mackerel, 405
 
 668 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mad Poet, The, 130 
 
 Madagascar, 291 
 
 Madam Tussaud's Exhibition, . . . 130 
 
 Madeira, 425 
 
 Islands, .291 
 
 Madman of Macedonia, The, .... 130 
 
 of the North, 130 
 
 Madonna, 130 
 
 Madrid, 291 
 
 Madrigal, 168 
 
 Ma3cenas, 130 
 
 Maelstrom, . 608 
 
 Magna Charta, 130,291 
 
 Magnesia, Carbonate of, 401 
 
 Sulphate of, 402 
 
 Magnet, 333 
 
 Magnifying Glasses, Origin of, ... 330 
 
 Mahomet, Dying Saying of 624 
 
 Mahomet's Coffin, 130 
 
 Mahrattas, 291 
 
 Maid of Orleans, 130 
 
 Saragossa, 130 
 
 Maiden Queen, The, 130 
 
 Maine, 291 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Law, 130 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 77 
 
 Majolica Ware, 519 
 
 Malthusian Doctrine, The, . . . . 130 
 
 Mammoth Cave, 130,630 
 
 Man in the Moon, 130 
 
 of Destiny, 130 
 
 of Iron, The, 131 
 
 of Straw, 131 
 
 Manitoba 291 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Mankind, Classification of, .... 569 
 
 Mansion, Costly, 619 
 
 Marble Paper, Origin of, 330 
 
 Mardi-GrasJ 198, 606 
 
 Mare's Nest, 131 
 
 Marie Antoinette, Dying Saying of, . . 624 
 
 Marine and Transit Insurance, . . . 471 
 
 Mariner's Compass, 333 
 
 Marriage, 291 
 
 a la Mode, 131 
 
 Laws, 74 
 
 Marrying, A Woman's Chances of, . . 585 
 
 Marseillaise, 131 
 
 Marsh Mallows 402 
 
 Martinet, 131 
 
 Martinmas, 197 
 
 Maryland 291 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 77 
 Mason and Dixon's Line, . . . .131,580 
 
 Masonic Temple, Philadelphia, . . . 513 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Blue-Laws, 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 
 
 Massacres, 
 
 Matches, Invention of, 
 
 Mausoleum, 
 
 Maxim Self-Acting Gun, 
 
 Mayfair, 
 
 Measure, Angular, 
 
 Boxes of Different, 
 
 Cubic, 
 
 Dry, 
 
 Fluid, 
 
 Liquid, 
 
 of Time, 
 
 Surface, . 
 
 Measures, 412 
 
 of Weight, 
 
 Origin of, 
 
 Mecklenburg Declaration, 
 
 Medical Dictionary, 
 
 Medicinal Food, 
 
 Medicine, 
 
 Requirements for the Practice of. . 
 
 Meerschaum, 
 
 Memnon, 
 
 Memorial Day, Confederate, .... 
 
 Mental Exercise, 
 
 Mercator's Projection, 
 
 Mercury, Ammonia-Chloride of, . 
 
 Mild Chloride of, 
 
 Nitric Oxide of, 
 
 Pill of, 
 
 Merry Andrew, 
 
 Merry Monarch, The, 
 
 Mesmerism, 131 
 
 Metallic Coins, 
 
 Metals, Fluid Density of, 
 
 Pecuniary Value of 
 
 Tenacity of, 
 
 Value as Conductors, 
 
 Meteoric Stones, 
 
 Meteors, 
 
 Metric System, 
 
 Mexico, 102 
 
 Armies of, 
 
 Constitution, 
 
 Instruction, 
 
 Justice, 
 
 Local Government, 
 
 Religion, 
 
 Mezzo Relievo, 
 
 Michaelmas, 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 
 
 PAGE 
 291 
 115 
 75 
 72 
 77 
 291 
 333 
 131 
 33:5 
 131 
 587 
 588 
 587 
 588 
 587 
 588 
 587 
 587 
 
 ,587 
 588 
 330 
 23 
 437 
 380 
 334 
 551 
 334 
 291 
 198 
 376 
 131 
 402 
 402 
 402 
 403 
 131 
 131 
 
 ,334 
 445 
 584 
 581 
 584 
 584 
 628 
 334 
 335 
 
 ,291 
 
 614 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 131 
 
 197 
 
 292 
 
 75 
 
 72 
 
 77
 
 INDEX. 
 
 669 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Microphone, 335 
 
 Microscope, Invention of, 335 
 
 Microscopes, 291 
 
 Origin of, 330 
 
 Middle Ages, The, 131 
 
 Middle States, The, 131 
 
 Midsummer Day, 197 
 
 Milan, 291 
 
 Mileage, Railroad by Countries, . . . 470 
 
 Miles, Number of, from New York to, . 635 
 
 Number of, by Water from New York to, 635 
 
 Millennium, 504 
 
 Milling Terms, Glossary of, .... 462 
 
 Mineral Productions, 466 
 
 Minerals, Cuba, 20 
 
 Mines, Coal, Origin of, 329 
 
 Tin, Origin of, 330 
 
 World's Principal Tin, 621 
 
 Mining Terms, Glossary of, .... 462 
 
 Minnesingers, 131, 169 
 
 Minnesota, 291 
 
 Divorce Laws of , 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 77 
 
 Minstrels, . 292 
 
 Mint, 292 
 
 Water, 402 
 
 Mirabeau, Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Miracle Plays, 170 
 
 Mirage, 336 
 
 Mirrors, - .... 336 
 
 Miserere, 131 
 
 Misnomers, Curious, 581 
 
 Mississippi, 291 
 
 Bubble, . 131 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 77 
 
 Mississippi Scheme, 457 
 
 Missouri, 291 
 
 Compromise, The, 131 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of. 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Mistress of the Seas, 131 
 
 Misuse of Words, 192 
 
 Mixture of Chalk, 402 
 
 of Iron 402 
 
 Modern British Architecture, .... 510 
 
 Modern Gothic Architecture, .... 509 
 
 Mogul Empire, 292 
 
 Molly Maguires, 131,609 
 
 Monarch, Le Grand, 131 
 
 Monetary Statistics, 454 
 
 Money in the United States, .... 452 
 
 Time in Which it Doubles, .... 584 
 
 Monkery, 292 
 
 Monroe Doctrine, 131 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mont de Piete, ........ 131 
 
 Montana, .......... 292 
 
 Divorce Laws of, ....... 75 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws, ....... 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, ...... 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Month, Character by the, ..... 621 
 
