THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 Zoology Department
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS
 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 THE 
 HISTORY, ORGANIZATION AND METHODS 
 
 OF 
 
 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN GERMANY 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES E. RUSSELL, PH.D., LL.D. 
 
 DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE AND BARNARD PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK 
 
 NEW EDITION 
 NEW IMPRESSION 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO. 
 
 FOURTH AVENUE & SOrn STREET, NEW YORK 
 
 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON 
 
 BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS 
 
 1916
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1808, BT 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 All rights reterved. 
 
 First Edition, January, 1899. 
 
 Reprinted, September, 1901, and February, 1903. 
 
 Second Edition, with additions and revisions, September, 1905. 
 
 Reprinted August, 1907, September, 1910. 
 
 June, 1913, June, 1916
 
 LA 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 No apology is necessary, I assume, in presenting to the 
 reading public a book on the secondary schools of Germany. 
 For many years American educators have drawn professional 
 inspiration from German sources, and more recently it has 
 become apparent that German ideas are taking root in British 
 soil. The history, organization and methods of the German 
 elementary schools are generally well understood. We have 
 grown familiar with the German universities and have prof- 
 ited not a little from the relationship. But very little has 
 been written in English on the secondary education which is 
 the foundation of the German university training and the 
 basis of all professional service in the Fatherland. Yet it is 
 precisely in this sphere that German education can be studied 
 to best advantage, and from it we have most to learn. 
 
 The Regents of the University of the State of New York, at 
 Convocation in July, 1893, appointed me their European 
 Commissioner, and shortly afterwards I was made Special 
 Agent of the Bureau of Education of the United States for 
 the study and investigation of German schools. These keys 
 unlocked all doors. During the two years which I spent in 
 Germany I visited more than forty towns and cities in order 
 personally to acquaint myself with school affairs. By force 
 of circumstances my attention was directed chiefly to the 
 schools of central and northern Germany. It happens, there- 
 fore, that this study in concerned principally with the schools
 
 Ti PREFACE 
 
 of Prussia. But as Prussia is the larger part of the Empire 
 both in area and population, and by far the most important 
 state politically in the Confederation, it is doing no great in- 
 justice to consider German schools from the Prussian stand- 
 point. 
 
 A foreign institution, however simple it appears to the 
 casual observer, presents a wonderful complexity to the stu- 
 dent. And the longer he studies the more complex it grows. 
 After a six months' residence abroad I was more confident of 
 my ability to interpret the German school system than I am 
 now, at the end of almost five years' continuous study and 
 investigation. No one of my readers, I am sure, can be more 
 dissatisfied than I am myself with this attempt to portray 
 German ideals and German methods. The subject is too im- 
 portant to be lightly treated and too extensive to be under- 
 stood on short acquaintance. I trust, however, that my 
 work may lighten the labours of other students in this field 
 and prove to be of some practical worth to educators. 
 
 Sermonizing on the basis of foreign customs is always of 
 doubtful expediency. It is, indeed, questionable whether 
 there is anything peculiar to the German theory and practice 
 of teaching which is directly applicable to British or Amer- 
 ican conditions. Each nation must educate itself in its own 
 way and for its own ends. The chief value of foreign exam- 
 ples consists in a rational understanding of the foreign way 
 of adapting means to ends in the realization of great 
 ideals. In this work, therefore, I have studiously resisted 
 the temptation to point out the moral of every tale. The 
 intelligent reader is capable of drawing his own conclusions ; 
 he who reads merely to imitate needs no encouragement. 
 
 It has been my aim to make each chapter as complete in it- 
 self as possible, even at the risk of some repetition of impor- 
 tant facts. References have been cited in foot-notes wherever 
 it has seemed necessary to refer to original documents or au-
 
 PREFACE vii 
 
 thorities of consequence. At the end of each chapter I have 
 appended a short bibliographical list, through which students 
 may easily acquaint themselves with the literature of the 
 various topics. In the space at my disposal it would mani- 
 festly be impossible to cite all that has been written. Com- 
 plete bibliographies will generally be found in the Hand-books 
 and Encyclopedias mentioned in the lists of " general refer- 
 ences." The chapters dealing with methods of instruction, 
 the progress of school reform and the merits and defects of 
 the German system, are obviously little dependent on books, 
 except as they may serve to present other points of view. 
 
 The study as a whole, while demanding some familiarity 
 with books, is much more indebted to the personal factor. 
 Without the acquaintance and assistance of many German 
 educationists it would have remained impossible for me to 
 interpret the mass of material that has come to my hands. I 
 cannot speak too highly of the many favours which were so 
 freely extended to a very inquisitive and persistent stranger. 
 The men whom I most wanted to consult were men fully 
 occupied in places of great responsibility, but I could always 
 count on a generous allotment of their time. To some of 
 these friends I am indebted not only for personal interviews, 
 but also for searching criticisms of parts of my manuscript. 
 It is not their fault if I have gone astray ; any errors of fact 
 or judgment herein contained are my own. 
 
 I desire especially to acknowledge my obligations to Ober- 
 schulrat Dr. Waetzoldt, of Magdeburg ; Professor Urtel, in- 
 spector of schools in Weimar ; Drs. Muff and Quiehl, school 
 directors in Cassel ; Drs. Reinhardt and Walter, school direc- 
 tors in Frankfort-am-Main ; Dr. G. 1 Richter, gymnasial rector 
 in Jena ; Dr. Wernekke, director of the Realgymnasium in 
 Weimar ; Dr. Fries, director of the Franckesche Stiftungen 
 in Halle , Drs. Richter and Wychgram, directors of second- 
 ary schools in Leipsic ; Dr. Hausknecht, school director in
 
 viii PREFACE 
 
 Berlin ; and Professor Rein of the University of Jena, Pro- 
 fessor Volkelt of Leipsic, Professor Paulsen of Berlin and 
 Professor Schiller of Giessen. My thanks are due also to Mr. 
 Edgar Kesner and Mr. W. M. Shafer, former students of 
 mine in the University of Colorado, for clerical assistance, 
 and to my colleague, Mr. Walter H. Nichols, who has kindly 
 prepared the index to this volume. 
 
 J. K. K. 
 NEW YORK, December, 1898. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 
 
 A NEW edition of German Higher Schools gives the oppor- 
 tunity to correct typographical errors and to add a chapter 
 on the accomplishments of the past decade. A revision of 
 certain chapters might be more agreeahle to the general 
 reader, but to the student of educational administration the 
 progress of school reform in Germany is more clearly re- 
 vealed by contrasting the new order with that in force ten 
 years ago. A comprehensive bibliography of recent litera- 
 ture follows the new chapter and the appendix supplies in- 
 formation on recent official decrees and statistics. 
 
 In bringing this work down to date I beg to acknowledge 
 the generous assistance of Professor Dr. Bahlsen, Commis- 
 sioner in charge of the German Educational Exhibit at St. 
 Louis, in supplying official documents and securing necessary 
 information. I am also deeply indebted to a student of 
 mine in Teachers College, Dr. Edward E. Rail, now Instruc- 
 tor in Education, University of Texas, who has prepared the 
 tables in the appendix and collaborated with me in writing 
 the final chapter. 
 
 J. E. R. 
 
 NEW YORK, July, 1905.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PA8B 
 
 BEGINNINGS OF GERMAN SCHOOLS, ..... 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS, 17 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 46 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS, . . ' 76 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM, . . . . . .108 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 121 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 FOUNDATION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHER SCHOOLS, . 138
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS, 156 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES, 175 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS, ..... 194 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 INSTRUCTION IN RELIGION 213 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 [NSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 227 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN, 245 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES, . . . 266 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY, . . .291 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS, 312
 
 CONTENTS xi 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES, .... 329 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS, . . . 352 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 APPOINTMENT, PROMOTION AND EMOLUMENTS OF TEACH- 
 ERS, 370 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM, 388 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 MERITS AND DEFECTS OF GERMAN SECONDARY EDUCA- 
 TION 406 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM, 1898-1905 . . 423 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RECENT WORKS ON SCHOOL REFORM . 455 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 THE ROYAL DECREE OF NOVEMBER 26, 1900 . . .461 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 CURRICULA OF PRUSSIAN HIGHER SCHOOLS OF 1901 . . 464 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 THE PRIVILEGED HIGHER SCHOOLS OF GERMANY IN 1903- 
 
 1904 . 468
 
 Xll CONTENTS 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 ra TO PRUSSIAN 
 IN 1904 469 
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OF PRIVILEGES IN INDIVIDUAL GERMAN 
 
 STATES .471 
 
 N. 
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
 SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF 
 
 GERMANY IN 1904 472 
 
 APPENDIX G. 
 
 PENSIONS OF TEACHERS IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF 
 
 GERMANY 474 
 
 APPENDIX H. 
 EXTRACTS FROM THE GENERAL PENSION LAWS OF PRUSSIA . 475 
 
 INDEX . 479
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE schools of Germany have ever been a means to the re- 
 alization of the highest spiritual ideals of the German people. 
 They were called into existence to support the 
 tenets of the Christian faith, and upon the 
 union of Church and State they were taken over 
 bodily into the service of the broader national life. Hence 
 the clew to the systematic development of the German school 
 system, at least until the present century, must be sought in 
 the religious ideals of the successive periods as tempered by 
 the prevailing social, economic and political influences. 
 
 As long as the only classes in society were the nobility and 
 the peasantry a practical training in the arts of gaining a 
 livelihood, of making war and of diplomacy suf- 
 
 ,,-, .!/> j i i Influence of the 
 
 need. Custom, modified only by new exigen- church, 
 cies, afforded all the discipline needed for their 
 mode of life. But a new era dawned with the introduction 
 of Christianity in the eighth century. Columban and Boni- 
 face began their missionary work from the west and sought 
 to convert the pagan Germans. 1 Monasteries and churches 
 
 1 See the interesting and naive Life of St Columban, by the Monk Jonas 
 (University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints from the Original 
 Sources of European History, Vol. II., No. 7) Oolumban "feared lest, 
 ensnared by the lusts of the world, he should in vain have spent so much 
 
 1
 
 2 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 were founded everywhere in order to make sure OL the con- 
 version of the whole country. About these institutions arose 
 a third important class, the clergy. The source of inspiration 
 for this class lay outside the semi-barbarous customs of the 
 people among whom they lived. The nobles and peasants 
 alike were ignorant of letters, and this made easy the intro- 
 duction of the Latin language to which the ecclesiastics, as 
 priests and missionaries of the Koman Church, were naturally 
 partial. The progress of Christianity was conditioned very 
 largely by the acceptance of the Latin language. For pur- 
 poses of international communication, too, the ability to use 
 the Latin tongue was indispensable. Here, then, were condi- 
 tions demanding an innovation in existent educational meth- 
 ods ; schools were founded to satisfy these demands. 
 
 The Church alone recognized the need of schools, and 
 throughout the Middle Ages all instruction proceeded from 
 the clergy. The imparting of a new religion and a new cult- 
 ure was the chief motive that actuated the German mission- 
 aries. Monasteries and schools grew up together. The ear- 
 liest schools were under the direction of monastic orders or 
 bishops of the Church. Their aim was preparation for the 
 priesthood. 
 
 labour on grammar, rhetoric, geometry and the Holy Scriptures. . . . 
 Having collected a band of brethren, St. Columban asked the prayers 
 of all that he might be assisted in his coming journey and that he might 
 have their pious aid. So he started out in the twentieth (or thirtieth) 
 year of his life, and under the guidance of Christ went to the seashore 
 with twelve companions. Here they waited to see if the mercy of the 
 Almighty would allow their purpose to succeed, and learned that the spirit 
 of the all-merciful Judge was with them. So they embarked, and began 
 the dangerous journey across the channel, and sailed quickly with a smooth 
 sea and favourable wind to the coast of Brittany. Here they rested for 
 awhile to recover their strength and discussed their plans anxiously, until 
 finally they decided to enter the land of Gaul. They wanted zealously and 
 shrewdly to inquire into the disposition of the inhabitants, in order to 
 remain longer if they found they could sow the seeds of salvation ; or, in 
 case they found the hearts of the people in darkness, go on to the nearest 
 nations."
 
 BEGINNINGS OF GERMAN SCHOOLS 3 
 
 Of the early orders the Benedictines were most devoted to 
 the cause of education. From the famous monastery of Monte 
 Casino, for the administration of which St. 
 Benedict prescribed his more famous rules in Benedictina 
 529, 1 there proceeded a ray of light down 
 through all the dark ages. The Benedictine monks, though 
 secluded from the world, found eventually within claustral 
 walls a little world of their own. 2 The duties of every hour 
 were carefully enjoined, and to a strict religious life under 
 vows of poverty, chastity and obedience were added the de- 
 mands of manual labour and the duty of instructing the young. 
 The example of Cassiodorus, tne prime minister of Theodoric 
 the Great, who retired about 540 to a monastery, and there 
 devoted his life to literary pursuits, had a wholesome influence 
 on the ecclesiastics of his day. The rapid growth of religious 
 orders and the accumulation of property required no little 
 administrative ability. This led eventually to many monks 
 becoming learned men ; in every monastery some scholars 
 were a necessity. And with the development of the idea that 
 the Church was the Kingdom of God on Earth, the Benedic- 
 tines became the tools of the Bishops of Home in conquering 
 the world. 
 
 It is a significant fact that the great apostle to the Ger- 
 mans, the Anglo-Saxon Winfried, better known as St. Boni- 
 face, introduced the monastic rules of St. Benedict through- 
 out Germany. The labours of the Irish missionaries early in 
 the seventh century had been restricted to southern Germany 
 and Switzerland. But they founded there monastic schools, 
 notably Reichenau and St. Gall, which became the models of 
 all northern Europe. Boniface, a century later, received a 
 commission from the Pope (718), to Christianize and Roman- 
 
 1 Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 
 1892, gives an English translation of " The Rule of St. Benedict." See 
 pp. 274-314. 
 
 * Putnam, Books and Their Makers During tne Middle Ages, New York, 
 1896, Vol. I., pp. 106-145, gives an account of the literary activities of the 
 Benedictines.
 
 4 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ize all Germany. The results of his labours were truly marvel- 
 lous ; in five years he had succeeded in planting the standard 
 of Rome in all parts of Thuringia and Hesse, and as strong- 
 holds of the faith cloisters grew up under his fostering care. 
 In 732 he was made archbishop, the head of an ecclesiastical 
 system including many bishoprics and important clerical in- 
 stitutions. At the time of his death in 755 the Roman Cath- 
 olic conquest of Germany was nearly complete ; the Bishop 
 of Rome was supreme. 1 And with Roman Catholicism came 
 the elements of Latin learning and the culture of the Church. 
 
 Boniface seems to have been not less interested in Roman- 
 izing Germany than in giving the youth of Germany a Christ- 
 ian education. The German abbeys were every 
 one ^ tnem mission schools. The enthusiasm 
 of the great apostle inspired his disciples, men 
 and women alike, to heroic efforts. The monasteries of Fitz- 
 lar, Biiraburg, Heidesheim, Eichstatt, Erfurt and Fulda, and 
 the nunneries of Bischofsheim, Kitzingen and Ochsenfurt, 
 were centres of educational influence, training-schools for 
 native missionaries. 
 
 The aim of these schools was naturally enough to promote 
 the work of the Church. Boys of five to seven years of age 
 were dedicated to the holy office and reared within convent 
 walls. The church language and singing stood first in a 
 curriculum theoretically composed of the Trivinm grammar, 
 rhetoric and dialectic ; and of the Q.uadrivium arithmetic, 
 geometry, astronomy and music. Upon these seven liberal 
 arts, as on seven impregnable pillars, the superstructure, 
 theology, was built. 2 
 
 Under the influence of Charles the Great and Alcuin, edu- 
 cational ideals ceased to be exclusively ecclesiastical. The 
 purpose of the schools became something more than that of 
 preparation for the priesthood. A dawning national self- 
 
 1 The Councilium Germanicum recognized the Roman Pontiff as head 
 of the Church in 748. 
 
 1 Cf. Schiller, Getchichtc der Padagogik : Die Klosterschulen, Leipzig. 
 1894, p. 35 .
 
 BEGINNINGS OF GERMAN SCHOOLS 5 
 
 consciousness led to a dream of Empire, but an Empire in 
 
 harmony with the Church. Those who aspired to the rule 
 
 of the Roman Empire must needs be somewhat 
 
 acquainted with Roman learning. Hence the 
 
 rise of the " Palace School " at the court of 
 
 Charles the Great, the pioneer school for the nobles of the 
 
 realm. 1 
 
 The task of Alcuin was nothing less than the introduction 
 and diffusion of learning among the Franks, a task of no lit- 
 tle difficulty when we consider the deplorable . 
 condition of education consequent on the bar- 
 baric rule of the Merovingian kings. The church schools 
 were no longer the seats of learning ; some of them had fallen 
 a prey to selfish royal favourites ; others had abandoned them- 
 selves to the lusts of the flesh. For the upbuilding of that 
 "more excellent Athens/' which Alcuin hoped to establish in 
 Frankland, it was necessary that the monastic and cathedral 
 schools be reformed and enthused with new life. 2 More than 
 that, the common people would have to be rescued from 
 barbarism and raised by Christian education to an apprecia- 
 tion of Christian citizenship. The famous proclamation of 
 Charles, issued in 787 to the abbots of the different monas- 
 teries, sometimes called the first general charter of education 
 for the Middle Ages, shows clearly the intent of Alcuin in 
 regard to the schools. The copy addressed to Baugulf, abbot 
 of Fulda, runs as follows : 
 
 " Be it known to your devotion, pleasing to God, that in 
 conjunction with our faithful we have judged it to be of 
 utility that, in the bishoprics and monasteries Flrgt neral 
 committed by Christ's favour to our charge, care charter of 
 should be'taken that there shall be not only a 
 regular manner of life and one conformable to holy religion, 
 
 1 Cramer, Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts in den Nieder- 
 landen wdhrend des Mittelalters, Stralsund, 1843, gives an interesting ac- 
 count of educational progress under Charles the Great. 
 
 9 See G. B. Adams' Civilization During the Middle Ages, p. 163 ft. ; 
 Bryce's Holy Roman Empire, ch. v. ; and Oman's The Dirk Ages, p. 379 flf.
 
 6 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 but also the study of letters, each to teach and learn them 
 according to his ability and the divine assistance. For even 
 as due observance of the rule of the house tends to good 
 morals, so zeal on the part of the teacher and the taught im- 
 parts order and grace to sentences ; and those who seek to 
 please God by living aright should also not neglect to please 
 him by right speaking. It is written ' by thine own words 
 shalt thou be justified or condemned ; ' and although right 
 doing be preferable to right speaking, yet must the knowl- 
 edge of what is right precede right action. Every one, there- 
 fore, should strive to understand what it is that he would 
 fain accomplish ; and this right understanding will be the 
 sooner gained according as the utterances of the tongue are 
 free from error. And if false speaking is to be shunned by 
 all men, especially should it be shunned by those who have 
 elected to be the servants of the truth. During past years 
 we have often received letters from different monasteries in- 
 forming us that at their sacred services the brethren offered 
 up prayers in our behalf ; and we have observed that the 
 thoughts contained in these letters, though in themselves 
 most just, were expressed in uncouth language, and while pi- 
 ous devotion dictated the sentiments, the unlettered tongue 
 was unable to express them aright. Hence there has arisen 
 in our minds the fear lest, if the skill to write rightly were 
 thus lacking, so too would the power of rightly compre- 
 hending the Sacred Scriptures be far less than was fitting, 
 and we all know that, though verbal errors be dangerous, 
 errors of the understanding are yet more so. We exhort you, 
 therefore, not only not to neglect the study of letters, but to 
 apply yourself thereto with perseverance and with that hu- 
 mility which is well pleasing to God ; so that you may be 
 able to penetrate with greater ease and certainty the myste- 
 ries of the Holy Scriptures. For as these contain images, 
 tropes and similar figures, it is impossible to doubt that the 
 reader will arrive far more readily at the spiritual sense ac- 
 cording as he is the better instructed in learning. Let there, 
 therefore, be chosen for this work men who are able and
 
 BEGINNINGS OF GERMAN SCHOOLS 1 
 
 willing to learn, and also desirous of instructing others ; and 
 let them apply themselves to the .work with a zeal equalling 
 the earnestness with which we recommend it to them. 
 
 " It is our wish that you may be what it behooves the sol- 
 diers of the Church to be, religious in heart, learned in dis- 
 course, pure in act, eloquent in speech ; so that all who ap- 
 proach your house in order to invoke the Divine Master or to 
 behold the excellence of the religious life, may be edified in 
 beholding you and instructed in hearing you discourse or 
 chant, and may return home rendering thanks to God most 
 High. 
 
 " Fail not, as thou regardest our favour, to send a copy of 
 this letter to all thy suffragans and to all the monasteries ; 
 and let no monk go beyond his monastery to administer justice 
 or to enter the assemblies and the voting-places. Adieu." 1 
 
 The ideal ecclesiastic should be " religious in heart, learned 
 in discourse, pure in act, eloquent in speech," a man both 
 " able and willing to learn, and also desirous of instructing 
 others." As a faithful soldier of the Church it is incumbent 
 on him to see to it that, for the sake of a right comprehension 
 of the mysteries of the Holy Scriptures, the study of letters 
 be not neglected. Again Charles writes : 
 
 " As it is our desire to improve the condition of the Church, 
 we make it our task to restore, with most watchful zeal, the 
 study of letters, a task almost forgotten through the neglect 
 of our ancestors. We therefore enjoin on our subjects, so 
 far as they may be able, to study the liberal arts, and we set 
 them the example." 2 
 
 The immediate effect of these injunctions was a quickened 
 activity in the old church schools and the foundation of new 
 ones. Generally speaking the sole function of the monastic 
 and cathedral schools had been hitherto the training of 
 churchmen ; the doors were now opened to laymen but can- 
 
 1 1. Migne, Patrologia Latina, icviii., 895. Mullinger, Schoolt of Charles 
 the Great, 97-99. 
 
 * Pertz, Leges, I., 44. Quoted by West, Alcuin, New York, 1892, p. 54.
 
 8 GERMAN HIGHEH SCHOOLS 
 
 tiously. 1 Boys who were dedicated to the monastic life, ob- 
 lati, were trained in the interior school ; the exterior school, 
 Progress under outs ide the convent walls, was reserved for the 
 Charles the secular clergy and laymen. 2 The cathedral 
 schools were in many respects similar to the 
 exterior schools of the monasteries. But under Charles the 
 Great a separation was commonly made between the eccle- 
 siastical and the lay students. The prevailing ignorance, 
 superstition and immorality of the lower priesthood, which 
 Charles sought to correct, was due in part to lack of educa- 
 tion and in part to the custom of taking candidates from the 
 lowest social class, very often from among the serfs. The 
 remedy for this evil was instruction in letters and a life 
 under monastic rule. Hence as the custom arose of collect- 
 ing all the clergy of a diocese about the bishop's 
 schools* church, a special school was needed for the 
 canons. Herein the cathedral schools found 
 their chief work, but as a rule both the monastic and the cathe- 
 dral schools were also open to those who had no intention of 
 leading a strictly religious life. The discipline of the interni 
 was naturally more rigorous than that of the externi, and, 
 too, the novices were taught more of the Scriptures, more of 
 church music and ritual. But the course of study for be- 
 ginners was practically the same for all. Pupils were ad- 
 mitted when about seven years of age. Their first task was 
 to commit the Latin Psalter to memory. Along witli this 
 went reading, writing and a little arithmetic. The enforced 
 use of the Latin language at all times, in school and out, 
 eventually gave them a second mother -tongue. To make 
 their pupils adepts in the use of this tongue was, next to a 
 knowledge of Holy Writ, the chief aim of the mediaeval 
 schools. As a means to this end Roman authors, especially 
 
 1 Basiliu*, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia (370-379), is said to have 
 been the first to divide the cloistral schools into schola claustri s. interior 
 and schola canonica s. exterior. 
 
 * See Encyc. Britan , Vol. I., under " Abbey " for the arrangement at 
 St. Gall.
 
 &&GINNINQS OF GERMAN SOHOOL8 
 
 the poets, were carefully studied not for what they said so 
 much as for their way of saying it. This was the work of 
 grammar and rhetoric ; dialectics seem not to have been 
 much in evidence except in the greatest schools. Of the 
 Realien the only subject of moment was music church 
 music at that. Just enough arithmetic was taught for the 
 computation of the church calendar. It will be seen, there- 
 fore, that Latin formed the main part of the curriculum its 
 prominence being due to the fact that Latin was the language 
 of the Bible, of the Church and the learned world. Greek 
 was almost unknown in Germany ; yet not wholly lost, as a 
 pupil of Swiss Keichenau (815-825) tells us in his autobi- 
 ography that besides Vergil, Lucan, Statins, Cicero, Quin- 
 tilian, Sallust, Livy and other so-called sacred and scientific 
 authors he mastered several books of Homer's Iliad. 1 
 
 The elevation of the clergy was undoubtedly hampered 
 by the practice of drawing recruits largely from the servile 
 class. Charles insisted that candidates for the 
 priesthood should be taken from the sons of ^c^^ 
 freemen. The Church was the light of the 
 world ; its representatives should be men capable and wor- 
 thy of their high office. And as the custodians of learning 
 they should give to others even as had been given to them. 
 Not only in the monastic and cathedral schools were teachers 
 needed, but every parish priest should be a teacher to those 
 about him. A capitulary of 802 enjoined that "everyone 
 should send his son to study letters, and that the child should 
 remain at school with all diligence until he should become 
 well instructed in learning." 2 
 
 The most notable conception of Charles and Alcuin was 
 that of a state school system, a system that provided instruc- 
 tion for all classes of society nobles, clergy and peasantry. 
 From the " Palace School " at court proceeded that influence 
 
 1 Kellner, Sketches and Pictures of Educational History, Essen, 1862, 
 Vol. I., p. 132. Cf. also Ekkehart, Lib. Benedict., p. 345. 
 * Pertz, Leges, I., 107. Cited by West in Alcuin, p. 64.
 
 10 
 
 which infused new life into the schools of the monasteries 
 and bishoprics, and these in turn were responsible for the 
 teachers and the teaching of the parish schools. It should 
 not be forgotten, however, that the entire system was in the 
 hands of the Church. Alcuin himself was a monk educated 
 in a monastic school, and died the abbot of the monastery in 
 Tours (804). 
 
 The enthusiasm of Charles and Alcuin penetrated the 
 schools of Germany and served to uphold for a time the 
 hands of her teachers. Fulda attained great renown early in 
 the ninth century, under the leadership of Eabanus Maurus, 
 a disciple of Alcuin. A century later the cloistral school of 
 Hersfeld enjoyed a high reputation. Among the leading 
 cathedral schools of the eleventh century may be mentioned 
 those of Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Speyer, Hildesheim and 
 Magdeburg. 
 
 In the general collapse of the tenth century most of the 
 gains of the eighth were lost. The period of chaos following 
 the reign of Charles the Great was a sorry time for German 
 schools. There could be little thought of education when 
 men's minds were most concerned with the preservation of 
 their lives ; but finally, after terrible sacrifice, order was re- 
 stored and another period of progress was entered upon. The 
 life of the period, however, was vastly different from that of 
 the eighth century. New educational ideas gave rise to new 
 pedagogical methods. 
 
 Feudalism had gained a firm foothold in Germany. Class 
 
 distinctions were more closely drawn than ever before. The 
 
 separation of the nobility, secular and ecclesi- 
 
 Feudalism. f. " 
 
 astical, from the peasantry was now sharply 
 marked. Wealth, which meant power, was a chief desidera- 
 tum ; its possession exalted a man, the want of it brought 
 him low. The spirit of chivalry was intensified by the cru- 
 sades, and at every court noble bards, guiltless of the rudi- 
 ments of letters, sang the praises of woman and wine. Suc- 
 cess in battle, the chase, or the tournament, in making love 
 or writing verses any or all were worth striving for and it
 
 BEGINNINGS OF GERMAN SCHOOLS 11 
 
 mattered little in which domain the prize was won. For 
 the realization of such ideals some systematic training of the 
 young was necessary. For this purpose the seven liberal arts 
 of the church school were supplanted by the seven Frommig- 
 keiten of feudalism, riding, swimming, archery, fencing, 
 hunting, whist-playing and rhyming. The arts of reading 
 and writing were quite unnecessary ; in fact it was considered 
 somewhat effeminate to dally long with books. But a speak- 
 ing knowledge of French was useful and was sometimes 
 taught at court by private tutors. In the training of the 
 young noble, therefore, schools were entirely superfluous. . 
 
 Feudalism was essentially antagonistic to the schools ; 
 scholasticism gave them new life. The efforts of the school- 
 men to reconcile the revealed dogmas of the 
 Church with natural reason, " to render the 
 dogma acceptable to reason," supplied new mo- 
 tives for study. The alliance between theology and philos- 
 ophy developed an imperative demand for close syllogistic 
 reasoning. The scholar must be a skilful dialectician. The 
 study of grammar and rhetoric led to the comprehension of 
 the mysteries of the Holy Scriptures ; this, with the faith to 
 believe the patristic dogmas of the Church, was all the old 
 education sought to attain. Scholasticism marks the dawn 
 of a scientific era. The rise of the University of Paris marks 
 the corresponding advance in the history of education. 
 
 During the period of political disorder that preceded the 
 establishment of feudalism the Germans were compelled to 
 seek safety within walled inclosures. These 
 
 . ,..,.,. -, . -, , v i . f Rise of Cities. 
 
 grew in time into cities and formed the chief 
 
 centres of trade and commerce when travel again became safe 
 
 1 " In Wahrheit 1st das Mittelalter gar nicht weltfliichtig und lebenssatt, 
 sondern voll Freude und Verlangens. Kampf und Eroberung, mit den 
 Waffen und im Handel, ist sein Tagewerk, Jagd und Kampfspiel seine 
 Erholung, Macht und Reichtum sein Ziel. Der Inhalt seiner Lieder ist 
 Liebeslust und Liebesleid." Paulsen, Gesch. d. Gel. Unterrichis, Leipzig, 
 1885, p. 6. Cf. also Wilson, The State, Boston, 1892, ch. vii., on the 
 feudal system.
 
 12 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 and profitable. The guilds of the Middle Ages, secret organ- 
 izations of people engaged in the same occupation and with 
 like interests, greatly facilitated commercial activity. After the 
 reign of the Hohenstaufen, say about 1254, the leading cities 
 of Germany gained complete political independence. Back 
 of these political changes were social changes of equal impor- 
 tance. The expansion of trade and the increase of wealth in 
 the cities placed the balance of power in the hands of the 
 Burger, a new social class midway between the earlier ex- 
 tremes. Tradesmen, master workmen and skilled mechanics 
 were as thoroughly differentiated from the peasant class 
 below as from the nobles above. Nor were their needs iden- 
 tical with the needs of the clergy.. New ideals of life and 
 new standards of living obviously demanded a new mode of 
 education. But learning was the property of the Church. 
 Only by an alliance with the Church could the benefits of 
 learning be secured. Cathedral schools, monastic schools and 
 specially endowed church schools there were in considerable 
 numbers, but they all were ill-adapted to the practical needs 
 of practical men. The next step was the establishment in 
 every city of schools designed to extend the benefits of learn- 
 ing to the middle classes. 1 Notwithstanding these schools 
 were under city patronage, supported from public funds and 
 designed to give a practical education, they were still con- 
 nected with the Church and under clerical supervision and 
 direction. So completely had the idea permeated all grades 
 of society that the Church was the sole dispenser of spiritual 
 gifts, that a secular school system seems scarcely to have been 
 considered. Even the founding of city schools required the 
 assent of episcopal authority a favour sometimes granted only 
 after a long struggle with the bishops and final appeal to the 
 Pope. And despite the secular aim of the city schools, their 
 organization, subject-matter and methods of instruction did 
 
 1 Spccht, Geschichte des Unterrichtswesens in Deutschland ran den 
 altesten Zeiien bis zur Mitte des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart, 
 1885, p. 241 fp.
 
 BEGINNINGS OF GERMAN SCHOOLS 13 
 
 not materially differ from the older church schools. They 
 were "Latin schools," as the others were, but their ultimate 
 aim was the making of citizens and business men instead of 
 priests of the Roman Church. 
 
 The obvious result of this system of semi-public schools 
 was wide-spread knowledge of letters among the burghers. 
 In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when 
 
 .... . City Schools. 
 
 the cities reached their zenith, it is said that 
 the- citizens were better educated than the contemporary 
 nobles. 1 Although the city schools were theoretically of the 
 same type as the church schools it is probable that the prac- 
 tical ends for which they were striving had the effect of 
 making them quite independent. Certainly less emphasis 
 was placed on Latin and singing. The vernacular was grow- 
 ing into a vigorous tongue, and its use was essential to the 
 commercial life of the tradesmen. Hence the schools were 
 inclined to give more attention to the common branches. 
 
 Contemporaneous with the period of greatest activity in 
 feudal circles and with the rise of a middle class in society the 
 attention of learned Germany was directed to the 
 new movement in higher education inaugurated 
 with the founding of the University of Paris. 2 
 This movement was a part of ecclesiastical policy. The Pope 
 was its final authority, and the masters of the university and 
 most of the students were in holy orders. Nevertheless in- 
 struction in the subtleties of Aristotelian philosophy and 
 the mysteries of ancient science exercised a profound influ- 
 ence upon the higher thought of Germany. Following at a 
 respectful distance, Germany, a century later than France, 
 England, Italy and Spain, became the patron of the three 
 scholastic sciences of Theology, Jurisprudence and Medicine. 
 
 1 The records of the city of Frankfort show that from about 1417 on- 
 wards the members of the guilds coming from all parts of Germany signed 
 their names to the registers " by the hundreds." Cf. Kriek, Deutschts 
 Uiirgerthum im Mittelalter ; das Schulwesen, Frankfort, 1870. 
 
 9 Cf. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages^ Oxford, 1895, 
 Vol. I., 25-74, 271 ff.
 
 14 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 The first German University was founded by Emperor Charles 
 IV., at Prague in 1348 with the purpose, as its charter reads, 
 that his " faithful subjects who continually hungered for the 
 fruits of science might find satisfaction at home and no longer 
 be compelled to girdle the earth in the search for knowledge, 
 to hunt out strange peoples and to beg in foreign lands." 
 Six others 1 were established in rapid succession, and in the 
 following century, under the influence of humanism, nine 
 more 2 were added to the list. 
 
 As first planned, the universities were ecclesiastical estab- 
 lishments, defenders of the faith, foundations of the Church 
 for the higher education of the clergy. But in 
 
 University Ideals. 6J 
 
 the support so freely given by civil rulers and 
 city corporations there was evidence of secular co-operation. 
 Gradually the faculties of Law and Medicine adjusted them- 
 selves to the professional needs of the times. It should be 
 remarked, however, that in the theological atmosphere of the 
 Middle Ages the Church cast its shadow over every science. 
 Canon law was regarded as the main part of jurisprudence, and 
 the art of healing a gift of God. The study of the liberal arts 
 was but a preparation for higher work, itself presupposing 
 the training of the Latin schools. Yet from the Bachelors and 
 Masters of Arts of the universities who did not advance to the 
 higher faculties a new class of learned men was being formed 
 with ideals somewhat at variance with the established tradi- 
 tions of the Church. Many of these becoming teachers in the 
 lower schools prepared the way for a learned class outside the 
 ecclesiastical fold. 8 
 
 'Vienna, 1365 reorganized, 1384; Heidelberg, 1385; Cologne, 1388; 
 Erfurt, 1392; Leipsic, 1409; Rostock, 1419. 
 
 "Griefswald, 1456; Frieburg, 1457; Basel, 1460; Ingolstadt, 1472; 
 Trier, 1473 ; Mainz, 1477 ; Tubingen, 1477 ; Wittenberg, 1502 ; Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder, 1506. 
 
 3 Of Raslidall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, II., 211, 232- 
 282, 593 ff. ; Paulsen, German Universities, New York, 1895, pp. 16-88; 
 Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Universities, cb x. ; and Denifle, Die 
 Entitthuny tier Universitdtcn ties Mittelalters bis 1400, Berlin, 1885.
 
 BEGINNINGS OF GERMAN SCHOOLS 15 
 
 The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries mark the completion 
 of a process toward the liberation of the commons, the work- 
 ing classes. Under feudalism, slavery became 
 
 ' . ,-, Common Schools. 
 
 territorial and was transformed into serfdom. 
 Towns and cities, under the impulse of trade and commerce, 
 enfranchised the commons. Later, for selfish reasons, and 
 because of the church teachings, agricultural serfs were freed. 
 This large class in society came to possess personality and im- 
 portance ; freedom gave it rights and ideals. The needs and 
 the ideals, the conditions and stage of political development 
 under which this class became a factor in society, led to the 
 establishment of schools for the common people. 1 
 
 The Latin language, which had long been the polite tongue 
 as well as the medium of official intercourse, began here and 
 there to give way to the vernacular. The common people 
 could live without a knowledge of Latin. City officials could 
 not longer disregard the. language of the commons. The le- 
 gal documents and accounts of the fourteenth century were 
 mainly in German a form intelligible at least within a lim- 
 ited area. Indeed, the charters establishing these schools were 
 written in the vernacular. A desire for learning spread 
 among the commons, because the ability to read and write 
 was a means to advancement. Wandering monks and teach- 
 ers went about giving instruction, thereby helping on the 
 movement for the founding of schools. 
 
 But just as the city Latin schools were the old church 
 schools secularized, so the common schools were in reality 
 Latin schools without Latin. And even here ecclesiastical in- 
 fluence was not wanting. City magistrates might establish 
 the schools, provide for their support, and nominate teachers, 
 but the Church confirmed the appointments and supervised 
 all school-work. And in return for this concession for any 
 recognition of secular education was deemed a concession by 
 
 1 For good short accounts of the period see G. B. Adams* Civilization 
 During the Middle Ages, pp. 279-310; Thatcher and Schwill's Europe in 
 the Middle Age, pp. 434 ff. and 563 fif.
 
 16 GERMAN tilGtiER SCHOOLS 
 
 the Church the tuition fees of the pupils often went into th6 
 coffers of the Church. 
 
 At the end of the mediaeval period, therefore, we find a 
 
 well-defined school system, embracing the common schools of 
 
 the people at one extreme and the universities 
 
 Summary. 
 
 at the other. The significant fact is that it is 
 the product of a gradual development brought into existence 
 by the growth of different social classes, with their respective 
 ideals of life, and dominated throughout by the Roman Cath- 
 olic Church. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Geschichte des deutschenSchulwesens in Rein's 
 Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, II. ,-693-747 (translation in 
 Report of U. S. Commr. of Education, 1897-98, I., 1-82) ; K. A. Schinid, 
 Geschichte der Erziehung, Stuttgart, 1892, II., 94-548 ; Schmidt, Ge- 
 schichte der Padagogik, II., 125-379 ; Stein, Das Bildungswesen des Mit- 
 telalters, Stuttgart, 1883 ; Wilfmann, Didaktik als Bildungslehre, II., 
 233-292; Kriek, Deutsches Biirgerthum im Mittelalter, Frankfort, 1871: 
 Tetzner, Geschichte der deutschen Bildung und Jugenderziehung von der 
 Urzeit bis zur Errichtung von Stadtschulen, Giitersloh, 1897 ; Rashdall, 
 Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Oxford, 1895 ; Drane, Chris' 
 tian Schools and Scholars; Geffcken, Church and State; Hinschius. 
 Stoat und Kirche Handbuch des offentlichen Kechts.
 
 CHAPTER H 
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 
 1490-1618 
 
 THE characteristic theme of the Middle Ages was the res* 
 toration and glorification of the kingdom of God on earth. 
 Only so much knowledge of God and Man and Nature was 
 tolerated as the Church thought safe to promulgate. The 
 authority of the Church was supreme, not only in religious 
 matters but in intellectual, social and political as well. The 
 mediaeval world, however, was not wholly enshrouded in in- 
 tellectual night ; there was considerable store of classical 
 learning. But learning having sought refuge in the monas- 
 teries, became the handmaid of theology. The civilization 
 of the Middle Ages was feudal and clerical. Both feudalism 
 and the Church conspired to set at nought the natural rights 
 of man. 
 
 The fifteenth century saw the first-fruits of a new ideal. 
 The key-note of the new movement was the glorification of 
 man, his greatness and his fame ; the worship 
 of the individual, his genius, his power, his 
 immeasurable natural freedom. " The revival 
 of classic learning broke through the barriers set by the 
 Church ; antiquity was discovered anew ; the feeling of kin- 
 ship with the spirit of its art and philosophy permeated and 
 renovated the western world, and in the admiration and imi- 
 tation of these works of classic paganism, men felt their re- 
 lationship, not merely with Christians, but with the whole 
 human race. Their mode of thought became humanistic at 
 the same time with their studies ; art and philosophy fol- 
 s 17
 
 18 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 lowed in the same direction." 1 Interest in the humanities led 
 to a revival of interest in the classic view of Nature. Thus 
 science gained a place in the thought of the age, and to the 
 conquest of the historical treasures of Greece and Rome were 
 quickly added the discovery of a new world in geography and 
 a new solar system in astronomy. The study of the ancient 
 tongues exhibited clearly the striking contrast between the 
 pure Latin of Cicero and the barbarous dialect of the Church. 
 What had passed for Latin, that to which the schools of 
 Christendom were bending all their efforts, could no longer 
 be venerated as a fountain of truth pure and undefiled. 
 And the deeper investigation went, the more apparent it be- 
 came that the historical teachings of the Church were hope- 
 lessly mixed with error, and that nothing but an appeal to 
 original sources could set free the truth. 
 
 The whole movement of the Renaissance tended toward 
 
 an awakened interest in humanity, a dissatisfaction with the 
 
 formalism of the schoolmen and a consequent 
 
 New interest in a ^ em pt to- restore the ancient culture of Greece 
 
 Humanity. 
 
 and Rome. 2 In Italy, once the home of Roman 
 culture, Petrarch (1304-1374), and Boccaccio (1313-1375) 
 lighted the torch of classical learning ; the Medici took it 
 from their hands and fanned it into a blaze that illuminated 
 all western Europe. Italy became directly the scene of in- 
 tense activity. Store-houses of books were ransacked for 
 manuscripts ; the contributions of Greece were joyously wel- 
 comed upon the fall of Constantinople (1453) ; artists gath- 
 ered fresh inspiration from Grecian masterpieces ; philoso- 
 phers busied themselves with new views of life and new 
 theories of the State. It meant a new civilization, or rather 
 the transformation and regeneration of the old civilization. 
 " It is impossible to exaggerate the benefit conferred upon 
 
 1 Fischer, Descartes, p. 81. 
 
 * See Symonds' Renaissance in Italy and Burckhardt's Civilization of 
 the Renaissance in Italy for an exhaustive treatment of the subject. G. 
 B. Adams, Civilization During the Middle Ages, gives a convenient sum- 
 mary in the chapter on " The Renaissance."
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 19 
 
 Europe by the Italians at this epoch. The culture of the 
 classics had to be reappropriated before the movement of the 
 modem mind could begin ; before the nations 
 could start upon a new career of progress, the 
 chasm between the old and new world had to 
 be bridged over. This task of reappropriation the Italians 
 undertook alone, and achieved at the sacrifice of their literary 
 independence and their political freedom. The history of 
 Renaissance literature in Italy is the history of a national 
 genius deviating from the course of self-development into 
 the channels of scholarship and antiquarian research. The 
 language created by Dante as a thing of power, polished by 
 Petrarch as a thing of beauty, trained by Boccaccio as the 
 instrument of melodious prose, was abandoned even by the 
 Tuscans in the fifteenth century for revived Latin and newly 
 discovered Greek. Patient acquisition took the place of 
 proud inventiveness ; laborious imitation of classical authors 
 suppressed originality of style. The force of mind which in 
 the fourteenth century had produced a Divine Comedy and 
 a Decameron, in the fifteenth was expended upon the in- 
 terpretation of codices, the settlement of texts, the transla- 
 tion of Greek books into Latin, the study of antiquities, the 
 composition of commentaries, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, 
 ephemerides. "While we regret this change from creative to 
 acquisitive literature, we must bear in mind that those schol- 
 ars who ought to have been poets accomplished nothing less 
 than the civilization, or, to use their own phrase, the hu- 
 manization of the modern world. At the critical moment 
 when the Eastern Empire was being shattered by the Turks, 
 and when the other European nations were as yet unfit for 
 culture, Italy saved the arts and sciences of Greece and 
 Rome and interpreted the spirit of the classics. Devoting 
 herself to what appears the slavish work of compilation and 
 collection, she transmitted an inestimable treasure to the 
 human race ; and though for a time the beautiful Italian 
 tongue was superseded by a jargon of dead languages, yet the 
 literature of the Renaissance yielded in the end the poetry of
 
 20 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Ariosto, the political philosophy of Machiavelli, the histories 
 of Guicciardini and Varchi. Meanwhile the whole of Europe 
 had received the staple of its intellectual education." l 
 
 Late in the fifteenth century the movement passed beyond 
 the Alps. Enthusiastic scholars rivalled the Italians in their 
 zeal for the resuscitation and purification of 
 Latin - The University of Paris was the storm 
 centre. The Brethren of the Common Life 
 early admitted the new learning to a place in their schools. 
 The institution founded by Groote (1340-1384) in Deventer, 
 had as its leaders in the fifteenth century such enlightened 
 humanists as Agricola (1443-1485), Hegius (1433-1498) and 
 Murmellius (1479-1517). And here Erasmus (1466-1536) re- 
 ceived his first impulse to humanistic studies. In south Ger- 
 many Reuchlin (1455-1532) and Wimpheling (1450-1528) stand 
 out as the clearest figures in the first dawn of the new day. 
 Under such teachers as these Germany received its first lesson 
 in Ciceronian Latin, in Greek and in Hebrew. Erasmus said 
 of Agricola that he was " Grcecorum grcecissimus, Latinorum 
 latinissimus," and in a letter to Cardinal Kaphael he wrote 
 thus in defence of Reuchlin : " It is to him really that Ger- 
 many owes such knowledge as it has of Greek and Hebrew. 
 He is a learned, accomplished man, respected by the Emperor, 
 honoured among his own people, and blameless in life and 
 character." 2 Of his own work he said in 1521, it has been 
 "to restore a buried literature, and recall divines from their 
 hair-splittings to a knowledge of the New Testament." s 
 
 The Renaissance in Italy early showed two main tendencies, 
 the one toward the revival of antiquity, the other toward a 
 better comprehension of modern life. The one 
 mode of thought found its chief est satisfaction 
 in the enjoyment of the restored literatures, the 
 other in reforming art, philosophy, society and the state. The 
 
 1 Symonds, Renaissance in Italy The Revival of Learning, ch. ii. 
 * Ep. clxviii. Cited by Froudc, Erasmus, ch. ix. 
 3 Ep. dlziii. 76., ch. xiv.
 
 THE RISE OP PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 21 
 
 humanists of Germany exhibited unmistakably the former ten- 
 dency ; they were almost to a man teachers of the classical 
 languages. Yet they were more than linguists. They shared 
 in the scientific spirit of the age ; yet the truth for which 
 they sought lay buried in manuscripts. Their task it was to 
 unearth the truth and publish it abroad. Distance from 
 classic soil and the invention of printing l conspired to make 
 the German humanists bookish from the start. 
 
 An irresistible craving for truth for its own sake every- 
 where characterized the leading spirits of the Renaissance. 2 
 In their zeal to get at the facts it was inevitable that they 
 should find opposition once they touched the dogmas of 
 theology. Notwithstanding that the movement in its in- 
 ception was favoured by the higher clergy and throughout its 
 course the foremost humanists, the most profound scholars, 
 remained loyal sons of the Church ; its influence was distinct- 
 ly opposed to the dictatorial authority of the Church. Not 
 only did increasing familiarity with pagan learning tend to 
 array the humanists against the Church, but the spirit of in- 
 dependence, the taste for freedom of thought, yes, even the 
 study of the Scriptures and the patristic writings, militated 
 strongly against clerical tyranny. The Church submerged 
 the individual ; humanism exalted him. The theologians 
 and the scholars could not long live peaceably together. 
 
 Erasmus and Reuchlin soon found themselves confronted 
 by a threatening storm. "Theology/' Erasmus wrote to 
 Colet, "is the mother of the sciences. But 
 nowadays the good and the wise keep clear of ticism 
 it, and leave the field to the dull and the sor- 
 did, who think themselves omniscient." 3 Again, in the En- 
 comium MoricB, he launches out vigorously against the 
 scholastic divines -. " They live in the third heaven, ador- 
 ing their own persons and disdaining the poor crawlers 
 
 1 Cf. Putnam, Books and Their Makers in the Middle Ages, pp. 348-402. 
 * Cf. Francke, Social Forces in German Literature, New York, 1896, 
 p. 141. 
 
 *Froude, Erasmus, ch. iii.
 
 22 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 upon earth. They are surrounded with a body-guard of defi- 
 nitions, conclusions, corollaries, propositions explicit and 
 propositions implicit. They will tell you how the world was 
 created. They will show you the crack where Sin crept in 
 and corrupted mankind. . . . They lift their theologic 
 brows. They talk of their doctors solemn, doctors subtle 
 and most subtle, doctors seraphic, doctors cherubic, doctors 
 holy, doctors irrefragable. They practise all the tricks of 
 the platform, and use them badly, and yet they are admired 
 wonderfully admired by women who are on bad terms 
 with their husbands." 1 Against such lampooning as this 
 no wonder the theologians were prompted to call Erasmus 
 a " heretic/' and " bring thunderbolts out of their arsenals " 
 to train on him. 
 
 Nor were the clerical party the only opponents of humanism 
 in Germany. Scholasticism, firmly intrenched in the uni- 
 versities, had its partisans and valiant defen- 
 
 ders - How fiercel y the battle ra s ed can be 
 
 seen in the Epistolcs Obscurorum Virorum, 
 anonymous publications which appeared during the second 
 decade of the sixteenth century. They attacked the clerical 
 party with keen satirical denunciation, and held up to ridi- 
 cule the ablest university professors of the country. Thus 
 the seed of dissension was sown which was destined to grow 
 into revolution. 
 
 If the Eenaissance inspired a deeper respect for the hu- 
 manities and pointed out the way to independent research 
 and inductive reasoning, the Keformation finished the work 
 in exalting the intrinsic worth of the individual. Guizot 
 says the Reformation was " a vast effort made by the human 
 mind to achieve its freedom ; it was a new-born desire to 
 think and judge, freely and independently, of facts and 
 opinions which till then Europe received, or was consid- 
 ered bound to receive, from the hands of authority. It was a 
 
 1 Froude, Erasmus, ch. viii. Cf. also Erasmus's Familiar Colloquiu 
 translated by Bailey, Glasgow, 1877, pp. 184 ff.
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 23 
 
 great endeavour to emancipate human reason, and to call 
 tilings by their right names ; it was an insurrection of the 
 human mind against the absolute power of spiritual order." 1 
 Luther in emphasizing the personal responsibility of the in- 
 dividual immeasurably increased the dignity of man and es- 
 tablished a principle of supreme importance in the national 
 life. Nothing short of revolution could result from it rev- 
 olution not only in religious and political matters, but revo- 
 lution within the schools and universities. 2 
 
 Without the Reformation the revival of learning would 
 have remained comparatively uninfluential in Germany. 
 The Eenaissance was throughout an aristocrat- The Renaissance 
 ic movement. In Germany especially, to use an Aristocratic 
 Paulsen's phrase, it was " an imitation of an im- 
 itation ; " it took its cue from the south. 3 It failed to reach 
 the people. Still a few were filled with its spirit ; the real 
 leaders, Eeuchlin and Erasmus, Hegius and Wimpheling, 
 Mosellanus and Melanchthon were profound scholars and 
 earnest teachers. To their influence was due the founding 
 of chairs of eloquence and of the Greek language everywhere 
 in Germany even before the Reformation ; to them may be 
 traced a movement for purer Latin and certain rational re- 
 forms in the organization of the schools. But it is under the 
 combined influences of both Renaissance and Reformation 
 that we find the great changes in the educational system of 
 Germany that mark the rise of the Protestant Schools. And 
 it is of especial significance that in Germany alone of the lead- 
 ing European countries the Reformers they who alone 
 reached the masses and strongly influenced the national life 
 were for the most part eminent humanists. 4 Melanchthon 
 and Erasmus were not only participants in the revolt against 
 Romish oppression, but they were indefatigable exponents of 
 
 1 Guizot, History of Civilization, New York, 1877, p. 255. Cf. Haz- 
 litt's translation, London, 1851, Vol. I , p. 220. 
 
 8 Cf. G. B. Adams' Civilization During the Middle Ages, pp. 416-442. 
 
 3 Cf. Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Untcrrichts, p. 34 ff. 
 
 4 Arnold, Higher Schools and Universities in Germany ', pp. 1-6
 
 24: GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the new classical learning. 1 In the union of humanistic 
 ideals with the Christian faith born anew in the Reformation 
 we find the thread that will guide us through the confused 
 period of reorganization of the German school system. 
 
 Among the early humanists of northern Europe Erasmus 
 easily held first place. His word was law in the learned world, 
 Erasmus and His so P r f oun( l was h* 8 scholarship and so striking 
 Educational his genius. To him, probably more than to any 
 of his contemporaries, was due what of life and 
 spirit was infused into the early humanism of Germany. 
 While accepting Quintilian's theory of education of the ora- 
 tor he never lost sight of Quintilian's dictum that the good 
 orator must first be a good man. It is not enough, he reit- 
 erated, to compass heaven and earth in the search for elegan- 
 cies of expression even for those of Cicero. Cicero uses 
 words as the signs of ideas, and both words and ideas are in- 
 variably suited to his special purpose. Bare imitation, there- 
 fore, must always be a senseless task. Hence, true eloquence 
 must be born of a good purpose, directed to definite ends 
 and give expression to lofty thought. It is the purpose of 
 education to make a happy, contented, broad-minded, God- 
 fearing man. Such a man must needs be a scholar and a gen- 
 tleman, a philosopher filled with the ancient wisdom and 
 trained in the school of experience. His life transcends the 
 petty limitations of nationality ; he is the true citizen of the 
 world of letters. 
 
 The schools of Germany were not much affected by the 
 ideals of humanism until toward the end of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. 2 In fact, it was not till the beginning 
 Hun f the sixteenth that many changes were intro- 
 
 duced. The earliest teachers were wandering 
 scholars, irrepressible, uncouth and boastful of their abili- 
 ties. The possession of the new learning was riches enough ; 
 
 1 Cf. Taylor, Studies in German literature, pp. 135-166. 
 *Kaemmel, Geschichte des deutschen Schulwcsens im Ubergange vom 
 Mittelalter zur Neuztit, Leipsic, 1882.
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 25 
 
 they affected to despise a settled position and worldly goods ; 
 even books were unnecessary to the man who carried the 
 ancient world in his head. Between the years 1460 and 1490 
 Heidelberg, Erfurt and Leipsic were intermittently honoured 
 by such masters of " Poetry/' In 1494 Erfurt established a 
 professorship of Poesie und Eloquenz. Greek, the classical 
 literature and the New Testament gradually attained a place. 
 Wittenberg, the first German University founded except by 
 papal bull, was throughout humanistic from the beginning 
 (1502). Luther began his lectures there in 1508 ; ten years 
 later Melanchthon was called to the chair of Greek, and the 
 same year instruction was first offered in Hebrew. Leipsic 
 received her first professor of Greek in 1515, an Englishman 
 who, after two years of residence, gave way to the learned 
 Mosellanus. But even now the cause of humanism was won. 
 The new scholars were the leaders in all the universities of 
 the land. In 1519 both Erfurt and Leipsic, the strongest 
 universities of central Germany, following the lead of Witten- 
 berg, were reorganized in the humanistic sense. It was then 
 that Erasmus could say that " the University of Leipsic, in 
 which the old studies have long flourished, is now so enriched 
 by the introduction of languages and sciences that she stands 
 second to none." The same year also marks the beginning of 
 the end of German humanism through Luther and the Eefor- 
 mation. 
 
 Contemporaneous with the progress of humanism in the 
 universities, similar changes were under way in the schools. 
 All over Germany, particularly in the wealthier Humanism 
 cities, there was a growing demand for better Enters the 
 instruction in Latin. Nuremberg was typical 
 of all. Its city schools were slightly modified as early as 1485. 
 In 1496 a "poet" was engaged to teach literature, chiefly 
 Latin poetry. A few years later the demand for training in 
 eloquence, the ability to read, write and speak Ciceronian 
 Latin, compelled the rectors of the city schools to extend 
 their Latin course " in the new grammatica and poesie or 
 arte oratoria." The climax was reached in 1521, when a
 
 26 GERMAN BIGBER SCHOOLS 
 
 humanistic scholar was installed in the Sebaldus-Schule " to 
 give instruction in Latin, Greek and Hebrew." 1 
 
 Humanism reached its height in the first twenty years of 
 the sixteenth century. Scarcely a university or school of im- 
 Humauism portance but had been won over to the new 
 Reaches its learning. Greek was everywhere recognized as 
 Height: 1520. ^ Q na t ur al supplement of Latin, and wherever 
 the practical utility of linguistic study outweighed its aes- 
 thetic value Hebrew was added to the list. The fact that so 
 much attention was given to the reading of the Scriptures in 
 the original texts was of no little significance in view of 
 Luther's appeal from the Church to the Bible. 2 He hatched 
 a game-cock, as the monks declared, from the egg laid by the 
 humanists. 
 
 The Keformation was the natural sequence of the Kenais- 
 sance. Men had been accustomed to go to the sources, to 
 German Re- think for themselves and to find satisfaction in 
 formers also pagan culture. What more natural than that 
 Humanists, ^ey s j lou i ( j re ason together about theology and 
 the practices of the clergy, that they should come to doubt 
 the authority for papal absolutism and the efficacy of papal 
 indulgences. With Luther conviction passed quickly into ac- 
 tion. And his action was of incalculably greater consequence 
 for Germany than all that the humanists had done. 3 The 
 humanists stood apart from the people ; they represented a 
 foreign civilization ; they knew no nationality. Luther sprang 
 from the common people ; he was sympathetic, patriotic, and 
 brave ; he spoke the German language and he reached the 
 German heart. At his bidding the traditions of centuries 
 were broken, old associations ruthlessly cast aside and the 
 bonds of authority set jat naught. Thus the freedom that the 
 
 The records of the Nuremberg schools are given by Paulsen, Gel. 
 Unt., pp. 105-108. 
 
 * Reuchlin's Hebrew Grammar, the first of its kind in Germany, appeared 
 in 1506, and in 1516 the first edition of the New Testament in Greek was 
 published by Erasmus. 
 
 1 Cf. Francke, Social Forces in German Literature, p. 160 ff.
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 27 
 
 Renaissance assured to the learned was offered by the Refor- 
 mation to all mankind. 
 
 Luther's whole life was dominated by a single idea, the 
 salvation of human souls. "With a singleness of purpose, that 
 had been fanatical if not sublime, he fought 
 " Beelzebub, Satan, the devil, the great dragon, 
 the old serpent, and the god of this world " on every field. 
 And for this warfare he conceived it every man's duty to pre- 
 pare himself. The great purpose of life is to do the will of 
 God and to escape the consequences of sin. " The will of God 
 is everything which he requires us to believe, do and suffer, 
 in order that His name may be hallowed and His kingdom 
 come." "The consequences of sin are the wrath and dis- 
 pleasure of God, temporal death and eternal condemnation." 
 Redemption is found in Christ alone. "Conversion is the 
 work of the Holy Spirit, by which, through faith in Christ, 
 we turn from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan 
 to God/' " Faith in Jesus Christ is personal trust in Him 
 alone for salvation ; " and salvation means to be with Christ, 
 " to live under Him and in His kingdom, and to serve Him 
 in everlasting righteousness, innocence and blessedness." l 
 
 Luther took his stand squarely on the doctrine of justifi- 
 cation by faith ; his sole authority was the Bible, " the word 
 of God." " God makes Himself known to us partly through 
 His works, mainly through His word." Repentance and per- 
 sonal faith in Christ, for which a knowledge of the Scriptures 
 is an almost indispensable prerequisite, is the corner-stone of 
 Lutheranism. The " works " which the Roman Church had 
 enjoined were useless except they came from a regenerated 
 heart. 
 
 In putting aside the observances, customs and traditions of 
 the Roman Church, Luther abolished that "law " which had 
 been the "school-master" of mediaeval Europe. By fasting, 
 penances and prayer, by ritualistic worship in public and in 
 private, by conversation, confession and preaching, by cate- 
 
 1 Extracts from Luther's Catechism.
 
 28 
 
 chising and formal discipline, the Roman clergy had fash 
 
 ioned the mediaeval Christians according to the ideals of the 
 
 Papacy. This was the true educational system 
 
 _f c !T ge f of of the Middle Ages, and in it the church schools 
 
 School- Masters. 
 
 played only a subordinate part ; the masses of 
 
 the people were trained in the school of life, a school per- 
 meated with ecclesiastical ideas and calculated to produce a 
 simple, obedient laity. 
 
 With the Reformation the authority of the Church was 
 superseded by the authority of the Bible. All central Ger- 
 many was let out of one school and invited to enrol itself 
 under another teacher. Luther saw clearly the absolute ne- 
 cessity of making the new education as effective as the old 
 had been, and accordingly he resolved to supplant the formal 
 teachings of Rome with a rational training of head and heart. 
 But an undertaking of such vast dimensions, freighted with 
 such tremendous consequences, demanded the combined sup- 
 port of Family, State and Church. To secure harmony of 
 action among these "three hierarchies established by God/' 
 and to se ihat the right means were used in the right way 
 this was the life-work of Luther once the Reformation of 
 Germany was an assured fact. For this purpose he translated 
 the Bible, wrote his two catechisms, composed popular hymns, 
 and unweariedly laboured to uplift the peasantry and strength- 
 en the government. The great pedagogical service of Lr 
 ther, the most remarkable fact in a remarkable life, was hip 
 keen appreciation of Germany's need of an education broader 
 than that of the schools if the shock of the protestant revolu- 
 tion were to be successfully withstood. 
 
 The duty thus imposed upon parents, Luther declares, is a 
 divine requirement. " Married people should know that they 
 can perform no better and no more useful work 
 for God ' Christianity, the world, themselves 
 and their children, than by bringing up their 
 children well. Pilgrimages to Rome and to Jerusalem, build- 
 ing churches, providing for masses, or whatever else the work 
 may be called, is nothing in comparison with the right train.-
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 29 
 
 ing of children, for that is the straight road to heaven ; and it 
 cannot be more easily attained in any other way. It is the 
 peculiar work of parents, and when they do not attend to it, 
 there is a perversion of nature, as when fire does not burn or 
 water moisten. On the other hand, hell cannot be more easily 
 deserved, and no more hurtful work can be done, than by 
 neglecting children, letting them swear, learn shameful words 
 and songs, and do as they please." 1 
 
 Again : " But this again is a sad evil that all live on as 
 though God gave us children for our pleasure or amusement, 
 and servants that we should employ them like a cow or ass, 
 only for work, or as though all we had to do with our sub- 
 jects were only to gratify our wantonness, without any con- 
 cern on our part as to what they learn or how they live ; 
 and no one is willing to see that this is the command of the 
 Supreme Majesty, who will most strictly call us to an ac- 
 count and punish us for it, nor that there is so great need to 
 be so intensely anxious about the young. . . . Let every- 
 one know, therefore, that above all things it is his duty (or 
 otherwise he will lose the divine favour,) to bring up his chil- 
 dren in the fear and knowledge of God ; and if they have 
 talents, to have them instructed and trained in a liberal edu- 
 cation, that men may be able to have their aid in government 
 and in whatever is necessary." 2 
 
 Family government he considers the basis of all other 
 government. Obedience to parents, therefore, is the child's 
 chief duty. " For what is a city but a collec- Fami] Govem- 
 tion of houses ? How then can a city be well ment the Basis of 
 governed, when there is no government in the a 110 *"" 5 " 11116114 - 
 separate houses, and neither child nor servant is obedient ? 
 Likewise, what is a province but a collection of cities, towns, 
 and villages ? When, therefore, the families are badly con- 
 trolled, how can the province be well governed ? Verily 
 there can be nothing but tyranny, witchcraft, murders, 
 
 Cited by Painter, Luther on Education, pp. 117-118. 
 $ame, p. 116.
 
 30 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 thefts, disobedience. A principality is made up of districts ; 
 a kingdom, of principalities ; an empire, of kingdoms ; these 
 are all composed of families. Where the father and mother 
 rule badly, and let the children have their own way, there 
 neither city, town, village, district, principality, kingdom 
 nor empire, can be well and peacefully governed." 1 
 
 For the guidance of parents in the proper instruction of 
 their children he prepared his catechisms. They consist of 
 a critical exegesis of the ten commandments, the Creed and 
 the Lord's Prayer, which "are the most necessary parts, 
 which every Christian should first learn to repeat word for 
 word, and which our children should be accustomed to recite 
 daily when they arise in the morning, when they sit down to 
 their meals, and when they retire at night ; and until they 
 repeat them they should be given neither food nor drink. 
 The same duty is also incumbent upon every head of a house- 
 hold, with respect to his man-servants and his maid-servants, 
 if they do not know these things and are unwilling to learn 
 them. For a person who is so heathenish as to be unwilling 
 to learn these things is not to be tolerated ; for in these three 
 parts everything contained in the Scriptures is comprehended 
 in short and simple terms." 2 
 
 That there was sufficient cause for alarm at the condition 
 of education in the early years of the Reformation is clearly 
 apparent from the tenor of- Luther's " Letter 
 to the Mayors and Aldermen of all the Cities 
 of Germany in behalf of Christian Schools" 
 (1524) and of the " Sermon on the Duty of Sending Children 
 to School " (1530). 3 Herein we see reflected a state of affairs 
 due partly to the open rupture with the past and partly to 
 
 1 Luther's comments on the Fourth Commandment. 
 
 * From the introduction to the Catechism. 
 
 3 English translations of these, the most famous of Luther's pedagog- 
 ical writings, may he found in Painter's Luther on Education, Philadel- 
 phia, 1889. See also Kostlin's Life of Luther, New York, 1883, and Lu- 
 ther's Padagogische Schriften, edited by Schumann, Vienna and Leipsic, 
 1884.
 
 31 
 
 the popular interpretation of the doctrine of justification by 
 faith rather than by works. "First of all/' Luther writes, 
 " we see how schools are deteriorating throughout Germany. 
 The universities are becoming weak, the monasteries are de- 
 clining. . . . For through the word of God the un- 
 christian and sensual character of these institutions is be- 
 coming known. And because selfish parents see that they 
 can no longer place their children upon the bounty of mon- 
 asteries and cathedrals, they refuse to educate them. * Why 
 should we educate our children/ they say, ' if they are not to 
 become priests, monks and nuns, and thus earn a support ? ' ' 
 
 It is the work of the devil that the people are so neglectful 
 of the higher education of their children. Therefore he ap- 
 peals to the city magistrates and to the civil rulers to take the 
 matter in hand. " If we must annually expend large sums on 
 muskets, roads, bridges, dams, and the like, in order that the 
 city may have temporal peace and comfort, why should we 
 not apply as much to our poor, neglected youth, in order that 
 we may have a skilful school-master or two ? " 
 
 But Luther has little regard for the general run of schools, 
 even those of the humanists. " I should prefer, it is true, 
 that our youth be ignorant and dumb rather 
 
 J . 6 Need of Schools. 
 
 than that the universities and convents should 
 remain as the only sources of instruction open to them. For 
 it is my earnest intention, prayer and desire that these schools 
 of Satan either be destroyed or changed into Christian schools. 
 But since God has so richly favoured us, and given us a great 
 number of persons who are competent thoroughly to instruct 
 and train our young people, it is truly needful that we should 
 not disregard His grace and let Him knock in vain. 
 Therefore it will be the duty of the mayors and councils to 
 exercise the greatest care over the young. For since the hap- 
 piness, honor, and life of the city are committed to their 
 hands, they would be recreant before God and the world, if 
 they did not, day and night, with all their power, seek its 
 welfare and improvement. Now the welfare of the city does 
 not consist alone in great treasures, firm walls, beautiful
 
 houses, and munitions of war ; indeed, where all these are 
 found, and reckless fools come into power, the city sustains 
 the greater injury. But the highest welfare, safety and power 
 of a city consists in able, learned, wise, upright, cultivated 
 citizens, who can secure, preserve and utilize every treasure 
 and advantage. . . . Even if there were no soul (as I have 
 already said), and men did not need schools and the languages 
 for the sake of Christianity and the Scriptures, still, for the 
 establishment of the best schools everywhere, both for boys 
 and girls, this consideration is of itself sufficient, namely, that 
 society ; for the maintenance of civil order and the proper reg- 
 ulation of the household, needs accomplished and well-trained 
 men and women. " 
 
 It should be remembered, however, that in Luther's opin- 
 ion the chief end of education is distinctly religious. " Able, 
 learned, wise, upright, cultivated citizens" 
 
 c ^ ef E d of must also be earnest, active Christians. In the 
 
 Education. 
 
 union of the Church and State the latter must 
 be theoretically subordinate. The schools which Luther most 
 wanted were Christian schools, in which the ancient languages 
 should hold first rank. " The languages are the scabbard in 
 which the Word of God is sheathed. They are the casket in 
 which this jewel is enshrined ; the cask in which this wine is 
 kept ; the chamber in which this food is stored. ... If 
 through neglect we lose the languages (which may God for- 
 bid), we will not only lose the Gospel, but it will finally come 
 to pass that we will lose also the ability to speak and write 
 either Latin or German." The degeneracy of the Church is 
 due to the ignorance of the languages in the dark ages, and 
 the only remedy is the knowledge of them. " Since, then, 
 it behooves Christians at all times to use the Bible as their 
 only book and to be thoroughly acquainted with it, especially 
 is it a disgrace and a sin at the present day not to learn the 
 languages, when God provides every facility, incites us to 
 study, and wishes to have His word known." 
 
 The schools should also give instruction in history, mathe- 
 matics and handiwork. " My idea is that boys should spend
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 33 
 
 an hour or two a day in school, and the rest of the time 
 work at home, learn some trade and do whatever is desired, 
 so that study and work may go on together, 
 while the children are young and can attend to cmrricuinm 
 both. ... In like manner, a girl has time 
 to go to school an hour a day, and yet attend to her work at 
 home ; for she sleeps, dances, and plays away more than that. 
 . . . But the brightest pupils, who give promise of becom- 
 ing accomplished teachers, preachers, and workers, should be 
 kept longer at school, or set apart wholly for study. . . . 
 We must have persons qualified to dispense the Word of God 
 and the Sacraments, and to be pastors of the people. But 
 where will we obtain them, if schools are not established on a 
 more Christian basis, since those hitherto maintained, even if 
 they do not go down, can produce nothing but depraved and 
 dangerous corruptors of youth ? " 
 
 " Finally, this must be taken into consideration by all who 
 earnestly desire to see such schools established and the lan- 
 guages preserved in the German states : that no 
 
 iiii 1 i j Value of Books. 
 
 cost nor pains should be spared to procure good 
 libraries in suitable buildings, especially in the large cities, 
 which are able to afford it. For if a knowledge of the 
 Gospel and of every kind of learning is to be preserved, it 
 must be embodied in books, as the prophets and apostles did, 
 as I have already shown. . . . But my advice is, not 
 to collect all sorts of books indiscriminately, thinking of 
 getting only a vast number together. I would have discrim- 
 ination used, because it is not necessary to collect the com- 
 mentaries of all the jurists, the productions of all the theolo- 
 gians, the discussions of all the philosophers, and the sermons 
 of all the monks. Such trash I would reject altogether, and 
 provide my library only with useful books ; and in making 
 the selection, I would advise with learned men. In the first 
 place, a library should contain the Holy Scriptures in Latin, 
 Greek, Hebrew, German, and other languages. Then the 
 best and most ancient commentators in Greek, Hebrew, and 
 Latin. Secondly, such books as are useful in acquiring the 
 
 3
 
 34 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 languages, as the poets and orators, without considering 
 whether they are heathen or Christian, Greek or Latin. For 
 it is from such works that grammar must be learned. 
 Thirdly, books treating of all the arts and sciences. Lastly, 
 books on jurisprudence and medicine, though here discrimi- 
 nation is necessary. A prominent place should be given to 
 chronicles and histories, in whatever languages they may be 
 obtained ; for they are wonderfully useful in understanding 
 and regulating the course of the world, and in disclosing the 
 marvellous works of God/' 
 
 It was characteristic of the great reformer that whatever he 
 did he never left anyone in doubt as to his real intentions. 
 Lather the Re- His words went straight to the mark. So in 
 former Meianch- discussing educational affairs there was no un- 
 certaint y as to his attitude. He wanted sys- 
 tematic family instruction ; he stated clearly 
 the purpose of it and supplied the means, even to question 
 and answer, in his catechisms. He wanted schools for the 
 people that likely boys might be discovered for the service 
 of the Church and State. He wanted schools for the higher 
 training of those who might become preachers and civil 
 rulers. Above all things he wanted Christian schools in 
 which everything taught should redound to the glory of God 
 and the salvation of immortal souls. He approved of the 
 study of the ancient languages, but not for humanistic rea- 
 sons ; the immediate end of language study, as he con- 
 ceived it, was not the cultivation of literary style, nor yet the 
 recovery of pagan learning, but rather the interpretation and 
 understanding of the Word of God. Luther's position was 
 diametrically opposed to the ideals of the humanists ; never- 
 theless the course of events yoked together Luther, the re- 
 former, and Melanchthon, the humanist, in the great work 
 of reorganizing the German school system. The union was 
 unique, but the situation demanded the co-operation of the 
 two movements which they pre-eminently represented. 
 
 An adequate presentation of Melancluhon's pedagogical 
 views and of the part he played in the history of German
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 35 
 
 schools would transcend the limits of the present study. 
 Suffice it to say that as a nephew and disciple of the famous 
 Reuchlin he was a humanist of the humanists. Me ianchthon'8 
 His inaugural address on taking his chair in Pedagogical 
 Wittenberg, de corrigendis adolescentice studiis, 
 marked out the path which he followed the rest of his life. 
 The only remedy for the ignorance of the Middle Ages, he 
 assumed, was to go back to the sources of classical learning 
 and start afresh. Greek he ranked on a par with Latin be- 
 cause of its content. For style Cicero stands pre-eminent ; 
 for training in conversational Latin, Terence. The immedi- 
 ate aim of all linguistic study is dilucide et perspicue dicer e ; 
 the literature, fortified by theology, ethics, mathematics and 
 the natural sciences, leads to prudent ia et humanitas. As a 
 teacher, organizer and maker of text-books, Melanchthon ex- 
 celled all his contemporaries. His lectures at Wittenberg in- 
 cluded almost the entire round of the linguistic and philo- 
 sophical studies dialectics and physics, ethics and history, 
 mathematics and astronomy, Greek grammar, Cicero, Sal- 
 lust, Tacitus, Quintilian, Vergil, Terence, Ovid, Horace, 
 Homer, Hesiod, Demosthenes, JEschines, Lycurgus, Sopho- 
 cles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Pindar, Theognis, Thucydides, 
 Aristotle and the Greek New Testament. The text-books 
 which he wrote on most of these subjects were in common 
 use for more than a century after his death. But perhaps 
 in no way did Melanchthon better deserve the title, Pre- 
 ceptor GermanicB, than in his attention to the training of 
 teachers for the higher schools. The best teachers of the 
 Reformation age were Melanchthon's pupils. Through them 
 the schools which he organized became famous, and his influ- 
 ence extended throughout all Germany. 1 
 
 In the general crash of the Reformation it is significant 
 that monarchical Germany retained the episcopal form of 
 
 1 For an account of Melanchthon's services to education in Germany, 
 see Paulsen, Gel. I7nt., pp. 73-77, 135-139, 147-160; Rein's Ency. 
 IJdhk d. Pad.; and Kehrbach's .)forimenfa GermanifK Pcedagogica^'Voi. 
 VII. Philipp Melanchthon als I'reeceptor Germanics by Ilartfelder.
 
 36 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 church government in effect if not in name. Even before 
 1530 there was a marked tendency toward a territorial 
 church, the head of which should be the ruler of the state. 
 Saxony and Hesse led the way ; others followed in rapid suc- 
 cession, until in 1540 practically every protestant state of 
 Germany had its own church a condition of affairs tolerable 
 to Luther only on the ground that the state is a divine in- 
 stitution designed to enable its citizens the better to do the 
 will of God. 
 
 The reorganization of the universities, especially of the 
 theological faculties, was an imperative necessity in view of 
 
 Foradi of the fact that preachers were wanted, not priests 
 Protestant men learned in the Scriptures and the Lu- 
 Je8 ' theran doctrines, rather than men skilled in 
 the use and manipulation of symbols. The University of 
 Marburg was founded for this purpose in 1529. Witten- 
 berg was reformed in the early 30's, and within a decade 
 thereafter Tubingen, Leipsic, Basel, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
 and Greifswald followed. With the founding of the uni- 
 versities of Konigsberg (1544), Jena (1558) and Helmstadt 
 (1559), and the reorganization of Heidelberg (1558) and Ros- 
 tock (1563), the triumph of the Reformation was complete. 
 Candidates for the ministry were thereafter enabled to get not 
 only a Christian education, but provision was made in all the 
 universities for supporting meritorious students by scholar- 
 ships, bursaries and stipends of various sorts. 
 
 Closely associated with the reorganization of the univer- 
 sities, and, like it, directly traceable to the movement for 
 Secularization of a s ^ a ^ e church, was the secularization of the 
 the school school system. In this, too, as in the case of 
 the universities, Melanchthon played a leading 
 part. It is said that not a course ' of study was adopted, 
 nor a school founded, in all protestant Germany during the 
 first twenty years of the Reformation without his having 
 something to do with it. The influence of Luther was not 
 wanting, of course, but Melanchthon was the better educa- 
 tionalist and the better organizer.
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 37 
 
 The first protestant school, according to Paulsen, 1 was 
 established in Magdeburg (1524) by the union of the old 
 parochial schools under one management. In The mnt 
 1525 the Counts of Mansfield called upon the Protestant 
 reformers to organize a school in Eisleben, the 
 birthplace of Luther. Melanchthon's plan for this school 
 is the oldest protestant school programme now extant. It 
 provides for three classes. The first classis is the elementary 
 school, in which reading and writing are the main subjects. 
 The second classis is devoted chiefly to grammar, i.e., the lin- 
 guistic study of Terence and Vergil. The third classis deals 
 with rhetoric and dialectic ; Erasmus' de duplici copia serves 
 as a text-book, and besides Livy, Sallust, Vergil, Horace and 
 Cicero are studied. Favoured pupils may also make some 
 beginning of Greek and Hebrew. Mathematics is considered 
 desirable, but the exigencies of the schedule rule it out. 
 Music gets one hour a day, and on Sunday there is instruction 
 in religion. 
 
 Erasmus himself could not have devised a more humanistic 
 course of study than the reformers placed before the little 
 school at Eisleben. The ability to read, write and speak 
 good Latin is the one chief end. If Melanchthon had no 
 thought of making Latin orators, he certainly desired for 
 these pupils a Ciceronian style. It is interesting to note here 
 and in subsequent developments how barren were Luther's 
 ideas wherever Melanchthon's influence extended. 
 