 Gems Symbolic of, ...... 612 
 
 The Roman, ........ 627 
 
 Months and their Names, The, . . . 199 
 
 Montmartre, ......... 131 
 
 Monument, Bunker Hill, ..... 602 
 
 Washington, ........ 611 
 
 Monumental City, The, ...... 131 
 
 Moody (the actor), Dying Saying of, . . 624 
 
 Moore (Sir John), Dying Saying of, . . 624 
 
 Moorish Architecture, . . . . . . 509 
 
 Moors ............ 292 
 
 Moquette Carpets, ....... 420 
 
 Morey Letter, The, ....... 131 
 
 Morganatic Marriage, ...... 131 
 
 Morocco, .......... 292 
 
 Mortgage, Assignment of a, .... 67 
 
 of Lands, ......... 65 
 
 Mosaics, .......... 547 
 
 Moscow, ..... ...... 292 
 
 Mother Carey's Chickens, ..... 131 
 
 Goose, .......... 131 
 
 of Presidents, ........ 131 
 
 Motion, Perpetual, ....... 615 
 
 Mottoes of the States, ...... 627 
 
 Mound Builders, ........ 604 
 
 Mount Ararat, ......... 517 
 
 Mount Vernon, ....... 131,292 
 
 Mountains. Highest, ....... 599 
 
 Mourning Customs, ....... 637 
 
 Muscular Christianity, ...... 131 
 
 Museum, .......... 292 
 
 of Fine Arts, Boston, ..... 513 
 
 Music, .......... 336, 562 
 
 of the Spheres, ........ 131 
 
 Musical Terms, Glossary of, .... 574 
 
 Mustard, Poultice of, ...... 403 
 
 Mutton, ........... 405 
 
 Myrrh, Tincture of ........ 404 
 
 Mythology, A Dictionary of, .... 202 
 
 Nails, ........... 336 
 
 Namby-Pamby, ........ 131 
 
 Nantes, Edict of , ....... 131,292 
 
 Naples, ........... 292 
 
 Napoleon HI., Dying Saying of, . . . 624 
 
 Narcotics, .......... 413 
 
 National Academy of Design, .... 571 
 
 National Bank Law, The, ..... 112 
 
 Nation of Shop-keepers, ...... 131 
 
 Nations, Illiteracy of Various, . . . 522
 
 670 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Nations, Indebtedness of , Ill 
 
 Wealth of Principal 459 
 
 Natural Bridge, The, 131 
 
 Natural Gas, 637 
 
 Natural Storm Signals, 609 
 
 Naturalization Laws, 34 
 
 Nautical Vocabulary, 648 
 
 Navies, 613 
 
 Navigation, Ocean Steam, .... 338 
 
 Navy, List of Ships of U. S., . . . . 643 
 
 New, of Japan, 614 
 
 United States, Pay Table, .... 625 
 
 Nebraska, 292 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Nebular Hypothesis 337 
 
 Needle, Cleopatra's, 568 
 
 Needles, 337 
 
 Nelson, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Netherlands, 102, 292 
 
 Constitution, The, 102 
 
 Executive Power, 102 
 
 Instruction, 103 
 
 Justice, 103 
 
 Local Government, 103 
 
 Ministry, The, 103 
 
 Religion, 103 
 
 Nevada, 292 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 78 
 
 New Brunswick, Exemption Laws of, . 73 
 
 New England, 292 
 
 Newfoundland, 292 
 
 Newgate, 131 
 
 New Hampshire, 292 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 78 
 
 New Jersey, 292 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 78 
 
 New Mexico, 292 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 78 
 
 New Orleans, 292 
 
 Battle of, Anniversary, 197 
 
 Newspapers, First, 189 
 
 Size of, 586 
 
 New World, 131 
 
 New Year's Day, 197 
 
 New York, . 292 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 44 
 
 PAOE 
 
 New York, Elevated Railways, . . . 615 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 72 
 
 Grace Church, 512 
 
 Number of Miles from, 635 
 
 Number of Miles by Water from, . . 635 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 78 
 
 Temple Emmanuel, 513 
 
 Trinity Church 512 
 
 New Zealand, 292 
 
 Nibelungen Lied, 131.190 
 
 Nice, Councils of, 51 1 
 
 Nicholas, Saint, 554 
 
 Nickel, 337 
 
 Nicknames, Noted, National, .... 647 
 
 Night, Watches of the, 636 
 
 Nihilism, 642 
 
 Nine Worthies, The, 131 
 
 Nitric Ether, Spirit of, 404 
 
 Nitro-Glycerine, 619 
 
 Noctes Ambrosianse, 131 
 
 Noel, 131 
 
 Non-Conformists, 131 
 
 Norman Architecture, 509 
 
 Normandy, 293 
 
 North Carolina, 293 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 North Dakota, Divorce Laws of, . . . 74 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 76 
 
 North', Slavery in the, 605 
 
 Northern Giant, The, 131 
 
 Northwest Territories, Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Norway, 293 
 
 Notable Bridges, 589 
 
 Notaries Public, 293 
 
 Notes, 55 
 
 Forms of, 58 
 
 Notre Dame, 131 
 
 Nova Scotia, 293 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Nova Zembla, 293 
 
 Number, The Sacred, 608 
 
 Numerals, Arabic, ........ 645 
 
 Roman, 645 
 
 Nutrition, Effects of Insufficient, . . . 389 
 
 o 
 
 Oath, 293 
 
 Obelisks, 517, 568 
 
 Obligations of Parents, 117 
 
 Occupations in the United States, . . 477 
 
 Ocean Steam Navigation, 338 
 
 Ocean Steamship Lines : 
 
 Designating Marks of, 472 
 
 Night Signals on, 472 
 
 Oceans, Depths of 337
 
 INDEX. 
 
 671 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Oceans, Size of, 645 
 
 Odyssey 131 
 
 Ogres, 131 
 
 Ohio, 293 
 
 Divorce Laws of, . ' 75 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws, 44 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Ohm's Law, 338 
 
 OiPolloi, 131 
 
 Oklahoma, Divorce Laws of, .... 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Old Abe, 131 
 
 Old Bailey, 131 
 
 Old Dominion, The, 131 
 
 Old English Holidays, 197 
 
 Allhallowmas, 197 
 
 All Soul's Day, 197 
 
 Candlemas, 197 
 
 Childermas, 197 
 
 Lady Day, 197 
 
 Lammas Day, 197 
 
 Martinmas, 197 
 
 Michaelmas, 197 
 
 Midsummer Day, 197 
 
 Old Candlemas .197 
 
 St. Swi'thin'sDay, 197 
 
 Twelfth Day, 197 
 
 Old Guard, The, 131 
 
 Old Hickory, 131 
 
 Old Probs, 131 
 
 Old Public Functionary, 131 
 
 Old South, The, 131 
 
 Oleomargarine, 338 
 
 Olive Oil, 402, 431 
 
 Olives, 431 
 
 Olympiads, 293 
 
 Oneida Community, 524 
 
 Ontario, 293 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Onyx, 598 
 
 Opal, 598 
 
 Opium, Tincture of , . . ' 404 
 
 Wine of, 405 
 
 Oracles, 526 
 
 Orange, 293, 432 
 
 Orange Peel, 131 
 
 Infusion of, 400 
 
 Orangeman, 131 
 
 Ordinance of 1787, 131 
 
 Oregon, 293 
 
 Divorce Laws of, ....... 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Organs, 293 
 
 Origin of, 330 
 
 Origin of the Days of the Week, . . . 199 
 
 of Woman, Myths of the, . , . . 629 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Origins. Some Important, 329 
 
 Air Balloons, 329 
 
 Air Guns, 329 
 
 Arquebus, 329 
 
 Banking, 329 
 
 Barometers, 329 
 
 Battering Ram, 329 
 
 Bayonets, 329 
 
 Bellows, 329 
 
 Bombs, 329 
 
 Bridges, 329 
 
 Bullets, 329 
 
 Camera Obscura, 329 
 
 Chain Shot, 329 
 
 Chimneys, 329 
 
 China, 329 
 
 Chronograph, 329 
 
 Chronometer, 329 
 
 Clepsydra, 329 
 
 Clocks 329 
 
 Coal Mines, 329 
 
 Coffee, 329 
 
 Cosmos, 329 
 
 Delf, 329 
 
 Envelopes, . i 329 
 
 Express, 329 
 
 Figures, 329 
 
 Flag, 329 
 
 Guns, 329 
 
 Handkerchiefs, 330 
 
 Homoeopathy, 330 
 
 Horseshoes, 330 
 
 Hydrometer, 330 
 
 Lace, 330 
 
 Life-Boats 330 
 
 Lightning Rods, 330 
 
 Linen, 330 
 
 Lithography, 330 
 
 Magnifying Glasses, 330 
 
 Marble "Paper, 330 
 
 Microscopes, 330 
 
 Organs, 330 
 
 Parchments, 330 
 
 Paving with Stones, 330 
 
 Post Offices 330 
 
 Ribbon Looms 330 
 
 Ruling Machines, 330 
 
 Sewing Machines, 330 
 
 Sextants, 330 
 
 Silk, Raw, 330 
 
 Sleeping Cars, 330 
 
 Speaking Trumpets, 330 
 
 Stirrups, 330 
 
 Sun-dials, 330 
 
 Tanning Leather, 330 
 
 Tapestry, 330 
 
 Tin Mines, 330 
 
 Vegetable, 605 
 
 Ventilators, 330
 
 672- 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Origins, Some Important : Violin, 
 
 Wall Paper, 
 
 Watches, 
 
 Water Mills, 
 
 Weathercocks, 
 
 Weights, Measures, 
 
 Windows, 
 
 Wine, 
 
 Woolen Cloth, 
 
 Orlando Furioso, 
 
 Ossian, 
 
 Ostend Manifesto, 
 
 Ostracism, 
 
 Ostrogoths, 
 
 Ottoman, 
 
 Outlines of History, 
 
 Prehistoric Ages, 
 
 From the Deluge to Cyrus, .... 
 
 From Cyrus to Alexander, .... 
 
 From Alexander to Augustus, . 
 
 From Augustus to Charlemagne, . 
 
 From Charlemagne to Napoleon, . 
 
 From Napoleon to the Present Time, . 
 
 Oxford University, 
 
 Oysters, . . . . , 405 
 
 PAOE 
 330 
 330 
 330 
 330 
 330 
 330 
 330 
 330 
 331 
 131 
 131 
 131 
 131 
 293 
 293 
 207 
 207 
 207 
 208 
 209 
 210 
 212 
 216 
 501 
 
 , 430 
 
 Paganism, 293 
 
 Pagodas, 525 
 
 Painting, 338 
 
 Paints, How to Mix, 583 
 
 Palace of the Caesars, 545 
 
 Westminster, 562 
 
 Palatines, 293 
 
 Palimpsest, 131 
 
 Palladium, 131 
 
 Pall Mall, 131 
 
 Pan, 522 
 
 Pandects, 293 
 
 Panics, Great Financial, 582 
 
 Pantheon of Rome, .... 131,29-3,526 
 
 Paper, Dimensions of Sizes, .... 638 
 
 Hangings, 339 
 
 History of, 339 
 
 Names of Sizes, 638 
 
 Table, 639 
 
 Papers, Common Sizes of Flat, . . . 586 
 
 Papier-Mache, 339 
 
 Paradise Lost, 131 
 
 Paradise Regained, 131 
 
 Paragraph, The, 123 
 
 Parchment, . 340 
 
 Parchments, Origin of, 330 
 
 Parenthesis, 123 
 
 Parents, Obligations of, 117 
 
 Rights of 117 
 
 Paris, ' 293 
 
 Commune, 602 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Paris of America, The, 131 
 
 Park, Yellowstone, 636 
 
 Parliamentary Law, Condensed, . . . 113 
 
 Parsees, 544 
 
 Parthenon,. ....... 131, 569 
 
 Partington, Mrs., 131 
 
 Partnerships, 62 
 
 Partridges, 406 
 
 Pasquinade, 131 
 
 Passport Regulations, 35 
 
 Patent, Assignment of a, ..... 67 
 
 Patent Office, 511 
 
 Patent Office Procedure, 32 
 
 Applications, 33 
 
 Caveats, 34 
 
 Fees, 34 
 
 Reissues, 33 
 
 Patents Issued since 1852, 635 
 
 Patriots' Day, 198 
 
 Paul's, St., % ... 293 
 
 Paving with Stones, Origin of, ... 330 
 
 Pawnbroker's Sign, Origin of, .... 600 
 
 Pay, Army, 611 
 
 Peabody Education Fund, The, . . . 570 
 
 Pearl, 598 
 
 Fisheries, 340 
 
 Pecuniary Value of Metals, .... 584 
 
 Peeler, ". 131 
 
 Peninsular War, 131 
 
 Pennsylvania, 293 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Eight Hour Laws of, 45 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 University of, 559 
 
 Pension Bureau, 511 
 
 Laws, 45 
 
 Rates of, 45 
 
 Statistics, 649 
 
 Pensions, 638 
 
 People's William, . 131 
 
 Percussion Caps, Composition of, . . . 340 
 
 Pere-la-Chaise, 131 
 
 Perfumery, 340 
 
 Peri, . ." 542 
 
 Period, The, 122 
 
 Perpetual Motion, 615 
 
 Persecution, 293 
 
 Persian Carpets, . 420 
 
 Persian Empire, 293 
 
 Persian Literature, 150 
 
 Persona] Property, Assessed Valuation of, 596 
 
 Peruvian Balsam, 403 
 
 Peter-Pence, 542 
 
 Peter the Hermit, 527 
 
 Petrified Bodies, 340 
 
 Pharsalia, Battle of, 293 
 
 Philadelphia, City Hall, . 
 
 Masonic Temple, 513
 
 INDEX. 
 
 673 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Philippi, Battle of, 293 
 
 Philippic, 131 
 
 Philippine Islands, Climate, .... 18 
 
 Commerce, 18 
 
 Finances, 17 
 
 Industrial, 17 
 
 Railways, 18 
 
 Shipping, 18 
 
 Philistine, 131 
 
 Philosopher's Stone, The, 131 
 
 Philosophers, German, 569 
 
 Phoenicians, 293 
 
 Phoenix, 131 
 
 Phonograph, 341 
 
 Phosphorescence, 341 
 
 Photography, 342 
 
 Photogravure, 342 
 
 Physics, 342 
 
 Pianoforte, 343 
 
 Picts, 293 
 
 Pictures, 435 
 
 Pied Piper of Hamelin, The, .... 131 
 
 Pigeon English, 131 
 
 Pigeons, 406 
 
 Carrier, 639 
 
 Pilgrim Fathers, 647 
 
 Pilgrim's Progress, 173 
 
 Pillow Cases, 413 
 
 Pillows, 413 
 
 Pins, 343 
 
 Pisa, Leaning Tower of, 516 
 
 Pitch, Burgundy, 403 
 
 Pitt, William, Dying Saying of, . . . 624 
 
 Pizarro, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Plague, 293 
 
 Plate-Glass, Casting, 307 
 
 Playing-Cards, 343 
 
 Plon-Plon, 131 
 
 Plumed Knight, The 131 
 
 Plymouth Rock, 132 
 
 Poems, Famous, and their Authors, . 125 
 
 Poet Laureate, 173, 294 
 
 Ports' Corner, 132 
 
 Poictiers, Battle of 294 
 
 Poisons, Antidotes for, 427 
 
 Poland, 294 
 
 Polish Literature, 162 
 
 Political Parties, Historic Minor, . . 616 
 
 Politics of the Presidents, 590 
 
 Pons Asinorum, 132 
 
 Poor Richard, 1 32 
 
 Pope, Alexander, Dying Saying of, . . 624 
 Title of, . . . ' . . '. . . . .294 
 
 Popes, Nationality of tke, 564 
 
 Poppyheads, Decoction of, 399 
 
 Population, Foreign-born, 600 
 
 of Great Britain, 610 
 
 of Ireland 610 
 
 Position of the Center of, .... 578 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Population, Present, of United States, . 597 
 