 The first step toward a state school system was taken by 
 the Electorate of Saxony. The Kursachsische Schulordnung 
 of 1528 was the first official response to Luther's The g^^ 
 appeal for the co-operation of municipalities in system ot 
 the founding of protestant schools. 2 It pro- S" 01 ^ 1588 - 
 vided not only for schools, but for a uniform system of 
 schools throughout the Electorate. This plan was also 
 
 1 Geschichtc des Oelehrten Unterrichts, p. 182 
 
 * Cf. Schiller, Geschiehte der Padagogik, p. 99. The best authority on 
 the period is Burkhardt, Geschichte der sachsischen Kirchen- und Schul- 
 viritationen von 1524-45, Leipzig, 1879.
 
 38 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Melanchthon's, but that it received Luther's approval as 
 the best possible arrangement under existing conditions is 
 equally certain. In general outline it was similar to the plan 
 prescribed for Eisleben, but with some modifications, chiefly 
 making for greater simplicity, which were probably the result 
 of experience in the former instances. It contemplated the 
 founding of Latin schools in all the towns and villages of 
 Saxony. And they were to be Latin schools in fact as well as 
 in name ; no Greek, no Hebrew, not even a modicum of the 
 mother- tongue, might find a place. Their chief function was 
 to begin the preparation of boys for the university ; the final 
 preparation of such "lads of pairts" as they discovered were 
 provided for as the emergencies arose. 
 
 The Saxony Latin schools had three classes or grades, each 
 with rather indefinite time allotment. The lowest class was 
 taught reading and writing from Melanchthou's 
 Latin primer ; the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, 
 the Commandments, and a few classical selec- 
 tions were committed to memory. The second class studied 
 grammar, syntax and prosody. Latin reading, Terence and 
 Plautus, and conversational practice were given considerable 
 attention. Music and religious instruction occupied a more 
 conspicuous position. The third class, having been thorough- 
 ly drilled in Latin Grammar, read Vergil, Ovid and Cicero. 
 They practised Latin declamations, made verses, and wrote 
 letters and essays weekly. One day a week was devoted to 
 religious instruction. 
 
 The need of higher schools was soon felt. In the early 40's 
 three such schools were established by the state government 
 and richly endowed with the possessions of sec- 
 ularized monasteries. The Furstenschulen , 
 also called Landesschulen, of Pforta, Meissen 
 and Grimma were the first schools erected in Germany, not for 
 the benefit of the municipalities, but in the interests of state 
 and church. To these schools young nobles preparing for 
 political careers and poor boys lopking to the ministry as a 
 profession were admitted on equal footing. The entire sup-
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 39 
 
 port of likely boys was assured, a fact that had much to do 
 with changing the attitude of parents, as remarked by Lu- 
 ther, toward the higher education of their sons. 
 
 The conduct of these schools seems to have been much in- 
 fluenced by their monastic environment. The pupils lived 
 in cells, ate and worked together, and wore a common habit. 
 The masters, at least in some schools founded a little later 
 on the same plan, were pledged to celibacy. The discipline 
 was always severe, the rod being much in evidence ; little 
 freedom was granted outside of the convent walls ; vacations 
 were short and far between. In fact, these schools came as 
 near being monastic schools as was possible under protestant 
 rule. 
 
 The Landesschulen of Saxony stood theoretically midway 
 between the Latin schools of the cities and the universities, but 
 for many years the line of demarcation at either 
 
 Course of Study. 
 
 extreme was not sharply drawn. Each school 
 strove to do the utmost in its power. The Latin schools in 
 some instances became strong enough to extend their course 
 beyond the three grades and offered elementary instruction 
 in Greek, Hebrew and mathematics. Schools such as these, 
 wherein at least two ancient languages were taught, have 
 been known since about the middle of the sixteenth century 
 as Gymnasien. The Filrstenschulen, on the other hand, 
 overlapped in many respects the university course. Admit- 
 ting boys from the Latin schools at eleven to fifteen years of 
 age, the curriculum of the higher schools included the three 
 artes dicendi grammar, rhetoric and dialectic ; and the three 
 ancient languages Latin, Greek and Hebrew. The acquisi- 
 tion of a pure and facile style was the aim of all instruction ; 
 the means of its realization, chiefly the imitation of the clas- 
 sical authors. Wherever possible a beginning was made of 
 professional study ; not infrequently did the higher schools 
 offer instruction in medicine, jurisprudence and theology. 
 
 Notwithstanding the Kursachsische Schnlordnung was de- 
 signed to encourage the founding of schools and to secure 
 uniformity iii aim and method, the Latin schools of Saxony
 
 40 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 did not meet the high expectations of their founders. Sup- 
 ported by the municipal governments they were largely in- 
 fluenced by local considerations. As a system of public 
 schools the most that can be said is that it was a confederacy 
 of interests held together by the substantial inducements 
 offered in the Filrstenschulen and the universities. 
 
 Wiirtemberg was the first German state to organize a com- 
 plete system of public schools. In 1559 Melanchthon's plan, 
 schools stem as *" e( ^ * n Saxony, but further modified and 
 of wortemburg, extended, was introduced in the Duchy. For 
 the first time in Germany schools were pro- 
 vided for all the people and in a series that permitted of 
 orderly progression from the elementary grades to the uni- 
 versities. And here was the real beginning of the common 
 schools of Germany ; not a radical and independent begin- 
 ning, to be sure, but the development of what already existed 
 under the influence of new religious, intellectual and eco- 
 nomic conditions. 
 
 The Wurttembergische Schulordnung 1 provided that in 
 every village there should be an elementary school where both 
 boys and girls should be taught reading, writ- 
 Elementary j n g ? t ne ar t O f reckoning, religion and singing. 
 These schools were entirely in accord with 
 Luther's idea that boys and girls should be taught for an 
 hour or two each day the three R's and the catechism. The 
 only thing lacking was some means of compelling attendance. 
 Each considerable town and city was to have also a Partic- 
 rilarschule, a Latin school, with five or six classes according 
 ,. . . to local needs. Here instruction should be 
 
 Latin School. 
 
 given six hours a day in reading, writing and 
 speaking Latin. A little mathematics was included and in 
 the last year the elements of Greek were taught. The curric- 
 ulum was altogether humanistic, but with the addition of 
 religion according to Luther's catechism. These schools were 
 intended chiefly for the education of burghers, and as a 
 
 1 Cf. Schiller, Geschichte der Pddagogik, p. 102 ff.
 
 THE H1SB OP PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 41 
 
 matter of fact comparatively few students ever passed from 
 these schools to the next higher grade. Nevertheless the 
 way was open to graduates of the Latin schools to pass 
 directly into the University of Tubingen and the Pddago- 
 gium of Stuttgart. These colleges they could hardly be 
 called universities were higher schools attended principally 
 by students in preparation for the civil ser- 
 vice. ' For intending theologians thirteen clois- 
 tral schools were established, on the plan of the 
 Filrstenschulen of Saxony, to which graduates of the Latin 
 schools were admitted on competitive examination. 
 
 The school system of Wurtemberg was in advance of the 
 times. It was too comprehensive for effectual realization, but 
 the experience of the Duchy taught Germany Wflrtember , 8 
 how to provide instruction for all classes of so- Plan a Type 
 ciety, how to make transition easy from one for others - 
 school to another, and especially how to combine central con- 
 trol with a fair share of local self-government. The rector of 
 the college in Stuttgart had charge of the Land-Examen 
 which regulated the admission of Latin-school pupils into the 
 higher schools, while the immediate supervision of the schools 
 rested with the mayors of the different towns and committees 
 composed of ministers and citizens. All needy theological 
 students received stipends in the cloistral schools, and a few 
 young nobles of special promise were awarded scholarships at 
 the university which in certain cases might be retained even 
 during three or four years of study abroad. 
 
 The example of Wurtemberg was everywhere followed in 
 protestant Germany. Even Saxony in 1580 made use of all 
 the improvements that Wurtemberg had de- 
 vised and reformed her plan of 1528 to accord 
 therewith. This date, 1580, indicates the high- 
 water mark of the protestant schools as the products of the 
 Renaissance and the Reformation ; after that, a period of 
 transition, which is the subject of the following chapter. 
 
 It is obvious that so many and such far-reaching reforms 
 could never have been carried through without the loyal sup-
 
 42 . GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 port of many capable teachers and educationists. Melanch- 
 thon's students have already been mentioned as his trusty 
 lieutenants. But of all the school-masters of the time John 
 Sturm (1507-1589) of Strassburg was the most celebrated. 1 
 He combined in himself all the important tendencies of the 
 age. He was a humanist, and no humanist was ever more 
 deeply impressed than he with the almightiness of the classi- 
 cal languages ; he was a protestant of the Calvinistic type, 
 but in full sympathy with the Lutheran position ; he was a 
 practical man of affairs, an experienced diplomat, at one 
 time or another in the service of most of the leading Euro- 
 pean courts ; he was an able teacher and organizer, if we can 
 judge anything from his work in Strassburg. 
 
 It matters little in this connection whether Sturm was 
 
 merely the product of his age or whether he was in reality a 
 
 , T> ^ creative genius. At anv rate he had the ability 
 
 Sturm's Position. J J 
 
 to combine all the good points in school man- 
 agement, as they were then conceived, and direct them sys- 
 tematically toward the commonly accepted ends of education, 
 sapiens atque eloquens pietas. Concerning the results attained 
 it is enough to know that the Strassburg Gymnasium, of 
 which Sturm was rector for forty- three years after its foun- 
 dation in 1538, became the most famous school in Europe. 
 The dominant ideas of the sixteenth century were concen- 
 trated in this school, and for two hundred years it remained 
 the typical school of the " good old times " when schools 
 were " what they ought to be." 
 
 Sturm provided for a ten years' course of study (only nine 
 years' at first, later ten). His pupils entered at six years of 
 
 age and immediately began the Latin grammar. 
 
 Seven vears they laboured to acquire a correct 
 
 and fluent use of the Latin tongue (Latinitas 
 pura); three years more were devoted to the acquisition of a 
 
 1 The best accounts of Sturm's work will be found in Schmidt's La vie 
 et Us travaux de.Tean Sturm, Strassburg, 1855, and in LUUS' Die Pddagogik 
 da Joh. Sturm, Berlin, 1872.
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 43 
 
 fine style (Latinitas ornata). Thus for ten years "Latin 
 was exclusively taught, read, spoken, written, every day four 
 hours long." Sturm never seems to have doubted his ability 
 to turn German boys back sixteen centuries ; his aim was to 
 produce Ciceronian orators. Environment had nothing t? dc 
 with the case ; all that was necessary was to Latinize it. A:r 
 so in getting a vocabulary his boys were first taught the LatL 
 names of every-day things and the commonest expressions 01 
 use in conversation. They were compelled to imagine them- 
 selves Roman youths in an imaginary Roman atmosphere. 
 Naturally enough under such conditions imitation was a virtue 
 and a good memory the greatest of intellectual endowments. 
 In fact, the reproduction of whole orations of Cicero and of 
 whole books of Vergil, was a favourite exercise because of its 
 value in strengthening the memory and in forming taste. 
 
 How far the protestant schools toward the end of the cen- 
 tury were now removed from the ideals of Erasmus and Me- 
 lanchthon can be clearly seen in the case of 
 Strassburg. We hear nothing more of " con- 
 tent " or " substance ; " everything is " form," 
 " style," " eloquence." To be sure, Sturm included Greek 
 in his curriculum six years of it but both Greek and Latin 
 were looked upon either as ends in themselves, so far as the 
 school was concerned, or else as means to higher professional 
 study of a nature demanding a knowledge of language and 
 skill in its use. Sturm's curriculum contained no history, 
 no mathematics, no natural sciences, and it is said that for 
 thirty years no time was found to teach even the elements of 
 arithmetic as scheduled for the two highest classes. 
 
 But as a schoolmaster Sturm was a success. His curricu- 
 lum accorded strictly with the educational ideals of his time, 
 although we cannot fail to observe that the Reformation in 
 emphasizing the value of the classical languages for biblical 
 interpretation had strenghtened the worst element in the hu- 
 manistic movement, the formal, "bookish" element. He 
 introduced unity into the whole school-plan whereby the end 
 that was desired might the more certainly be attained ; he
 
 44 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 made a clear-cat, logical arrangement of the materials which 
 he used ; he proposed methods of teaching whereby the ma- 
 terials of instruction were rendered of incalculably greater 
 educational value. His entire scheme was a model of con- 
 centration, both in subject-matter and methods of presenta- 
 tion. In this respect Sturm's work remains unsurpassed. 
 
 A glance at the pedagogical progress of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury discloses marvellous changes in educational thought. 
 First, the humanistic movement completely 
 shattered within twenty years the scholastic 
 traditions of centuries. The mediaeval Latin of the Church 
 was replaced by the pure Latin of classical antiquity ; Greek 
 was awarded a prominent place and Hebrew came in for a 
 share of attention. Accurate translations of the classical 
 writers, philosophers and scientists took the place of the fac- 
 titious interpretations of the Middle Ages. Man's sympa- 
 thies were broadened, his understanding of life enormously 
 extended, and his mental attitude completely changed all 
 the result of careful investigation and the habit of appealing 
 to the original sources for information. Next came the Ref- 
 ormation, the logical consequence of the Renaissance, and 
 with it a new view of life and new duties corresponding to 
 the responsibilities now for the first time laid on individual 
 consciences. The authority of the Church gave way to the 
 authority of the Bible. To do God's will one must first know 
 God's word, not as distorted by ignorant commentators, but 
 as it is given in the original tongues. Scholarship must not 
 perish from the earth if true religion is to remain. Schools 
 are indispensable. But the chief end of the schools is by no 
 means absorption in pagan learning ; the ability to use the 
 classical languages is worth far more than the acquaintance 
 with classical antiquity. Protestant schools were rapidly es- 
 tablished to meet the requirements of Lutheranism ; but they 
 were humanistic schools in fact, protestant only in theory. 
 More than that they rapidly became state schools more or 
 less closely fitted into a comprehensive system, supported in 
 part by state funds and supervised by state authority. Both
 
 THE RISE OF PROTESTANT SCHOOLS 45 
 
 within and without the protestant schools corresponded to 
 the Zeitgeist ; but conditions obtained in the political and 
 religious worlds, as well as in the pedagogical sphere, that 
 rendered impossible any settled educational system. A pe- 
 riod of transition was at hand. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Voigt, Wiederbelebung des classischen Alter- 
 thums ; Fisher, History of the Reformation ; Hausser, Period of the Ref- 
 ormation ; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire ; Bluntschli, Theory of the 
 State ; Ranke, History of the Reformation in Germany ; Freytag, Bil~ 
 der a us der deutschen Vergangenheit and Neue Bilder aus dem Leben des 
 deutschen Volkes ; K A. Schmid, Geschichte der Erziehung ; Schmidt, 
 Geschichte der Pddagogik ; Rein, Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Pdda- 
 gogik (translation in Rept. U. S. Commr. of Education, 1897-98, 1., 1-82); 
 Ziegler, Geschichte der Pddagogik, in Baumeister's Handbuch der 
 Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fur hohere Schulen.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 
 
 1618-1805 
 
 THE first decades of the sixteenth century saw the rise of 
 
 protestant schools in Germany under the combined influences 
 
 of the humanists and the reformers. The early 
 
 Tendencies of i luman j s t s nu d sought out the ancient classics 
 
 Protestantism. 
 
 for their spirit and content ; with an exalted 
 idea of man they found in the old civilization a higher reali- 
 zation of individual freedom than was offered in the mediaeval 
 world. Lutheranism checked the growth of the humanistic 
 movement. It converted intellectual and humanitarian in- 
 terests into civil and religious interests. It turned man's 
 attention from the life of the past to life in the present as 
 a preparation for the life that is to come. A knowledge of 
 God's word as found in the Greek and Hebrew Scriptures 
 was of paramount importance both in shaping human ac- 
 tion in this world and for the adequate appreciation of the 
 glories of the next. Hence an acquaintance with the ancient 
 languages was indispensable, but the pagan literatures of 
 Greece and Rome, much more other records of these cor- 
 rupt civilizations, were of little value, even if not positively 
 harmful. 
 
 The protestant schools of Germany, in their zeal for the ed- 
 ucation of the clergy and the uplifting of the masses, had one 
 pre-eminent aim, the promotion of a better and purer relig- 
 ious life among the people and the salvation of human souls. 
 How well they succeeded in alienating all classes from the 
 Roman Church and establishing them in the protestant faith, 
 
 46
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 47 
 
 is best evidenced in the adoption of schools as the most effec- 
 tive weapons of the Counter Beforrnation. Sturm could have 
 received no greater compliment than was paid him by the 
 Society of Jesus in incorporating so many of his methods 
 into the new catholic schools. The Jesuits, in employing 
 schools to check the growth of heresy and to win back to 
 the Church apostate Germany, merely borrowed the devil's 
 artillery to fight the devil with. And they used it to good 
 effect. 
 
 " In the year 1551 they [the Jesuits] had no settled posi- 
 tion in Germany ; in 1566, their institutions held possession of 
 Bavaria and the Tyrol, Franconia and Swabia, 
 a large part of the Rhenish provinces and Aus- 
 tria. They had penetrated, also, into Hungary, 
 Bohemia, and Moravia. The effect of their exertions soon 
 became perceptible. So early as the year 1561 the papal 
 nuncio declares that * they are winning many souls, and doing 
 great service to the holy see.' This was the first effectual 
 counteraction of protestant labours, the first enduring im- 
 pression made against them in Germany." l 
 
 It is safe to say that the world has never seen a more 
 powerful religious order than this Society of the Jesuits. 
 Ranke finds the secret of its strength in its ex- 
 
 .... . ,,-n j.i T * Society of Jesus. 
 
 treme military character. " Jb or in the order of 
 Jesuits, obedience takes the place of every motive or affection 
 that usually awakens men to activity obedience, absolute 
 and unconditional, without one thought or question as to its 
 object or consequences. No man shall aspire to any rank 
 above that he holds. The secular coadjutor may not even 
 learn to read or write without permission, if it happen that 
 he do not possess these attainments. With the most unlimited 
 abjuration of all right of judgment, in total and blind subjec- 
 tion to the will of his superiors, must he resign himself to be 
 led, like a thing without life, as the staff, for example, that 
 the superior holds in his hand, to be turned to any purpose 
 
 1 Ranke, History of the Popes, I., 415, Bohn's Library.
 
 4:8 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 seeming good to him. The society is to him as the represent- 
 ative of the divine providence." 1 
 
 The success of the Jesuits can scarcely be credited to their 
 learning or their piety, says Kanke, but rather to the exact- 
 ness and nicety of their methods. " With 
 ^ em a ^ was nicely calculated, every movement 
 and action had its definite end and aim. Such 
 a combination of learning sufficing to its purpose with un- 
 wearying zeal, of studies and persuasion, of pomp and ascet- 
 icism, of widely extended influence and unity in the govern- 
 ing principle and intention, has never been exhibited in the 
 world before or since. At once diligent and visionary, worldly 
 wise, yet full of enthusiasm ; well-bred men and attractive 
 companions ; disregarding their personal interests, but labour- 
 ing for the advancement of each other we cannot wonder 
 that they were successful. " 2 
 
 The three great lines of the order's activity, according to 
 the plans of its founder, Ignatius Loyola, were preaching, 
 confession " for by this they were to hold the immediate 
 guidance and government of consciences " and the education 
 of youth. And of these the last was the most important. 
 " To gain the rising generation was among the purposes most 
 earnestly pursued. They laid aside all secondary matters, 
 devoting themselves wholly to such labours as were essential, 
 of immediate result, and calculated for the extension of their 
 influence." 
 
 The means which the Jesuits found most serviceable in the 
 training of their own novices they soon carried into the edu- 
 cation of others. The schools of the semi- 
 Jesuit schools. . . . , . _ 
 
 protestant regions in which the society nrst 
 
 began its work were pretty thoroughly tinctured with hu- 
 manistic ideas a mode of education that by the middle of 
 the sixteenth century was by no means acceptable to Rome. 
 Gradually the Jesuits found their way into all the schools and 
 universities of the outlying provinces of Germany, and at the 
 
 1 Banke, Hiftory of the Popes, I., 168. 8 Ibid., p. 417.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 49 
 
 end of the century the protestant states were surrounded, 
 except for the Baltic coast, by Jesuits firmly intrenched in 
 the educational institutions of the people and at the courts 
 of their rulers. 1 
 
 Perhaps the real secret of the popularity of the Jesuit 
 schools with the majority of the people was the fact that 
 wherever one of their colleges was founded "no private per- 
 son needed further to incur expense for the education of his 
 children." Their instruction was altogether gratuitous ; the 
 asking or receiving any remuneration whatsoever was strictly 
 prohibited. And with children to instruct the Jesuits knew 
 far better how to attain their ends than did the protestant 
 school-masters of their time. We are told that " It was found 
 that young people gained more with them in six months, 
 than with other teachers in two years ; even protestants re- 
 moved their children from distant schools, to place them 
 under the care of the Jesuits/' 
 
 An extended discussion of the ideals of the Jesuits and of 
 their methods of work is foreign to the purpose of this essay. 
 Nevertheless it is impossible to ignore the in- Inflnence of Jeg . 
 fluence of their teachings on the subsequent uits on school 
 development of the German school system. 
 First, because the schools of catholic Germany have re- 
 mained almost as the Jesuits left them, even well into the 
 present century ; and second, because the protestant schools, 
 forced to recognize the superior skill of their adversaries, 
 were gradually reformed the better to act on the defensive. 
 
 Catholic and protestant schools alike at the beginning of 
 
 1 Zirngiebl, Stndien uber das Gesellschaft Jesu mit lesonderer Beriick- 
 sichtigung der padagogischen Wirksamkeit dieses Ordens in Deutschland, 
 Leipzig, 1870. Probably the most valuable work on this subject from 
 the educational stand-point that has been published in German. Hughes, 
 Loyola, and the Educational System of the Jesuits, New York, 1892, is 
 perhaps the most instructive book for English readers. The Ratio stu- 
 diorum et Institutiones scholasticce Sodetatis Jesu (by Pachtler) will be 
 found in Vols. II., V., IX. and XVI. of Kehrbach's Monumenta Ger- 
 manics Pcedagogica. 
 4
 
 50 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the seventeenth century gave little heed to the substance of 
 the ancient civilization ; both alike were earnestly devoted 
 to the study of the Latin language the Jes- 
 uits > b ecause it was tne universal speech of 
 their order ; the protestants, because it was the 
 first step toward a knowledge of Holy Writ. The Jesuits, 
 too, made much of disputation and declamation in Latin as a 
 means of formal discipline ; the protestants found them- 
 selves increasingly engaged in theological discussion among 
 themselves, an exercise no less destructive of peace than the 
 encroachments of a rejuvenated Catholicism. The tendency 
 was everywhere to neglect the study of Greek and Hebrew. 
 So long as eloquence was the immediate aim of all instruction 
 the imitation of Latin orators held a prominent place. At 
 the turn of the century, however, teachers were inclined to 
 content themselves with the Latin of philosophical and theo- 
 logical compendiums. In fact, the petty jealousies among 
 the protestants themselves and the aggressiveness of the 
 Jesuits were giving rise to a new scholasticism. Scholars 
 found themselves engulfed in a maelstrom of theological dis- 
 putation ; all their energies were bent on building up or 
 tearing down some dogma of the new faith. 1 
 
 It has already been noted that the natural tendency of the 
 protestant schools was toward a formal study of the ancient 
 languages, regardless of their cultural content. We now see 
 how this formalism tended to develop into a rehabilitated 
 scholasticism. Accompanying the revival of the old hair- 
 splittings in the learned world, the shade of the mediaeval 
 dialectic appeared in the schools. 
 
 The result of the movement was on the one hand to ex- 
 clude the masses of the people from all participation in the 
 learning of the time, and on the other hand to alienate the 
 sympathies of the nobility. The vague speculations of 
 the scholars concerning philosophy and theology had no 
 
 1 Cf. Wakeman, Ewope, 1598-1715, London, 1894, pp. 39-52, ou 
 the Counter Eef ormation in Germany.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 51 
 
 attractions for the upper classes, and for the lower classes 
 it was all an unknown region. And just as in the Middle 
 Ages the rise of scholasticism was accompanied by the growth 
 of feudalism, so in the seventeenth century alongside of the 
 new scholastic movement we find the nobility following ideals 
 of its own. 
 
 From about the middle of the sixteenth century the courts 
 of western Germany had been more or less closely in touch 
 with court life in France. German nobles affected the French 
 language and aped French customs. They professed a liking 
 for French literature. 1 They sent their children to French 
 schools or employed French tutors at home. Dissatisfaction 
 with the education at home and admiration for everything 
 foreign soon worked a complete change in the ideals of the 
 German nobility. The highest ambition of the young noble 
 was to become a " perfect cavalier." To know the latest 
 Parisian fads, fashions and customs ; to know how to dance, 
 fence and ride like a born Frenchman ; to be accomplished 
 in speech and manner, all this was of more importance than 
 a knowledge of Latin or the art of disputation. French po- 
 litical ideas readily found a place in many German states, 
 and the " perfect cavalier " gradually came to need special 
 preparation for civil and military service. The new ideal 
 carried with it the desire for an acquaintance with math- 
 ematics and physics and their practical applications. The 
 new political sciences, political history, jurisprudence, geog- 
 raphy and statistics, heraldry and genealogy, were all a part 
 of the educational life of the galant homme. To be sure, 
 the formal disciplines religion, ethics, rhetoric and dialec- 
 tics, were not altogether abandoned ; nor was Latin wholly 
 supplanted by French and the other modern languages. 
 But the fact is these old-fashioned studies were relegated to 
 
 1 Of. Taylor's Studies in German Literature, New York, 1891, pp. 
 HJ7-199; Francke, Social Forces in German Literature, p. 172 ff. ; 
 Scherer, Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur, 7th ed., Berlin, 1894, p. 
 867 ff.
 
 52 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 places in the rear rank ; all that pertained to fine manners, 
 practical conduct, and civil and military functions, came to 
 the front. 
 
 To satisfy the demands of this borrowed ideal of life, there 
 arose schools designed to afford the means of cultivating and 
 refining the German youth. This new school, 
 thoroughly characteristic of the period in which 
 it arose, was the Ritterakademie. It succeeded 
 the reign of private tutors, and, established only in capital 
 cities, it always remained a part of court life. A Collegium 
 illustre was established in Tubingen in 1589 for noble youths. 
 In 1599 the Collegium Mauritianum was founded in Cassel, 
 and in 1618 it was converted into a Ritterakademie the first 
 of its kind. 1 These schools were the direct outgrowth of 
 French influence, and manned mostly by French teachers 
 they sought to extend the French ideals of life. In their 
 way they were effective, but a still more effective way was at 
 hand. It was war. 
 
 The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was the culmination 
 of the political and ecclesiastical complications of the sixteenth 
 century. The great schism struck a blow not 
 . onlv at the Church of Rome but also at the 
 Holy Roman Empire. The subsequent rise of 
 national churches coextensive with the territorial areas of 
 the several protestant states, and the designation of civil 
 rulers as Lords of the Church or Defenders of the Faith, gave 
 to petty princes a taste of power that they had not previously 
 enjoyed. It weakened their allegiance to the Roman Em- 
 peror at the same time that it rejected the supremacy of the 
 Pope of Rome. But protestantism was unable at once to 
 shake off the habits of centuries ; a church that stood pri- 
 marily for freedom of conscience and individual reason soon 
 became almost as intolerant as the body from which it had 
 separated. This intolerance, quickened by the aggressiveness 
 of the Jesuits and supported by political jealousies, at length 
 
 1 Paulscn, Geschichte des Gelehrten UnterrichtS) p. 339.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 63 
 
 plunged Germany into a cruel and horrible war. The hatred 
 of a century's religious strife burst forth with uncontrollable 
 fury in Bohemia and kindled a conflagration that lasted thirty 
 years long. It was the gift of Jesuit intrigue and protestant 
 intolerance to Europe. 
 
 The conduct of the war on the one side was in the hands of 
 men trained by the Jesuits to act on the belief that the end 
 justifies the means, and on the other side it de- 
 volved largely upon leaders actuated by French 
 ideals and inspired by Bichelieu's judicious 
 grants of money from the French treasury. No wonder that 
 at the end of the struggle the common people on both sides 
 were well-nigh exterminated ! So cruel and relentless had 
 been the war that a population of thirty millions was reduced 
 to less than ten millions ; the country was laid waste, cities 
 razed to the ground, homes made desolate ; want and poverty 
 and starvation stared the German peasantry in the face ; too 
 weak to stand alone and too poor to command assistance the 
 common man became the prey of a conscienceless aristocracy. 
 The destruction of trade and commerce by a war that had 
 lasted a generation meant the decline of the free cities and 
 the ruin of the burghers. The Peace of Westp lalia (1648) 
 made an end of war, but in making the princes absolute in 
 their own petty dominions it also gave Germany uver to feu- 
 dalism, a " feudalism from which all the feelings that once en- 
 nobled it had departed." Germany instead of being an em- 
 pire was a jumble of two or three hundred principalities, 
 " each with its own laws, its own court (in which the cere- 
 monious pomp of Versailles was faintly reproduced), its little 
 army, its separate coinage, its tolls and custom-houses on the 
 frontier, its crowd of meddlesome and pedantic officials, pre- 
 sided over by a prime minister who was generally the un- 
 worthy favourite of his prince and the pensioner of some 
 foreign court/' 1 
 
 1 Cf. Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, chap. xix. On the life of the German 
 peasant, see Freytag's Pictures of German Life, second series, translated 
 by Mrs. Malcolm, London, 1863, 1., 9-77.
 
 54 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 The school that withstood the ravages of the Thirty Years' 
 War, that had pupils and could pay teachers, was, indeed, a 
 strong one. The great majority of educational 
 the'schoois institutions, universities and secondary schools 
 included, went to the wall, or were so weakened 
 as to be scarcely recognizable. 1 And when the war was over 
 the dearth of funds and pupils left many of the survivors in 
 a precarious condition. But worse yet, there was little de- 
 mand on the part of those still interested in education for ihe 
 education of the typical German school, whether protestant 
 or catholic. Now, even, more than in the period before the 
 war, the nobility turned awsy from poor, devastated, wretched 
 Germany to the splendor of a foreign culture. The brilliancy 
 of the Court of Louis XIV. dazzled all eyes and seemed the 
 one thing desirable in a gloomy age. The French language 
 became the polite speech ; French literature was eagerly 
 sought after, and it carried with it an interest in Italian, 
 Spanish and English ; French customs and manners were a 
 considerable part of the galant homme. 
 
 For the realization of these ideals a new scheme of educa- 
 tion was bound to develop. Schools for nobles (the common 
 Revival of people had no share in the prevailing fad for 
 schools for things French) were an imperative necessity. 2 
 Hence the revival of the Ritterakademien. 
 During the last half of the seventeenth century ami the first 
 quarter of the eighteenth, the really influential schools of 
 
 1 For a picture of the condition of the schools, see Reuss, M. Samuel 
 Gloner tin Strassburger Lehrerbild aus den Zeiten des dreisigjahrigen 
 Krieges, Strassburg, 1888. 
 
 1 One of the earliest announcements of the course of study in the French 
 Gymnasium of Berlin, founded about 1690, runs as follows : " Die 
 Frantzosische und Italiiinische Sprache, durch deren Gebrauch und durch 
 die Grammatische R?geln zu erlernen, wie auch die Teutsche Sprache fur 
 die Frombden. Das Tantzen. Das Fechten. Die Exercitien mit der 
 Pique, mit der Mousquet und mit der Fahne. Die Vocal- und Instru- 
 mental-Music. Die Geographic. Die Fortification. Die Bau-Kunst. 
 Die Mahlerey. Die Perspective. Die Zeichenkunst, nach den Principien, 
 wie sie insgeraein unterwiesen werden muss. N.B. Der Autor erbietet
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 55 
 
 Germany were these schools in which the masses of the peo- 
 ple had no interest schools utterly devoid of sincere religion 
 and honest patriotism. The common schools of the people 
 were well-nigh extinct. The Gymnasien and Latin schools 
 went begging for scholars, except as they could offer free 
 places and substantial benefits to applicants. The entire 
 school system of protestant Germany, schools for nobles ex- 
 cepted, was manipulated in the interests of a church that 
 had been tried as by fire, and if its temper were not just per- 
 fect it was doubtless the result of over-heating. 
 
 The schools and universities of Germany yes, of all 
 Europe as well between 1625 and 1725 were not the work- 
 shops of the leaders of thought. It is signifi- 
 cant that the philosophers Bacon (1561-1626), 
 Hobbes (1588-1679), Descartes (1596-1650), 
 Locke (1632-1704), Spinoza (1632-1677) and Leibnitz (1646- 
 1716) ; and the scientists Harvey (1578-1657), Boyle (1627- 
 1691), Huygens (1629-1693) and Newton (1642-1727) almost 
 without exception were rarely, or never at all, in touch with 
 university life ; they were men of the world, interested in the 
 practical workings of Man and Nature and the State, and 
 largely dependent their lives long on the bounty of lords and 
 princes whose satellites they chose to be. 
 
 Leibnitz, better than anyone else, represents the tendency 
 of the age in Germany. A bitter opponent of the formalism 
 
 sich, die Zeichen-Kunst auff eine gantz sonderbahre Art zu informiren, so 
 vermittelst eines Instruments geschieht, welches er erfunden hat. Er 
 verpflichtet sich, den Gebrauch dieses Instruments in kurtzer Zeit den 
 jenigen, so niemahls Zeichen gelernet, zu zeigen, also das sie allerhand 
 Sachen, als Landschafften, Sta'dte, Dorffer, Schlosser, in Summa alles, 
 was sich dem Gesichte unbeweglich prasentiren wird, eben so wol als die 
 besten Mahler sollen abzeichen konnen. Die Arithmetic. Die Frantz- 
 osische, Italianische und Teutsche Schreib-Kunst. Die Hofflichkeit und 
 andere Sachen mehr, welche theils nohtig, theils curios seyn, und die als 
 dann, wann man einen guten Fortgang in den oberwehnten sehen wird, 
 benennet werden sollen." (From the history of the Franzosischcs Gym? 
 nasium, Berlin, in the Festschrift, 1890.)
 
 56 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 of the schools, almost as much a Frenchman as a German, a 
 go-between in religion, he sought by attaching himself to 
 influential courts, rather than from a profes- 
 sor's chair, to accomplish his mission. He was 
 much interested in education ; he wrote peda- 
 gogical treatises, outlined school curricula, and introduced 
 school reforms. But in it all he worked from the outside ; 
 he was at home only in the Ritterakademien and for them he 
 did good service. He valued Latin highly, but lamented that 
 so much time was wasted in its acquisition. There are so 
 many other things to learn, he declared, some of them valu- 
 able in themselves, others because custom makes them so ; 
 but in every instance that which makes a thing 
 
 His Ideals. , , J . 
 
 worth knowing is its utility, its worth in prac- 
 tical life. It matters not whether the study be etiquette or 
 statute law, philology or history, politics or natural science, 
 its place in the curriculum must be determined by the needs 
 of the pupils in relation to the demands of public life. Logic, 
 mathematics, physics and geography are indispensable ; the 
 ability to speak well and to appear well in good society are 
 second in importance only to the ability to reason well. 1 The 
 poetry and eloquence of the Latin schools, their barren phil- 
 osophy and endless theological controversies, deserve no part 
 in the education of a gentleman. So far did French influ- 
 ence carry the leading thinker of the century away from all 
 that was truly German. 
 
 Closely connected with the introduction of French views 
 of life into German society was the movement toward a ra- 
 Rationaiistic tionalistic philosophy and scientific method. 
 Philosophy and As for method the early humanists had de- 
 scientinc Method. mons t ra t e d the value of inductive research ; 
 they had appealed from scholastic authority to the original 
 sources. But in proving the utter futility of speculative in- 
 quiry as a means of reaching truth, they had recourse to the 
 wisdom of the ancients, and by it they were held entranced. 
 
 1 Qf. Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts, p. 336.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 57 
 
 The perfection that they beheld seemed to them absolutely 
 complete ; the whole duty of fallen man, it was argued, was 
 to regain paradise and hold fast to it. Hence the devotion 
 to the literary master-pieces of Greece and Rome, for they 
 contained the words of the perfect life. Hence the ceaseless 
 round of imitation in the schools, the attempt to blot out 
 the Middle Ages and to live the life of the past in the pres- 
 ent. 
 
 French scepticism and English common-sense could not 
 countenance idolatry even at Minerva's shrine. Bacon, 
 grasping the full significance of the inductive method, boldly 
 turned from the past to the present and future. Descartes 
 ably demonstrated that there is something even in modern 
 man worthy of respect. Progress, not stagnation, was their 
 motto. The invention of the compass and the telescope had 
 already supplied the means of getting at a new heaven and a 
 new earth. The Belgian Vesale (1553) and the Englishman 
 Harvey (1628) afforded a new view of man. Columbus and 
 Kepler and Galileo prepared the way for the scientific ad- 
 vance of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Bacon's aphorism that " we must lead men to the par- 
 ticulars themselves, and their series and order ; while men 
 on their side must force themselves for awhile to lay 
 their notions by and begin to familiarize themselves with 
 facts," was echoed by Descartes when he told the queen 
 of Sweden, pointing to a skeleton, "Here are my books." 
 This was the spirit that directed the advance of the posi- 
 tive sciences ; it based reasoning solely on the observation 
 of facts ; no authority save the authority of reason was ac- 
 cepted. 
 
 The scientific movement in Germany aroused by the dis- 
 coveries of Kepler, began to make itself felt in the early 
 years of the seventeenth century. Jungius, a The mret Nat _ 
 professor in Rostock, founded in 1619 a Nat- urai science AB- 
 ural Science Association whose .purpose was eolation. 
 "to free from sophistry all the arts and sciences that are 
 dependent on reason and experience, to lead them back to
 
 QBMIA& m&BBR SCHOOLS 
 
 demonstrative certainty, and to expand them by correct ex- 
 perimentation and fortunate discoveries/' 1 ' It was the nat- 
 ural reaction against the extreme formalism into which the 
 Latin schools of the country, protestant and catholic alike, 
 were falling. 
 
 The ideals of the scientists soon found a reception in the 
 
 schools of the nobles at least in so far as such ideals were 
 
 capable of practical realization. On the other 
 
 Influence on the -\ -\i-\-\ \-\-\-\ > 
 
 schools. hand the classical schools have never since been 
 entirely free from the influences that the scien- 
 tific movement then first brought to bear on them. In the 
 Ritterakademien it meant the admission of mathematics and 
 physics and other Realien into the curriculum ; in the classi- 
 cal schools it suggested reforms in method and a revival of 
 the true religious spirit. 
 
 The first man to offer himself as mediator between the 
 
 humanists and the advocates of the positive sciences was 
 
 Comenius (1592-1671). He was himself a 
 
 ComeninB. . ...,. , ,. T -, , 
 
 humanist in his respect for Latin, a realist in 
 
 his admiration for Bacon and the empirical philosophy, a 
 religionist in that he believed the supreme aim of education 
 and life as well is "eternal happiness in and with God." 
 Hence he, even more than his forerunner Ratke, emphasized 
 the need of reform in language teaching ; and as for Latin, 
 while indispensable, it must be learned quickly in order that 
 time may be had for the serious business of life. What a 
 man most needs to know, next to a knowledge of God and 
 of his own nature, is the natural environment in which he 
 lives. It is possible, so argued Comenius, to get considera- 
 ble information about things while learning words ; in fact, 
 words are valuable only when learned in connection with 
 things, as the signs of things or ideas. In thus econo- 
 mizing time and energy life is prolonged and man the better 
 fitted for eternity. In order to teach school-masters their 
 business Comenius wrote his famous series of text-books 
 
 1 Paulson, Geschichte des Oelehiien Unterrichts, p. 306.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 59 
 
 that perpetuated his ideas when the man himself was for- 
 gotten. l 
 
 Comenius served the cause of the ultra-realists in thus 
 exposing the defects in the prevailing methods of teaching 
 Latin and the utter uselessness of learning H iB services to 
 mere words. Even Sturm had taught the secondary Edu- 
 classic authors chiefly for the purpose of illus- 
 trating grammatical and rhetorical rules. Both Katke and 
 Comenius looked upon the Latin language like the vernacu- 
 lar, as a living, organic whole. And as such they consid- 
 ered it only one of many spheres of empirical knowledge. 
 
 The intensely religious character of Comenius gained him 
 many sympathizers among those protestants who remained 
 true to the original spirit of the Reformation. The formal- 
 ism of the Lutheran Church, its subserviency to Aristote- 
 lianism and the scholastic philosophy, was not a pleasing 
 prospect to believers in practical piety. They believed that 
 religion was an affair of the heart as well as of the head, that 
 true religion involved not only a knowledge of God's word 
 but also a disposition to cherish and obey divine commands. 
 The reaction against protestant formalism slowly ripened 
 into the movement known as Pietism, of which Spener and 
 Francke were the most distinguished representatives. The 
 gospel of love and benevolence as preached by these men 
 contrasted strangely with the theological dissensions of the 
 times. It is to their credit that they upheld the worth of 
 the inner life in an age given over to externalism. 
 
 Pietism had nothing in common with the scientific move- 
 ment, except its uncompromising opposition to the scho- 
 lasticism of school and church. Rationalism 
 
 ui j. A.- j ii j J.T- Rationalism. 
 
 worldly, aristocratic and cultured was the 
 
 obverse of pietism. It was the logical outcome of scientific 
 
 1 The standard work on Comenius in English is Laurie's Comenius : His 
 Life and Educational Works, Quick's Essays on Educational Reformer* 
 gives a good account of his work. See also the Educational Review, New 
 York, VoL III.
 
 60 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 QurrWxAl \\<T^<* /\VV\V^-.A<^ u\>^v" 
 inquiry and the appeal to facts within the reach of observa- 
 tion and reason. Pushing in from the west, it found sup- 
 porters at the courts and among the nobility ; before the end 
 of the seventeenth century it had become the dominant mode 
 of thought among the ruling classes of Germany. It in- 
 spired the entire eighteenth century with a joyous conscious- 
 ness of its own power ; it spoke with pride of what had been 
 accomplished, and looked forward with enthusiastic hope to 
 the future. Its culmination in the Enlightenment was the 
 full fruition of the hope of the early humanists ; it was the 
 extreme limit of individualism. 
 
 Both pietism and rationalism were unfavourable to hu- 
 manistic studies. Pietism looked upon them as dangerous ; 
 rationalism, as unnecessary. Both movements 
 turned away from the past. The pietists would 
 live a holy life in the present, a life of praise and prayer and 
 supplication, for the sake of an 'eternal reward in heaven ; 
 the rationalists, unwilling to believe that the bounds of knowl- 
 edge were fixed by the ancients, and unable to find any basis 
 in reason for implicit faith in the glories of a life to come, 
 devoted themselves wholly to the joys of the present. Under 
 the influence of French court life the latter part of the 
 seventeenth century saw the introduction into Germany of 
 a profligacy and libertinism utterly foreign to its own civil- 
 ization. But sensual indulgence, excused on philosophic 
 grounds, played an important part in weakening the grasp of 
 the nobility on the middle classes. The rise of the demo- 
 cratic spirit toward the end of the eighteenth century was 
 made possible if not actually promoted by the hideous cor- 
 ruption in high places. Rationalism was essentially liberal 
 and liberalizing ; and if occasionally it plunged weaklings 
 into dissipation, it gave strong-minded men the impulse to 
 free themselves from the thraldom of tradition and authority. 
 Moreover, in the intellectual sphere, it did not immediately 
 set up a standard of its own to which reason must conform ; 
 it left each man free to follow his own bent ; it offered a fair 
 field and no favour. Science cut loose from the Greeks ; phil-
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 61 
 
 w I - - Vl v 
 
 t Ye&OA*.\t***+* V^ 1 ^ u vs^x^vv^ 1 ^-*-*-^***-^ 
 
 osophy and political economy and jurisprudence assumed a 
 modern aspect ; even the dry bones of the church, both 
 evangelical and catholic, began to feel the stir of life under 
 the combined attacks of atheism and pietism. 
 
 The foundation of the University of Halle (1694) ushered 
 in the new era in German life. In Halle, Thomasius and 
 Francke, both of whom had been expelled from The Univereity 
 the orthodox University of Leipsic because of of Haiieand 
 their too liberal ideas, joined hands in opposing Lehrfreiheit. 
 the old spiritual order. Thomasius was a type of the per- 
 fect cavalier; Francke was the leading pietist of the day. 
 Francke's influence dominated the theological faculty; Tho- 
 masius was supreme in the rest of the University. That one 
 and the same institution could harbour two such men and 
 assure them freedom of action was the most significant fact 
 in the whole matter. It was the beginning of Lehrfreiheit 
 in Germany, and for that reason Halle is counted the first 
 really modern university. It stood for freedom of teaching 
 modern subjects in a modern tongue and according to modern 
 methods. 
 
 The atmosphere of Halle was conducive to the growth of 
 a modern philosophy. Christian Wolff, professor from 1707 
 to 1723 and again from 1740 to 1754, was the 
 first who succeeded in making " philosophy 
 speak German." His system was tke first to 
 supersede Aristotelianism, and it was so well received that it 
 dominated the German schools till the advent of Kantianism. 
 " Nothing without sufficient cause " was its ruling principle. 
 " It aimed no longer to be ancilla theologies, but without 
 prejudice sought after truth, and mathematics and the natu- 
 ral sciences in their modern form composed its foundation. 
 And in equal degree it disclaimed all transcendental author- 
 ity for morals and for law, basing them exclusively upon the 
 nature of man and of society." 1 
 
 It was no mere accident that the period of Enlightenment 
 
 1 Paulsen, German Universities, New York, 1895, p. 60.
 
 62 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 in Germany was coincident with the reign of Frederick the 
 Great. On ascending the throne he announced that his mis- 
 sion was "to further the country's well-being, 
 anc * to ma ^ e everyone of our [his] subjects 
 happy." The character of the whole forty-six 
 years of his reign was clearly indicated in the principal acts of 
 the first week, 1 viz., the abolition of legal torture in criminal 
 trials, an order looking to more equitable administration of 
 the laws, a (partial) guarantee of the freedom of speech and 
 of the press, the enunciation of the principle of religious 
 toleration, and the ejacouragement of independent, scientific 
 research. " All religions must be tolerated," he declared, 
 " for in this country every man must get to heaven in his 
 own way." In giving orders for the immediate recall of 
 Wolff, who had been banished by Frederick's father at the 
 instigation of the pietists, the King said, " A man that seeks 
 truth, and loves it, must be reckoned precious in any human 
 society." In his efforts to resuscitate the Berlin Academy he 
 urged M. de Maupertuis to leave Paris and " come and in- 
 sert into this wild crab-tree the graft of the sciences, that it 
 may bear fruit." 
 
 This period, under the leadership of so enlightened a 
 
 prince, embodied and united all the forces that were making 
 
 for a new spiritual and social life. The nation- 
 
 His Reforms. . . . . - , . 
 
 al spirit was stirred ; forms of misgovernment 
 were abolished and economical administration introduced. 
 The resources of the country were developed, industries of 
 all kinds encouraged, the territory extended by fortunate 
 conquests and the army increased to formidable proportions. 
 In a word, the electorate of Brandenburg was now become 
 the kingdom of Prussia, a kingdom not only in name, but a 
 recognized power in European politics. 
 
 It has been said that in the Enlightenment "an effort was 
 made to raise man, so far as he is a rational individual, into 
 a position of supremacy over everything." 2 Two dominant 
 
 1 Of. Carlyle, Frederick the Great, X., 231-261. 
 3 Erdinauu, History of Philosophy, I., 283.
 
 T&E PERIOD OP TRANSITION 83 
 
 motives determined all action in this direction : (1) the per- 
 fection of the individual, and (2) the mastery over environ- 
 ment. These two ideas also entered into the The Two Motive8 
 educational ideals of the time/ and directed of the Eniight- 
 the development of the school system. The emnent. 
 one was essentially humanistic as pertaining to the per- 
 fection of the human subject ; the other was essentially 
 realistic as pertaining' to the control of things in the ob- 
 jective world. The Courtly-French ideal, at least as for- 
 mulated by Leibnitz, embodied both notions, and for this 
 reason it is often considered the typical educational ideal of 
 this transition period. But it is equally certain that in the 
 great undercurrent of German thought the two ideas were 
 but loosely joined. They held together at first for prudential 
 considerations in the face of united opposition from State 
 and Church, but they quickly differentiated when each could 
 maintain itself alone. Humanistic ideas had never been en- 
 tirely expelled from the schools and universities, but through- 
 out the seventeenth century they were inactive and uninflu- 
 ential. It was not till toward the middle of the eighteenth 
 century that they again became dynamic and exercised a 
 power in the educational world. 
 
 We have already noted the growth of the sciences and the 
 spread of the scientific spirit in Germany. In accord with 
 this spirit Ratke and Comenius emphasized the 
 study of things ; natural science, physics, mathe- l ' J_~f Mastery 
 
 ' * J of JLnvironment. 
 
 matics, history, and the mother tongue, all 
 deserve a place in the curriculum on a par with the classical 
 languages. In fact, Latin and Greek, like the rest, are valu- 
 able only for practical purposes. Weigel (1625-1699), a pro- 
 fessor in the University of Jena, and Reyher, rector of the 
 Gymnasium in Gotha and author of the famous Saxe-Gotha 
 Schulordnung of 1642, worked assiduously for the reform of 
 the Latin schools in the realistic sense. Francke (1633-1727) 
 was no sooner settled in Halle than he began the foundation 
 of that remarkable group of schools and charitable institutions 
 which still bears his name. All Fraucke's schools, especially
 
 64 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 those for the common people, were strongly pietistic. The 
 study of the Bible and the catechism, the learning of hymns 
 and prayers, and participation in religious exercises, were the 
 all-important part of the curriculum ; nevertheless three hours 
 a day were devoted in the lower schools to secular subjects, 
 and in the higher schools the course was determined by the 
 requirements for admission to the university. But however 
 much Francke was hampered in the development of his higher 
 schools by the traditional demands of the universities, he 
 managed to find a place for geography, history, mathematics 
 and French, and by a judicious use of " recreation hours " he 
 succeeded in introducing his pupils to nature study and man- 
 ual training. 
 
 Francke had the rare ability to see clearly what needed 
 doing and then to do it regardless of obstacles or consequences. 
 Francke and r ^ ne magnitude of his work in Halle is simply 
 Realistic Educa- marvellous, and yet what he actually accom- 
 plished is insignificant in comparison with what 
 he inspired others to do. 1 He showed how practical Chris- 
 tianity could be incorporated in the work of the common 
 schools ; his plan was immediately adopted by Frederick Will- 
 iam I. and made well-nigh universal in Prussia. He showed 
 how the Realien could be profitably employed in a Latin 
 school, and even made a constituent part of a university pre- 
 paratory course ; as a result of his methods, and especially of 
 his suggestion that schools should be founded for the exclu- 
 sive purpose of fitting the youth of the citizen class for prac- 
 tical life, there has since grown up in Germany a class of 
 Real-schools. Herein Francke acted in conformity with the 
 rationalistic spirit of his times. Whatever may have been his 
 opinion of the Ritterakademie as an institution for the prac- 
 tical training of the nobility, he certainly believed in the 
 wisdom of a practical training for the learned professions, for 
 the business occupations of the citizen class, and for the needs 
 of the people generally. The Real-school, therefore, is the 
 
 1 Frick, Die Franckeschcn Stiftungen, 1892.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 65 
 
 direct response to the educational ideal that lays special em- 
 phasis on the mastery of environment. It is the outgrowth 
 of one phase of the rationalistic mode of thought. 
 
 Francke's efforts in Halle were seconded by Semler, one of 
 WeigeFs students, who was the first to establish a school in 
 which the Realien took first place. 1 His idea 
 
 The Real-Schools. 
 
 was to give manual training to pupils from both 
 the common and the Latin schools. Semler's plan was alto- 
 gether impracticable, but his dream was destined to be realized 
 by Hecker, a clergyman who had served an apprenticeship as 
 teacher in Francke's orphan school. In 17-47 he established 
 in Berlin an " oekonomisch-mathematische Realschule" for the 
 higher training of those pupils who had no intention of enter- 
 ing the learned professions. Instruction was offered in re- 
 ligion and ethics, the German, French and Latin languages, 
 writing, arithmetic, drawing, history, geography, and the 
 elements of geometry, mechanics and architecture. An im- 
 portant feature of the founder's plan was a series of optional 
 courses designed to give pupils an insight into the practical 
 workings of the various trades and occupations of burgher 
 life. 
 
 The success of Hecker's undertaking was assured almost 
 from the start. With the hearty approval of Frederick the 
 Great there was little difficulty in putting the institution on 
 a permanent basis and in winning popular support. The 
 school was soon overrun with pupils, and additional facilities 
 were demanded. Moreover, the plan found numerous imita- 
 tors outside of Berlin. Within a few years all the flourishing 
 commercial centres of Germany were supplied with Real- 
 schools occupying a position in the school system midway 
 between the common schools and the classical Gymnasien. 
 
 The pedagogical character of the Real-school was estab- 
 lished by Basedow and his followers. Originally the plan 
 was to provide for the middle classes what would be called 
 
 1 Heubaum, ChristopTi Scmlers Realschule ami .W* Beziehung zu A. 
 H. Francke in Neue Jahrbiicher filr Philologie und Pddagogik^ 1893. 
 
 I
 
 66 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 nowadays manual training schools in which the scientific 
 principles underlying the various trades and business voca- 
 tions should have a prominent place. These 
 sc ^ools were to be one step removed from the 
 trade schools for the lower classes. But under 
 the influence of the Philanthropinists the .Real-school was 
 transformed into a modern humanistic school and placed in 
 competition with the humanistic Gymnasium. The wisdom 
 of such a step may be questioned from the fact that for half 
 a century the Real-school was held in check. The only 
 advantage gained was the demonstration that almost any 
 kind of instruction was preferable to the antiquated Latin 
 school with its scholastic methods and dreary round of Latin 
 imitation. 
 
 The utilitarian conceptions of the rationalistic view of life 
 
 found complete expression in the conventional training of the 
 
 Ritterakademie and in the Real-school. 1 They 
 
 Reaction Against . i i 
 
 the Formalism represent the reaction in the pedagogical sphere 
 of the Latin against the emptv. sterile dogmatism of the pre- 
 
 Schools. 1 " ' . 6 . ,. 
 
 ceding age. As champions of the new learning 
 and modern culture they were the fittest representatives of an 
 "enlightened" educational ideal, and their triumph would 
 doubtless have been complete had not another force gained the 
 ascendancy at the very hour of victory. This new force was 
 likewise a part of the rationalistic movement, but instead of 
 
 1 The building up of great national governments during this period 
 necessitated large military operations. These required large forces of men 
 and great funds of wealth. The feudal system no longer supplied the one, 
 nor could royal domains, however vast, supply the other. National gov- 
 ernments and armies necessitated taxation in order to secure the funds of 
 precious metals. Industrial and commercial activities alone could bear 
 this burden. In order to foster industry and commerce, the welfare of the 
 masses must be secured and their capacities developed. Hence, the 
 Realschule. The attitude of mind which revealed itself on the economic 
 side as mercantilism, on the educational side revealed itself as a realistic 
 tendency. Cf. Ingram. History of Political Economy, New York, 18!)4, 
 pp 36-54. Cossa, Introduction to the Study of Political Economy, Lon 
 don, 1893, pp. 193-210.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 67 
 
 making for practical utility in commonplace life it tended 
 toward the perfection of man as a free, rational individual. 
 In other words, the growth of the democratic spirit came in 
 to check the development of institutions calculated to perpet- 
 uate the existing social order and to intensify prevailing class 
 distinctions. 
 
 Notwithstanding the efforts made by the early humanists to 
 exalt the individual by striking off the fetters of obsolete tra- 
 dition, a hundred years of religious fanaticism left him even 
 more than before the sport of despotic power. The anarchy 
 of the Thirty Years' War was followed by an absolutism that 
 was as inquisitorial as it was petty. The spirit of the people, 
 crushed by a generation of disaster, was still further op- 
 pressed by the exactions of relentless task-masters. Litera- 
 ture and art and religion were enslaved to aristocratic vanity. 
 What of hope there was for freedom hardly dared express 
 itself for a full hundred years. Yet it would be misleading 
 if this state of affairs were interpreted as furnishing no evi- 
 dences of progress. 
 
 In politics the little electorate of Brandenburg stepped into 
 a unique position ; transformed into the kingdom of Prussia 
 under Frederick I. (1688-1713), it became am- 
 
 .... . , , Rise of Prussia. 
 
 bitious to be counted among the independent 
 states of Europe. It was an absolute monarchy, to be sure, but 
 then as now the rule of the Hohenzollerns subordinated all 
 pretensions of the aristocracy and privileged classes to the 
 higher interests of the commonweal. 
 
 From the time of the Great Elector to Frederick the Great 
 there was certain if slow progress in the alleviation of the 
 burdens of the peasantry ; the citizen class gradually regained 
 an enviable position as the growth of the cities and political 
 stability made trade and commerce more safe and profitable ; 
 and at the same time the scions of nobility were gathered into 
 the army or left to exterminate themselves by their own de- 
 bauchery. The century following the peace of Westphalia 
 was the seed-time of political and social reforms. The idea 
 that the welfare of a nation is best subserved when its citizens
 
 68 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 are contented and happy has as its counterpart the idea that 
 the welfare of the whole presupposes the well-being of all its 
 parts. In teaching the masses of the people to respect them- 
 selves as rational beings, as free moral agents, the seeds of 
 democracy were sown from which a harvest was reaped at a 
 later day. 
 
 The growth of an independent spirit is also clearly discern- 
 ible in the literature of the period. During the seventeenth 
 
 century, despite the example of the reformers, 
 tependrat Spirit" ^ ie use ^ ^ ie German language was an evidence 
 
 of boorishness. The scholars spoke Latin ; the 
 nobles, French. Nevertheless just at this time Ratke and 
 Comenius threw all their influence on the side of the mother- 
 tongue ; a society was formed in 1617, with the Prince of 
 Anhalt at its head, for the purpose of promoting " good and 
 pure German speech ; " Thomasius dared to use the German 
 language in his class-room in Leipsic even at the risk of exile ; 
 and a little later Wolff shocked the learned world by treating 
 philosophy in the vernacular. And while the belles-lettres of 
 this period " were the most depraved and abject mockery that 
 has ever usurped the name of literature," 1 there was never- 
 theless a deep undercurrent of native independence. In the 
 religious lyrics of Fleming and Gerhardt a strong and manly 
 sentiment was aroused that despised the vice and frivolity of 
 the princely courts, and " from more than one solitary coun- 
 try parsonage there shone forth a light which in due time 
 was to mingle with the dawning of a better day." Keen 
 satirists reawakened an interest in the homely German life 
 by exposing the follies of French imitators, and in the mass 
 of rubbish called literature there might occasionally be found 
 a genuine expression of the emotions of a heart pulsating 
 with hope. Poor as it may have been, the best there was in 
 literature came from the common people. In the spread of 
 individualism class distinctions were being levelled down. 
 English public opinion, English philosophy and English lit- 
 
 1 Francke, Social Forces in German Literature, New York, 1896, p. 187.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 69 
 
 erature, which were carried through France into Germany 
 about the middle of the eighteenth century, re-enforced the 
 democratic movement and inspired the middle classes to 
 heroic effort. Then there arose from the ranks of the people 
 master workmen in prose and verse, who put the ideas of the 
 people in enduring form. Klopstock, Gellert, Lessing, Herder, 
 Kant, Fichte, Goethe and Schiller all rising from the ranks 
 overthrew French classicism and built on its ruins the 
 stately edifice of classic German literature. 
 
 The " Storm and Stress " agitation, which marked the 
 concentration of forces that had been gathering for a century 
 or more, disclosed to Germany a new aristocracy, a nobility 
 of worth instead of a nobility of birth. If bloodshed was 
 averted it was because the old order recognized in the new 
 its legitimate suzerain. Hereditary rights and n ^^ p er fec- 
 privileges counted for naught as compared with tion of the HU- 
 individual character. "The ideal of human man Type- 
 perfection which inspired the movement was not man as 
 a social being, dependent upon and determined by the force 
 of surrounding conditions, but man as such, man lifted 
 above the barriers of his political, social, moral environ- 
 ment, man in the full autonomy of his own free, spiritual 
 nature." * In this passionate devotion to the human subject 
 the objective world was ignored, nay, even argued out of ex- 
 istence except as it exists as a show-world for the creative 
 self. Humanity in its largest sense was the characteristic 
 theme of the age. Nothing that concerns man, nothing that 
 enters into his life at all, nothing that gives him deeper ex- 
 perience, truer insight, nobler emotions, purer character, can 
 be unworthy of study and investigation. Says Herder, the 
 greatest preacher of the gospel of humanity : ' ( Whatever be- 
 longs to the nature of our race, every possible means of its 
 improvement and progress, this is the object which a humane 
 man has in mind, this is the centre of his work. Since our 
 race must work out its own destiny, none of its members has 
 
 1 Franoke, Social Forces in German Literature, p. 317.
 
 70 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 a right to be idle in this work. Everyone must take part in 
 the weal and woe of the whole, everyone must willingly sacri- 
 fice his share of reason, his mite of activity, to the genius of 
 the race. No one, however, can contribute to the welfare of 
 mankind who does not make himself what he can and ought 
 to be made. Everyone, therefore, must cultivate the seed of 
 humanity, most of all on the bed where he himself is planted. 
 We all carry in us an ideal of what we ought to be and are 
 not. The dross which we ought to cast away, the perfec- 
 tion which we ought to attain, we all know. And since we 
 can become what we ought to be only through ourselves 
 and others from whom we receive or whom we affect, our 
 own humanity necessarily becomes at one with the humanity 
 of others." l 
 
 Herder and Kant, Goethe and Schiller, stand at the part- 
 ing of the ways. They represent the best that individualism 
 has to offer without its serious defects ; they are products of 
 a rationalistic age without sharing overmuch in its sensual 
 realism ; but at the same time they look on life as an organic 
 whole, a whole made up of parts all harmoniously working 
 for the common good. While they glorify freedom, hu- 
 manity, individuality, they find the perfection of the indi- 
 vidual, and of humanity as well, in the perfection of the 
 national type. In Kant's categorical imperative, " Act as if 
 the maxim from which you act were to become through your 
 will a universal law of nature," we see the moral injunction 
 that converts eighteenth century particularism into nine- 
 teenth century nationalism. 
 
 What more natural than that there should be a " return to 
 the Greeks" in quest of the perfect realization of the human 
 idea ! The versatility of the Greek type, the 
 fearlessness and subtlety of Greek thought, the 
 exquisite beauty of Greek art, the clear, exact, 
 expressive character of the Greek language, fill the German 
 
 1 Herder, Briefe zur Beforderung der Ifumanitdt, III. Cited by 
 Francke.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 71 
 
 mind with admiration. At every turn the modern explorer 
 finds exemplified the union of beauty and truth, art and sci- 
 ence ; everywhere is exhibited the supremacy of mind over 
 Bense, of spirit over matter. Here human development at- 
 tains complete perfection. From the fountain-head of Greek 
 genius flows a clear and sparkling stream of boundless life 
 and freedom life in the fullest sense, joyous, unrestrained ; 
 freedom in all its branches, moral, intellectual, political, 
 social. It is this conception of humanity that the German 
 mind pictures as its highest ideal of life. 
 
 Klopstock called himself an " apprentice of the Greeks ; " 
 Winckelmann taught his countrymen to appreciate the beau- 
 ty of Greek art ; Lessing and Goethe and Schiller were filled 
 with the Greek spirit, and through them it became the 
 common possession of the nation. The result 
 was a blending of the spiritual life of the pres- Ret ^ e ^ tl 
 ent with classical life and thought a mod- 
 ern Renaissance that indicated the rise of a New Humanism. 
 
 The ideal of the new humanism was radically different 
 from the humanistic ideal that had held undisputed sway 
 in the learned world for upward of two centuries. It is no 
 longer the mastery of the Latin language, the imitation of 
 classic style, the acquisition of eloquence or skill in dispu- 
 tation ; the aim now is to develop the all-round man by in- 
 fusing into his being the vitalizing spirit of classical culture. 
 The Greek language advances to first place, not for the lan- 
 guage alone but for the literature, for the content rather 
 than the form. Moreover, language and literature are only 
 partial records of the past ; art and philosophy and history 
 speak with a thousand tongues. " History," Herder says, 
 " opens to us beautiful bowers of friendship and discourse 
 with the upright and thoughtful of all times. Here Plato 
 stands before me : there I hear Socrates's kindly question- 
 ings, and share in his last fate. When Marcus Antoninus in 
 his chamber communes with his heart, he also speaks to 
 mine ; and poor Epictetus gives commands more powerful 
 than those of a king. The ill-starred Tullius, the unfortu-
 
 72 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 nate Boethius speak to me, confiding to me the circum- 
 stances of their lives, the anguish and comfort of their souls. 
 Thus history leads us, as it were, into the council of fate, 
 teaches us the eternal laws of human nature, and assigns to 
 us our own place in the great organism in which reason and 
 goodness have to struggle, to be sure, with chaotic forces, 
 but always, according to their very nature, must create order 
 and go forward on the path of victory." 1 " The Germans," 
 it was said, " should unite the virtues of the Greeks and 
 Romans with their own. They should study the Greeks and 
 Romans merely to become thereby the better Germans, and in 
 every kind of virtue to surpass them." 
 
 It was inevitable that so complete a change in the spir- 
 itual ideals of a people should induce a corresponding change 
 
 in their schools. The new Hanoverian Uni- 
 Movement * versity of Gottingen became the centre of the 
 
 pedagogical reforms ; a considerable part of its 
 fame belongs to one man, J. M. Gesner, who at the opening 
 of the University was called to the chair of classical languages 
 from the rectorship of the Ttiomasschule in Leipsic. For 
 twenty-seven years Gesner devoted all his marvellous ability 
 as teacher and scholar to the cause of humanity. He was 
 the first of the new humanists, a broad-minded man, inter- 
 ested in the modern literature and familiar with modern sci- 
 ence and philosophy. Therefore, unlike the pedants of his 
 day, he would have his students enjoy the classical literature 
 in order that they might thereby acquire a correct standard 
 of judgment and taste applicable to modern morals, nation- 
 ality, language, thought and feeling. The teacher's duty, he 
 conceived, is to direct attention to the thought-content, to 
 note the interdependence of cause and effect, to make clear 
 the conditions which determine the course of events. What 
 does the author mean ? How does he prove it ? Is he right 
 or wrong ? What objections can be urged ? these are the 
 questions that give life to language-study. 
 
 1 Herder, Ideen^ XV., 6. Cited by Francke.
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 73 
 
 Gesner's work was ably carried on by his successor, Heyne, 
 who did perhaps more than anyone else to popularize Greek 
 poetry. In Saxony, the chief apostle of the 
 new humanism was Ernesti, who followed Ges- schools, 
 ner as rector of the Thorn asschule. Ernesti and 
 Heyne were teachers of teachers ; their students carried with 
 them into the schools of central and north-western Germany 
 the humanistic spirit. Saxony, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and 
 the country round about officially encouraged the new re- 
 forms. In Prussia the utilitarian theories of the realists of- 
 fered considerable opposition to the realization of the human- 
 istic ideal, but with the entrance of von Zedlitz into the 
 ministry of Frederick the Great in 1771 a change was ap- 
 parent. The cabinet order of 1779 gave von Zedlitz an oppor- 
 tunity to attempt reforms in some of the more important 
 higher schools of the kingdom, but for lack of co-operation 
 on the part of local school authorities his efforts were not 
 altogether successful. 1 But in Gedike and Meierotto, re- 
 spectively rectors of the Friedrich-Werdersche Schule and 
 the Joachimstalsches Gymnasium in Berlin, he found able 
 and willing collaborators. These men entered heartily into 
 the new methods of teaching the classics, adopted a new cur- 
 riculum and did not a little to fix the character of the human 
 istic Gymnasium. Gedike especially was an ardent believer 
 in the doctrine of formal discipline in accordance with the 
 VVolffian psychology. He recognized the value of thought- 
 content in literature, but he was also persuaded that the 
 study of the classical languages is a most excellent mental 
 gymnastic. " You can become a successful business man/' he 
 declared, " an excellent judge and lawyer, a famous physi- 
 cian, even a beloved and useful preacher, without Greek ; 
 you will find in all these positions plenty of able men who 
 learned it as youths only to forget it as men. But what is 
 the inference ? that the time given to it was wasted ? This 
 
 1 Rethwisch, Der Sta dsminister Freiherr von Zedlitz und Preusscnt 
 hoheres Schulwescn im Zeitalter Fricdrichs des Grossen, Berlin, 1886.
 
 74 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 would be the case if the study were pursued only as a means 
 of information." The fact is it serves another purpose : the 
 all-round training of the mental faculties. "So be assured 
 that if you forget your Greek, yes, even your Latin too, you 
 still have the advantage of having given your mind a train- 
 ing and discipline that will go with you into your future oc- 
 cupation. " 
 
 It is clearly apparent that there is chance for serious con- 
 flict between the doctrine of formal discipline and the theory 
 of classical culture. But it is interesting historically to 
 know that both notions spring from the same ideal, the per- 
 fection of the individual or Bildung zur Humanitdt. 
 
 The pedagogical character of the humanistic Gymnasium, 
 which at the end of the eighteenth century was universally 
 recognized as the type of school corresponding to 
 e ' the new educational ideal, was largely the work 
 
 of one man, Frederick August Wolf. He strove 
 to set up a golden mean between the extremes so sharply ac- 
 centuated by Gedike. His aim was to effect a harmonious 
 union between culture and discipline, form and substance. 
 I cannot state his view better than to quote the words of 
 Professor Paulsen regarding the purpose of the Gymnasium : 
 " Its object is the development of all the faculties in every 
 possible direction. To this end, a study of the ancient lan- 
 guages is regarded as of the utmost importance ; for, by 
 cultivating the Greek and Roman languages and literatures, 
 we acquire skill in all mental operations. The grammar as- 
 sists us greatly in formulating our ideas ; the classical poets 
 awaken our sense of the aesthetic, and cultivate a taste for 
 beauty and simplicity ; the study of the historical and philo- 
 sophical writers broadens our horizon, fills us with noble 
 sentiment and furnishes a historical basis for the proper con- 
 ception of the present. The study of mathematics ranks next 
 in importance, and also furnishes an excellent training to the 
 faculties. The new era despises the utilitarian and encyclo- 
 pedic attainments so highly valued by the previous epoch. 
 True human culture, and not utility, is its aim. It is charao-
 
 THE PERIOD OF TRANSITION 75 
 
 teristic of ignoble souls to appreciate only what is absolutely 
 utilitarian, and to overlook entirely the importance of a free, 
 beautiful, and perfect culture of the inner life." l 
 
 The utilitarian tendencies of the Enlightenment were eas- 
 ily overcome after the death of Frederick the Great. A new 
 ideal began to rule, an ideal born of rational- 
 
 o 
 
 istic thought and nurtured by the democratic 
 spirit of the times. The theory that all men are created equal 
 was not to the German mind, as to the French and Ameri- 
 can, a self-evident truth, but the perfectibility of the indi- 
 vidual through education was a part of the universal creed 
 of the eighteenth century. From the German point of view 
 the development of man as man, the attainment of the high- 
 est type of manhood, was possible only through humanistic 
 training according to the standards of the Greeks. And as 
 particularism grew into nationalism the humanistic ideal as 
 interpreted by Stein, Fichte and Humboldt became the ideal 
 of the nation. From the confusion of two hundred years 
 there emerged one dominant form of higher education ; it 
 was neither ecclesiastical nor partisan, although both secular 
 and religious. The inactivity of the protestant Latin schools, 
 the secularization of the colleges of the Jesuits consequent 
 upon the suppression of the order in 1773, and the decline 
 of the Ritterakademien paved the way for the complete re- 
 construction of the higher schools of Germany on a national 
 basis. This has been the work of the nineteenth century. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Ziegler, Geschichte der Padagogik, in Bau- 
 meister's Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre ; Schmid's, 
 Schmidt's and Rein's Encyclopedias ; Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrteit 
 Unterrichts ; Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen im Preussen, Vol. I. ; Whit- 
 man, Imperial Germany, Leipsic, 1890 ; Hegel, Philosophy of History ; 
 Baring-Gould, Germany, Present and Past ; Wakeman, Europe, 1598- 
 1715 ; Taylor, Studies in German Literature ; Japp, German Life and 
 Literature; Lowell, Governments and Parties in Continental Europe ; 
 Heubaum, Geschichte des Deutschen Bildungswesens seit der Mitte des 
 17ten Jahrhunderts, Berlin, 1905. 
 
 1 Paulsen, The Forum, XXIII., 5 : 606-7.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 1806-1892 
 
 THE chief characteristic of modern political history is the 
 foundation of great national states. The rise of Prussia to a 
 commanding position in continental politics and her subse- 
 quent leadership in the formation of the German Empire, are 
 the central facts in the later history of Europe. The key- 
 note to educational progress in Germany, therefore, must be 
 sought in the ideas which have actuated Prussian leadership 
 and led to Prussian success. That key-note is the concentra- 
 tion of political forces and the struggle for national unity. 
 
 At the opening of the century German patriotism was at a 
 
 low ebb. There was no common bond of sympathy between 
 
 Germany at the *^ e var i us states and no mutual ambitions. 
 
 Beginning of the The national spirit was dormant. Prussia her* 
 
 century. ge j f had f a u en f rom ^g ^ jg^ es t a t e of Frederick 
 
 the Great. The successors of that able monarch were totally 
 unfit to carry on his work. Where he strove to improve the 
 conditions of the people and. to abolish unjust class distinc- 
 tions, they suffered themselves to be led by base intriguers 
 and favoured courtiers. Under Frederick William II. " the 
 people who had learnt already to associate energy and heroism 
 with irreligion, were now taught to associate religion with 
 vice, misgovernment and disgrace." l Even the well-meaning 
 Frederick William III. continued on the downward path. 
 Corruption in higli places went hand in hand with the op- 
 
 1 Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, Pt. II. , chap. 2. 
 76
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 77 
 
 pression of the common people. Worse than that, the venal- 
 ity of the ruling class made Germany an easy prey to French 
 aggression. 
 
 The defeat of the Prussian army at Jena and Auerstadt re- 
 called the king and his councillors to their senses ; Prussia lay 
 prostrate and bleeding at the feet of Napoleon. 
 The Treaty of Tilsit was the penalty for " sleep- 
 ing upon the laurels of Frederick the Great/' 
 By that treaty Prussia lost nearly half of her territory all 
 that between the Rhine and the Elbe, besides her share of 
 Poland and was so humiliated by the severe terms of Napo- 
 leon that one wonders any national spirit was left. " The 
 state seemed to have fallen in pieces because it had no prin- 
 ciple of cohesion, and was held together by an artificial 
 bureaucracy. It had been created by the energy of its govern- 
 ment and the efficiency of its soldiers, and now it appeared to 
 come to an end because its government had ceased to be ener- 
 getic and its soldiers to be efficient. The catastrophe could 
 not but seem as irremediable as it was sudden and complete." * 
 
 The war which dragged along for seven years was a war for 
 the liberation of Prussia from the Napoleonic yoke. That it 
 was finally successful is due in the first instance 
 to a remarkable transformation in the loyalty 
 and patriotism of the people. The reforms of 
 Stein, Hardenburg, Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, in political 
 and military affairs, were ably seconded by Arndt, Fitche, von 
 Humboldt, and a score of others who strove passionately to 
 enthuse the nation with a higher and nobler spirit. 
 
 Baron von Stein began in 1807 the silent revolution by pro- 
 posing the Emancipating Edict 2 which abolished class dis- 
 tinctions in the tenure of land and business oc- 
 
 . , . Civil Reforms. 
 
 cupation and struck the final blow at serfdom. 
 
 He aimed to liberate the cities from the obnoxious and selfish 
 
 1 Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, Pt. III. , chap. 4. 
 
 9 A translation of the Edict is given in Translations and Reprints, is- 
 sued by the University of Pennsylvania, The Napoleonic Aye, Vol. II.| 
 No. 2, Philadelphia, 189$.
 
 78 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 control of a bureaucracy and to strengthen the state by ad- 
 mitting the people to a share in its government. Naturally 
 such radical proposals were displeasing to Napoleon and not 
 altogether satisfactory to the royal favourites who were so 
 largely responsible for the degradation of Prussia. Stein was 
 soon forced to lay down his office and quit the country, but 
 the seed he had planted came to fruition under Hardenburg, 
 who extended the rights of citizenship and laid the founda- 
 tions for legislation by representative assemblies. 
 
 The year 1807 saw also the beginnings of far-reaching re- 
 forms in the organization of the army. Napoleon had per- 
 Miiitary Reforms mitted tne retention of only 42,000 men under 
 arms, but by the foresight of Scharnhorst this 
 little band became the nucleus of the grand army which under 
 Bliicher seven years afterward helped to make "Napoleon's 
 overthrow complete. The universal liability to military ser- 
 vice and the constitution of a trained reserve force ready to 
 take up arms at a moment's notice, innovations forced on 
 Prussia by the exigencies of the situation, marked a new epocli 
 in European military procedure. Instead of the old army, 
 "Frederick's army grown twenty years older/' there arose a 
 new army which could be maintained only by adequate recog- 
 nition of merits and fitness in all its parts. It was seen that 
 "Nothing but attainments in education in peace, distin- 
 guished gallantry, activity and comprehension in war can 
 establish the claim to the post as officer. Hitherto, through 
 the restriction of these honours to a single class, all the talents 
 and requirements of the rest of the nation were lost to the 
 army, and this class found itself relieved of the necessity of 
 acquiring military talents, being raised to the highest mili- 
 tary posts by birth and long life." l 
 
 The reforms of Stein, Hardenburg, Scharnhorst and their 
 co-workers were the official recognition of mighty changes 
 in the social consciousness. The one thought was the over- 
 throw of Napoleon and the restoration of national indepen- 
 
 1 JJeeley, The Life and Times of Stein^ Pt. IV., chap. 4.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 79 
 
 dence. In this great undertaking minor differences of men 
 and states sank into insignificance ; there was no place for 
 petty bickerings and factional strife. The lead- changes in the 
 ers knew that success could be attained only Social con- 
 through united effort. Secret societies sprang 
 up whose members were pledged to promote the interests of 
 the state. Through books and pamphlets and public ad- 
 dresses patriotic men unceasingly sought to inflame the peo- 
 ple. The stirring appeals of Arndt came at a time when 
 "songs were sermons and sermons were songs." One of his 
 pamphlets, " The Rhine, Germany's River, but never Ger- 
 many's Boundary," seems now like an inspired prophecy. 
 He, in common with many others of his time, was filled with 
 the idea of German unity not merely the aggrandizement of 
 Prussia, but the birth of a German Empire. In one of his 
 great war-songs he asks the question, 
 
 " What is the German's Fatherland ? 
 Is it Prussia, or the Swabian's land ? 
 Is it where the grape glows on the Rhine ? 
 Where sea-gulls skim the Baltic's brine ? " 
 
 The answer finally is found : 
 
 " Where'er resounds the German tongue, 
 Where'er its hymns to God are sung ! 
 
 That is the land, 
 Brave German, that thy Fatherland ! " 
 
 The services of Arndt in the liberation of his country can- 
 not be lightly regarded. He firmly believed in the imperial 
 policy and remained steadfast in that faith, as 
 may be seen from the fact that forty years after- 
 ward he was one of the deputation to offer the 
 imperial crown to the King of Prussia, Frederick William 
 IV. The influence of Arndt, however, was mostly with the 
 common people. Stein, in one of his letters, designates 
 the philosopher Fichte as performing remarkable services 
 among the leaders in thought and action. He says : "Fichte's 
 Addresses to the Germans, delivered during the French oc-
 
 80 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 cupation of Berlin, and printed under the censorship of M. 
 Biguon, the Intendant, had a great effect upon the feeling 
 of the cultivated class." Seeley, in citing this comment of 
 Stein, observes " that in the midst of such weighty matters he 
 should remember to mention Fichte's addresses is a remark- 
 able testimony to the effect produced by them on the public 
 mind, and at the same time it leads us to conjecture that they 
 must have strongly influenced his own." 1 
 
 Certain it is that this philosopher, confident in his own 
 moral freedom and conscious of a growing perfection in the 
 pichte'sAd- race > moved his countrymen as they had not 
 dresses to the been moved since the days of the Reformation. 
 German Nation. He rem j n( j s them that "a nation that is capa- 
 ble, if it were only in its highest representation and leaders, 
 of fixing its eyes firmly on the vision from the spiritual 
 world, Independence, and being possessed with a love of it, 
 like our earliest ancestors, will assuredly prevail over a nation 
 that is only used as the tool of foreign aggressiveness and for 
 the subjugation of independent nations, like the Roman 
 armies ; for the former have everything to lose and the latter 
 only something to gain." Again he exhorts them : " On you 
 it depends whether you will be the end and last of a race 
 worthy of little respect ... or whether you will be the 
 beginning and germ of a new time, glorious beyond all your 
 imaginations, and those from whom posterity will reckon the 
 years of their welfare." By such words as these he urged his 
 people to action. " That we can no longer resist openly has 
 been already assumed and universally admitted. Having 
 then lost the first object of life, what remains for us to do ? 
 Our constitutions will be made for us, our treaties and the 
 nse of our military forces will be prescribed to us, a code will 
 be given us, even the right of judicial trial and decision, and 
 the exercise of it will be at times taken away ; for the present 
 we shall be relieved of all these cares. Education alone has 
 been overlooked ; if we want an occupation let us take to this. 
 
 1 Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, Pt. IV., chap. 1.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 81 
 
 . . . I hope to convince some Germans and bring them 
 to see that nothing but education can rescue us from all the 
 miseries that overwhelm us. I count especially upon our 
 being made more disposed to observation and earnest reflec- 
 tion by our needs." l 
 
 The course of events in Prussia during the war, despite 
 French domination, was wonderfully changed for the better. 
 Not only in Prussia but in all Germany reforms 
 were executed which did much to alleviate the 
 hard condition of the peasantry and remove re- 
 strictions which had so hampered the commercial and in- 
 dustrial activities of the middle and upper classes. Such 
 loyalty and devotion had been engendered that when inde- 
 pendence w^s attained further effort toward political freedom 
 was easily checked by those interested in perpetuating the 
 sovereignty of local potentates. Notwithstanding it had been 
 proclaimed in 1813 by the Prussian King that the object of 
 his alliance with Russia was " to aid the German peoples in 
 recovering freedom and independence, and to afford to them 
 effective protection and defence in re-establishing a venerable 
 Empire," the Act of Confederation, adopted a week before 
 Waterloo, " made only the feeblest provisions for the conces- 
 sion of popular rights and the establishment of representative 
 institutions in the several states." 2 Fora time Austrian in- 
 fluence was supreme. The Carlsbad Conference of 1819 ap- 
 proved the repressive measures of Metternich which were 
 aimed at the freedom of the press, university teaching, politi- 
 cal discussion and free intercourse. Thus did the selfishness 
 of rulers and the greed of royal sycophants triumph over the 
 desires of the people for freedom, national unity and national 
 greatness. 
 
 The years from 1819 to 1848 marked a period of utter 
 hopelessness for the liberal policy. That which had seemed 
 so nearly attained in 1814 to all appearances was irretriev- 
 
 1 Fichte, Reden an die Deutsche Nation ; translation by Seeley. 
 1 Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, p. 412. 
 9
 
 82 GERMAN- HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ably lost. The strict censorship of the press and the lack of 
 all constitutional methods of bringing pressure to bear on the 
 government effectually checked the develop- 
 ment of free institutions. Nevertheless the 
 exigencies of trade and industry united all Ger- 
 many, save Austria, in 1836 in a Zollverein which in its 
 own way contributed to the Revolution of 1848. Then for a 
 time the petty rulers of Germany were thoroughly frightened, 
 and by liberal promises to their peoples they succeeded in 
 averting the threatened storm, only to fall back into the old 
 ways once the danger was passed. The fifteen years following 
 1850 seemed as devoid of hope as the thirty years and more 
 that preceded. One advantage, however, had been gained : 
 It was becoming increasingly clear that German sovereigns 
 could be frightened into making liberal promises, and the no- 
 tion was gaining ground that possibly they could be compelled 
 to grant radical reforms. The rivalry between Prussia and 
 Austria afforded a chance for even a comparatively weak 
 party to exert considerable influence. The trend of events, 
 especially the Schleswick-Holstein affair, showed unmistak- 
 ably that Prussia was in the ascendancy, and with Prussia the 
 weaker states were forced to unite. The union, foreshadowed 
 in the North German Confederation, was finally accomplished 
 on December 31, 1870, when in the palace of the French Em- 
 perors the King of Prussia accepted the imperial crown which 
 his brother had rejected in 1849. 
 
 The German Empire of to-day is not altogether the ideal 
 toward which German liberalism has been striving for three- 
 German Empire quarters of a century, but it conforms nearly 
 a Confederation enough to that ideal to secure the allegiance of 
 of states. j. ne oid-time reformers. It is in fact little more 
 than a confederation of states, some of which, notably Bavaria, 
 are practically as independent as ever. There is still a censor- 
 ship of the press and much official interference with the free- 
 dom of speech and assembly ; property qualifications and 
 the privileges of birth still continue to beget socialistic dis- 
 cord. But notwithstanding these short-comings there is a
 
 universal feeling that the fortunes of the German people are 
 indissolubly bound up with the future of Prussia. This 
 state, with an area and a population greater than the other 
 twenty-five together, and whose king is German Emperor by 
 hereditary right, must continue to dominate the policy of the 
 Empire. If complete unity has not been attained it is ac- 
 knowledged that it can be secured in case of need. The 
 lesson of German history teaches that progress comes in time 
 of war, and Prussia stands armed cap-a-pie, ready to lead in 
 the next conflict as she has in the past. One more desperate 
 struggle and national unity may be perfected. 1 
 
 The idea of national unity which has given colour to all 
 the later political aspirations of the German people was power- 
 fully re-enforced during the earlier decades of 
 
 u 4-u -Ji !-* n German Idealism. 
 
 the century by the idealistic tendency in all 
 departments of thought. That " enlightened " view of the 
 world which saw the universe as a machine and God the 
 master workman, that conception of mind as a store-house of 
 ideas which gave no chance for individual initiative and per- 
 sonal responsibility, that notion of art and literature which 
 subjected them to rule and reason all characteristic of the ^ 
 eighteenth century were transformed at the touch of the 
 leading spirits of the new era. Kant showed that it is man's 
 understanding, working on the things of sense, that gives 
 laws to nature, and that human experience would be forever 
 impossible without those forms of sense perception which 
 " lie a priori in the mind, ready to be applied to all sensa- 
 tions as they arise." 2 In the realm of scientific discovery " it 
 was seen that reason has insight only into that which it pro- 
 duces after a plan of its own, and that it must itself lead the 
 way with principles of judgment based upon fixed laws, and 
 force nature to answer its questions." 3 The outer world, ac- 
 
 1 See the chapter on The New German Empire in Bryce's Holy Roman 
 Empire, London, 1894. 
 
 9 Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, introduction to the Transcendental 
 ^Esthetic. 
 
 3 Kant, Introduction to the Critique of Pure Reason.
 
 84: GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 cording to Kant, is a show-world, a world of phenomena ; the 
 real world, the realm of things as they are, is utterly unknow- 
 able. The world which we know, the world in which we 
 live and move and have our being, is nothing apart from the 
 apperceiving mind ; the world which man delights to con- 
 quer and in which he must perform his part as in the sight 
 of God is the world of human thought. 
 
 German idealism, born of Kant and nurtured by Fichte 
 and the Romantic School, culminated in the philosophy of 
 Hegel. As a finished product, Hegelianism 
 exercised a profound influence on the educa- 
 
 tional history of Germany. " In fact," says 
 Paulsen, " his philosophy may well be called the Prussian 
 state-philosophy during the years from 1820 to 1840, and in 
 a double sense ; it was the philosophical system officially 
 acknowledged by the state or at least by the Ministry of 
 Education, and on the other hand Hegel was the enthusiastic 
 apostle of the 'state-idea/" 1 But potent as was Hegelian- 
 ism, it was rather a static than a dynamic force. Its subtle- 
 ties made it a convenient shelter for all manner of reactionary 
 and repressive measures. It was never so indubitably pro- 
 gressive as the earlier representatives of the idealistic school. 
 During the generation preceding 1805, men of genius were 
 almost deified in the select circles of their adorers. Jena 
 and Weimar sprang into eminence because moved by the pres- 
 ence of Goethe and Schiller, Herder and Fichte, and their 
 satellites. 
 
 The world, as Fichte conceived it, is the world that the 
 self makes, the world that it freely chooses to make, and be- 
 cause of its imperfections and limitations the self must needs 
 work to overcome it. This is the whole duty of man : work 
 to upbuild the moral order of the universe. The world is 
 what we make it, good or bad, great or small, bond or free. 
 Go forth and do something in a world that can be made 
 better by your action. This is the spirit that cried out in 
 
 1 Paulsen, German Universities, New York, 1895, p. 68.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 85 
 
 the Addresses to the German Nation that it bethink itself of 
 the duty resting upon it to create the truly civilized state and 
 give back freedom to the world. Never did philosophy find 
 a more eloquent advocate or touch more surely a nation's 
 heart ! 
 
 The philosophy of the Eomantic school lacked the ethical 
 basis of Fichte's idealism. In its practical aspects it bordered 
 on the immoral by granting to the budding ^ p^j h 
 philosophers, literati, and professed geniuses a of the Romantic 
 freedom of action which amounted in many School, 
 cases to unbridled license. But it must be acknowledged that 
 in this circle there was a buoyancy of spirit and an enthusi- 
 asm in action which inevitably made for progress. That 
 Weltanschauung which leaves to man's caprice the determi- 
 nation of his own world does not conduce to social stability, 
 but it may serve a good purpose in casting aside useless tra- 
 ditions. In breaking with the past the Romantic School saw 
 fit to dispense with foreign culture, whether in classical or 
 modern garb, except as it contributed to German needs. 
 German literature, art and philosophy were advanced to first 
 place. The Nibelungenlied was heralded as the German Iliad, 
 and the half-forgotten singers of the sixteenth century, de- 
 spised in their own day because they could use only the peas- 
 ant speech, were now lauded because they wrote in German. 
 In deference to this increasing respect for the individual man, 
 especially if he be German, we find an increasing interest in 
 the homelier element of life, a broader sympathy for all that 
 is human. The folk-tales of the brothers Grimm and all the 
 wealth of song and story which to-day seems so characteris- 
 tically German must be credited to this romantic movement. 
 
 A survey of the spiritual forces current in German life at 
 the turn of the century easily discovers the secret of the 
 political and military strength of the German 
 nation. From the ashes of the Thirty Years' Ci * cld < l8o 
 
 Education. 
 
 War there had sprung a proud and ambitious 
 
 people determined to redeem the Fatherland. Deprived of 
 
 their inheritance from the Renaissance of the fifteenth cen-
 
 86 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 tury by circumstances over which they had no control, but of 
 which they were an integral part, they profited in the eigh- 
 teenth from their birthright. In the meantime the stern 
 lessons of history had taught them the value of co-operation 
 and the dignity and worth of manhood. True, the lesson 
 had been but imperfectly learned ; nevertheless it was clearly 
 apparent to the leaders in the reconstruction of Germany that 
 nobility of birth supported by a foreign culture must event- 
 ually give way to a higher and more patriotic nobility rooted 
 in a truly German civilization. The problem was how best 
 to weld together the discordant elements in the state and to 
 realize in the national life the highest ideals of individual 
 and social excellence. Down to the Napoleonic era this had 
 been regarded as peculiarly the prerogative of the church ; 
 the trend of events guided by the collectivistic idea imposed 
 this task in self-defence upon the state. The reconstruction 
 of the school system and its adaptation to this end followed 
 as a matter of course. 
 
 In the reorganization of the schools to conform to the civic 
 
 ideal of education two main tendencies are noticeable : First, 
 
 the centralization of the school system, the 
 
 ! P ! ob ! e ]?r 0f conversion of a vast collection of schools of all 
 
 School Reform. 
 
 grades into a single system capable of direction, 
 supervision and management by a central authority acting for 
 the state ; second, the selection of materials of instruction, 
 the formation of courses of study and the methods of teach- 
 ing best calculated to subserve the needs of the different 
 classes of society while promoting the interests of the state. 
 The former deals with the external affairs of the schools ; the 
 latter is concerned solely with their internal arrangement and 
 methods of work. The one has always enjoyed a close rela- 
 tionship with practical politics and differs in the various states 
 according to the political peculiarities of each ; the other, in- 
 dependent of state boundaries, is conditioned primarily by 
 the social, industrial and spiritual needs of the people. 
 
 The development of central control of the schools in Prus- 
 sia has been even more closely in touch with the political ex-
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 87 
 
 pansion of the monarchy than in most other German states. 
 A direct and systematic inspection of the evangelical schools 
 followed the Reformation in Brandenburg, and 
 Joachim II. established in 1552 a consistory for 
 church and school affairs. In 1573 the Elector, 
 John George, prescribed regulations for the inspection and 
 general conduct of schools. In the privy council of Joachim 
 Frederick there appeared in 1604 a special board to which 
 was delegated supervisory powers over the church consistory. 
 But inasmuch as all school inspectors were clergymen there was 
 no thought of making the schools independent of the church. 
 During the Thirty Years' War all was lost that had been gained. 
 The wanton destruction of property and the loss of population 
 effectually checked all educational progress. In 1687 Elector 
 Frederick William made an urgent plea for the re-establish- 
 ment of the school system on the lines marked out by his pred- 
 ecessors. The founding of the Prussian kingdom in 1701 first 
 gave an opportunity for effectual centralization. Under Fred- y 
 erick William II. regulations were enforced which secured 
 considerable uniformity. Frederick the Great continued the 
 development along the lines marked out by his father. In 
 1750 he placed all the provincial consistories, except that of 
 Silesia, under the jurisdiction of the Berlin consistory, and by 
 so doing school affairs were brought more than ever under 
 one central control. A practical result was that from a large 
 number of weak Latin schools with no definite course of study 
 there were evolved a few really good Gymnasien, with uni- 
 form curricula. In 1771, Baron von Zedlitz became head 
 of the Department of Lutheran Church and School Affairs. 
 From that time on till his retirement from office in 1788 
 there was rapid progress. At his instance King Frederick 
 William II. instituted in 1787 the Oberschulcollegium, aboard 
 charged with the reorganization of the school system and the 
 oversight of all school affairs in the monarchy. 1 
 
 'The duty of the board, according to the royal rescript, was "das ge- 
 tammte Schulwesen in Unscren Landcn auf das zweckmdssigste einzv-
 
 88 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Von Zedlitz was placed at the head of the board, and with 
 him were associated the Berlin school-masters, J. H. Meierotto 
 and Frederick Gedike, who were to be travelling inspectors of 
 schools in the provinces. One of the most important regula- 
 tions of the Oberschulcollegium was the edict (1788) insti- 
 tuting a system of leaving examinations in all the higher 
 schools (Abiturientenprufungeri). 1 This regulation, however, 
 like most of those that had gone before, was of little practical 
 importance. Whatever was pleasing to the church or the 
 clerical parties was sure to succeed ; whatever was opposed to 
 clerical interests was equally certain of failure. In fact it 
 was the King's settled policy in all his enactments to bind 
 the school more closely to the church, and for this purpose 
 the Oberschulcollegium was filled up with representatives of the 
 clerical parties. More than that, Gedike's dream of a cen- 
 tralized and uniform school system was officially dispelled by 
 a refusal to extend the jurisdiction of the Oberschulcollegium 
 even to all the higher schools of the monarchy. At the end 
 of the century there was really no state school system ; such 
 system as obtained was directly under the control of the 
 church and only indirectly responsible to the state. 
 
 The first step in the secularization of the schools was taken 
 in 1794 by the promulgation of the Allgemeine Landrecht, 
 the Prussian Magna Charta, itself the surest guarantee of the 
 strength of the democratic spirit. The common law basis 
 for educational institutions was stated in these unequivocal 
 
 richten, und nach den Umstdnden der Zeit und der Beschaffenheit der 
 Schulen immer zu verbessern. Es muss darauf Acht haben, dass nach 
 Verschiedenheit der Schulen injeder der nothwendigeund niitzlichste Unter- 
 richt ertheilt werde ; es muss mit Nachdruck darauf halten, dass iiberall 
 zweckmdssige Schulbiicher gebraucht und eingefuhrt, und wo solche man- 
 geln, durch tiichtige Manner eingefuhrt wer den. Wir legen dem O. S. C. 
 die Befugniss bei, an alle Landesregierungen und Consistorien, auch an 
 das ostpreuss. Staatsministerium Rescripte und Befehle zu erlassen." 
 (Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen, I., p. 3.) 
 
 1 The various regulations governing the examinations down to 1863 aie 
 given in Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen, I. , pp. 478-524. Later 
 details are given by Kiibler.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 89 
 
 terms : " Schools and universities are state institutions, 
 charged with the instruction of youth in useful information 
 and scientific knowledge. Such institutions separation of 
 may be founded only with the knowledge and Church and 
 consent of the state. All public schools and 
 educational institutions are under the supervision of the 
 state, and are at all times subject to its examination and in- > 
 spection." These were brave words, but they had little actual - 
 significance until the people were fully roused to the neces- 
 sities of national independence and national unity. 
 
 The organization of the Prussian school system waited on 
 the reorganization of the Prussian state. On October 5, 
 1807, Baron von Stein was placed at the head of 
 the entire civil administration of the monarchy. Humboidt; 
 One of his first acts was to abolish the Ober- 
 schulcollegium in order effectually to rid himself of clerical 
 domination. In 1808 the bureau of public instruction was 
 transferred to the Department of the Interior, in which it 
 formed one of the six sections. The Section fur Cultus und 
 den offentlichen Unterricht was presided over by William von / 
 Humboldt. " The Providential man appeared in Humboldt, 
 as great a master of the science and art of education as 
 Scharnhorst was master of the organization of war. Not 
 only was he himself, as a scholar and an investigator, on 
 a level with the very first of his age, not only had he lived 
 with precisely those masters of literature, Schiller and Goethe, 
 who were most deliberate in their self-culture, and have 
 therefore left behind most instruction on the higher parts of 
 education, but he had been especially intimate with F. A. 
 Wolf. Formed by such teachers, and supported by a more 
 intense belief in culture than almost any man of his time, 
 Humboldt began his work in April, 1809." * His efforts 
 were directed from the first to making the education of the 
 Prussian youth commensurate with the responsibilities of 
 Prussian citizenship. The schools must exist for the state 
 
 1 Seeley, Life and Times of Stein^ Pt. VI., chap. 3.
 
 90 G&nAtAtf HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 and must learn how to train up intelligent, God-fearing, pa- 
 triotic citizens. For the most part his efforts were direct- 
 ed to the internal improvement of the schools, but it was seen 
 that no radical change could be made without first putting 
 the schools in such a position that unwilling pedagogues 
 should be forced to obey governmental requests. So far as 
 the higher schools were concerned there was little uniformity 
 in the courses of study and no guarantee that their graduates 
 were fitted for university work and the civil service, except 
 the uncertain entrance tests applied by the universities them- 
 
 i selves. Accordingly in 1812 the system of final examinations 
 which had fallen into abeyance was revived and enforced. 
 But the time was not ripe for its universal application. Fail- 
 ure to pass this examination, which was conducted by local 
 school officers under the personal supervision of a state in- 
 spector, did not prevent a student's admission to the uni- 
 versity nor to the civil service ; the only penalty was in- 
 eligibility for the many valuable stipends controlled by the 
 state. Not till the second decade of the century was the 
 privilege of admission to the civil service withdrawn from 
 those who failed to pass the final examinations of the Gym- 
 nasien. The decisive step was taken in 1834, when it was de- 
 
 \ creed that candidates for the learned professions must have 
 as a prerequisite for admission to the state examinations a 
 certificate of graduation from an approved higher school. 
 Inasmuch as the leaving examinations of the higher schools 
 are conducted by a board of school officers in the presence of 
 a representative of the department of public instruction, 
 whose approval is necessary in passing a candidate, it will be 
 seen how completely the essential control of the schools had 
 passed into the hands of the central board. 
 
 The plan of administration as proposed by Stein and elab- 
 orated by Humboldt and his successors continued in force 
 down to the year 1817, when that section of the 
 Interior Department which included the bureau 
 of education was erected into an independent 
 ministry, called the Ministerium der geistlichen und Unter-
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 91 
 
 richtsangelegenheiten. The chief of the new Department was 
 Baron Von Altenstein, who remained in office until his death 
 in 1840 a regime which marks the triumph of bureaucracy, 
 as may be inferred from the fact that for eight years, 1824- 
 1832, the Director of the Police Bureau was officially in 
 charge of the department of public instruction. 1 
 
 1 "In 1817, the students of several universities assembled at the Wart- 
 burg in order to celebrate the tercentenary of the Reformation. In 
 the evening, a small number of them, the majority having already left, 
 were carried away by enthusiastic zeal, and, in imitation of Luther, burnt 
 a number of writings recently published against German freedom, to- 
 gether with other emblems of what was considered hateful in the insti- 
 tutions of some of the German states. These youthful excesses were 
 viewed by the governments as symptoms of grave peril. At the same time, 
 a large number of students united to form one great German Burschen- 
 schaft (association of students), whose aim was the cultivation of a love 
 of country, a love of freedom, and the moral sense. Thereupon increased 
 anxiety on the part of the governments, followed by vexatious police 
 interference. Matters grew worse in consequence of the rash act of a 
 fanatical student, named Sand. It became known that the Russian 
 government was using all its powerful influence to have liberal ideas 
 suppressed in Germany, and that the play-wright Kotzebue had secretly 
 sent to Russia slanderous and libellous reports on German patriots. 
 Sand travelled to Mannheim and thrust a dagger into Kotzebue' s heart. 
 The consequences were most disastrous to the cause of freedom in Ger- 
 many. The distrust of the governments reached its height : it was held 
 that this bloody deed must needs be the result of a wide-spread con- 
 spiracy : the authorities suspected demagogues everywhere. . . . 
 Many young men were thrown into prison ; gymnastic and other societies 
 were arbitrarily suppressed ; a rigid censorship of the press was estab- 
 lished, and the freedom of the universities restrained ; various professors, 
 among them Arndt, whose songs had helped to fire the enthusiasm of the 
 Frciheits-kampfer the soldiers of freedom in the recent war, were de- 
 prived of their offices; the Burschenschaft was dissolved, and the wearing 
 of their colours, the future colours of the German Empire, black, red, 
 and gold, was forbidden. . . . The universities continued to uphold 
 the national idea ; the Burschenschaft soon secretly revived as a private 
 association, and as early as 1820 there again existed at most German uni- 
 versities Burschenschaften, which, though their aims were not sharply de- 
 fined, bore a political colouring and placed the demand for German unity 
 in the foreground." (Krause, The Growth of German Unity, chap. 8.)
 
 92 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 The external organization of the school-system was fully 
 accomplished in 1825 when provincial school-boards (Provin- 
 zial Schulcollegien], responsible to the Ministry of Education, 
 were instituted in the several provinces of the kingdom side 
 by side with the church consistories. At this point the 
 schools were finally separated from the church and state con- 
 trol was assured. 
 
 The great work, however, which Humboldt set himself to 
 do was the vitalizing of the schools from within. It need not 
 be related here in detail how that work was Reforms in 
 done in the field of elementary or of university Elementary Ed- 
 education. " The movement in behalf of popu- 
 lar schools commenced by inviting C. A. Zeller, of Wurtem- 
 berg, to Prussia. Zeller was a young theologian who had 
 studied under Pestalozzi in Switzerland, and was thoroughly 
 imbued with the method and spirit of his master. On his 
 return he had convened the school-teachers of Wiirtemberg in 
 barns, for want of better accommodations being allowed him, 
 and inspired them with a zeal for Pestalozzi's methods, and 
 for a better education of the whole people. On removing to 
 Prussia he first took charge of the seminary at Koenigsberg, 
 soon after founded the seminary at Karalene, and went about 
 into different provinces meeting with teachers, holding con- 
 ferences, visiting schools and inspiring school officers with the 
 right spirit. The next step taken was to send a number of 
 young men, mostly theologians, to Pestalozzi's institution at 
 Iferten, to acquire his method, and on their return to place 
 them in new or reorganized teachers' seminaries. To these 
 new agents in school improvement were joined a large body of 
 zealous teachers, and patriotic and enlightened citizens, who, 
 in ways and methods of their own, laboured incessantly to con- 
 firm the Prussian state, by forming new organs for its inter- 
 nal life, and new means of protection from foreign foes. 
 They proved themselves truly educators of the people. Al- 
 though the government thus not only encouraged, but di- 
 rectly aided, in the introduction of the methods of Pestalozzi 
 into the public schools of Prussia, still the school-boards in the
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 93 
 
 different provinces sustained and encouraged those who ap- 
 proved and taught on different systems. . . . Music, 
 which was one of Pestalozzi's great instruments of culture, 
 was made the vehicle of patriotic songs, and through them the 
 heart of all Germany was moved to bitter hatred of the con- 
 queror who had desolated her fields and homes, and humbled 
 the pride of her monarchy. All these efforts for the improve- 
 ment of the elementary education, accompanied by expensive 
 modifications in the establishments of secondary and supe- 
 rior education, were made when the treasury was impover- 
 ished, and taxes the most exorbitant in amount were levied on 
 every province and commune of the kingdom." l From such 
 beginnings has grown the most magnificent system of common 
 schools in the world. 
 
 The influence of the reformers was felt quite as distinctly 
 in university education. Seeley says that "it was on the 
 highest department of education that Humboldt ReformB in Uni . 
 left his mark most visibly. He founded the vereity Educa- 
 University of Berlin ; he gave to Europe a new tion * 
 seat of learning, which has ever since stood on an equality 
 with the very greatest of those which Europe boasted before. 
 We are not indeed to suppose that the idea of such a univer- 
 sity sprang up for the first time at this moment, or in the brain 
 of Humboldt. Among all the losses which befell Prussia by 
 the Peace of Tilsit none was felt more bitterly than the loss 
 of the University of Halle, where Wolf himself had made his 
 fame. Immediately after the blow fell, two of the professors of 
 Halle made their way to Memel and laid Before the King a 
 proposal to establish a High School at Berlin. This was on 
 August 22, 1807. ... A university is not founded in 
 a day, and accordingly while Stein held office the design did 
 not pass beyond the stage of discussion. . . . Humboldt 
 sent in his report on May 12, 1809, and on August 16th fol- 
 lowed the Order of Cabinet assigning to the new University, 
 along with the Academies of Science and Art, an annual do- 
 
 >H, Barnard, Am. Journal of Education^ VIII., 405.
 
 94 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 nation of 150,000 thalers, and the palace of Prince Henry as 
 its residence. During the rest of his term of office Humboldt 
 was occupied in negotiations with eminent men of science all 
 over Germany, whose services he hoped to procure. He was 
 certainly not unsuccessful. He secured Fichte for philoso- 
 phy ; Schleiermacher, De Wette, and Marheineke for the- 
 ology ; Savigny and Schmalz for jurisprudence ; Friedlander, 
 Kolrausch, Hufeland, and Reil for medicine ; Wolf, Butt- 
 mann, Bockh, Heindorf, and Spalding for the study of an- 
 tiquity ; Niebuhr and Riihs for history ; Tralles for mathe- 
 matics (Gauss refused the invitation). The University was 
 opened at Michaelmas of 1810, and as the first result of it 
 the first volume of Niebuhr's Roman History, opening so vast 
 a field of historical speculation, was published in 1811. "* 
 
 The reforms which were inaugurated in the higher schools 
 were characteristic of the age and reflect the personalities of 
 Reforms in Sec- the great leaders in educational thought. Hum- 
 ondary Bduca- boldt and Wolf were ardent humanists ; both 
 were profound students and enthusiastic ad- 
 mirers of Greek culture. It was natural that their influence 
 should be exerted in favour of the new humanism which had 
 already won a place for itself in central and northern Ger- 
 many under the leadership of the University of Gottingen. 
 Wolf, himself, had been for years a missionary of the new cult 
 in Halle ; Herder had made it at home in the Gymnasium in 
 Weimar. It might seem, therefore, to the casual observer that 
 nothing could prevent the triumph of Greek ideals. But 
 Humboldt was in office only about a year and Wolf's temper- 
 ament was not such as to make him a popular leader of men. 
 More than that the reforms of the higher schools were scarcely 
 more than begun when the reactionary tendency in all lines of 
 civic and mental activity began to set in. To be sure much 
 had been accomplished before the true significance of the 
 reforms were fully realized, and a machinery had been set in 
 motion which had to be directed and could not be stopped. 
 
 1 Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, Pt. VI., chap. 3.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OP Tttfi HlQBER SCHOOLS 95 
 
 The direction, however, was not altogether in harmony 
 with the views of those who had planned the educational 
 reforms. 
 
 A survey of the educational field at the beginning of the 
 century discloses two radically different types of classical 
 schools. The Weimar Gymnasium was a lead- 
 
 i- e -u, v, i- -j i Main Proems. 
 
 ing representative of the new humanistic ideal ; 
 Schulpforta was the best known institution of the old type. 
 Bothwere strong and vigorous schools and well calculated 
 for leadership in the educational world. Schulpforta made 
 the doctrine of formal discipline the chief article in its creed ; 
 the critical study of the ancient languages was the all-impor- 
 tant means to this end. Its supporters were especially nu- 
 merous in southern Germany and wherever clerical influence, 
 particularly Jesuitical, was felt. The Weimar school was 
 the creation of Herder, who set as his educational ideal the 
 Bildung zur Humanitat. In effect the opposition was strict- 
 ly between the old humanism and the new. 
 
 There can be little doubt that if Humboldt and Wolf had 
 come into power ten years earlier the victory of the new ideas 
 would have been more complete. As it was they were forced 
 to reckon with the conservatism of school-masters and found 
 it insuperable. Yet no one but possibly they themselves 
 would count their labour lost. While they did not attain the 
 heights of their ambition they made the higher schools of the 
 kingdom a hundred-fold more efficient than they had ever 
 been before. The ideals of Greek culture were so built into 
 the very foundations of the school system that it has since 
 been impossible to remove them. 
 
 Perhaps the wisest measure that Humboldt introduced was 
 the one relating to the certification of teachers as set forth 
 in the edict of 1810. l This measure provided 
 for a searching examination of all candidates 
 for teachers* positions and effectually checked 
 what had been a common practice of permitting theological 
 
 1 See Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preusscn, I., pp. 545 ff.
 
 96 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 students to eke out an existence while waiting for a suitable 
 post in the church. The position of teacher was raised at 
 once to something like professional dignity. And from that 
 day to this the teaching profession has steadily grown in tech- 
 nical and social importance. 
 
 The introduction of leaving examinations in 1812 put a 
 premium on uniformity in school work. It was also decreed 
 at the same time that all classical schools, en- 
 titled to fit students for the universities, wheth- 
 er known by the title of Gymnasium, Lyceum, 
 Pddagogium, Collegium, Lateinische Schule, or what not, 
 should henceforth be called Gymnasien. 
 
 For the guidance of these schools Humboldt commissioned 
 Silvern, a pupil of Fichte and Wolf and later a member of 
 Gedike's seminar, to prepare a general course 
 of Itiidy. This was laid before Wolf for his 
 criticism as early as 1811, but its publication 
 was delayed till 1816. It did not meet Wolf's approval, but 
 Paulseu suggests l that perhaps his opposition was due as 
 much to the fact that he himself was not asked to prepare it 
 as to the actual contents of the document. Be this as it 
 may, it is certainly true that while Wolf may justly be called 
 the father of the modern Gymnasium, the child was not ex- 
 actly the image of the parent. Throughout the ten years' 
 course the main subjects of instruction were Latin, Greek 
 and mathematics. The time allotment in the upper classes 
 was as follows : Latin, 8 hours a week ; Greek, 7 ; German, 
 4 ; mathematics, 6 ; history and geography, 3 ; religion, 2 ; 
 and science, 2. No provision whatsoever was made for in- 
 struction in the elements of philosophy, French, or subjects 
 designed to afford " useful information." This was the op- 
 posite of eighteenth century utilitarianism. The aim of 
 instruction in the higher schools was " the formal develop- 
 ment of good understanding and righteous judgment." 
 
 The Lehrplan of 1816 was evidently a compromise. The 
 
 1 Paulsen, Gcschichte des Gelchrten Unterrichts, p. 576.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 97 
 
 special importance attached to Greek was pleasing to the 
 new humanists ; the increased number of hours devoted to 
 mathematics was a sop to the realists and those 
 who upheld the value of formal mental disci- 
 pline. As a result it was generally unsatisfac- 
 tory and never universally adopted. 1 Teachers could not be 
 found who knew enough of Greek or mathematics to meet 
 the demands of the official program. How to secure able 
 teachers and make their work most effective was the problem 
 of the next twenty years. 
 
 The first requirement was better scholarship. With better 
 prepared students the universities were soon able to turn out 
 more scholarly graduates. Not only was the 
 
 i , , j-i j Better Teachers 
 
 general university instruction steadily improved Needed 
 during the early decades of the century, but 
 special attention was everywhere given to the training of 
 teachers. Philological seminars were established in all the 
 universities before 1825 2 which ably carried on the work 
 so well marked out by Gesner in Gottingen and Wolf in 
 Halle. Pedagogical ^seminars were also established at this 
 time which did much to develop the professional spirit. 3 In 
 1826, a year of trial teaching (Probejahf) was required of all 
 candidates, and in 1831 new orders were issued for the con- 
 duct of teachers' examinations. All candidates for positions 
 in the higher schools, whether holders of doctor's degrees 
 from universities or not, were obliged to take examinations 
 in the main subjects of the higher school bourse and in 
 philosophy, pedagogy and theology. Distinguished excellence 
 
 1 See Wiese, Hoheres Schulwesen, I., p. 21. 
 
 'Konigsberg, 1810; Berlin, 1812; Greifswald, 1820; Breslau, 1812; 
 Munster, 1825; Bonn, 1819. 
 
 "Herbart's seminar in Konigsberg was officially recognized in 1810; 
 Gedike's seminar in Berlin was formally taken over by the University in 
 1812; the seminar in Stettin, founded in 1804, was reorganized in 1816; 
 Breslau began pedagogical work in 1813; and in 1817 it was stated that 
 the purpose of the reorganized seminar in Halle was " the training of 
 skilled teachers for the Gymnasien." (Wiese, Hoheres Schulwcsen, I., 539.) 
 7
 
 98 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 was required in one of the three main groups (a) Greek, 
 Latin and German ; (b) mathematics and the natural sci- 
 ences ; (c) history and geography and a reasonable knowl- 
 edge of the other two. According to the standing obtained 
 in this examination candidates were licensed to teach (after a 
 successful trial year) in the higher, middle or lower grades of 
 the higher schools. Promotion was strictly dependent upon 
 scholarly and professional attainments, the one as tested by 
 examination, the other chiefly by skill in teaching. 
 
 In the development of school affairs the example of Prussia 
 was closely followed by the Grand Duchy of Hesse and the 
 Prussia's Example ^ ner northern states, but central and southern 
 Followed in other Germany followed their own devices. In Sax-> 
 ony the leadership of the great cloister-schools, 
 Schulpforta, Grimma and Meissen, was generally acknowl- 
 edged, and this tended distinctly toward a one-sided classical 
 training, and that mainly philological. In Bavaria, Freder- 
 ick Thiersch introduced the Saxon plan and carried out re- 
 forms which were in most respects opposed to the new 
 humanism. According to his program, which was published 
 in 1829 and officially adopted in all main points in 1830, 
 Latin was given 16 hours a week during the first two years, 
 12 hours a week during the next four years, and 10, 9, 8 and 
 6 hours a week respectively during the last four years of the 
 course. Greek was taught throughout the last eight years 
 with a total of 51 hours. Logic and philosophy, German and 
 history, were to be taught incidentally in connection with the 
 classics. For mathematics 3 or 4 hours a week were con- 
 sidered sufficient. Wurtemberg followed much the same line 
 of development. Baden was considerably more liberal and 
 inclined to the Prussian plan, but, on the whole, southern 
 Germany was loath to abandon the old mode of education. 
 Undoubtedly the influence of the Jesuits did much to main- 
 tain the supremacy of Latin in the schools, but even in prot- 
 estant districts no reform has successfully combated the 
 popular faith in classical scholarship. 
 
 The period from 1820 to 1840 is one of consolidation and
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 99 
 
 organization ; it is not a period of progress in German educa- 
 tion, except from the stand-point of practical politics. Dur- 
 ing these years the school system of Prussia was 
 converted into a mighty political force and made '^^f 
 obedient to the will of the state. The regu- 
 lations concerning the governmental administration of the 
 schools, the preparation and certification of teachers, and the 
 control of school instruction through the final examinations, 
 have already been mentioned as the work of Altenstein's 
 ministry under the guidance of Johannes Schulze, chief of 
 the bureau of education. 1 One further consideration and the 
 review of the period will be complete. 
 
 The first impulse of the reformers of the revolutionary 
 period was^to make Greek the centre of all gymnasial in- 
 struction. Even Herbart, who had little sym- 
 pathy with the roseate views of the idealists, The Place of 
 
 Greek. 
 
 earnestly advocated the claims of the Greek 
 language and literature for the purpose of educative instruc- 
 tion. The program of 1816 gave it a prominent place, but, as 
 Wolf well knew, not all schools were prepared to teach Greek 
 to the extent recommended, nor were all teachers of the sub- 
 ject new humanists. In consequence some provision had to 
 be made for the acceptance of equivalents. Up to 1824 it 
 was possible to graduate from the Gymnasien without Greek. 
 Substitution was then made permissible only with the con- 
 sent of the provincial school-boards, and in 1837 Greek be- / 
 came an obligatory study. 
 
 At first sight it looks as if the victory were slowly on the 
 side of the reformers, but in fact it was their defeat. In the 
 early 20's it became apparent that the first 
 care of the administration was to restore the l 
 
 supremacy of Latin. The philological seminars 
 
 of the universities were ordered to give more attention to 
 
 Latin composition. Occasional courses in Latin were given 
 
 1 Varrentrapp, Johannes Schulze und das hohere Unterrichtswesen t'n 
 teiner Zeit^ 1889.
 
 100 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 by the Faculties of Law and Medicine, thanks to a little 
 official inspiration from the ministry, and finally the require- 
 ments of the final examinations as announced in 1834 showed 
 precisely where the schools were expected to stand. The 
 certificate of graduation could be given only to him who 
 could write Latin without grammatical errors and in a style 
 tolerably free from Germanisms, and who could speak the 
 language readily enough to satisfy the examiners thereby of 
 his knowledge of the other subjects of the course. Latin 
 was not the only object of official test ; but as the examination 
 in other studies, Greek included, was conducted through the 
 Latin, it is safe to say that no candidate would fail to put 
 the stress in the proper place. If Greek was made obligatory, 
 Latin was absolutely indispensable. The truth is it was 
 necessary officially to bolster up the study of Greek to keep it 
 from disappearing entirely under the bureaucratic zeal for 
 excellence in Latin. 
 
 Another innovation of this period which shows clearly 
 enough the trend of official thought was the introduction of 
 philosophical propaedeutics. This consisted 
 principally of empirical psychology and logic 
 as a " preparation for the systematic study of 
 the true philosophy." But what of the true philosophy ? 
 Some inconsiderate provincial boards raised the question and 
 were laughed at for their pains. The true philosophy, of 
 course, is the Hegelian, and he who would teach in the higher 
 schools must be prepared to believe in it as religiously as in 
 his theology. Philosophy not only found an entrance into 
 the schools but the universities were constrained to make it 
 a required subject for degrees and similar honours. Theology, 
 too, became a formal study for intending teachers, and the os- 
 tensible purpose of the eight years' reign of the Police Min- 
 ister in the bureau of education was to promote the inter- 
 ests of a truly religious education among the people ! 
 
 The gymnasial program of 1837 is the embodiment of all 
 that had gone before in the realm of internal school affairs. 
 It gives us the first all-round view of what the Prussian state
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 101 
 
 The Program of 
 1837. 
 
 considered essential in the training of its future leaders in 
 thought and action. It was the first program which was uni- 
 versally adopted in all Prussian Gymnasien, 
 and its adoption marked the triumph of the 
 Altenstein Ministry in its crusade against free- 
 dom and individual initiative in education. Uniformity was 
 thereby attained and the school system effectually nation- 
 alized. 1 
 
 GYMXASIAL PROGRAM OF 1837. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 LASSK8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 V. 
 
 IV. 
 
 m&. 
 
 Hla. 
 
 lib. 
 
 na. 
 
 16. 
 
 la. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Latin 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 86 
 
 Greek 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 German 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 French 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Religion 
 
 2 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 Mathematics.. . . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Philosophy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 History and Geography. . . 
 
 3 
 
 f, 
 
 8 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 10 
 
 
 a 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Writing 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Singing. 
 
 fl 
 
 9 
 
 ft 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Hebrew (elective) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (3) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (8) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TotaL 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 30(2) 
 
 30(2) 
 
 30/2) 
 
 30(21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A new era in the history of Prussian education began in 
 1840 with the reign of Frederick William IV. The leaders 
 of the preceding generation had been super- 
 seded by others who were of a different faith ; 
 Wolf, Goethe, Hegel, and Humboldt were all 
 dead, and in their places stood men who were almost fanati- 
 cally opposed to the philosophy and world-views which had 
 characterized the first third of the century. Specialization 
 was the watch-word of the new order. In philology, history, 
 philosophy and theology scholars were coming to content 
 themselves with a thorough knowledge of some particular 
 
 
 1 The Circular- Rescript von 24 October, 1837, is given in full in Wiese- 
 Kiibler, Verordnungen und Gesetze, Pt. I., pp. 53-65.
 
 102 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 branch of their subject rather than strive for a comprehensive 
 view of the entire field ; much less, therefore, were they in- 
 terested in a superficial knowledge of the world in general. 
 Note the change in philology from Wolf's general science of 
 antiquities : Bopp (1791-1867) developed comparative gram- 
 mar on the basis of the Sanskrit ; Dietz (1794-1876) was the 
 founder of Romance philology ; Ritschl (1806-1876) intro- 
 duced his students to a study of the Latin inscriptions ; and 
 Lepsius (1810-1884) sought his materials for Egyptology with 
 a spade. In history, following the epoch-making work of 
 Niebuhr (1776-1831) came Eanke (1795-1886), who led the 
 way in investigation of the sources. Hegel (1770-1831) was 
 succeeded by Schopenhauer (1788-1860) and Lotze (1817-* 
 1881), and a new field was opened up by Fechner (1801-1887) 
 and Wundt (1832-) in psychology. Even the old theology 
 found opponents in Baur and the Tubingen school, who intro- 
 duced the higher criticism from the historical stand-point. 
 Jurisprudence had its specialists and critics in von Savigny 
 and Stahl. But the most significant change of all was the 
 tendency in science. Muller (1801-1858) gave a new impulse 
 to the study of pathological anatomy by the introduction of 
 the microscope ; Schultze (1825-1874) systematized zoology ; 
 Liebig (1803-1873) made a new chemistry, and Helmholtz 
 (1821-1894) a new physics. In short, every object which at- 
 tracted the attention of scholars was carefully investigated 
 and set off into specialties. 
 
 The immediate effect upon the schools of the strictly scien- 
 tific methods of research which were gradually introduced 
 after 1830 was a tendency to discredit all that 
 had before been attempted. But the work 
 of the Altenstein Ministry could not easily be 
 set aside ; nevertheless the Prussian Department of Education 
 assiduously strove to bring unity into the classical schools by 
 emphasizing still further the study of Latin. 1 The idea of 
 
 1 Wiese gives an official summary of the years 1864-1869 in Dashohere 
 Schulwesen in Preusscn, II., pp. 1-32; 1869-1874, in III., pp. 1-60.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 103 
 
 power and special knowledge thus manifested itself in the 
 classical schools by a return to the method of the old human- 
 ists. The ability to read, write and speak Latin was the 
 chief end of all instruction. A gymnasial program was issued 
 in 1856 which incorporated many of the desired reforms. In 
 the two lower classes the instruction in German was combined 
 with the Latin, to which two hours weekly were added, and 
 the time previously given to the natural sciences was almost 
 entirely devoted to French and religion. The writing of 
 Latin was an important exercise in all classes. Greek prose 
 composition was included in the final examination, from which 
 German literature, French, the natural sciences and philos- 
 ophy were entirely omitted. Latin was the main part of the 
 gymnasial course ; everything was subsidiary to the classics. 
 
 There were forces operative in German life, however, which 
 were destined in time to overcome the extreme leaning to- 
 ward a classical training. The rise of modern Forcee opposed 
 science and the accompanying changes in the to classical 
 industrial world demanded a hearing. The de- 
 velopment of rapid transit, the discovery of easy means of 
 communication and the invention of labor-saving devices 
 tended toward the growth of urban population. This in its 
 turn produced unexpected effects upon the social conditions 
 of the country. The political revolution of 1848 was out- 
 wardly a failure ; but the industrial and social revolution which 
 began to be felt in Germany in the 30's, and which grew 
 steadily despite all hinderances during the succeeding forty 
 years, finally found free scope in the re-established German 
 Empire. So completely has the new order supplanted the 
 old that within the last twenty-five years Germany has entered 
 the markets of the world and become a dangerous rival for 
 commercial supremacy. In this period Germany has been 
 transformed from a mediaeval agricultural nation into a high- 
 ly developed industrial power. 
 
 In the organization of the school system little thought was 
 given to the practical needs of the people. The reformers 
 were intent upon securing the ideal training for the ideal
 
 104 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 citizen. Enough was done, they apparently believed, when 
 
 schools were provided on the one hand for the common people 
 
 and on the other hand for those who were to be 
 
 '"'schooif 6 * 1 lexers in society. But TiW-schools were in 
 existence and they continued to exist. Many 
 of the old city Latin schools were also tolerated, although they 
 could not maintain the standards of the Gymnasien, Here 
 then were two kinds of schools outside of the gymnasial sys- 
 tem and sufficiently in disrepute to cater to the needs of the 
 new industrial classes. 
 
 Up to 1855 the free growth of these schools was persistently 
 and perversely checked by university scholars and state offi- 
 cials. But after the change in administration 
 Recognition ^ ne -^^- sc hl soon received full recognition. 
 By ministerial order of October 6, 1859, 1 two 
 classes of Realscliulen were instituted. Schools of the first- 
 class (Realsclmlen I. Ordnung} were permitted to give a full 
 nine years' course in Latin with a total of 44 week-hours. 
 French was allotted 34 week-hours ; German, 29 week-hours ; 
 geography and history, 30 week-hours ; mathematics, 47 week- 
 hours as opposed to 17, 20, 25 and 32 week-hours respect- 
 ively in the Gymnasium. As a still further offset for Greek 
 20 week-hours in English and over 30 week-hours in the 
 sciences were added to the Real-school course. 
 
 The Realscliule II. Ordnung was left largely dependent 
 upon the goodwill of local communities. It might teach 
 Latin, but it did not receive official recognition unless it con- 
 formed to the official standard. And herein was an especial 
 cause of discontent. Latin was an indispensable prerequisite 
 for admission to the civil service, and in most instances it was 
 a condition of entrance to the higher industrial and technical 
 schools. With rapidly increasing industrial demands a school 
 was needed which should give a systematic and comprehensive 
 training in modern languages, mathematics and the natural 
 
 1 The text of the order is given in Wiese-Kubler, Verordnungen und 
 Gesctze, Tt. I, pp. 70-84.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 105 
 
 sciences. This result was fully attained in 1882, 1 when the 
 Prussian government gave the Realschule I. Ordnung the 
 title of Realgymnasium and elevated the burgher school to 
 the rank of Oberrealschule. Graduates of these schools were 
 also given certain privileges in the universities, schools of 
 technology and the civil service. 
 
 The revision of the higher-school programs in 1882 appar- 
 ently left little to be desired. In a way peculiarly German the 
 problems of secondary education were worked 
 out to a logical conclusion. But seeds of discon- 
 tent had been sown. The Real-schools were 
 popular too popular for their own best interests and they 
 increased rapidly in number and in the attendance of pupils. 
 Their adherents soon began to press for additional privileges 
 and thus incur the enmity of the Gymnasien. The classical 
 schools on the other hand had been strengthened on the side 
 of modern languages and the natural sciences to the disad- 
 vantage of Latin a reform most displeasing to the ultra- 
 humanists. The outcome was the famous School Conference 
 of December, 1890, in which the young Emperor took so prom- 
 inent a part and which led to the revised programs of 1892. 
 
 The last_act in the educational drama presents very clearly 
 the underlying motive in all the reforms of the century. The 
 tendency has been to nationalize the school sys- Qerm&n schools 
 tern and to make it the principal support of the for German 
 state. In Prussia the state government is mo- 
 narchical ; hence the upholding of the crown is the patriotic 
 duty of the schools. Whatever may be thought of the political 
 aspects of this principle, it certainly conforms to the ideas of 
 modern German statesmen ; it is the natural evolution of the 
 nineteenth century. The Emperor stated the case admirably _ 
 in his opening address to the Conference : " The main trouble 
 lies in the fact that since 1870 the philologists have sat in 
 their Gymnasien as beati possidentes, laying main stress up- 
 on the subject-matter, upon the learning and the knowing, 
 
 1 See Wiese-Kubler, Verordnungen und Gesetze^'Pt. 1, pp. 110-161.
 
 106 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 but not upon, the formation of character and the needs of life. 
 Less emphasis is being placed upon practice (konneti) than 
 theory (kennen), a fact that can easily be verified by looking 
 at the requirements for the examinations. Their underlying 
 principle is that the pupil must, first of all, know as many 
 things as possible. Whether this knowledge fits for life or 
 not is immaterial. If anyone enters into a discussion with 
 these gentlemen on this point and attempts to show them 
 that a young man ought to be prepared, to some extent at 
 least, for life and its manifold problems, they will tell him 
 that such is not the function of the school, its principal aim 
 being the discipline or gymnastic of the mind, and that if 
 this gymnastic were properly conducted the young man 
 would be capable of doing all that is necessary in life. I am 
 of the opinion that we can no longer be guided by this doc- 
 trine. 
 
 "To return to schools in general and to the Gymnasium in 
 particular I will say that I am not ignorant of the fact that 
 in many circles I am looked upon as a fanatical opponent of 
 the Gymnasium, and that I have therefore often been played 
 as a trump-card in favour of other schools. Gentlemen, this 
 is a misapprehension. Whoever has been a pupil of a Gym- 
 nasium himself, and has looked behind the scenes, knows 
 where the wrong lies. First of all, a national basis is wanting. 
 The foundation of our Gymnasium must be German. It is 
 our duty to educate men to become young Germans, and not 
 young Greeks and Eomans. We must relinquish the basis 
 which has been the rule for centuries, the old monastic edu- 
 cation of the Middle Ages, when Latin and a little Greek 
 (ein bissclien Griechisch) were most important. These are 
 no longer our standard ; we must make German the basis, 
 and German composition must be made the centre around 
 which everything else revolves." 1 
 
 This is the aim of secondary education in Germany. There 
 may be a difference of opinion on how best to attain it, but 
 
 1 Educational Review, I., pp. 202-203.
 
 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 107 
 
 on the whole the Emperor speaks for the German people. 
 The problem of the future is the preservation of the national 
 culture and the satisfaction of the practical needs of an in- 
 dustrial people. 
 
 The purpose of this rapid sketch of the history of secondary 
 education in Germany has been attained if it has demonstrate-"' 
 the proposition that the German school system 
 
 V 4. -4. 4.- u I 1, Conclusion. 
 
 is a living, progressive institution that has 
 changed from age to age in response to the changing ideals of 
 successive periods. At no time has it been a finished product 
 which could be studied apart from the political, social, indus- 
 trial and spiritual conditions of the people by whom it has 
 been supported and for whom it still exists. It is the natural 
 evolution of forces inherent in the German life ; it is the re- 
 sult of a process of adaptation to German environment ; it is 
 an educational product peculiar to the Fatherland. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen, 
 3 vols., Berlin, 1864-1873; Wiese-Kiibler, Verordnungen und Geseizefur 
 die hohere Schulen in Preussen, 3d ed., 2 vols , Berlin, 1886-1888 ; RSnne, 
 Das Unterrichts-Wesen des Preussischen Staates, 2 vols., Berlin, 1855; 
 Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts, Leipzig, 1885 (a new 
 and enlarged edition of this excellent work has been recently issued) ; 
 Ziegler, Geschichte der Pddagogik mit besonderer Riicksicht aufdas hohere 
 Unterrichtswesen, Vol. I., Pt. I., of Baumeister's Handbuch der Erzieh- 
 ungs und Unterrichtslehre, Munich, 1895 ; Rethwisch, Deutschlands hoh- 
 eres Schulwesen im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1893 ; Centralblatt 
 fur die gesammte Unterrichts- Verwaltung in Preussen ; and the Ency- 
 clopedias of Schmid and Rein. See Bibliography, p. 455, Nos. la, 5a, 6a> 
 6d, 7, 12.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 IT will be apparent from the foregoing sketch of the his- 
 tory of education in Germany that no absolute uniformity in 
 the school systems of the various states is to be 
 expected. There are marked political and re- 
 ligious differences between the north and the 
 south ; even the racial characteristics of the people are not 
 the same in all parts of the Empire. But the unquestioned 
 supremacy of Prussia in imperial politics assures her also the 
 first place in educational affairs. However much the smaller 
 states may object to Prussian leadership it remains a fact 
 that the German Empire is little more than Prussia en- 
 larged. In considering the German school systems, there- 
 fore, I shall take the Prussian system as the standard and 
 refer to the other states only as the differentiation makes it 
 imperative. 
 
 In Germany, as in the United States, educational affairs 
 are directed by state officials in accordance with govern- 
 mental policy, custom and laws. The school- 
 
 lftWS f 8Ome f the StateS haVG b ? en c dified > 
 
 but in general this has been found impossible 
 in the larger states owing to the variety of interests and the 
 strength of tradition. In Prussia, for example, many at- 
 tempts have been made to secure the passage of some general 
 measure which would at least simplify existing customs, but 
 without success. Either the proposition has been too bureau- 
 cratic to suit the citizen party, too ecclesiastical to please the 
 liberals, or too radical to secure the vote of the catholics. 
 
 108
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM 109 
 
 The foreigner who would familiarize himself with the Prus- 
 sian school system finds here the first serious obstacle ; vol- 
 umes of ministerial rescripts and official instructions are 
 placed at his disposal, but there is no knowing how much of 
 it all is a dead letter. And even a German is not quite sure 
 till he has the minister's word for it. 
 
 In Prussia, as in most of the German states, the control of 
 the schools is exercised through governmental orders and in- 
 structions that proceed from the Department of Education. 
 The government, however, is not absolute in its powers. 
 Limits are set by the constitution of the Prussian state. 
 
 Frederick William I. first claimed the right of putting the / 
 schools under state control, and in 1794 Frederick William 
 II. issued the Allgemeine Landrecht, the char- 
 ter upon which are based all school ordinances The Basis of 
 and regulations. Its most important articles 
 are as follows : 
 
 1. Schools and universities are state institutions charged 
 with the instruction of youth in useful information and 
 scientific knowledge. 
 
 2. Such institutions may be founded only with the knowl- 
 edge and consent of the state. 
 
 3. All public schools and educational institutions are under 
 the supervision of the state and are at all times subject to its 
 examination and inspection. 
 
 4. No one shall be denied admission to the public schools 
 on account of his religious belief. 
 
 5. Public-school children cannot be compelled to attend 
 religious instruction at variance with their own creed. 
 
 6. Public schools designed to give instruction in the higher 
 arts and sciences enjoy all the rights of corporate bodies. 
 
 7. These rights are vested in governmental boards in ac- 
 cordance with the existing school regulations of the dis- 
 trict. 
 
 8. Boards appointed by the state are charged with the im- 
 mediate direction and supervision of schools. 
 
 9. Where the appointment of teachers does not rest with
 
 110 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 certain persons or corporations because of foundations or 
 special privileges it belongs to the state. 
 
 10. Even where the immediate supervision of such schools 
 or the appointment of teachers is left to certain private per- 
 sons or corporations new teachers cannot be appointed, nor 
 can any important change in organization or methods of in- 
 struction be made, without the knowledge and consent of the 
 provincial school-boards. 
 
 11. Only persons of sufficient knowledge, good morals and 
 sound judgment can be chosen for supervising officers. 
 
 12. Overseers must earnestly seek to dissuade young peo- 
 ple from attempting intellectual work beyond their ability. 
 
 13. On the other hand they should encourage and sup- 
 port students of superior ability in the prosecution of their 
 studies. 
 
 14. No native pupil shall be dismissed from a public 
 school without a certificate signed by the teachers and school 
 authorities showing the nature of his school work and his 
 moral deportment. 
 
 15. Such a certificate shall be deemed an essential pre- 
 requisite for admission to the university. 
 
 16. The selection of the school which the child shall at- 
 tend belongs primarily to the father, who is, however, to 
 the extent of his ability, specially charged with the duty of 
 securing for his child a religious training and a practical 
 education. 
 
 17. Teachers of Oymnasien and other higher schools are 
 considered officers of the state. 
 
 The Allgemeine Landreclit asserted, in vigorous and une- 
 quivocal terms, the authority of the state in all educational 
 affairs. It was the first-fruits of the civic ideal ; it meant the 
 complete removal of the schools from clerical control and the 
 restriction of private venture. The traditions of a thousand 
 years were brushed aside with a stroke of the pen, but general 
 acceptance of the spirit of the law was long delayed. It was 
 the work of half a century to harmonize these principles with 
 public opinion.
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM 111 
 
 In 1850 it was decreed that "All religious organizations 
 shall order and administer their own affairs independently 
 [subject, of course, to the general laws of the 
 state a point made clear by special enactment 
 in 1873], and shall remain in enjoyment of all 
 their educational and charitable enterprises and foundations," 
 and further that " Everyone is free to give instruction and 
 to conduct educational institutions provided he first proves 
 to the satisfaction of the proper state officials that he has the /" 
 requisite moral, scientific and professional qualifications." 
 So much is conceded to private venture, but at the same time 
 it was affirmed that " Sufficient provision for the education ^ 
 of the young shall be made by means of public schools/' and 
 that " All educational institutions, public and private, shall 
 be under the supervision of authorities appointed by the 
 state." 
 
 The national ideal was still further realized by the school 
 laws ofJL872, which provided that all private schools should 
 be subject to regular and systematic inspection by state offi- 
 cials, the same as public schools. In effect the present regula- 
 tions permit any licensed teacher to conduct a school, but the 
 government through its inspectors will see to it that every 
 such school maintains at least the minimum standard of the 
 corresponding grade of public schools. The private or sec- 
 tarian school may surpass the public school, but it dare not 
 fall behind. Thus in all essential respects it is a part of the 
 public school system save that it draws no support from pub- 
 lic funds. 
 
 The central authority in Prussia, charged with the admin- 
 istration of the school system in accordance with these prin- 
 ciples, is the Minister for Religious, Educational 
 and Medicinal Affairs (Minister der geistlichen, ' 
 
 Unterrichts- und Medicinal- Angelegenheiten). 
 He is a cabinet officer and responsible only to the crown ; 
 yet any deviation from the principles above mentioned would 
 surely occasion factional controversy, if not parliamentary 
 inquiry. The rule of precedent is binding. More than one
 
 112 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 minister has lost his place for attempting reforms too much at 
 variance with established customs. As the court of last re- 
 sort, the minister's chief function is to hear and determine 
 appeals from the decisions of lower departmental officers. 
 The rescripts and decrees of the Minister of Education thus 
 become the basis of school administration in all parts of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 The Minister of Education is dependent on the crown for 
 his appointment and retention in office. He is usually a jurist 
 by profession, a politician and diplomat by 
 1 Motion. 1 f orce f circumstances. He represents his de- 
 partment in the Prussian parliament, and in- 
 troduces bills pertaining to its interests, for the enactment of 
 which he is held, in a great measure, responsible ; in fact the 
 tenure of his office is often conditioned upon 
 
 The Minister. 
 
 the passage of a bill on which the government 
 has set its heart. His individual obligations are numerous. 
 He has charge of the financial affairs of his own department ; 
 appoints, with the approval of the crown, counsellors and 
 other officials ; confers titles upon teachers, ratifies their ap- 
 pointments and makes promotions, except where this right 
 has been granted to other authorities ; and he is the court of 
 final appeal in all matters connected with this branch of gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 The duties of the department as a whole cover a broad 
 field. It controls examination requirements and the privi- 
 leges dependent upon them in all schools ; determines the 
 course of study ; regulates tuition fees ; fixes the salaries and 
 has charge of the pensioning and retiring of teachers. 
 
 Properly speaking, Prussia has no Minister of Education. 
 The ministry has three general departments, one each for 
 educational, ecclesiastical and medicinal affairs. 
 The Department of Education is presided over 
 by an under secretary and two chief assistants (Direktoreri), 
 and on these officers, assisted by nineteen (in 1897) special 
 counsellors ( Vortragende Rate), devolves the general adminis- 
 tration of the school system. And within the department
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM 113 
 
 itself there are two main subdivisions. One has charge of 
 the common schools, normal schools, high schools for girls, 
 and institutions for the education of defective children ; the 
 other division has the supervision of higher education, chiefly 
 in the universities and secondary schools. 
 
 The immediate administration and supervision of second- 
 ary-school affairs is intrusted to provincial school-boards 
 (Provincial-Schulcollegien), thirteen in num- 
 ber, one in each of the provinces of East Prus- school-boards 
 sia, West Prussia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, 
 Posen, Silesia, Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, West- 
 phalia, Hesse-Nassau, the Ehine Province, and the Hohen- 
 zollern Territory. 
 
 The President of the province ( Ober-Prasident) is chair- 
 man ex officio of the board. Since he is a jurist and usually 
 unfamiliar with pedagogical affairs, his place is 
 
 ,, , , .. ,, j. , . , Organization. 
 
 generally taken by the governor of the district 
 in which the provincial capital is located. The board is 
 composed of from three to five trained inspectors, who are 
 selected by the minister from a long list of prominent prin- 
 cipals of secondary schools. They receive their appoint- 
 ment from the crown and hold office till retired in regular 
 order. The senior member, who is chief administrative 
 officer, generally directs gymnasial affairs, a second member 
 has oversight of the Realschulen, and a third of the Volks- 
 schulen. 
 
 According to the instructions of 1817 the duties of the 
 provincial board are prescribed as follows : 
 
 1. The supervision of all pedagogical matters Duties 
 appertaining to educational institutions. 
 
 2. Revision of plans and ordinances of schools and educa- 
 tional institutions. 
 
 3. Examination of new regulations, and the revision of 
 those already in force (including disciplinary laws, etc.) ; 
 also giving advice for rectifying manifest abuses and supply- 
 ing apparent needs. 
 
 4. Examination of the text-books in use, and, with the 
 8
 
 114 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 consent of the ministry, the discontinuation of unsuitable 
 ones and introduction of others. 
 
 5. The compilation of new text-books, which, however, 
 cannot be printed without the consent of the minister. 
 
 6. Regulations for conducting the leaving examinations 
 (Maturitatsprufung) and revision of the reports of the same. 
 
 7. Inspection, revision, and direction of those higher 
 schools which admit to the university. 
 
 8. Appointment, dismissal, suspension, and discipline of 
 higher-school teachers (not directors). 
 
 The provincial school-boards are required to send to the 
 Minister of Education once in three years a full report of 
 their administration. They must make also an annual re- 
 port of the higher schools, giving lists of graduates with their 
 chosen occupations, the record of school attendance, the 
 financial conditions of the various schools, etc. A semi- 
 annual report concerning trial teachers, their location, pro- 
 ficiency and prospective movements, is also required. Copies 
 of all important decisions must be immediately sent to de- 
 partmental head-quarters. In short the provincial boards are 
 expected to keep the minister fully informed of the state of 
 school affairs throughout the provinces. 
 
 The provincial school-board, it will be seen, does not ex- 
 amine and certificate teachers. In order to avoid too great 
 centralization and to place an effectual check 
 on favouritism, that responsible duty is assigned 
 to a special body of experts the WissenscJiaft- 
 liche Priif ungs- Commission ; and, further, in order that this 
 examination commission may be in closest touch with the 
 latest scientific research and best scholarship of the times, its 
 members are selected from the faculties of the state uni- 
 versities. Occasionally, however, it happens that a promi- 
 nent director of a secondary school, or a provincial school 
 inspector, is chosen to represent some subject of which he is 
 a recognized master. The duty of this commission is to pass 
 upon the scholarship of the candidates for teachers' positions 
 in the secondary schools ; other means, Vas" will be seen later
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM 115 
 
 on, are taken to test the applicants' practical ability to teach. 
 The mere fact that leave to teach in the Prussian secondary 
 schools depends upon the approval of two distinct authorities, 
 one representing scholarly attainments, the other professional 
 skill, places the Prussian teacher at once in the front rank of 
 his profession. 
 
 The examination commission has some ten to twenty mem- 
 bers, one or more members for each subject in which a can- 
 didate may be examined. These members are 
 appointed by the Minister of Education for a 
 term of one year. The seat of the commission is always a 
 university town. East and West Prussia have but one com- 
 mission, Konigsberg ; Silesia and Posen also unite in Bres- 
 lau. 
 
 Prussian law requires that religion be taught in all schools ; 
 it provides, too, that each communion not only shall have 
 the right to conduct schools of its own under the general laws 
 of the state, but also shall be privileged to inspect the re- 
 ligious instruction in the public schools. The General Su- / 
 perintendent of the Evangelical Church in each province is 
 specially charged with the duty of visiting each secondary 
 school at least once in six years and reporting to the pro- 
 vincial school-board on the religious conditions of the schools 
 visited, the character of the work done and changes that 
 seem to be desirable. 
 
 A similar privilege is granted the Catholic Bishops, who are 
 also expected to report upon their findings. It should be 
 understood, however, that these clerical in- 
 
 ' Supervision of 
 
 spectors have no right to attend other classes Religious 
 than those in which their own religious faith is Affaire, 
 taught. Catholics, for example, may not visit classes even 
 in religion taught by evangelical masters, much less classes 
 in other subjects of the school course. As a matter of fact 
 this office, though highly prized by the church for the sake 
 of its privileges in case of emergency, is becoming more and 
 more formal with each decade. To-day its chief function is 
 to approve of suitable text-books for religious instruction
 
 116 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 and to advise with the provincial board on minor changes in 
 the course of study. 
 
 Secondary schools under royal patronage are, as a rule, ex- 
 clusively in charge of the provincial school-boards. But for 
 some years there has been a tendency to dimin- 
 4. Local school ^ ft lQ number of these university preparatory 
 schools with a view to the diminution of the 
 " educated proletariat," as Bismarck called that large class in 
 Germany who, though well-educated, are nevertheless unable 
 to turn their knowledge to any practical account. This 
 has touched local pride and in many cases has actually proved 
 a stimulus to municipal ambition. The result has been the 
 establishment within the last few years of many schools by 
 cities and local organizations. This method of establishing 
 schools gives rise to what are known as local school-boards 
 which exercise more or less authority in their regulation that 
 is, when the school is wholly supported at municipal expense, 
 the local board assumes control of all matters externa pertain- 
 ing to the school ; where the community merely assists in 
 the maintenance of a public school the local officers then ex- 
 ercise joint rights of administration with the officers of the 
 government. But in all internal regulations the state has 
 exclusive power. 
 
 The membership of local boards (Schuldeputatiori) varies. 
 It usually consists of a standing committee of one to three 
 
 ^_ . members of the city council, called the Maqis- 
 
 Orgamzation. i j i / 
 
 trat, including the mayor (a government ap- 
 pointee), a like number of elective councilmen, and the same 
 number of citizens elected for a long term of years. In some 
 cities, however, the Magistrat assumes full charge of local 
 secondary-school affairs ; sometimes, as in Berlin, Stettin, 
 Magdeburg, Breslau and Dantzic, they choose an advisory 
 member as inspector of schools, a city superintendent (Stadt- 
 schulrat) who is paid for his services. 
 
 Other schools are those under private patronage, whether 
 founded by persons of wealth, by philanthropic associations, 
 or by the church. To the patrons of such institutions certain
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM 117 
 
 rights and privileges are granted by royal charter. These are 
 often .seriously at variance with modern usage, but in a coun- 
 try so dependent on tradition as Germany custom prevails. 
 The higher schools, being for the most part of more recent 
 foundation, suffer less in this respect than do the elementary 
 schools, where patrons, in some instances, have not only the 
 right of nominating teachers and modifying the course of 
 study, but even of setting the school hours before eight in the 
 morning and after four in the afternoon, in order that the 
 children may labour during the day in the interests of their 
 landlords. 
 
 The powers of local school-boards, and of trustees of most 
 schools under special endowment, are limited principally to 
 the choice of the kind of school they will have, 
 the nomination of teachers, and the supervision 
 and direction of certain external affairs, such 
 as the managing of school property, looking after the order 
 and equipment of school premises and the necessary furnish- 
 ings and repairs, the drawing up of the school estimate, the 
 regulation of tuition fees, free scholarships, and other matters 
 involving financial obligations, and representing the town at 
 the annual examinations and school celebrations. 
 
 State schools are in no wise beholden to local authorities. 
 They look directly to the provincial school-boards, to the 
 minister, or to the crown. The city schools, too, when once 
 in operation, are independent of local control or influence in 
 all matters pertaining to their internal affairs. The local 
 school-board may found a school, provide books and appara- 
 tus, adopt a schedule of salaries (which must be at least as 
 good as the state schedule), and select a director and teachers 
 (but only from the approved official list) all with the knowl- 
 edge and consent of the state authorities. But here its priv- 
 ileges end. The city may not inspect the school work, may 
 not cut down appropriations, may not effect any change in 
 the curriculum nor compel the introduction of a single text- 
 book ; in short the chief privileges of local boards of educa- 
 tion in respect to established city schools are to nominate
 
 118 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 teachers and pay the bills. And these claims do not cease 
 with the teacher's retirement from active work. The state 
 pensions its superannuated teachers ; the city cannot do less. 
 Nor can a city alter its contract to the disadvantage of any 
 teacher or employee. It must perform all its obligations to 
 the letter ; should it fail, the state will step in and raise the 
 necessary funds by special assessment of city property. 
 
 Private schools exist to supply a temporary lack of educa- 
 tional facilities. The state will not consent to the establish- 
 ment of such schools where the public schools 
 
 suffice - Thev must compty with a11 the re s u - 
 
 lations of the state in regard to equipment and 
 the conduct of the work. The course of study, the methods 
 employed and the teachers must all be approved by the pro- 
 vincial school-board, to whom regular reports must be made. 
 A provincial school inspector likewise conducts the leaving 
 examinations in case special privileges are attached, as for ex- 
 ample the right of one-year voluntary service in the army. 
 
 The chief responsibility in the administration of second- 
 ary-school affairs, it will be seen, rests with the members 
 of the provincial school-board. The central authority, the 
 Ministerium, formulates plans and inaugurates reforms, but 
 even in such matters the provincial school inspectors usually 
 have a voice. They are in daily communication with the 
 actual work of the schools and test annually the attain- 
 ments of the pupils. They know, therefore, at first hand 
 the particular and most urgent needs of the schools, and 
 are qualified to advise the ministry from facts of which they 
 are personally cognizant. Furthermore, as will be explained 
 in a later chapter, the provincial inspectors are indirectly 
 responsible for the immediate conduct of the schools. With 
 them rest the appointment of all teachers, the transfer of 
 teachers from one school to another and the power to effect 
 changes that will tend to make the schools individually more 
 efficient. Americans are familiar with the possibilities for 
 good inherent in the office of superintendent of city schools ; 
 the Prussian school inspectors are really " superintendents "
 
 THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM 119 
 
 with greatly increased powers. They are picked men, chosen 
 especially with a view to the importance of their office and 
 the peculiar qualifications demanded by it. The provincial 
 school-boards are, in my opinion, the main-stay of the Prus- 
 sian school system. 
 
 One often hears it said indeed, it has been half -apologeti- 
 cally remarked to me by a high official in the Prussian Edu- 
 cational Department that Prussia can never 
 have a well-organized school system. Her ter- 
 ritory is unusually diversified, ranging from the 
 low sandy dunes of the north to the mountains of the south ; 
 the east is distinctively agricultural, the west industrial and 
 commercial ; some provinces are protestant, others mainly 
 catholic. With such varied interests there is small chance of 
 a school system strictly uniform in all its parts. Saxony and 
 some of the other smaller states are pointed to with pride as 
 being so homogeneous that one method of administration 
 serves all sections. It is true that the schools of the smaller 
 states are governed directly from the capital, the inspectors 
 belong to the ministry and the entire administration is beauti- 
 fully centralized. But, I think, the average American will 
 agree with me that it is fortunate for the cause of education 
 in Prussia that centralization cannot be carried to the extreme. 
 The provincial school-boards, as mediators between the schools 
 on the one hand and the ministry on the other, perform a 
 function of inestimable value for the well-being of the Prus- 
 sian state and for general educational progress in the Empire. 
 
 The higher schools of the smaller German states are con- 
 trolled by a central board, usually a bureau of some state de- 
 partment, presided over by a minister of the 
 
 '/ -,-,- In Other States. 
 
 crown. Much the same conditions obtain as 
 in a Prussian province, and the central educational depart- 
 ment is similar in function to the provincial board of Prussia. 
 There is, however, this important distinction : the smaller the 
 state the greater the power of the government for good or 
 ill ; the larger the state the more chance for local influence. 
 The distinctive peculiarity of the Prussian system is its semi-
 
 120 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 independent provincial boards, certain members of which are 
 exclusively concerned with the management of secondary 
 schools. They maintain the balance between extreme cen- 
 tralization and local option. The provincial inspector of 
 schools is the very heart of the Prussian higher-school system. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen ; 
 Wiese-Kiibler, Gesetze und Verordnungen ; Baumeister's Handbuch der 
 Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, Vol. I., Ft. II. Die Einrichtung und 
 Verwaltung des hoheren Schulwesens in Preussen, u. s. w.; Mushacke's 
 Schulkalendar Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen und heilpdda- 
 gogischen Anstalten Deutschlands. See Bibliography, p. 455, Nos. 2, 3, 
 4, 11, 12, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26.
 
 ;.w. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^%tt^ CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 
 
 GERMANY is nothing if not military. The school system 
 is pervaded by the military spirit ; many of the teachers are 
 reserve officers, most of the pupils hope to be, 
 and all know that army service awaits them at 
 
 opirit. 
 
 the end of the school days. The really impor r 
 tant problem for the school-boy's consideration is whether he 
 shall serve for two years as an ordinary conscript living in 
 the barracks, a servant to some superior, or whether he shall 
 serve but one year, living where he will and always standing 
 in line of promotion. This latter privilege is a prize most 
 alluring to the German youth ; it can be won only by suc- 
 cessfully completing a six-year course in an approved higher 
 school (Holiere Sclmle). 
 
 There is perhaps no better criterion of what constitutes 
 a higher school from the German point of view than the re- 
 quirements for the one-year volunteer service 
 in the army. This school differs from the ele- 
 mentary school in that it offers instruction be- 
 yond the necessities of life ; it differs from the technical 
 school in that its aim is a liberal education ; and it prepares 
 for the university and institutions of scientific research. An 
 approved higher school must teach at least two foreign lan- 
 guages, geography, history, German literature, mathematics 
 and natural science. 
 
 Technological and trade schools (Gewerbe und Fachschu- 
 len), agricultural schools (Landwirtschaftsschuleri), normal 
 schools (Schullehrer- und Lehrerinnen- Seminar ien) and mil- 
 
 121
 
 122 GERMAN RlQBfiR SCHOOLS 
 
 itary schools (Cadet ten- Corps) are, therefore, outside of the 
 scope of the present work. The conditions imposed above 
 give the following classification of the higher schools of Ger- 
 many : 
 
 1. Gymnasien and Progymnasien. 
 
 2. Realgymnasien and Realprogymnasien. 
 
 3. Oberrealschuhn, Realschulen and Hohere Bilrgerschulen. 
 
 4. Special schools with approved curricula. 
 
 The aim of the Gymnasium is "to prepare its students 
 through a broad humanistic training for the independent 
 study of the arts and sciences." Paulsen says, 
 " T ne ideal of the new education is a human 
 being whose faculties enable him to form a 
 clear and definite conception of the actual world ; who, by 
 virtue of his will, is able to recognize and follow his original 
 bent ; whose imagination and fine emotions 
 are trained to the perception of the beautiful 
 and the heroic. This is a man in the full sense of the word : 
 this is true humanistic culture." At all times the allgemeine 
 wissenschaftliche Bildung of the pupil is to be regarded as 
 the chief function of the Gymnasien. Recently the term 
 Humanistische Gymnasien has been employed to differen- 
 tiate these schools from the Realgymnasien, which have 
 given somewhat more attention to the practical side of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 The Prussian Gymnasium has nine classes in three divis- 
 ions of three classes each. The lower classes are Sexta, 
 Quinta and Quanta; the middle classes, Un- 
 tertertia, Obertertia and Untersecunda ; and 
 the upper classes, Obersecunda, Unterprima and Oberprima. 
 One entire school year is given to each class. Admission to 
 the Gymnasium requires that the pupil be at least nine years 
 of age, and that he shall have had a three years' preparatory 
 course in reading, writing, arithmetic and religion. This 
 preparatory training may be obtained in the elementary 
 schools, private and public, and in the special Vorschulen 
 connected with many Gymnasien.
 
 THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 
 
 123 
 
 The curriculum (Lehrplan) of the Gymnasien, as of all 
 public schools, is outlined by the government, but consider- 
 able freedom is left to the school and to in- 
 dividual teachers both in the selection of ma- 
 terial for instruction and in the methods of presentation. 
 Two general divisions are made in the subjects of the course : 
 (1) Wissenschaftliche Packer, under which are classed relig- 
 ion, the German language and literature, Latin, Greek, 
 French (English and Hebrew as electives), history and geog- 
 raphy, mathematics, and- natural sciences; (2) Kunste und 
 Fertigkeiten, including drawing, writing, singing and gym- 
 nastics. The course of study, as prescribed by ministerial 
 rescript of January 6, 1892, for the Prussian Gymnasien, is 
 as follows : 
 
 LEHRPLAN OF THE PRUSSIAN GTMNASIEN. 
 
 .Subjects. 
 
 VI. 
 
 V. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Illft. 
 
 Ilia. 
 
 116. 
 
 Ho. 
 
 16. 
 
 la. 
 
 Total 
 Week- 
 Hours. 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 German and \ 
 History Stories., j 
 Latin 
 
 H' 
 
 2l... 
 U 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 26 
 62 
 
 Greek 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 86 
 
 French . . . 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 English (Elective) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hebrew (Ele&ive) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 History ami j 
 Geography | 
 Mathematics 
 Natural History 
 Physics, Element* 
 of Chemistry and 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 2'^ 
 
 f i 
 
 2 
 
 !! 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 21, 
 
 ll 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 'I 3 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 Writing ... 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Drawing ^ 
 Singing 
 
 - 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 Totals. 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 283 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The gymnasial curricula of the other German states are 
 closely modelled after the Prussian type. The southern states, 
 however, as is indicated in the following com- 
 parative table of week-hours, show a disposition 
 to give relatively more time to the classics and less to mathe- 
 matics and science. 
 
 In Other States.
 
 124 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF GYMNASIAL CURRICULA. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Saxony. 
 
 Wttrtem- 
 berg. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Weimar. 
 
 Keligiou 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 Herman 
 
 M 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 Latin 
 
 62 
 
 66 
 
 7173 
 
 81 
 
 69 
 
 72 
 
 Greek 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 4042 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 French 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 History and Geography. . 
 
 26 
 34 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 33 
 
 24 
 33 
 
 28 
 29 
 
 28 
 30 
 
 Physics 
 
 10 
 
 > 33 
 
 1 ,K 
 
 
 11- ( 
 
 8 
 
 Natural History 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 \ 15 
 
 14 
 
 It, | 
 
 10 
 
 Writing 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 n 
 
 4 
 
 4 l 
 
 4 
 
 Drawing 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals (exclusive of Sing- 
 ing and Gymnastics) . . 
 
 252 
 
 228 
 
 258-62 
 
 263 
 
 250 
 
 256 
 
 Progymnasiuin. 
 
 The Progymnasien are Gymnasien lacking some of the 
 higher classes. They are usually found in the smaller towns, 
 where few pupils remain after completing the 
 six years' course required for one year's volun- 
 tary service in the army. Those pupils who would naturally 
 advance into the upper classes are sent to some neighboring 
 town. Hence, as a rule, the Progymnasien have only the 
 lower and middle classes, i.e., a six years' course. 
 
 The Gymnasien are the classical preparatory schools for 
 the universities. All roads to the learned professions and to 
 the higher posts in the civil and military ser- 
 v * ce ^ ea( ^ ou ^ ^ rom these schools. Historically, 
 they are the centre and strength of the German 
 school system ; and while schools of a different nature have 
 been established with a view to modern economic needs, pop- 
 ular prejudice is so strong that only graduates of the Gym- 
 nasien are regarded as cultured. The classics may be- a fet- 
 ich, but for the German mind they have a charm too 
 powerful to be easily broken. " The classical literature is, 
 and will continue to be, the source of all our culture. It 
 must remain, therefore, not only an indispensable, but by 
 far the most important study in our higher schools." This 
 thought, expressed a century ago by Frederick Gedike, the 
 first Oberschulrat of Prussia, has been the guiding principle 
 of the Gymnasien to the present time.
 
 THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 
 
 125 
 
 In 1897 there were in Germany 439 Gymnasien and 92 
 Progymnasien, of which 277 Gymnasien and 53 Progym- 
 nasien were in Prussia. Bavaria stands next 
 with 40 Gymnasien, and Saxony and Alsace- ^^ nd 
 Lorraine each have 17 ; Wiirtemberg has 1G 
 Gymnasien and 3 Progymnasien ; Baden, 14 of the former 
 and 2 of the latter. The other states of the empire have 
 from 1 to 9 each. In 1895-96 the attendance at the Prussian 
 Gymnasien was 76,078, and at the Progymnasien, 4,544, 
 or about fifty-seven per cent, of the total number of pupils 
 in the secondary schools. 
 
 " The aim of the Realgymnasien, as of the humanistic 
 Gymnasien, is to give the youth a liberal education founded, 
 however, especially on instruction in the mod- 
 ern languages, mathematics and the natural 
 sciences." The class divisions and the general 
 requirements are the same as in the Gymnasien, but the cur- 
 riculum is somewhat different. English takes the place of 
 Greek, and more time is devoted to French and the natural 
 sciences. The LeJirplan of these schools in Prussia is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 LEHRPLAN OP THE PRUSSIAN REALGYMNASIEN. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 VI. 
 
 V. 
 
 IV. 
 
 III6. 
 
 Ilia. 
 
 116. 
 
 II". 
 
 16. 
 
 la. 
 
 Total 
 Week- 
 Hours. 
 
 Religion 
 
 ft 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 German and ,. 
 
 3) , 
 
 91 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 History Stories . 
 
 IP 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Latin 
 
 M 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 French . . . .. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 History and 
 
 { n 
 
 1 n 
 
 21 . 
 
 21 A 
 
 21 A 
 
 ->'.., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 ?r 
 
 n 4 
 
 9( 4 
 
 1 f 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mathematics . ... 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 Natural History 
 
 ?! 
 
 9 
 
 91 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 Chemistry and Mineralogy. 
 Writing . 
 
 '? 
 
 *fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 4 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 91 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 K 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Gymm-stics 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 3? 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 S3 
 
 290 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 126 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Policy of the 
 
 Government. 
 
 In accordance with the recommendation of the King and of 
 the Berlin Conference of December, 1890, the Prussian min- 
 istry has persistently sought to do away with the 
 Realgymnasien. As a consequence, the attend- 
 ance at these schools has decreased and some of 
 them have adopted another curriculum. But even in Prus- 
 sia, Realgymnasien still exist, and are likely to outlive the 
 King who signed their death-warrant. Saxony has always 
 stoutly defended the Realgymnasien, and, in fact, the southern 
 states in general support them with greater liberality than 
 does Prussia. This is evident in the following comparison of 
 the number of week-hours allotted to the different subjects in 
 the various states. 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF REALOYMNASIAL CURRICULA. 
 
 Subject*. 
 
 Pruuia. 
 
 Bararia. 
 
 Saxony. 
 
 WOrtem- 
 berg. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 Weimar. 
 
 Religion 
 
 10 
 
 IS 
 
 91 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 German 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 n 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 Latin 
 
 43 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 74 Y t 
 
 M 
 
 64 
 
 French 
 
 81 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 27 
 
 M 
 
 32 
 
 Englixh 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 IB 
 
 20 
 
 HlHtory and Orography . . 
 MathematicH 
 
 28 
 42 
 
 M 
 
 38 
 
 80 
 44 
 
 22 V t 
 M 
 
 m 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 44 
 
 Natural HUtory 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 W 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 Phyilc* 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 *y* 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 OhemUtry and Mineral- 
 ogy 
 
 A 
 
 6 
 
 fi 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 Writing 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Drawing 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 25# 
 
 IB 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total* (exclusive of Sing- 
 ing and Gymnaitici) . 
 
 360 
 
 247 
 
 281 
 
 *77 
 
 294 
 
 277 
 
 Portion of 
 
 The Realgymnasium arose to supply an actual wan-i in the 
 German school system. Yet from the beginning tradition 
 lias retarded its progress, and whatever gains 
 h ave been made are the results of long and 
 persistent struggle. Its curriculum is of es- 
 pecial interest to Americans, inasmuch as it more nearly 
 corresponds to the course of study of the American high 
 school. The likeness is even more striking when Greek is 
 admitted as an elective, as is the case in some Realgymnasien 
 of Alsace-Lorraine. The policy of retaining the Realgym-
 
 THE JTTOI7KR SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 127 
 
 nasium, and the pedagogical principles involved, will be dis- 
 cussed in a subsequent chapter. It is sufficient to say at this 
 point that graduates of the Realgymnasium are admitted to 
 university courses in mathematics, the natural sciences 
 and modern languages, and to all technological schools. 
 They are, however, denied admission to the professions of 
 law, medicine and theology, and to certain coveted positions 
 in the civil service. The slight put upon this school, es- 
 pecially by the Prussian government and the medical fra- 
 ternity, serves to retard its progress and hamper its useful- 
 ness. 
 
 There are in Germany 128 Realgymnasien and 93 Real- 
 progymnasien. Of the former there are 85 in Prussia, 10 
 in Saxony, 5 in Bavaria and 3 in Wiirtemberg ; 
 of the latter, Prussia claims 6? and Wurtem- 
 berg 4. In each of the other states there are 
 less than 10 of both kinds. In 189G the Prussian Real- 
 gymnasien enrolled 24,534 pupils, the Realprogymnasien 
 0,465, making in all twenty-three per cent, of the total num- 
 ber of higher-school pupils in the kingdom. 1 
 
 Higher schools in which the classical languages are not 
 taught are called Reahchulen. Their normal number of 
 classes is six ; the Oberreahchulen, however, have three ex- 
 tra classes. The term Hohere liiirgerschulen, as applied to 
 approved higher schools, is fast falling into disuse ; it prop- 
 erly belongs to a high-grade elementary school. The Real- 
 schulen aim to fit their students for more ef- 
 fectual and intelligent participation in the ac- 
 tual business affairs of life ; hence they place 
 particular emphasis on the modern languages and the natu- 
 ral sciences. Graduates of the Oberreahchulen are admitted 
 to university courses in mathematics and the natural sciences, 
 and may eventually become teachers of these branches in the 
 secondary schools. On the whole, their social standing is 
 about on a par with the graduates of the Realgymnasien; 
 
 1 Statittuchei Jahrbuch der hohercn Schulen, 1897-1898.
 
 128 
 
 OERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 both are commonly looked upon as inferior to the classical 
 student. It is the special policy of the Prussian ministry 
 to multiply the number of these schools at the expense 
 of both the Gymnasien and the Realyymnasien. Their 
 students are prepared to follow practical lines of activity, 
 and to them the nation looks for leaders in industrial pur- 
 suits. 
 
 The curriculum of the Prussian Olerrealsclmlen is as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 LEHRPLAN OF THE PRUSSIAN OBERREALSCHULEN. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 VI. 
 
 V. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Illft. 
 
 Ilia. 
 
 lift. 
 
 Ha. 
 
 Ift. 
 
 la. 
 
 Total 
 Week- 
 Hours. 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 German and j 
 History Stories ( 
 French 
 
 $: 
 
 .' 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 34 
 47 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 History and 
 
 t 2 
 
 2 
 
 !f 4 
 
 vh 
 
 ?l< 
 
 ?} 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 28 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 '5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 47 
 
 Natural History . . . 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 '3 
 
 '3 
 
 '3 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 Chemistry and Min- 
 eralogy 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 Writing 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Free-Hand Drawing 
 
 *2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 4 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 83 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 289 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 Prussia had, in 1896, 26 Oberrealschulen and 60 Real- 
 schulen / Wiirtemberg had 6 OberreaUchulen, Baden had 3, 
 Alsace-Lorraine had 3, and Oldenburg and 
 Brandenburg each had 1 ; in the other states 
 there were no schools of this kind. Bavaria had 46 Real- 
 schulen ; Saxony, 23 ; Wiirtemberg, 9 ; Baden, 14 ; Hesse, 
 16 ; Alsace-Lorraine, 8 ; and all the remaining states, 22. 
 This gives a total of 40 Oberrealschulen and 198 Realschulen 
 in the empire. 
 
 The Lehrplan of the Oberrealsclmlen of Wiirtemberg for 
 the last nine years of the course assigns to religion 19 week- 
 hours ; German, 28 ; French, 55 ; English, 18 ; history and 
 geography, 28 ; mathematics, 83 ; natural history, 10 ; phys-
 
 THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 129 
 
 ics and chemistry, 10 ; writing, 6 ; and drawing, 25. The 
 other states follow more closely the Prussian plan. 
 
 High schools attended by both sexes are unknown in Ger- 
 many. Coeducation, so far as it exists at all, is restricted 
 to the Volkssclmlen, where the pupils are under 
 fourteen vears of age. In fact, the secondary 4 " ^secon*- 
 
 ary Schools. 
 
 education of girls is largely a matter of con- 
 venience. In Prussia there are 568 higher schools for boys, 
 and only 128 for girls. Of the boys' schools 272 are sup- 
 ported wholly or in part by the state ; while only four girls' 
 schools receive any state aid. 1 This means 
 
 . . , , , , 1-1 -i Girls' Schools. 
 
 that girls schools are almost exclusively under 
 city patronage, or on special foundations, or exist for private 
 gain; and, as a natural consequence, there is little uni- 
 formity in respect either to curriculu.ni or methods. More- 
 over, uniformity has been unnecessary, since no special 
 privileges have been attached to graduation from a girls' 
 higher school. Women are not wanted in the university ; 
 hence there is no need of a gymnasial course of study. 
 They are worthless as soldiers ; hence no advantage in a 
 specified curriculum that grants the privilege of one year of 
 voluntary service in the army! Nevertheless, some needed 
 reforms have been brought about within the past four or five 
 years. 2 
 
 An association of women teachers (Allgemeiner Deutscher 
 LeJirerinnen-Verein) was formed in 1890 for the express 
 purpose of advancing their professional standing. Their 
 main object was to obtain the right to teach in the higher 
 classes of the Hohere Madchenschulen. It was argued that 
 young women in the advanced grades of the secondary 
 schools should not be taught exclusively by men ; the sub- 
 
 1 Cf. Wychgram, JTandbuch des hoheren Madchenschulwesens, Leipsic, 
 1897, p. 55. 
 
 s See : Von der Decken, Die gebildete Frau und die neue Zeit, Got- 
 tingen ; Ichenhauser, Die Ausnahmestellung Detttschlands in Sachen des 
 Frauenstudiums, Berlin; and files of Die Frauenbewegung, Die Frau and 
 Neue Bahnen. 
 ft
 
 130 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 jects of religion, German and history at least, it was modestly 
 suggested, could be satisfactorily presented by women. But 
 this involved the problem of university train- 
 Teachers 8 m S ^ or women. Candidates for the position of 
 teacher are required to pass a state examination ; 
 and in order to do this there must be adequate preparation. 
 Women with the indiscriminate training of a girls' higher 
 school could not aspire to the positions occupied by univer- 
 sity men. 
 
 The first step, therefore, toward a fixed curriculum for 
 these schools was taken under the necessity of knowing with 
 what sort of preparation women should undertake higher 
 study. 
 
 A ministerial rescript, dated May 31, 1894, fixes a curricu- 
 lum for the Hohere Madchenschulen. It also provides for 
 the appointment of women to any position in 
 ^ ne upper grades, and requires that a woman 
 be made associate principal in case a man is 
 the head of the school, and that one of the three head teach- 
 ers in any event be a woman. This is the first important 
 concession made to women teachers by the Prussian govern- 
 ment ; and it fixes the minimum standard of the preparation 
 expected of them. 
 
 Up to 1897 only thirty-nine girls' schools had been placed 
 under the jurisdiction of the Prussian provincial school- 
 boards, and thus given equal rank with the higher schools 
 for boys. By far the larger part of girls' schools are thereby 
 relegated to the rank of Mittelschulen, or high grade ele- 
 mentary schools ; but for all schools in which two foreign 
 languages are taught there are now the same ideals and a 
 common standard. The activity and persistency manifested 
 by the various organizations of women is turning public 
 attention to the education of girls. There is promise of 
 better things in the near future. The curriculum of the 
 girls' higher schools in Prussia is as follows :
 
 THE IIIO HER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 
 
 131 
 
 LEHKPLAN OF THE PRUSSIAN HOHERE MADCHENSCHCLEW. 
 
 Subject*. 
 
 Lower 
 Division. 
 
 Middle 
 Uivinion. 
 
 Upper 
 Division. 
 
 [j 
 
 i! 
 
 H i 
 
 24 
 54 
 27 
 12 
 
 24 
 10 
 14 
 12 
 
 10 (8) 
 7() 
 14 
 12(18) 
 1(12) 
 
 IX. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 VII. 
 
 VI. 
 
 V. 
 
 IV. 
 
 III. 
 
 II. 
 
 I. 
 
 Keligion .... 
 
 3 
 10 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 5 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 3 
 5 
 5 
 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 '2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 '2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 '2 
 2 
 2 
 
 German 
 
 French 
 
 English 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 A 
 
 }' ; 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 f" 
 
 3 
 '2 
 
 '2 
 2 
 
 }* 
 
 3 
 
 - 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 8 
 2 
 2 
 
 >i 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 8 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 '2 
 2 
 2 
 
 History 
 
 
 Natural Sciences 
 Drawing 
 
 Writing .... 
 
 Sewing, etc 
 
 Singing 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 238 
 
 
 Pupils enter the Madchen'scliulen at six years of age, there 
 being no special Vorschulen, as for the boys' schools. The 
 course of nine years, therefore, places the school in the same 
 class as the Progymnasien, Realprogymnasien and Real- 
 schulen, which graduate their students normally at the age 
 of sixteen years. 
 
 The reader may inquire whether German girls receive no 
 school training after they are sixteen. According to the pres- 
 ent Minister of Education, a twelve years' course 
 of uninterrupted study would make such de- 
 mands on the mental and physical powers of 
 the girls that after graduation they would be unfitted for 
 life's work. " It is further to be presumed that a girl who 
 has gathered as much knowledge as is possible in a nine years' 
 course under the favorable circumstances which now obtain 
 in the Holier e Madchenschulen will feel the need of special- 
 izing in particular branches, without being compelled to pur- 
 sue studies for which she has no special liking or talents." 
 Those who advocate the higher education of women pro- 
 nounce such manifestoes as merely another way of saying
 
 132 GERMAN 1I1QUER SCHOOLS 
 
 that men must continue to monopolize all positions in the 
 learned professions. 
 
 The first attempt to give graduates of the Hohere Mdd- 
 
 chenschulen a complete gymnasia! training was made in 
 
 Berlin, where a school was organized for the 
 
 Girls' Gymnasien. 
 
 purpose in October, 1893. It has since been 
 conducted by Friiulein Helene Lange, one of the foremost 
 advocates of women's rights in Germany. The school aims 
 to fit graduates of the Hohere Mddchenschulen in four years 
 for the Abiturienten-Examen, which carries with it the priv- 
 ilege of university study. It remains to be seen, however, 
 whether the Prussian universities will open their doors to 
 women, even though they are as well qualified for entrance as 
 young men. Some of them have already conceded the point, 
 but many obstacles are yet to be overcome before it can be 
 said that the German universities are coeducational insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 In 1893 a girls' Gymnasium was also opened at Carlsruhe, 
 under the auspices of the Frauenbildung- Reform- Verein. 
 ' Pupils entering this school must be at least twelve years of 
 age ; and after one year's preparation in a connecting class, 
 they are expected to finish the regular classical course of the 
 boys' school in five years. A similar school was established 
 at Leipsic, in April, 1894, by the Allgemeiner Deutscher 
 Frauen- Verein, under the principalsbip of Friiulein von 
 Windscheid, the first woman to receive the degree of Ph.D. 
 from the University of Heidelberg. The^ course is four years, 
 and pupils must be fifteen years old at entrance. A similar 
 school is under way in Munich. 
 
 In all these schools the curricula a r/> planned to supplement 
 the earlier training of the girls, that they may graduate on a 
 
 level with the boys of the Gymnasien. They 
 * are recognised by the authorities to the extent 
 
 of being allowed to exist, and it is probable 
 that some means will be found to enable their graduates to 
 continue their work at the universities. Heidelberg already 
 admits women to the department of Science-Mathematics,
 
 THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 133 
 
 and grants them the degree of Ph.D. if all the work has been 
 done there. Gottingen allows women as " auditors," and has 
 granted several Ph.D.'s to women. Freiburg admits women 
 as guests in the departments of philosophy and medicine. 
 Leipsic permits them to register and pay tuition fees, but 
 professors have no legal right to receive them in the lecture- 
 rooms. " We simply don't see them, if they happen to be 
 there," a member of the faculty once naively remarked to 
 me. All other German universities do not tolerate women at 
 all, or hedge the privilege about to such an extent that very 
 few can secure entrance. 1 
 
 The public day schools of Germany are so peculiarly Ger- 
 man, such perfect expressions of the national policy in edu- 
 cation, that little is heard of that other class 
 
 , . -r, , , . Private Schools. 
 
 so prominent in J&ngland and America the 
 boarding-school. It exists, nevertheless, and is no less Ger- 
 man than the former. There are private institutions, too, 
 of all grades, though but few are recognised as " schools." 
 The higher education of girls is mostly in private hands, or 
 supported only in part by the community. In the city of 
 Hamburg, for example, with 11 public and 7 private higher 
 schools for beys, there are for girls 5 public and 65 private 
 secondary schools. Of the Berlin higher schools, 38 are 
 for boys and 32 for girls ; all of the boys' schools are pub- 
 lic, but only 9 of the girls' schools receive any state or city 
 aid. 2 
 
 Church schools evangelical, catholic and Jewish are 
 plentiful and generally have boarding departments. Schools 
 for backward pupils, and commercial and tech- 
 
 Church Schools. 
 
 nical schools, are usually private or local. But 
 
 of all the influences which tend to promote private schools 
 
 for boys the strongest is the privilege of the one-year volun- 
 
 1 See Die akademische Frau : Gutachten hcrvorragender Universitdts- 
 professoren, Fraiienlehrer und Schriftsteller uber die Befdhigung der 
 Frau zum wissenschaftlichcn Stadium und JJerufe, edited by Kirekhof, 
 Berlin. 
 
 * Statistics of 1893.
 
 134 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 teer service in the army ; this may be secured only on the 
 completion of a six years' course of study in a privileged 
 higher school, or upon examination by a governmental board. 
 It is possible for students dropped from the public schools, 
 or for those who, from choice or necessity, would take a 
 shorter course, to find instruction in private institutions 
 whose sole aim is to fit for the state examination. As before 
 stated, these are not " schools " from the German point of 
 view, but Fabriken or Pressen either term being suggestive 
 enough of the methods employed. 
 
 The necessity for private venture in the education of girls 
 
 naturally gives rise to many " finishing " schools, in which 
 
 social rank plays a conspicuous role. The more 
 
 Boarding-schools. * . 
 
 pretentious the rank, the more likely is it to 
 be a boarding-school. Many of these schools are under the 
 honorary protection of the various German courts, and there- 
 by enjoy decided popularity. Institutions for the education 
 of backward pupils, as those for orphans and others of char- 
 itable aim, are naturally home schools. At the head of such 
 institutions stands the renowned Franckesche Stiftungen in 
 Halle, a group of schools of different grades for orphans of 
 both sexes. But the question of home accommodations for 
 higher school pupils, irrespective of sex, class or condition, 
 is really more serious than in America. In Germany there 
 are some 25,000 post-offices, each of which represents a cen- 
 tre of population. The pastor, physician and school-master, 
 not to mention wealthy peasants and government officials, 
 may aspire to give their sons the higher training. But in all 
 Germany there are but 1,173 privileged higher schools, and 
 the 6ondition is made still clearer when one learns that the 
 twenty-five largest cities have two hundred and eight of these 
 schools. Or, to put it in another way, there are in Germany 
 about 2,500 cities and towns of over 2,000 inhabitants, and 
 these have less than forty per cent, of the total population. 
 The number of boys that must leave home at nine or ten 
 years of age to begin their university preparation is presum- 
 ably greater than in the United States, where the 4,500 high
 
 THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 135 
 
 schools have a total enrolment not appreciably larger than 
 obtains in the German schools. But because of the uniform 
 excellence of the public schools, and from motives of econ- 
 omy, the average country lad will make his home with a 
 family residing near a public school which he enters as a day 
 pupil. 
 
 The better grade boarding-schools are recruited mainly 
 from two sources, the nobility and the commercial class. The 
 gymnasial course leading to the university and to the highest 
 posts in the army and civil service will naturally be sought 
 by the former ; the aim of the latter is to secure the privi- 
 lege of but one year of army service and a practical prepara- 
 tion for business life. 
 
 Private venture schools are not suffered to exist in Ger- 
 many unless they satisfy an actual public need, and have the 
 ability to maintain the governmental standard. 
 They must also conform to the prescribed cur- 
 ricula for secondary schools, if they would se- 
 cure the privileges granted to schools of that grade. Girls' 
 schools in general, and boys' schools, too, beyond the fixed 
 requirements, may exercise considerable freedom in regulat- 
 ing their work along special lines. 
 
 The German school system is not designed to lead pupils 
 step by step from the kindergarten to the university, to 
 form a connected series of grades, each of 
 which is the natural development of the pre- 
 ceding one. The elementary and secondary 
 schools are quite independent of each other. It is trne that 
 certain Mittelschulen, technological and trade schools, receive 
 pupils from the Volksschulen, but not one boy in ten thousand 
 finds his way from the highest class of the elementary school 
 into the Gymnasium. The parent is obliged to choose a 
 school for his nine-year old son, and on this selection depends 
 in a large measure the boy's future career. The necessity of 
 practically determining the trend of a boy's education before 
 his personality is adequately known, places a responsibility 
 upon many parents which they cannot properly discharge.
 
 136 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Errors of judgment often result in the transference of pupils, 
 after two or three years of training, from one kind of school 
 to another better adapted to their abilities. The difficulties 
 thereby encountered are obvious from a comparison of the 
 various courses of study outlined in this chapter. 
 
 In Frankfort-on-the-Main a noteworthy attempt has been 
 made, since Easter, 1892, to remedy these evils, and at the 
 
 same time to infuse more life into the studies 
 e pto kfOT ^ ^e secondary schools by introducing shorter 
 
 and more intensive courses. The plan, as de- 
 signed by Dr. Karl Reinhardt, Director of the Stddtisches 
 Gymnasium, prescribes the same curriculum during the first 
 three school-years for the Gymnasium, the Realgymnasium 
 and the Oberrealschule. In this way transference is compara- 
 tively easy between all schools for three years ; and between 
 the Gymnasium and the Realgymnasium it is possible as 
 late as the beginning of the sixth school year. Inasmuch as 
 the Frankfort plan has received the sanction of the Prus- 
 sian Department of Education, and has been, adopted in many 
 places, it deserves mention here among the curricula of the 
 approved higher schools. 
 
 l.i.iiKi-i. \M: OF FRANKFORT GYMNASIUM AND REALGTMNASITTM. 
 
 Subjects. 
 
 VI. 
 
 V. 
 
 rv 
 
 IIU. 
 
 Ilia. 
 
 116. 
 
 Ha. 
 
 16. 
 
 la. 
 
 Total 
 Week 
 
 Hours 
 
 Gym. & RG. 
 
 G. 
 
 RG. 
 
 G. 
 
 RG. 
 
 G. 
 
 RG. 
 
 G. 
 
 RG. 
 
 G. 
 
 RG. 
 
 G. 
 
 RG. 
 
 G. 
 
 RG 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 3 
 10 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 2 
 
 2 
 3 
 6 
 
 's 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 2 
 8 
 8 
 8 
 3 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 6 
 
 '8 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 8 
 8 
 2 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 *8 
 4 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 2 
 3 
 8 
 8 
 2 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 " 
 4 
 
 8 
 5 
 
 19 
 31 
 52 
 32 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 37 
 10 
 8 
 
 "4 
 8 
 
 19 
 81 
 40 
 
 88 
 18 
 
 27 
 42 
 10 
 9 
 
 4 
 1A 
 
 
 Latin 
 
 Greek . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Englinh 
 
 Hintory and 
 Geography. . . 
 Mnthematics . 
 Natural History 
 Physics ... 
 
 2 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 6 
 5 
 3 
 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 '2 
 
 ChemUtry 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Writing. 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Total* 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 265 
 
 260
 
 THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA 137 
 
 In the lower classes French is strongly emphasized, and is 
 taught with special reference to the Latin that follows. Latin 
 is introduced in the third year and studied only comparison 
 six years, and Greek is reduced to four years, with Regular 
 As compared with the regular gymnasial pro- 
 gram, the mother-tongue gets five more week-hours ; Latin, 
 seventeen hours less ; Greek, four hours less ; mathematics, 
 one hour more ; French, eleven hours more ; history, the 
 same ; drawing, the same. The aim is to arrive at results as 
 good as those attained by following the regular course, the 
 difference being in the method of procedure. The final out- 
 come of the scheme is awaited with intense interest both by 
 its friends and foes. On its success or failure depends a 
 possible solution of one of the most important pedagogical 
 problems before the German educationists of the present 
 time. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES: Wiese-Kiibler, Gesetze und Verordnungen ; 
 Lehrplane und Lehraufgaben fur die hoheren Schulen, Berlin, 1893; 
 Schwartz, Der Organismus der Gymnasien in seiner praktischen Gestal- 
 tung, Berlin, 1876 ; Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen Deutsch- 
 lands ; Kunze, Kalendar fur das hohere Schulwesen Preussens, Breslau, 
 1894 ; Wychgram, Handbuch des hoheren Madchenschulwesens, Leipsic, 
 1897 ; Lange, Entwicklung und Stand des hoheren Madchenschulwesens 
 in Deutschland, Berlin, 1893 ; Reinhardt, Die Frankfurter Lehrpldne, 
 Frankfort, 1892 ; Centralblatt, and Encyclopedias of Schraid and Rein. 
 See Bibliography, p. 455, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 23, 24, 25.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 FOUNDATION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 THE Gymnasium was originally founded by the Church as 
 a professional school for the training of the clergy. It was 
 intended to teach especially what was consid- 
 ere( ^ necessary for a priest of the Church to 
 know. The languages of the Bible and of the 
 Church Fathers Latin, Greek and Hebrew were all-im- 
 portant, Latin above all others. Under the influence of the 
 Renaissance and the Reformation these schools assumed a 
 more general character, and yet in Germany their main pur- 
 pose was unaltered. The Protestant Church, inspired with 
 the worth of each immortal soul, demanded for its ministers 
 a more liberal education than had been deemed necessary for 
 the clergy of the Church of Rome. Schools prepared to af- 
 ford this training the highest in the land in time were 
 opened to any one who desired a preparation for the higher 
 intellectual life. The sphere of their influence was extended, 
 while their main purpose remained as before. 
 
 Many of the early ecclesiastical foundations remain at the 
 present day. The oldest of the existent classical schools of 
 Germany was founded in Fulda in the eighth 
 century. It is still catholic, although now 
 supported by the Prussian government. The 
 Gymnasium at Osnabriick, known as the Carolinum, was es- 
 tablished under charter of Charles the Great, dated Decem- 
 ber 19, 804. Another interesting old school, founded by the 
 Roman Church in the first quarter of the ninth century, is 
 the Gymnasium of Hildesheim. It was taken over by the 
 
 138
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 139 
 
 Jesuits in 1595, and is still supported by the Church. Of the 
 other catholic Gymnasien of modern Prussia, one was found- 
 ed in 1450, another in 1474, and seven between 1545 and 
 1580. The comparatively large number of classical schools 
 still in existence which were established in the latter half of 
 the sixteenth century is an interesting commentary on the 
 work of the Jesuits. In addition to those already mentioned, 
 no fewer than twenty-one of the present Prussian Gymnasien 
 were originally on catholic foundations, but went over to the 
 protestants at the time of the Reformation. One of these 
 schools (Zeitz) had been established as early as 968 two in 
 the twelfth century, five in the thirteenth, nine in the 
 fourteenth, one in the fifteenth, and three in the sixteenth. 
 For example, the city Gymnasium of Konigsberg was found- 
 ed in 1335 by the municipal authorities as a parochial school 
 in connection with the Roman Catholic Church. Under the 
 influence of the head-master who was in charge from 1518 
 to 1541, himself a convert to Luther's preaching, it became 
 a protestant Latin school. The Kneipfhofisches Gymnasium 
 (Konigsberg), founded probably as early as 1304 as a ca- 
 thedral school, went over to the Lutherans at about the same 
 time. The Kollnisches Gymnasium of Berlin, probably the 
 oldest classical school of the province, has been protestant 
 since 1540. The present site of the Berlin Gymnasium zum 
 grauen Kloster belonged to the Franciscans from 1290 to 
 1539, when the monastery was closed. Elector Johann 
 George afterward presented one-third of the cloister to the 
 present Gymnasium, which opened for the first time in 1574. 
 It is something to be thankful for that in those days " con- 
 science money " went for educational purposes. 
 
 Schools on protestant foundations date, for the most part, 
 from the sixteenth century. The steady progress of educa- 
 tion and the extension of the school system un- 
 der the guidance of Luther and Melanchthon 
 are evident from the number of schools still ex- 
 isting in Prussia which sprang up in the sixteenth century. 
 Three of the leading protestant Gymnasien of modern Prussia
 
 140 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 were established prior to 1530, five others between 1530 and 
 1540, twelve between 1540 and 1550, and. twenty-four others 
 before the close of the century. The majority of these schools 
 were supported by the municipalities in which they were 
 located. Occasionally one received special endowment from 
 some wealthy citizen. Two in particular deserve special 
 mention : one, Pforta, which owes its origin to the generos- 
 ity of Duke Maurice of Saxony, who endowed it in 1543 with 
 the Cistercian Abbey of St. Mary's, on the banks of the Saale, 
 not far distant from Naumburg, the other, Rossleben, a clois- 
 tral school founded in 1554 by a nobleman of the province. 
 I shall make mention later of some of the striking character- 
 istics of these two old boarding-schools. 
 
 There are in Prussia at the present time two hundred and 
 seventy-seven Gymnasien. Of this number it will be seen 
 that seventy-seven, or nearly one-fourth, were es- 
 
 tablished before 160 - In the seventeenth cen- 
 tury only thirty-three of the now existent Prus- 
 sian Gymnasien were established, and most of these were on 
 catholic foundations. Some of the notable exceptions are 
 the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium of Berlin (1607), the 
 Francke'sclie Stiftungen in Halle (1695-1697) and theFran- 
 zosisches Gymnasium of Berlin (1689). 
 
 Mention should be made in this place of some of the re- 
 nowned schools of the other German states. There is so 
 much of the life of the German people, so many 
 
 In Other States. * . ' 
 
 interesting facts connected with their history, 
 stored up in these venerable institutions, that I find myself 
 seriously tempted to stray from the narrow lines of this chap- 
 ter. The Filrstenschulen of Meissen and Grimma in Saxony 
 stand side by side with Pforta as monuments of the Elector 
 Maurice. Then in Leipsic are the famous Thomas- Schule 
 (1221), and the Nicolai Gymnasium which was founded by a 
 bull of Boniface IX. in 1395. Hamburg boasts of the 
 Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums, of which Johann Bugen- 
 hagen, Luther's apostle to the low Germans, was the first 
 master. The protestant Gymnasium of Strassburg dates
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 141 
 
 from 1538, when Sturm began his work in that city. Tubing- 
 en, Stuttgart, Munich, Augsburg, Wiirzburg, Nuremberg, 
 and many other cities of South Germany have schools that 
 have come down from the sixteenth century. 
 
 The tendency in Prussia, as indeed in all the German 
 states, has been for the government to absorb schools on 
 special foundations, and by taking over their 
 endowments to make them purely state schools. 
 In some instances this has been done with a 
 view to the equalization of school funds ; but inasmuch as 
 there is no comprehensive school law in Prussia many serious 
 complications still continue. There are schools existing by 
 special charter which have done a great work in the past, yet 
 whose funds are now so depreciated that retrenchment must 
 follow if state aid cannot be secured ; there are schools estab- 
 lished by municipalities to which the government makes 
 annual grants ; there are state schools supported in part by 
 local rates ; there are others which have several sources of 
 income. This mixed state of affairs, which often renders it 
 necessary to search back to records even five or six hundred 
 years old in order to settle some detail of administration, is 
 very unsatisfactory to the school and highly exasperating to 
 the officials. An inspector once told me of a village school 
 in his jurisdiction the teacher of which must look to eighteen 
 different sources for his small income. He gets a fee for be- 
 ing church chorister ; something more for conducting an 
 evening continuation school ; and even observances long obso- 
 lete, such as personally greeting all the families of the vil- 
 lage on Christmas day, have each their particular cash value. 
 Now when custom decrees that Christmas calls are no longer 
 the mode, how is the poor school-master to get that portion 
 of his salary which is dependent on this labour of love ? Such 
 problems are of vital interest to the school -masters and 
 the government cannot pass them by. But it is no easy task 
 to adjust these old legacies to modern requirements ; often 
 special acts of Parliament are necessary to overcome condi- 
 tions imposed by charters centuries old. There are weak
 
 14:2 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Gymnasien, too, that would gladly become Realscliulen, save 
 that some clause in a charter centuries old requires that 
 Latin be taught in that school for all eternity. Between 
 giving up Latin and abandoning the foundation there can 
 be no question. The dead hand rules. Herein are some 
 of the disadvantages of tradition. 
 
 The lower schools are often hampered by the uncertain 
 boundary between the rights of the clergy also a survival of 
 the times when the schools were wholly under 
 the control of the church and the duties of 
 the state inspectors. Conflicts are by no means 
 rare, especially in Koman Catholic communities ; and the 
 Minister is careful to avoid establishing any new precedent 
 in these matters which might give rise to political compli- 
 cations. 
 
 The secondary schools are more fortunate. Difficulties 
 increase with the number of patrons, but as a rule there is 
 a precise understanding as to the rights of 
 P a ^ronage. The enormous growth in the 
 population of German cities since 1870 has 
 rendered necessary the establishment of large numbers of 
 secondary schools. Rivalry between competing cities, or the 
 effort to build up a new suburb, is sure to create a demand 
 for additional school facilities. For example, Berlin had 
 in 1872 a population of 864,300 ; in 1893, 1,691,702. During 
 these twenty years there was an annual average increase of 
 more than 6,000 in the school population. This necessitated, 
 besides many common schools, the establishment of nineteen 
 higher schools, practically an average of one secondary school 
 a year. 1 
 
 A dozen instances of phenomenal growth of city population 
 could be cited that would compare favourably with the most 
 phenomenal of our western American towns. 3 I shall men- 
 
 1 Report of Schul- Deputation of Berlin, April, 1894. 
 ' See Shaw, The Government of German Cities, Century Magazine.^ 
 Vol.
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 143 
 
 tion only one. The census of Magdeburg in 1880 showed a 
 population of 97,500 ; in 1890 it had increased to 202,234. 
 The area within the city walls became altogether inadequate. 
 As a means of relief the city purchased of the Prussian gov- 
 ernment the site of the old fortifications, paying almost 
 enough, I have heard, to construct still stronger walls at a 
 greater distance out. The city fathers immediately cut up 
 the newly acquired tract into building lots, which were put on 
 the market. But in order to induce a better class of resi- 
 dents and to enhance the value of the land, a Gymnasium 
 was established in 1886 at city expense. At bottom this was 
 a pure speculation, a land-boom of the most approved type, 
 and but for the rapid increase in the population and wealth 
 of the locality it would have become a serious drain upon the 
 city treasury. The result is, however, that a flourishing 
 town has sprung up and the city has made a fortune in the 
 transaction. 
 
 As a rule cities are disposed to found Gymnasien, rather 
 than Real-schools, because of the higher social standing of 
 the former. The town with many Realschulen, 
 or even many Realgymnasien, is popularly sup- 
 posed to be an industrial centre ; while Gym- 
 nasien, on the contrary, invariably bespeak a professional or 
 wealthy class. Often the conflict between city and state 
 waxes warm over the kind of school to be established. The 
 state cannot compel the city to found one school rather than 
 another ; in fact, it cannot compel the foundation of any 
 school at all. But if the city proposes a plan counter to the 
 policy of the government, some exceptionally strong support, 
 political, social or religions, will be necessary to avoid the 
 Minister's veto. It is no simple matter for a town nowa- 
 days to secure an additional classical school. In the words of 
 the Emperor, the times demand " young Germans, upright, 
 God-fearing and patriotic citizens, instead of young Greeks 
 and Romans. " 
 
 The relations sustained by the municipality to the state 
 in educational affairs, and the general tendencies of the
 
 144 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 age, are perhaps best seen in the kingdom of Saxony. There 
 are, all told, seventeen Gymnasien in the kingdom. Four 
 of them all founded prior to 1586, one dating back to the 
 thirteenth century are now under the joint 
 patronage of city and state ; six are state 
 schools ; two others, founded in 1300 and 1879 
 respectively, are exclusively city foundations ; one has a 
 special endowment (1638), and is under the administration of 
 a lineal descendent of the original founder. Grimma (1550) 
 and St. Afra in Meissen (1543) are Kloster Schulen, having 
 been endowed by Maurice of Saxony with the possessions of 
 secularized monasteries. The two oldest Gymnasien of Leip- 
 sic, the Thomas- Schule (1221) and the Nicolai Gymnasium 
 (1395), are supported in part by special endowments, in part 
 by the city. Of the ten Realgymnasien, all except two be- 
 long to the present century, while the specific character of 
 each has been determined within the past fifty years. Sev- 
 en of these schools are municipal, only three being royal. 
 Moreover, there are twenty-three Realschulen in the kingdom, 
 all of them under city control. The state, however, makes a 
 special grant of 12,000 marks a year to some seventeen of 
 these schools those outside of Dresden, Leipsic and Chem- 
 nitz and secures thereby the privilege of appointing the 
 director and head-teachers. As to the relative interests of 
 state and city in the founding of a new school, the history of 
 Saxony since 1870 is very suggestive ; of the twenty-seven 
 secondary schools called into existence in the last twenty-five 
 years, only four are under royal patronage. ' 
 
 When a city will establish a new school it enters into cove- 
 nant with the state to house it properly, to provide suitable 
 furnishings and equipment, and to support it in 
 a becoming way from year to year. But first 
 it devolves upon the municipality to show that 
 the elementary education of the city is on a satisfactory basis, 
 and that there is genuine need of a secondary school. The 
 approval of the Minister of Education and nothing can be 
 done without his approval is also conditioned on special re-
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 145 
 
 ports made to him by government officials on such matters 
 as, for example, the town's ability to support the proposed 
 institution, and whether it might tend to weaken some other 
 school already established. Approval once granted is further 
 conditioned on the proper execution of essential details : the 
 school site must be satisfactory ; the plans and specifications 
 of the building must be submitted to the supervising architect 
 of the province and passed by him ; the denominational 
 character of the school, on which depends the selection of a 
 faculty, must conform to the religious belief of the majority 
 of the scholars ; the proposed furnishings and equipment 
 down to the drinking cups and blackboard erasers must be 
 of proper quality and amount. Nothing goes unregulated to 
 which a regulation can be at all applied. 
 
 Perhaps to English readers the most suggestive of all these 
 requirements is the one pertaining to the school building 
 and its equipment. In general the school-house 
 must contain sufficient class-rooms, large, light 
 and well -ventilated ; an auditorium for religious 
 exercises and public exhibitions ; arrangements for library, 
 museums and laboratories ; teachers' assembly-room, and a 
 study for the director. 
 
 The class-rooms, according to official regulations, may not 
 sxceed 9.5 metres long, by 5.7 metres to 7 metres wide, by 4.1 
 metres to 4.4 metres high. The teachers' plat- 
 : orm (3.2 metres long, 1.3 metres wide, .2 metre 
 L o .3 metre high) is placed at one side of the 
 room. There shall be a suitable desk for the teacher with lock- 
 drawers. At the side of the platform, usually on an easel, is 
 the blackboard about 3 by 5 feet. The main aisle between 
 ;he platform and front row of desks should be at least 1 
 metre wide ; aisles next to the walls (and windows) at least .4 
 metre wide and the central aisle at least . 5 metre wide. The 
 central aisle is unnecessary except when more than six scholars 
 would thereby have to sit together. This gives 3.9 to 4.3 
 cubic metres air space for the lower classes, and 4.3 to 4.8 for 
 the middle classes. Twice the above areas are allowed for 
 10
 
 146 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 drawing, and the auditorium should provide for 6 square 
 metres floor space for each pupil. 
 
 In 1879 the government had the space carefully measured 
 which is allotted to each pupil's desk in the schools of Ber- 
 lin and Cologne. The city schools of Berlin showed the most 
 economical arrangement and their plan was thereupon recom- 
 mended for general adoption. It is as follows : 
 
 
 Wilhelmt-Gym. 
 
 City Schools, 
 
 City Schools, 
 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 Cologne. 
 
 Ages and Classes of 
 
 
 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ja 
 
 a 
 
 $3 
 
 5 
 
 J3 
 
 *s 
 
 .c 
 
 & 
 
 ** 
 
 
 o 
 
 A 
 
 
 o 
 
 C- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 I 
 
 + S 
 
 p 
 
 oT 
 Q 
 
 *S 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 +s 
 
 VI. and V. 10 to 13 Years . 
 
 .64 
 
 .81 
 
 .43 
 
 .50 
 
 .71 
 
 .36 
 
 .47 
 
 .81 
 
 .38 
 
 IV. and III.-13tol6Years. 
 
 .59 
 
 .85 
 
 .60 
 
 .65 
 
 .73 
 
 .40 
 
 .52 
 
 .84 
 
 .44 
 
 II. and I. 16 to 19 Years. . . 
 
 .65 
 
 .89 
 
 .68 
 
 .60 
 
 .79 
 
 .47 
 
 .53 
 
 .84 
 
 .48 
 
 But all such regulations are subject to modification at the 
 hands of the supervising architect of the province. It is his 
 business to see that the plans of local architects 
 are theoretically correct and practically useful. 
 He stands between the tax-payers on one side 
 and the school children on the other, and seeks to protect 
 both. Such an office, removed from all political influence 
 and presided over by a master of his profession, is an in- 
 estimable boon both to the country at large and to the proper 
 administration of school affairs. 
 
 School-houses are generally placed on quiet streets away 
 from the stir and bustle of the city and in a locality furnish- 
 ing good air and unobstructed light. If a suit- 
 
 The School Site. , ? . , , 
 
 able site can be found near the centre of the 
 district population, it must be given the preference. There 
 must be ample play-ground in connection with each school, 
 although " ample " means little more than standing room. 
 But as the German school-boy does not indulge in many 
 games, he does not require a foot-ball field except for a lei- 
 surely Spaziergang. Each class, however, lays claim to a
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 147 
 
 certain portion, and it is not unusual to find these class 
 divisions staked off or posts set up therein as rallying points. 
 The Turnhalle (gymnasium), as a rule, is on the school 
 grounds, but it is not a lounging place for pupils during 
 intermissions. The Turnhalle is intended for serious work ; 
 it is the laboratory of physical culture, and as such is in 
 charge of trained teachers who are as jealous of the honour of 
 their department as are the teachers of Latin. The gymnas- 
 tic equipment is invariably excellent and the methods of in- 
 struction all that could be desired under the prevailing sys- 
 tem. That the system has its faults is generally understood 
 abroad; but its faults as well as its merits are so well known 
 that I need not discuss them here. 
 
 In recent years the problem of lighting has received es- 
 pecial attention. It is now recognized that the window sur- 
 face of a room should be at least one-fifth of 
 the floor space, that windows should extend to 
 the ceiling, and that each pupil should have a view of the 
 blue sky the more the better. Yet there is such extraor- 
 dinary increase in near-sightedness from grade to grade, and 
 so many suicides among school children, that repeated official 
 investigations have been made in the sphere of school hy- 
 giene. " Recent Prussian statistics have shown that in four 
 years three hundred boys and four hundred and nine girls 
 under fifteen years committed suicide. The near-sighted- 
 ness became so serious that the Minister of Education, von 
 Gossler, asked Dr. Schmidt-Rimpler, the celebrated ocu- 
 list in Gottingen, to draw up a list of recommendations for 
 diminishing near-sightedness, so prevalent in the German 
 schools. The regulations were as follows : (1) Teachers 
 must acquire a knowledge of school hygiene ; (2) that a 
 medical attendant should be attached to the school staff and 
 practically inspect not only the school building, but the in- 
 dividual pupils ; (3) sending practical instructions to the 
 pupils to inform them of the position of the body in reading, 
 writing and studying ; (4) abolishing the afternoon session 
 so far as possible and allowing greater exercise in the onen
 
 148 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 air ; (5) abolishing written tasks at home ; (6) not allowing 
 the school course to extend over too many years." * 
 
 Minute regulations are laid down for heating and venti- 
 lation. In almost all of the older buildings the rooms are 
 heated separately by means of stoves, and from 
 
 Ventilation. . T *si *. 
 
 experience 1 can say that the ventilation is 
 uniformly bad. In many of the better buildings the stoves 
 are placed adjoining the corridors and so arranged that they 
 may be supplied with fuel and regulated from the outside of 
 the room. A glass-covered slit in the wall also allows the 
 janitor to see the thermometer an indispensable part of the 
 furniture of every German school-room. In this way it is 
 possible to adjust the heating and ventilation without dis- 
 turbing the class. The buildings constructed within the 
 last five or ten years are nearly all heated by steam or hot 
 water, and every precaution is taken to secure proper venti- 
 lation. In passing, I might mention such buildings as the 
 Weimar Gymnasium, Wilhelm's Gymnasium in Cassel and 
 Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium in Berlin as being models of 
 architectural style and hygienic precaution. 
 
 While the foregoing regulations regarding the construction 
 and equipment of school-houses are of a very general nat- 
 ure, the system of careful inspection renders impossible any 
 serious deviation on the part of contractors or municipalities 
 inclined to be penurious. The government has the power to 
 compel alterations in plans or specifications when found to 
 be defective, even though they were at first approved. In 
 the city schools the municipality must stand the additional 
 expense of such alterations. There is, however, a small fund 
 at the disposal of the provincial school-board which can ue 
 drawn upon for local benefit, and in some cases the state does 
 what it might compel the city to do. 
 
 The question of sanitary school seats is another much dis- 
 cussed problem. The outcome is that a few points of agree- 
 ment have been reached. Especial emphasis is placed upon 
 
 1 Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1889-1890, p. 338.
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 149 
 
 leaving very little horizontal distance between seat and desk. 
 Five centimetres is the maximum. It is also recommended 
 that desks be arranged in rows of two each 
 with a narrow aisle between, and that for each 
 school at least three different heights of seats be provided 
 one for the average for each of the three divisions in the 
 school. On the whole it seems to me as if the Germans with 
 all their attention to school hygiene had not advanced far 
 beyond the theoretic view of the problem. Seats are fitted 
 to the average boy of a grade whether that boy happens 
 to be there or not ; the rest must shift for themselves. The 
 seating and ventilation of class-rooms are, it seems to me, 
 out of harmony with the general equipment of German 
 schools. 
 
 Perhaps the most unique feature of the class-room equip- 
 ment, especially to an American accustomed to slate black- 
 boards completely surrounding the room, is the 
 little three by five blackboard the only one in 
 the room which stands at the side of the 
 teacher's platform. It is made of wood painted a dull black, 
 and is supported on an easel ; sometimes two blackboards are 
 hung on cords running over pulleys and so adjusted that they 
 can easily be run up or down. Damp sponges are always used 
 as erasers, thus avoiding dust. Each room is supplied with 
 a stand for displaying maps and charts, and an upright wooden 
 case six feet high by three feet wide in which they are stored 
 when not in use. This case also serves as a receptacle for 
 pupils' note-books and other articles of use in daily work. No 
 German class-room would be complete without portraits of 
 the reigning sovereigns and their predecessors for a genera- 
 tion or two. In Prussia, Bismarck and von Moltke, Luther, 
 Goethe and Schiller rank with the best. Pictures illustrative 
 of the class work find a prominent place. One frequently 
 finds displayed magnificent representations of classical sub- 
 jects, photographs of works of classic art or charts prepared 
 for special purposes. Some teachers make a practice of ex- 
 hibiting large numbers of pictures and charts, which are ex-
 
 (50 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 changed for others from time to time as the work advances. 
 This is often done to good effect in history, geography and 
 nature study. 
 
 The corridors of a German school building are the meeting 
 places for classes during the five-minute intermission between 
 lessons. The flooring in all modern buildings is stone or tile. 
 Rows of hooks are placed on the side wall for coats and caps. 
 Lockers are too much of a luxury. 
 
 The auditorium is the pride of the building. It is large 
 enough to give all the pupils seats and afford accommo- 
 dations for a few visitors besides. Howsoever plain the 
 rest of the building may be, there is always some artistic 
 effort here. In the new buildings the decorations are really 
 lavish. A grand piano is the one indispensable article of 
 furniture. 
 
 The teachers' assembly-room is provided with a long table 
 and a suitable number of chairs and book-shelves. The mu- 
 seums are fitted out with cabinets and shelves for the preser- 
 vation of natural history specimens. The laboratories are 
 each provided with a long table and seats about three feet 
 apart. Attachments for gas and water are luxuries not always 
 to be had. Some of the new schools have quite extensive 
 laboratory facilities, but, so far as my experience goes, they 
 are seldom or never used by the students. 
 
 Many of the classical schools of Germany have most excel- 
 lent libraries, in some instances numbering thousands of vol- 
 umes. These are supported by special endow- 
 
 Libraries. . "l * * 
 
 ments which occasionally provide for a care- taker 
 as well. As might be expected, the larger libraries contain 
 many volumes of little service at the present time. Works 
 on classical subjects, doctors' dissertations, and sermons cele- 
 brated in their day, are as numerous as Reports of the De- 
 partment of Agriculture in some American libraries. Schools 
 dependent upon special appropriations for the purchase of 
 books have no great collections ; still every school has its li- 
 brary, and it is generally a good one. The wretched method 
 of cataloguing in vogue throughout Germany, and the exces-
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 151 
 
 give care to exclude everyone from handling or even viewing 
 the books in the cases, practically annuls the greater part of 
 the benefit to be derived from the use of the books. I have 
 but one judgment to pass upon the whole library economy of 
 the Fatherland public, school and university alike. It is an 
 outrageous farce. The redeeming feature, however, is the 
 uniformly excellent collection of pedagogical works to be 
 found in every secondary school. These books are some- 
 times in charge of a member of the faculty and placed in a 
 separate room. But they are generally to be found in the 
 teachers' assembly-room, where they can be easily consulted 
 without restriction. A typical collection would contain not 
 only works on general pedagogy but all the most valua- 
 ble reference books pertaining to the work of each teacher 
 dictionaries, atlases, gazetteers, commentaries, standard 
 texts, leading educational journals, and pedagogical mate- 
 rial such as can be obtained in no other country in the 
 world. These collections are supported from special grants 
 annually made by the city or the government but largely 
 augmented from the income of special funds set apart in 
 most schools for this particular purpose ; scarcely a second- 
 ary school but has a library fund to which friends of the 
 institution and graduates of the school are expected to make 
 contributions. 
 
 No secondary school gives free tuition. The elementary 
 schools of Germany are practically free to all and attendance 
 is compulsory between the ages of six and four- Compul80ry 
 teen. While every child in the state must at- school 
 tend school, no stipulations are made as to what Attendance - 
 school he shall attend. Until the fourteenth year, therefore, 
 that is, during the first five years of the secondary school, at- 
 tendance is compulsory, and the parents may be fined for any 
 negligence on their part resulting in non-attendance of their 
 children. But trouble rarely arises on this score in secondary 
 schools. Regularity in attendance has become so much a 
 matter of habit that nothing short of serious illness keeps a 
 boy from school.
 
 152 GERMAN HIGHER 
 
 Tuition fees are exceedingly variable. According to a 
 
 Prussian ministerial rescript of 1892, all royal schools under 
 
 the administration of the state are subject to 
 
 Tuition Fees. , . . , , . 
 
 the following schedule : 
 
 / 3ymnasien, Realgymnasien, and Oberreal- 
 
 schulen 120 marks ($30) annually ; 
 
 Progymnasicn, and Realprogymnasien . . ..100 marks ($25) annually; 
 Realschulen. 80 marks ($20) annually. 
 
 An effort is being made to have all city schools adopt the 
 government schedule. At present, however, city schools of 
 nine years' course seldom charge more than 100 
 marks for the year ; in some cities the rates 
 are still lower, in others somewhat higher. For 
 instance, in Frankfort-on-the-Main 150 marks is the mini- 
 mum. Saxony maintains about the same fees as Prussia. 
 The southern states are lower on the average, but because of 
 an ascending scale the fees in the upper classes are high. In 
 Bavaria there is an official regulation fixing the fees at 30, 36 
 and 40 marks respectively for the three divisions of the high- 
 er schools. In TVurtemberg the rates in most schools vary 
 from 10 marks in the lowest classes to 32 marks in the 
 highest classes, and rarely in any case do they exceed 70 
 marks. In the city of Hamburg, on the other hand, the 
 tuition fee at the Gymnasium is 192 marks. It is a gen- 
 eral rule in most German states that foreigners and those 
 who do not pay their full share of the local taxes shall 
 pay extra school rates. Special consideration is shown to 
 younger members of families already represented in the 
 school by older brothers. The second son generally gets 
 half- rates. 
 
 In the government schools ten per cent, of the places may 
 be free. These free places are usually granted on the basis of 
 scholarship, but deserving young men with good 
 recommendations are given the preference. En- 
 dowed schools with home accommodations frequently have 
 scholarships which entitle the holders to both lodging and
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 153 
 
 tuition. Schulpforta, for instance, grants one hundred 
 and forty scholarships covering the entire expense for home 
 and schooling. There are also great numbers of special 
 foundations which provide for the partial maintenance of 
 scholars in a certain class or in preparation for a particu- 
 lar profession, as sons of teachers or clergymen, boys 
 from the donor's home or birthplace, and those fitting 
 for the ministry. Some of the old classical schools can 
 rival an English college in the number and value of their 
 bursaries. 
 
 All secondary schools, as has been said, charge tuition fees, 
 but they are by no means self-supporting. There is always a 
 large deficit which is met by the government, 
 by the municipality, or from private funds, ac- 
 cording to the rights of patronage in the school. 
 On an appointed day near the beginning of the semester the 
 pupils pay their dues to a teacher or to an authorized agent 
 who turns overall collections to the school treasury if it be an 
 endowed school having property of its own to administer, to 
 the city treasury if a city school, or to the nearest govern- 
 ment depository if a state school. 
 
 From statistics furnished by the Prussian government for 
 the Chicago Exposition in 1893, we see the enormous growth 
 in school expenses in the last twenty years. In 
 
 In Prussia. 
 
 1871 the total expenditure for the maintenance 
 of the higher schools in Prussia was 7,434,646 marks ; in 
 1892 it amounted to 30,918,840 marks. Of this last-men- 
 tioned sum, 5,445,020 marks came from government grants ; 
 1,903,304 marks, from school property ; 14,327,590 marks, 
 from school fees, etc. ; 7,802,173 marks, from local rates; 
 and the balance, from special endowments. It will be seen 
 from this that although the government exercises full con- 
 trol of the interna of the higher schools, it pays only about 
 one-sixth of the expenses. The tuition fees alone meet 
 nearly one-half of the total expenditure. 
 
 That the German schools are economically administered is 
 evident from the fact that, in 1892, 25,733,662 marks more
 
 154 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 than five-sixths of the total cost of maintaining the higher 
 schools were expended in payment of teachers' 
 
 In the Empire. , . r J 
 
 salaries. 
 The average expense per pupil in the higher schools of 
 
 Prussia was 62.5 marks in 1871 ; in 1892 it was 184.3 marks. 
 
 The total expense per thousand of the popula- 
 
 *pupn PCr ^ on ^ or t ne su PP or t f the higher schools was 
 
 301.1 marks in 1871, and 1,032.2 marks in 1892. 
 
 In the meantime there has been a growth of but four per 
 
 cent, in the population of Prussia. In the face of such proof 
 
 no words need be wasted in adducing evidence of Prussia's 
 
 interest in secondary education. 
 
 The Eeport of the Schul- Deputation of Berlin for 1893-1894 
 
 gives a good idea of the cost of the city schools. There was 
 an attendance of 4,107 pupils in 114 classes of 
 the n Realschulen ; and in these schools 162 
 regular and 51 special teachers were employed. 
 
 The expense account was as follows : 
 
 Ordinary expenses 608,427 M. 
 
 Income from school fees 295,788 M. 
 
 Deficit 312,639 M. 
 
 Extraordinary expenses : 
 
 Salaries of special teachers 43, 188 M. 
 
 Care-takers 10,750 M. 
 
 Supply teachers 1,408 M. 
 
 Teachers of religion for non-protestants 1,200 M. 
 
 Printing annual announcements 2,569 M. 
 
 Building and repairs 12,218 M. 
 
 Teachers of gymnastics 23,564 M. 
 
 Total expense to city 407,526 M. 
 
 The six Hohere Madchenschulen had an attendance in 
 1893-1894 of 4,297, divided among 95 classes and in charge of 
 132 teachers. The total income was 410,334 marks, of which 
 407,715 marks came from tuition fees. The ordinary ex- 
 penses were 484,648 marks ; supply teachers, 2,331 marks ; 
 religious instruction for non-protestants, 6,480 marks ; print- 
 ing annual announcements, 1,247 marks ; building and re-
 
 FOUNDATION OF HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 155 
 
 pairs, 13,141 marks; supervision of play - groiwids, 1,832 
 marks. This gave a total expense of 509,679 marks, and left 
 a deficit of 99,345 marks to be borne by the city. 
 
 The city of Berlin also supports 201 slementary schools, a 
 school for the blind, a school for the deaf, and several nine- 
 year higher schools which are under the ju- 
 risdiction of the provincial school-board. The 
 cost to the city in 1893-1894 of the schools under 
 the administration of the Sclml-Deputation making allow- 
 ances for items placed in two accounts may be summarized 
 as follows : 
 
 Kinds of Schools. 
 
 Number 
 of Schools. 
 
 Number 
 of Classes. 
 
 Attend- 
 ance. 
 
 Income : 
 Marks. 
 
 Outlay : 
 
 Marks. 
 
 Expense 
 to City : 
 Marks. 
 
 Realschulen 
 
 11 
 
 114 
 
 4,107 
 
 295.788 
 
 6.5,297 
 
 339509 
 
 Hohere M ildchen- 
 sc/tulen 
 
 6 
 
 95 
 
 4.307 
 
 410,334 
 
 484,648 
 
 74,314 
 
 Vollcsscftulen 
 
 201 
 
 3,371 
 
 179,621 
 
 121,844 
 
 9,420,149 
 
 9,298,305 
 
 School for Deaf 
 School for Blind 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 148 
 53 
 
 719 
 
 53,198 
 
 5ti.2til 
 82,310 
 
 55,542 
 29,112 
 
 Totals 
 
 220 
 
 3,580 
 
 188.236 
 
 881.883 
 
 10,678,1*55 
 
 9,796,782 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Berlin is exceptionally liberal in the support of girls' 
 schools, but Americans or Englishmen will find it hard to 
 understand the reason for expending 150,000 marks more on 
 the boys than on the girls, when the girls pay nearly twice as 
 much in fees as the boys pay. But girls grow only into 
 women ; boys become citizens and soldiers. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen ; 
 Wiese-Kiibler, Gesetze und Verordnungen ; Kethwisch, Deutschlands 
 hoheres Schulwesen im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1893 ; Kehr- 
 bach, Monumenta Germanics, Pcedagogica, Vols. I., IV., and VIII. ; 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch der hdheren Schulen Deutschlands, 1897-1898; 
 Centralblatt fur die gesammte Unterrichts- Verwaltung in Preussen. 
 Berlin. See also Bibliography of recent works, p. 455.
 
 CHAPTER VIH 
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 THE school-year t in Prussia and in the other northern and 
 central German states is from Easter to Easter, the semesters 
 
 beginning at Easter and Michaelmas. Large 
 School-Year, institutions with parallel classes from top to 
 
 bottom frequently admit new pupils both in the 
 spring and in the fall. This gives them two sets of classes a 
 half-year apart the one designated Easter classes (Oster- 
 Oberprima, Oster-Untersecunda, etc.); the other Michaelmas 
 classes. But in Baden, Alsace-Lorraine and Wiirtemberg the 
 school-year begins the middle of September and extends to 
 the middle of July ; in Bavaria from the 10th of September 
 to the 14th of July. 
 
 The historic connection of church and school is clearly 
 evidenced in the modern custom of having school vacations 
 
 at the time of the chief church festivals. In 
 
 Prussia and most of the northern states two 
 weeks are given at Easter, about one week at Whitsunday, 
 four weeks in the summer mostly in July two weeks at 
 Michaelmas, and two weeks at Christmas. Bavaria has no 
 vacation at Whitsunday, and only one week at Christmas. 
 This makes possible eight weeks of rest in the summer. The 
 precise dates of vacations are set by the school authorities in 
 each state at the beginning of each school-year. The con- 
 venience of the scholars and avoidance of the neat of summer 
 are the main considerations. In northern Germany it is no 
 hardship to continue school work into August ; the univer- 
 sities uniformly require it. In South Germany the heat is 
 
 166
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 157 
 
 more intense and of longer duration. But everywhere it is 
 left to the discretion of head-masters to excuse classes when 
 from excessive heat or cold some injury might result to the 
 pupils. Most schools, on this account, are closed afternoons 
 four or five times in the summer. 
 
 The general ministerial orders are to the effect that the 
 year's vacations should not exceed ten and one-half weeks, ex- 
 clusive of special holidays, such as the church festivals of 
 Epiphany, Candlemas, Annunciation, Corpus Christi, Peter- 
 Paulstag (June 29th), All Saints, Conception of the Virgin 
 (December 8th) all of which are observed in Roman Catholic 
 schools ; the Reformationsfest, which is observed in all prot- 
 estant schools ; the birthdays of the reigning sovereigns, 
 Sedan day, and school celebrations. 
 
 The morning session in the secondary schools begins regu- 
 larly at seven o'clock during the summer and closes at eleven. 
 In the afternoons, except Wednesdays and 
 
 , , . , .. , . ,, J . Daily SeBslons. 
 
 Saturdays, which are entirely free, the session 
 is from two to five. During the winter the morning session 
 begins at eight o'clock and continues until twelve. This 
 gives seven fifty-five minute periods a day besides intermis- 
 sions. The long afternoon session is much disliked ; and in 
 many schools there is a disposition to lengthen the morning 
 session and do all of the heavy work before noon, thus leaving 
 for afternoon the lighter work such as drawing, singing, gym- 
 nastics and free electives. The school authorities, however, 
 are not disposed to favour this plan, believing that continuous 
 work for five hours makes too serious demands upon the 
 strength of the scholars. As a result compromises are fre- 
 quent. For example, the TJiomasschule in Leipsic leaves 
 four afternoons of the week practically free, following five 
 hours of work in the morning. On the other two days there 
 are four hours of work in the morning and three in the after- 
 noon, beginning at three o'clock. The city Gymnasium of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main makes Wednesday, Friday and Satur- 
 day afternoons free, following five hours of work in the 
 morning.
 
 158 GERMAN HIO HER SCHOOLS 
 
 It is required that at least forty minutes of the day shall be 
 
 given up to pauses. Ordinary pauses are five minutes, but 
 
 one of fifteen minutes' duration must be given 
 
 Pauses. 
 
 at the end of every second hour. During the 
 longer intermissions all scholars must leave the rooms so that 
 there may be a thorough ventilation by the opening of the 
 windows. Pupils generally pass out into the school-yards 
 during the longer intermissions, where they walk about spend- 
 ing the time in conversation. Seldom, indeed, is it that one 
 sees any games or play indulged in. Teachers are appointed 
 for the supervision of the corridors and school-grounds as 
 regularly as for class recitations. This is the more necessary 
 inasmuch as teachers exercise no supervision in their own 
 rooms or classes. In fact, the rooms belong to the classes, 
 not to the teachers ; it is only for drawing, singing and science 
 work that the class seeks the teacher. At assembly, order is 
 expected upon the ringing of a warning bell ; the second bell 
 is the signal for the entrance of the teacher, who generally 
 spends the intermission in the teachers' assembly-room. As 
 he appears the class immediately rises and remains standing 
 until the command to sit down is given. This little act of 
 courtesy does not seem to be performed perfunctorily and is 
 so much a matter of habit that classes instinctively stand 
 when anyone enters the room, no matter if a recitation be in 
 progress. Teachers seldom occupy their class-rooms during 
 intermission. Pupils who desire special information must 
 make known their wants before the class is dismissed, or else 
 seek the teacher during office hours. The teacher is gener- 
 ally the first one out of the room. 
 
 The consequence of the rigid class system in vogue in all 
 
 German secondary schools is that each pupil has a lesson 
 
 every hour of the school-day. No time for 
 
 Home Study. J . . 111 j -i. 
 
 study is allowed during the school hours, and it 
 is an easy matter for teachers to assign so much work to be 
 done at home that the strength of the pupils may be over- 
 taxed. For more than fifty years this problem of the over- 
 burdening of scholars has been uppermost in the minds of
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 159 
 
 both educators and parents. An article entitled Zum Schutze 
 der Gesundheit in den Sclmlen, published in 1836 by an emi- 
 nent physician (Dr. Lorinser), called attention^to the matter. 
 So much discussion ensued that the Minister of Education 
 was obliged in the following year to issue a rescript, which 
 was supported by a special order of the king, materially re- 
 ducing the amount of home study. 
 
 Twenty years later the question again arose and a still 
 further reduction was made. In the Prussian Parliament of 
 1883-1884 the question came to open debate and 
 
 Overwork 
 
 in consequence it was thoroughly considered 
 from all sides. The government found itself an interested 
 party since in some provinces eighty per cent, of secondary- 
 school graduates were said to be unqualified for military service. 
 Subsequent investigation proved that this percentage was 
 placed too high ; nevertheless it was clear that the secondary 
 schools were making serious inroads on the health of their 
 charges. In Prussia the number of suicides of males between 
 the ages of ten and twenty years increased from one hundred 
 and sixty-five in 1869 to two hundred and sixty in 1881. Al- 
 though it was shown that the rate of increase was not dis- 
 proportionate to the increase in the school population and 
 to the total number of suicides, nevertheless so large a num- 
 ber gave sufficient cause for apprehension. The question of 
 insanity among students was also raised, but no satisfactory 
 statistics could be had in the matter. Near-sightedness was 
 found to be the one especial evil that could be attributed 
 directly to the schools. Many investigations were under- 
 taken definitely to learn the extent of the evil, which every- 
 one knew existed in a serious form. 
 
 It was found that near-sightedness increased not only from 
 class to class but that its increase could be noted from the be- 
 ginning of a school-year to its close. In the 
 Frankfort Gymnasium four per cent, of the E ^ 
 scholars were found to be myopic in the lowest 
 class and sixty-four per cent, in Prima. Of 1.000 newly en- 
 listed soldiers examined in Munich only two per cent, of the
 
 160 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 country lads from the Volksschulen were found to be near- 
 sighted. Common labourers trained in the city schools 
 showed from fpur to nine per cent.; clerks, merchants, book- 
 keepers, etc.., forty-four per cent. ; graduates of Realschulen, 
 fifty-eight per cent.; and graduates of Gymnasien, sixty-five 
 per cent. Careful investigation did not substantiate all the 
 charges that had been made against the secondary schools, but 
 it was clearly demonstrated that of all institutions the classi- 
 cal schools were the greatest sinners in this respect. It was 
 found, too, that the number of scholars subject to headache, 
 nose-bleed, and general anaemia was remarkably abnormal. 
 
 The careful attention given to this matter by the Prussian 
 Parliament again gave it national importance. Elaborate 
 reports were made by the Medical Department 
 on wavs an ^ means of improving the conditions 
 of the school work. Need of better lighted 
 class-rooms, proper ventilation and sanitary precautions, were 
 emphasized. The main pedagogical problem, however, was 
 left for the Education Department to solve. Excessive home 
 study was everywhere thought to be the main cause of the 
 trouble. A ministerial rescript of 1883 prescribed the limits 
 of home study for Sexta and Quinta at one hour per day, or 
 six hours per week ; for Quarto, and Untertertia, two hours 
 per day, or twelve hours per week ; for Obertertia and Unter- 
 secunda, two and one-half hours per day, or fifteen hours per 
 week ; for Obersecunda and Prima, three hours per day, or 
 eighteen hours per week. The new Lehrplan of 1892 adopts 
 this schedule and cautions the teachers not to overstep the 
 bounds. Inasmuch as scholars must spend on an average 
 from five to six hours a day in recitation, this gives a total 
 day's work of six to nine hours according to age. The prep- 
 aration of lessons, therefore, in the American fashion is ut- 
 terly impossible. In fact there is no such thing as a recita- 
 tion in our sense of the word in a German school. What we 
 call recitation . periods they speak of as Unterrichtsstunden 
 (Instruction hours). The teacher must lead ; the pupils 
 follow.
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 161 
 
 According to the latest Prussian Lehrplan, home work 
 should consist principally in rearranging and rewriting notes 
 taken in class, memorizing material indispens- 
 able for class work, and reviewing and fixing 
 in the mind what has already been learned in 
 class. As a matter of fact, custom varies widely concerning 
 the nature and amount of home study. Teachers who are 
 not wholly in sympathy with modern notions continue to 
 assign supplementary work to be done at home, and so long 
 as parents do not complain there is little probability of its 
 reaching the ears of the head-master. A special book is kept 
 in every class-room in which the lessons assigned in each sub- 
 ject are noted. This was hit upon as a method of giving 
 precise information on what is actually required from the vari- 
 ous classes. These books are at all times open to the inspec- 
 tion of the directors and the teacher who is especially charged 
 with the supervision of the class. The influence exerted by 
 these regulations upon methods of teaching the various sub- 
 jects will be treated of later in separate chapters. 
 
 Every effort has been made of late years to control pupils 
 by moral suasion. So far as possible the individuality of the 
 teacher is given full play. There is no doubt 
 that since 1870 a new type of school-master has 
 come in, due in great measure to the military spirit that is 
 in the air. Young men now are desirous of becoming officers, 
 and the presence of teachers having the military training 
 and the ability to command men gives great leverage for 
 good discipline. 
 
 Every inducement is offered the intending teacher to qual- 
 ify himself in military tactics. The time that must elapse 
 before a certificated teacher can receive an ap- 
 
 . Reserve Officers. 
 
 pomtment is ample for performing the extra 
 military duty required of those who aspire to become reserve 
 officers. Those who show marked proficiency in their first 
 year of service are permitted to advance. They are given 
 special advantages if they desire promotion, and are allowed 
 to demonstrate their ability to command. After two years 
 u
 
 162 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 of intermittent practice, candidates may present themselves 
 to the officers of some regiment for election. Everything is 
 taken into account education, training, appearance, char- 
 acter, family, along with military ability. If chosen, the 
 young man is at once admitted to the most select circle in 
 German society and the one most jealous of its honour. 
 
 To have officers of the Reserve or Landwehr in a school is 
 equivalent to saying that there are just so many able dis- 
 ciplinarians, perfect gentlemen, men of high 
 
 rhe T M ^ tary moral character and ambitions, in the teaching 
 corps. They give tone to a school and set up 
 a standard of discipline that bids fair, in a few years, to be- 
 come the ideal type. The five or six thousand military offi- 
 cers in the German schools are not there to no purpose ; they 
 indicate a new tendency one that will put the teacher's 
 profession alongside of any in the land. The military circles 
 and the clergy may no longer consider the school-master be- 
 neath their notice, for the school-master of to-day may be the 
 leader of a company in the war of to-morrow. This new 
 spirit is the surest guarantee of a new system of discipline in 
 the schools. It is indeed, military sharp, quick, incisive 
 but the teacher has learned to obey and to be obeyed ; he 
 knows how to control himself, and his control over his pupils 
 is a matter of course. He is always clear and pointed in his 
 teaching. There is nothing uncertain in anything he does. 
 An extended acquaintance with German teachers and per- 
 sonal observation of class-room methods lead me to the con- 
 clusion that the proverbially stern discipline and apparent 
 lack of sympathy on the part of the teachers are really not 
 burdensome from the stand-point of the students. In fact, 
 these characteristics are distinctly the right thing in the eyes 
 of the German school-boy, who, as I have already said, is 
 thoroughly imbued with the military spirit and consequent- 
 ly is not averse to having it manifested in the school-room. 
 
 All this pertains to the younger generation of teachers. 
 The older teachers are oftentimes careless and easy-going; 
 sometimes cross and irritable. I have seen a master leave
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 163 
 
 the rostrum two or three times during a single recitation 
 to box the ears of ten-year-old boys with the teacher's book 
 because of their inability to analyze rapidly 
 
 J J V J The Older Typ. 
 
 enough problems in percentage. 1 have seen, 
 too, the whole front of a large iron stove and all the window- 
 shades in the class-room leave their places in a manner seem- 
 ingly quite accidental during the process of a single recita- 
 tion. I afterwards observed, however, that the shades had 
 very suspicious-looking strings tied to them, and I more than 
 suspect that the stove had been previously trained to perform 
 its part. It is my opinion that school-boys in Germany have 
 about the same motives to mischief as boys in other countries, 
 and that the incompetent teacher is perhaps more inclined to 
 be brutal in his treatment of a class than would be possible 
 in an American school. 
 
 The supervision of pupils and their discipline is not con- 
 fined to conduct on the school premises, but has to do with 
 their entire life outside of school ; nor arepa- 
 rents permitted to interfere to any considerable 
 extent. A parent has no right to remove a 
 child from school simply because the regulations do not suit 
 him. It is presumed that the school is in charge of men who 
 know better how to train children than parents do. The 
 school-master is in possession of professional knowledge, and 
 the whims of parents are not allowed to militate against him. 
 
 Each pupil on entering a secondary school is placed in 
 charge of a teacher, usually the one who has most to do with 
 the instruction of the class (Ordinarius). The 
 pupil is expected to consult his class-master in 
 all matters pertaining to his school work and 
 to follow his advice at all times. Non-resident students must 
 live in families or boarding-houses approved by the director 
 of the school, and the director reserves the right to make 
 such changes in the location of students and the conduct of 
 boarding-houses as may seem desirable to him at any time. 
 Non-residents may not change their lodgings without the 
 approval of the director. They are not permitted to live at
 
 164 GERMAN UIQHER SCHOOLS 
 
 public-houses or to dine at hotel tables. The school is ex- 
 pected to look after the conduct of pupils at all times out of 
 school. Teachers have the right, and it is expected they 
 will perform the duty, of making special investigations of 
 the habits of students whom they suspect of being faithless 
 to the regulations of the school. In extreme cases the police 
 are required upon notification from the director to report on 
 the habits of those under suspicion. 
 
 Every pupil must be at school at least fifteen minutes be- 
 fore the beginning of each session, and in his seat at the first 
 
 stroke of the bell. In case of illness he must 
 Absence" a ^ ouce n tify his Ordinarius either by mail or 
 
 by special messenger of his absence, and when 
 he returns to school he must present to his Ordinarius and 
 to each of his teachers a writtenjexcuse from his parents. 
 The Ordinarius may excuse the pupil for an occasional les- 
 son, but permission for an absence of a day or more must be 
 obtained from the director. 
 