 Pork, 405 
 
 Porkopolis, 132 
 
 Portland Vase, 535 
 
 Porto Rico, Area, 16 
 
 Cities, 16 
 
 Climate, '16 
 
 Commerce, 17 
 
 Geographical Formation, .... 16 
 
 Inter-Communication, 16 
 
 Population, 16 
 
 Productions, 16 
 
 I Ports, Cuba, 21 
 
 I Portugal, 294 
 
 i Portuguese Literature, 154 
 
 | Positivism, 592 
 
 Posological Table, 392 
 
 Post, 294 
 
 Post Office, Origin of, 343 
 
 Post Offices, 330 
 
 Postage, Rates of, 112 
 
 Postage Stamps : First, 344 
 
 Language of, 620 
 
 Postmasters-General, 281 
 
 Potassio-tartrate of Antimony, Wine of, 405 
 
 Potatoes, 294, 344 
 
 Powders, Strength of Modern, . . . 624 
 
 Powers of Attorney, Forms of, ... 53 
 
 Prater, The, 132 
 
 Prawns and Shrimps 405 
 
 Prehistoric Ages, 207 
 
 Presidential Cabinet Officers 279 
 
 President's Salary, 590 
 
 Presidents of the United States, . . . 277 
 
 Inaugurated Irregularly, .... 629 
 
 Politics of the, . . 590 
 
 Press, Associated, 637 
 
 Statistics of the, 607 
 
 Prince Edward Island, Exemp. Laws of, 73 
 
 Princeton University, 559 
 
 Printed Felt Carpet, 420 
 
 Printer's Devil, 623 
 
 Printing Crockery, 344 
 
 Printing in America, 345 
 
 Printing Inks, How to Mix, .... 583 
 
 Printing, Technical Terms in, ... 353 
 
 Produce, Minimum Weights of, ... 596 
 
 Productions, Porto Rico, 16 
 
 Prohibitory Laws, 115 
 
 Proof Reading, Marks in, 124 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 76 
 
 Protestant Duke, The, 132 
 
 Protestants, 294 
 
 Prussia, 294 
 
 Ptolemaic System, The, 345 
 
 Public Houses, 294 
 
 Public Lands of United States, . . . 597 
 
 Public Lands Vacant, 598 
 
 Public Schools, 543
 
 674 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pulley, 346 
 
 Pulse and Temperature, Co-Relation of, 377 
 
 Punctuation, 122 
 
 Punctuation Points, 122 
 
 Punic Wars, 294 
 
 Puranas, 554 
 
 Pyramids, 132, 534, 568 
 
 Q 
 
 Quaker City, The, 132 
 
 Quaker Poet, The, 132 
 
 Quakers, 294, 570 
 
 Quartier, Latin, 132 
 
 Quassia, Infusion of, 401 
 
 Quebec, 294 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Queen of the Antilles, 132 
 
 Quinine, Sulphate of, 403 
 
 Tincture of, 404 
 
 Quotation Points, 123 
 
 R 
 
 Rabbit's Foot, 626 
 
 Rabelais, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 R;ig Carpets, 420 
 
 Railroad Mileage by Countries, . . . 470 
 
 in United States, 469 
 
 Railroad Speed, . 478 
 
 Railroad Traffic of the World, ... 470 
 
 Railroads, First, 321 
 
 Railway King, The, 132 
 
 Railways, Cuba, 20 
 
 Elevated, New York, 615 
 
 Philippine Islands, 18 
 
 Rainbow, 346 
 
 Rainfall, Average Annual in United States, 626 
 
 of Foreign Cities, 642 
 
 Ranz des Vaches, 132 
 
 Rare United States Coins and Value, . 581 
 
 Ready Reference, A Calendar of, . . . 201 
 
 Real Property, Assessed Valuation of, . 596 
 
 Reaper, First in the United States, . . 346 
 
 Rebecca, of Ivanhoe, 170 
 
 Rebellion, The Great, 132 
 
 Recent Wars, Cost, 646 
 
 Red Letter Day, 132 
 
 Red Tape, 132 
 
 Reformation, The, 291,556 
 
 Reign of Terror, 132 
 
 Reissues, Patent Office, 33 
 
 Religion, Education, Fine Arts, . . . 496 
 
 The Jewish, 570 
 
 Religious Denominations in United States, 539 
 
 Religious Statistics, 538 
 
 Renaissance, The, 173 
 
 Requirements for the Practice of Medicine, 551 
 
 Respiration, 378 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Revenues of the Government, .... 456 
 
 Revolution, 294 
 
 Reynard the Fox, 132 
 
 Rhine, Confederation of the, .... 286 
 
 Rhode Island, 294 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 75 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Rhodes, 294 
 
 Rhubarb, 403 
 
 Infusion of, 401 
 
 Pill of, 403 
 
 Tincture of, 404 
 
 Rialto, The, 132 
 
 Rights, Declaration of, 132 
 
 Rivers, Longest in World, 616 
 
 Road, Law of the, 69 
 
 Robert the Devil, 132 
 
 Robin Goodfellow, 132 
 
 Roland for an Oliver, A, 132 
 
 Roman Architecture, 508 
 
 Roman Baths, 536 
 
 Roman Catholic Church, 555 
 
 Celibacy in, 500 
 
 Roman Literature, 147 
 
 Roman Month, 627 
 
 Roman Numerals, 645 
 
 Romance of the Rose, 170 
 
 Romans, 294 
 
 Rome, 294 
 
 Rooms, Remarks on Various, .... 435 
 
 Bedrooms, 436 
 
 Dining Room, 435 
 
 Drawing Room, 436 
 
 Library, 436 
 
 Hall, 435 
 
 Roost, to Rule the, 132 
 
 Rope Jumping, 374 
 
 Roses, Infusion of, 401 
 
 Rossius, The British, 132 
 
 Rough and Ready, 132 
 
 Round Robin, 132 
 
 Round Table, The, 132 
 
 Roundheads, 132 
 
 Royal Academy, 564 
 
 Royal Family, Cost of British, . . . 589 
 
 Royal Household, 621 
 
 Royal Martyr, 132 
 
 Royal Society, The, 132 
 
 Rozinante, 132 
 
 Rubicon, 294, 592 
 
 To Pass the 132 
 
 Ruby, 598 
 
 Rule Britannia, 132 
 
 Rump Parliament, The, 132 
 
 Running as an Exercise, 374 
 
 Runs for Short Dist's, Fastest Recorded, 479 
 
 Russia, . . . '. 294 
 
 Committee of Ministers, 104
 
 INDbX. 
 