 Pupils are required to attend all religious exercises in the 
 school, such as morning exercises (usually held in the larger 
 
 schools only on Mondays), and the communion 
 Attendance, service, which is administered in all evangelical 
 
 schools once or twice a year. Church attend- 
 ance on Sundays is also obligatory for all, whatever may be 
 the inclinations of parents. For pupils of about fourteen 
 there is a special confirmation class which is taught by the 
 village pastor or some clergyman appointed for the purpose, 
 and at Easter all members of this class are expected to be 
 publicly confirmed. It is not absolutely obligatory, but the 
 custom is so general that it may be said to be universal. T'ue 
 festivities connected with the event are sufficient inducement 
 to win over those not otherwise persuaded. For the Volks- 
 schuler it means that the school-days with their accompany- 
 ing prohibitions and restraints are over. Good Friday is the 
 last day of the old regime ; the Saturday before Easter, the 
 first of the new order. It is a novel experience for a foreigner 
 to see these boys on a Saturday, dressed in their best and for
 
 XULES, REGULATIONS AW) CUSTOMS 165 
 
 the first time sporting gloves and cane, streaming out to sub- 
 urban beer-gardens to spend the day in mild carousal. It 
 means, tec, for the secondary-school pupil greater freedom 
 than he has hitherto enjoyed ; he may now smoke to his 
 heart's content. The casual observer finds it difficult to see 
 much that is religious in the German mode of confirmation, 
 and I much doubt if the average German school-boy finds in t 
 it more than the removal of certain scholastic disabilities. 
 
 The use of tobacco among pupils of the four lower classes 
 is altogether prohibited ; upper-classmen may smoke, but 
 not on the streets or in public places. Scholars conduct of 
 must not loiter on the way to or from school, Pupils out of 
 and must "avoid excessive noise or disturbance 
 on the streets. They are not allowed to visit public-houses, 
 confectionery shops, beer-gardens, theatres or balls, except in 
 company with their parents. Non-residents must secure per- 
 mission from their tutors or school principals before going to 
 public resorts. 
 
 The opinion is growing in Germany that excessive beer 
 drinking, especially as indulged in by university students, is 
 a dangerous custom. Experts pronounce it the 
 
 ,.~ . Drinking 
 
 most prolific cause of insanity among young customs! 
 men, and a whole train of other diseases follows 
 in its wake. And it is no wonder that health is endangered 
 where the custom prevails of putting down ten or fifteen 
 quarts, of beer at a sitting a not unusual practice of the uni- 
 versity student even though no intoxication results. But 
 university students know no law but that of tradition. With 
 the pupils of the secondary schools it is different ; they are 
 'under the control of masters. Students above the age of 
 fifteen, however, may congregate at a respectable house with- 
 out supervision, but must not remain later than nine o'clock 
 in summer or eight o'clock in winter. On special occasions 
 the whole evening may be spent in such merriment with the 
 permission of the faculty and under the supervision of the 
 director or one of the teachers. Wine, beer and coffee are 
 the only drinks in which they are supposed to indulge. It is
 
 166 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the constant care of teachers and directors of the secondary 
 schools to see that their scholars do not fall into the company 
 of bad women a task that is by no means easy anywhere on 
 the continent. Hence there must be no loitering on the 
 streets, and attendance at legal trials and public meetings is 
 forbidden. 
 
 Students may not use the public libraries, or receive papers 
 and magazines in their own names, or publish any school 
 journal. No pains are spared that students 
 reac ^ on ty that which will be of advantage in 
 their school work. For three-quarters of a cen- 
 tury it has been the policy of German educators either to re- 
 fuse students admission to the circulating libraries, or else to 
 exercise strict control over what may be loaned them. Hid- 
 den in this desire to control the outside reading of pupils there 
 is a two-fold purpose: first, that their minds may not be 
 i poisoned by trashy literature ; and second, to prevent young 
 \ people from imbibing political, social or religious heresies. 
 In view of the demonstrations of the last few years indicating 
 socialistic tendencies among university students, is it proble- 
 matical as to which of these aims is looked upon as the more 
 important? A university student is a free lance over whom 
 it is difficult to exercise any control. But the pupils in the 
 secondary schools are completely in the hands of the govern- 
 ment throughout what is considered their plastic age, and 
 the discipline of these schools is regulated quite as much with 
 regard to the avoidance of all influences tending to undermine 
 the patriotic and religious character of school instruction as 
 to the suppression of positive evils. 
 
 The rule forbidding student publications was directed 
 originally against a paper started in 1875 which was intended 
 to have a wide circulation among secondary- 
 school students, and in which they might air 
 
 their grievances and express opinions on matters 
 pertaining to school life. Since German teachers are state 
 officials and the school a state institution, it is readily seen 
 that political complications might easily arise. The paper
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 167 
 
 was promptly suppressed, and- though attempts have since 
 been made to evade the ministerial edict, student journals are 
 unknown except in the form of an occasional bulletin pub- 
 lished for some school festival. There is great temptation on 
 the part of students in the upper classes of the secondary 
 schools to ape university customs in forming clubs and 
 societies, but no such organization can be legally established 
 without the approval of the school authorities. The univer- 
 sity fraternities have given the government trouble enough, 
 I take it, to prevent the hatching of a younger brood. ' 
 
 The impression is abroad that German teachers are severe 
 disciplinarians. That severity is tempered with mercy and 
 judiciously administered will be apparent, I 
 think, to all who note the following official 
 gradations in punishments : 
 
 1. Warnings to the pupil (a) in private, (b) before class, 
 (c) from the faculty. 
 
 2. Assignment to a specialj)lace in the class-room or other- 
 wise degrading the pupil in class work. 
 
 3. Detention after school, which occurs under supervision 
 and in order to make up deficiencies (but the pupil must not 
 be deprived of his midday intermission). The director is in- 
 formed in every instance. 
 
 4. Incarceration, always with a definite amount of work to 
 do which must have a direct relation to the class work. This 
 punishment can be assigned only by the faculty in conference 
 and for a period not exceeding six hours. Most of the 
 schools have cells for this purpose ; but nearly all of the new 
 buildings are constructed without them, thus showing the 
 decadence of the practice. 
 
 5. Corporal punishment, which is not to be regarded as 
 proper, but is allowable in three lower classes in cases where 
 immediate action is necessary. In every instance the teacher 
 must announce it the same day to the director. Fines are 
 under no circumstances allowed in higher schools. 
 
 If these punishments do not suffice to bring recalcitrant 
 scholars into line, nothing else remains but removal from the
 
 168 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 school. In this case the various methods employed are : (1) 
 Consilium abeundi which is to be communicated to the pupil 
 in the presence of the assembled teachers, a 
 P aren t or guardian being at once notified ; (2) 
 quiet suspension, in which the pupil's father is 
 advised to remove him at once for a definite time ; (3) public 
 expulsion, whereupon the provincial school-board must be 
 immediately informed. Dismissal from the school is in the 
 hands of the faculty as a whole. In case of public expulsion 
 all the higher schools of the province are officially notified 
 that the pupil concerned must not be admitted to any school 
 in good standing. In case of the suspension or expulsion of 
 a non-resident the police department is also notified at once 
 that the pupil is no longer under the supervision of the school. 
 The certificate, which every pupil must be given on leaving 
 school, will also state the fact that he has been removed for 
 cause. This of itself is generally quite sufficient to prevent 
 admission to another school. In case of suspension no notice 
 of any kind is given not even to classmates unless they have 
 a knowledge of the offence. 
 
 The annual program of the Friedriclis- Gymnasium, Berlin, 
 for 1895-1896 contains the following summary of rules for the 
 guidance of parents : 
 
 " Applications for admission of new pupils at Michaelmas, 
 1896, will be received on and after May 1st ; for admission at 
 Easter, 1897, on and after November 1, 1896. 
 The application fee is three marks, which will 
 be deducted from the tuition of the first quar- 
 ter if the pupil enters on time ; in case there is no vacancy 
 in the class for which the pupil is found to be fitted, the fee 
 will be returned ; but should the pupil not enter the class 
 to which he is assigned, or fail to appear at the opening of 
 the semester, the fee will be turned into the fund for poor 
 scholars. 
 
 " The pupil will bring with him on the day of his admission 
 to the school, (1) the certificate of his application, (2) certifi- 
 cate of birth, (3) baptismal certificate (if pupil is a Protes-
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 169 
 
 tant), (4) certificate of vaccination (if pupil is over twelve 
 years old, also the certificate of revaccinatiou), (5) certificate 
 of honourable dismissal from school previous- 
 ly attended, and (6) the tuition fee for the first Admission, 
 quarter. 
 
 " The tuition 27.5 marks for the Volksschule, 32.5 marks 
 for the Gymnasium is payable strictly in advance. Herr 
 Nautsch, Collector, will be at the Gymnasium on a day to 
 be announced to receive the fees. 
 
 " Applications for free schooling must be addressed to the 
 city council (Magistral) and handed unsealed to the director of 
 the Gymnasium before the first day of March 
 
 t a u T* t \-A-A 
 
 or of September. If a free place is desired 
 
 for a third or fourth son, it will be necessary to show, besides 
 the need of assistance, that the other sons are students in 
 good standing of Berlin secondary schools. 
 
 " Scholars are not permitted to appear at unseasonable 
 hours or to congregate on the streets. The class-rooms are 
 opened 'fifteen minutes before the opening of the session. 
 
 " All scholars must be revaccinated when twelve years old. 
 If the operation is unsuccessful, it must be repeated each year 
 until the certificate of the physician shows 
 
 mi / f Vaccination. 
 
 three successive failures. Ihe free services of 
 
 the schooJjDhysiciau are recommended for this purpose. 
 
 " Parents of our scholars are requested to give careful at- 
 tention to the following official regulations relative to con- 
 tagious diseases, and to observe them implicitly 
 in case of need : 
 
 " The diseases which, because of their infec- 
 tious character, are specially to be guarded against are : (1) 
 cholera, dysentery, measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, small- 
 pox, typhus and intermittent fever ; (2) typhoid, contagious 
 eye diseases, itch and whooping-cough (so long as it is spas- 
 modic). 
 
 " Scholars suffering with the above diseases are excluded 
 from the school. Children in the same family with persons 
 suffering from a disease included in the first list, (1), must
 
 170 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 have a physician's certificate to the effect that they are in 
 no danger of infection before they will be received fn school. 
 Scholars thus excluded from school will not be re- 
 admitted under the normal period for each dis- 
 ease (scarlet fever and small-pox, six weeks ; mea- 
 sles, four weeks), nor without the statement from a physician 
 that all danger is past and the proper disinfection completed. 
 
 " Scholars are forbidden to leave school at holiday periods 
 (especially before the summer vacation) before instruction 
 closes, without permission of the director. 
 
 " Parents should countersign the weekly reports sent them 
 and take note of their sons' work. 
 
 " Parents are requested not to send anonymous communi- 
 cations to the director, but to consult with him personally on 
 all matters pertaining to the welfare of the school and its 
 pupils. Promotions are made by vote of the entire faculty, 
 and the results are under no circumstances subject to change. 
 
 " Visiting of beer-gardens, confectioners' shops or similar 
 
 resorts is not permitted to scholars, except in company with 
 
 responsible guardians. Smoking on the streets 
 
 Public-Houses. * -vi r*f n 
 
 or in public places is unconditionally prohib- 
 ited. Parents will be notified of infractions of these rules ; 
 and in case of repetition the pupil will be immediately dis- 
 missed from the school. 
 
 " A written notice of the intention to withdraw from the 
 school should be given to the director before the end of the 
 semester ; otherwise the parent will be holden for the tuition 
 of the following quarter. At the same time the director 
 should be informed of the school the boy will next attend, or 
 of his future occupation. 
 
 " Vacations for 1896 are appointed as follows : 
 
 Easter Saturday, March 28th, to Tuesday, -April 14th. 
 
 Whitsunday Friday, May 22d, to Thursday, 
 May 28th. 
 
 Summer Friday, July 3d, to Tuesday, August llth. 
 
 Michaelmas Saturday, October 3d, to Tuesday, October 
 13th.
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 171 
 
 Christmas Saturday, December 19th, to Tuesday, Jan- 
 uary 5th." 
 
 Pupils nine years of age are admitted to the lowest class of 
 the secondary school upon examination in (1) reading and 
 writing the German and Roman scripts ; (2) 
 spelling ; (3) parts of speech and analysis of 
 simple sentences ; (4) simple arithmetical oper- 
 ations involving the four fundamental principles addition, 
 subtraction, multiplication and division of simple numbers ; 
 (5) important Biblical stories. No restrictions are placed 
 either by state or city upon the selection of the school which 
 a boy will attend ; that is regulated entirely by the wishes of 
 his parents and the accommodations of the school. But, on 
 the other hand, neither royal nor municipal authorities are 
 bound to provide facilities for the secondary education of all 
 who may desire it. A certain number of secondary schools 
 have been founded. They are provided with a certain number 
 of teachers, and are intended for a certain number of pupils ; 
 but, if these do not satisfy the requirements, there is no 
 redress for those excluded. Applications for admission to 
 some of the larger city schools must be made long in advance. 
 The less fortunate sometimes because less influential must 
 put up with what can be had. 
 
 The schools of Germany, from the VolJcsschulen to the uni- 
 versity, are open to any person of good character who can 
 satisfy the conditions for entrance. But the 
 reader should not make the mistake of infer- 
 ring that class distinctions are of little importance. Social 
 rank is by no means a dead letter in the Fatherland. The 
 young man or woman who enters into manual service is en- 
 rolled as a servant on the books of the police and of the state 
 insurance department. Henceforth there is no breaking 
 with the past ; to rise above the present rank unaided is well- 
 nigh a social impossibility. And in the schools class dis- 
 tinctions, while not obtrusive, are nevertheless closely drawn. 
 I have seen the Crown Prince of Weimar occupying a place 
 on the benches of Prima in a public Gymnasium ; but on
 
 172 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the books of that school his name appeared as a prince of the 
 royal blood. Some of his classmates were set down as peas- 
 ant born. Until a student has attained a profession of his 
 own, the Stand of his father follows him everywhere he goes. 
 When he enters school his social rank is noted first of all ; in 
 every certificate of merit it appears again ; it is demanded on 
 admission to the university, and comes up again even in the 
 Vita attached to his doctor's dissertation. And every time 
 he changes his residence, or stops at a hotel ; whenever he 
 pays his taxes, or gives Ms signature to any official document ; 
 in short, when he is born, marries or dies, or does aught else 
 between times, somebody's Stand, if not his own, must be 
 sponsor for him. 
 
 I have not been able to get statistics of the social rank of 
 the scholars in the secondary schools ; but the records of the 
 Prussian universities will show, I think, the 
 general make-up of the Gymnasien. During 
 the five years preceding 1891, according to 
 official reports, there were 12,630 German students in the 
 Prussian universities ; of these, 3,244 were sons of univer- 
 sity graduates. The following table throws additional light 
 on the professions chosen by gymnasial graduates, as shown 
 by their university studies : 
 
 Social Rank of 
 Students. 
 
 University Departments. 
 
 Number of 
 Students. 
 
 Number Whose 
 Fathers were 
 Un i versity 
 Graduates. 
 
 Per Cent from 
 Learned Class. 
 
 Theolojry (Protestant) 
 
 2,562 
 
 70 
 
 27.67 
 
 Theology (Catholic) 
 
 581 
 
 22 
 
 3.79 
 
 Law 
 
 2,348 
 
 873 
 
 37.18 
 
 Medicine 
 
 3,471 
 
 831 
 
 23.94 
 
 
 3 668 
 
 809 
 
 2-2.06 
 
 (a) Philology and History 
 
 1,622 
 
 327 
 
 20.16 
 
 (6) Mathematics and Science 
 
 1,076 
 
 230 
 
 21.38 
 
 
 
 
 
 It is evident that the future officials and jurists of Prussia, 
 more than other professions, are to be influenced by family 
 tradition. On the other hand, the clergy and leaders of the 
 catholic church will enjoy less of inherited strength, or more
 
 RULES, REGULATIONS AND CUSTOMS 
 
 173 
 
 of independent thought as one prefers to consider it than 
 their associates. The philosophical department, from which 
 the secondary teachers are recruited, stands lower in point of 
 social rank than any of the other leading faculties. 
 
 In a country where church and state are so closely united 
 as in Prussia, and where besides the state church there are one 
 or two other important religions, the attitude 
 of these bodies toward the schools is always a 
 grave consideration. The Prussian constitu- 
 tion guarantees freedom of religious belief and denies to no 
 one the privileges of schooling. There are schools for the 
 Protestants, schools for Catholics, schools for Jews and 
 mixed schools. The secondary schools of Prussia in 1891- 
 1892 had an attendance divided as follows among the various 
 confessions : 1 
 
 Religious 
 Preferences. 
 
 KINDS OF SCHOOLS 
 
 
 SCHOLARS. 
 
 
 
 Protestant. 
 
 Catholic. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Hoh. Biirgerncftulen 
 
 Per Cent. 
 6,901 75.0 
 
 Per Cent. 
 1,527 16.H 
 
 Per Cent. 
 751 8.2 
 
 Realsehnlen 
 
 4,295 67.2 
 
 1,155 18.1 
 
 913 14.3 
 
 Oberrtaltchuleii 
 
 3,4!>7 78.4 
 
 629 14.1 
 
 299 6.7 
 
 Realprogymnaalen 
 
 7,076 76.2 
 
 1,482 16.0 
 
 494 5.3 
 
 Iifalgymnasie.il 
 
 19.935 78 1 
 
 3.146 12.3 
 
 2,358 9.3 
 
 Progymncutien 
 
 2,282 49.9 
 
 1,948 42.6 
 
 337 7.4 
 
 Oymnatien 
 
 52,800 67.8 
 
 17,918 23.0 
 
 7,015 9.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 96,786 70.5 
 
 27,805 20.3 
 
 12,167 8.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 The population of Prussia, according to religion, is 19,232,- 
 449 Protestants (67.2 per cent.), 10,252,818 Catholics (34.2 
 per cent.) and 372,059 Jews (1.24 per cent.). From a com- 
 parison of these percentages with the figures above given, 
 it is clear that the Catholics are least interested in the 
 higher education. The astonishing persistency of the Jews, 
 however, in pushing their way into the high places is a 
 source of much anxious thought in the kingdom. In corn- 
 
 Arranged from statistics given in the Centralblatt.
 
 174 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 parison to their numbers, they send to the universities eleven 
 times as many students as the Catholics send, and six times 
 as many as the Protestants. This, unquestionably, is a seri- 
 ous problem, since race hatred is growing constantly more 
 menacing, and one that some day will cause a deal of trouble, 
 if the present system is maintained. 
 
 'There is another way of getting at the character of the stu- 
 dents who attend the secondary schools. It is well known 
 
 that graduates of the Realsclmlen, as a rule, 
 occtTatfon en ^ er business or some phase of commercial or 
 
 technical life. With graduates of the Gymna- 
 sien it is otherwise ; of the 83,880 graduates of Prussian 
 Gymnasien and Realsclmlen between 1868 and 1891, 62,236 
 (74.2 per cent.) entered the learned professions. Gymnasial 
 graduates numbered 71,226 ; and of these 58,373 (81.95 per 
 cent.) entered the learned professions, 2,498 (3.51 per cent.) 
 the technical professions and 10,355 (14.54 per cent.) other 
 professions. Of the realgymnasial graduates 30 per cent, 
 entered learned, 19 per cent, technical and 51 per cent, all 
 the other professions. These figures exhibit conclusively the 
 aim of these schools. Not all who enter, to be sure, ever see 
 the end. More than four-fifths of those who begin fall by the 
 wayside ; forty in every one hundred are satisfied with the 
 privilege of one-year military service ; the remainder (39 per 
 cent.) do not reach that standard. It remains to be said, 
 therefore, that while the chief aim of the secondary schools 
 is preparation for the university, they are really fitting the 
 great majority 85 per cent, and more of their pupils for a 
 practical life. And a doubtful preparation it is. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : CentralUatt fiir die gesammtc Unterrichts- 
 Verwaltung in Preussen ; Statistisch.es Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen 
 Deutschlands, 1897-1898; Wiese-Kiibler, Gesetze und Verordnungcn ; 
 Lehrplane und Lehraufgaben fiir die hoheren Schulen, Berlin, 1893; 
 Instruction fiir die Directoren der hoheren Unterrichtsanstalten der 
 Provinz Brandenburg (amtlich), Berlin, 1868 ; Instruction fur die 
 Leh rer und Ordinarien an den hoheren Unterrichtsanstalten der Provinz 
 Brandenburg (amtlich), Berliu, 1868.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 
 
 THE aim of the higher schools in Germany is to give an 
 Allgemeine Bildung, but it should be clearly understood that 
 this liberal education is intended at the same 
 time to be the first stage in a practical prepara- 
 tion for life. Every higher school is at once a 
 place of liberal culture and a fitting school for some specific 
 vocation or profession. The union of these two ideals has 
 gradually come in the course of the present century to be well 
 understood and everywhere recognised as inevitable. This 
 fact is responsible for much of the confusion and uncertainty 
 to be met with in the educational system. 
 
 Theoretically and historically, too, in a degree, the second- 
 ary education of Germany is absolutely divorced from the prac- 
 tical affairs of life. " First make a man, and Uniteg 
 let the man look out for himself," is the motto Theoretical and 
 that perhaps best expresses the idea of the old 
 school-masters. " In making a man, make one that will be 
 good for something," is the principle underlying the adminis- 
 tration of the higher schools at the present time. School 
 curricula and pedagogical theories, as a rule, emphasize the 
 cultural side ; governmental regulation and the official man- 
 agement of school affairs emphasize the practical side. 
 
 The system of examinations and privileges in operation in 
 all Germany bears striking testimony to the fact that the 
 higher schools have a special mission in combining liberal 
 culture and practical ability. 
 
 In the first place, the very method of conducting examina- 
 
 175
 
 176 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 tions is designed to test the power to use knowledge rather 
 than the extent of information. It is not so much what a 
 pupil has learned that counts, as what he can do 
 Examinations With ^ J no ^ Wissen, so much as Konmn. That 
 incubus of written examinations, which weighs 
 so heavily on British schools, and which is so popular in some 
 parts of America, particularly in the State of New York 
 and some Canadian provinces, would never be tolerated for a 
 day in Germany, not even by the most conservative pedagogue 
 of the old school. They would say that by such means you 
 may gauge more or less accurately of a pupil's knowledge and 
 skill in displaying it, but it leaves untouched the very facts 
 which an educator most wants to know the desire for further 
 study, power of will, love of home and country, religious 
 feelings and the appreciation of the good, the true and the 
 beautiful. Not what a man has, but what he is, is the true 
 test of educational progress. "As a man thiuketh in his 
 heart, so is he." 
 
 Next, it will be observed that with the completion of suc- 
 cessive grades in the higher schools certain privileges are 
 granted which determine admission to all the 
 higher vocations and professions. This makes 
 not only each school, but each grade, a step in 
 a general course of professional or business training. The suc- 
 cessful working of such a plan requires that young men on leav- 
 ing school shall know something of practical worth and that 
 they have the ability to use it in further preparation for their 
 respective careers in life. The student who completes a gym- 
 nasial course must have definite knowledge of those subjects 
 which he will need in the university ; all students, no matter 
 what their future occupations, need to be put in touch with 
 the best that the national life and thought has to offer. The 
 schools are confined to a definite curriculum, which is pre- 
 scribed by the state ; its workings are supervised by the state ; 
 and the state examines the results, and points out the possible 
 lines of future advancement. But the way in which this is 
 done is specially instructive.
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 177 
 
 A pupil's promotion within the school depends upon (1) 
 the quality of his daily work, (2) private and public exam- 
 inations and (3) the judgment of his instruc- 
 tors. The kind of school in which he is c **" iia '' of 
 
 Promotion. 
 
 entered and the length of his course therein 
 determine the possibilities of future study and occupation. 
 
 A teacher is required to note the daily work, conduct, in- 
 dustry and attention of his pupils, and from time to time to 
 grade them accordingly. This should be done 
 whenever the teacher has seen enough of his Th <; Marking 
 
 System. 
 
 pupil to enable him to form sound judgment, 
 say, daily in the lower classes, where the teacher has better 
 opportunity to judge, and at least once a week in any case. 
 No checking of errors as they occur, and no marking by per- 
 centages, is allowed under any circumstances. The teacher 
 who should attempt to note in class each mistake made by his 
 pupils, as though his business were to find errors rather than 
 give instruction, would be excluded from a German school as 
 unfit for his office. The designation of grades which are offi- 
 cially recommended for use in the higher schools is as follows : 
 " Very Good," " Good," " Satisfactory," " Barely Satisfac- 
 tory," " Unsatisfactory." The value of written work, as class 
 exercises, notes and essays, is estimated in the same way and 
 noted in the class records. At the end of each quarter, as a 
 rule, and necessarily at Easter, Michaelmas, and Christmas, 
 the reports of all teachers are gathered in and entered in the 
 individual record-books of the pupils. The pupil's book gives 
 the name of the pupil, the class to which he belongs, the 
 number of pupils in the class, his industry and attention, his 
 marks in the various studies, list of punishments received, 
 notice of promotion and a space for remarks, followed by the 
 signatures of the director and class-master (Ordinarius). 
 After this report has been countersigned by the parent or 
 guardian of the pupil, it is returned to the school, and placed 
 among the school archives. It belongs to the school, and not 
 to the pupil. The parent's signature is evidence that he has 
 seen the official record of his son's work, and is fully acquainted 
 is
 
 178 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 with the school's estimate of his progress. On leaving school 
 a pupil receives a certificate showing his standing at the time ; 
 his record-book, as I have said, remains in the school. And 
 under no circumstances is it permissible to give a pupil his 
 relative standing in class. Each person is entitled to a certifi- 
 cate showing what he has done, but he may not receive any 
 information concerning the work of others. 
 
 At the close of the school-year, in faculty meeting, the 
 standings of all pupils are considered, with a view to promo* 
 tion. Inasmuch as a strict class system pre- 
 vails in German schools, individuals must be 
 promoted with the class or remain where they 
 are at least another semester. Occasionally a pupil will be 
 allowed to make up some deficiencies during vacation. As a 
 rule, however, pupils are promoted on the basis of a " Satis- 
 factory" standing in the more important subjects. Under 
 this category are to be understood, of course, in the Gymna- 
 sien, German, Latin and Greek. 
 
 Examination in the higher schools are of two kinds : (1) 
 
 private, (2) public. The private examinations include the 
 
 entire round of individual and class tests which 
 
 Examination are cons idered in the reports to parents, and 
 which have any bearing on promotion. Public 
 examinations are for the sake of appearances a concession to 
 the curiosity and pride of parents. The aim is thereby to 
 give parents, patrons and friends of the school some idea of 
 school life and school work. These exhibitions are given at 
 the end of semesters, the one at Easter being of chief impor- 
 tance. The director's report of the work of the past year, the 
 Schulproyram or Jahrcsbericht, extends a formal invitation 
 to the Schlussfeier . The public examinations are conducted 
 by the regular teachers of the various classes, and continue 
 about half an hour each. Drawings, note-books, and other 
 handiwork of the class are on exhibition. Then follows a 
 program of declamations, readings and music, in which the 
 entire school takes part. 
 
 These public tests are generally severely criticised as being
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 179 
 
 superfluous and an unnecessary strain upon pupils. But, on 
 the other hand, it is conceded that the school owes some- 
 thing to the patrons, as well as to its pupils. 
 The schools are public institutions, supported by R ^ bh< : 
 public funds, and the public has a right to know 
 something of the inner workings of the system. It should be 
 remembered, too, that these days are the only ones in the en- 
 tire year when parents, or anyone else except state officials, 
 can gain admission to Prussian schools, except by special per- 
 mission of the Minister of Education. But such an argument 
 does not appeal strongly to a Prussian school -master. Many 
 schools the city Gymnasien, of Berlin, for example have 
 abolished the public examinations, and others are contem- 
 plating similar action. In the Karolinenschule of Eisenach 
 no public examinations have been held since 1890. In- 
 stead, one entire week toward the end of the last quarter is 
 set aside, during which parents are invited to hear instruction 
 in all classes which their children attend. The plan has 
 met with marked success in Eisenach ; but Eisenach is" not 
 in Prussia. 
 
 Private examinations in course are conducted by the teachers 
 at their discretion. For these each school is free to* make its 
 own regulations. The only ones of exceptional 
 significance are the intermediate examination 
 (Abschlusspriifung) at the end of the sixth 
 school -year, and the leaving examination (Abgangs-, Abituri- 
 enten-, Reife- or Maturit&tsprilfung) at the end of the ninth 
 year. 
 
 The Maturitatsprilfung was introduced in Prussia in 1788, 
 reaffirmed in 1812, and made obligatory for admission to the 
 university and the learned professions in 1834. j^^^tion of 
 The plan has subsequently been adopted by all thermal 
 the German states. The far-reaching conse- Examination - 
 quence of this examination made it necessary that it be con- 
 ducted with extreme care, and according to an approved 
 norm. It should be remembered that while the state exer- 
 cises strict control over the higher schools, Lernfreiheit
 
 180 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 rules in the universities. A university student may study 
 what he will, when he will, or need not study at all. If he 
 registers for one lecture a week, pays his fees and conducts 
 himself with ordinary propriety, no questions will be asked. 
 He may spend one semester, or twenty, in the university ; it 
 is nobody's business but his own. It not infrequently hap- 
 pens that students, especially of the wealthier class, spend 
 two or three years in idleness bordering on dissipation. The 
 strict discipline of the Gymnasium and the long and contin- 
 uous course of study are frequently urged as an excuse for 
 license in the university. The state, however, relies for sup- 
 port upon its educated youth. Social influence and political 
 intrigue would soon sap the vitality of the entire civil service, 
 were not bulwarks erected by the state itself to withstand the 
 tides of incompetency. These safeguards are, first of all, the 
 leaving examination, and, in the second place, special exam- 
 inations before royal commissions, for entrance to the various 
 professions and administrative posts. 
 
 The Maturitdtsprilfung is the first real test of individual 
 ability. The Staatsexamen comes, in the ordinary course of 
 events, after about five years of professional study. The one 
 discloses signs of promise in the youth ; the other tests the 
 strength of manhood. 
 
 It has been urged, inasmuch as the teachers in the higher 
 schools are state officials men well educated and profession- 
 Point of contact a Uy trained, and on the grounds, too, that the 
 
 between state schools themselves are state institutions, there- 
 fore the state should accept the leaving exam- 
 ination as evidence of fitness for admission to professional 
 study. In answer, it has been pointed out that school -masters 
 belong to a single profession, and that they are presumably 
 unacquainted with the inherent needs of the other professions, 
 much less familiar with the essential requirements of the 
 practical administrative affairs of the state. Common sense, 
 accordingly, demands that the state be represented in the ex- 
 amination, to offset local influences. The representative of 
 the state on these occasions does not usurp the functions of
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 181 
 
 the school, but appears rather as a counsellor and friend. 
 Very cohsiderable power is given the school faculty, both as 
 to who shall be admitted to examination and what shall be 
 the character of the examination itself. In this way there is 
 secured a happy blending of local government and state con- 
 trol. 
 
 The purpose of the leaving examination is to ascertain 
 whether the candidate has accomplished the work of Prima. 
 All Gymnasien which have been approved by 
 the Minister of Education have the right of 
 holding this examination. The subjects for 
 examination are religion, German, Latin, Greek, French, 
 history and geography, mathematics and physics. English 
 and Hebrew are optional subjects. The examination com- 
 mittee consists of a commissioner appointed by the provincial 
 school-board, who is chairmanTthe Director of the Giimna- 
 sium, and the regular teachers of Oberprima.^ The repre- 
 sentative of the provincial sfhnol-hqpfl is usually the Ober- 
 schulrat, who is inspector of the school. In case he cannot 
 act, the Director of the Gymnasium is usually commissioned 
 to fill his place. Patrons of city and endowed schools also 
 have the right to name one member of the exanrining com- 
 mittee. Their representative is generally elected for a term 
 of years, and has a vote on all matters. 
 
 Absolute secrecy is enjoined on all members of the examin- 
 ing board. Admission of a scholar is seldom permitted ear- 
 lier than the second semester of Oberprima. 
 Application for examination is to be made in 
 writing three months before the end of the 
 semester. The director then places before the committee 
 these applications, together with a complete record of all 
 candidates from the date of their admission to the school 
 and such other information concerning their work, char- 
 acter and future occupation as may seem to him desir- 
 able. The committee is empowered to recommend for ad- 
 mission to the examination all those whom they unanimously 
 find to be " satisfactory " in scholarship and morals. This
 
 182 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 report is thereupon transmitted to the provincial school- 
 board. It must show with regard to each candidate : his 
 name, age and place of birth ; the religion, occupation and 
 residence of his father ; his deportment, industry and stand- 
 ing throughout his school course, and his choice of future 
 occupation. Notice must be given at the same time of all 
 cases rejected by the committee, and the reasons for such ac- 
 tion. This done satisfactorily, the provincial school inspector 
 designates those applicants who may come up for the final 
 examination. 
 
 The final examination is both written and oral. As 
 required in the Gymnasium, the written examination in- 
 
 Sub'ectsof d u( ies (1) a German essay; (2) a translation 
 Examination in from German into Latin ; (3) a translation from 
 
 Gymnasium. the Q ree ]^ and (4) froin the French into Ger- 
 man ; and (5) four problems in mathematics one each from 
 plane geometry, solid geometry, trigonometry and algebra. 
 The oral examination includes Latin, Greek, religion, history 
 and mathematics. 
 
 In the written examination all candidates in the same sub- 
 ject are examined at the same time. The questions set must 
 be of a nature familiar in Prima and of no 
 
 rhe r ^ r g " tte greater difficulty. They must not, however, 
 be so like those already studied that the test 
 would lose the character of independent work. Passages 
 for translation are to be taken from works similar to those 
 read in class, but previously unseen by the candidates. The 
 examination paper as a whole is made up after the following 
 fashion : Each teacher of Prima gives the director a list of 
 three questions in each subject. These, if approved by the 
 director, are then sent to the provincial school inspector, who 
 makes up the paper from the questions submitted. But if 
 the questions proposed do not seem adapted to the purpose, 
 if they are not up to the standard, or if there is any other 
 reason why they should not be used, the inspector may alter 
 them or replace them entirely. The director and the teach- 
 ers are placed upon their honour not to disclose the questions
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 183 
 
 for the examination or take unfair means to prepare their 
 classes for them. 
 
 The examination is held in a room of the Gymnasium and 
 under the supervision of a member of the examining commit- 
 tee. The time allowed is five (morning) hours 
 
 ' . ' &/ , How Conducted. 
 
 for the German essay ; five (morning) hours for 
 mathematics ; three hours each for Greek and French ; two 
 hours for Latin. No intermissions are allowed except in case 
 of the mathematical examination, which may be cut in two. 
 In translating from a foreign language, lexicons are allowed ; 
 and for the mathematical work, a table of logarithms. All 
 papers, whether complete or not, scrap-work included, must 
 be handed in at the expiration of the period. Any attempt 
 at deception during the examination is severely punished, 
 even to the extent, if necessary, of exclusion from all future 
 examinations. The extreme penalty, however, requires the 
 approval of the Minister of Education. 
 
 The papers in each subject are read by the teachers con- 
 cerned, errors are noted, and the grades " Very Good," 
 "Good," "Satisfactory," "Barely Satisfae- 
 
 TT ,* i. i / * Marking Papers. 
 
 totj or " Unsatisfactory ' assigned, according 
 to the merits of the papers. All marks are then brought to- 
 gether, and a decision is reached by the committee in con- 
 ference on the admission of candidates to the oral examination. 
 A detailed report is then made to the provincial school-board. 
 The original papers and each set of answers are sent in, to- 
 gether with a statement from the director of the reference 
 books used, and that further than this no assistance of any 
 kind has been given. The papers are then examined by the 
 inspector, who approves the markings or makes such changes 
 as seem to him necessary. 
 
 Candidates who are not excused on account of very su- 
 perior work in the written test are now required to take the 
 oral examination in the presence of the provin- 
 
 TheOralTeet 
 
 cial school inspector, who sets the day to suit 
 
 his own convenience, and the assembled teachers of the 
 
 school. All the records of the candidates during Prima,
 
 184 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 their note-books, essays and other written work, are on ex- 
 hibition, and may be made the basis of examination. Ten 
 candidates at a time is the usual number admitted to exam- 
 ination. Classes above ten are divided and the groups ex- 
 amined on different days. The inspector, who is chairman of 
 the committee, arranges the order of subjects and designates 
 the time for each. No helps of any kind are allowed. The 
 teacher of any subject is the chief examiner in that subject ; 
 after him, anyone may continue the test. The inspector may 
 interject questions at any time, or take the lead himself in 
 case of necessity. In Latin and Greek, candidates are ex- 
 pected to read at sight ordinary prose of a kind similar to 
 the readings in Prima ; the verse which is called for is gen- 
 erally that studied during the last semester. Criticism and 
 exegesis are always in order. The examination in history is 
 confined to the later periods, especially the development of 
 Prussia. Physics is not prescribed for examination, but it is 
 recommended that it be treated incidentally in connection 
 with mathematics. 
 
 The examination in each subject is graded by the chief ex- 
 aminer (i.e., the regular teacher of the subject), with the ap- 
 proval of the other members of the committee. 
 stalling 1 r ^ ne committee then goes into executive session, 
 and considers in detail all matters pertaining 
 to the examination, both written and oral, of each candi- 
 date. Three factors enter into the final decision : the can- 
 didate's record in the school ; the results of his written ex- 
 amination ; and his standing in the oral test. The passing 
 mark in all three is " Satisfactory." High standing in some 
 subjects, however, may atone for slight deficiencies in others ; 
 but no candidate will be passed who is deficient either in 
 German or in both the classical languages. The grade 
 " Unsatisfactory " in one of the classics may be offset by a 
 standing of at least ''Good" in the other ancient language, 
 in German or mathematics. In the same way, " Unsatisfac- 
 tory" in mathematics requires at least "Good" in Greek, 
 or Latin or German. All members of the committee have a
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 185 
 
 right to vote, the youngest member voting first ; and in case 
 of a tie the provincial inspector casts the deciding ballot. 
 The formal report is then signed by all members of the com- 
 mittee, and the inspector announces the results to the wait- 
 ing candidates. 
 
 Successful candidates receive a diploma (Reifezeugnis) 
 signed by the provincial inspector of schools and other mem- 
 bers of the examining committee. This di- 
 
 The Diploma. 
 
 ploma certifies to the character, conduct, at- 
 tention and industry. of the holder ; to his standing in each 
 subject of the examination, and to the quality of his work in 
 Oberprima. It also designates his rank, all things consid- 
 ered, as " Very Good," " Good " or " Satisfactory." In case 
 of failure the candidate may have two more trials, whether 
 he attends school in the meantime or not. 
 
 Persons who have not taken a regular gymnasial course, 
 but who wish to enter the university and enjoy the privileges 
 attached to the leaving examination, may apply to the pro- 
 vincial school-board for assignment to the Maturitdtsprilfung 
 of some Gymnasium. In the same way, graduates of a Real- 
 gymnasium or an Oberrealschule may be admitted to the 
 gymnasial examination in subjects which they have not al- 
 ready passed. 
 
 The general regulations for the conduct of leaving exam- 
 inations are the same in the Realgymnasium and Oberreal- 
 schule as in the Gymnasium. In each case the work of the 
 last year of the course indicates the character and scope of 
 the examination. 
 
 The Realgymnasium and the Oberrealschule require in the 
 written examination (1) a German essay ; (2) a French or 
 English essay ; (3) a translation from German Examination ta 
 into French or English ; (4) four problems in other Higher 
 mathematics one each from algebra, plane 
 geometry, solid geometry, trigonometry or analytical geom- 
 etry ; (5) one problem in physics or chemistry ; and, in the 
 Realgymnasium, (6) a translation from Latin into German. 
 The oral examination is confined to religion, French, Eng-
 
 186 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 lish, history, mathematics and either chemistry or physics, 
 according to which is called for in the written test. 
 
 The candidate is not passed if his rank in German, or in 
 both modern languages, is " Unsatisfactory." If " Unsat- 
 isfactory " in one modern language, he must be at least 
 " Good " in the other, or in German or in mathematics. A 
 realgymnasiast ranking "Unsatisfactory" in mathematics 
 must be at least " Good " in the modern languages or in 
 German ; a candidate from the Oberrealschule who is " Un- 
 satisfactory " in mathematics must be at least "Good" in 
 physics or chemistry. 
 
 The Progymnasium includes in its written examination 
 (1) a German essay ; (2) a translation from the German 
 
 Final Examination into Latin > ( 3 ) into Greek and ( 4 ) into French ; 
 
 in six- Year (5) two problems f rom geometry and algebra, 
 and one in mensuration of solids. The oral 
 examination comprises religion, Latin and Greek, history, 
 geography and mathematics, including physics. 
 
 In the Realprogymnasien the written examination includes 
 (1) the German essay ; (2) a translation from the German 
 into (3) Latin, (4) French and (5) English; (6) two prob- 
 lems from algebra and geometry, and one from the elemen- 
 tary mensuration of solids. The oral examination includes 
 religion, French and English, history and geography, math- 
 ematics and science. In the ReaUchulen and higher burgher 
 schools the written examination comprises (1) a German 
 essay ; a translation from German (2) into French and (3) 
 into English ; (4) two problems in algebra and geometry, 
 and one from the elementary mensuration of solids. The 
 oral examination is the same as in the Progymnasien. 
 
 No one can be graduated from any secondary school who is 
 deficient in the mother-tongue. This is a result of the regu- 
 lations and Lehrplan of 1892, in which special 
 Requirements s ^ ress * s placed upon the language, literature 
 and history of Germany. Some of the standard 
 subjects of the old examinations are no longer found ; for ex- 
 ample, the Latin essay and the Greek scriptum. While not
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 187 
 
 all such changes are agreeable to teachers trained under the 
 old dispensation, the younger men as a rule cordially support 
 the new order. There can be little doubt that the writing 
 and speaking of Latin as formerly taught in the schools was 
 more an end in itself than a means to an end. The aim of 
 modern methods is to give a liberal education that shall be as 
 practical and useful as possible. And in the supreme test, as 
 has been shown, no attempt is made unduly to test a candi- 
 date's memory. The only person who knows what a scholar 
 is worth and what he can do, his teacher, is his chief ex- 
 aminer. 
 
 The Abschhisspriifung, which comes at the end of the first 
 six school-years in the nine-year schools, and which corre- 
 sponds to the leaving examination of the Pro- 
 gymnasien, the Realprogymnasien and the Real- 
 schulen, is of recent introduction. From the 
 official statistics of the school-year of 1889-1890 it was found 
 that, out of a total attendance of 135,357 in the secondary 
 schools of Prussia, 20,038 left at the end of the year. Of these, 
 4,105 completed the course, 8,051 left at the end of six years, 
 and 7,882 dropped out of the lower classes. It is seen, there- 
 fore, that of those leaving school forty per cent, were satisfied 
 with a six years' course, while only twenty per cent, secured 
 the Reifezeugnis. The important fact to be noted is that 
 only 368 (from higher burgher schools) of those who left 
 school at the end of the six years went out with 
 a theoretically complete education. All others Reasons for its 
 
 J Establishment. 
 
 were in schools whose curricula required three 
 years longer in attendance. This was one of the problems 
 which engaged the attention of the Berlin School Conference 
 of 1890. Up to that time all of the secondary schools, with 
 the exception of the higher burgher schools, were organized 
 for the express benefit of those who completed the nine years' 
 course. It was recognized that nothing could be done for the 
 thirty-nine per cent, who left school during the first five 
 years, but for the forty per cent, who remained only long 
 enough to secure the certificate for one year's military service
 
 188 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 it was felt that some reform was necessary. The curricula of 
 1892, therefore, were so arranged that those leaving at the 
 end of Untersecunda would have a well-rounded training, at 
 least in religion, German, history and geography, and math- 
 ematics. Opponents of the new order object to this measure 
 on the grounds that it amounts practically to converting the 
 nine-year institutions into six-year schools, with a three years' 
 continuation course. That there is some ground for this 
 view of the matter is evident from the especially marked ten- 
 dency in the Lehrplan to go over in the last three years much 
 the same ground as that already covered, but in a more 
 thorough and intensive way. This theory of working in con- 
 centric circles has been attacked as contrary to the best ped- 
 agogical thought of the times. Nevertheless, the stern fact 
 remains, and it is one with which there is no compromising, 
 that more than twice as many students leave school from 
 Secunda as finish the course. The practical necessity of 
 assuring so large a percentage of high-school pupils a toler- 
 ably complete education has rendered imperative an awkward 
 division in the curriculum at the end of the middle grades of 
 the nine-year schools. 
 
 The Abschlusspriifung has been introduced, therefore, as a 
 
 leaving examination at the end of the Untersecunda for all 
 
 those who do not intend to continue their 
 
 Its Comparative tud j es> It ig of the same rank ag the Rei f e _ 
 Rank. 
 
 prufung in six-year schools, and is conducted by 
 an examination committee, under the direction of a school in- 
 spector, in precisely the same way as the other leaving exam- 
 inations. But as yet few of the German states have adjusted 
 their courses to it ; Prussia is content to await their pleasure. 
 In the meantime she is incurring the enmity of some well- 
 meaning educationists, who would hold steadfastly to the 
 highest pedagogical ideas regardless of the needs of a majority 
 of higher-school pupils. 
 
 There could scarcely be a better system of examinations for 
 secondary schools than that which has been worked out in 
 Germany. If one does not find himself in full sympathy with
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 189 
 
 it on its theoretical side, he is forced to acknowledge its su- 
 perior excellence in its practical workings, especially when it 
 is contrasted with the prevailing systems in Eng- 
 land and America. It is not a lash held over 
 scholars to make them work the harder, nor 
 does it convert a youth into a mere machine for grinding out 
 facts on demand. It allows full play to the individuality of 
 pupil and teacher, and gives both every opportunity for per- 
 forming the best possible service. It leaves the teacher free 
 to devote his best energies to the mental-spiritual develop- 
 ment of his charge, without the suspicion that someone may 
 come in, wholly ignorant of the character of his pupils and of 
 his course of instruction, to test them on what might be the 
 veriest non-essentials. It gives free scope for the best teach- 
 ers to work out their problems in their own way ; it sets a 
 standard below which the poor teacher dare not fall ; in short, 
 it accomplishes all that any system of examinations could be 
 expected to do, while it is free, at least in its practical work- 
 ings, from the evils incident to the popular methods of this 
 country. 
 
 It has been repeatedly pointed out in this essay that the 
 higher schools of Germany serve purposes other than merely 
 giving a liberal education. It is inevitable that 
 
 a state system of education should be controlled 
 
 in the interests of the state, but under a bu- 
 reaucratic government there is danger of using the schools in 
 the interests of the class that happens to be in power. The 
 tendency in Germany to regulate everything that can be reg- 
 ulated applies to the control of public education as to every- 
 thing else. Little chance is allowed anywhere to individual 
 initiative ; small credence is given to the ability of the masses 
 to act aright. The German theory is that it is better to avoid 
 mistakes than to make them even for the sake of gaining ex- 
 perience. 
 
 It is with reluctance that I turn to the system of privileges 
 so intimately associated with the examination system. It is 
 at this point that the grip of the government is most seriously
 
 190 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 felt. The state is not content to give to youth a liberal 
 education which he can use in the service of the state, but it 
 must compel him to conform to a prescribed form if he would 
 succeed. Thus it happens that each higher school, almost 
 each year in school, has its cash value. It is a load which 
 the schools can ill afford to carry. It mars what otherwise 
 might be the most nearly perfect educational system in the 
 world. It distorts educational progress, and bids fair ulti- 
 mately to give an advantage to the enemies of the Father- 
 land, the value of which they seem thoroughly to appreciate. 
 
 There are three groups of privileges which may be dis- 
 tinguished : First, the right of one-year volunteer service 
 in the army ; second, the admission to the uni- 
 
 T Jj"f. Main versity and the learned professions ; third, 
 
 Divisions. * '. 
 
 preparation for various posts in the civil and 
 military service. The first two are of special interest in this 
 connection. 
 
 1. The privilege of one-year volunteer service in the army 
 (Einjahrig-freiwilliger Dienst} is granted upon the success- 
 ful completion of a six years' course of study 
 anv reco g n i ze( l higher school in any German 
 state, and to those persons not being pupils 
 in a higher school who are fitted privately or by study in a 
 school not officially recognised and succeed in passing a spe- 
 cial examination similar to the Abschlussprilfung. 
 
 In the last century, when the army was recruited by con- 
 scription in the various cantons, university students were 
 free from military service. So many accord- 
 
 C\v-\ff\r\ \f l"VnA 
 
 Yer service. m $J entered the university for no other pur- 
 pose than to avoid army service that a special 
 examination was instituted in 1793 to determine who might 
 take up university work with a profit. At first the examina- 
 tion was restricted to gymnasial students fourteen years of 
 age. With the introduction of universal military service, in 
 1814, an exception was made in the case of young men of the 
 upper classes who desired to devote themselves to professional 
 study whereby they were given the privilege of but one year
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 191 
 
 of army service. Only those who gave promise of special 
 ability were awarded the privilege. Students in the higher 
 classes of the Gymnasien, even down to Tertia, who satisfied 
 these requirements might receive the recognition. In 1822 
 the completion of Tertia was required, and since that time 
 the standard has been gradually raised until, in 
 1868, the minimum requirement was set at the conditions, 
 end of the Untersecunda, where it has since re- 
 mained. Other changes have also been made. The privilege 
 was granted first only to those who gave special promise of 
 professional success. For thirty years, however, it has been 
 held up as a prize for all who could pass a definite examina- 
 tion, notwithstanding that some might not intend to enter 
 upon professional study at all, or even remain longer in school. 
 As a matter of fact this latter class now includes more than 
 one-half of all those who secure the privilege. 
 
 With the foundation of the North German Confederation 
 and, later, of the Empire, the system introduced by Prussia 
 was adopted by the other states. In order to The Imperia i 
 secure a greater uniformity in methods and an school 
 approved standard, an Imperial School Com- 
 mission (Reichs- Schulcommission) was appointed in 1875, 
 whose chief function is to advise the imperial chancellor as to 
 what schools may with propriety be granted the privilege of 
 awarding the certificate which frees its holder from one year 
 of military service. This commission consists of six mem- 
 bers : Four represent Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtem- 
 berg ; a fifth member is chosen biennially from Baden, Hesse, 
 Alsace-Lorraine and Mecklenberg-Schwerin in turn ; the 
 sixth member represents the other German states, likewise 
 in terms of two years. This is the only attempt made to 
 unite the different states of the empire in any matter per- 
 taining to school affairs. The members of the commission 
 are all teachers, or officers in the Education Departments of 
 the different states. 
 
 2. Admission to any faculty of the university, and ulti- 
 mately to the learned professions, is unconditionally permitted
 
 192 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 only to those who hold a Reifezeugnis from a Gymnasium. 
 
 Graduates of a complete course in the Realgymnasium may 
 
 pursue such courses in the university as will 
 
 2. University gj. ^hem ^ o become teachers of mathematics. 
 
 study. 
 
 natural sciences and modern languages, but 
 they may not study theology, law or medicine. A Reifezeug- 
 nis from an Oberrealschule grants the privilege of university 
 study only in mathematics and natural sciences. 
 
 The leaving examination which was introduced in Prussian 
 schools in 1788 carried with it the privilege of admission 
 to the university, but not until 1834 was the 
 conditioni *est ^ muc ^ practical importance. In the lat- 
 ter year it was made an essential prerequisite 
 to all professional advancement. During the following gen- 
 eration the Gymnasium had a monopoly of all university pre- 
 paratory work. In 1870, by the recognition of the Real- 
 gymnasium, Greek was made optional for 'entrance upon the 
 courses in mathematics and modern languages. Finally, in 
 1892, the privileges mentioned in the preceding paragraph 
 were granted to the higher schools. It has been a long 
 struggle, the end of which is not yet in sight. 
 
 3. Graduates of Gymnasien, Realgymnasien and Oberreal- 
 schulen alike have the privilege of continuing their studies in 
 
 higher technical schools in architecture ; in 
 civil, mechanical, electrical and mining engi- 
 
 Examinations. o 
 
 neering ; in art, in agriculture in short, m all 
 lines which lead up to the state examinations for admission 
 to all posts in the civil and military service not included in 
 the learned professions. 
 
 The privileges attached to certificates of completion, of 
 courses less than nine years in length will be found in full in 
 the appendix to this volume. An examination 
 of this table will show that the higher schools 
 are the only gateways to positions of honour 
 and trust in the state. Industrial and commercial occupa- 
 tions alone are freed from official interference ; but with state 
 control of the railways, telegraph and postal systems, of bank-
 
 EXAMINATIONS AND PRIVILEGES 193 
 
 ing and certain industrial interests, even freedom in business 
 is not altogether assured. Bureaucracy is omnipresent, and 
 almost omnipotent; the higher schools, unfortunately, are 
 a chief means of perpetuating its power. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen ; 
 Wiese-Kiibler, Gesetzeund Verordnungen ; Centralblatt fur die gesammte 
 Unterrichts- Verwaltung in Preussen ; Encyclopedias of Schmid and Rein; 
 Phillip, Das hohere Schulwesen in Konigreiche Sachsen, Dresden, 1889. 
 And see Bibliography, p. 455, Nos. Ic, 2, 4. For changes in system of 
 privileges, see Chapter XXII. 
 
 NOTE TO SECOND EDITION : 
 
 The regulations of 1901 prescribe the following subjects for the leav- 
 ing examination in Prussia : 
 
 (1) Written For all schools, a German essay and four problems in 
 
 mathematics, and also for the 
 (a) Gymnasien, & translation from German into Latin and from 
 
 Greek into German, 
 (&) Realgymnasien, a translation from the Latin into German, an 
 
 essay in either French or English, a translation from the 
 
 German into French or English, and one problem in physics, 
 
 and 
 (c) Oberrealschulen, a French or an English essay, and a translation 
 
 from the German into English or French and one problem 
 
 from physics or chemistry. 
 
 (2) Oral For all schools, the Christian religion, history and mathe- 
 
 matics, and also for 
 
 (a) Gymnasien, Latin, Greek, and either French or English, 
 
 (b) Realgymnasien, Latin, French, and English, and physics or 
 
 chemistry, and 
 
 (c) Oberrealschulen, French, English, physics and chemistry.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 THE school life of the average German boy, estimated in 
 English or American terms, is rather tame and uninteresting. 
 There is little of the dash and vigour, little of 
 the vivacit y anti buoyancy of spirits, which we 
 consider essential to the normal development 
 of a healthy boy. Carelessness and indifference, where they 
 exist, are evidences of laziness rather than of perverseness. 
 The German school-boy has no time for sports ; family pride 
 and personal ambition keep him incessantly at his tasks. 
 The good time that he looks forward to, the time of his free- 
 dom from bondage, comes with his admission to the univer- 
 sity. "Then," he resolves, " I will do as I please." 
 
 This getting of an education is a serious matter to the 
 German youth, and he looks every inch the martyr that he 
 really is. He has no interest in outdoor games, 
 [ "piay f no es P ec i a l fondness for indoor gymnastics ; 
 he is practically denied what every American 
 boy considers an inalienable birthright, the privilege of 
 joining with his fellows in societies for moral, intellectual 
 and social purposes ; an ardent admirer of all things military, 
 yet military drill forms no part of his physical training until 
 his school-days are over. The inevitable consequences are 
 clearly to be remarked in the middle and upper grades great 
 unevenness in form and stature, sallow complexions and gen- 
 eral lack of animal spirits. Skating seems to be the one 
 form of popular recreation. The recent revival of gymnas- 
 tics may have done much, it may yet do more, for the phys- 
 
 194
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ical well-being of the German schools ; but I have serious 
 doubts of the complete success of the system so long as it 
 provides for no spontaneous outdoor sports. 
 
 The esprit de corps of the public day-schools is, in my 
 opinion, weak and uncertain. Too many pupils regard them- 
 selves deprived of harmless liberties, many 
 others have no thought except to get through 
 and away ; there is far too little personal con- 
 tact of teacher with pupil, too little love and devotion be- 
 tween pupil and teacher. A strong sentiment of loyalty to 
 the school and its traditions cannot thrive in such atmos- 
 phere. It would be erroneous, however, to conclude that 
 because school loyalty is not strong, therefore disloyalty and 
 anarchy prevail. To all appearances German school life is 
 neither the one nor the other. It has always impressed me 
 as being almost entirely devoid of sentiment, good or bad. 
 The average boy seems to consider schooling a necessary evil 
 something to be endured patiently, resolutely, thankfully, 
 if only thereby he escape social damnation. 
 
 So far as I can judge, the little effervescence to be found in 
 the day-schools is allowed to work off in harmless public 
 entertainments, to which the parents have a 
 
 . Public Exercises. 
 
 special invitation. At the close of the year it 
 is customary for the director to issue the program of the 
 year's work, including list of graduates, important announce- 
 ments and an invitation to all interested to attend the clos- 
 ing exercises. These consist (1) of public examinations ; 
 (2) of rhetorical, musical or gymnastic exhibitions, and (3) 
 of public lectures. 
 
 The examinations are purely formal in character, as has 
 been already stated, and are of comparatively little interest 
 except to parents. The Berlin city schools have done away 
 with them altogether ; many others would like to, but the 
 time does not seem to have come for severing another link 
 that binds the present to the past. 
 
 The rhetorical and gymnastic entertainments are always 
 liberally interlarded with excellent musical selections. The
 
 196 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 very lack of an inspiring school life sends German boys to 
 their homes for amusement and recreation. And the cult- 
 ured home is certain to be musical. It is an 
 open question whether the love of music is 
 cause or effect of the prevailing disregard of out- 
 door sports ; at any rate, the two interests do not seem to 
 thrive well together. There is devotion to music in the home, 
 and there is a love for it in the school. The result is plenty 
 of good musicians, few good athletes. Elocution is little 
 practised ; the ability to write clearly and to read well is 
 everywhere considered an essential element in education. 
 Public exercises, therefore, are most popular in which music 
 and essay reading predominate. The patriotic theme is the 
 prevailing one for public occasions ; panegyrics on William 
 I., Bismarck and von Moltke are good stock in trade. Hero- 
 worship is a settled policy of the Fatherland ; from it patriot- 
 ism is born. 
 
 The birthdays of the reigning sovereign and the anniver- 
 sary of the victory at Sedan are occasions of special rejoicing, 
 of speech-making and of freedom from lessons. 
 Celebrations ^ n ^ nese days a ll public buildings are deco- 
 rated ; bunting, flags and streamers are flung 
 out from every house, and at night illuminations are visible 
 on every hand. In school all work is suspended. The boys 
 gather early to hear an oration from some one of the masters 
 on the significance of the day ; after this short exercise there 
 is freedom for all. 
 
 The German boarding-schools, some of them at least, oc- 
 cupy an honourable place in the school system. The gymna- 
 sial schools are as proud of their records as Eton, or Harrow 
 or Rugby. The cloistral schools of St. Afra in Meissen, 
 Schulpforta and Rossleben are the most famous of the gym- 
 nasial boarding-schools. The two former were 
 founded in 1543, and Rossleben is only eleven 
 years younger. St. Afra has an income of 
 125,000 marks, of which more than one-half is from its orig- 
 inal endowment. Besides running expenses, this provides
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 197 
 
 free places for 105 scholars, and 25 more receive some aid. 
 The Saxon. Minister of Education grants 65 of these scholar- 
 ships, 11 of which must be given to sons of clergymen ; 20 
 places are at the disposal of certain noble families, and the 
 remaining 45 belong to some 26 cities of Saxony. Only boys 
 of thirteen, or those prepared to enter Unterter- 
 
 Meissen. 
 
 tia, are admitted. That the St. Afra boys are 
 kept busy is evident from the following order of the day : 5 
 A.M., rising bell; 5.20, prayers and first breakfast; 5.40, 
 study ; 6.30, free ; 7, lessons ; 9, second breakfast ; 9.15, 
 lessons ; 11, free; 12, reading; 12.45 P.M., dinner, afterward 
 free ; 2, lessons ; 4, free ; 5, study ; 7, supper ; 8.15, busy- 
 work ; 9, prayers ; 9.15, younger pupils retire ; 10, lights out. 
 Rossleben, with an income of 129,000 marks, is distinctly 
 a school for noblemen. It has about eighty pupils in seven 
 gymnasial classes ; boys are taken first in 
 
 fej J Rossleben. 
 
 Quarta. The thirty free places provided for in 
 the endowment are awarded by four members of the Witzleben 
 family, direct descendants of the founder of the school. The 
 discipline at Rossleben is truly Prussian. The extreme pen- 
 alty, removal from the school, is attached to thj3 violation of 
 many rules. Typical prohibitions are the following : gam- 
 bling in any form, having playing-cards in one's possession, all 
 aping of university societies and customs, having or drinking 
 wine, beer or liquors on school premises. No sweetmeats 
 may be brought to the school ; visits to the confectioners', as 
 to beer-gardens, are regulated by the teachers in conference. 
 The Rektor inspects all correspondence in which the boys are 
 a party. 
 
 Schulpforta income, 273,000 marks is perhaps the finest 
 type of upper-class school. Its situation, midway between 
 Kosen and Naumburg, on the banks of the 
 Saale, is especially charming. The gray stone 
 walls of the old cloister, the ivy-covered towers, the soft col- 
 ourings of the tiled roofs and the Gothic spires of the newer 
 buildings combine harmoniously to produce an effect quite in 
 keeping with the beauty of the natural surroundings. The
 
 198 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 grounds, several acres in extent, are walled in as they were, I 
 suppose, three hundred and fifty years ago. At the entrance 
 stands an imposing building belonging to the administration 
 department ; for one must know that Schulpforta is a con- 
 siderable village of itself at least, it provides employment to 
 the usual number of government officials. Near by are the 
 barns connected with the agricultural domains of the institu- 
 tion. Farther down the avenue and directly facing it stands 
 the main group of buildings, consisting of the cloister, which 
 is used as a school-house and boys' home combined, library, 
 chapel and gymnasium. The houses of the Rektor and the 
 married masters, the hospital and home of the school physi- 
 cian, stand by themselves apart. The class and study-rooms 
 are dull and unattractive ; the chapel, aula and library have 
 recently been modernized, but without violence to the spirit 
 of their mediaeval architecture. In the rear of the buildings 
 is a spacious play-ground such as would delight the hearts of 
 the most fastidious foot-ball team while several pieces of 
 outdoor athletic apparatus and a bowling-alley for each class 
 do not lessen its attractiveness for the German school-boy. Of 
 the one hundred and eighty places in the school, one hundred 
 and forty are'free. The Prussian Government awards half of 
 these, and the remainder are distributed among certain Prus- 
 sian cities and the church. Even the casual visitor to 
 Schulpforta must be impressed with the beauty of the place 
 and the wealth of its historic traditions. AVho can tell what 
 events occurred here, what tragedies were enacted, before the 
 quiet convent of Luther's time was transformed, under the 
 influence of his teaching, into the protestant school that Mau- 
 rice of Saxony made it ! A portrait of the founder hangs on 
 the chapel wall ; and a kindly face it shows, too, but his full 
 coat of burnished armour bespeaks methods not wholly peace- 
 ful in the accomplishment of his purposes. 
 
 The modern boarding-school is of a different type. In so 
 far as the modern spirit is commercial are these schools 
 adapted to that end ; but there are many learned men in Ger- 
 many who deprecate the hard and fast lines of the public
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 199 
 
 schools, and accordingly seek out for their sons a more elastic 
 curriculum. Such a school must necessarily be private, 
 though privileged to prepare for the volunteer 
 
 rf. , f r, -L i 7., The Stoy School. 
 
 army service. The Stoy sche Erziehungs-Anstalt 
 in Jena, which I choose to describe at length, is one of the 
 best of its kind. For the student of education it has an 
 especial interest in that it embodies to the very detail those 
 ideas which made Professor K. V. Stoy one of the most fa- 
 mous educators of the last generation. The world already 
 knows of his early struggles to found a truly educational in- 
 stitution on the Herbartian principles, which should at the 
 same time be a training-school for his university students in 
 pedagogy. From the small beginning in 1843 there developed 
 eventually the original Stoy School. But when Stoy was 
 called to Heidelberg, in 1866, the school in Jena passed into 
 strangers' hands. Fourteen years later the old banner was 
 again raised over a new institution bearing the name of the 
 old master, but with a son of the former one, Dr. H. Stoy, 
 as the new Director. The pupils of the old school trans- 
 ferred their allegiance to the new, and the friends of the 
 father became supporters of the son. Its success was assured 
 from the start. 
 
 The school property, situated on the rising ground in the 
 northern part of the town, is some two or three acres in ex- 
 tent. A large piece of land on the heights a 
 mile below Jena is also in the possession of the 
 school, and there the head-master has a summer cottage 
 where the boys find entertainment on many of their country 
 excursions. The school buildings, four in number, are in 
 the Swiss style of architecture. The school-house, a three- 
 story building completed in 1892, is admirably arranged for 
 class purposes, well lighted and ventilated and heated by 
 steam. In addition to class-rooms, it provides a large room 
 for drawing, another for the very large collection in natural 
 history, besides chemical and physical laboratories ; another 
 building serves for gymnasium and workshops ; a third is the 
 hospital, which is fitted up for ten patients. The boarding-
 
 200 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 hall, an imposing three-story structure, is the home of the 
 Direktor, the unmarried masters and seventy boys. On the 
 first floor are the head-master's rooms eight in number the 
 kitchen, dining-room and lower class study-rooms. The en- 
 tire second floor, save for teachers' conference-room, seniors' 
 study-hall and a servants' work-room, is divided into four 
 dormitories, each with fifteen to twenty beds. The third 
 floor is arranged for teachers' rooms and rooms for music, 
 school library and housekeeper's appointments. 
 
 The army life, which the average German boy looks for- 
 ward to with pleasure, predisposes him to regard favourably 
 , _, the barrack system in his boarding-school. The 
 
 Dormitories. . . J 
 
 dormitories of the Stoy School are scrupulously 
 clean, but absolutely wanting in those conveniences which 
 American boys consider indispensable. The single pair of 
 hooks at the head of each bed and the row of towels sur- 
 rounding the general wash-stand were the sole articles of use 
 or luxury that I could detect. The bedsteads are of iron, 
 single, and without springs. Each boy provides his own mat- 
 tresses and bedding, as well as towels, napkins, spoons and 
 personal clothing. The requirements in these respects are 
 unusually large, and bespeak a good class of patronage. A 
 boy's school expenses vary from 1,200 to 1,500 marks yearly. 
 The household management is exceptionally good. In sys- 
 tematic precision it is truly German and Prussian at that. 
 
 The housekeeper, besides the customary duties 
 
 Regulations. f ' . 
 
 of such a position, takes entire charge of the 
 boy's wardrobe and keeps it under lock and key. Except at 
 stated times, a boy may not have even a change of handker- 
 chiefs without a written order from the Direktor. Twice a 
 week clean underwear is given out, and the soiled articles 
 gathered up from the dormitories the next day. In the linen- 
 room there is a case for each boy's clothing ; every article, 
 even to the shoes, must be marked with the boy's number. 
 Special requests for clothing may be made to the head-master 
 after supper ; the orders are written in the housekeeper's 
 book, and the articles, as ordered, are delivered in the sleep-
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 201 
 
 ing-rooms before the boys go to bed. Orders for the shoe- 
 maker and tailor are taken in the same way, by number, and 
 the record is retained by the housekeeper, through whom all 
 such business is transacted. In this work the housekeeper is 
 assisted by a maid ; she has, too, under her direction a cook, 
 two waitresses, who also do the chamber work, and two resi- 
 dent porters and their wives. The laundry work is done in 
 town, the housekeeper being responsible merely for the mend- 
 ing. 
 
 The school is a RealscJiule with six classes. In addition 
 there is a lower school of three classes, for boys from six to 
 nine years, which is intended to fit for any 
 kind of higher school. The school usually 
 numbers about one hundred and fifty pupils, most of the 
 lower school and some of the older boys being day pupils. 
 French is taught from the beginning of the course, and 
 English the last three years. Latin and Greek may be had 
 only in private lessons. Mathematics and the sciences are 
 especially emphasized. Elective subjects are quite unknown, 
 as indeed is the case in all German schools. 
 
 The masters, twelve in all, are appointed by the Direktor, 
 subject to confirmation by the state department of education. 
 The qualifications are the same as for the pub- 
 
 ,. , . , 11- -4. f i The Masters. 
 
 lie higher schools, i.e., university training fol- 
 lowed by the state examination, and then a year in a peda- 
 gogical seminary and another year as trial teacher in a higher 
 school. The assistant city pastor gives lessons in religion, 
 and there are two special music teachers. The salaries are 
 practically the same as for the public schools, 1,800-4,000 
 marks. New appointees, beginning at the minimum, are 
 advanced annually 100 marks for the first ten years, after 
 which private arrangements are made. The ordinary super- 
 vision of the hall is divided among the masters, whether 
 resident or not, each taking a day in turn ; and a day means 
 twenty-four hours ! At Schulpforta the masters serve a 
 week about, taking the entire discipline, day and night. On 
 Sundays and half-holidays extra supervision is required from
 
 202 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the younger masters. Three conferences a week are held . 
 two on house matters and one for the school. Subjects for 
 discussion arise from the written reports of the supervisors 
 and from the class-books, in which are noted the main points 
 of every lesson and the progress and deportment of the 
 pupils. Aside from these conferences, the masters not on 
 duty are entirely free. In view of the fact that the average 
 teacher gives not more than twenty lessons a week, it must 
 be acknowledged, I think, that a master's position in a Ger- 
 man boarding-school is not only more secure but less irksome 
 than usually obtains in American schools. The difference in 
 the national customs and modes of life is undoubtedly the 
 prime reason ; but, whatever be the causes, the fact remains 
 that the German is more independent and can less justly 
 complain of the never-ending round of extraneous duties in- 
 cident to boarding-school life. 
 
 By courtesy of the head-master I was enabled, on March 5, 
 1894, to spend an entire day with the boys of the Stoy School. 
 
 It was not yet daylight when I began my 
 Experience rounds with the teacher in charge. At six 
 
 o'clock the boys are called. One sleepy lad 
 fumbles around for a bit of paper, and when it is found he 
 brings it to the master for his signature. It is explained to 
 me that the poor fellow has the pernicious habit of sleeping 
 a little late in the morning and you know Germans must 
 never be late hence this collection of teachers' autographs. 
 Half an hour is allowed for dressing, turning down the beds 
 and putting all in order ; at 6.30 the sleepiest boy of the lot 
 must leave the room, not to return till 9 P.M. The dormi- 
 tories are then carefully inspected by one of the boys, who 
 notes in a book the numbers of those luckless chaps that 
 have forgotten to hang up their towels, to open the windows, 
 or otherwise have done offence to the letter of the law. 
 In the meantime the boys are exchanging, in the corridor 
 below, their house-slippers for shoes, which have been care- 
 fully polished for them overnight and placed by the porter 
 in the numbered compartments ^of a large case. Next they
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 203 
 
 line up on each side of the hallway, where they are inspected 
 by the master ; the roll is called by number, each boy speak- 
 ing out his own. The monitors the Heifer, so called 
 one for the sleeping quarters, another for the study-rooms 
 and boot-case are appointed by the faculty from the upper 
 classes and serve for one week ; then give their report. De- 
 linquents must at once make good their failures ; then break- 
 fast is announced. Before taking places at the tables all 
 gather about the piano to sing the Morgenlied ; to-day it is 
 a single stanza of one of Luther's hymns. 
 
 The breakfast would scarcely satisfy an American boy two 
 small rolls (no butter) and a cup of tea for the elder pupils, 
 hot milk for the younger ones, is the entire bill 
 
 Breakfast 
 
 of fare. But it is the German custom to break- 
 fast on coffee and rolls. The room is of ample size, finished 
 in dark woods and ornamented with the ever-present signs 
 of German patriotism the busts of the recent Emperors, 
 Bismarck, Moltke, Schiller and Goethe. I remark that the 
 circle is incomplete, as the Grand Duke and Duchess and the 
 Empress are wanting ; but I am told that it is for lack of 
 room, not of loyalty, that it so happens. 
 
 After breakfast conies an hour of study. There are four 
 rooms for this purpose, three of them connected and under 
 the supervision of a teacher ; the first class and 
 
 . . Study-Hours. " 
 
 a few selected from the second enjoy the privi- 
 lege of a separate room under the guidance of a monitor. 
 Each boy has a table with drawer, and woe to him who lets 
 confusion enter here ; besides this he is allotted a shelf in the 
 general bookcase and a small cupboard, which is under lock 
 and key. This last is the boy's own, his sole possession that 
 escapes inspection. I got a glimpse of the contents of one 
 compartment belonging to a twelve-year-old : a pair of skates, 
 a ball, an old cap, a handkerchief or two that had escaped 
 the housekeeper so much was on the surface, the rest must 
 be left to imagination. At eight o'clock we go to the school- 
 house, where we assemble in the drawing-room to sing the 
 morning song. Recitations begin at the first quarter of the
 
 204 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 hour and last forty-five minutes each. According to the Ger- 
 man plan each class, with the exception of the Vorschule, 
 recites every period. The schedule for the 
 
 Lessons. 
 
 upper classes, therefore, calls for some thirty- 
 three to thirty-five periods a week, but naturally little outside 
 preparation is expected. 
 
 At ten o'clock comes the second breakfast. Each boy gets 
 
 a generous slice of black bread with butter, which he eats 
 
 while at play in the yard. And here let me 
 
 Second Breakfast. . 4.1.1411 
 
 remark, parenthetically, that the second break- 
 fast is even of more consequence than the first ; the roll and 
 coffee may be dispensed with, but not so with the Butterbrot. 
 In the Volkssclmlen the pupils generally are equipped with two 
 huge slices of very black bread and a minimum of butter. At 
 this mass the child gnaws away during every intermission of 
 the morning, and notwithstanding the size of the piece often 
 eight to ten inches long by two thick I have seldom seen a 
 division made of the lunch for the different periods. Suffi- 
 cient unto the day is the bread thereof ! 
 
 The work of the morning is finished at twelve, save on 
 Wednesdays and Saturdays, when it runs till one o'clock, be- 
 cause of the afternoon half -holidays. At 12.15 
 the study-tables and bookcases at the hall must 
 be in perfect order. The boys then line up in the corridor, 
 as in the morning, for inspection, rollcall and the report of 
 the Heifer. By eights they go to the lavatory to make ready 
 for dinner, which is served promptly at 12.30. It consists 
 to-day of boiled rice and beef, prepared, I am told, according 
 to a recipe brought by one of the pupils from his home in 
 Greece. It appears to be relished by the boys, who return 
 their plates for two or three extra portions. Black bread 
 completes the list. There is no butter, nothing to drink 
 not even water. The hour after dinner most of the boys 
 spend in play about the yard. In the meantime I am initiated 
 into the mysteries of the higher circle. The masters gather 
 in the room of one of their number, who serves us with cof- 
 fee, cakes and cigars. Thus a pleasant hour is spent before
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 205 
 
 the afternoon work begins. From two o'clock till four reci- 
 tations are held, as in the morning ; the Vorschule, however, 
 is free. From four until five the masters are in conference 
 over the final examination papers of the first class. A little 
 before five the boys again put on their slippers, and are then 
 admitted to the dining-room, where they find slices of black 
 bread spread with Pflaumenmuss, a sort of 
 prune marmalade. A few, by order of their 
 parents, get also a bowl of hot milk. No especial order is 
 kept during this afternoon meal Vesperbrot, so-called ; some 
 sit at the tables or in the window-seats, others walk about 
 the hallways. Soon the bell sounds for study. At 6.45 
 there is another roll-call, inspection, etc., in preparation for 
 supper. 
 
 The evening meal is the most interesting one, perhaps be- 
 cause the most elaborate of the day. We find at each table 
 a large platter piled high with sandwiches of 
 black bread and smoked herring. Tea and milk 
 are served, and there is plenty of butter. In an astonishingly 
 short time the platter is cleaned and replenished again, but 
 this time with corned-beef in place of herring. "Whether or 
 not the change is a concession to my American stomach I 
 cannot say, but I have no doubt that the original package 
 bore the brand, "Chicago Corned-Beef." At the end of the 
 meal the head-master notes the wants of the boys : first in 
 the tailor's book No. 15 has torn his coat, 33 wants buttons 
 on his vest, while nothing short of cleaning.and pressing will 
 suit the fastidious taste of 47 ; next is the shoemaker's turn, 
 and various are the orders for new soles and 
 patches that he gets ; in yet another book are 
 noted the numbers of those who last night disturbed the 
 peace of one sleeping-room, and in consequence are sentenced 
 to do special tasks in the study-room for an hour after their 
 peaceful comrades are in bed. Special requests from the 
 first class are granted those who wish to be called an hour 
 earlier to-morrow morning the dreaded "final " is only one 
 week distant. Still another book goes to the housekeeper.
 
 206 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Ten minutes are thus spent and no end of annoyance saved 
 for twenty-four hours to come. 
 
 At 7.30 all boys go to the shops. Here they work in 
 five divisions, corresponding in general to the school years : 
 
 the beginners are busied with paper work box- 
 Manual Training. . C) * . . 
 
 making, bookbinding, etc. ; the second division 
 
 uses hand fret-saws ; next come classes in wood-carving, car- 
 pentry and wood-turning in order. This work, which is in 
 charge of master workmen from the town, is carried on only 
 during the winter on Monday, Tuesday and Friday evenings. 
 Some good pieces are turned out ; but on account of the short 
 time of training and the somewhat cramped quarters, the re- 
 sults are mainly beneficial by way of diversion for the pupils. 
 I doubt not that the dormitories will be the more quiet to- 
 night in consequence of the evening's employment, and the 
 poor lads who must put in an extra hour of penance will find 
 their tasks the more trying. The bell rings at nine o'clock 
 for Abendlied. Again all gather about the piano in the din- 
 ing-room, and, under the leadership of the head-master's 
 wife, sing the evening song, a single stanza of a well-known 
 hymn. The boys then pass in single file before Frau Stoy 
 and the teachers present, shaking hands with all and wishing 
 all good-night. Fifteen minutes later the 
 
 Good-Night. & , , . . . , , 
 
 peaceful part of the community is in bed. The 
 work of the day is completed with the final inspection of the 
 dormitories by the two teachers who sleep with the boys to- 
 night. We pass from room to room, turn down the lights 
 and say " Oute NacM," the signal for quiet. That the 
 average boy will gladly heed the injunction I am persuaded 
 no less by the drowsy replies that reach our ears than from 
 my own feelings at the prospect of coming rest after a long 
 day of interesting and novel experiences. 
 
 The order for Sunday is varied by rising an hour later, 
 church from 9.30 to 11.00, after which a period is set apart in 
 which letters must be written home. At din- 
 ner beer is served to those who wish it, all 
 g one glass, the older boys two glasses. Sunday after-
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 207 
 
 noons, as on the Wednesday and Saturday half -holidays, the 
 entire school, in charge of one or two masters, takes a long 
 walk ; on week days the excursion rarely lasts longer than 
 two hours, but on Sunday it is customary to prolong it to 
 three or more. In summer the first order for Sunday morn- 
 ing is a swim in the river at six o'clock ; on week days the 
 bathing hour is 4 P.M., and every boy in the school must 
 join in the sport under the eye of the master and the teacher 
 in charge. On Wednesday and Saturday evenings, when 
 swimming is not possible, the boys go to the bath-room 
 dressed in bathing-suits and there enjoy a shower-bath en 
 masse. The head-master takes special supervision of this 
 hour. On retiring each boy finds on his bed a complete 
 change of linen and underwear, which he must wear on the 
 morrow. Once a month on a half -holiday there is a general 
 hair-cutting, the barber coming to the hall, after which each 
 boy takes a warm tub-bath. 
 
 The Stoy school has been distinguished from the days of 
 the " old doctor," as I hear him called, for especial attention 
 to bodily development, even making the physi- 
 cal training as important an item in the curric- Training 
 ulum as any other. The long walks above 
 mentioned on three days of the week tend directly to this 
 end. The summer trips, of which I shall speak later, are 
 not only valuable from a general educational point of view, 
 but they serve to test the bodily vigour of the boys. The 
 preparation, however, which enables even the youngest boys 
 to undergo long tramps for twenty days in succession con- 
 sists mainly in class exercises in gymnastics. The gymna- 
 sium (Turnhalle) is fitted up with parallel and horizontal 
 bars, and such apparatus as is necessary for vaulting, jump- 
 ing, etc. In comparison with an American gymnasium of 
 the better class the outfit is scanty, but the deficiency is 
 in large part made good by outdoor apparatus. Poles and 
 ladders for climbing, all framed together, and bars of various 
 kinds, find a place here. It is needless to say that the boys 
 appreciate most what is at all times accessible to them. I
 
 208 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 have seen a dozen of the smaller lads, bareheaded in mid- 
 winter, climbing around like monkeys on the highest frame- 
 work and apparently enjoying the fun to the utmost, despite 
 the slippery rods and the flying snow. Once a week the en- 
 tire school has a class exercise in gymnastics (Turnen), and 
 on two other days the juniors and seniors exercise separately. 
 For this purpose the scholars are divided into groups of six 
 or eight, each with a leader, or so-called Vorturner. In a 
 special hour on Sunday the Vorturner receive directions and 
 drill in new movements which, with the master's help, they 
 are expected to carry out in the exercises of the week. 
 
 It was my pleasure to attend the Stoy Turnfest held in 
 August, 1893, on the last Sunday of the semester. The student 
 
 body marched into the play-ground in column 
 Exhibition ^ ^ ours headed by a drum corps and buglers. 
 
 Following some evolutions, a hearty song was 
 sung and an exhibition given on the parallel bars by ten of 
 the older boys. The upper school then separated into squads 
 of eight, each of which had a special task, e.g., vaulting, 
 jumping, exercise on horse, buck and bars. Calisthenics and 
 games by the lower school called out some applause. But 
 to an American the striking feature was the lack of all com- 
 petition; and, indeed, not till toward the end of the pro- 
 gram was any spirit manifested, and that only in running 
 and pole-climbing. Nevertheless, it would be an error to 
 conclude that the boys found little pleasure in the perform- 
 ance ; on the contrary, the winners received as hearty con- 
 gratulations as one could wish, and the prizes and laurel 
 wreaths were as proudly displayed as if won in that heroic 
 struggle miscalled foot-ball. The pent-up enthusiasm of the 
 day seemed to find full expression at the close of the singing 
 of " Deutschland, Deutschland, ilber alles." 
 
 I am told that there are field-sports ; but I have seen none 
 of them save a flimsy attempt at foot-ball, a recent importa- 
 tion from England. The fact is, there is no time for sports 
 as we know them ; there are no two hours of the week in 
 succession not provided for in the school schedule. The
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 209 
 
 theory that short periods of alternate work and rest produce 
 the best results is characteristically German ; but, as one of 
 the boys remarked to me, " two ' works' to one 
 ' play ' is nearer the truth." There is as little 
 time for indoor diversion as for sports. The 
 absence of a boys' parlor or reading-room testifies to this. 
 But in music they find a solace quite unknown in American 
 boys' schools. There are three music teachers : one gives his 
 entire time to the violin, piano and orchestra ; a second con- 
 ducts the singing, and a third gives private lessons on the 
 'cello. Twice a term there is a private musical recital, fol- 
 lowed by dancing, to which the boys' friends are invited ; 
 every other year in midwinter a public recital and ball are 
 given in the town opera-house ; in alternate years a large 
 masquerade ball is held, to the great satisfaction of the boys. 
 The birthdays of the Emperor, the Grand Duke and Luther 
 are also publicly celebrated generally by speeches interspersed 
 with music. 
 
 The great event of the year, however, the one around which 
 all extraneous interest centres, is the Schulreise of the sum- 
 mer holidays. More than forty years ago Pro- 
 
 _ , . . *" , . SchoolJourneys. 
 
 fessor htoy undertook, with the boys of his 
 training-school, his first trip into the Thuringian forest. 
 Thenceforth it was made a veritable part of the curriculum, 
 and many and strange are the stories told of incidents con- 
 nected with these early tours. In these days the journeys 
 are more pretentious, owing to the greater depth of the 
 patrons' pockets. Early in July the boarders, with the entire 
 corps of teachers, spend four days in the Thuringian forest. 
 In 1893 the region between Blankenburg and Coburg, in- 
 cluding the Schwarzerthal, was explored. On the way glass- 
 works and stone-quarries were visited, and a day was spent at 
 the famous old castle in Coburg. But the real pilgrimages 
 come in August. The hall is divided into three parties, ac- 
 cording to age and strength of the pupils, and to each party 
 three or four teachers are assigned. The first division, led 
 by the head-master, usually goes to South Germany ; a few 
 
 14
 
 210 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 days are spent in Munich, with the special view of studying 
 architecture and the rich collections of the city museums, 
 after which the Bavarian Alps are visited. Last August the 
 route included Nuremberg and Augsburg ; thence through 
 Switzerland into Tyrol, and on to Venice ; thence back to 
 Munich. During this trip of three weeks, the boys were 
 most of the time on foot ; travel by rail was of course neces- 
 sary, but was indulged in sparingly. The total expense per 
 boy was 140 marks. 
 
 The customary routes for the second division are (1) the 
 
 Harz Mountains and the Rhine Valley ; (2) Dresden, Prague 
 
 and Bohemia, or (3) the Bohemian forest, along 
 
 the Danube to Passau, Nuremberg, home. The 
 
 third party goes to the upper valley of the Saale, and thence 
 
 through the forest to Eisenach. 
 
 The educational value of these journeys lies chiefly in the 
 fact that, inasmuch as the entire hall must join them, a gen- 
 eral preparation can be made a part of the 
 
 Educational school-work for a year in advance, and the re- 
 value. 
 
 suits summed up afterward in permanent form. 
 
 The routes are carefully planned from the beginning of the 
 fall term by the masters in conference. Accurate maps are 
 drawn by the boys, and every effort is made to arouse the sci- 
 entific imagination. The history of art, especially in archi- 
 tecture, is studied, and the lessons in general history are made 
 to supplement the special means of preparation. On the trip 
 each boy makes notes and sketches of the chief points of in- 
 terest ; these are worked over immediately at the end of the 
 trip, that nothing be lost. Before Christmas it is expected 
 that he will write a complete history of his journey, and, as 
 this is a part of the essay writing for the fall term, the pupil 
 profits from suggestions from his teacher, and has the addi- 
 tional stimulus of writing on his own experiences and making 
 a book for himself. Some of these accounts are most interest- 
 ing. I have seen one of some three hundred octavo pages, 
 bound in two volumes, written by a member of the second di- 
 vision ; with its tasty head-lines, initial letters and numerous
 
 STUDENT LIFE IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 211 
 
 pen-and-ink sketches, it is really artistic. To be sure, not all 
 the boys are artists ; but most of them can show a good ac- 
 count of what they have seen. 
 
 To promote good fellowship among the students, the school 
 is divided into five clubs, Kameradschaften, to each of which 
 belong two or three teachers. The older mem- 
 
 *= . Student Clubs. 
 
 bers of a club are in a way responsible for the 
 conduct of their fellows. Comrades are expected at all times 
 to be mutually helpful, and it is a point of honour that the 
 strong should aid the weak. Pin-money for the boys is de- 
 posited with the senior masters, according to Kameradscliaf- 
 ten ; cash-books must be kept by all, and those of the juniors 
 are left with the masters. The usual allowance varies from 
 one mark fifty a month for the youngest to three marks for 
 the seniors. 
 
 There is little need, as we have seen, for boys to go into 
 town on errands, and the permission is rarely granted. The 
 desire for sweetmeats, no less strong here than 
 
 . & SideUghts. 
 
 elsewhere, is scarcely considered a legitimate ex- 
 cuse ; but with true Yankee ingenuity a young friend of mine 
 I hope he will not count me an informer, after such a lapse 
 of time is doing a flourishing business as a result of the ban. 
 These operations, confined as they are to imports whether on 
 the theory of free-trade or tariff for revenue only, I am not 
 informed undoubtedly contribute not a little to the commer- 
 cial training of all concerned. But mischief is not rampant 
 among the Stoy boys ; indeed, one must look long and closely 
 to detect signs of the ordinary human weaknesses. This is 
 due in part to the thorough supervision, but a still more 
 potent cause is that these boys are Germans and Germans 
 are born to obey. 
 
 No feature of German school life calls out more criticism 
 from foreigners than the seemingly exacting discipline, espe- 
 cially of Prussian schools. Good masters have 
 remarked to me and I am inclined to credit 
 the statement that the average school-boy considers an amia- 
 ble teacher as a prodigy fit only for girls' schools. The all-
 
 212 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 pervading military spirit tends in a different direction. Most 
 boys are anxious to serve in the army, if they can do it as 
 volunteers. Something by way of a uniform and brass but- 
 tons is the delight of the youngsters, and as they grow older 
 their favourite game of " war-play " is barely left off before 
 the days of actual service. But there is a wide difference be- 
 tween a conscript and a volunteer : the one serves two years 
 at no expense to himself ; it costs the other at least fifteen 
 hundred marks for the privilege of wearing the " Emperor's 
 coat " one year. It is not the difference in length of service 
 that begets the eager volunteer, nor yet the desire to expend 
 a sum greater than is necessary for a year's attendance at the 
 university ; but above all considerations stands social rank. 
 To have had ten years of successful schooling counts for 
 nothing when reckoned with that higher distinction of be- 
 longing to a family that can afford the ton years of training 
 and the fifteen hundred marks besides. There it is in a nut- 
 shell ! Not only the boy himself, but his entire family as 
 well are concerned in his success at school. The final exami- 
 nation must be passed at all hazards, and no means thereto, 
 however severe or exacting, if successful in the past, will be 
 repudiated by the patron. The boy can afford to take no 
 chances. The result is an obedience bordering on servility. 
 It is a factor of prime importance in estimating correctly the 
 peculiarities of German schools, and especially must it bi 
 reckoned with in the boarding-school. The original causes 
 are to be sought in the social and national life rather than m 
 the personality of the teacher. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Jahresberichte and announcements of Schul 
 pforta, St. Afra in Meissen, Grimnia, Rossleben and the titoy'sche 
 Erziehungs-Anstalt in Jena.
 
 CHAPTEK XI 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN RELIGION 
 
 '' SEE to it that your children above all things are instructed 
 in divine things, that you first dedicate them to God and then 
 to worldly matters," was Luther's advice to the 
 German people. And down to the present cen- 
 tury the chief end of all school teaching was the 
 training of young men for the ministry and of a laity that 
 would accept their leadership. Even under a national school 
 system the principal function of the German school is offi- 
 cially declared to be the making of " God-fearing, patriotic, 
 self-supporting citizens." It is recognised that the harmo- 
 nious development of the human mind means more than merely 
 intellectual acuteness ; the heart must grow with the head, if 
 the whole man is to be developed. A character lacking re- 
 ligious knowledge, principles and ideals is not an ideal char- 
 acter. Too much of our modern civilization is founded on 
 Judaism and Christianity to make it possible to dispense with 
 a knowledge of these religions, and too much is involved in 
 the religious life to make it safe for the state to disregard 
 spiritual training. On utilitarian grounds, therefore, if there 
 were no better reasons, the German states insist on the teach- 
 ing of religion in all elementary and secondary schools. 
 
 It never occurs to a German that there could 
 
 , ,., , ,,. ,.. . Religion an 
 
 be a valid reason for excluding religious in- Essential Part 
 struction from the public schools. He would of German 
 as soon think of eliminating the entire national 
 literature, as the Bible, from the school curricula. As 
 
 literature, if nothing else, he would accord it a prominent 
 
 213
 
 214 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 place. But in protestant Germany the Bible, Luther's Cat- 
 
 echisnis and Luther's Hymns are reverenced above all books ; 
 
 to the masses they are constant reminders of their religious 
 
 liberties. And Luther's words are words of life to his people. 
 
 The fact that there are fewer religious sects in Germany 
 
 than in America accounts in part for the retention of religious 
 
 instruction long after the separation of school 
 
 Three Religious and churoh> There are prac tically only three 
 
 Denominations. . J J 
 
 denominations : Lutheran, Catholic and Jew- 
 ish. Nearly two-thirds of the total population are adherents 
 of the Evangelical Church ; roughly speaking, they make up 
 all central Germany. The Eoman Catholics are next in im- 
 portance, and are to be found especially in Bavaria, along the 
 Ehine and in the extreme eastern part of the empire. Jews 
 are everywhere, but particularly in the cities. 
 
 The historical relations of church and school can still be 
 traced in the designation of every public secondary school 
 as protestant, catholic or Jewish, according to 
 Teachers ^he confession of the majority of the scholars. 
 In a protestant school, for example, the di- 
 rector and most of the teachers will be members of the Evan- 
 gelical Church, and the instruction of the classes in religion 
 will be given by the regular teachers. But in case there are 
 at least twenty-five children of another faith in the school, a 
 class must be formed for them and a teacher engaged who be- 
 longs to their church. The teacher may be a member of the 
 regular staff, if he has a certificate for the subject ; or, what 
 is more likely, a local minister will be called in and installed 
 as special teacher, in the employ of the state. In the large 
 cities it generally happens that one higher school will be 
 Jewish, another catholic and the rest protestant. Whenever 
 there are two or more higher schools of different confessions, 
 the dissenting pupils in one will be sent to another school for 
 instruction in religion. 
 
 It is the constitutional prerogative of every parent that his 
 children shall not be compelled to attend religious instruc- 
 tion contrary to his own belief, and that no child shall be
 
 INSTRUCTION IN RELIGION 215 
 
 denied admission to the public schools on religious grounds. 
 On the other hand, every child in the secondary schools 
 must receive some instruction in religion ; if 
 not received in the schools, the parents must Religious 
 provide for it privately in a systematic way and Required, 
 from regularly authorized instructors. 
 
 General-superintendents of the Evangelical Church, catho- 
 lic bishops and Jewish rabbis are permitted at stated times 
 to inspect the religious instruction of their re- 
 spective confessions, but they have no right to 
 interfere in any way with the work of the teach- 
 ers. If they have criticisms to offer, they must address them 
 to the provincial school-boards, who are authorized to take 
 such action as may seem expedient. While the church has 
 no direct control of religious instruction in secondary schools, 
 this right of supervision puts the church in a position to 
 know what is being taught and indirectly to direct its course. 
 Moreover, one school inspector in each province is generally 
 a catholic, which insures a respectful hearing of the views of 
 the minority. Inasmuch as the state church of Prussia is 
 evangelical, it follows that the religious instruction in the 
 protestant schools is more directly under state control than 
 is the teaching in other schools. But no instruction is given 
 without official sanction. The government appoints all teach- 
 ers, prescribes the courses of study, approves the text-books 
 and tests the results by examination. 
 
 Teachers of religion are trained, certificated and appointed 
 like all other teachers ; they enjoy the same rank, honours 
 and emoluments as other teachers. In fact, 
 unusual significance is attached to these posi- 
 tions. Instructors in religion must not only 
 be scholars and skilful teachers, but they must also possess 
 high moral character and gentlemanly bearing, such as will 
 exercise an unconscious influence for good over the young. 
 The examining boards and school inspectors are specially 
 warned to pass no candidate who does not possess these 
 characteristics in an eminent degree. The ability to lead
 
 216 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 and inspire boys and young men is the essential prerequisite 
 to this office. A ministerial rescript of 1826 admonishes all 
 teachers of religion not to forget the responsibilities of their 
 position. They are not merely to train the intellect, but to 
 educate their pupils to high Christian citizenship ; it is their 
 duty to inculcate not simply a pleasing theory of morals, but 
 faith in the living God and in Christ as the Saviour of men. 
 The text-books used must express correctly the doctrines of 
 the Evangelical Church, which make religion the basis of all 
 morals, and which represent a living faith in Jesus Christ and 
 salvation through Him as the end to be attained. 1 
 
 Teachers of religion are not confined to this subject alone. 
 Eeligion may be taken as a major or minor in the state ex- 
 amination, like other subjects, and the certifi- 
 
 Certiflcation. . ' . J 
 
 cate received determines the grades in which 
 instruction may be given. In the Friedrichs- Gymnasium in 
 Berlin, nine out of twenty-four members of the faculty teach 
 religion ; two of the nine have made religion their major 
 subject. The subjects which are naturally allied with re- 
 ligion are German, the classical languages and history. 
 
 The following is the course in religion, as outlined in the 
 Prussian Course P ro g ram ^ the Friedrichs-Gymnasium in Ber- 
 of study. lin, for the year 1895-1896 : 
 
 Sexta: 3 hours. Selections from the Old Testament, es- 
 pecially the early history, the patriarchs, Moses, David, Elias 
 and Elisha, according to the Schulz-Klix, Biblisches-Lese- 
 buch. Selections from the New Testament relating to the 
 birth, resurrection and ascension of Christ. Explanation of 
 the Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide holidays. Learning 
 of the first part of the Catechism, with Luther's exposition. 
 Drill on biblical quotations and four church hymns (Nos. 6, 
 1, 33, 35 in Lesebuch). 
 
 Quinta : 2 hours. Selections from the New Testament 
 relating to the life of Christ. Learning of second part of 
 Catechism, with Luther's exposition. Biblical quotations. 
 Review of the Catechism and hymns learned in Sexta, and the 
 learning of four new hymns (Nos. 8, 30, 22, 25 in Lesebucli}. 
 
 1 Wiese-Kubler, Verordnungcn und Gesctze, I., pp. 162-3.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN RELIGION 217 
 
 Quarto, : 2 hours. Winter Reading of the more impor- 
 tant parts of the New Testament : The Sermon on the Mount, 
 Parables (Matt, xiii., Luke xv.). Travels of the Apostle 
 Paul. Review of the life of Christ, at the holiday time. The 
 books of the Bible. Practice in quotations. Summer 
 Reading of more important parts of the Old Testament, with 
 especial reference to the prophets, and part of Apocrypha. 
 Geography of Palestine. Throughout the year a study of the 
 third part of Catechism, with Luther's exposition ; memoriz- 
 ing of Parts IV. and V. Review of the Catechism and hymns 
 learned in Qninta and Sexta. Drill on four new hymns 
 (Nos. 2, 15, 18, 24 in Lesebuch), and Psalms xxiii., xlvi. and 
 cxxxix., 1-12, 23-24. 
 
 Untertertia : 2 hours. Reading of selections from the Old 
 Testament relating to the history of the Israelites ; also from 
 the Psalms and Job. History of the church calendar and 
 the significance of the church festivals. Review of the Cate- 
 chism and biblical selections, and memorizing of hymns 
 (Nos. 12, 28, 26, 21 in Lesebuch], scriptural texts and Psalms 
 xc., ciii., 1-13, and cxxvi. 
 
 Obertertia : 2 hours. Selections from the New Testament, 
 especially the Sermon on the Mount and the Parables. The 
 history of the Reformation, in connection with the life of 
 Luther. Review of the Catechism, biblical quotations and 
 hymns already learned. Discussion and explanation of the 
 sacraments, in connection with the history of the Reforma- 
 tion. 
 
 Untersecunda : 2 hours. Exegesis of the Gospel accord- 
 ing to St. Matthew. Biblical antiquities and literature. 
 Reading of selections from the prophets, Job and Psalms, and 
 the story of the crucifixion according to Mark, Luke and 
 John. Comprehensive review of the Catechism and of the 
 selections and hymns already learned. 
 
 Obersecunda : 2 hours. Apostolic history. Epistle to the 
 Philippians. The church calendar. Review of the Cate- 
 chism, biblical selections, hymns and Psalms previously mem. 
 orized. 
 
 Unterprima : 2 hours. Summer Chief epochs in church 
 history. Christianity and the heathen powers. Dissension 
 in the Apostolic Church. The most important Church 
 Fathers Augustine and Pelagius and Boniface. Rise of the 
 Roman Catholic Church. Scholasticism and mysticism : their 
 bearing on the Reformation. The most important tendencies 
 in the subsequent development of the Evangelical Church.
 
 218 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Pietism (Spener and Francke), the Moravians, home missions, 
 sects. Winter Exegesis of the Gospel according to St. John. 
 Oberprima : % hours. Winter Exegesis of the Epistle to 
 the Romans. Summer Dogmatic Theology and Christian 
 Ethics, in connection with Art. i.-xvi., xviii. and xx. of the 
 Augustinian Confession. Outline history of the church hymns. 
 
 The course of study is so arranged that in the lower 
 classes special attention is given to Bible stories, mostly bio- 
 graphical, and to memorizing church hymns, 
 Contents. J 
 
 the catechism and selected scriptural texts. 
 The middle grades aim to present a tolerably complete notion 
 of the Christian religion, as expounded by Luther, some 
 church history and the significance of the forms and cere- 
 monies of the church. Although after Untertertia no more 
 formal memorizing is required, frequent reviews help the 
 pupils to retain what they have previously acquired. In the 
 upper grades the character of the work is somewhat changed. 
 A general study of the history, antiquities and literature of 
 Holy Writ and a history of the Christian Church are intro- 
 duced. Special attention is given in all classes to broad read- 
 ing, research and exegesis, not of isolated passages, but of 
 complete parts and books. 
 
 The methods of teaching religion are practically the same 
 as those employed in teaching German and history. The 
 teacher tells the story of the lesson, or has it 
 read by the class. Then follows a discussion 
 by question and answer of the chief points, with a view to 
 bringing out clearly the ethical or religious truths involved. 
 The lesson generally centres around some scriptural text, 
 which is committed to memory as an index of the whole. 
 This practice accounts for the great amount of memorizing 
 generally required in the lower grades. In 1871 the de- 
 partment of education recommended the following list of 
 scriptural texts, to be learned in connection with Luther's 
 Catechism : 1 
 
 Sexta: 2 Tim. iii. 15-17; John xvii. 17; Matt. xxii. 37- 
 1 Wiese-Kublcr, Verordnungen und Gesetze, I., pp. 165-6.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN RELIGION 219 
 
 40, x. 28 ; 1 John v. 3 ; Ps. xxxvii. 5 ; Jas. iii. 9-10 ; Matt, 
 v. 37 ; Gal. vi. 7-8 ; Ps. 1. 15 ; Ex. xx. 9-10 ; Luke xi. 28 ; 
 Eph. vi. 1-2; Prov. xxx. 17; Rom. xiii. 1; gauSoa ^ to ^ 
 
 TTi ^ MI Tl 1 rk ^ Tfc T J_ r\ -t DCJeCllUHB IO DC 
 
 Hebrews xni. 17 ; Eph. v. 3-o ; Matt. v. 8 ; 1 Memorized. 
 Tim. vi. 9-10 ; Hebrews xiii. 16 ; Eph. iv. 25 ; 
 Matt. xii. 36 ; Jas. i. 13-15 ; Gal. v. 24 ; 1 John ii. 15-17 ; 
 Matt. xxvi. 41. 
 
 Quinta : Eph. ii. 8-9 ; Hebrews xi. 1 ; Rom. i. 19-20 ; 
 Rom. ii. 14-15 ; John. iv. 24 ; Ps. cxv. 3 ; Ps. xc. 2 ; 1 John 
 iv. 16 ; Rom. xi. 33-34 ; Ps. cxxxix. 1-4 ; Ps. v. 5 ; Jer. ii. 
 19 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 13 ; Ps. civ. 24 ; Ps. xxxiii. 13-15 ; Matt. x. 
 29-31 ; Isa. xlv. 7 ; Hebrews i. 14 ; 1 Peter v. 8-9 ; Rom. v. 
 12 ; Gen. viii. 21 ; Eph. iv. 18 ; John iii. 16 ; 1 Tim. i. 15 ; 
 Acts iv. 12 ; John x. 30 ; Matt, xxviii. 18 ; Matt, xxviii. 20 ; 
 Isa. liii. 4-5 ; 1 Peter i. 18-19 ; 1 Cor. xv. 17 ; Rom. iii. 24- 
 25 ; Phil. ii. 12-13 ; Ps. Ii. 5-6 ; Acts xvi. 30-31 ; Gal. v. 
 6 ; 1 Tim. iv. 8 ; John xv. 26 ; Ps. cxliii. 10 ; 1 Cor. xii. 3 ; 
 2 Cor. v. 17 ; John iii. 3 ; Hebrews ix. 27 ; 2 Cor. v. 10 ; 
 John xi. 25-26 ; 1 Cor. xv. 42-44 ; I John iii. 2. 
 
 Quarto, : 1 Tim. ii. 1-2 ; Ps. ciii. 1-4 ; Ps. cvi. 1 ; Matt. 
 xv. 8 ; John xvi. 23 ; Rom. xiv. 17-18 ; Matt. vi. 33 ; Matt, 
 vi. 14-15 ; 1 Cor. x. 13 ; Rom. vi. 3 ; Gal. iii. 26-27 ; Acts 
 ii. 38 ; 1 Cor. x. 16 ; John vi. 53 ; 1 Cor. xi. 27-29 ; Ps. 
 cxxxix. 23-24 ; 1 John i. 9. 
 
 The first period of the school-day is regularly given up to 
 the classes in religion ; in case of conflict, the director may 
 use the succeeding period. In 1826 a prayer 
 was ordered at the beginning -and end of every 
 school session, but in practice the morning prayer is all that 
 is required. Prayer is offered at the opening of all special 
 exercises, and once a week, generally Monday mornings, the 
 entire school assembles in the auditorium for religious exer- 
 cises. The directors of all private schools are required to 
 hold morning and evening prayers, say grace at meals, attend 
 public worship with their pupils and join with them in the 
 church sacraments. 
 
 When pupils reach the age of fourteen or fifteen years, it 
 is expected that they will present themselves for confirmation 
 at Easter time. For some time previous to this important 
 step each pupil receives special instruction from his pastor, as
 
 220 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 well as chat prescribed for the school. A rescript of 1838 
 
 declares that a candidate for confirmation should be familiar 
 
 with (1) the first five parts of the Small Gate 
 
 Confirmation. . . ' rr< ~ , .. , 
 
 chism, the Ten Commandments, the Apostles 
 Creed, the Lord's Prayer ; (2) the titles, order and principal 
 contents of the books of the Old and New Testament ; (3) 
 the parts of the Bible upon which the important doctrines 
 of the Christian religion are founded, and (4) the more com- 
 mon church hymns. The special instruction preparatory 
 to confirmation is not a part of the regular school work ; 
 nevertheless, directors are expected to keep free for this in- 
 struction in the middle grades the hour from eleven to twelve 
 on two days of the week, and teachers are required to reduce 
 the amount of home study in these grades during the four 
 weeks preceding Easter. It is at this point where church 
 and school come into closest touch ; through the confirma- 
 tion class, the local clergy learn more of the religious in- 
 struction given in the schools than from any amount of 
 official inspection. 
 
 The subject-matter of instruction in religion is mainly 
 
 from the Bible, Luther's Catechism and the church hymns. 
 
 No text-books in German schools have been so 
 
 subject-Matter long in use as these, and no others are consid- 
 
 of Instruction. 
 
 ered so important to-day. It should be noted, 
 however, that an expurgated edition of the Bible is always 
 used never a complete edition. But even with the youngest 
 children whatever is used is kept in Luther's own words. A 
 Child's Bible, or Family Bible, is always Luther's Bible with 
 certain passages omitted. Educators believe that the child 
 and youth are not prepared to understand the significance of 
 all Holy Writ ; the selections used, therefore, must be adapted 
 to the pupil's mind, and arranged in such a way as will best 
 serve the ends in view. 
 
 There are many Comprehensive text-books in nse which 
 seek to place before the learner all the material for his study 
 of religion. I have before me the Schulz-Klix Biblischqs 
 Lesebuch, which is referred to in the outline above given, and
 
 INSTRUCTION Ilv RELIGION 221 
 
 which is perhaps the most popular of r.ll such books. Its 
 popularity is seen in its enormous sale ; up to 1896 it had 
 passed through fifty-three stereotyped editions. 
 Twenty editions have been issued since 1879. 
 This book is divided into three parts : (1) Selections from the 
 Old Testament, 141 pages ; (2) selections from the New Tes- 
 tament, 64 pages ; (3) general commentary, which includes 
 (a) biblical information, 4 pages ; (b) chief facts in the geogra- 
 phy and history of the Holy Land, 6 pages ; (c) history of the 
 Old Testament, 10 pages ; (d) history of the Jews to 70 B.C., 6 
 pages ; (e) summary of New Testament teachings, 18 pages ; 
 (f) church history, 6 pages ; (g) Luther's Small Catechism, 
 15 pages ; (h) the church calendar, 5 pages ; and (i) thirty- 
 six church hymns, 20 pages. 
 
 The selections from the Bible are intended to present a con- 
 tinuous narrative from Genesis to Revelation. The list of 
 topics is in itself so instructive that I present 
 herewith, as an example of the whole, a com- ^ lb '! cal 
 
 Selections. 
 
 plete outline of the New Testament selections: 
 
 The Birth of Christ, Luke ii. Infancy of Christ, Matt. ii. 
 The Boyhood of Christ, Luke ii. The Baptism by John, 
 Matt. iii. Testimony of John, John i. The 
 Temptation, Matt. iv". Jesus Begins His Min- From theNew 
 istry, Mark i.-ii. The Sermon on the Mount, 
 Matt. iv. 23-25, v.-vii. The Centurion, Matt. viii. Nicode- 
 mus, John iii. The Samaritan Woman, John iv. The 
 Woman of Canaan, Matt. xv. The Woman's Faith, Luke vii. 
 The Disciples, Matt, ix., x. John the Baptist, Matt, xi., 
 Mark vi. The Parables : (1) The Sower, Luke viii. ; (2) 
 The Tares, Matt. xiii. ; (3) The Labourers in the Vineyard, 
 Matt, xix., xx.; (4) The Prodigal Son, Luke xv. ; (5) The 
 Lost Sheep, Matt, xviii. ; (6) The Rich Man, Luke xvi. ; (7) 
 The Pharisee, Luke xviii. ; (8) The Good Samaritan, Luke 
 x. ; (9) Tho Great Supper, Luke xiv. ; (10) The Wedding 
 Dress, Matt. xxii. ; (11) The Ten Virgins, Matt. xxv. ; (12) 
 The Talents, Matt. xxv. The Sayings of Jesus : (1) Who 
 is the Greatest in the Kingdom of Heaven ? Matt, xviii. ; (2) 
 Jesus, the Children's Friend, Mark x. ; (3) The Rich Young 
 Man, Matt. xix. ; (4) The Worthlessness of Earthly Goods, 
 Luke xii. ; (5) Warning against Arrogance, Luke xiv. ; (6)
 
 222 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 The Fig Tree, Luke xiii. ; (7) Martha and Mary, Luke x. ; 
 (8) Christ, His Mission, Matt. xx. ; (9) The Kingdom, Luke 
 xvii. ; (10) The Widow's Mite, Luke xxi. ; (11) Zacchseus, 
 Luke xix. The Miracles of Jesus : (1) The Marriage, John 
 ii. ; (2) The Draught of Fishes, Luke v. ; (3) Jesus Stills the 
 Tempest, Matt. viii. ; (4) The Healing of the Dumb, Mark 
 vii. ; (5) At the Pool of Bethesda, John v. ; (6) The Feeding 
 of the Four Thousand, Mark viii. ; (7) The Feeding of the 
 Five Thousand, John vi. ; (8) Restoring the Blind to Sight, 
 John ix. ; (9) Raising the Widow's Son, Luke vii. ; (10) 
 The Daughter of Jairus, Mark v. ; (11) The Outcasts, Luke 
 xvii. ; (12) Lazarus, John xi. The Pharisees and Sadducees, 
 Matt, xv., xvi., xxii. The Entry into Jerusalem, Matt, xxi., 
 Luke xix. Jesus Purges the Temple, Luke xix. Jesus and 
 the High Priest, Luke xx. The Last Supper> Luke xxii. 
 The Washing of the Feet, John xiii. The Designation of His 
 Betrayer, John xiii. Jesus in Gethsemane, Matt. xxvi. Be- 
 fore the High Priest, Matt. xxvi. Before Pilate and Herod, 
 Luke xxiii., John xviii.-xix. Crucifixion, Luke xxiii., John 
 xix. Jesus' Words on the Cross, Luke xxiii., John xix., 
 Matt, xxvii. The Burial of Jesus, John xix., Matt, xxvii. 
 The Resurrection, Mark xvi. The Journey to Emmaus, 
 Luke xxiv. Jesus Appears to His Disciples, Luke xxiv. The 
 Doubting Thomas, John xx. The Last Words of the Lord 
 to His Disciples, Mark xvi. The Ascension, Acts i. The 
 Outpouring of the Holy Spirit, Acts ii. Peter's AVonderful 
 Work, Acts iii. Persecution of the Apostles, Acts iv. An- 
 anias and Sapphira, Acts iv., v. The Apostle in Prison, Acts 
 v. Stephen, Acts vi., vii. Mission of Paul, Acts ix. Cor- 
 nelius, Acts ix., x. Meeting of the Apostles, Acts xi., xv. 
 
 Under the title Die Christliclien Confessionen, Schulz- 
 Klix gives a short sketch of the origin of the Christian 
 Church ; its divisions into the Greek Catholic, 
 the Roman Catholic and Protestant branches ; 
 the history and contents of the Apostolic, the Nicean and the 
 Athanasian creeds ; the doctrines of the Reformed and Lu- 
 theran denominations ; their origin, development and union 
 in the Evangelical Church ; and the principal articles of the 
 Augsburg Confession. 
 
 But what of the results ? Six years of such a book as I 
 have been quoting, and three years besides in a study of church
 
 INSTRUCTION IN RELIGION 223 
 
 history, dogmatic theology and Christian ethics, ought to bear 
 magnificent fruit. Undoubtedly in many cases the results 
 are all that should be expected, but this cannot 
 be said of all. The government is undoubtedly 
 right in seeking to attract to this work men of striking per- 
 sonality and deep religious faith. But it need not be said 
 that this ideal is hard to realize. And when teachers are at 
 fault, one must expect to find faults in their work. 
 
 A well-known provincial school inspector stated the case to 
 me somewhat in the following manner : It is certainly true 
 that a very great change has come over the 
 
 . J ? , rp , , Criticisms. 
 
 country in the last twenty years. The theory 
 of evolution in the natural world has given rise to critical 
 schools in history and theology. Young men have been leaving 
 the universities for years with these critical notions in their 
 heads, and the definite amount of religious knowledge which 
 was once supposed to be essential to every man's education 
 has been steadily growing less. Not a third as much is re- 
 quired to-day as was insisted on thirty years ago. The teach- 
 ers are not so certain in their beliefs ; the feeling of uncer- 
 tainty in the teacher begets uncertain results in the class-room. 
 Pupils consequently do not take the same interest in the 
 subject. Many of them say openly that the teacher is obliged 
 to teach them what he himself does not believe. At any rate, 
 the results are unfortunate and are not growing better. It is 
 the outcome of a bad philosophy which has been abroad in the 
 land for the last half-century. 
 
 In the Kreuzzeitung of November 25, 1894, I find this 
 scathing arraignment of German religious life : " As matters 
 stand at present," it was said, " we have a double- 
 entry system of spiritual book-keeping. For the 
 masses, so far as they attend the elementary 
 schools, and, theoretically, for pupils of secondary schools as 
 well, we have instruction in religion on the lines of positive 
 Christianity, in the name and by the authority of the state. 
 In the universities, on the contrary, where the young men 
 are being educated who will in time succeed to the leader-
 
 224 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ship in church and state . . . something entirely differ- 
 ent is put forward in the name of science ; doctrines are 
 preached which stand in sharpest contradiction with those 
 given to the people. . . . This is excused on the ground 
 that religion is for the people, and for them it is good enough 
 as it is ; science, however, occupies another field and seeks a 
 different patronage the two do not come in contact." 
 
 The church also is far from being satisfied with the relig- 
 ious education in the secondary schools, and some influential 
 churchmen have attempted to bring about a re- 
 ^ orm which should give more time to religion. 
 This is strongly opposed by school-men, on the 
 ground that not more time, but better men and better methods, 
 are wanted. The prevailing opinion is that there is far too 
 much formal memorizing. It is a good thing to know the 
 catechism, most of the Psalms, many hymns, and a large part 
 of the Bible ; but if the religious life of the child is to be 
 stunted thereby, it were better to let some things pass. It is 
 said that some text-books give as many as three hundred and 
 fifty disconnected scriptural texts to be learned by heart. It 
 is no wonder that the letter kills the spirit. The school-men 
 complain also that their scholars know the history of the 
 Jews better than the history of the Germans. The remedy, 
 they say, is not more formal study ; for pupils might spend 
 all their time on religion, memorize the entire Bible, and yet 
 come out irreligious. Better no catechism than so many tears 
 in learning it. 
 
 Professor Kirchner, of Berlin, speaks for the majority of 
 
 his colleagues when he says : " If the religious feeling is not 
 
 revered, awakened and fostered [in the home], 
 
 Bducaton tlie sch o1 can do vei T l itfc l e - As a rule > the 
 
 yearning toward God in a child's soul is very 
 slight. A surfeit of religious doctrines, maxims, hymns, 
 forms, ceremonies, prayers, as experience proves, often pro- 
 duces a result precisely opposite to the one intended. Not 
 the school, but the church, has the largest share in fostering 
 the increase of piety. Least of all should the school be
 
 INSTRUCTION IN RELIGION 225 
 
 pressed into the service of ?, rigid orthodoxy ; it should not 
 forget that the educational point of view must be its standard. 
 Lessons in religion ought not to be hours dedicated to devo- 
 tion, but give instruction in a grave, cheerful manner. The 
 school must be content to establish in its pupils genuine relig- 
 ious feeling and sound morality. The means of doing so is 
 on the one hand instruction, and on the other the teacher's 
 example. Hypocritical sanctimoniousness, external atten- 
 tion to church forms, nay, even polemics against those who 
 hold a different faith, will have no good result. In the 
 choice and treatment of subjects the standard must be gen- 
 uine religious stimulation, rather than dead knowledge, 
 scholastic erudition or barren forms." 1 
 
 The ministry has now come around to this idea. The new 
 curricula lay special stress on the spirit of instruction. " The 
 religious instruction is to be so imparted that 
 emphasis shall be laid upon the living accepta- Governmental . 
 
 * * Instructions. 
 
 tion and the inward appropriation of the facts 
 of salvation and the Christian duties, and especial attention 
 be given to the apologetic and ethical side. Along with con- 
 siderable diminution in the amount taught, especially by cut- 
 ting out the history of the church and dogma leading to the 
 taking sides in religious controversies, the instruction, so far 
 as it is based on history, is to be limited to the occurrences 
 of enduring significance for the ecclesiastical and religious 
 life." 
 
 Still, it is better to have some religious instruction to com- 
 plain of than none at all. The situation is not as bad as the 
 doubters think. There is a vast deal of excel- 
 lent work being done, and I am convinced that 
 students who are seriously entering into their 
 school work in other lines are as seriously studying the facts 
 and principles of their religion. I rarely found a school-boy, 
 whose judgment I considered of value in other matters, who 
 was not deeply impressed with the worth of his religious train - 
 
 1 Educational Review, I., pp. 479-80. See also his monograph : Zvr 
 Reform des Religionsunterrichts, Berlin, 1876. 
 16
 
 226 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ing. There is much doubt, much senseless criticism, abroad 
 in the land, but its sources are not to be sought in the schools. 
 On the contrary, the religion of protestant Germany, as it is 
 presented in the schools, is one of the most powerful forces 
 making for unity in German life. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Schuren, Gedanken iiber Religionsunterricht, 
 Gutersloh, 1888 ; Wiese, Der evangelische Religionsunterricht, Berlin, 
 1891 ; Meyer, Der erangelische Religionsunterricht an die hoheren Schulen, 
 Hanover, 1876 ; Gottschiek, Der evangel. Rel. Unt. in den oberen Klassen 
 hoh. Schulen, Halle, 1884; Schrader, Erziehungs und Unterrichtslehre fiir 
 Gymnasien und Realschulen, Berlin, 1893; Schiller, Handbuch der prak- 
 tischen Padagogik fur hohere Lehranstalten, Leipsic, 1890; Encyclopedias 
 of Schmid and Rein ; Wychgram, ffandbvch des hoheren Madchenschul- 
 wesens, Leipsic, 1897; Frick, Pddagogische und didaktische Abhandlungcn* 
 Halle, 1893.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 
 
 THE question of how to teach the mother-tongue, and of 
 what to teach, and for what ends, is not new to German edu- 
 cators. For a generation it has arisen in one 
 
 , Its Purpose. 
 
 form or another to vex the devotees of the old 
 system, and with each reappearance it has won increased 
 favour from the public. It has been discussed scientifically 
 on its own merits ; it has been an important factor in the 
 wider problem of the national policy in education ; it has 
 been invoked as the bulwark of the fatherland against the 
 rising tides of social democracy. That there should be una- 
 nimity of opinion is scarcely to be expected. My purpose in 
 this chapter is to extract from the mass of material at hand 
 what seems to me of value to English readers, and at the 
 same time to represent as faithfully as I can the essentials of 
 theory and practice from the German point of view. 
 
 Instruction in the mother-tongue, it is generally conceded, 
 should occupy a central place in the curriculum ; it should 
 be treated directly as an independent subject,- 
 and indirectly in connection with all other sub- 
 jects of the course ; it should introduce the 
 pupil to the national history and literature ; and its especial 
 aim should be to beget a readiness in the correct use of the 
 oral and written language. While there are few dissenters 
 from the first proposition, a glance at the program of a 
 Prussian Gymnasium shows sixty-two week-hours assigned 
 to Latin and twenty-six to German. This would be contra- 
 dictory were it not possible to teach the mother-tongue in- 
 
 227
 
 228 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 directly. The weight of departmental rulings favours this 
 plan. If the Gynmasien need for Latin more than twice the 
 time that is given to German, they must make the use of 
 good German an essential part of the training in Latin. A 
 sensible pedagogics bases this demand on higher motives : 
 All instruction may not be restricted lo the subject in hand ; 
 it should also contribute to the general culture. As new 
 ideas are acquired words must be found to match them. If 
 the pupil is allowed to speak in his vernacular, if his use of 
 language is not extended beyond the range of his provincial 
 dialect, it is safe to say that the new ideas will lose half their 
 value because inadequately expressed. With clearness and 
 correctness of expression comes a keener insight into the 
 mental content. And when every recitation is made indi- 
 rectly an exercise in the right use of the mother-tongue ; 
 when the pupil is taught to appreciate the value of concise, 
 correct and suitable language as the exponent of his ideas ; 
 when every sentence written for a teacher's criticism is tested 
 not only for content but for form ; and, above all, when the 
 teacher is always careful not to offend in written or spoken 
 word when all this is carried out faithfully and cheerfully, 
 then is the difficult part of the training already accomplished. 
 And, further, if the mother-tongue is not taught indirectly 
 in connection with every other subject, the hours specially 
 devoted to it be they never so many will be disappointing. 
 It is not possible, if success would be attained, to have our 
 speech on parade certain hours of the week and off duty the 
 rest of the time. 
 
 The reading of good literature is its own reward; but when, 
 as in Germany, the literature breathes the national life and 
 
 spirit, the reader catches an added charm. If 
 Literature" 1 ne ^ e a school-boy, he lingers long over the 
 
 tales of wonderful adventure and stirring pa- 
 triotism so characteristic of the fatherland, and thereby be- 
 comes a German. Not only does he imbibe new feelings, 
 new ideas, but unconsciously his tongue acquires something 
 of the richness of the language in which he reads a language
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 229 
 
 new, but yet his own. And the study of foreign classics, an- 
 cient and modern, gives him a deeper insight into the nature 
 of the mother-tongue ; the points of comparison not only 
 fix the limits of his speech, but suggest greater freedom with- 
 in its bounds. With right, then, is the study of literature 
 emphasized in German schools. 
 
 Historically, German is one of the most modern subjects in 
 the German schools. From the time of Comenius, and even 
 earlier, there have been occasional advocates of 
 German instruction ; but in schools given over 
 primarily to Latin there was small place for 
 the mother-tongue. Moreover, it was not till late in the 
 eighteenth century that there was such a thing as German 
 literature, in the modern sense of the term ; and it was well- 
 nigh a century later before it gained admission into the 
 school curricula. The first half of the present century was so 
 overshadowed by formalism in all matters educational that 
 what little attention was given to German was mainly the 
 study of grammar and rhetoric. It is only in the last genera- 
 tion, almost in the last decade, that instruction in German 
 has become respectable ; and since 1892 it has advanced to 
 first place in the estimation of the government It is the 
 beginning of a new era, in which the chief aim is to reveal to 
 youth the wealth of their national inheritance and, through 
 its literature, to inspire them with a deeper patriotism and a 
 more abiding faithfulness to the German spirit. In the Ber- 
 lin Conference of December, 1890, the Emperor placed him- 
 self frankly on the side of the nationalists. His declaration 
 that the schools were making of their pupils young Greeks, 
 young Romans, anything but young Germans, put the prob- 
 lem squarely before the people from a statesman's point of 
 view. The result has been a thorough revision of the curric- 
 ulum for Prussian schools, and a similar change in the school 
 program of most of the smaller German states. 
 
 The new Prussian program went into effect at Easter, 
 1892. It has been severely criticised in many particulars, but 
 I have not learned that the course in German has met with
 
 230 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 serious opposition. To be sure, there are those who say that, 
 
 granting the wisdom of the general aim, the means prescribed 
 
 are not calculated to attain those ends ; but a 
 
 Recent Reforms. , , . ., , 
 
 teacher who accepts the fundamental prin- 
 ciples will find, I think, small excuse to complain of official 
 strictures. First, the time for German is increased in the 
 Gymnasium from 21 to 26 week-hours, in the Oberrealschule 
 from 30 to 34, and in the Realschule from 21 to 28 for nine 
 and six years' courses respectively. No distinction in aim 
 or methods is made between the classical and the non- 
 classical higher schools. The new program differs from 
 the old one (1) in the increased attention to the national 
 literature, (2) in the demand for more practice in composition, 
 and (3) in a decided restriction of the time formerly given to 
 the study of grammar. 
 
 For the lower classes, in which the boys range in age from 
 
 nine to twelve years, the new course is as fol- 
 
 Course of Study. , J 
 
 lows : 
 
 SEXTA. 
 
 Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, 4 hours weekly ; Ober- 
 realschule, 5 hours. (1) Grammar : Parts of speech; the 
 simple sentence : strong and weak declensions. 
 
 Lower Grades. , .. ',-, . . ... , -,. , ,. 
 
 (2) Exercise m writing from dictation once a 
 week. (3) Readings : fables, legends, stories from the na- 
 tional folk-lore and history. (4) Oral reproduction of stories 
 told in class. (5) Recitation of poems committed to memory. 
 
 QUINTA. 
 
 Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, 3 hours ; Oberrealsclmle, 
 4 hours. (1) Grammar : The simple and compound sentence; 
 elements of the complex sentence. (2) Exercise in writing 
 from dictation ; punctuation. (3) Readings from the ancient 
 legends and history. (4) Oral reproduction ; first attempts at 
 composition. (5) Recitation of poems, etc., as in VI. 
 
 QUARTA. 
 
 Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, 3 hours ; Oberrealschule, 
 4 hours. (1) Grammar : The complex sentence ; word-build-
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 231 
 
 ing. (2) Writing from dictation, to alternate with exercises 
 written on what is heard in class ; composition every four 
 weeks. (3) Headings from prose and poetry. (4) Oral repro- 
 duction of what is read in class. (5) Memorizing and recita- 
 tion of poems. 
 
 An outline of the entire grammar course may be found in 
 Hopf and Paulsiek's reading-books for the lower classes. In 
 this bare sketch of ten pages are given typical 
 examples of the parts of speech and their uses, 
 the formation and development of the sentence and rules for 
 punctuation. The declensions of nouns, pronouns and ad- 
 jectives are illustrated by appropriate sets of endings. Six 
 classes of strong verbs are distinguished according to change 
 in root-vowel, and lists of each class are given ; the formation 
 of the principal parts of weak verbs is noted ; a list of irregu- 
 lar verbs is added, but receives no comment. Prepositions are 
 grouped according to the cases which follow them. In the 
 treatment of the sentence few definitions are formulated ; the 
 peculiar uses of compound and complex sentences are classi- 
 fied according to the usual method of Latin grammars, and 
 the Latin terminology is used throughout. 
 
 The above outline, or a similar one, I have found in use in 
 several schools but for teachers' use only. The education 
 department positively prohibits the teaching of 
 
 ., ., ,, How Taught. 
 
 the German grammar as if it were the grammar 
 of a foreign tongue. So far as it is necessary it must be 
 taught indirectly and inductively, but it should lead up to a 
 clear understanding of grammatical theory. To illustrate, I 
 once visited a recitation in Sexta in which attention was 
 turned indirectly to the parts of speech. From occasional 
 questions of the teacher I could see that certain parts were 
 already known to the class. The adverb, however, was 
 new, but from the material of the lesson words were found 
 which answered to the questions, how ? when 9 where ? These 
 were written on the board and names given to the groups. 
 The use of the adverb and its forms of comparison were easily 
 deduced. In a subsequent lesson I saw the preposition studied
 
 232 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 in the same way. On inquiry I found that the class was not 
 so backward as the apparent ignorance of grammatical terms 
 seemed to indicate. The teacher, who also had Latin in 
 Sexta, preferred to make the one study supplement the other. 
 From the beginning of the course declension and conjugation 
 in Latin furnish ample drill in German forms, and the treat- 
 ment of the sentence makes comparison of idioms fruitful. 
 To systematize in the German recitations what is learned with 
 the Latin costs small labour, and is the more likely to be of 
 interest to the pupils because of the association. This teacher 
 followed the new program to the letter, and were the results 
 universally so good as in his class there could be no question 
 of the wisdom of the measure. 
 
 The parts of grammar assigned to Quinta and Quarta are 
 very difficult. Young boys, even natives, are not likely to 
 find the intricacies of the German complex 
 sentence easy. They do not use subordinate 
 clauses in simple conversation ; and while they 
 may understand, it is quite another thing to speak the lan- 
 guage idiomatically. This must be learned for the most part 
 in school. What with declension for everything declinable, 
 genders that know no law and a phraseology doubly com- 
 pounded, the masters of the lower grades see sorry times. 
 English teachers may find comfort in knowing that fate has 
 not exhausted all its woes in imposing on them a wretched 
 orthography. Foreigners underestimate, I am sure, the 
 hindrances met with by Germans in fixing the elements of 
 their language. The training in Latin clears up many diffi- 
 culties for gymnasial scholars, and for this advantage the 
 Realschulen have a partial recompense in the larger number 
 of hours assigned to German. The weekly exercise in writ- 
 ing from dictation is always connected with a recitation in 
 the literature, and contributes to its review. In Sexta five 
 or six simple sentences usually selected to illustrate some 
 grammatical principle as well are deemed sufficient. The 
 pupils' books remain with the teacher, who returns them 
 with errors indicated in time for the next exercise. The
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 233 
 
 more common faults of writing and spelling are then dis- 
 cussed in class. In Quinta and Quarto, the same methods 
 prevail. The use of the extended sentence gives rise to dif- 
 ficulties of punctuation to which special attention must be 
 given. 
 
 The real basis of all the work is the literature. The Prus- 
 sian program requires that the reading be in line with the 
 history for the corresponding grades; in the 
 schools of central Germany I have noticed a 
 disposition to join it with the instruction in re- 
 ligion as well. Hopf and Paulsiek's reader for Sexta (I quote 
 this series because it is one of the most popular in use in 
 German schools) has seventy-two pages of legends, fables and 
 tales from the national folk-lore, of which fully one-half is 
 from the Grimm collection ; thirty pages contain historical 
 sketches from the lives of the German emperors from Charle- 
 magne to Frederick III.; and in the remaining forty-six 
 pages of prose is to be found a variety of selections relating 
 to animal life, nature, etc. Then follows some sixty pages 
 eighty selections of poetry in which the historical ele- 
 ment predominates. Many of the finest lyrics of the lan- 
 guage are in the list. In fact, the book within its limits con- 
 tains the best the language affords. The editors assume that 
 the best is none too good for school use, and that boys of nine 
 and ten years can appreciate it. Such a book is not read 
 from cover to cover ; for lack of time a large part must be 
 excluded. Freedom of choice, therefore, is the teacher's 
 privilege in the interest of his class. 
 
 The readings for Quinta stand in close relation to the course 
 in history for the same class : " Stories from the legendary 
 history of the Greek and Romans. " Tales from Germanic 
 history of a corresponding era naturally find an important 
 place. The same line is followed in Quarta, save that the 
 legendary makes way for the historical. 
 
 The striking peculiarity of the instruction in the lower 
 grades is the great emphasis put upon oral work. Reading- 
 books are little used in Sexta; the teacher tells the story, after
 
 234 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 which the main points as they occur to the pupils are written 
 
 on the board. This is a chance for skilful questioning, and 
 
 it tests directly the pupils' attentiveness. The 
 
 Oral Work. 
 
 story is then reproduced orally by several pupils 
 in turn ; correctness of expression and completeness of detail 
 are especially considered. The reading-books, if used at 
 all, are brought out after the oral exercise, that the selection 
 may be read aloud. Such comparison as naturally arises be- 
 tween the forms of expression used by the pupils and those 
 of the author makes the work interesting and profitable. 
 Often, however, the entire exercise is oral. I recall having 
 once heard stories of the adventures of Ulysses related in 
 order during an entire hour, the only advance being the ac- 
 count of the shipwreck and the landing on Calypso's isle. No 
 text-book had been used during the semester ; the only record 
 was the outlines put on the board from day to day, which the 
 boys copied into note-books. Frequent reviews kept the con- 
 nection fresh in mind. Through Quinta the reader becomes 
 gradually more used, till in Quarto, the pupils read the ad- 
 vance lessons at sight. A thorough understanding of the 
 piece must result from the written analysis and the oral re- 
 production which follows. 
 
 No writing, except from dictation, is expected in Sexta. 
 During the first semester in Quinta the reproduction of the 
 lesson is frequently in writing ; in the second 
 half-year the pupil occasionally writes his ac- 
 count at home. In Quarta he is asked for the first time to 
 use his own words in the oral and written class exercise. 
 Heretofore the aim has been to reproduce the exact form of 
 his model. Theoretically, the memory is foremost up to the 
 twelfth year. In a lower school I have heard an hour wasted 
 as it then seemed to me in the endeavour to have repro- 
 duced exactly a dozen sentences related by the teacher de- 
 scriptive of the Luther-room in the Wartburg. A picture of 
 the room hung before the class, but notwithstanding the 
 frantic efforts of the teacher not more than two or three of 
 his pupils succeeded in the task. The boys took no interest
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 235 
 
 ill the exercise, and failure was inevitable. The method, 
 however, may be most successful, as I have since observed, 
 in the hands of a good teacher ; but I also note two conditions 
 essential to success : (1) an interesting story ; (2) reasonable 
 freedom to the pupil in relating it. 
 
 The Germans recognize that the surest way of creating in 
 a boy a love for good literature is to let him read it for him- 
 self. Desultory reading is time wasted ; only 
 
 ' > e J Memorizing. 
 
 in so far as the reader makes what is read a 
 part of himself is it of value to him. The memorizing of 
 choice selections, therefore, is an important feature of the 
 entire course. From three hundred to five hundred lines 
 are usually required in each of the lower classes. It is un- 
 necessary to enumerate the selections ; suffice it to say that 
 the gems of the language are found therein. 
 The program for the middle classes is as follows : 
 
 UNTERTERTIA. 
 
 Gymnasium, 2 hours ; Realgymnasium and Oberredlschule, 
 3 hours. (1) Grammar : Comprehensive review of the most 
 important rules peculiar to the German. (2) 
 Composition to be written out of school once a ^^^ "? 
 
 /.i\ TI j- j Middle Grades. 
 
 month. (,-3) Readings from prose and poetry. 
 (4) Study of poetic forms, so far as necessary, in explanation 
 of what is read. (5) Memorizing and recitation of poems as 
 in lower grades. 
 
 OBERTERTIA. 
 
 Gymnasium, 2 hours ; Realgymnasium and Oberrealschule, 
 3 hours. (1) Composition as in Illi, to which is added re- 
 ports on personal experiences in letter form. (2) Readings : 
 lyric and dramatic poetry ; some prose. (3) Rhetoric and 
 prosody treated inductively. (4) Recitation of memorized 
 poems and of selections from the dramas. 
 
 UNTERSECUNDA. 
 
 Gymnasium, Realgymnasium and Oberrealsclmle, 3 hours. 
 
 (1) Instruction in essay writing through practice in selecting 
 the material and arranging it in class ; critical essay monthly. 
 
 (2) Readings : Jungfrau von Orleans (in schools without
 
 236 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Greek, Wilhelm Tell), Minna von Barrihelm, Hermann und 
 Dorothea. (3) Memorizing of selections from the dramas ; 
 first attempts in recitation of pupils' own productions. 
 
 The study of grammar is completed with the review pre- 
 scribed for Untertertia. Custom varies widely, but my ob- 
 servation is that most teachers accomplish this 
 
 Grammar. . . . . 
 
 review indirectly in connection with the read- 
 ing. The study of syntax, together with continued practice 
 in word-building (begun in Quarto) and in the use of syno- 
 nyms, makes a good introduction to the later study of the 
 science of the language. 
 
 The formal composition, which now appears in the pro- 
 gram for the first time, is mainly descriptive ; but trans- 
 lations from Latin or French are often accepted 
 
 Composition. . ... 
 
 as equivalent, ouch written work as obtains in 
 the lower classes aims at exact imitation of what is heard or 
 read ; in Untertertia the pupils are expected to abstract from 
 a more extended reading the important facts and relate them 
 within smaller compass in their own words. The exercise 
 is similar to what in American schools is sometimes called 
 " paraphrasing." It has especial value in the study of poe- 
 try, both as an exercise in composition and in the elucidation 
 of the text. The almost daily practice in oral and written 
 reproduction of what is read in class prepares the way nat- 
 urally for the more formal monthly composition. Besides 
 these formal exercises in composition, each instructor assigns 
 once a quarter-year a special task in his own subject to be 
 written up in class. This work serves the dual purpose of an 
 examination in subject-matter and in writing German. 
 
 It is quite impossible to give here a comprehensive review 
 of the development of the German methods of teaching com- 
 position. The subject is so interwoven with the 
 development of the entire curriculum, and has 
 passed through so many changes incident to the progressive 
 educational ideas of the country, that it may not be explained 
 apart from its wider environment. Composition in some form
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 237 
 
 has always held a prominent place in linguistic instruction ; 
 it is not so long ago that the writing of Greek and Latin was 
 the highest test of scholarship in Germany ; and, in fact, it is 
 only since the promulgation of the new Prussian curriculum 
 that the Latin and Greek essays have retired to a subordinate 
 place. In proportion as less stress has been put upon compo- 
 sition in foreign tongues has the German essay advanced to 
 a front rank. But a lingering prejudice among the older 
 masters does not hasten the modern reforms. If anything 
 were ever damned by faint praise, it is the German essay in 
 the hands of some of these erudite classicists. The younger 
 teachers are not so ; their minds are not fixed by long years 
 in a single class-room, and the spirit of the new program 
 finds its fullest and heartiest expression in their work. 
 
 The " practical teaching of essay writing " prescribed for 
 Untersecunda is too often, I fear, a mockery. The theories 
 of ancient rhetoricians, as cut-and-dried by tra- 
 dition in Germany, are not conducive to the 
 highest results, especially with men who write 
 almost any language better than their own. But I have seen 
 most excellent results in the upper classes, and there is no 
 reason why it should not be the rule. The preparation af- 
 forded in the lower grades is certainly of a high order, and 
 if properly continued should produce telling effects. The 
 main difficulty is that inasmuch as only eight or nine essays 
 are prescribed for the year, the practice in writing will be left 
 to these supreme occasions. Those who are really in sympa- 
 thy with the new reform insist on a little writing every day, 
 and so arrange this practice work that when the time comes 
 for the formal essay the student already has his ideas well 
 fixed, and knows almost to a certainty what form the expres- 
 sion should take. In other words, the theory is that it is in- 
 finitely better to avoid errors by previous careful training than 
 to correct them after they are made. To this end the "prac- 
 tical instruction " above mentioned is no more nor less than 
 almost daily drill in arranging logically a train of ideas with 
 which the students are already familiar. It is in this con-
 
 238 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 nection that translations from the foreign languages may be 
 made most valuable ; here the ideas are given, and in logical 
 order, according to the spirit of the original. The test is to 
 express the same ideas and arrange them according to the 
 recognised laws of the mother-tongue. 
 
 The history course for Untertertia traces the political 
 
 changes in western Europe from the death of Augustus to 
 
 the end of the Middle Ages : so far as possible, 
 
 Literature. . ... 
 
 the readings for the year are intended to illus- 
 trate this period. The Scandinavian tales and the old Ger- 
 manic legends of the Nibelimgenlied are prominent ; epic 
 poetry and ballads receive particular stress. From Tertia on, 
 dramatic poetry becomes foremost in the course. So, too, the 
 reading of entire works in place of selections becomes more 
 and more characteristic of the higher classes. Schiller's 
 Glocke and Wilhelm Tell are commonly read in Obertertia ; 
 but in schools without Greek, translations from Homer may 
 take the place of Tell The list of poems according to 
 Hopf and Paulsiek to be committed to memory includes 
 Die Kraniche des Ibykus, Der Ring des Polykrates, Der 
 Handschuli and Die Glocke, by Schiller, Der Erlkonig, by 
 Goethe, and seven other selections in all, about 1,200 lines 
 during the year. These selections are not, of course, officially 
 required, and it will seldom happen that this precise list will 
 be memorized. Custom decrees, however, that at least six or 
 eight such poems shall be made the pupils' own. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that young men who complete 
 Untersecunda in a higher school are privileged to serve only 
 one year in the army. In 1889-1890, 8,051 Prussian students 
 left school after winning the coveted military boon ; only 
 4,105 finished the entire nine years' course. For German 
 schools, therefore, it is highly important that something like 
 completeness should be attained in the course, exclusive of the 
 last three years. That this is attempted is evident in the 
 abrupt change in the character of the work after Secunda is 
 passed. But under the most favourable interpretation it must 
 be said that the Prussian schools are designed for the four
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 239 
 
 thousand who complete the course, instead of the eight thou- 
 sand who find it convenient or necessary to drop out three 
 years before the end. 
 
 The arrangement of the course in the upper classes is as 
 follows : 
 
 OBERSECUNDA. 
 
 Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, 3 hours ; Oberrealschule, 
 4 hours. (1) Composition at home and in class ; shorter es- 
 says on topics drawn from the general instruc- 
 tion ; about eight essays in the school year. 
 (2) Introduction to the Nibelungenlied in the 
 original text ; the courtly epic and lyric. (3) General review 
 of styles of poetry. (4) Reading of dramas : Wallenstein, 
 Egmont, Goetz. (5) Occasional committing to memory of 
 selections from the reading ; original discourses by the stu- 
 dents upon the contents of the more significant poems of the 
 middle-high German and of modern dramas. 
 
 UNTERPRIMA. 
 
 Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, 3 hours ; Oberrealschule, 
 4 hours. (1) Composition as in Ha. (2) History of the 
 literature of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
 turies, treated biographically. (3) Readings : Selections from 
 Lessing's Laokoon, etc. ; a few odes of Klopstock ; lyrics of 
 Schiller and Goethe ; dramas Iphigenie, Braut von Messina 
 (in schools without Greek, Sophocles' dramas in translation) ; 
 selections from the later poets. (4) Discussions by the students 
 on the lives and works of the poets. 
 
 OBERPRI3IA. 
 
 Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, 3 hours ; Oberrealschule, 
 4 hours. (1) Composition as in Ila and Ib. (2) History 
 of the literature from Goethe to the present time in biograph- 
 ical form. (3) Readings from the Hamburgische Drama- 
 turgic ; dramas, especially Shakespeare's, in translation (in 
 Gymnasien). (4) Original discourses by the students on the 
 lives and works of the poets. 
 
 The dangers incident to the composition work in the 
 middle grades are likely to increase in the higher classes, but 
 it is not my purpose to write on the shortcomings of individ-
 
 24:0 GERMAN niQHER SCHOOLS 
 
 nal teachers. I accept without question the Prussian pro- 
 gram as it stands. But there is a real danger, as confessed to 
 me more than once, even for the ablest teach- 
 ers, that they will make the composition too 
 much an exercise in literary criticism. The more enthusi- 
 astic the instructor is, the more familiar he is with the deeper 
 significance of the literature, the more likely is he to overes- 
 timate the mental calibre of his class. 
 
 A teacher of many years' experience in the schools of 
 Cassel recently placed in my hands some half-dozen volumes 
 devoted to critical exposition of the readings, with full out- 
 lines of essays for the upper grades of higher schools. I have 
 met with many such books for teachers' use, which give 
 hundreds, if not thousands, of composition themes, with ap- 
 propriate outlines. The mass of material is really bewilder- 
 ing, and, were not the national passion for book-making 
 generally understood, one might infer that the average Ger- 
 man teacher has no ideas of his own. But such helps may 
 be used advantageously by earnest teachers, and it is to be 
 hoped that one day in America there will be a choice of as 
 rich material. 
 
 As an indication of the trend in essay writing I give 
 herewith two lists of themes actually used in 
 
 Essay Themes. ^. . 
 
 Pnma : 
 
 Unterprima, Jena Gymnasium, 1893-1894 : 
 (1) What were Hagen's motives in murdering Siegfried ? 
 (2) Brunhilde as portrayed by Geibel and in the Nibelungen 
 legends: a comparison. (3) Explain and justify Schiller's 
 distich : 
 
 "Euch, Ihr Gutter, gehoret der Kaufmaon : 
 
 Giiter zu suchen, 
 Geht er, doch an sein Schiff kniipfet das Gute sich an " (class essay). 
 
 (4) Would not Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar have been bet- 
 ter entitled Brutus 9 (5) The virtues and vices of the Ger- 
 mans, according to Tacitus' Germania. (6) What share had 
 the Prince in Lessing's Emilia Galotti in Marinelli's deed ? 
 Obernrima, Wilhelms-Gvnmasium, Cassel, 1892-1893 : 
 (1) In how far is the second Punic war a decisive turning-
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 241 
 
 point in Roman history ? (2) The development of the dra- 
 matic action in the third act of Shakespeare's Coriolanus. 
 (3) (a) Causes and significance of the revolt of the Nether- 
 lands ; (b) The consequences of the discovery of America 
 (class essay). (4) Epaminondas and Gustavus Adolphus : a 
 comparison. (5) The historical importance of the Great 
 Elector of Brandenburg. (6) The historical significance of 
 Greece, Rome and Palestine, with particular relation to Ger- 
 many. (Eleven other essays were written during the year, of 
 which nine were composed in class.) 
 
 The reading of entire works finds its fullest scope in the 
 upper classes. In proportion as the mechanical use of the 
 language becomes familiar is the reader enabled 
 
 Literature. 
 
 to consider more the content of what he reads. 
 At first the form is all-important, and in a measure the form 
 conditions the idea ; but with time the highest art of expres- 
 sion becomes subservient to the intellectual content. In the 
 writings of Schiller and Lessing, Goethe and Shakespeare, 
 the German school-boy has a wealth of material unsurpassed 
 in variety of treatment and in richness of meaning. And 
 when we consider his readings from the ancient and modern 
 classics, his studies in the history of Greece and Rome and of 
 the fatherland", it will be noted with what a liberal training 
 he approaches the study of master-pieces of his own literature. 
 But is Shakespeare German? The answer must be that if 
 sympathetic renderings on every stage, if a general and appre- 
 ciative reading in the schools and in the home, 
 can naturalize a man's work, then is Shake- 
 speare German. A German teacher of English recently told 
 me of his experiences of a vacation in England. He wanted 
 especially to hear Shakespeare played in English by English 
 actors. And his experience? Not once during the summer 
 did he have the chance. Light comedy he could hear every 
 night, and silly operas. This is not true even of small towns 
 in Germany. And I know that during the few months I spent 
 in Jena more of Shakespeare's plays were given in that quiet 
 Thuringian town of 13,000 inhabitants than have been played 
 in most American towns of the same size in as many years. 
 
 16
 
 242 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 In Germany the theatre supplements the school ; once a year 
 all the gymnasial students of Saxe- Weimar are invited to a 
 classic drama in the Court Theatre. Other states have simi- 
 lar customs, and everywhere students may attend the best 
 plays and hear the finest music at greatly reduced rates. In 
 some of the larger cities special arrangements are made where- 
 by secondary-school pupils may hear the best dramas for about 
 twenty pfennigs -five cents each. No school-boy will be ad- 
 mitted without the permission of the director of his school. 
 Under such conditions the teacher of literature is indeed fos- 
 silized who cannot inspire his scholars with a loftier patriotic 
 and moral ideal. 
 
 The readings for the lower and middle grades have no regard 
 
 for the historical development of the language or the growth 
 
 History of ^ *ke literature. Scientific methods are first 
 
 Language and employed with Obersecunda. A short intro- 
 Literature. d uc ti n shows the place of German in the Indo- 
 European family, after which the peculiarities of the middle- 
 high German are learned inductively from the Nibelungenlied 
 in the original text. Many selections from the early writings 
 are read, and care is taken to classify them historically. In 
 Unterprima the development of the new-high German is 
 traced in the literature from Luther to the end of the eigh- 
 teenth century. The historical study of the literature de- 
 pends not upon names, dates and titles, but upon the relation 
 of influences to results. Shakespeare finds a place in the cur- 
 riculum primarily because of his influence upon a later school 
 of German writers. In Oberprima a .critical study of Schiller 
 and Goethe rounds out the course to perfection. It has been 
 my pleasure to hear a series of lessons in this class on Goethe's 
 Iphigenie auf Tanris, conducted by a live teacher of a live 
 Gymnasium. Under his skilful leading I could feel the in- 
 terest of the class increasing daily, till the height was reached 
 in Iphigenie's monologue in the fifth scene of the fourth act. 
 The pent-up emotion of all that had preceded found expres- 
 sion here. No member of that class was unresponsive, I am 
 certain, to those agonizing words which mark the climax :
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN 243 
 
 " Rettet micli, Und relief euer Bild in meiner Seele." And at 
 the next lesson I was gratified to hear the monologue sev- 
 enty-six lines repeated from memory with scarcely an error. 
 After such exhibitions I needed not be told that for gymnasial 
 students the Iphigenie stands without rival in the literature. 
 
 The German course, as I have tried to show, is designed as 
 a unit from first to last. It recognises two principal means 
 of teaching language : (1) through the ear, and 
 
 ._. a 1 u The Course a Unit. 
 
 (2) through the eye ; nrst hearing with speak- 
 ing, and then seeing with reading and writing. If at some 
 time in the course one method is emphasized more than the 
 other, at no time must one exclude the other. " It is fortu- 
 nate that so much stress is coming to be put on the spoken 
 language in our schools," said a university professor to me 
 once ; " we are naturally a race of readers and writers, and 
 are prone to forget that language may be something apart 
 from books." And "reading" is not skimming over printed 
 pages for the sake of the story. The reader, if he would mas- 
 ter what he reads, must read not once, but many times ; must 
 ponder well the contents ; and no harm is done if he commit a 
 goodly part to memory. But I repeat again : the course is a 
 unit. There are no tests in "grammar," or "spelling" or 
 " rhetoric ; " no division into " elementary " and " advanced " 
 German ; no chapters on " prefixes, suffixes and stems ; " no 
 course in "literature," national or otherwise. But there is 
 most emphatically a course in German. 
 
 This is the German point of view. And, if I mistake not, 
 it is the ideal toward which American educators have been 
 tending for many years. Such a course reads 
 
 ,, . ', . , Ideals and Results. 
 
 well on paper, and theoretically meets with gen- 
 eral approval. The practical workings, however, do not fur- 
 nish grounds for unmixed praise. The important factor in 
 this, as in all school problems, is the teacher ; if he is all 
 knowledge, all skill, all tact, all perfection, the highest re- 
 sults may be reached. But he is not to be found in every 
 German school, and I am yet to be convinced that his species 
 is more common there than in America. He is a rare man
 
 244 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 who can be at once a specialist and a successful all-round 
 teacher, according to these later-day notions. Indeed, the first 
 requirement of the aspirant for tutorial honours in the mother- 
 tongue is not that he shall be a specialist, but a form-master. 
 The Berlin conference recognized this fact, and gave it the 
 prominence it deserves. But, with all deference to the supe- 
 rior learning and skill of German school-masters, I am of the 
 opinion that the conditions of highest success in teaching the 
 mother-tongue will be met quite as readily on American soil 
 as in the fatherland. American teachers are to-day perhaps 
 no nearer being form-masters than are German teachers, but 
 a generation at least of gymuasial specialists must pass away 
 before the spirit of the new program will find expression in 
 true heart service. 
 
 The key of the situation is admirably put in the closing 
 paragraph of the official instructions accompanying the Prus- 
 sian syllabus : "The instruction in German, joined with that 
 in religion and history, is ethically the most important in the 
 organism of our schools. Its tasks are extraordinarily difficult, 
 and can be fully discharged only by that teacher who sup- 
 ported by a thorough understanding of our language and its 
 history, upheld by an enthusiasm for the treasures of our lit- 
 erature and dominated by a deep sense of patriotism knows 
 how to enkindle the susceptible hearts of our youth with a 
 passion for the German language, the German life and the 
 German spirit." 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Hiecke, Der deutsche Unterricht auf deutschen 
 Gymnasien, Berlin, 18~>2 ; Laas, Der deutsche Aufsatz in der oberen Gym- 
 nasialklassen, Berlin, 1877 ; Laas, Der deutsche Unterricht auf den ho- 
 heren Lehranstalten, Berlin, 1872 ; Hildebrand, Der deutsche Sprachun- 
 terricht in der Schule, Leipsic, 1887 ; Miiller, Quellenschriften des 
 deutschsprachlichen Unterrichts, Gotha, 1882 ; Kern, Zur Methodik des 
 deutschen Unterrichts, 1883; Volcker, Aufgaben des zu verstdrkenden 
 deutschen Unterrichts, Schonebeck, 1892 ; Nagel, Der deutsche Unterricht 
 in den unteren Klassen der hoh. Bilrgerschulen, Berlin, 1892 ; Schmidt, 
 Der deutsche Unterricht in der Obersecunda, Borna, 1892 ; Miiller, Der 
 deutsche Unterricht auf Realschulen, Enulen, 1892; Hand-Hooks of Bau- 
 meister and Wychgram ; Encyclopedias of Selmiid and lieio.
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN . 
 
 " THE classical literature is, and will continue to be, the 
 source of all our culture. It must remain, therefore, not 
 only an indispensable, but by far the most im- centre of 
 portant, study in our higher schools." This Gymnasiai 
 thought, expressed a century ago by Frederick 
 Gedike, the first Oberschulrat of Prussia, has been the guid- 
 ing principle of the Gymnasien to the present time. Through 
 Winckelmann, Lessing, Herder, Goethe and Schiller the 
 German mind was made ready for humanistic training. The 
 ideals of the new humanism were embodied by Frederick 
 August Wolf in his Science of Archceology a science which 
 included not only the classical languages and litei attires, but 
 all that was concerned in the civilizations of Greece and Rome. 
 Its h'ghest aim was "the knowledge of the classical humanity 
 itself." In Wolf's Seminar in Halle the men were trained 
 " who, i" the higher schools, universities and educational 
 counci^ of a great part of Germany and of Switzerland, ex- 
 erted an unparalleled influence upon the subsequent develop- 
 ment of the higher culture." 
 
 The influence of Wolf and his school, powerful as it was, 
 was insufficient to preserve the spirit of the new movement 
 from violence at the hands of those who were 
 determined to nationalize the school system, and 
 make a knowledge of Greek and Latin the con- 
 dition of admission to the learned professions and to all posi- 
 tions of honour in the civil service. That classical study 
 should serve other ends than those of pure culture was a 
 
 245
 
 246 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 proposition abhorrent to the new humanists. Gesner, the 
 founder of the movement at Gottingen, considered Latin and 
 Greek quite unnecessary for the ordinary trades and profes- 
 sions and for civil and military service. Gedike based his 
 hopes of true educational reform on the conversion of all so- 
 called Latin schools in the smaller cities into genuine Real- 
 schulen, and the reception into the Gymnasien only of such 
 pupils as were destined to become learned men. Even Wolf 
 held that the classics were valuable only to the learned ; Latin 
 should not be required of candidates in medicine, and Greek 
 should be obligatory only for gymnasial teachers and students 
 of theology. 
 
 The place of the ancient languages in the curriculum of 
 the German schools during the greater part of this century 
 has been determined by the shifting of opin- 
 AIm8 stud E88 ^ ons Between these two extremes between that 
 view which makes the study of the classics 
 purely a formal discipline, and that other view which bases 
 the worth of such study on the acquisition of humanistic 
 culture, on contact with " the best thoughts of the best men 
 of antiquity." In the one case it is considered of equal value 
 as a means of preparation for all trades and professions depen- 
 dent on intellectual acumen ; in the other case it is of worth 
 only for those who can practically apply the technical knowl- 
 edge thereby acquired, or who may have sufficient leisure to 
 enjoy its aesthetic qualities. It is a question of making the 
 ancient literature a means to an end or an end in itself. 
 