 675 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Russia, Constitution, 104 
 
 Government, 104 
 
 Instruction, 106 
 
 Justice, 106 
 
 Local Government, 105 
 
 Minister for Finland, . . . . . . 105 
 
 Religion, 105, 537 
 
 Serfdom in, 625 
 
 State Secretary for Finland, . . . 105 
 
 Russian Literature, 161 
 
 Russo-Turkish War, 274 
 
 Rye House Plot, 132, 294 
 
 Spbbath Day's Journey, 132 
 
 Sabines 295 
 
 Sack, To Get the, . 132 
 
 Sacred Books of the Hindus, .... 172 
 
 fW.rp.d nNurnhf-r. The, 608 
 
 Sacred War, 294 
 
 Saddles, 346 
 
 Sadducees, . 132 
 
 Saffron, 403 
 
 Sagas, 132, 169 
 
 Sailor King, The, 132 
 
 Saint Bartholomew's Eve, 132 
 
 Saint Cloud, 132 
 
 Saint Helena, 294 
 
 Saint James's Palace, 295 
 
 Saint James, The Court of, .... 132 
 
 Saint Mark's, 132 
 
 Saint Nicholas, 554 
 
 Saint Patrick's Cathedral, 512 
 
 Saint Paul's, 132 
 
 Saint Peter's, 132 
 
 Saint Sophia, 132 
 
 Saint Stephen's, 132 
 
 Saint Swithin's Day, 197 
 
 Saint Valentine's Day, 621 
 
 Saints, 294 
 
 Salaries of Heads of Governments, . . 595 
 
 Salary, Government List, 603 
 
 President's, The 590 
 
 Salic Law, 295 
 
 Salmon, 405 
 
 Salt River, 132 
 
 Sources of, 347 
 
 Salutation, Forms of, 641 
 
 Salutes, 611 
 
 Salvation Army, The, 563 
 
 Sam, Uncle, 592 
 
 Sambo, 132 
 
 Sanctum, 132 
 
 Sand, George, Dying Saying of, . . . 624 
 
 Sandwich, 132 
 
 SangAzul, . 132 
 
 Sanhedrim, . . 132, 543 
 
 San Marino, 295 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sans-Culottes, 132 
 
 Sanskrit, 168 
 
 Literature, 148 
 
 Sans Souci, 132 
 
 Santa Croce, 132 
 
 Sapphire, 598 
 
 Saracenic Architecture, 509 
 
 Saracens, 294 
 
 Sardinia, . 295 
 
 Sarsaparilla, Decoction of, 400 
 
 Extract of, . . . 400 
 
 Saturnalia, 132 
 
 Savings Banks, 452 
 
 Statistics of, 455 
 
 Savoy, 295 
 
 Saw, 347 
 
 Saxon Architecture, 509 
 
 Saxons, 295 
 
 Scandinavian Literature, 160 
 
 Scandinavians, 168 
 
 Scarabaeus, <, 641 
 
 Schiller, Dying Saying of, 624 
 
 Scholastics, 544 
 
 School Laws, Compulsory, 523 
 
 Schoolmen, 132 
 
 and Scholastics, 544 
 
 Schools of Art, 565 
 
 Science, Christian, 550 
 
 Scotch Cheeses, 418 
 
 Scotland, 295 
 
 Justice, 81 
 
 Local Government, 81 
 
 Scotland Yard, 132 
 
 Scott, Sir Walter, Dying Saying of, . . 624 
 
 Scourge of God, The, 132 
 
 Scratch, Old, 132 
 
 Screw Propeller, The, 348 
 
 Scriptural Measures of Capacity, . . . 540 
 
 Length, 541 
 
 Sculpture, 565 
 
 Scylla, 132 
 
 Sea-girt Isle, The, 132 
 
 Sealing of the Writings, 295 
 
 Seas, Size of, 645 
 
 Secessia, . 132 
 
 Secretaries of Agriculture, ..... 281 
 
 the Interior, 281 
 
 the Navy, 280 
 
 State, 279 
 
 the Treasury 280 
 
 War 280 
 
 Secular Games 132 
 
 Seeds, Amount of Oil in, 617 
 
 Number of Years Retain Vitality, . . 626 
 
 Quantity Required per Acre, . . 586 
 
 Seigniorage, 452 
 
 Semicolon, The, 122 
 
 Semiramis of the North, 132 
 
 Senna, 403
 
 676 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Senna, Infusion of, 
 
 September Massacres, 
 
 Septuagint, 13 
 
 Serfdom, 
 
 in Russia, 
 
 Service, The Diplomatic, .... 
 
 Servitude, Austrian, 
 
 Seven-hilled City, The 
 
 Seven Wonders of the World, . . 13 
 
 Seven Years' War, 
 
 Sextants, Origin of," 
 
 Shakers, 
 
 Hampshire, 
 
 Shamrock, 
 
 Sheets, 
 
 Shibboleth, 
 
 Shintuism, 
 
 Ship Building, 
 
 Shipboard, Bell Time on, .... 
 Shipping, Philippine Islands, . 
 Ships, 
 
 Distance, 
 
 Names, ......... 
 
 Speed, 
 
 Shoe, Throwing after Bride, ... 
 
 Shot, Chain, Origin of, 
 
 Shower Bath, 
 
 Sicily, 
 
 Sick Man, The, 
 
 Sick Room, 
 
 Light, 
 
 Temperature, 
 
 Sighs, Bridge of, 
 
 Signals, Natural Storm, 
 
 Weather, 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Signers of Declaration of Independence, 
 
 Silk, Raw, Origin of, 
 
 Silkworm, 
 
 Silver and Gold, Facts about, . 
 
 Simple Cerate, 
 
 Sinai, 
 
 Sinews of War, The, 
 
 Single-Speech Hamilton, . 
 
 Six Hundred, Charge of the, . 
 
 Size of Bays, 
 
 Books, 
 
 Lakes, 
 
 Ocear/s, 
 
 Seas, 
 
 Slave Trade, 
 
 Slavery, 
 
 in the North, 
 
 in United States, 
 
 Sleeping Beauty, The, 
 
 Sleeping Cars, Origin of, 
 
 Sleeplessness, 
 
 Smell of the Lamp, 
 
 Smithsonian Institution, The, 
 
 PAGE 
 401 
 132 
 
 >, 535 
 625 
 625 
 580 
 626 
 132 
 
 !, 594 
 132 
 330 
 535 
 525 
 132 
 413 
 132 
 541 
 348 
 600 
 18 
 617 
 617 
 617 
 617 
 640 
 329 
 379 
 295 
 132 
 441 
 442 
 442 
 641 
 609 
 348 
 348 
 578 
 330 
 348 
 462 
 398 
 546 
 132 
 132 
 132 
 645 
 633 
 645 
 645 
 645 
 295 
 625 
 605 
 625 
 132 
 330 
 394 
 132 
 548 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Smyrna, 295 
 
 Snipe, . 406 
 
 Soap, 349 
 
 Soaps, Natural, 349 
 
 Socialism, 459 
 
 Socrates, Dying Saying of, .... 624 
 
 Soda, Bicarbonate of, 404 
 
 Sulphate of, . 401 
 
 Solar System, 349 
 
 Soldiers, Confederate Surrendered, . . 619 
 
 Song of Roland, 132 
 
 of the Gondoliers, 171 
 
 Sorbonne, The, 133 
 
 Sortes, Biblicse, 133 
 
 Sound, Facts as to, ....... 320 
 
 South America, Armies, 614 
 
 South Carolina, 295 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 76 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 78 
 