 With the introduction of the state system of education the 
 courses of study of all schools fitting for the universities be- 
 came practically uniform. The reforms were 
 carried out by men friendly to the humanistic 
 party, but they encountered strong opposition. 
 Not only were a majority of the classical teachers unable or 
 unwilling to follow the new ideals, but a considerable party 
 in the state was barbarous enough to think that what the na- 
 tion most needed was an education capable of producing more 
 patriotic citizens. The Napoleonic wars were a rude shock to
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 247 
 
 Goethe's universal Humanitdtsideal, and gave decided im- 
 petus to all reactionary influence. The gymnasial program 
 of 1816 put much emphasis on mathematics to 
 
 ,, ,. . T ,. , . , T Lehrplan of 1816. 
 
 the disadvantage of Latin, which was reduced 
 to 76 week-hours in a ten years' course, and made Greek 
 obligatory with 50 week-hours. After the entrance of Jo- 
 hannes Schulze into the Education Department in 1818, 
 Latin was again gradually advanced to first place. A plan 
 of supplementary reading followed in the Gymnasium of 
 Dantzic was officially recommended to all directors, the time 
 of mathematics being soon afterward reduced a half in order 
 to make it possible. In this way the schools were able to 
 read the following works : " The entire Iliad and Odyssey, 
 several dramas of ^Eschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, four 
 books of Herodotus, two books of Thucydides, the Anabasis, 
 several of Plutarch's Lives, Demosthenes' Oration on the 
 Crown, Plato's Phcedo, all of Vergil except the Georgics, 
 Horace complete, Ovid's Metamorphoses complete and selec- 
 tions from other poets, Caesar's Gallic War and Civil War 
 complete, five or six books of Livy, all of Sallust, Tacitus' 
 Annals, many of Cicero's Orations and de amicitia, de senec- 
 tute, de officiis, de divinatione and de natura deorum." The 
 speaking of Latin, which was in common use in the schools 
 at the beginning of the century, gradually fell into disuse. 
 In 1834, however, it was ordered that the final examination 
 in Latin should be conducted in Latin. 
 
 In response to a popular demand that the gymnasial re- 
 quirements should be reduced, a new program was announced 
 in 1837, according to which the seven lower 
 
 i uj A i. * T ^- j Lehrplan of 1837. 
 
 classes had each 10 hours of Latin a week and 
 the two upper classes 8 each total, 86 week-hours. Greek 
 was taught during seven years 6 hours a week. Pupils were 
 not admitted to the Gymnasien until ten years of age. The 
 prescribed number of weekly lessons in all, 32 was under 
 no condition to be increased, and compulsory private reading 
 was abolished. The program of 1856 emphasized still more 
 strongly the formal side of classical training. Four to six
 
 248 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Latin essays were required each semester; Greek prose com- 
 position was included in the final examination. The oral test 
 in both Greek and Latin was to be conducted in Latin. Ger- 
 man literature, French, natural science and philosophy were 
 omitted entirely from the final examination. Until the found- 
 ing of the German Empire Latin was the main part of the 
 gymnasial course ; everything was subsidiary to the classics. 
 The aim was to afford a formal training without any regard 
 whatsoever to the pupil's future position in life. A thorough 
 knowledge of Latin, ability to read, write and speak it with 
 ease, was the one thing necessary. 
 
 In the 70's forces which had long been dormant or held 
 
 in check began to be felt. The needs of a great nation 
 
 made new demands on the educational system. 
 
 Lehrplanofl882. J 
 
 Baden and Hesse were the first to respond by 
 giving more time to science, mathematics, German and 
 French, at the expense of the classics. The literature was 
 made the central point of the work in Greek and Latin. The 
 Prussian program of 1882 reduced the week-hours of Latin 
 from 86 to 77, and postponed the beginning of Greek to 
 Untertertia with a total of 40 week-hours. The literature 
 was mildly emphasized, but much stress was still put upon 
 the writing of correct Latin. The formal educational value 
 of Latin was specially recognised in the transformation of 
 certain Real-schools into Real gymnas ten, i.e., Gymnasien 
 without Greek. During the succeeding decade two important 
 tendencies became more strongly developed : (1) the modern 
 side of education was evidently growing in public favour, 
 stimulated by rapidly increasing industrial needs ; and (2) in 
 the reaction against formalism in the teaching of the classics, 
 the revival of new humanistic ideals was becoming more ap- 
 parent. The reforms of 1892 were, indeed, radical. Emphasis 
 
 was placed upon the need of a national education 
 
 Lehrplan of 1892. . * . 
 
 in practical lines, as distinguished from the the- 
 oretical training of the mental faculties. A patriotic citi- 
 zenship became the chief end of all school v ork. Vigour of 
 mind and right conduct are conditioned by health of. body ;
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 249 
 
 physical exercise, therefore, was encouraged, and all undue 
 pressure in school work prohibited. The national history and 
 literature were given a prominent place ; classics were set back. 
 Prussia reduced the week-hours in Latin from 77 to 62, and in 
 Greek from 40 to 36. Bavaria placed Latin at 66, and Greek 
 at 36. Both Saxony and Wiirtemberg made reductions, but the 
 hours still remain much above the average, viz. : Saxony, Latin 
 71-73, and Greek 40-42 ; Wiirtemberg, Latin 81, and Greek 
 40 (classes II.-X.). The most significant general change was 
 in the emphasis put upon the literature and its humanistic 
 content. Formal drill in grammar and the Latin essay were 
 abolished. " Take warning ! " says an opponent of the re- 
 forms, "nothing but financial considerations keeps the schools 
 from having veritable museums of classic art. They would 
 apparently make the literature a basis for applied archaeology 
 and the essential subject in a course in art history/' 
 
 The trend of the opposition to the formal educational value 
 of classical study was clearly manifest, too, in the attempted 
 overthrow of the Realgymnasien an abortive 
 attempt, to be sure, but nevertheless indicative 
 of the reaction against formalism and of the 
 increasing importance of practical education. While Latin 
 is still retained in the Prussian Real gymnasium, its efficiency 
 is endangered by the manifest hostility of the government. 
 Students no longer feel that Latin is of supreme importance 
 in the final examination, and numerous petty official acts 
 show all too clearly that the authorities do not consider the 
 Latin instruction in the Realgymnasium of much account. 
 In fact, one can find very little spirited Latin work in these 
 schools. The attitude of the government may be largely re- 
 sponsible for the results, yet there is another not unimpor- 
 tant reason. The teachers of Latin in these schools are, as a 
 rule, elderly men. They belong to a generation which looked 
 upon the study of the classics purely as a formal discipline ; 
 and notwithstanding the fact that they find themselves in a 
 modern environment, it is with great difficulty that they adjust 
 themselves to the practical needs of the Realgymnasien. Fur-
 
 250 GERMAN fflGHEIt SCHOOLS 
 
 thermore, one often hears it said that the less promising 
 candidates for teachers' positions are " steered" into the Real- 
 yymnasien. At any rate, an influential Gymnasium not infre- 
 quently finds a means of having an undesirable member of its 
 staff transferred to some less favoured school. The relatively 
 large number of Realgymnasial teachers who once held posts 
 in Gymnasien suggests that the Realgymnasium is the chief 
 sufferer. 
 
 Were it not for the far-reaching system of privileges con- 
 nected with graduation from classical schools, Latin would 
 speedily disappear, no doubt, from the Real- 
 9y mnas ^ en - But as long as admission to higher 
 courses in the university and appointment to 
 the better places in the civil service are conditioned by the 
 study of Latin, so long will the ambitious spirit of the Ger- 
 man middle classes insist on the retention of the Realgymna- 
 sium at any cost. And, besides, there are such men as Pro- 
 fessor Paulsen, of Berlin, who maintains that a knowledge of 
 the Latin language is an essential element in a practical ed- 
 ucation that the man, as Schopenhauer says, who knows not 
 the influences of Koine on our modern civilization is like a 
 traveller in a beautiful country enveloped in a dense fog. 
 Merely as an information subject, therefore, Latin deserves a 
 place in every school that leads to the university and to the 
 higher positions in the state. 
 
 What the outcome will be of all this discussion cannot be 
 predicted. This much at least seems assured, that the mid- 
 dle classes will insist on a fair representation in the govern- 
 ment and in the civil and military service. If Latin is a con- 
 ditio sine qua non, then Latin will be kept in the higher 
 schools ; if the training of the Oberrealschulen is considered 
 sufficient for all purposes, save for entrance upon certain lines 
 of professional study, then we may expect the gradual extinc- 
 tion of the Realgymnasien. In short, it would seem that the 
 future of classical study were more dependent upon social 
 ideals and economic conditions than has hitherto been the 
 case. It is not in accord with German imperialism to con-
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 251 
 
 cede inuch to the demands of the industrial classes, but the 
 time is not far distant when certain new and rapidly increas- 
 ing forces in the German social life must be recognised. And 
 when that time comes it will bring with it greater reforms in 
 the school system than we have yet seen. 
 
 A significant movement looking to a compromise between 
 the factions warring over the place of classical study in liberal 
 education is that for the Reformschule. One 
 of the severest charges brought against the old 
 Gymnasien is that parents must practically de- 
 cide the future career of their sons when first they are sent to 
 school. What father knows the bent of his son at nine years 
 of age ? How can he intelligently mark out a course of study 
 before he knows anything of the boy's aptitude in studies ? 
 Not long since I heard a prominent physician of Leipsic enter 
 a most emphatic protest to an assembly of teachers against 
 the responsibility placed on him in the selection of a course 
 of study for his nine-year-old boy. " I have carefully studied 
 the child," said the father, " since his birth, but I feel that I 
 am in no position to decide the matter. The boy himself is 
 uncertain whether he wishes to become a street-car conductor 
 or a general in the army." The gymnasial pupil at fifteen is 
 debarred from choosing a technical profession ; the Real- 
 school boy at fifteen finds it a thorny road that leads to the 
 university. There are, indeed, a few notable exceptions to the 
 rule, but the obstacles which the few succeed in overcoming 
 suffice to dissuade the many from the attempt. 
 
 For several years Director Schlee, of Altona, has had royal 
 permission to begin the course in his Realgymnasium with 
 French instead of Latin, and later on to give to 
 
 In Altona. 
 
 Latin some of the time that would ordinarily 
 go to French. In this way the curriculum for the first three 
 years is made to accord with that of the Realschule. Pupils, 
 therefore, can pass easily from one school to the other so late 
 as Untertertia. At fifteen years of age a pupil would have 
 no greater difficulty in making a change than at twelve under 
 the old plan. The success of the Altona experiment was so
 
 252 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 marked that at Easter, 1892, the plan, in a slightly modified 
 form, was introduced into all the higher schools of Franklort- 
 on-the-Main. Latin is begun in the Gymna- 
 sium in Untertertia with ten hours a week. The 
 total week-hours for the six years' course amount to fifty-two. 
 Greek is begun two years later with eight hours a week an 
 allotment that is maintained during the four years. In the 
 Realgymnasium English takes the place of Greek. In other 
 respects there is no great divergence from the governmental 
 program. 
 
 The Frankfort plan is vigorously championed by a party 
 of reformers not only for its practical advantages, but for ped- 
 agogical reasons as well. They claim that the 
 crariderations on ^ rational method of teaching language to 
 children of nine and ten years of age is the in- 
 ductive, all the time using the language so far as possible as 
 if it were the mother-tongue. Habits of speech, rather than 
 thought and judgment, should be the chief aim at first. 
 Latin was once so taught because Latin was then a popular 
 tongue. Times have changed, and it is now little short of 
 farcical to insist on treating Latin as a spoken language. 
 Still, it is recognised that a humanistic training is desirable. 
 Some language should be begun when a child enters school. It 
 should be a living language. French, therefore, satisfies the 
 theoretical conditions, and besides has a practical value that 
 commends it to the German people. The training in French 
 during the first three years of schooling should lay such a 
 foundation, should cultivate such linguistic sensibility, that 
 better work can be done in Latin in the succeeding six years 
 than has formerly been possible in the full nine years' course. 1 
 Here, then, there is an attempt at sailing a middle course 
 between the old order and the new. If it succeeds, it will be 
 proclaimed a rational solution of a difficult problem. Whether, 
 as a compromise for that is really what it is it will please 
 either party, will depend largely upon the outcome of the 
 
 1 See : Reinharrtt, Die Schitlordnung in Comenius Unterrichtslehre und 
 die Frankfurter Lehrpldne, Leipsic, 18U4.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 253 
 
 more radical plans now being urged. If the Frankfort plan 
 fails, it is safe to say that the fault will not lie with Director 
 Reinhardt and his associates, who have entered 
 upon the work with unbounded faith in its 
 
 Significance. 
 
 possibilities, and who are eminently qualified 
 in every way to realize its highest ideals. The experiment 
 in Frankfort will be watched with increasing interest for 
 three years to come. In 1901 the first class to make the 
 trial will be graduated ; the attainments of this class will have 
 an important influence in shaping the future curriculum for 
 the German higher schools. 
 
 The present, it is apparent, is a period of transition in the 
 instruction in Greek and Latin. Uncertainty and confusion 
 are to be found in most schools ; and not a few The Pregent a 
 teachers openly assert their disdain of the new Period of 
 order, and express a determination to cling to Transition, 
 their old methods till the curriculum shall again be revised. 
 Uniformity in method or in scope of work cannot be expected 
 until time shall remove or harmonize the multiplicity of dis- 
 turbing elements. 
 
 The official syllabus allows considerable freedom of choice 
 in the matter of text-books and subject-matter. For this 
 reason one rarely finds precisely the same work being done at 
 a given time even in the schools of the same city. Then, too, 
 there is a variation from year to year in the selections from 
 the literature, in order to avoid repetition for pupils set back. 
 The plan gives zest to the teacher's work as well. 
 
 In giving the course of study for a particular school, it 
 should be borne in mind that it can at best be only a type. 
 No other school may be doing precisely the 
 
 J Couree of Study. 
 
 same work ; the differences, however, are of 
 minor consequence. For purposes of illustration, I present 
 herewith an outline of the work in 1894-1895 in Latin and 
 Greek in the Stddtisches Gymnasium, Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
 This school is noted not only for the excellence of its classical 
 instruction, but also for its general progressive spirit. In 
 1894, when I visited the school, it had about six hundred
 
 254 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 pupils in nineteen classes under thirty-two teachers. In real- 
 ity, however, there are two schools of about three hundred 
 pupils each, united in name and under one general manage- 
 ment, but essentially distinct in internal arrangement and 
 methods of work. The program given below is from the 
 division which is following the prescribed governmental cur- 
 riculum. (I have already referred to the plan adopted by 
 the other division.) For the sake of comparison, I give also 
 the Latin course of the Dorotheenstadtisches Realgymnasium, 
 Berlin. The differences in time and amount in the last six 
 years correspond to the official requirements. 
 
 GYMNASIUM (AND REALGYMNASIUM). 
 
 SEXTA. Latin, 8 hours. Perthes' Reader for VI. and the 
 corresponding vocabulary and forms. Written class exercise 
 once a week. 
 
 QUINTA. Latin, 8 hours. Keview of regular forms ; de- 
 ponents ; common irregular forms ; memorizing of selections 
 and vocabulary from Perthes' Reader for V. Study of ace. 
 c. inf. and aU. abs.; construction of city names. One written 
 class exercise and one home task a week. 
 
 QUARTA. Latin, 7 hours. Reading (4 hrs.): Nepos, 12 
 vitcB. Grammar, (3 hrs.): review of forms; essentials of 
 case. Latin composition. Translation into Latin as class 
 exercise once a week ; two written translations into German 
 each half-year. 
 
 GYMNASIUM. 
 
 UNTERTERTIA. Latin, 7 hours. Reading (4 hrs.): Cassar, 
 Gallic War, I. -IV. Grammar (3 hrs.): Review of case ; main 
 rules of mode and tense ; oral and written translations ; text- 
 book, Ostermann's for III. Class exercise in writing Latin 
 once a week ; written translation into German every six 
 weeks. 
 
 UNTERTERTIA. Greek, 6 hours. Regular Attic forms up 
 to and including liquid verbs. Memorizing of words ; text- 
 book, Wetzel's Ueoungsfouch. Translation from Wetzel, 
 1-90. Written translations every two weeks. 
 
 REALGYMNASIUM. 
 
 UNTERTERTIA. Latin, 4 hours. Reading (2 hrs.) : Caesar, 
 Gallic War, I., II., III., 7-19. Grammar (2 hrs.) : Review
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 255 
 
 of case and mode as far as learned in IV. ; further study of case. 
 Written and oral translation from and into Latin, one exercise 
 every two weeks. 
 
 GYMNASIUM. 
 
 OBERTERTIA. Latin, 7 hours. Reading (4 hrs.): Selec- 
 tions from Ovid's Metamorphoses; Caesar, Gallic War, V. 
 (from ch. 38), VI., VII. Grammar (3 hrs.): Review and con- 
 tinuation of mode and tense ; main rules of verb-syntax ; 
 text-book, Gillhausen. Oral translations from Ostermann. 
 Each week a translation into Latin based on Caesar ; every 
 six weeks a written translation from Caesar. 
 
 OBERTERTIA. Greek, 6 hours. Grammar (3-2 hrs.) : 
 Verbs in p.i and the most important irregular verbs. Review 
 and extension of forms ; text-book, Homer. Greek composi- 
 tion for practice in forms ; text-book, Wetzel. Every two 
 weeks a written class exercise or home task based on the read- 
 ing. Reading (3-4 hrs.) : At first from Wetzel; later, Xen., 
 Anab., I.-IIL, selections. Practice in retranslation and nar- 
 rating contents. 
 
 REALGYMNASIUM. 
 
 OBERTERTIA. Latin, 4 hours. Reading (2 hrs.) : Caesar, 
 Gallic War, IV., 1-3, V., VI., 11-24 and parts of 25-51, 
 VII.; Ovid, III., 1-137. Grammar (2 hrs.) : Review of case ; 
 essentials of tense and mode. Written exercise once in two 
 weeks. 
 
 GYMNASIUM. 
 
 UNTERSECUNDA. Latin, 7 hours. Reading (4 hrs.): Li vy, 
 XXI. (selections) and XXII. ; Vergil, VI. Training in prep- 
 aration of lesson. Practice in sight translation and retrans- 
 lation. Memorizing of selections of poetry. Study of style 
 and synonyms based on reading. Grammar (3 hrs.): Reviews 
 and advance. Every week a translation into Latin as class 
 exercise or home task ; every six weeks a written translation 
 from the Latin. 
 
 UNTERSECUNDA. Greek, 6 hours. Review of forms. Case- 
 syntax. Essentials of mode. Reading : Xen., Anab., IV., 
 and Hellen., VI. and VII. (selections) ; Homer, Odyssey, V. 
 and VI. Written class exercise every two weeks. 
 
 REALGYMNASIUM. 
 
 UNTERSECUNDA. Latin, 3 hours. Reading (2 hrs.): (Only 
 one author read at a time, hence not prose and poetry to-
 
 256 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 f ether ; one-third of the time given to poetry) Curtius, BJcs. 
 II., IV., VI.-VIIL; Ovid, Metamor., I., 1-4, 89-112, I., 253- 
 312, IV., GG3-772 (Andromeda), IV., 773-789 (Medusa), V., 
 385-408, 438-445, 505-538, 504-571 (Ceres), IX., 98-153 
 (Nessus), VI., 146-312 (Niobe), VIII. , 159-182 (Ariadne), 
 VIII., 183-236 (Daedalus and Icarus). Study of hexameter. 
 Grammar (1 hr.): Reviews of forms and syntax. Every two 
 weeks a translation from the Latin or into Latin. 
 
 GYMNASIUM. 
 
 OBERSECUNDA. Latin, 6 hours. Beading (5 hrs.) : Livy, 
 XXII.; Cicero, Sex. Roscius ; Vergil, ^En., IV. and VI. and 
 selections from the remaining books ; study of the Epic. 
 Every two weeks written class exercise based on reading or 
 home task from dictation ; every six weeks a translation 
 from the Latin as class exercise. Grammar (1 hr.) : Reviews 
 in connection with the written exercises. 
 
 OBERSECUNDA. Greek, 6 hours. Reading (5 hrs.) : Xen., 
 Memor., III. and IV. (selections) ; Herodot., VIII. (selections) ; 
 Horn., Odys., VIl., VIII. (selections), IX.-XIL, XXI. and 
 XXII. Written translations from the Greek once in four 
 weeks. Grammar (1 hr.): Syntax of mode and tense ; infini- 
 tive, participle. Review of forms. 
 
 REAIGYMNASIUM. 
 
 OBERSECUNDA. Latin, 3 hours. Reading (2 hrs.) : Sal- 
 lust, Jugurtha, Catilina ; Ovid, Metamor., VI., 146-312 
 (Niobe), VIII., 611 ff. (Philemon and Baucis). Review of 
 grammar and metric ; occasional retranslation. . 
 
 GYMNASIUM. 
 
 UNTERPRIMA. Latin, 6 hours. Reading (5 hrs.): Tacitus, 
 Hist., I., 1-51 ; selections from Cicero's letters ; Horace, 
 Carm., I.-IV. (selections); Epod., 2 ; Epist., I., 2 ; Cicero, 
 Manil. Translation at sight. Private readings from Livy, 
 Curtius, etc. Memorizing of passages, mostly from Horace. 
 Every two weeks a translation into Latin often based on 
 reading as class exercise or home task ; translations from 
 the Latin and critical exposition of same. Drill in grammar, 
 synonyms and style. 
 
 UNTERPHIMA. Greek, 6 hours. Reading : Thucydides, I.; 
 Plato, Kriton ; Homer, Iliad, I. -XVI. (.^elections); Sopho- 
 cles, Antigone. Memorizing of selected passages. Written
 
 257 
 
 translations from the Greek and critical exposition. Occa- 
 sional reviews of grammar. 
 
 REALGYMNASIUM. 
 
 UNTERPRIMA. Latin, 3 hours. Reading (2 hrs.) : Livy, 
 I. (selections); Vergil, JEneid, I. and II. (in part); Cicero, in 
 Catilinam, I. and IV. (in part). Every two weeks written 
 exercises (usually in class) ; translations from Livy and Cicero. 
 Grammar (1 hr.) : Reviews ; occasional drill in retranslation 
 from German. 
 
 GYMNASIUM. 
 
 OBERPRIMA. Latin, 6 hours. Reading (5 hrs.) : Tacitus, 
 Annal., I. and part of II., G er "mania ; Cicero, P. Sestius ; 
 Horace, Epist., I., 17-20, II., 1-3, Satires, I. (selec.), II., 6 
 and 8. Private readings from Sallust (Catilina), Livy, Cur- 
 tius, etc. Translation at sight. Memorizing of passages 
 from Horace. Written translations and exercises as in Unter- 
 prima. 
 
 OBERPRIMA. Greek, 6 hours. Reading : Plato, Phcedo 
 (in trod, and conclusion) ; Protagoras (selections) ; Demos- 
 thenes, Olynth., III., Phil., L, III.; Homer, Iliad, IX., XL, 
 XII., XIv.-XXIL, XXIV.; Sophocles, Antigone ; selections 
 from lyric poets (StolFs Anthologie). Memorizing of select 
 passages from the poets. Occasional grammatical reviews as 
 needed. Written translation from the Greek each month. 
 
 REALGYMNASIUM. 
 
 OBERPRIMA. Latin, 3 hours. Reading : selections from 
 Catullus, Horace, Ovid and Vergil (Mann's Anthologie ro- 
 misvher Dichter) ; Livy, XXIII. and II. (in part). Occa- 
 sional reviews of grammar. Written exercise once in two 
 weeks. 
 
 The prominence given to the thought-content, intellectual, 
 {esthetic and moral, in all classical study is everywhere appar- 
 ent in the new program. It decides what authors 
 are to be read, and the relative worth of each ; 
 it gives a new view-point for estimating the value of gram- 
 matical rules, composition and the oral use of the classic 
 tongues. Pupils are to study Latin and Greek, not for a 
 mental discipline which will enable them to solve any intel- 
 n
 
 258 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 lectual task no matter how difficult or disagreeable, bu for 
 the purpose of bringing into their lives the noblest and best 
 influences of the spiritual life of classic antiquity. The 
 ability to understand and interpret the literature, rather than 
 facility in using the language, is the chief end. It is this 
 view, emphasized so strongly in the Conference of 1890, that 
 is responsible for the present uncertainty in methods of teach- 
 ing Latin and Greek. Each teacher who accepts the dictum 
 of the government is obliged perforce to readjust his meth- 
 ods to the new conditions. Formal grammar is ruled out. 
 The Latin essay is banished. Composition in Latin and 
 Greek may no longer be practised for the sake of style. No 
 time is allowed for drill in speaking Latin. Cicero, the Latin- 
 ist, is dethroned, and Cicero, the statesman and moralist, ex- 
 alted in his stead. No wonder the scholar of other days sees 
 only ruin ahead. His idols have fallen, and with them his 
 hope for the future. 
 
 A generally accepted norm in methods, therefore, cannot 
 
 be found. Not a few teachers, disdainful of the new-fangled 
 
 notions and devotedly loyal to that form of 
 
 Difficulties. . . . J ' 
 
 training which has created lor them a second 
 mother-tongue, hold to the pedagogical omnipotence of the 
 Latin language. The man that exercises his intellect, it is 
 claimed, in thinking, writing and speaking Latin becomes 
 thereby twice a man. With this class of teachers memory is 
 the dominant faculty, and methods of instruction are chiefly 
 designed to exercise this faculty. Repetition is the means to 
 the end. There is another class of teachers who accept the 
 new doctrine theoretically, but for lack of adaptability are 
 practically unable to lift themselves out of the old ruts. 
 They do as they always have done, but hope for different re- 
 sults. Lack of confidence in themselves and want of ability 
 to adapt means to ends limit their success. There are teach- 
 ers, however many of them who, knowing what is wanted 
 and heartily sympathizing with its objects, throw themselves 
 unreservedly into the work of establishing order amidst the 
 prevailing confusiou. It is this party, I believe, that repre-
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 259 
 
 sents the latest, and what bids fair eventually to become the 
 prevailing mode of thought. Their practice, varied as it is at 
 present, tends toward uniformity along certain lines. These 
 lines I shall attempt to follow. 
 
 The subject-matter of instruction in all classes is selected 
 with a view to its thought-content, rather than as a means of 
 exercising the linguistic faculty. Forms and 
 expressions of rare occurrence are avoided. The ^o^t m 
 logical development of the language, while not 
 put prominently forward by way of grammatical formulae, is 
 nevertheless not neglected. At the beginning the teacher 
 pronounces a Latin sentence, translates it, writes it on the 
 board. The class reads it and gives the German equivalent, 
 at first singly and later in concert. A series of such sen- 
 tences are learned, giving several forms of the first declension. 
 Next follows the explanation of case-endings of familiar 
 words and drill on the complete declension. The same plan 
 is followed in the matter of conjugation, all the time avoiding 
 irregular and uncommon forms. Paradigms are thus built 
 up, and for each form the pupil has a sentence at command. 
 The same holds true of rules of syntax ; by induction the 
 rule is formulated, and for illustration of its use several exam- 
 ples are already at hand. Further, a careful record is kept of 
 each new word as it occurs. Thus vocabulary, forms and syn- 
 tax keep even pace. 
 
 During the first three years there is little change in method. 
 Teachers are often promoted with their classes, in order to 
 avoid all possible disturbing influences. In 
 time, short, detached sentences give way to 
 connected discourse ; a text-book is depended 
 upon for new material ; more and more time is given to oral 
 and written translation. Incessant drill and repetition, often 
 conducted with surprising rapidity, are the means employed 
 to fasten it in the pupil's mind. And aside from a well- 
 learned vocabulary, forms and rules of syntax, the method 
 familiarizes the pupil with a large number of common phrases 
 which enable him, even in Quarta, to retranslate sentences
 
 260 GERMAN IIIQHER SCHOOLS 
 
 into Latin with surprising skill. Nepos is " read at sight/' 
 as it would b? called in most American schools. New words 
 and constructions are explained by the teacher ; the rest must 
 be done by the pupils in class. Home study, for which only 
 about twenty minutes are allowed, is mainly given to writing 
 up the note-book, or reviewing a bit of translation already 
 done in class. 
 
 One point deserves notice here. Whereas the inductive 
 method is in high favor with the best classical teachers, they 
 do not, so far as I know, ever go to the length 
 of depending upon some standard text for all 
 the material used in the introductory course. Two reasons 
 are urged : in the first place, Nepos (much more then Caesar 
 or Xenophon) gives too many irregular and unusual forms for 
 the beginner, and, besides, such an author does not facilitate 
 the building up of a symmetrical body of grammatical knowl- 
 edge. And without a thorough knowledge of grammatical 
 forms and principles, no foreign language can be learned from 
 a few recitations a week. Hence, Latin for beginners must 
 be Latin written or selected for the purpose. Some schools 
 Jena, for example use Latin stories written expressly for 
 class use. A commoner practice, however, is to make selec- 
 tions from standard authors, eliminating undesirable parts. 
 Careful editing will, with few changes, give a continuous nar- 
 rative, which is generally preferred after the first few weeks. 
 
 Retroversion, so-called, is an exercise much used in all 
 
 grades. One pupil reads a Latin sentence slowly ; another 
 
 repeats it with book closed ; a third translates 
 
 Translation. .. ., T . TT . 
 
 it ; a fourth puts it again into Latin. Vari- 
 ation, which is begun in the lower grades, comes increas- 
 ingly into prominence. Here the teacher gives a thought in 
 German ; a pupil is asked to recast it in better German form ; 
 the next pupil construes it in German ; and another puts it 
 into Latin. The reading of the day furnishes the material. 
 In the lower grades the variation is mainly in tense, number, 
 person, use of interrogatives, etc. ; in the upper grades par- 
 aphrasing conies into play. Until all danger of misapprehen-
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 261 
 
 sion of the thought has passed, the German forms are always 
 given and carefully construed. In this respect, perhaps, as 
 much as in any other, is seen the tendency of the modern 
 methods. Formerly the custom was to have memorized large 
 amounts of the text, putting the main stress on vocabulary ; 
 translation was avoided as much as possible. To-day trans- 
 lation is to the front ; the emphasis is placed on the thought- 
 content. In order to understand the thought the pupil must 
 associate it with what he already knows, i.e., with the mother- 
 tongue. 
 
 The division between the Gymnasium and the Redlgym- 
 nasium comes with Untertertia. The program above given 
 
 shows the lines of cleavage. The formal gram- 
 
 , , .,,, . - n Literature. 
 
 mar of the middle grades is practically com- 
 pleted with Untertertia, but until the end of the sixth school- 
 year full one-half of the time is given to exercises involving 
 an application of grammatical principles. The aim, however, 
 as I have tried to make clear, is the understanding of the lit- 
 erature ; grammar is an important means to that end. Hence, 
 it rarely happens that an hour is given up to drill on gram- 
 mar alone. The periods scheduled for grammar in the middle 
 grades are employed in construing parts of the text already 
 read and in preparing for future translation. Incidentally, 
 much grammatical drill is given ; but the immediate end is a 
 better understanding of the text, in order to facilitate transla- 
 tion. Since the Latin essay and verse-making are done away 
 with, the only test of the student's appreciation of the classic 
 language is in the skill he displays in retroversion and the 
 excellence of his translations. The Latin composition form- 
 ally prescribed in the program is merely a summary of the 
 "grammar" work of the week. 
 
 The work of the lower and middle grades is but a prepara- 
 tion for the real work of the course, which is 
 to be found par excellence in the upper classes, 
 This is divided into three main lines poetical, 
 historical and philosophical. The reading of poetry which is 
 begun in Untersecunda culminates in Vergil, Ovid and Hor-
 
 262 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ace, and in Homer beginning with the Odyssey ^Eschylus 
 and Sophocles. Here, in addition to a thorough understand- 
 ing of the text, an appreciation of its aesthetic qualities is 
 insisted upon. A taste for the beautiful in literature grows 
 by what it feeds on. Mere admiration of the beautiful is not 
 sufficient. Full possession demands that the student memo- 
 rize choice selections make them his own. A 
 German Primaner has at his tongue's end many 
 Odes of Horace and much of ^Eschylus and Sophocles. Aside 
 from the pleasure which such possession gives, it has a ped- 
 agogic value in the interpretation of new material. A student 
 knowing half of Horace by heart has not merely a wealth of 
 apperceptive material for the other half, but a command of 
 phraseology, metre and happy turns of thought which must 
 needs make new translation a pleasure. 
 
 With the Greek dramatists the acme of poetic style is 
 reached, and in them the great problems of human life con- 
 front the student. Nowhere in the course is the poet's art at 
 better advantage ; nowhere is the ethical content so promi- 
 nent. The true teacher he who believes in teaching men, 
 not books finds in the pages of Sophocles opportunities un- 
 paralleled in the ancient literature. With a class thoroughly 
 at home in the technique of the drama, knowing pages of it 
 by heart, what cannot a teacher accomplish ! I have heard 
 such masters as Directors Muff of Cassel, Reinhardt of Frank- 
 fort and Richter of Jena not to mention others teach 
 Sophocles in a way to make one uncertain which to admire 
 most, the marvellous beauty, depth of emotion and ethical 
 content of the tragedy, or the artistic power of the teacher in 
 making every scene pulsate with life and every sentence speak 
 straight to the hearts of his students. The ethical, the 
 aesthetic and the patriotic blend in one. 
 
 The Latin historians have something definite to tell the 
 
 German student of his country's historic past. Tacitus and 
 
 Caesar are but a step farther removed from his 
 
 present than Charlemagne. Livy, Sallust and 
 
 Thucydides are connecting links with antiquity. They give
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 263 
 
 the setting, too, for much of the literature read in the upper 
 classes. Hence, if there were no direct arguments for placing 
 historical prose in the curriculum, it would still find a place 
 because of its indirect value. 
 
 The philosophical readings are mainly from Cicero and 
 Plato. Formerly an introductory course in philosophy was 
 given in all Gymnasien ; the practice has long 
 
 u j * -j 4.1 Philosophy. 
 
 since been abandoned, except as it is incidently 
 the outgrowth of class work with Cicero and Plato. In 
 many schools to-day so good a beginning is made that philos- 
 ophy may be said still to have a place. And just to the ex- 
 tent that attention is directed to the thought, rather than to 
 the linguistic forms, is Plato made worth reading. The new 
 program will, I think, give considerable impetus to phil- 
 osophic study ; at least, it will serve to arouse an interest in 
 philosophy at the university. 
 
 It may be presumptuous to say it, but the tendency in Ger- 
 many to-day is away from those methods which have come to 
 be looked upon as peculiarly German, and to- 
 ward what has long been the ideal of the best n 1 * 1 ? 9611 * 
 
 Tendencies. 
 
 American schools. The movement for the Re- 
 formschule is essentially an attempt to preserve the classical 
 training, and at the same time provide a means of easy transi 
 tion from lower schools to the classical school so late as the 
 twelfth year of age. Stating it in another way, it means a 
 six-year Latin course instead of a nine-year course. Again, 
 the reduction of time given to classics has eliminated much 
 of the formal drill in linguistics which formerly characterized 
 the instruction. The increased pressure put upon the teach- 
 ers to secure as good results as before -is having the effect of 
 making method more prominent. But the most American 
 characteristic of all is the impetus given to annotated and 
 illustrated text-books. The old idea was that the barest out- 
 line should be placed in the pupil's hands in language work, 
 merely the text- The teacher was the source of all inspira- 
 tion and information. Within five years there is a marked 
 tendency to give the class text-books with introductions, out-
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 lines, explanations and notes. As I write I have before me 
 
 copies of the (Edipus Rex and the Antigone, prepared by 
 
 Director Muff of Cassel. These books are each 
 
 Text-Books. 
 
 m two small volumes. One contains an intro- 
 duction treating of the Greek Tragedy before Sophocles, the 
 life and work of Sophocles, an analysis and criticism of the 
 theme of the drama, explanations of the theatre, of the chorus 
 and the action of the play. Then follows the text, with a 
 short introduction to each scene. The companion volume 
 is a commentary on the text. This series of texts, which is 
 edited by Directors H. J. Miiller, Berlin, and Oscar Jager, 
 Cologne, and published by Velhagen and Klasing, Leipsic, is 
 one of the latest and most popular undertakings in the line 
 of school-books. It aims to supply texts for the entire course ; 
 the names of the editors are evidence that the work will be 
 scholarly ; the plan is American, but bids fair to become 
 German as well. But even though the tendency in Germany 
 is to seek the ideal in our direction, we have still a long way 
 to go before arriving at the meeting point. 
 
 Some criticisms of this paper which have reached me since 
 it was first published in the School Review furnish an illus- 
 tration of the difficulties one encounters in 
 attempting such a task. Mr. B. G. Teubner of 
 Leipsic is unwilling that I should give others the sole credit for 
 the new text-books, especially as he says he was the first to hit 
 upon the idea. On further investigation, I find that Teubner's 
 Schiilerausgaben Griecli. und Latein. Schriftsteller are in the 
 same style and are intended to serve the same purpose as the 
 other series. The matter of priority I cannot determine from 
 the conflicting evidence. "It is of small moment anyway," 
 so I am told by a gymnasial teacher whose judgment I much 
 respect, " inasmuch as these books are the invention of the 
 devil, and are calculated to destroy all genuine interest in 
 classical study by depriving the pupil of the pleasure of in- 
 dependent research." The very fact, he declares, that there is 
 a demand for such books shows that a period of decadence in 
 classical scholarship has set in. This is one side. The other
 
 INSTRUCTION IN GREEK AND LATIN 265 
 
 side is represented, fortunately for the sake of the antithesis, 
 by the school inspector who is officially responsible for the 
 supervision of the work ef the teacher above quoted. The 
 inspector, who is well known throughout Germany for his 
 classical scholarship and professional skill, writes that I have 
 truthfully given the views of the progressive teachers and 
 most loyal supporters of classical training in Germany. ' ' The 
 future success of humanistic studies," he adds, "depends 
 upon the acceptance of these ideals and methods." These 
 two men represent what I have called the antagonism between 
 the old humanism and the new. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Eckstein, Lateinischer und griechischer Unter- 
 richt, Leipsic, 1887 ; Berger, Stilistische Voriibungen der lateinischen 
 Sprache, Coburg; Jiiger, Aus der Praxis: Ein Padagogisches Testament^ 
 Wiesbaden; Schiller, Jfandbuch der praktischen Padagogik, Leipsic; 
 Schrader, Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, Berlin ; Baumeister, Hand- 
 buch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre ; Encyclopedias of Schmid 
 and Rein; Rethwisch, Jahresberichte iiber das hohere Schulwesen, Berlin.
 
 CHAPTEE XIV 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 
 
 THE modern languages taught in the secondary schools of 
 
 Germany are French, English, Italian and Polish. Of these, 
 
 French easily holds first place; Italian and 
 
 Mainly French p^jg^ are offered in a few schools, and only 
 
 and English. ', * 
 
 in response to local needs. In this sketch, 
 therefore, I shall consider merely the teaching of French and 
 English. 
 
 Historically considered, there has been some demand for a 
 knowledge of the French language since the twelfth century, 
 but in early times this need was felt only by 
 * ne n bility and the commercial classes. For 
 the one, the services of private tutors and for- 
 eign travel sufficed ; to others the way was pointed out through 
 the exigencies of trade and barter. The surpassing brilliancy 
 of the French political constitution and social order, the 
 superiority of French art, literature and science, began to 
 dazzle the eyes of the German aristocracy toward the end of 
 the sixteenth century. Finally, with the end of the Thirty 
 Years' War sentiment passed over into conviction. A knowl- 
 edge of French was an indispensable part of a gentleman's 
 education. Special schools (Ritteralcademien) were founded 
 for noblemen's sons in which the French language and liter- 
 ature had a prominent place. But as yet French was not 
 admitted to classical schools of the country ; the function of 
 the Oymnasien, it was agreed, was to give instruction in the 
 humanities, not to provide for the practical needs of any 
 class. In some schools, however, French was offered as an 
 
 266
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 267 
 
 elective study even as early as 1700, and fifty years later it was 
 not an uncommon thing to find Frenchmen installed in Ger- 
 man schools as teachers of their mother-tongue. Local con- 
 siderations, of course, induced this innovation ; but in Stras- 
 burg, for example, no instruction was given in French as 
 late as 1730, notwithstanding the city had been for half a 
 century under French control and more French than German 
 was spoken by the inhabitants. 
 
 The growth of utilitarian ideas in Germany in the eigh- 
 teenth century which resulted in the founding of Real- 
 schools also promoted the study of French. Encouraged by 
 Under Frederick the Great, the first definite Frederick the 
 movement was made to establish French in the 
 curriculum of the Prussian Gymnasien. The ministerial 
 rescript advised a restricted use of the grammar, and that the 
 main emphasis be placed upon the reading of the literature, 
 coupled with a speaking knowledge of the language. The 
 works of Fenelon, Moliere and Voltaire were recommended 
 as reading material. Whenever possible, native Frenchmen 
 should be employed as instructors in the upper grades. That 
 French soon became an important study in some secondary 
 schools is evident from an order of government in 1812, 
 making an essay in French one of the requirements of the 
 final examination ; yet it is equally patent that French was 
 not universally taught, inasmuch as substitutions could be 
 made for the French essay. 
 
 The school program of 1816 ignored the subject altogether 
 a politic expression of the popular hatred of France. In- 
 deed, there was excuse for the feeling that the 
 humbling of Germany in the Napoleonic Wars 
 was the result of too great deference to French 
 ideas. In time, however, this spite exhausted itself, and ii 
 1831 French was made an obligatory study in all Prussian 
 Gymnasien. 
 
 A circular rescript of 1837 assigned to French 2 hours 
 a week during the last six years of the gymnasial course. 
 The first official program of the Realgymnasium (1859) gave
 
 268 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 to French 5 hours a week in Quinta and Quarta, and 4 
 
 hours a week throughout the upper six classes. English 
 
 (now for the first time made an obligatory sub- 
 
 Lehrplan of 1837. v 
 
 . ject) was begun in lertia with 4 hours a 
 week, and continued throughout the four succeeding years 
 3 hours a week. The revision of school programs in 1882 
 left the Gymnasien with 21 week-hours of French in an 
 eight years' course, and English elective. / In the Oberreal- 
 schule French was required throughout the course, with a 
 total of 56 week-hours, and English during the last six years, 
 with a total of 26 week-hours. As matters stand at present, 
 since the reforms of 1892, 19 week-hours are given to French 
 in the Gymnasien, beginning with Quarta ; 31 week-hours in 
 the Realgymnasien, beginning with Quarta; and 47 week- 
 hours in the Oberrealschule, beginning the first year of the 
 course. English is still elective in all Gymnasien, but re- 
 quired in the last six years in the Realgymnasium and 
 Oberrealschtile, with 18 and 25 week-hours respectively. 
 
 From the very beginning of modern-language instruction 
 
 in the public schools, there has been continual controversy 
 
 over the methods to be employed. The private 
 
 Early Methods. -i j i 
 
 tutor lived with his pupil, and in a natural way 
 the latter acquired the language of the former. Habit* of 
 speech were of major importance. In class teaching the in- 
 structor found himself overloaded with pupils, and master of 
 altogether too small a portion of their time to permit of 
 success by the natural method. Moreover, few teachers were 
 fluent in the use of the foreign tongue. Trained in the 
 Gymnasien and universities, they were far more familiar with 
 the classical than the modern languages. Their only experi- 
 ence in language teaching had been gained from training in 
 Latin and Greek. What wonder, then, that they should seek 
 to teach French as though it were a substitute for Latin ? 
 Ought not the methods perfected by centuries of practice 
 with one language be equally applicable to any other lan- 
 guage ? Considerable facility was often acquired in writing 
 and speaking Latin ; why should not the same effort be pro-
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 269 
 
 ductive of even better results with so simple a language as 
 French or English ? 
 
 The outcome of such questions was the adoption by the 
 great majority of teachers of the methods in vogue in the 
 teaching of Latin. This meant that a good 
 vocabulary of isolated words, paradigms, rules 
 of syntax and prosody, were the essential con- 
 siderations in the early part of the course ; and in the upper 
 classes success was measured in terms of translation and prose 
 composition. But the especial advantage claimed for this 
 kind of work was not so much the learning of the language 
 as the mental discipline thereby gained. It was argued that 
 anyone could. learn to use a modern language, provided he 
 could hear enough of it and get sufficient practice in speaking 
 it, and yet be none the stronger from a mental point of view. 
 In fact, the less thought given to the process involved the 
 better. Nothing so hampers a speaker in his use of the 
 mother-tongue as self-consciousness. The person who is 
 most fluent in the use of a foreign tongue is he who has 
 lived from childhood in the foreign environment, and has 
 learned it by the most natural method. On the contrary, if 
 the pupil be taught to analyze the foreign language, to under- 
 stand the principles upon which it is constructed and to 
 translate its thought into precise, idiomatic, vernacular terms, 
 he will thereby acquire the intellectual .power necessary to 
 cope with the higher problems of life. It means the de- 
 velopment of the faculties of observation, memory and 
 reason. 
 
 In a word, the modern-language teachers of Germany 
 down to very recent times have been divided into two hostile 
 parties the one advocating the tutorial, or so-called "nat- 
 ural," method, for the sake of its practical advantages ; the 
 other favouring the classical " translation " method, because 
 of the implied mental discipline. 
 
 With the political and consequent social advancement of 
 Germany in the past quarter of a century have come many 
 important changes of pedagogical belief ; and in no field is
 
 270 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 this more apparent than in that of modern languages. The 
 
 initial impulse was unquestionably given by the increasing 
 
 commercial demands of the empire. Real- 
 
 Recent Changes. . , , . . * , 
 
 schools grew in numbers and in influence, and 
 in this growth the modern languages came in for a large 
 share of attention. This was partly due to the belief that 
 they were worthy of study along with the great languages of 
 antiquity, but more especially was it the outcome of a desire 
 to promote closer commercial intercourse with neighbouring 
 countries. As trade increased there was greater demand for 
 young men who could speak the modern languages. This 
 demand, however, could not be supplied by the secondary 
 schools. Their graduates knew only the literary French and 
 English ; and what with their outrageously bad pronuncia- 
 tion and almost total ignorance of the life and customs of for- 
 eign peoples, they were seriously hampered in their business 
 careers. 
 
 This condition of affairs was the making of the private 
 schools which depended for patronage on the larger cities. 
 The popularity of such institutions was a stand- 
 J[ 01 ing criticism of the secondary-school system, a 
 
 measure of the practical worth of the secondary 
 school in public opinion. In 1882 the Prussian government, 
 yielding to this criticism, attempted in the school program of 
 that year to reform the modern-language work. Not more 
 work was called for, but better work and more practical. Many 
 teachers, too, were becoming sceptical of the old order, and 
 were beginning to contrast the time and energy expended in 
 instruction with the results attained. The suspicion that 
 something was radically wrong with modern-language teach- 
 ing paved the way for reforms. 
 
 Popular criticism was focussed by an essay that appeared 
 in 1882, under the pseudonym of Quousque Tandem, en- 
 titled The Teaching of Languages must Start 
 Afresh. This proved to be a veritable fire- 
 brand. Educators ranged themselves for or 
 against the views presented by this anonymous writer, and
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANQVAGBS 271 
 
 for several years there was heated disco ssion and bitter con- 
 troversy. 
 
 The new ideas, in part originated by Quousque Tandem, 
 who proved to be none other than Dr. Wilhelm Victor, Pro- 
 fessor in the Marburg University, and in part 
 the outcome of subsequent discussion, were 
 formulated as follows : " First, foreign lan- 
 guages should, primarily, be taught by means of connected 
 types, the grammar being kept in the background ; second, 
 imitation and thought should be encouraged, instead of trans- 
 lation ; third, pronunciation should be taught upon the basis 
 of scientific phonetics ; and fourth, living languages should 
 be learned before dead ones." The new movement from its 
 inception was in opposition to the long accepted " transla- 
 tion " method. A modicum of grammar, connected discourse 
 and mastery of the language by its use were all notions con- 
 trary to former belief. 
 
 Insistence upon correct pronunciation, and scientific meth- 
 ods of teaching it, would of itself exclude many modern- 
 language teachers from the profession. This 
 proposition alone sufficed to arouse relentless 
 opposition to the new school. But the science 
 of phonetics would not down. Several new books on the sub- 
 ject met with a warm reception from the champions of the 
 new movement and materially strengthened their cause. 1 
 
 The immediate effect of this unwonted attention to pro- 
 nunciation not only furnished a stimulus to the scientific 
 study of the language as a whole, but also led directly to its 
 practical use in idiomatic form. The movement had from 
 the beginning the cordial support and sympathy of those 
 
 1 The most important of these were the following : Sievers, Grundzugt 
 der Phonetik, Leipsic, 1876 (2d edition, 1886) ; Sweet, Handbook of 
 Phonetics, London, 1877; Trautmann, Die Sprachlaute im allgemeinen 
 und d. Engl., Franzds u. Deutsch., Leipsic, 1884 ; Victor, Elemente der 
 Phonetik und Orthoepie d. Deutsch., Engl. und Franzos., Heilbronn (3d 
 edition, 1887) ; Schroer, Uber den Unterricht in der Aussprache des Eng- 
 liscfon, Berlin, 1884.
 
 272 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 who were looking for practical results from instruction in 
 the schools. Some of the younger modern-language teachers 
 
 began practical tests of the reform theories, and 
 controversy published the results of their experiments. Had 
 
 it not been for the indefatigable labours of 
 Klinghardt, Kiihn, Quiehl and Walter, it is doubtful if 
 Victor's ideals would ever have become realized. His own 
 attempts at class instruction in Marburg were disappointing ; 
 teachers of exceptional ability and good judgment, more 
 interested in the progress of their pupils than in proving the 
 truth of every letter in the theory, were needed to put the 
 new movement on a working basis. Contributions to the 
 practical solution of the problem began to flow in, and ere 
 long the reformers were in a position to support their claims 
 in a most convincing way. In the meantime opposition from 
 the university professors and gymnasial teachers was becom- 
 ing increasingly vehement and acrimonious. The breach 
 was still further enlarged by the formation, in 1886, of a 
 Modern Language Association, distinct and separate from 
 the modern-language section of the general Philological 
 Congress. Membership in the new organization rapidly grew, 
 and sentiment was constantly tending in the direction of the 
 " new school." The climax was reached in the fifth meeting 
 of the Association, held in Berlin in 1892, when Dr. Waet- 
 zoldt, well known to many Americans as the affable director 
 of the German educational exhibit at the Chicago Columbian 
 Exposition, took the meeting by storm in charging the uni- 
 versities with perpetuating antiquated methods, and by advo- 
 cating the need of reform in high places in the teaching of 
 modern languages. In the vote which followed, the mind of 
 the meeting was expressed in no uncertain way. Feeling ran 
 so high that the minority, made up for the most part of uni- 
 versity professors and gymnasial teachers, felt constrained to 
 withdraw, thus leaving a free field to the reformers. 
 
 It amounts to saying that at present there are two associ- 
 ations of language teachers in Germany : one of teachers 
 of the modern languages, according to the new methods ;
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 273 
 
 the other of teachers of the classical languages, including 
 such modern-language teachers as cannot affiliate with the 
 new school. The line is definitely drawn be- 
 
 Two jptirticp 
 
 tween adherents of the " translation " method 
 
 and those who advocate the new, or " direct," method. 
 
 At about the time the Modern Language Association sepa- 
 rated from the general Philological Congress, Dr. Paul Passy 
 was effecting an international organization, with 
 head-quarters in Paris, for promoting the ^0^ Party 
 teaching of modern languages according to the 
 phonetic system. German teachers of the reform school 
 eagerly welcomed the proffered assistance from France. A 
 triad of scientific leaders was thus recognised : Sweet, in 
 English phonetics ; Victor, in German ; and Passy, in French. 
 The organ of the French society, Le Maitre Phonetigue, has 
 tendered invaluable assistance to the promoters of the reform 
 movement in Germany, both in promoting the science of 
 phonetics and assisting in reducing it to a practical basis. 
 
 Thus it appears that there are now two principal schools of 
 language teachers in Germany, diametrically opposed in doc- 
 trine. The representatives of the old school G nagialM 
 are firmly intrenched in the Gymnasien and Real-school 
 universities, where scholastic ideas largely pre- 
 dominate, and classical training, with a view to mental dis- 
 cipline, receives the first consideration. The reformers count 
 among their numbers a few of the younger university profes- 
 sors and Privat-Docenten and the majority of instructors in 
 the Peal-schools and Hohere Tocliterschulen. A sketch of 
 the gymnasial course, therefore, will represent the ideals of 
 the one party ; the work of a typical Peal-school will embody 
 the views of the other. 
 
 In the Gymnasien the study of French is begun in Quarta, 
 with four hours a week. There is some practice in pronun- 
 ciation, but at first the main effort is directed to learning the 
 grammar and the manipulation of sentences based on a set 
 vocabulary. Later comes translation of connected discourse 
 and the writing of themes in French. The all-but-universal 
 
 18
 
 274 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 text-book is by Ploetz and Kares. The literature read in the 
 Thomas Gymnasium of Leipsic is, I think, fairly typical 
 
 of the best classical schools. The books are 
 The ( ^^ s asial changed from year to year, but the average 
 
 amount of work does not vary. The first 
 connected reading is in the fourth year of the course, from 
 Thier's Expedition de Napoleon en Egypte. The following 
 year Moliere's I'Avare is introduced, and in the last two 
 years four books are read : Thierry's Ouillaume le Conquer- 
 ant, Racine's Britannicus, Moliere's les Femmes Savantes and 
 Taine's les Origines de la France contemporaine. English is 
 offered in the Gymnasien as an elective for two hours a week 
 in the three upper classes. The method of teaching corre- 
 sponds closely to the work in French. The course as a whole, 
 even at its best, does little more for the pupil than give the 
 ability to translate literary English with the help of a dic- 
 tionary. In general, there is good reason why gymnasial 
 students have no knowledge of the spoken language and no 
 acquaintance with English lands and English customs : the 
 average gymnasial teacher never goes beyond the borders of 
 the fatherland. 
 
 The best that can be said for the modern-language teaching 
 in the Gymnasien is that it is neither better nor worse 
 
 than the corresponding work in American high 
 
 Results. . J 6 . 
 
 schools. It is an open question which party is 
 most complimented by the comparison. Notable variations 
 are to be found among German gymnasial teachers, but I be' 
 lieve that every divergence from the norm can be matched 
 from the list of American teachers. The aim and methods 
 of both are essentially the same. Even our most popular 
 American text-books might well be considered translations 
 of manuals used in the German Gymnasien. 
 
 Modern-language instruction in the Real-schools is quite 
 another thing. Here is life and vigour and ability and, of 
 course, most excellent results. The province of Hesse-Nassau 
 seems to be a luminous centre ; but superior teaching can be 
 found in Berlin, Altona, Leipsic, Carlsruhe, Munich, and
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 275 
 
 also, I have no doubt, in many other cities which I was 
 unable to visit. The course of study in French and English 
 in one of these schools gives a very imperfect 
 
 ., i . j i_ j. .e i .e The Real-School 
 
 idea of what is done ; but for sake of compar- course, 
 ison I give herewith an outline of the work in 
 1892-1893 in these languages in the Realschule in Bocken- 
 heim, a suburb of Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
 
 SEXTA. 
 
 French, 6 hours weekly, (a) Oral exercises : Exercises for 
 ear and tongue ; phonetic charts and phonetic spelling are 
 used exclusively during the first months ; spe- 
 cial stress laid upon clear and correct pronunci- 
 ation. In the second quarter, beginning of orthography. 
 Learning by heart and singing of easy poems. Thorough 
 explanation of the reading material ; home and school life 
 are subjects for conversation, in connection with Holzel's 
 Pictures (Anschauungsbilder). The most important gram- 
 matical laws (numerals, possessive and personal pronouns, 
 plural of substantives, feminine forms of adjectives, declen- 
 sion of nouns, ce qui, de qui, a qui, que avoir, etre indic- 
 ative, indicative of -er conjugation, agreement of subject and 
 predicate with etre) were taught inductively from the ma- 
 terial used in conversation and reading, and fixed by inde- 
 pendent exercises, (b) Written exercises : Beginning with 
 the second quarter, weekly exercise in class dictation, writ- 
 ing from memory, arithmetical problems, answers to ques- 
 tions in French and simple descriptions. Grammatical 
 exercises : Text-book, Franzosisches Lesebuch by Kiihn. 
 (The following poems from the reader were committed to 
 memory : Nos. 1, 3, 8 (a), 8 (b-c), 9, 12, 28, 29, 33, 44, 48, 55. 
 The selections for reading were as follows : Part I., Nos. 15, 
 17, 18, 21, 49, 50, 51, 85 ; and from the small reader, Nos. 
 21, 25, 32, 36, 40, 41, 42, 52, 60 (c), 62 (a-b).) 
 
 QUINTA. 
 
 French, 6 hours, (a) Oral : Readings from Kuhn's Lese- 
 buch, in connection with practice in hearing and speaking. 
 Conversational exercises on affairs of daily life, the weather, 
 seasons, geography and history. Memorizing from prose and 
 poetry and practice in singing. Grammatical exercises ac- 
 cording to Ploetz's Elementarbuch, in connection with read-
 
 276 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ings, pictures and conversation. The reading material of 
 Sexto, was extended. One dialogue was learned, (b) Written : 
 Daily exercises in class. One theme each week. Further 
 practice in writing from dictation, answering questions, gram- 
 matical exercises and letter-writing. 
 
 QUARTA. 
 
 French, hours, (a) Oral : Kepetition of conversational 
 material of VI. and V. The study of a large number of 
 poems and selections from Kiihn's Lesebuch (I. Contes, II. 
 Histoire, III. Lemons de Choses). Conversational exercises 
 in closest connection with this material, and, further, in con- 
 nection with life of the pupils at home and in school, in 
 city and country (HolzePs Pictures). Practice in repetition 
 of simple stories and descriptions of historical and geograph- 
 ical facts. Irregular verbs were studied systematically, as 
 met with in reading or needed in conversation, (b) Written : 
 Class exercise weekly dictation, answering of questions, 
 simple descriptions, free reproductions of stories told in class. 
 Grammatical exercises with regular and irregular verbs, in 
 connection with reading and conversation. 
 
 TEBTIA. 
 
 French, 6 hours. Three stories were read from Souvestre, 
 Au Coin du Feu and Les Clairieres. Conversation on the 
 contents of the readings, and practice in speaking in connec- 
 tion with HolzeFs Pictures and the daily experiences of the 
 pupils. Repetition of previously learned poems and songs. 
 Memorizing of new poems. Grammar : Review of the irregu- 
 lar verbs and syntax of substantives, adjectives, adverbs, 
 numerals and prepositions ; use of modes and tenses. Two 
 written exercises in class each month conversations, descrip- 
 tions, dictations, translations. Text-books : Ploetz's Schul- 
 grammatik der franzosischen Sprnche. 
 
 English, 5 hours, (a) Oral : Phonetic exercises in connec- 
 tion with the Lauttafel and Lautschrift. In second quarter, 
 beginning of orthography. Memorizing of poems, some of 
 which were sung. The study of selections through question 
 and answer. Further exercise in speaking concerning the 
 surroundings and life of pupils at home and in school (Hol- 
 zel's Pictures of the Seasons). Simple grammatical exer- 
 cises ; the most important rules of syntax were learned in- 
 ductively, and fixed by practice in the foreign tongue, (b)
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 277 
 
 Written : After the first quarter, one class exercise each week 
 writing from memory, simple description, answering of 
 questions put in English, dictation and grammatical exercises. 
 Text-books: Gesenius, Elementarbuch der Engl. Svrache ; 
 Vietor and Dorr, Engl. Lesebuch. 
 
 SECUNDA. 
 
 French, 6 hours, (a) Readings : Guizot, Recits historiques, 
 I.; Souvestre, Au Coin du Feu (five stories). Several songs 
 were learned and sung ; former ones reviewed. Free oral 
 and written exercises, in connection with the readings and 
 Holzel's Pictures. A written exercise bi-weekly, (b) Gram- 
 mar : The most important rules on order, modes and tenses, 
 articles and adjectives, in connection with Ploetz's Schulgram- 
 matik, Lekt. 39-68. 
 
 English, 4 hours. Stories, poems and songs from Vietor 
 and Dorr's Englisches Lesebuch. Memorizing of poems and 
 songs and practice in singing. Exercise in speaking about 
 reading materials, pictures and the pupils' surroundings. 
 Review of poems. A written exercise bi-weekly. Systematic 
 study of grammar, in connection with Gesenius' Text-Book, 
 chaps. 1-22. 
 
 PRIMA. 
 
 French, 5 hours. Readings : Tartarin de Tarascon, by 
 Daudet ; L'Avare, by Moliere. Free oral and written exer- 
 cises, in connection with the literature and object-lessons ; 
 transposition and repetition of stories read or recounted in 
 class ; exercises in dictation, condensation and translation. 
 Class essays and letter-writing. One written exercise bi- 
 weekly. Drill in grammatical forms. 
 
 English, 4 hours. Reading : Jackanapes, by Mrs. Ewing ; 
 Sketches, by Dickens. A few poems learned and sung. Con- 
 stant practice in speaking and writing, in connection with the 
 reading material, the daily life of the pupils in home and 
 school and Holzel's Pictures. Practice in rapid reproduc- 
 tion of passages of read or spoken English and in letter-writ- 
 ing. Writing of English essays ; dictation and translation. 
 A written exercise bi-weekly. Systematic study of grammar, 
 according to Pe try's Die wichtigsten Kapitel der englischen 
 Syntax. 
 
 Nothing that I can add to this outline will show more 
 clearly the scope and contents of the courses in modern Ian-
 
 278 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 guages. In this respect the schools themselves have no 
 choice ; the course is prescribed by the government. But 
 there is much to be said concerning the ways and means of 
 reaching the ends that are officially prescribed. 
 
 Dr. Quiehl of Cassel is one of the most successful teachers 
 
 of modern languages in Germany. In the spring of 1894 
 
 I had the pleasure of spending several days in 
 
 Methods 1 his school (the Neue Realschule), where I was 
 
 given every opportunity to observe his methods. 
 
 Inasmuch as the first lessons present the greatest difficulties 
 
 and show the widest divergence from the gymnasial type, I 
 
 will give here a transcription of my notes on an exercise with 
 
 a class of forty boys who had been studying English one 
 
 week. 
 
 A phonetic chart (Lauttafel, by Victor) hangs on the wall 
 before the class ; it gives a schematic arrangement of all 
 the vowel and consonant sounds in English, 
 French and German. The class has already 
 made its acquaintance, and knows the value of 
 most of the characters. The teacher's first words are : " We 
 will take the sounds to - day. What is the first sound in 
 ' sounds ' ?" A boy is directed to point out the s on the 
 chart ; the boy repeats it, and the class gives it in concert. 
 This process is continued with the remaining sounds of the 
 word. It presents great difficulty to most of the pupils, and 
 much drill is needed to make it clear. Other vocables pre- 
 viously studied are reviewed with the samd precision ; each 
 sound is pointed out on the chart, and practised singly and in 
 combination. The boys are already quite familiar with the 
 chart"; they run it over rapidly and skip about, following the 
 master's pointer, very much as would be done in learning 
 the musical scale. Next comes the use of numerals. They 
 count (with the master's assistance) up to fifty. Special at- 
 tention is given to pronunciation ; each new difficulty is re- 
 ferred to the chart, and rapid drill follows individually and 
 in chorus. The teacher, I notice, does not attempt to con- 
 fine himself to English ; his chief object is to make these
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 279 
 
 boys produce the right sounds and understand what is want- 
 ed. If German is necessary, they get it. The advantage in 
 the use of numerals is that they already know the symbols ; 
 the figures can be written on the board as the words are pro- 
 nounced without distracting the attention from the sounds. 
 Particular stress is put on the correct English idiom. Over 
 and over again come such expressions as the following : 
 " Give me the stick [pointer]." "I have the stick." "He 
 has the stick." "Can you count?" "Yes, lean count." 
 The teacher writes 123, 1,456, 2,789 on the board, and asks 
 a boy to read them. Others try it. Then comes practice in 
 addition. Such examples as "8 + 1 = ?" and "9 + 5 + 
 12 = ? " are written on the board, read and solved. Boys 
 set similar tasks for each other, and stir up a good deal of ri- 
 valry. The advance for the day now begins. A boy goes to 
 the board and writes a number of six places. As he writes 
 he names the figures ; the class watches critically. " Is that 
 right ? " " Is that the right figure ? " "Is that the right 
 sound ? " " Point it out on the chart " such questions are 
 being rapidly put at each step (with the help of German, if 
 necessary) and as rapidly answered by simply changing the 
 order and making necessary insertions. " Yes, that is right," 
 or "No, that is not right." Other boys try their hands 
 and voices. This leads up easily to a series of sentences, with 
 appropriate actions, like the following : " Take your seat 
 crayon book pencil." Boy : " I take my seat, crayon," 
 etc. Class: " He takes his seat," etc. Teacher: " Put your 
 book on (under, into) your desk (chair, table)." Boy : " I put 
 my book on (under, into) my desk (chair, table)." Class : "He 
 puts his book on (etc.) his desk (etc.)." Other sentences 
 used in the same way are : " Open your book (books) ; " 
 " Shut your book ; " " Open the door ; " " Shut the door ; " 
 " Enter the room ; " " Go to your seat ; " " Take your pen- 
 holder;" "Write on your paper;" " Put down your pen- 
 holder." All possible variations in the present tense are 
 tried again and again. The equivalent German expression 
 is called for whenever a boy seems not to understand or be-
 
 280 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 comes confused. Next, plural forms are used. Two boys 
 do as directed, and accompany their actions with appropriate 
 responses. The class addresses the actors in the second per- 
 son, and repeats it to the master in the third. This occupies 
 several minutes, and is enthusiastically entered into by all. 
 Everybody wants to 'take part, and few if any of the forty 
 fail of an opportunity. Eight verbs are designated for prac- 
 tice at home, in preparation for the next recitation. " Shut 
 your books" "Put your books away " " Stand up" 
 "Take the sponge" "Wipe out the words on the black- 
 board " " Open the window "" Open the door "" March." 
 Time : fifty minutes. 
 
 The chief end of the lesson was to afford practice in using 
 English sounds, particularly those not found in the Hessian 
 dialect. Not a slip in the whole hour but was 
 corrected by the master, and during the review 
 the chart was in constant use. Yet incidentally a surprising 
 amount of English was learned : idiomatic expressions in- 
 volving some twenty new words ; the use of four or five prep- 
 ositions ; the present indicative plural of eight or ten verbs ; 
 several pronouns, together with constant drill in the gram- 
 matical forms previously given. Not a letter had been writ- 
 ten ; probably no member of the class could have recognised 
 a single word of all those he used so glibly, even if he had 
 seen it in print. I need not say that the teacher was a mas- 
 ter of his art ; he knew English, and he knew how to teach 
 it. And this kind of lesson, as I repeatedly observed, was 
 an every-day occurrence. His scholars in the upper classes 
 were reading and speaking French and English with ease. 
 They had unbounded confidence in their ability to use what 
 they knew, and, for school-boys, they knew a deal. 
 
 A lesson which I attended in the Bockenheim Realscliule 
 gave me some idea of the results of this method in the upper 
 classes. The school had been for some time under the di- 
 rectorship of Professor Walter, who shortly before my visit 
 had been transferred to the Muster scliule, a Realgymnasium, 
 in Frankfort. Professor Walter's reputation as a master of
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 281 
 
 modern languages had been presented to me in such eulogistic 
 terms that I was very desirous of learning something of his 
 methods, but I was totally unprepared for the 
 surprise that awaited me. Here was a class of 
 thirty boys, about fourteen years of age, who had 
 been studying English two years. They were just taking up 
 Jackanapes, by Mrs. Ewing, having had perhaps ten lessons 
 in the book. At the beginning of the lesson the boys were 
 called upon to give a resume of that part of the story which 
 they had already read. The master then read a selection in 
 advance ; the class followed him with open books. One of 
 the pupils then read the same passage, with scarcely a mispro- 
 nunciation or false inflection. The grammatical construction 
 was critically discussed, difficult words picked up and new 
 ones pointed out, and the precise meaning of the author 
 carefully analyzed all in precise and idiomatic English. 
 Other passages were treated in the same manner, but during 
 the first two-thirds of the hour no attempt was made to give 
 a literal translation. The story itself was the all-important 
 thing ; and, to make this more certain, variations in the text 
 and in the syntactical construction were freely introduced, 
 and as freely explained by the pupils all in English. There 
 could be no doubt of the complete mastery of the lesson by 
 every member of the class. There was constant drill in 
 speaking, in grammar and in composition. To make sure 
 that nothing was being lost, the last few minutes of the hour 
 were given up to idiomatic translation into German of the 
 more difficult parts of the text, and to free reproduction in 
 English of the story as contained in the day's lesson. 
 
 It was all so skilfully done, and such perfect English used 
 throughout (I was deceived into thinking the teacher an 
 Englishman, but I afterward learned that his 
 
 , Results. 
 
 fluent speech and perfect cockney accent were 
 the result of laborious study of Sweet's Handbook and the 
 patient instruction of an English wife), that I was inclined to 
 set it down as a " show " lesson for my especial benefit. The 
 fact was, however, as I afterward convinced myself, that not
 
 282 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 a boy in the class had had any chance whatever to make 
 special preparation for it. The reading of these boys from 
 start to finish was at sight. And I could well believe it pos- 
 sible from my experience with them after the hour was over. 
 The master asked me to speak to them in English. I com- 
 plied with some trepidation, lest I should be the means of 
 marring an otherwise perfect exhibition. Imagine my surprise, 
 therefore, when, at the teacher's suggestion, six of these boys 
 in turn reproduced in their own words and in almost fault- 
 less English the gist of all I had told them. They were per- 
 fectly at home in English, so far as their studies had led 
 them, and had no fear of conversation if restricted to their 
 own vocabulary. And all this the result of two years of class 
 instruction in English four hours a week ! 
 
 After this experience in the Bockenheim school, I was 
 the better prepared to appreciate Director Walter's work 
 
 in Frankfort. The first lesson which I heard 
 FrofesBorVaiter him give was to a class of thirty-seven boys in 
 
 Sexta. They were just beginning French, and 
 the lesson turned on the pronunciation of sounds which had 
 no equivalent in their speech. The s in maison and son gave 
 them much trouble. The chart was at hand, but it could not 
 tell them how to pronounce what they could not hear. But 
 a beginning was made by imitating the buzzing of bees and 
 escaping steam ; and when everything else failed the boys 
 were requested to feel the teacher's throat and nose, even look 
 into his mouth to see the position of the tongue, while he 
 gave the sounds. After patient drill some progress was evi- 
 dent, but it was slow work. Everything was sacrificed to 
 this one aim of clear and correct vocalization. It was a fine 
 illustration of the theory underlying the phonetic method 
 that everything starts with the sound ; once right, always 
 right ; it is easier to teach the correct pronunciation than 
 to correct a pronunciation that is bad. 
 
 And yet the lesson was not all phonetic drill. Words des' 
 ignating objects in the class-room were being used as illus- 
 trative material ; a few common substantives, pronouns and
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 283 
 
 verbs came in incidentally, and were put at once into use. 
 Books, desks, windows and doors were opened and closed. 
 The adjectives red, brown and black were freely 
 used, to show their order in the sentence. The 
 exercise shifted rapidly from individual at- 
 tempts to concert recitation, and back again to action. Diffi- 
 cult words were analyzed, the sounds referred to in the chart, 
 new combinations presented, and finally everything gathered 
 np in a bit of verse which appealed to the children's fancy. 
 Two little songs had been already learned, the words and 
 music of each being the work of Director Walter ; and thus 
 many difficulties in vocalization disappeared in the musical 
 tones. By drill in the production of single sounds and of 
 sounds in combination, by individual practice and concert 
 recitation, by intonation and chorus singing, these small boys 
 were being introduced to the mysteries of spoken French. 
 It was a purely formal exercise. I can imagine that the same 
 work in the hands of a less skilful teacher might become 
 an intolerable bore, but not so in this case. There was the 
 greatest enthusiasm throughout the hour ; and if at any time 
 the attention was inclined to flag, the signal for a song would 
 quickly revive it. But, on the whole, I agree with the verdict 
 of an able American teacher of modern languages, whom I 
 had advised to visit the Frankfort schools : " Director Wal- 
 ter's teaching is marvellous; but he would succeed with any 
 method, or with none." Nevertheless, he protests that the 
 " direct " method is everything to him. 
 
 " Erst der Laid, dann der Schrift ! " It is a first princi- 
 ple of a direct method that the sound should precede the 
 symbol, and that the sound should be learned pr^pies of 
 by imitation of the teacher. The peculiar the Direct 
 sounds incident to most dialects are quickly 
 picked up by children long before they come to school. No 
 one will pretend to say that there is any reflective thought 
 involved ; it is imitation pure and simple. The child of 
 foreign parentage, other things being equal, learns the 
 French sounds as readily as native children. Yet this natu-
 
 284 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ral process is impossible in school work. Imitation alone 
 will not suffice, as many teachers have erroneously believed, 
 because the linguistic environment is opposed to the intro- 
 duction of sounds foreign to the mother-tongue. The learn- 
 ing of foreign sounds, therefore, must at first be a conscious 
 process. Ordinarily, a child can imitate anything he can 
 hear ; and so long as he cannot hear the vocalized s or the 
 French u, to say nothing of nasals, there is little probability 
 of his giving the right vocalization, no matter how faithfully 
 he tries. For this reason the science of phonetics must be 
 applied to the work of the class-room. The child can some- 
 times feel the difference between the " hisses " 
 
 Phonetic Drill. i- t_ i_ , t i j 
 
 and "buzzes in English by placing his hands 
 on the throat or covering his ears when by no means could 
 he hear them. The application of phonetics, a physical 
 science, to the production of sounds is possible just because 
 voice culture is a physical process. 
 
 Furthermore, the number of sounds in French or English 
 is limited, and the few not found in the mother-tongue can 
 be learned in the first two or three lessons. In another les- 
 son or two the pupil can be made so familiar with the 
 phonetic chart that the gamut of sounds can be run over as 
 easily as the notes of the musical scale. It is only by such 
 training, founded on the science of phonetics and aided by 
 exact phonetic symbols, that a correct pronunciation can be 
 acquired. 
 
 The process at first may be a matter of knowledge, but un- 
 less it becomes a habit the knowledge may soon be lost. The 
 
 next step, therefore, is to take up combinations 
 Pronunciation ^ 8Oim( ls * which the child can attach some 
 
 meaning, preferably short sentences which by 
 frequent repetition become well-fixed in the memory as in- 
 dicative of certain ideas. Longer sentences, or several of them, 
 may be easily learned, if there be some rhythm in them which 
 tends to fix the habit. Hence, short poems are memorized 
 almost from the beginning of the course. I have already re- 
 ferred to the excellent use made of music by Director Walter,
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 285 
 
 not only as a means of acquiring vocabulary and its proper 
 pronunciation, but also as delightful recreation in the midst of 
 hard work. The little poem beginning " Cherche, cherche, 
 papillion ; Tu es bien loin da ta maison ! " 1 and the songs 
 " Le bon camarade" and "Ma Normandie," are the first to 
 be memorized selected perhaps as much for their stock of 
 nasal vowels as for their simplicity. 
 
 A song or poem learned, the next step is to refer every 
 sound to its appropriate symbol. It is written out verse by 
 verse in the phonetic characters, and copied into 
 
 .. * . , Phonetic Script. 
 
 the pupils note-books for practice at home. 
 The phonetic is the only written form that the pupils see 
 for months. At first the work is altogether oral ; later, for 
 the sake of precision, the phonetic script is introduced ; and, 
 finally, short pieces written in the phonetic characters are 
 used for reading exercises in class. Walter and Quiehl re- 
 commend that the phonetic script be used exclusively for 
 four months, at least, in French, and one month in English. 
 It is said that Passy has used it successfully in the Paris 
 ficole Normale during the first year and a half of class in- 
 struction. 
 
 Advocates of the direct method differ among themselves 
 in regard to the use of the phonetic system in place of the or- 
 dinary spelling. Some go so far as to use the 
 phonetic characters almost as diacritical marks. 
 But I have observed that the best teachers make exclusive 
 use of the phonetic system for a longer or shorter period. 
 The natural query is, how do these German boys ever learn 
 two spellings for every French or English word ? The reply 
 invariably made is that no confusion whatever results ; the 
 regular form is learned quite as easily, as it would have been 
 at the beginning yes, more easily, because knowing the pre- 
 cise pronunciation the learner has to grapple with but one 
 difficulty. It is merely the elaboration of the maxim, " Do 
 one thing at a time." A close examination of hundreds of 
 copy-books convinces me that for some reason the spelling oi 
 1 No. 14, Kiihn's Lcstbuch.
 
 286 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 English presents no more difficulty to the German than to the 
 American school-boy ; nor have I been able to observe any 
 disadvantage in using the phonetic system while learning the 
 pronunciation, even though it extends over several months. 
 
 One thing is perfectly apparent : isolated words are never 
 used. In declension and conjugation, as well as in the earli- 
 est conversation in class, the complete sentence 
 ^Sentenc" ^ ^ s 8 P^ en an( l especial pains are taken that it be 
 pronounced fluently. In this way a vocabulary 
 is built up which consists not merely of words, but also of 
 idiomatic phrases and sentences. Perhaps the most apparent 
 effect of this plan is to be seen in the translations. Never 
 dealing with words alone, but always with combinations of 
 words the significance of which is understood as a whole, the 
 pupil will be led to translate idiomatically and precisely, but 
 not word for word. The pupil knows the meanings of words 
 only as they stand in sentences : a word-for-word translation 
 seldom conveys the meaning of a sentence. The direct 
 method, therefore, can lay claim to the most direct route to 
 idiomatic literal translation, the summum bonum of the old 
 school. 
 
 The needs of conversation finally transcend the school- 
 room and actions that can actually be performed in class. 
 With young pupils something objective is 
 necessary to retain their attention. The Pict- 
 ures of the Seasons, by Holzel, serve this purpose excel- 
 lently. They are large wall pictures, brightly coloured and 
 mounted on stiff cardboard, and depict various phases of 
 city and country life at different seasons of the year. In the 
 hands of some teachers these pictures afford excellent material 
 for conversation ; and conversation rightly conducted means 
 the acquisition of vocabulary, training in grammatical forms 
 and syntax and a lively appreciation of the meaning of the 
 foreign language. 
 
 The first impulse of the advocates of the direct method was 
 to make the study of grammatical principles a secondary affair ; 
 what are popularly termed the laws of grammar are merely
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 287 
 
 the forms of expression adopted by the users of language. 
 If, therefore, the right use of language be taught, what need 
 is there of spending time in memorizing a 
 fund of lifeless knowledge ? But in practice 
 it has been discovered that lifeless knowledge 
 may not be useless. The child that learns a language in the 
 natural way may have little need of formal grammar ; not so 
 the school-boy who hears the language only in class. Prac- 
 tice may fix habits of simple expression, but connected dis- 
 course must be ordered according to conscious principles, 
 even more than pronunciation needs be referred to a system 
 of phonetics. Hence the leaders of the new movement have 
 come to make almost as much of formal grammar as ever did 
 the most zealous supporters of the old regime. But with this 
 difference : the one party will arrive at a systematic knowl- 
 edge of grammatical forms inductively, as a result of language 
 study ; the other will deduce the right use of language from 
 a study of grammatical laws. In practice at least, grammar 
 is as much emphasized by one party as by the other. And 
 it is just at this point where the advocates of the direct 
 method part company with those who rely on most so-called 
 " natural " methods. There must be a basis of conscious 
 knowledge in the acquisition of any language that is not 
 learned as the child learns his mother-tongue ; such a basis is 
 grammar for the psychical side and phonetics for the physical 
 both are indispensable. 
 