 South Dakota, Divorce Laws of, ... 74 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 71 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 76 
 
 South Kensington Museum 133 
 
 South Sea Bubble, 133,460 
 
 Spain, 106,295 
 
 Constitution . 106 
 
 Council of Ministers, 106 
 
 Instruction, 
 Local Government, 
 
 107 
 107 
 
 Religion, 107 
 
 Spanish-American War, The, .... 269 
 
 Arms Captured, Santiago, .... 272 
 
 Casualties in Army, 272 
 
 Casualties in Navy, 272 
 
 Died in Camps, 272 
 
 Spanish Vessels Captured or Destroyed, 272 
 
 Spanish Inquisition, 499 
 
 Spanish Literature, 152 
 
 Spanish Main, 132 
 
 Sparta, . . 295 
 
 Speakers of the United States House, . 279 
 
 Speaking Trumpets, Origin of, . . . 330 
 
 Specific Gravity of Liquids, .... 594 
 
 of Substances, 350 
 
 Spectacles, 350, 422 
 
 Speed, Railroad, 478 
 
 Sphinx, 132,568 
 
 Spinning Wheel, 350 
 
 Sponge Bath, 380 
 
 Sponge Fishing. 351 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion, 351 
 
 Spring Fever, 381 
 
 Springs, 413 
 
 Square Measure, 587 
 
 Squill, 404 
 
 Stabat Mater 133 
 
 Stael, Mme. de, Dying Saying of, . . 624 
 
 Stage, The, 622
 
 INDEX. 
 
 677 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stalwart 132 
 
 Standard Time, 197 
 
 Star Chamber, 1:53 
 
 Stars, The, 351 
 
 State Capitol, Albany, 512 
 
 State Flowers, . * 624 
 
 State Governments, 51 
 
 State, Greatest Altitude in each, . . . 646 
 
 State Statistics, 50 
 
 States, Indebtedness of, 598 
 
 Mottoes of the, 627 
 
 Names of, 268 
 
 Secession of Confederate, .... 580 
 
 and Territories, U. S., 14 
 
 and the Union, The, 50 
 
 Statistics : of the Press, 607 
 
 Pension, 649 
 
 Railroad, 596 
 
 State, 50 
 
 Strikes, 461 
 
 Territorial, 50 
 
 Statute of Frauds, 60 
 
 Statutes of Limitation, 68 
 
 Steam Engines, 351 
 
 Horse Power of, 327 
 
 Steamers, Fleet of Transatlantic Pass'ger, 473 
 
 Steel, Damascus, 312 
 
 Manufacture of, 352 
 
 Steel Pens, Invention of, 352 
 
 Stenography, 353 
 
 Stereotyping, 353 
 
 Stimulants, 413 
 
 Stirrups, Origin of, 330 
 
 Stockings, Blue, ........ 604 
 
 Stone, The Blarney, 595 
 
 Stones, Meteoric, 628 
 
 Stonewall Jackson, 133 
 
 Storm, Natural Signals, 609 
 
 Straits of Babelmandeb, 295 
 
 Strasburg Cathedral 133 
 
 Strasburg Clock, 633 j 
 
 Strikes, Statistics of, 461 
 
 Submarine Cables, 476 
 
 Subscriptions, Law of, 116 
 
 Substances, Specific Gravity of, . . . 350 
 
 Substitute for Carpets, 430 
 
 Suez Canal, 353 
 
 Suffrage, Woman 628 
 
 Sugar, 353 
 
 Suicides, 606 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, 396 
 
 Sulphuric J^ther, 396 
 
 Summer, Common Sense in, .... 382 
 
 Summer Tleat in Various Countries. . . 581 ! 
 
 Sunday, 542 ; Sunday Schools, . . . 537 
 
 Sun Dials, Origin of,' 330 
 
 Supper, 386 
 
 Supreme Court I". S., Justices of. . . 282 
 
 Surnames, . 172,295 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sweden, . . - 295 
 
 Swedish Nightingale, 133 
 
 Swiss Cheese, 418 
 
 Switzerland, 295 
 
 Table Etiquette, Small Points on, . . 
 
 Table, Grocer's, 
 
 Table Paper, 
 
 Table, Setting the, 
 
 Bread, 
 
 Carafes, 
 
 Cards on Plates, 
 
 Chairs, . 
 
 Clams, 
 
 Decoration, 
 
 Finger Bowls, 
 
 Fruit, 
 
 Ice Pitchers, 
 
 Knives and Forks, 
 
 Napkins, 
 
 Plates, 
 
 Wineglasses, 
 
 Wines, 
 
 Tabooed, 
 
 Taj Mahal 
 
 Tammany Hall, 
 
 Tammany Ring, 
 
 Tammany, Saint, 
 
 Society of, 
 
 Tanning Leather, Origin of, .... 
 
 Tapestry Carpets, 
 
 Tapestry, Origin of, 
 
 Tapis, On the, 
 
 Tariff, 
 
 Tarpeian Rock, 
 
 Tarquin, 
 
 Tartaric Acid, 
 
 Tartary, . 
 
 Tax on Commercial Travelers, 
 
 The Single, -. 
 
 Taxes, 
 
 War Revenue, 
 
 Tea, 295, 386, 417. 
 
 Black, 
 
 Green, .... 
 
 To Make, 
 
 Teeth, Care of the, 
 
 Powders, 
 
 Toothbrushes, 
 
 Toothpicks, 
 
 Washes, 
 
 Telegraph, The, 3o7 ; Cuba, . 
 
 Rates to Foreign Countries, 
 
 Telephone, The, 
 
 Telescopes, 
 
 Temperature, Average Annual U. S., 
 
 of Foreign Cities, 
 
 387 
 647 
 639 
 384 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 384 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 385 
 133 
 537 
 133 
 133 
 133 
 641 
 330 
 420 
 330 
 133 
 626 
 295 
 295 
 396 
 295 
 61G 
 623 
 295 
 
 41 
 480 
 417 
 417 
 416 
 420 
 421 
 421 
 421 
 421 
 
 21 
 463 
 358 
 359 
 612 
 642
 
 678 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Temple Bar, 133 
 
 Temple Emmanuel, N. Y., .... 513 
 
 Temple, The Jewish, 573 
 
 Tennessee, 296 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 76 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Termagant, 133 
 
 Terra Firma, 133 
 
 Territorial Governments, 51 
 
 Territorial Statistics, 50 
 
 Territories, Indebtedness of, .... 598 
 
 Names of the, 268 
 
 The 51 
 
 Territory, Acquisition of, 626 
 
 Tertium Quid, 133 
 
 Teutones, 296 
 
 Texas, 295 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 76 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 78 
 
 Thanksgiving Day, 198 
 
 Theater, 296 
 
 Theatre Franc. ais, 133 
 
 Theatrical Performances, 173 
 
 Thebes, 296 
 
 Theleme, Abbey of, 133 
 
 Theosophy, 541 
 
 Thermometer, The, 359 
 
 Thermometry, 377 
 
 Thermopylae, 296 
 
 Thirty Years' War, The, 133 
 
 Thistle, 133 
 
 Thor, . . . . ' 133 
 
 Thrace, 296 
 
 Threadneedle Street, The Old Lady of, 133 
 
 Three Estates of the Realm 133 
 
 Three-Ply Carpets, 420 
 
 Thunder, 359 
 
 Thunderer, The, 133 
 
 Thurlow, Lord, Dying Saying of, . . 624 
 
 Tick, On, .. 133 
 
 Tides, The, 359 
 
 Tilts and Tournaments, 296 
 
 Time, Divisions of, 196 
 
 Measure of, 587 
 
 Variations in, 588 
 
 Tin Mines, Origin of 330 
 
 World's Principal, 621 
 
 Tin, Production of 473 
 
 Tit for Tat, 133 
 
 Tithes, 296 
 
 Tobacco, 359 
 
 Plant, 296 
 
 Production of, 479 
 
 Tolu, Balsam of, 404 
 
 Tom Thumb, . . . 133 
 
 Tooth Powders, . . . . . . 421 
 
 Tooth Washes, ..,,>, , . 421 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Toothbrushes 421 
 
 Toothpicks, 421 
 
 Topaz, 598 
 
 Torpedo Fleets, The, 614 
 
 Tory, 133 
 
 Toulouse, 296 
 
 Tour, The Grand, 133 
 
 Tower, The, 133 
 
 Trade Dollars, 455 
 
 Trade-Marks, Law of, 52 
 
 Trades Unions, 457 
 
 Traffic, Railroad, of the World, ... 470 
 
 Train Management, 595 
 
 Trajan's Column, 547 
 
 Transfiguration, The, 133 
 
 Transportation, Interior, Cuba, ... 21 
 
 Treasury, 511 
 
 Trees, Age and Growth of, .... 619 
 
 Trial by Jury, 114 
 
 Trimmer, 133 
 
 Trinity Church, 133, 512 
 
 Triple Alliance, 133 
 
 Trojan War, 296,640 
 
 Troubadours, '. 133, 168 
 
 Trouveres, 133 
 
 Troy Weight, 588 
 
 Trumpet, To Sound One's Own, ... 133 
 
 Trusts, 461 
 
 Tudor Architecture, 509 
 
 Tuft-Hunter, 133 
 
 Tuileries, 133, 296 
 
 Tulip Mania, 133 
 
 Tune the Old Cow Died of, .... 133 
 
 Tunis and Tripoli, 296 
 
 Tunnels, The Longest, 588 
 
 Turkey, 107 
 
 Education, 108 
 
 Executive, 107 
 
 Legislative, 107 
 
 Religion, 108 
 
 Turkeys, 406 
 
 Turkish Carpets 420 
 
 Turkish Empire 296 
 
 Turpentine, Liniment of, 401 
 
 Spirit of, 404 
 
 Turquoise, 598 
 
 Tuscany, 296 
 
 Twelfth Day, 197 
 
 Tyburn, , . 133 
 
 Type-Setting Machines, ...... 360 
 
 Typewriters 360 
 
 Tyre 296 
 
 u 
 
 Uffizi, 133 
 
 Ultramontanes, ...... . 133 
 
 Umbrellas, . . . .... 360 
 
 Uncle Saw, . , , , , , , , . 592
 
 INDEX. 
 
 679 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Under the Rose, 133 
 
 Underground Railroad, The, .... 133 
 
 Union, Latin, 604 
 
 Unitarians, 554 
 
 United States of America : 10 
 
 Army Recruiting Requirements, . . 610 
 
 Average Annual Rainfall, . . 626 
 
 Average Annual Temperature, . . . 612 
 
 Banks, 451 
 
 Capital of, 626 
 
 Census, 1890, 633 
 
 Coinage at Mints, 453 
 
 Constitution, 10 
 
 Copyright Law, 31 
 
 Customs Duties, 39 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws, 45 
 
 Executive, 10 
 
 Government, 10 
 
 Judiciary, 13 
 
 Legislative, 11 
 
 Money in the, 452 
 
 Naval Academy, Annapolis, . . . 563 
 
 Naval Enlistment, 625 
 
 Navy, List of Ships of, 643 
 
 Navy, Pay Table, 625 
 
 Occupations in, 477 
 
 Present Population of, 597 
 
 Presidents of, 277 
 
 Public Debt of, 472 
 
 Public Lands of, . 597 
 
 Railway Mileage in, 469 
 
 Religious Denominations in, . . . 539 
 
 Salutes, 611 
 
 Slavery in, 625 
 
 Speakers of House, 279 
 
 States and Territories, 14 
 
 Universities and Colleges, .... 527 
 
 Yice-Presidents of, 279 
 
 Wars of, 586 
 
 Universalists, 555 
 
 University Extension, 572 
 
 University, Catholic, of America, . . 560 
 
 Columbia, 560 
 
 Columbian, 572 
 
 Cornell 559 
 
 Harvard, , , . 557 
 
 Leland Stanford, Jr., . . , , 561 
 
 of California, , 560 
 
 of Chicago, ........ 561 
 
 of Pennsylvania, ..... 513, 559 
 
 of Virginia, 561 
 
 Princeton, 559 ' 
 
 Yale, 558; 
 
 Universities, Foreign, ...... 533 
 
 Unter den Linden, 133 
 
 Unwashed, The Great, 133 
 
 Up the Spout, 133 
 
 Upas Tree, 133 
 
 Upholstery, ......... 434 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Upper Ten Thousand, 133 
 
 Utah, 296 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 76 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 45 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 78 
 
 Utilitarians, 133 
 
 Utopia, 133 
 
 Vaccination, 361 
 
 Vacuum, 361 
 
 Valencia, 296 
 
 Valentine's, Saint, Day, 621 
 
 Valentinians, 555 
 
 Valerian, 405 
 
 Tincture of, 404 
 
 Valhalla, 133 
 
 Valley, Yosemite, 630 
 
 Vampire, 133 
 
 Vandals, 296 
 
 Varangians, 296 
 
 Vase, Portland, 535 
 
 Vatican, 133 
 
 Council of the, 133 
 
 " VaticanusMons," 296 
 
 Vaudeville, 623 
 
 Veal, 405 
 
 Vedas, The, 133,554 
 
 Vegetable Origins, 605 
 
 Vegetable Productions, 466 
 
 Vegetables, Comparative Yield of, . . 636 
 
 Velocities, Average of Various Bodies, . 583 
 
 Velocity, 361 
 
 Velvet Carpets, 420 
 
 Vendome Column, 296 
 
 Veni, Vidi, Vici, 133 
 
 Venice, 296 
 
 Venison, 406 
 
 Ventilators, Origin of, 330 
 
 Venus de Medici, ........ 133 
 
 of Milo, 133 
 
 Statues of, 502 
 
 Verbum Sap, ,138 
 
 Vermont, 296 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 76 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Veronica, 133 
 
 Versailles, .......... 133 
 
 Vespers, The Sicilian, 133 
 
 Vesuvius, ...,.,,... 296 
 
 ViaDolorosa . , . . 133 
 
 Vienna, 296 
 
 Vikings, 296 
 
 Vinegar Bible, The, 133 
 
 Violin, 361 
 
 Origin of, ..,,,... 330
 
 680 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Virgin Queen, The, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 
 
 University of, 
 
 Visigoths, 
 
 Vision, The Limits of, 
 
 Visiting Cards, Origin of, .... 
 
 Vitus Dance, St., 
 
 Vocabulary, Nautical, 
 
 Volapuk, 
 
 Volcanoes, 
 
 Height of, 
 
 Voting, Qualifications for, .... 
 Vulgate, 
 
 Wabash Avenue, 
 
 Wages and Cost of Living, 
 
 Assignment of, Demand for, 
 
 Wales, 
 
 Walkyries, ' 
 
 Wall of China, The, 
 
 Wall Paper, Origin of, 
 
 Wall Papers, 
 
 Wall Street, 
 
 Wallack's, 
 
 Walloons, . . . 
 
 Walton, An Izaak, 
 
 Wandering Jew, The, 
 
 War, Army during Civil, 
 
 Colored Troops in \J. S. Army, 
 
 Great Battles of Civil, 
 
 Losses from, 
 
 of 1812 
 
 of the Roses, 
 
 Peninsular, 
 
 Revenue Taxes, 
 
 Trojan, 
 
 Ward, Artemus, 
 
 Warm Bath, 
 
 Wars, Cost of Recent, 
 
 of U. S., 
 
 Wars, Recent Desperate : Abyssinian, . 
 
 American Civil, 
 
 Franco-German, 
 
 Indian Mutiny, 
 
 Russo-Turkish, 
 
 Zulu, , 
 
 Warsaw, 
 
 Washington, 
 
 Capitol at, ......... 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 
 
 Exemption Laws of, ... . . . 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 
 
 Washington Monument, 
 
 Washington Street, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 133 
 
 297 
 
 76 
 
 73 
 
 78 
 
 561 
 
 297 
 
 627 
 
 612 
 
 133 
 
 648 
 
 168 
 
 362 
 
 599 
 
 48 
 
 547 
 
 133 
 472 
 67 
 297 
 637 
 133 
 330 
 435 
 133 
 133 
 297 
 133 
 133 
 579 
 617 
 580 
 645 
 133 
 133 
 131 
 41 
 640 
 133 
 379 
 646 
 586 
 273 
 274 
 275 
 273 
 274 
 275 
 297 
 297 
 511 
 76 
 73 
 78 
 611 
 133 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Washington's Birthday, 198 
 
 Wassail, .133 
 
 Wat Tyler's Insurrection, 297 
 
 Watches, American, 302 
 
 Origin of, 330 
 
 Watches of the Night, 636 
 
 Water Gas, . . . 362 
 
 Water Mills, Origin of, ...... 330 
 
 Waterfalls, The Great, 585 
 
 Watering Stock, 461 
 
 Waterloo, 297 
 
 Waters, The Father of 133 
 
 Ways and Means, 133 
 
 Wealth of Principal Nations, .... 459 
 
 Weather-Cocks, Origin of, ... . 330 
 
 Weaving, 362 
 
 Wedding, 134 
 
 Wedding Anniversary, The, .... 638 
 
 Weddings, White House, 623 
 
 Weights, 412, 587 
 
 Apothecaries', 587 
 
 Eggs, 585 
 
 Feminine, 582 
 
 Hay and Straw 588 
 
 Liquids, 594 
 
 Measures of, 588 
 
 Origin of, 330 
 
 Particular, 587 
 
 Troy, 588 
 
 Wool, 588 
 
 Well of St. Keyne, 134 
 
 Wellesley College, Stone Hall, . . . 513 
 
 West Point Academy, 562 
 
 West Virginia, 297 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 76 
 
 Exemption Laws of 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, . 78 
 
 Westminster Abbey, 134, 297 
 
 Westminster Palace, 562 
 
 Wetherell, Elizabeth, 134 
 
 Wheat Crop of the World 466 
 
 Whig, 134 
 
 Whisky, 362, 429 
 
 Whistle, ... 134 
 
 White Feather, To show the 134 
 
 White House, The, 134, 603 
 
 Weddings, 623 
 
 Whiteboys, 134 
 
 Wild Cat Banks, 455 
 
 Wild Huntsman, The, 134 
 
 William and Mary College, .... 565 
 
 W r illiam III., Dying Saying of, ... 624 
 
 Wills 63, 297 
 
 Another Form of, 64 
 
 Codicil to, ......... 65 
 
 Short Form for a, 64 
 
 Wilton Carpet, 420 
 
 Windmills, To Fight \vith, 134 
 
 Windows, Origin of .330
 
 INDEX. 
 
 681 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Windsor Castle, 134, 553 
 
 Wine, 423 
 
 Burgundy 425 
 
 Catawba, 426 
 
 Champagne, 424 
 
 Choice of Brands, 426 
 
 Claret, 425 
 
 Madeira, 425 
 
 Origin of, 330 
 
 Production of liie World, .... 463 
 
 Proper Temperature, 426 
 
 Treatment of, 426 
 
 Wire, 363 
 
 Wisconsin, 297 
 
 Divorce Laws of, 76 
 
 Eight- Hour Laws of, 45 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 79 
 
 Wise Men of the East, The, .... 134 
 
 Witch of Endor, The, 134 
 
 Witchcraft, 297 
 
 Witch-Hazel 134 
 
 Wolfe, General, Dying baying of, . . 624 
 
 Woman, Myths of the Origin of, . . . 629 
 
 Woman Suffrage, 628 
 
 Woman's Chance oi Marrying, . . . 585 
 
 Wonders, The World's Seven, . . . 594 
 
 Wood Carpet, 420 
 
 Wood for Fuel, 586 
 
 Woodcock, 406 
 
 Wooden Horse 134 
 
 Woods, 436 
 
 Durability of, 583 
 
 Wool, World's Production of, ... 478 
 
 Woolen Cloth, Origin of, 331 
 
 Woolsack. To Sit on the, 134 
 
 Words, Misuse of, 192 
 
 AVorld, Coal Area of, ...... 595 
 
 Largest Islands in, 603 
 
 World's Fairs, The, 582 
 
 Writing, History of, 171 
 
 Wyoming, 297 
 
 PAGE 
 Wyoming, Divorce Laws of, .... 76 
 
 Eight-Hour Laws of, 45 
 
 Exemption Laws of, 73 
 
 Massacre, 134 
 
 Property Rights of Married Women, 79 
 
 X or Rontgen Rays, 363 
 
 Xanthos, 134 
 
 Xantippe, 134 
 
 Yahoo, 134 
 
 Yale, Art School at, 513 
 
 University, 558 
 
 Yankee, 134 
 
 Yankee-Doodle, 582 
 
 Origin of Name, 582 
 
 Yarmouth Bloater, 134 
 
 Yeast, Poultice of, 403 
 
 Yellow Jack, 134 
 
 Yellowstone Park 636 
 
 Yosemite Valley, 134, 630 
 
 Young America, 134 
 
 Young Chevalier, 134 
 
 Young Germany, 134 
 
 Yule, 134 
 
 Yule Log, 134 
 
 Zend-Avesta, The, 134 
 
 Zinc, Chloride of, 405 
 
 Ointment of, 402 
 
 Production of, 473 
 
 Sulphate of, 405 
 
 Zodiac, 363 
 
 Zollverein, 134 
 
 Zoology, 364 
 
 Zulu War, 275
 
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