 The writing of French and English is an important feature 
 of the work throughout the course. It begins in the lowest 
 class with writing simple sentences in phonetic 
 characters ; when the regular script is intro- 
 duced, practice in spelling is given in writing 
 from dictation ; later on paraphrasing is a regular exercise, 
 which finally merges into free composition. In the earlier 
 part of the course the pupil writes only that which he has 
 learned in class, but when he has gained more power and 
 understands better the grammatical forms he is allowed more 
 freedom. But at all stages of progress prose composition is
 
 288 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the immediate outgrowth of reading, and is never dissociated 
 from it. 
 
 The literature is the centre of instruction ; but as every 
 
 teacher knows, much depends on what is selected for class 
 
 use. The classic writers of a language may 
 
 The Literature. 6 J 
 
 not always be best suited to enlist the sympathy 
 and interest of foreign school-boys. It is characteristic of 
 the new school that Jackanapes, Torn Brown's School Days 
 and living's Sketch Book should be preferred to Emerson, 
 Macaulay or Shakespeare. A rational understanding of a 
 foreign literature must grow out of a comprehensive knowl- 
 edge of the national life. The history, geography and social 
 customs of the country must be studied along with its lan- 
 guage. The school courses in history and geography can be 
 so correlated with the language work as to be of great assist- 
 ance. If the literature is properly selected, it will reflect the 
 social life and personal characteristics of the people in a way 
 to command the attention of any class, and give pith and 
 point to conversation and prose composition. Hence I found 
 Dr. Quiehl using in his highest French class Bruno's Le 
 Tour de la France par deux Enfants ; and in Berlin Dr. 
 Hausknecht, whose teaching I much admired, was using as 
 the basis of his second-year English a book of his own com- 
 position on the school life of an English boy. Such material 
 is easily supplemented, and is a constant incentive to conver- 
 sation and oral reproduction. 
 
 This method of language teaching requires specially trained 
 teachers. In the first place, they must be thoroughly familiar 
 with the foreign tongue, must know it idio- 
 matically and be able to use it fluently ; second- 
 ly, they must understand its phonetic peculiar- 
 ities and grammatical construction ; and in the third place, 
 they must have a comprehensive knowledge of the culture 
 and customs of the people whose language they will teach. 
 In fact, this kind of teaching is more than instruction in 
 language and literature ; it is training in foreign culture 
 through language and literature. It is closely correlated at
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE MODERN LANGUAGES 289 
 
 all points with the course of study in history and geography, 
 and re-enforces both at every step. This is what gives it 
 life and vigour, and makes the results so eminently superior 
 to any method that deals exclusively with language and 
 literature. 
 
 The Prussian Lehrplan of 1892 gave the adherents of the 
 Victor school precisely the support they wanted. It set as 
 the aim of modern-language teaching, famil- Ite ^ Dorced b 
 iarity with the living tongue and an intimate the Prussian 
 acquaintance with the life of the people who 0"*- 
 use it. The idea of making French and English a Real- 
 school substitute for the classical languages was intentionally 
 abandoned ; instead of formal discipline of the mental facul- 
 ties, the government set as the standard of excellence the 
 ability to use the modern language and the knowledge of 
 modern literature and social life. Not power in general, but 
 power in special directions, was made the end of all such in- 
 struction. 
 
 The government understands full well that this end is be- 
 yond the reach of most teachers. Few of them have enjoyed 
 the advantages of residence in France or Eng- 
 
 , , , . , j i Holiday Courses. 
 
 land, and not many have been trained in pho- 
 netics or have any acquaintance with the methods of the 
 reformers. Holiday courses, therefore, have become a prac- 
 tical necessity, and the government is heartily supporting 
 Shem. The intention is to give teachers a two weeks' leave 
 of absence once a year, if they will attend these courses 
 Such a subsidy, it is thought, will make the attendance suf- 
 ficiently large to warrant the engagement of able instructors, 
 and to arouse a permanent interest in distinctly modern-lan- 
 guage teaching. 
 
 It remains to be seen whether the rank and file of mod- 
 ern language teachers can be brought to an intelligent ap- 
 preciation of the new methods and trained to 
 
 i t xv. A r-j j x- The Outlook. 
 
 make good use of them. A ' deductive 
 
 method they can understand, an " inductive " method they 
 
 can understand ; but it is an open question whether many of 
 
 19
 
 290 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 them can make the combination of the two, on the modern 
 social basis which is the secret of all the success of the Victor 
 school. This is, however, no argument against the reform- 
 ers. Some teachers cannot make a conspicuous success of 
 any method ; some are bound to win under any circum- 
 stances. But given a good teacher, the training of the 
 Vietor school will make him a better teacher. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Walter, Entwurf eines Lehrplanes fur den 
 franzosischen Unterricht, Marburg; Quiehl, Franz, Aussprache und 
 Sprachfertigkeit, Marburg ; Hano, Anleitung zur Erlernung der franz. 
 Umgangssprache, Frankfort ; Holzel, Bilderbuch fur Schule und Haus, 
 Vienna ; Wieke, Einfuhrung in die Engl. Sprache, Leipsic ; Ohlers, 
 Methodische Anleitung zur Unterricht im Franzosischen, Hanover; 
 Wilke, Anschauungs-Unterricht im Englischen, Leipsic; Beyer and 
 Passy, Elementarbuch des gesprochenen Franzosischen, COthen ; Sweet, 
 Elementarbuch des gesprochenen Englischen, Oxford ; Walter, Anfangs- 
 Unterricht im Englischen (program of Realschule), Cassel ; Klinghardt, 
 Ein Jahr Erfahrungen mit der imitativen Methode ; Drei Weitere Jahre, 
 etc., Marburg; Junker, Lehrversuch im Englischen nach der neuen 
 Methode (Realschule program), Bockenheim ; Zergiebel, Grammatik und 
 naturliche Spracherlernung (Realschule program), Cassel; Breymann, 
 Die neusprachliche Reform- Litteratur von 1876-1893, Ijeipsic, 1895 ; 
 Waetzoldt, Die Aufgdbe des neusprachlichen Unterrichts und die Vor- 
 bildung der Lehrer, Berlin, 1893 ; Baumeister, Handbuch der Erziehungs- 
 und Unterrichtslehre, Munich.
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 
 
 " IT has to be remarked," says Comenius, " that in every 
 class, history, as the eye of life, should find a place, so that 
 all that is most memorable in the past, both in 
 deed and word may be known. This, so far Co ="fon 
 
 J History. 
 
 from increasing the burden on pupils, will 
 lighten their labours. Little text-books should be written, 
 viz., one on biblical history ; one on natural things ; one on 
 inventions and mechanical arts ; one exhibiting the most il- 
 lustrious examples of virtue ; one on the various customs of 
 nations ; and, finally, one containing all that is most signifi- 
 cant in the history of the world and especially of our own 
 country." 
 
 It is remarkable that, notwithstanding the high regard in 
 which the study of history was held both by Luther and 
 Melanchthon, no serious attempt was made to 
 introduce it into the secondary schools before 
 the time of Comenius. The Jesuits were early 
 impressed with the correctness of Comenius' ideas, and gave 
 history a place in their curriculum. Others, notably Francke 
 and Leibnitz, did something for the teaching of history in 
 the secondary schools ; but so little time was given to the sub- 
 ject that the work degenerated into the mere memorizing of 
 historical facts. Frederick the Great, in the truly rationalis- 
 tic spirit, severely criticised the pedagogues of his day for 
 stuffing the memories of the pupils, giving no heed whatso- 
 ever to the development of the powers of judgment. In his 
 instructions to the Berlin Ritterakademie (1765), he said : " It 
 
 291
 
 292 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 is no longer permissible for a young man who will live in the 
 great world not to know the events which belong in the chain 
 of European history." In his opinion, a knowledge of Jthe 
 history of the classical world was of little value without the 
 ability to apply it to modern conditions. The immediate 
 outcome of the rationalistic movement was a change in the 
 method of treating history, as well as a decided increase (four 
 to six hours) in the number of week-hour? devoted to the 
 study. In the upper classes of some schools, the method now 
 frequently recommended could be found even then in actual 
 operation. A whole semester, and in some instances an en- 
 tire year, was devoted to an intensive study of special topics. 
 At the beginning of the present century, when things were 
 shaping for the subsequent development of the German 
 school system, the influence of F. A. Wolf was 
 such as to retard the study of history. In his 
 opinion, nothing should be taught in a Gymnasium that did 
 not serve directly as a preparation for the learned professions. 
 Little can be gained from a study of modern history, he 
 urges, that does not tend to narrow and pervert a young man's 
 judgment. Mediaeval history can contribute little, because 
 the events of that period are not such as to elevate or inspire. 
 In fact, ancient history is the only history of any value, be- 
 cause in it we learn of the motives and acts of the greatest 
 people the world has ever seen, of the causes that made them 
 great and of the errors which brought about their ruin. Such 
 knowledge must be not only a desirable, but also an essential 
 element in a well-rounded education. With Herbart, history 
 received a prominent place in the curriculum. He consid- 
 ered a knowledge of what man has done and suffered, of what 
 he has tried to do and the reasons for his failures, as the surest 
 means of rousing a pupil's interest in the past and inspiring 
 him with lofty sentiments. History becomes, therefore, a 
 study of particular value. Its object is not only intellectual, 
 but moral development. Old Testament history deserves a 
 place beside that of Greece and Rome. Schleiermacher, too, 
 called history the picture-book of ethics.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 293 
 
 It will be seen that in the humanistic schools, where the 
 chief end of education was a familiarity with classic authors, 
 and where the whole course of training was 
 purely formal, there was no place for history. Infl 'J^ B s f the 
 But with the introduction of realistic notions, 
 through Comenius, Locke and Rousseau, together with the 
 utilitarian ideas which characterized the period of enlighten- 
 ment, the study of history and geography was recommended 
 for its practical worth. "A man," said Frederick the Great, 
 " who does not imagine himself fallen from heaven, who does 
 not date the history of the world from the day of his birth, 
 must be curious to know what has taken place in all ages and 
 in all lands." But neither Frederick the Great nor the edu- 
 cators of his time believed that a mere knowledge of useful 
 facts is the chief end of the study of history. On the con- 
 trary, it was held that the study of history offers the best op- 
 portunity for the development of the discriminative judgment. 
 Properly_presented, it teaches the pupil to pass over the 
 unessential, and fasten upon the important links in the chain 
 of causes. It affords scope for common-sense comparison, and 
 aids in the formation of judgments which have a practical 
 bearing upon the affairs of every-day life. History has never 
 been so strongly emphasized as in the latter half of the 
 eighteenth century. In the opinion of von Zedlitz, minister 
 of education under Frederick the Great, six or seven hours a 
 week were not too much time to give to historical studies. 
 With the reorganization of the Prussian school system at the 
 close of the Napoleonic wars, three hours a week were assigned 
 to history and geography (program of 1816). As the schools 
 came more and more under the influence of the humanistic 
 leaders, and education became increasingly formal, history 
 fell into the background if not in theory, at least in prac- 
 tice. As taught in the schools, it amounted to little more 
 than sketches of military campaigns and the memorizing of 
 dates. 
 
 The new Prussian Lehrplan of 1892 lays great stress upon 
 the language, literature and history of Germany. These
 
 294 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 must be the centre to which all else tends. The secondary 
 
 schools are looked upon as the mainstay of the throne, and 
 
 the supreme authority has declared that these 
 
 Lehrplan of 1892. r . . 
 
 schools shall turn out patriotic citizens. To this 
 end, nothing should be left undone to give the youth of the 
 fatherland a critical insight into the history of the German 
 empire. As Goethe puts it, the best that we get from history 
 is the enthusiasm which it arouses. With this in mind, the 
 education department of the Prussian government has set a 
 new stamp on the educational value of history. It is held to 
 be of worth primarily for its ethico-religious influence in the 
 development of character. 
 
 Granted that history shall have a place in the curriculum, 
 what kind of history should it be political history? or some- 
 thing more comprehensive? national, or general 
 histor 7 ? Obviously, the gymnasial policy has 
 been to consider political history as of little 
 worth in comparison with the broader and more comprehen- 
 sive history of civilization, and national history as narrow and 
 one-sided when viewed in the light of general history. Prior 
 to the reform of 1892, the secondary schools of Prussia ac- 
 cepted history as an end in itself, without reference to its 
 practical bearing in the training of citizens. " The object of 
 historical instruction in the Gymnasium," according to the 
 rescript of 1882, " is to arouse in the pupils a respect for the 
 moral greatness of individual men and nations, to make them 
 conscious of their own imperfect insight, and to give them 
 the ability to read understandingly the greatest historical 
 classics." The Lehrplan of 1892 brings prominently to the 
 front the necessity of understanding the events in German 
 and Prussian history. It is the national history rather than 
 the universal which is emphasized : the political which has 
 culminated in a new and regenerated German empire, rather 
 than the general which deals with the salient points in the 
 progress of civilization. 
 
 It shows clearly the determination of the government to 
 make use of the schools in stemming the tides of socialism
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 205 
 
 and liberalism. History is to be taught, not altogether as 
 a means for intellectual training, nor as an essential part 
 of a liberal education, nor yet as an independent science, but 
 pre-eminently with a view to the making of patriotic cit- 
 izens. 
 
 The new syllabus also shows a change in the arrangement 
 of the course in history. Formerly there were two years of 
 mythology and biography in the first part of 
 the course, beginning with the legendary his- 
 tory of Greece and coming down to the early 
 history of Germany. The new Lehrplan provides that in Sexto, 
 scenes in the national history shall be described, begin- 
 ning with the events which are closely related to the pupils' 
 own environment, and working from the present back into 
 the past. This regression continues throughout the first year, 
 and in Quinta it reaches the legendary history of Greece and 
 Rome. The chief events of Grecian history to the death of 
 Alexander the Great, and of Roman history to the death of 
 Augustus, are taken up in the following year (Quarto). In 
 Untertertia the chronological order is followed to the end of 
 the Middle Ages. Obertertia continues the work to the ac- 
 cession of Frederick the Great, with special reference to the 
 history of Brandenburg. Untersecunda fills out the course to 
 the present time. Up to this point the course is the same 
 for both six-year and nine-year schools. The three upper 
 grades of the latter begin again with an intensive study of 
 Grecian and Roman history in Obersecunda, of the mediaeval 
 and modern history to the end of the Thirty Years' War in 
 Unterprima and of the later developments down to the 
 present time in Obcrprima. 
 
 The introduction of the Absclilussprilfung at the end of 
 Untersecunda determined the allotment of the work in the 
 middle and upper grades. The course as a whole, however, 
 has thereby been cut up into three distinct parts : the first of 
 these proceeds from the present back to the legendary history 
 of the Greeks ; the second begins with early Grecian history 
 and traces the casual series, so far at least as the German peo-
 
 296 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 pie are concerned, down to the present ; the third is but a 
 larger circle drawn around the other two. 
 
 Teachers of history who believe in maintaining a strict con- 
 tinuity, and who think that the explanation of present events 
 is to be sought in causes lying in the past, have 
 
 Objections. . 6 * 
 
 no faith in the manner of treatment suggested 
 for the first and second years in the Prussian course ; and 
 least of all will they tolerate the division in the courses at the 
 end of the first six years. Another class of educators is un- 
 alterably opposed to the allotment of only two years to an- 
 cient history, one year of which (Quarto) is at the very be- 
 ginning of the true historical course. Furthermore, it has 
 been pointed out that, inasmuch as the leaving examinations 
 are based solely upon the work of Untersecunda and Ober- 
 prima respectively, no direct tests can be made of scholars' 
 attainments in either Grecian or Roman history, and that 
 this applies no less to the Oymnasien than to the Real- 
 schools. 
 
 Prussia may change her course of study as often as she 
 pleases, she may dictate what shall be taken up in each class ; 
 but she cannot change the views of her teachers by a minis- 
 terial rescript. To all appearances, the new order has served 
 to introduce only confusion into the history teaching of most 
 schools. The veterans educated and trained under the old 
 dispensation are not anxious, as a rule, to adapt themselves to 
 the new requirements, which have all the appearance of using 
 the teachers as props for bolstering up the throne. I regret 
 to say that I was unable to find in any Prussian school what 
 might be considered as a typical illustration of the Prussian 
 program. Furthermore, very few of the German states have 
 followed Prussia's lead in the matter of teaching history. 
 
 There are those who maintain that the emperor's idea of 
 making the special aim of historical study the fostering of a 
 national spirit, while in theory perfectly correct, is neverthe- 
 less pedagogically short-sighted. They maintain that patriot- 
 ism should be more than mere enthusiasm, more enduring 
 than the frothy exuberance of spirits that arises from the
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 297 
 
 contemplation of great deeds ; that love of country and of 
 king depends upon a firm and unchangeable character. It 
 follows, therefore, that character-building must at least go 
 hand in hand with the development of the patriotic spirit. 
 The best representatives of this school are unquestionably the 
 Herbartians. 
 
 The lamented Dr. Frick, of Halle, untiringly advocated 
 more rational methods in the teaching of history. Probably 
 no man in Germany has done more than he in working out a 
 course of study closely correlated with the work in German, 
 the classical languages, geography and religion. He had 
 great influence in the Berlin conference, and his views were 
 largely instrumental in effecting some of the more important 
 changes there made. It is to be regretted, however, that 
 other interests interfered with the complete expression of hia 
 views. 
 
 The teaching of geography in the German schools has be- 
 come a highly perfected art. I am not sure but geography 
 is the best taught subject, on the whole, of all 
 the subjects of the curriculum. At any rate, 
 one sees less of offensive formalism and more of intelligent 
 freedom in the treatment of geographical topics than in al- 
 most any other sphere. In its present form geography i,s a 
 very modern subject. It took its rise from Karl Hitter, who 
 acknowledged his indebtedness to Pestalozzi for suggestions 
 as to natural methods of teaching. And from that day to 
 this there has been no lack of university instruction for the 
 teachers of the secondary and normal schools. The influence 
 of a few such men as Ratzel, of Leipsic ; Kiepert, of Berlin ; 
 Kirchhoff, of Halle ; and Sievers, of Giessen all interested 
 in the training of teachers is sufficient to give geography 
 a high rank in the schools. 
 
 But geography, so far as it has to do with the earth as the 
 abode of man, is inseparable from history ; and in the sec- 
 ondary schools of Germany history and geography keep even 
 step. Except possibly in the first two years of the course, 
 geography is nowhere an independent study in the higher
 
 298 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 schools. The study of topography and of political and com- 
 mercial geography and the drawing of maps are closely corre- 
 lated with the work in history. The general 
 truths of mathematical and physical geography 
 which have no direct bearing upon the events 
 of history are taught incidentally, one might say, in the 
 lower grades. On the other hand, the more important 
 facts of physical geography, meteorology and geology are 
 generally carefully expounded in the best German schools 
 as a partial explanation of political and social conditions. It 
 is for this reason that in nearly all secondary-school pro- 
 grams of Germany history and geography are classed to- 
 gether as a single subject. In so doing, to be sure, geog- 
 raphy loses some of the characteristics which would naturally 
 place it among the natural sciences ; but as the object both 
 in history and geography is not so much to develop an ac- 
 curate scientific knowledge of these subjects as the formation 
 of certain habits of thought and feeling, the correlation is a 
 distinct gain for both studies. The union is made still closer 
 by placing the instruction of both in the hands of the same 
 teacher. 
 
 As a typical example of those schools in which history and 
 
 geography seem to have a place commensurate with their 
 
 value as an educational means, and in which 
 
 Jena Program. . . 
 
 the problems of historical and geographical 
 teaching are being solved in the best pedagogical manner, I 
 select the Gymnasium of Jena. The Director of the school, 
 Dr. G. Richter, was an intimate friend of Dr. Frick and for 
 several years co-editor with him of the Lelirproben und 
 Lehrgdnge, in which some of the best pedagogical work of 
 the secondary schools has been published. Dr. Richter, 
 however, is more than an expounder of the views which 
 have made Dr. Frick famous. He has associated with him 
 in his school faculty several able young men who are in 
 entire accord with the Herbartian views as modified by Drs. 
 Frick and Richter. It is to their united efforts that success 
 is due.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 299 
 
 The program for history and geography in the first two 
 classes of the Jena Gymnasium is as follows : 
 
 SEXTA. 
 
 History and German, 3 hours. Stories from the Odyssey 
 and selections from German legendary history. Geography, 
 2 hours, (a) Simple geographical notions to be 
 
 1 j. v T it T Course in Lower 
 
 gained from Jena and the surrounding country. Grades 
 Eleven excursions to various points of interest 
 in the neighborhood, (b) Thuringia (1) The map; (2) 
 course of the Saale, as far as Halle ; (3) Ilni ; (4) Unstrut ; 
 (5) Elster ; (6) Werra, as far as Esehwege ; (7) Itz ; (8) rail- 
 roads. Chief topics : elevations, climate, products, industry, 
 trade, religion and political divisions. Throughout the en- 
 tire year observations of the temperature, winds, position 
 and movements of the sun and moon all of which are en- 
 tered in a note-book. 
 
 QDTNTA. 
 
 History and Geography, 4 hours, (a) German mythology 
 and history, chiefly Thuringian ; selections of typical scenes. 
 With the extension of the history proceeds the gradual de- 
 velopment of the geography, until it includes all Germany. 
 Map-drawing, at first of Germany ; then a gradual extension 
 to all other European countries. 
 
 The Jena program of the work for the first two classes 
 differs from the Prussian syllabus in that comparatively little 
 attention is given to classical mythology. In fact, stories 
 from the Odyssey are about all that are not German. In 
 Sexta there is very little of what could be called under any 
 stretch of imagination historical work ; and, contrary to the 
 Prussian plan, the entire time of Quinta is devoted to a sys- 
 tematic description of the chief events in German history. 
 
 In Sexta the geographical instruction is particularly inter- 
 esting. The Gymnasium is situated on ground once occu- 
 pied by the city walls. The broad street now 
 separating the old city from its modern suburbs 
 gives a starting-point for a map of the town. 
 It is linked, too, with historical associations that easily arouse 
 the interest of the pupils. Pictures of the old town before
 
 300 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the walls were removed are still to be had. An occasional 
 watch-tower yet remains standing as a monument of former 
 times. A few minutes' walk brings the teacher with his class 
 to one of a dozen points of interest in the town. The river 
 Saale, with its tributaries, can be traced for fifteen or twenty 
 miles from the heights. The location of a dozen villages can 
 be indicated on the map as a result of a single excursion to a 
 neighbouring hilltop. In fact, the excursions which are al- 
 ways made by teacher and pupils during this first year furnish 
 the fundamental concepts necessary at the beginning of geo- 
 graphical study ; and the observations taken day by day of the 
 movements of heavenly bodies, fluctuations in temperature 
 and changes of the wind are the basis of all future work in 
 mathematical geography and meteorology. 
 
 The work of Quinta is divided into some thirty or forty 
 topics, the most of which can be centred about some illus- 
 trious man or great event. These embrace a 
 description of the Cimbri and Teutons, their 
 subjugation and liberation ; stories of Drusus, Germanicus 
 and Armin, together with the geography of western Germany ; 
 the Slavic invasions of eastern Germany ; the coming of the 
 Christians ; Charlemagne and his times ; the building of the 
 Wartburg ; the Crusades ; great Thuringian rulers ; found- 
 ing of the universities ; Hussites in Thuringia and the Refor- 
 mation ; the Thirty Years' War ; Brandenburg and Prussia ; 
 Karl August, Goethe and Schiller ; Napoleon, and the battles 
 of Jena and Leipsic ; Stein, Bliicher and Scharnhorst ; the 
 new German Empire ; Wilhelm I., Bismarck and Moltke. 
 
 The Jena Gymnasium is peculiarly fortunate in having 
 some of the best teachers which it has ever been my privilege 
 to hear. The younger members of the faculty 
 TeacWn f * n P ar ^ cu ^ ar have given much time and labour 
 to the development of rational methods in the 
 teaching of history and geography. In the lower grades a 
 typical recitation begins with a review of such parts of pre- 
 vious lessons as may be necessary for the proper understand- 
 ing and assimilation of the topic about to be presented. From
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 301 
 
 five to ten minutes of the hour may pass in this way. Then 
 comes the narration of the new story, with particular emphasis 
 upon certain important events, personages and dates. As the 
 teacher proceeds with the story, he develops an outline on the 
 board which he has previously carefully prepared. As he 
 places this upon the board, point by point, the pupils enter 
 it into their note-books. Historical pictures are freely used, 
 to bring out clearly references made to the military, social, 
 family or industrial life of the times. 
 
 This use of illustrative material, be it said, Is more com- 
 mon in German schools than in American. It may be in a 
 . large measure due to the lamentable fact that 
 we in America are at a serious disadvantage in 
 this respect. Our pictures, charts and maps 
 are decidedly inferior to the German in point of accuracy, 
 execution and artistic merit. The German teachers of Sexta 
 and Quinta have at command an elaborate series of pictures 
 and charts illustrating almost every phase of national life from 
 the earliest times to the present. What cannot be obtained 
 by reproduction of famous works of art is supplied in the 
 form of ideal illustrations executed in accordance with the 
 best scholarship obtainable. 
 
 The pedagogical value of such use of pictures in class work, 
 so Germans maintain, is very great. It is said that the child 
 living in the present and thinking in the terms 
 of the present is unable to adjust himself to the It8 ^ c u f onal 
 past without great efforts of the imagination. 
 It is peculiarly the function of pictures to assist the mind of 
 the child in grasping the real significance of past events. 
 They are of particular importance, too, in the teaching of 
 geography. At first the child acquires a store of geographical 
 ideas from observation of his local environment. The moment 
 he is asked to go beyond his actual experience, he must draw 
 upon his imagination. It is too much to assume that he will 
 grasp the fnll significance of geographical facts which are 
 totally unconnected with anything already known ; but pict- 
 ures properly executed may be of the greatest service in the
 
 302 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 development of the constructive imagination, provided care 
 be taken that the child interpret correctly what the picture 
 presents. 
 
 In the presentation of the lesson the teacher will of neces- 
 sity often be obliged to consider the topography of the country 
 in which the scene of the story is laid. This 
 
 Division of Time. . J 
 
 involves an elaboration of the geographical 
 knowledge of the class. It may happen that a halt must be 
 called in the development of the historical side, in order that 
 maps of the region may be drawn and the physical character- 
 istics of the country carefully studied. In general, it is ex- 
 pected that the equivalent of one or two hours a week will be 
 given to this phase of the work during the first four or five 
 years of the course. If no such interruptions are necessary, 
 the teacher will give not more than half of the hour to the 
 presentation of new material. 
 
 The next step in the lesson is the oral reproduction by the 
 pupils of what has just been told them, according to the out- 
 line as it stands before them on the board. No 
 
 Excellent Reeulte. , . 
 
 one who has observed this part of the recitation 
 in the Jena Gymnasium can fail to be impressed with the in- 
 tense interest manifested by the pupils, as shown in their eager- 
 ness to tell what they know and to discuss its consequences. 
 
 There is a life and vigour to be found here, which, I regret 
 to say, I rarely saw elsewhere. One pupil begins to tell the 
 story, and at a convenient resting-point he is succeeded by an- 
 other ; and so on in regular order, until perchance some wrong 
 impression calls up a more general class discussion. When- 
 ever an important name or date occurs, the pupils rise and 
 repeat it in concert ; thus the attention of all is fixed more 
 closely upon the topical outline of the lesson. 
 
 It would hardly be doing the Herbartian teacher justice to 
 say that the oral reproduction is the final step of the lesson. 
 He would certainly consider his work very much of a failure 
 if, in addition to proper preparation and presentation, he did 
 not proceed to generalize and to make application of the truth 
 of the lesson to the e very-day life of the scholars. A Jena
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 303 
 
 teacher will rarely fail in this respect. The lesson is a work 
 of art. 
 
 The program for the second part of the work in history 
 and geography is as follows : 
 
 QUARTA. 
 
 History and Geography, 4 hours, (a) Geography of the 
 Balkan Peninsula, the Carpathian countries and Asia, par- 
 ticularly Asia Minor ; Grecian history to 146 
 B.C. (b) Geography of Italy, Spain, France 
 and Africa, especially northern Africa ; Roman 
 history to 476 A.D. 
 
 UNTERTERTIA. 
 
 History and Geography, 3 hours, (a) Geography of central 
 Europe, with special reference to physical characteristics and 
 political history ; German history to 1096 A.D. (b) German 
 history from 1096 to 1555 ; outlines of American geography, 
 in connection with the history of discovery. 
 
 OBERTERTIA. 
 
 History and Geography, 3 hours, (a) Modern history 
 from 1555 to 1700 ; the geography of Great Britain, the 
 Scandinavian Peninsula, Denmark, France and Kussia ; re- 
 view of European geography, (b) Modern history from 1700 
 to 1815 and from 1864 to 1871 ; geography of America and 
 Australia and of the German colonies. 
 
 The most important deviation from the Prussian course 
 that appears in the Jena Lehrplan is in the amount of time 
 devoted to the history of Greece and Rome. 
 The Prussian plan, as lias been stated, gives but Tb ^^ 8iai 
 two years to this work one in Quarta, when 
 the pupils are but twelve years old, which covers the whole 
 field of classical history in a single year of two lessons per 
 week ; the other year is in Obersecunda, during which all of 
 Greek and Roman history to the fall of the Western Empire 
 is done in three lessons per week. Further than this there 
 is nothing of classical history, not even a review in the last 
 year of the course. The Prussian Lehrplan, as has been pre-
 
 304 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 viously mentioned, has been arranged with a view to the 
 practical needs of those who leave school at the end of a six 
 years' course (about forty per cent, of the entire number) ; and 
 it has been considered especially desirable, therefore, that 
 they should take with them a well-rounded training in the 
 language, literature and history of Germany and in religion. 
 Hence, the Grecian history formerly taught in Untersecunda 
 has given way to an additional year of modern history. Few 
 other German states have adopted the Prussian plan to this 
 extent. There are undoubtedly certain practical advantages 
 connected with it, both in the emphasis placed on modern 
 history and in the division of the work made for the benefit 
 of those who do not intend to complete the school course. 
 Still, the classical schools feel that in the time allowed it is 
 impossible to teach Greek and Roman history satisfactorily. 
 From a pedagogical stand-point there is no doubt that the 
 Jena plan, which is the one generally followed in the other 
 German states, has superior advantages for the classical 
 schools. Although the second part of the course is completed 
 with Obertertia, it provides for a more intensive course in 
 the upper classes, one-half of which is devoted to the history 
 of Greece and Rome. 
 
 The work of Quarto, begins with a review of the most im- 
 portant Greek legends. Nearly all schools give a year to the 
 
 o v ... mythology of Greece and Rome in Prussia, 
 Subject-Matter. J . , . 
 
 Quinta, and in other states, generally Sexta. 
 In Jena, however, the work is confined for the most part to 
 stories from the Odyssey, which also form a part of the .Ger- 
 man reading course. The wanderings of Ulysses demand a 
 careful study of the geography of Grecian lands. Maps are 
 drawn of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor ; the islands 
 of the JSgean are located, and the classic routes of travel 
 in Third Y compared with those of modern times. Then 
 
 follows an outline history of the political events 
 in Greece between 1104 and 500 B.C., together with the neces- 
 sary changes in the geographical divisions. The study of 
 the Persian wars brings in the geography of Asia and Egypt,
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 305 
 
 and the biographies of Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius and Periclee. 
 The account of the Peloponnesian War is accompanied with 
 a study of the geography of Sicily. Then follows a narrative 
 of the events clustering about the lives of Socrates, Agesilaus, 
 Epaminondas and Pelopidas, Demosthenes and Philip of 
 Macedon. The story of Alexander the Great, the division of 
 his empire and its subsequent subjugation to Rome completes 
 the historical course in Grecian history, and also furnishes 
 an opportunity for a review of the geography of southwestern 
 Asia. The work of the second semester is Roman history, 
 and a study of the geography, ancient and modern, of the 
 countries included in the Roman Empire. The class, at the 
 same time that it is studying the history of Greece and Rome, 
 has the geography of Palestine in connection with religion, 
 and is reading in German the Theban legends, stories from 
 Greek history, Schiller's Cranes of Ibycus, stories from, 
 Roman history and travellers' descriptions of Italy and 
 Athens. 
 
 In Untertertia the history of the Holy Roman Empire is 
 traced down to the year 1555. So far as possible the social 
 and political changes are treated with reference 
 
 In Fourth Year. 
 
 to the fortunes of the city of Jena, which lies 
 at the crossing of the two great highways contended for both 
 by the Germans and the Slavs. Within sight of the town 
 are a dozen castles and strongholds, each of which has a story 
 to tell of the struggles of these races for supremacy. The 
 history of the city church and cloister, of the city hall 
 (Rathaus) and of the market dates from early times, and il- 
 lustrates the gradual development of local self-government. 
 The founding of the university and its later history afford a 
 natural means of introducing the study of the Reformation. 
 The political and physical geography of central Europe affords 
 important contributions for the understanding of the course 
 in mediaeval history. The period of discovery brings in 
 America, South Africa and Asia. 
 
 In Obertertia the chief events of modern history from 1555 
 to the present time are considered. It is the period of coloniz- 
 
 30
 
 306 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ation, in which England takes a leading part. Queen Eliza- 
 beth is portrayed, and the geography of Great Britain is 
 in Fifth Year stu( ^^- '^ e Thirty Years' War brings in 
 Sweden and Denmark, under the hero Gustavus 
 Adolphus. The French influence in the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries necessitates a study of the history of 
 France as it centres in the career of Louis XIV. Eussia, as 
 represented by Peter the Great, is given some attention. 
 The second semester is devoted to the history of the eigh- 
 teenth century, and the culmination of events in the over- 
 throw of Napoleon and in the final restoration of the Ger- 
 man Empire. A study of the German colonial possessions, 
 and of those countries enriched by German immigration, 
 gives ample opportunity for a review of the geography of the 
 world. During this year the class reads in German selections 
 from Schiller's History of the Thirty Years' War and from 
 his Wilhelm Tell, both of which are side-lights on the work 
 in history. 
 
 There has been much discussion concerning the best meth- 
 ods of teaching history in the middle and upper grades. 
 Teachers have pointed out the defects of the 
 narrative method, and maintained that thereby 
 scholars attain no power of independent inves- 
 tigation ; that even the faculty of discriminative judgment 
 is not properly cultivated, and that few pupils ever acquire 
 a love for historical reading. Professor Schiller, of Giessen, a 
 noted writer on gymnasial pedagogics, still holds that it is 
 highly desirable to assign readings to be done out of school 
 and to devote the lesson period to a discussion of the topic. 
 The Prussian regulations, however, distinctly prohibit the 
 general adoption of this method, because of the restrictions it 
 places upon the free time of the pupils. From twenty min- 
 utes to half an hour a day is all that a teacher has a right to 
 expect of his pupils by way of home study, and this is hardly 
 sufficient for the correction of notes and the making of such 
 maps as are necessary in class work. In fact, there is but one 
 method possible for the German teacher. He must himself
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 307 
 
 narrate the stories, make outlines and do the reviewing in 
 the class. 
 
 The method of presentation in the middle grades does not 
 differ materially from that already described in the lower 
 grades. First, there is a review of the impor- 
 tant events of past lessons ; then the telling of 
 the new story, and its oral reproduction by the 
 class according to the outline which the teacher has devel- 
 oped and placed upon the board. Text-books are commonly 
 used, of which there are many excellent varieties. They are, 
 however, mere outlines, which by no means usurp the func- 
 tion of the teacher. They are hand-books for consultation in 
 review and for fixing lessons already elaborated in the class. 
 A text-book that presumes to give a complete account of the 
 historical development of the period studied would be worse 
 than useless to the pupil. He would not have time to do the 
 required reading, to say nothing of sorting out the important 
 facts. For pupils' use a concise reference book rather than a 
 text-book is required. 
 
 The Jena program for the final course is as follows : 
 
 TJNTERSECUNDA. 
 
 History and Geography, 3 hours, (a) Review and contin- 
 uation of Grecian history down to 338 B.C., with reference 
 to the ancient geography of Greece and Asia 
 Minor, (b) Alexander the Great and the Hel- 
 lenistic Empire down to its subjugation by 
 Rome, together with a geographical review ; then a review of 
 Roman history to 133 B.C., and of the geography of ancient 
 Italy. Geographical reviews of Asia and Africa. 
 
 OBERSECUNDA. 
 
 History and Geography, 3 hours, (a) Roman history from 
 133 B.C. to 375 A.D. (b) Mediaeval history to 1056 A.D. 
 Geographical reviews. Review of important dates in the 
 world's history. 
 
 USTTERPRIMA. 
 
 History and Geography, 3 hours, (a) History of the pe- 
 riod from 1056 to 1555. (b) Modern history from 1555 to 
 1786. Geographical reviews.
 
 308 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 w 
 
 OBERPRIMA. 
 
 History and Geography. Modern history from 1786 to 
 1888, with special attention to geography. Comprehensive 
 resume of the historical development of modern civilization. 
 
 The methods to be followed in the upper classes do not 
 differ essentially from those already outlined. The pupils 
 are more mature ; they have read more exten- 
 s i ve ly from both classical and modern authors, 
 and have greater power in abstract thought. 
 Nevertheless, the same general plan of presentation must be 
 followed as in the lower classes, the only difference being 
 that less effort is required to make the work interesting, and 
 more attention can be given to the relations of cause and ef- 
 fect. In fact, this final course does not cover much more 
 ground than the one just finished ; but it is treated in a more 
 general way, and the causes of political changes are empha- 
 sized to the exclusion, in a degree, of the descriptive work 
 which characterizes the earlier course. The pupils already 
 know the more important facts ; the main thing now is to 
 search out the reasons for their being. In Untersecunda, 
 while the history of Greece and Home is being studied, the 
 class work in religion is concerned with the apostolic history 
 and the founding of the Christian church. In Greek, Xen- 
 ophon's Anabasis and selections from the Odyssey are being 
 read ; and the connection is maintained throughout the fol- 
 lowing year by readings from Herodotus. Early Roman his- 
 tory is supplemented by reading Cicero's de imp. Cn. Pompeii 
 (alternating with pro Roscio), Vergil's ^Eneid, Books I.-IIL, 
 and selections from Livy, Books I., II., III., V., VI., VII. 
 and IX. 
 
 In connection with later Roman and mediaeval history to 
 1056, the Obersecunda class reads in Latin several books of 
 Vergil and selections from Livy, Books XXI., 
 XXII., XXV., XXVI., XXVII. and XXX. 
 The work in religion is confined to the apos- 
 tolic period of the church and the mission of Paul, which
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 309 
 
 afford excellent opportunity for bringing together important 
 facts in history arid geography. 
 
 In Prima, the course in religion develops the history of 
 the church through the Reformation down to modern times. 
 The class, by the study of Nibelungenlied in the original text 
 and the middle-high German literature, which is a part of 
 the work in Obersecunda, is now ready to read the Germania 
 of Tacitus. And with this course the climax of interest in 
 German antiquities is reached. The gulf between the pres- 
 ent and the past is effectually bridged over ; the German 
 school-boy henceforth feels that ancient history is very real. 
 
 The course as outlined for the Jena Gymnasium is perhaps 
 the best illustration of recent attempts to correlate the instruc- 
 tion in the humanistic subjects in the secondary-school cur- 
 riculum. The Prussian Lehrplan is by no means so carefully 
 adjusted in this respect ; nevertheless, it would be difficult to 
 devise a curriculum for the German schools, considering the 
 available material, in which one subject did not bear some 
 relation to the other subjects of the course. In Jena there is 
 not only the external correlation, but there is an even more 
 serious attempt to make the instruction of the class-room 
 effective in more directions than one. The Jena 3urriculum 
 as it now stands is the result of many years of study on the 
 part of a large number of school-masters. In this work, as 
 has been said, Dr. Frick was the leader ; and the Jena curricu- 
 lum is to-day perhaps the best example of the fruit of his 
 work and the labour of his colleagues. 
 
 In conclusion, I find it difficult to estimate the worth of 
 the German methods of teaching history. The geographical 
 instruction has always seemed to me most excel- 
 
 . Criticisms. 
 
 lent, but there is room for wide differences of 
 opinion with regard to the work in history. In certain schools 
 which I could mention the work is undoubtedly of a high 
 order ; the scholars are deeply interested, and the results are 
 eminently satisfactory. Still, it must be remembered that in 
 many schools I fear in the great majority of them the work 
 is purely formal and disconnected, unrelated and exceedingly
 
 310 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 uninteresting. The successful teacher, according to the Ger- 
 man method, must be an able story-teller, and have the power 
 to stir the emotions of his pupils by the narration of historic 
 events. He must be enthusiastic, and possessed of encyclo- 
 pedic information. When these conditions are not fulfilled 
 there is a dry recital of events, which is followed by a still 
 drier recitation by the pupils. A few facts may be learned, 
 but so long as they are not related to other facts they are life- 
 less. I confess to having heard lessons many of them 
 which were soporific in the extreme ; and so unusual was it in 
 my experience to find a good teacher of history, that I often 
 despaired of seeing the German system at its best. Teachers 
 continually complained to me, by way of excuse for a poor 
 showing, that no time was allowed for outside study; and that 
 with only two or three lessons a week, it was impossible to get 
 good results when everything depended upon the teacher in 
 the class. 
 
 On the whole, I was greatly disappointed in the practical 
 working of the German methods. Comparatively few teachers, 
 it seems to me, have the ability or the disposi- 
 
 ^ OU t0 treat ^6 suli) j ect ln tne on ty wav tnat 
 
 can bring success. Germans are not natural 
 story-tellers ; as a rule, they are too phlegmatic. Success for 
 the average teacher, therefore, depends upon his ability to 
 -ystematize and arrange his material in such a way that at the 
 end of the course the pupil has a definite, closely related body 
 of knowledge. Lack of interest on the part of some and lack 
 of methodical arrangement are, it seems to me, the two great 
 factors which account for the unsatisfactory results in the 
 teaching of history in the secondary schools. 
 
 It is still a fact, however, after all is said, that the German 
 students who do their work at all satisfactorily generally have 
 
 upon the completion of their course a very corn- 
 Results. . . . . . ,, . . m , 
 
 prehensive view of the worlds history. I hey 
 
 are familiar with the chief events in history from the Trojan 
 war to the accession of William II. ; they have traced the 
 development of political geography for some three thousand
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHT 311 
 
 years up to. the present ; they know the topography of the 
 countries in which the great historical scenes have been en- 
 acted ; they know something of the physical conditions which 
 have determined the economic characteristics of various na- 
 tions ; they have been led to notice the changes that have 
 taken place in historical times in the relations of the indus- 
 trial life to the family, of the family to the community and 
 of the community to the state. Finally, the influence of art 
 and literature upon the development of civilization is tolerably 
 clear in their minds. They may be deficient in the ability to 
 make independent historical investigations, or even be un- 
 able to read intelligently certain historical works of a tech- 
 nical nature; but they have, nevertheless, what maybe called 
 a historical instinct. They may not be able to account for 
 the faith that is in them, but they have the faith notwith- 
 standing. Such students, when they go up to the university, 
 very quickly become acquainted with the methods of doing 
 research work ; they easily adapt themselves to circumstances, 
 and become what may be rightfully termed students of his- 
 tory. It should be understood, however, that the patient 
 industry, the dispassionate judgment and breadth of scholar- 
 ship that are exhibited by the typical German historians can 
 scarcely be credited to the study of history in the secondary 
 schools. I am disposed to believe that the courses in Greek 
 and Latin, in German and in religion, furnish the muscle and 
 sinew ; the historical course builds merely the skeleton. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Richter, Systematische Gliederung des Unter- 
 richtsstoffes in der neueren Geschichte, in Lehrproben und Lehi gauge, 1897; 
 Haunak, Methodik des Unterrichts in der Geschichte, Vienna, 1891; Jager, 
 Bemerkungen liber den Geschichtlichen Unterricht, 2 ed., Wiesbaden, 1887; 
 Peachel, Die Erdkunde als Unterrichts- Gegenstand, in Deutscher Viertel- 
 jahresschrift, 1868: Delitsch, Beitrdge zur Methodik des geographischen Un- 
 terrichts, in Xene Jahrbiicher fiir Philologie und Padagogik, 1881 ; Matzat, 
 Zeichnende Erdkunde, Berlin, 1879; Oberlander, Der geographische Un- 
 terricht nach den Grundsatzen der Ritterschen Schnle, 5 ed., Grimma, 1893 ; 
 Tromnau, Der Unterricht in der Erdkunde in seiner geschichtlichen Ent- 
 wicklung, unter Beriicksichtigung der neueste Reformbestrebungen, Halle, 
 1893; Hand-hooks of Baumeister and Wychgram and Encyclopedia* of 
 Scbmid and Rein.
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 
 
 THE school reforms consequent upon Prussia's defeat in the 
 
 Napoleonic wars mark the beginning of serious mathematical 
 
 study in the Gymnasium. Hitherto, two to 
 
 Development three recitations a week had been considered 
 ample time for a subject so little in harmony 
 with humanistic ideals ; 10 to 14 hours weekly were not 
 too many for Latin and Greek. But in the program of 
 1816 mathematics was made a main subject alongside of the 
 ancient classics and of equal worth with them. The course 
 led up to and included theory of equations, chance, the ele- 
 ments of analytic geometry and mechanics. In zeal to out- 
 do France, the reformers had been too radical for the school- 
 men. In 1827 the time was reduced from 6 hours a week 
 to 4. The programs of 1837 and 1856 were still less liberal, 
 allotting to Quinta, Quarta and Tertia only 3 periods. In 
 1882 only two classes were left with so few as 3 recitations 
 a week ; the total week-hours were 34. The program of 1882 
 decreased the week-hours for mathematics in the Realgym- 
 nasium from 47 to 44, and in 1892 a still further reduction 
 of 2 hours a week was made. The Olerreahchulen, with 
 French and English in place of the classics, but with a nine- 
 year course as in the Gymnasien, have at present 47 week- 
 hours of mathematics. 
 
 Mathematics as taught in the best German schools is a unit. 
 If I refer to the sub-courses independently, for convenience's 
 sake, it must be remembered that they are more than parallel 
 they are interlaced and interwoven to a degree that makes 
 
 312
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 313 
 
 it difficult to separate them. A further difficulty arises from 
 the differences in the secondary schools themselves. They 
 have not the same courses, nor a common aim. 
 From a quantitative point of view, the Real- 
 gymnasium stands midway between the two 
 extremes ; qualitatively, it may be questioned if it does 
 not rank at the head in mathematics. But for the sake of a 
 norm, it may be well to take a middle ground. I have chosen, 
 therefore, to describe the course of the Realgymnasium in 
 Cassel, Dr. Wittich, director one of the best schools in the 
 kingdom, and renowned as the Alma Mater of Prince Henry of 
 Prussia. For illustrations of method I shall draw freely 
 from my experiences in all sorts and conditions of schools, 
 and it goes without saying that whatever of criticism I may 
 indulge in should not be construed as reflections on the 
 Cassel institution. Indeed, I am obliged to go elsewhere for 
 my material, as during my stay in Cassel the celebration of 
 the twenty-fifth anniversary of the founding of the school 
 was of greater interest to the pupils (and to the visitor ?) 
 than the daily routine of the class-room. Its curriculum fol- 
 lows necessarily the last Prussian program ; and so far as 
 this discriminates against Realgymnasien and it has cast a 
 cloud over them all in so far does this school suffer with the 
 rest. For this reason one often finds the best results in 
 mathematics in other German states. Prussia 
 is not altogether Germany in educational mat- school 
 ters ; yet, from force of circumstances, the 
 smaller states follow her leadership, though at a respectful 
 distance. The course of 1882, which was willingly adopted 
 in the southern states, gave advantages which non-Prussians 
 are loath to yield ; and while the Prussian reforms have been 
 followed to a certain extent, it has been done under protest. 
 The attitude of the southern leader is happily put in the fol- 
 lowing words, addressed to me in criticism of recent changes : 
 " I cannot bring myself blindly to admire a thing merely for 
 the sake of its coming from Berlin." The Saxon ministry has 
 especially favoured the Realgymnasium, and so have most of
 
 314: GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the duchies. The Weimar Realgymnasium has a most enviable 
 reputation, and to its director, Dr. Wernekke, I am indebted 
 for many favours. Here the good points of the German sys- 
 tem are to be found at their best, and the course is not too 
 much "reformed." 
 
 A boy on entering Sexta at nine years of age is expected to 
 bring with him from his three-year preparatory course the 
 ability to add, subtract, multiply and divide simple whole 
 numbers. For the lower grades the Cassel course is as fol- 
 lows : 1 
 
 SEXTA. 
 
 Rechnen, 4 hours. Extended knowledge of numbers from 
 
 1-100, especially division of numbers by smaller numbers and 
 
 factoring. System of tens. Numeration. Rep- 
 
 OU1 Grades W " e ^^ion of the four fundamental principles, with 
 
 abstract whole numbers. Weights, measures and 
 
 money. Reduction of complex numbers, and in connection 
 
 therewith the simplest tasks in decimal fractions. Text-book, 
 
 Bohme's Uebungsbuch, VIII. 
 
 QUINTA. 
 
 Rechnen, 4 hours. Preparations for study of fractions. 
 Common and decimal fractions. Rule-of-three. Text-book, 
 Bohme's, IX. 
 
 QUARTA. 
 
 I. Rechnen, 2 hours. Review of fractions. Rule-of-three 
 with whole numbers and fractions. Profit and loss. Inter- 
 est, discount and partnership. Text-book, Bohme's, XII. 
 
 II. Plane Geometry, 2 hours. Introductory course in ob- 
 ject-lessons. Angles, parallel lines, triangles, quadrilaterals. 
 Simple constructions. Text-book, Koppe's Planimetrie. 
 
 Arithmetik, the theory of numbers, includes both reckoning 
 with definite numbers (Rechnen} and with numbers in the 
 abstract. Algebra is the theory of equations. The work of 
 the lower grades, therefore, is with Rechnen practical arith- 
 
 1 The Weimar Realgymnasium has five periods a week in Sexta and 
 Qiiarta. By teaching simple rule-of-three in Sexta, time enough is gained 
 for one hour a week of geometrical object-lessons in Quinta.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 315 
 
 metic. The aim is to secure "accuracy and facility in opera- 
 tions with figures," and to lay the foundation for future 
 study. The first desideratum is favoured by ex- 
 traneous circumstances. Classes usually num- Teachin f 
 her thirty to forty pupils. Recitation-rooms are 
 comparatively small. One blackboard, and that a small one 
 behind the teacher's desk, must suffice for the needs of the 
 class. An exceptional arrangement is to have two such 
 boards balanced on pulleys, or a second board mounted on an 
 easel nearer the pupils. There are neither slates nor paper 
 for rough work. All reckoning must be done on the board, 
 in the exercise books which are inspected by the teacher or 
 in the head. The last, as the path of least resistance, is 
 followed by the average boy, notwithstanding his natural 
 prejudices against thinking for himself. Whether these cir- 
 cumstances be cause or effect, I cannot say ; but I suspect they 
 are partly both. The German teacher will tell you, however, 
 that " years ago " it was the custom to assign long lessons to 
 be worked out at home ; that, to secure a reasonable percent- 
 age of correct answers, rules and copies were invented ; but, 
 he will add, the process was purely mechanical. To-day 
 the ideal is that every step in advance shall be taken in the 
 class-room ; that there shall be but one step at a time, and 
 that all shall take that step at the same time. This forbids 
 independent home study ; it limits the master's work to 
 teaching. 
 
 A recitation opens with questions, rapidly put, on the review 
 leading up to the work of the day. Answers must be short, 
 concise and complete sentences. New prin- 
 
 Oral Work. 
 
 ciples are developed inductively, if possible. 
 A boy goes to the board why more than one board ? and 
 writes a problem as read to him by another boy or by the 
 teacher. Then more questions to the class. The pupil at 
 the board merely registers the progress ; he may be quizzed 
 with the rest, and if he has suggestions to make he may vol- 
 unteer in the usual way by raising the hand and await the 
 master's recognition. Sometimes, if the problem is important,
 
 316 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the work is erased and another boy performs the same opera- 
 tion, recounting each step aloud while the class copy it into 
 their exercise books. So goes the hour. The proportion of 
 time given to written work as compared with the questions 
 asked and answered is not far from 1 : 5, so great is the stress 
 put upon oral demonstration. The home work is of the same 
 nature generally the identical problems, if not already writ- 
 ten out ; but the task must not take more than half an hour 
 of the pupil's free time. A special exercise to be done at 
 home may be required not oftener than once a month. If 
 new problems are set, all inherent difficulties must be pre- 
 viously cleared up and sifted in class. The pupil is not to 
 experiment, nor work in the dark. 
 
 From the beginning of the course particular stress is put 
 upon facility in mental calculation. Practice is daily afforded 
 
 in the ordinary work of the class-room, but 
 Calculation special drill is given with each lesson in the 
 
 lower grades. At first simple whole numbers 
 are employed, but in Quinta the work has so far progressed 
 that numbers of two and three digits are freely used. Such 
 work, to be of value, must be done quickly ; the answer 
 should be ready immediately on conclusion of the statement. 
 From twelve such problems given in one recitation, I select 
 at random three: (1) 4,1 + 0,9-4,9 + 0,9=?; (2) 1,2 + 3,4 
 xlO=?; (3) 0,9 + 2,4 + 3,1-8=? Such tasks are rendered 
 the more difficult by the German way of reading decimals 
 thus in (1) : " Four-comma-one, plus naught-comma-nine, 
 minus four-comma-nine, plus naught-comma-nine," etc. 
 This reading of figures and points in succession, though not 
 expressly sanctioned, seems to be connived at in all parts of 
 Germany from the common schools to the universities ; 
 illogical as it may be, it seems to the foreigner a sensible reac- 
 tion against the laws of the grammarians. The next step 
 brings in the blackboard ; the problem is written out, thus : 
 (25,5 + 27,45 + 31,55): 5= ?; but the solution is given orally. 
 How far and in what lines these methods shall be developed 
 lies wholly with the teacher. In geometry, too, there is ample
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 317 
 
 field. A good Tertianer, I am told, should be able to demon- 
 strate the Pythagorean proposition in his head, following 
 any designation of lines and angles that may be given him. In 
 arithmetic, the multiplication table may be taught as high as 
 the 20's, after which it is comparatively easy to make all neces- 
 sary combinations. But in explaining his methods to me an 
 excellent teacher made this remark : " It is well that a pupil 
 should be familiar with short methods, and be able to reckon 
 rapidly in his head ; but it is better to know that 18 times 27 
 is the same as 18 times 20, plus 18 times 7, than to perform 
 the operation mechanically." Whatever the methods in men- 
 tal arithmetic may be, the results in most German schools 
 are admirable. 
 
 Some of the best schools are making a trial of the so- 
 called " Austrian methods "of reckoning. II- 
 
 Austrian Methods. 
 
 lustrations follow (the figures here given I 
 
 have copied from actual class work ; no others were used) : 
 
 (1) Subtraction 
 
 954 Boy says, " One and three make four 
 
 761 (writes 3) ; six and nine make fifteen (writes 
 
 9) ; one (to carry), seven and one make nine 
 193 (writes 1)." 
 
 (2} Multiplication 
 
 _ ft _ Q-C_ o Multiply first by 8, then by 7, and then by 
 
 5, adding to this product the partial products 
 already found ; write only complete sum in 
 last case - The final operation is as follows : 
 5 x 735 (write 5) ; 5 x 6+3 (to carry) +9= 
 42 ( write 2 >; 5x5+4+6+6=41 (write 1); 
 5 x 2+4+9+3=26 (write 6), etc. 
 
 (3) Division 
 
 427654 : 145=2949,3. 
 
 1376 First figure of quotient is 2. Then 2x5+ 
 
 715 7=17 (write 7); 2x4+1 (to carry) +3 = 12 
 
 1354 (write 3); 2x1 + 1 + 1=4 (write 1). Bring 
 
 490 down next figure (6) of dividend, and con- 
 tinue as before. 
 55 rem. 
 
 (4) Square-Root 
 
 >y/42 | 76 | 54= 653,9. 
 
 6 76:125 The methods, as will be seen, are the 
 
 5154 : 1303 same as in division. 
 
 124500 : 13069
 
 318 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 After a close inspection of pupils' exercises, I cannot say 
 that the chances of error are greater than with the usual way. 
 It reduces the written work to a minimum, and decidedly 
 increases the rapidity of computation. It is well worth a 
 trial. Schools which have adopted it show no inclination to 
 go back to the old methods. 
 
 The rule-of-three plays an important part in Quinta and 
 Quqrta. The easier problems are stated and solved as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 (a) Statement 
 
 If 25 kg of x cost 53,45 m., what will 155 kg cost? 
 
 (b) Solution 
 
 25 kg cost 53,45 m., 155kg cost? 
 
 150 " " 320,70 " 
 5 " " 10,69 " 
 
 155 kg cost 331,39 m. 
 
 Rather more is made of compound proportion than might 
 be expected from the practical nature of the course ; the 
 method most frequently used is as follows : 
 
 (a) Statement 
 
 A canal 245 m long, 3,3 m deep, 7 m wide, is built by 
 140 men working 546 days, at 7 hours a day ; what is the 
 length of another canal, 5 m deep, 8,2 m wide, on which 182 
 men are employed 324 days, working 8 hrs. a day ? 
 
 (b) Solution 
 
 140 men in 546 d. of 7| h. make 3,3 m d. 7 m w. 245 m 1. 
 182 " " 324 " 8fr " " 6 " 8,2 " x. 
 
 245 x 182 x 324 x 60 x 33 x 70 
 
 140 x 546 x 45 x 50 x 82 
 
 Say, If 245 m be done by 140 men, one man will do the 140th part, 
 182 men will do 182 times as much ; viz. in 546 days hence in one day 
 the 546th part, in 324 days 324 times as much ; viz, in 7 hrs. (45-6) hence 
 in 1-6 hr. the 45th part, in $1 hrs. (50-6) 50 times as much ; viz. 33-10 m 
 deep hence if 1-10 m deep 33 times as much, if 50-10 m deep the 50th 
 part, etc.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 319 
 
 The problems of commercial arithmetic are solved in the 
 same form. Here is a task in interest: 
 
 (a) Statement 
 
 What is the interest on 450 m. for 2 yrs. 3 mos. and 10 
 ^s. at 5 per cent. ? 
 
 (b) Solution 
 
 100 m. give 5 m. int. in 1 yr. 
 450 " " 22,50 " " " " 
 
 450 " " 45,00 " " " 2 yrs. 
 u " " 5,625 " " " 3 mos. 
 " " " ,625 " " " 10 ds. 
 
 450 m. give 51,25 m. int. in 2 yrs. 3 mos. 10 ds. 
 
 The greatest difficulties of the lower grades are in common 
 fractions; but from the start every effort is made to keep 
 within the pupils' sphere. When a boy knows 
 
 ,, ,f . . f ., .f Fractions. 
 
 what the division of a unit means, the term 
 ''fraction" has for him a tangible reality, a definite value. 
 Beyond this limit the German teacher hesitates to go. The 
 theory may best be taught with numbers not too large ; and as 
 for pure practice, there is enough of that in other connections. 
 The main thing is to know the value of a fraction both in 
 concrete terms and in its decimal form, and to realize that in 
 its treatment only familiar principles are employed. The 
 prevailing use of the decimal system of weights, measures and 
 money makes the transition comparatively easy. By far the 
 greater part of the work is done orally, i.e., without book, 
 paper or blackboard. 
 
 The introductory course in geometry is given by most non- 
 Prussian schools in Quinta, one period a week. The object is 
 to familiarize the pupils with the essentials of 
 geometrical form "enough to get them look- 
 ing at things from a geometrical point of view/' 
 The object-lessons begin with solids, which are handled, de- 
 scribed and measured. Thus arise correct ideas of surfaces, 
 lines and points and their relations. It is but a step to the 
 drawing of figures, and this in turn forms a basis for the sys-
 
 320 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 tematic study of plane geometry. Formal theorems are un- 
 necessary. A long series of constructions follows the demon- 
 stration of such statements as these : " The base angles of an 
 equilateral triangle are equal"; "The angles of a triangle 
 make two right angles " ; " Diagonals of rectangles are 
 equal " ; " A tangent stands at right angles to its radius/' etc. 
 Such are the concrete methods of the common schools ( Volks- 
 schulen); and there is a party of schoolmen, including the 
 Herbartians, 1 who would carry them still further in the sec- 
 ondary schools. Their success is not marked, but to the 
 movement may be accredited certain tendencies which are be- 
 coming apparent even in the most conservative circles. The 
 school that would educate its pupils, it is said, has no use for 
 what is purely theoretical or abstractly mathematical. The uni- 
 versities are for specialists ; the higher schools stand for general 
 culture. " Were Shakespeare, Schiller and Goethe skilled in 
 logarithms and equations of the third degree?" The mathema- 
 tician may be Jew or Gentile, materialist or idealist ; it is not 
 what he thinks, but how he thinks, that is of concern. 
 
 I have sketched the mathematical work of the secondary 
 schools to a point commensurate with the beginning of the 
 American high-school coarse. The next step, following the 
 standard of the Cassel Realgymnasium, is as follows : 2 
 
 UNTERTERTIA. 
 
 I. Geometry, 2 hours. Theory of the triangle, polygon 
 course in and circle. Equality of figures. Constructions. 
 Middle Grades. Text-book, Koppe's Planimeterie. 
 
 1 See Shultze's Deutsche Erziehung, pp. 278-79. 
 
 * The Weimar course is as follows : Untertertia, 5 hours. Commer- 
 cial arithmetic. Theorems of sum, difference and product. The circle. 
 Equality of figures. Proportion. Obertertia, 5 hours. Compound divi- 
 sion. Factoring. Equations of 1st and 2d degree with one unknown. 
 Square-root. Similarity and measurement of figures. Algebraic geome- 
 try. Untersecunda, 5 hours. Plane geometry concluded. Solid geom- 
 etry. Powers, roots and logarithms. Equations of 1st degree with more 
 than one unknown quantity, and of 2d degree with one unknown. (Spe- 
 cial tasks monthly.)
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 321 
 
 II. Arithmetic, 2 hours. Reckoning with abstract quan- 
 tities. Equations of first degree with one unknown quantity. 
 Text-book, Heis's Sammlung von Auf^aotn aus der Allge- 
 meinen Arithmotik, 1-25 ; 61-63. 
 
 III. Rechnen, 1 hour. Commercial arithmetic continued. 
 
 OBERTERTIA. 
 
 I. Geometry, 3 hours. Reviews. Proportion. Similarity 
 of figures. Relations and contents of rectilinear figures and 
 circles. Pythagorean proposition. Text-book, Koppe's. 
 
 II. Arithmetic and Algebra. 2 hours. Review and exten- 
 sion of work of Illb. Thecry of proportion, powers and 
 roots. Equations of first degree with more than one un- 
 known quantity, and simple quadratic equations with one 
 unknown. Text-book, Heis's. 
 
 UNTERSECUNDA. 
 
 I. Geometry and Trigonometry, 3 hours. Elements of 
 trigonometry ; computation of triangles. The most impor- 
 tant propositions. Solid geometry of the plane and straight 
 line ; simple bodies and computation of dimensions, surface 
 and contents. 
 
 II. Arithmetic and Algebra, 2 hours. Theory of logarithms, 
 with practice in logarithmic reckoning. Quadratic equations. 
 Text-book, Heis's. 
 
 The geometry of the middle grades presents no striking 
 peculiarities of method, as I have observed, beyond those 
 common to the mathematical instruction in all 
 
 n T i /? j Geometry. 
 
 classes. Euclid seems to find no greater recog- 
 nition here than in America ; the German explanation is 
 that the great Alexandrian wrote for men, not boys. The 
 four years' course in plane geometry gives ample time, not 
 only for thorough grounding in the theory, but also for a va- 
 riety of practical applications impossible in a shorter course 
 or under a plan which does not provide for simultaneous ex- 
 ercise in arithmetic, algebra and elementary trigonometry. 
 
 The course in arithmetic and algebra is practically a course 
 in Heis's Collection. The book seems to be everywhere used, 
 either as text-book or for reference. Since its first appear- 
 ance, in 1837, there have been some ninety editions, in all 
 
 91
 
 322 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 over 270,000 copies. The influence of this book the work of 
 a noted mathematician and astronomer upon the teaching 
 of two generations is clearly demonstrable, and 
 to it may be ascribed many of the peculiarities 
 in German methods. It contains no definitions, 
 no rules and but very few typical solutions. Its strength lies 
 in the systematic gradation of examples and problems, from 
 the rudiments of addition to the involved types of equations 
 of the higher degrees. The world over one will scarcely find 
 four hundred pages of material more suggestive 
 
 Text-Books. 
 
 in treatment or richer in detail than this col 
 lection for use in the secondary schools of Germany and Aus- 
 tria. There are many other text-books, some of them most 
 excellent, as Bardey's, for instance perhaps better than 
 Heis's but to a striking degree they are all modelled after 
 the master-work. In describing the first 215 pages of the 
 book, the work of the middle grades is described. Its rich- 
 ness and variety is apparent from the presentation in this 
 space of over 2,700 examples, of which some 700 are practical 
 problems. The number actually used by any one class is rel- 
 atively very small. 
 
 The needs of the many who do not continue their schooling 
 beyond Untersecunda demand a wider range of study in the 
 middle grades than would doubtless be the 
 case were Oberprima the Mecca for all. Yet 
 at every step the ideal is that theory and prac- 
 tice shall be united ; neither factor may be sacrificed to the 
 other. The conceptions underlying the theory of logarithms 
 are not less important than skill in manipulating them ; the 
 ability to think even a short problem clearly to its conclusion 
 is better than occasional success in finding ''the answer" to 
 problems intricate and confusing to the last degree. There 
 is no greater danger in teaching than in overestimating the 
 pupil's strength. Accuracy and facility in calculation and 
 inference depend far more upon right thinking than upon 
 correct writing. The mechanical skill necessary to note 
 properly on paper or blackboard the essential headings of a
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 323 
 
 mathematical demonstration is easily acquired, when it is clear 
 what is to be done. It is right thinking, then, that is to be 
 emphasized ; correct writing follows as a result. Every task 
 that invites purely mechanical treatment, every problem too 
 difficult for oral analysis, is a step in the wrong direction. 
 
 For the upper classes of the Cassel Realgymnasium the fol- 
 lowing courses are prescribed : 1 
 
 OBERSECUNDA. 
 
 I. Geometry and Trigonometry, 3 hours. Plane trig- 
 onometry and plane geometry reviewed and concluded. 
 Solid geometry. Practical applications. Text- course in upper 
 books, Koppe's ; Gauss' Logarithmic Tables. Grades. 
 
 II. Arithmetic and Algebra, 2 hours. Arithmetical and 
 geometrical series. Compound interest and annuities. Quad- 
 ratic equations with more unknowns. Permutations and 
 combinations ; binomial theorem applied to positive whole ex- 
 ponents. Text-book, Heis's. 
 
 UNTERPRIMA. 
 
 I. Geometry and Trigonometry, 3 hours. Solid geometry 
 continued. Theory of plane and spherical angles. Spherical 
 trigonometry and its application to mathematical geography. 
 Conic sections. Text-book, Koppe's. 
 
 II. Arithmetic and Algebra, 2 hours. Continued fractions 
 and applications. Arithmetical series of second order. Cubic 
 equations. Problems of maxima and minima. Reviews. 
 Text-book, Heis's. 
 
 OBERPRIMA. 
 
 I. Geometry, 3 hours. Solid geometry reviewed and con- 
 cluded. Analytic geometry. Problems in mathematical 
 geography. Geometrical drawing. 
 
 II. Arithmetic and Algebra, 2 hours. Functions and ap- 
 
 1 Weimar course : Obersecunda, 5 hoars. Solid geometry. Equations 
 of 1st and 2d degrees with more unknowns. Determinants. Arithmetical 
 and geometrical series. Compound interest and annuities. (Special tasks 
 monthly.) Primes, 5 hours. Permutations and combinations. Chance. 
 Binomial theorem. Series exponential, logarithmic, sine and cosine. 
 Analytic geometry of the plane. (Special tasks monthly.) Perspective 
 drawing and shading. Map projection.
 
 324 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 plications to higher equations, especially those of third de- 
 gree. Exponential, logarithmic and sine and cosine series. 
 Practical applications. Text-books by Koppe, Heis, and 
 Gauss. 
 
 It is not my purpose to dwell on details which may be found 
 in practice in any good American school. For this reason 
 the mere statement of what is done in the upper 
 grades is sufficient. It is of more interest to 
 know in how far these courses are actually fol- 
 lowed, and with what success. And here's the rub. No one 
 school, no single type of schools, can adequately represent 
 the work of all ; and yet a norm of some kind is necessary. 
 The Oberrealschulen are too few in number to set a standard ; 
 and, besides, their material is not the best. The ambitious 
 parent is prejudiced in favour of the Gymnasium the door 
 to all that is desirable in civil and professional life ; but if the 
 boy cannot get on there, the Realgymnasium and Realscliule 
 are next on the list. And, 011 the other hand, many classical 
 schools make a farce of mathematics ; the better the classics, 
 the worse the mathematics. The gymnasial course is con- 
 cluded with quadratics and binomial theorem, the elements 
 of solid geometry and plane trigonometry. But, other things 
 equal, the demands on the gymnasial master are as great as 
 in the Real-schools, owing to the restricted number of reci- 
 tations four a week, save in Tertia, where only three are 
 given. To overcome this difficulty, some teachers prefer to 
 divide the time of each recitation equally between algebra and 
 geometry. The objections are at once apparent. But, ham- 
 pered as the gymnasial teachers are in many ways, I have 
 been surprised to see how successfully the best of them 
 master their environment. I am convinced, however, that 
 the conditions which determine the highest results in mathe- 
 matics are to be found in the Realgymnasium- of wow-Prussian 
 states. 
 
 Pupils are promoted from class to class on the advice of the 
 teacher. He has for his guidance the marks of the regular 
 recitations, the pupil's note-books and the monthly tasks done
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 325 
 
 <e borne. Written examinations are held in some schools 
 about once a month, the regular recitation period being used 
 for the purpose ; but, so far as I have learned, 
 the practice is not general. The final examina- 
 tion of the course is both written and oral, 1 
 the latter being held by the master in the presence of a com- 
 mittee of his colleagues and the inspector, Oberschulrat, of 
 the province. In both the written and the oral examination 
 mathematics is considered a main subject. In Real-schools 
 the test is undoubtedly efficacious, and the results accepted as 
 they stand ; but everywhere gymnasial teachers are outspoken 
 against the slight put upon their efforts under cover of these 
 examinations. I am told that it really makes little differ- 
 ence whether or no a boy is proficient in mathematics, if he 
 knows his classics. The absence of an exact marking sys- 
 tem forces the teacher of mathematics to join issues of judg- 
 ment with his philological colleagues ; in questions of pupils' 
 maturity his opinion has small weight. The average boy 
 
 1 I give herewith the final written tests tor the Realgymnasien of Cassel 
 and Weimar at Easter, 1894 : 
 
 CASSEL : Time, five hours. (1) A sphere with radius r = 15 is cut by a 
 plane a into two parts, so that the entire surface of the one holds the rela- 
 tion to the other of ra : n = 3 : 2. What is the height of the smallest part ? 
 (2) Two stars appear to be at a distance of 17 15' from each other. The 
 declination of the one is 21 9', of the other 35" 8'. What is the difference 
 in right ascension between the two ? (3) A parabola and a straight line 
 have the equations, y' 1 = 4 x and y =x 3. How large is the segment of the 
 parabola which is intersected by the straight line ? (4) x = 3 + -y~ + ^' 
 
 WEIMAU : Time, six hours. (1) Find a circle touching two given 
 circles, one of them in a given point. (2) Given the longest side of a 
 triangle equal to 25 cm, and the ratio 2 : 3 : 5 of the radii of the three 
 circles touching externally, find the other two sides, the angles and the 
 radius of the inscribed circle. (3) A cone made of pine wood (sp. gravity 
 i), whose radius and altitude are the same, has had | of its volume cut 
 off at the top. How far does it, with its base turned upward, go down in 
 water ? (4) Two elipses, whose minor axes are as 1 : \/2, hav> each the 
 end of its major axis coinciding with the centre of the other. Find the 
 co-ordinates of their points of intersection, and the condition of their 
 being of the same length.
 
 326 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 is not slow to take advantage of all that comes his way. 
 Indirectly, therefore, the best interests of a department are 
 jeopardized ; weakness is introduced where there should be 
 strength. 
 
 Not only have examinations no terrors, but it is not gen- 
 erally recognised that a knowledge of mathematics increases 
 one's chances of success in professional life. 
 
 These factors a11 tend to make a complicated 
 problem the more involved. And not all mas- 
 ters are teachers. The results in such cases are deplorable in 
 any event, but especially so under German methods. When 
 all depends upon the teacher and he fails, what is to become 
 of the pupil ? He has no incentives, ideal or material, to spur 
 him on ; and if he be a genius, the very text-books discourage 
 independence. The pupil must follow ; he can neither lead 
 nor go alone. 
 
 The German ideal is very high, though possibly none too 
 high. But for ideal methods you must have ideal teachers, 
 and no one will say that Germany has too many 
 
 of such - Indeed > : am told that it; is more diffi - 
 cult to find good teachers of mathematics than of 
 
 any other subject. One cause is not far to seek. The Ger- 
 man universities are founded on the classics. For three cen- 
 turies, and more, a knowledge of Greek and Latin has been 
 the conditio sine qua non of admission to university privileges ; 
 and to-day only graduates of the Gymnasien have full rights. 
 Popular demands of the last few years have secured some con- 
 cessions for the Real-schools, but in each step the intellectual 
 monopolists have fancied an encroachment on the dignity of 
 learning. The medical fraternity, as individuals, would be 
 glad of more and better training in science and the modern 
 languages ; but the pride of the profession demands Greek 
 and Latin instead. What wonder, then, that questions of 
 caste have arisen from the partisan strife over the rights of 
 the secondary schools ! It even enters the university, and 
 casts a shadow upon those courses that are " fit only for Real- 
 school graduates." And what are these courses ? Mathematics
 
 INSTRUCTION IN MATHEMATICS 327 
 
 and Natural Sciences ! l The moral is plain. The teacher of 
 mathematics has not the social standing of the philologian. 
 Caste enters into school life, and the students see it. Nothing 
 but the force of personality can break these bonds a person- 
 ality stronger than most men have. Or, stated in another way, 
 there is nothing inherent in the office of the mathematician 
 to gain for him a social rank equal to .that indissolubly con- 
 nected with the humanistic studies. I speak especially of the 
 mathematical post in the Gymnasium; in the Real-school 
 there may not be the same internal gradations, but the school 
 itself stands on a lower level. The outlook discourages the 
 best candidates ; and, as a result, the mantle too often falls on 
 men who have not the keen, clear-cut intellects so essential to 
 success under the German system. 
 
 Despite these defects in particulars, there are advantages in 
 the German plan which no thoughtful teacher, no one charged 
 with school management, can afford to disregard. 
 The teacher is always a trained specialist. No 
 man finds a post in a German school nowadays 
 who is not master of what he purposes to teach ; he has had, 
 moreover, two years of professional training in theory and 
 practice. And, on the other side, there are (1) the unity of 
 the course, which is rendered still more effective by the inter- 
 lacing and blending of the subordinate lines ; (2) the empha- 
 sis put upon mental operations, and (3) the supreme end to- 
 ward which all aims logical thinking. These, at least, can 
 be unreservedly commended. As for the German methods, 
 the final question is, Does the pupil become an independent 
 thinker ? Granting good teachers, my answers are : JVo so far 
 as the poorest are concerned ; Very doubtful for the average ; 
 but emphatically Yes for the best in the class. To the ear- 
 nest student, the very consciousness of increasing strength and 
 clearness of vision is of itself an incentive to mastery. He 
 feels that he is getting something better than skill in the 
 manipulation of symbols. The external operation is for him 
 merely the record of his own thought convenient and useful 
 
 1 Realgymnasiasts may also study the modern languages.
 
 328 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 for the time being, but relatively unessential. " The life is 
 more than meat, and the body is more than raiment." 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Meyer, Mitteilungen aus dem mathematischen 
 Lehrplan des Stadtgymnasiums zu Halle, program of 1891 ; Becker, Zur 
 Reform des geometrischen Unterrichts, Wertheim, 1880 ; Wernicke, Die 
 Grundlage der Euklidischen Geometric, des Masses, Brunswick, 1887 ; 
 Schellbach, Uber den Inhalt und die Bedeutung des mathematischen und 
 physikalischen Unterrichts auf unseren Gymnasien, Berlin, 2d ed., 1884 ; 
 Kehrbach, Man. Ger. Peed., Vol. III. Geschichte des mathematischen 
 Unterrichts im deutschen Mittelalter bis zum Jahre 1525 ; Beier, Die 
 Mathematik im Unterricht der hoheren Schulen von der Reformation 
 bis zur Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts, Krimmitschau, 1879 ; Schellbach, 
 Der Zukunft der Mathematik, Berlin, 1887; Baumeister, Handbuch, 
 Vol. IV.; Schiller, Praktische Padagogik ; Encyclopedias of Schraid 
 and Rein ; Young, The Teaching of Mathematics in the Higher Schools 
 of Prussia, New York, 1900.
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 
 
 IN the early days of the German schools the classical lan- 
 guages and literatures formed substantially the entire curric- 
 ulum. The Reformation induced some minor 
 changes and gave a new impulse to educational Protestant 
 activity, but we are told that in Sturm's school Schools, 
 in Strasburg the most famous and influential school of the 
 sixteenth century neither history, nor mathematics, nor the 
 natural sciences, were considered of any consequence ; that 
 for thirty years even the elements of arithmetic were not 
 taught, and that throughout Sturm's long tenure of office 
 arithmetic and geometry, geography and astronomy, were 
 never much in evidence except on paper. 
 
 The Jesuits did little more in science ; pietas et boni mores, 
 their great aim in education, seems to have been conceived of 
 as independent of the physical world. But 
 with the advent of the seventeenth century a 
 new view of the world was promulgated, and 
 the necessity of man's knowing the significance of his environ- 
 ment became obvious. The ideas of Bacon were domiciled 
 in Germany by the teachings of Ratke and Comenius, but 
 it would be erroneous to suppose that the ideals of these 
 advanced thinkers were speedily realized in the father- 
 land. Not even in the Ritterakademien of the following 
 century did the natural sciences have any important place ; 
 nevertheless, the secondary schools of the eighteenth century, 
 influenced doubtless by A. H. Francke's experiments in Halle, 
 recognised for the first time the utility of certain forms of 
 
 329
 
 330 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 scientific knowledge. Utilitarian considerations, pure and 
 simple, determined the admission of Heimatskunde into the 
 curriculum of the first Real-schools, As these institutions 
 became more clearly differentiated from the humanistic 
 schools, the practical advantages of the natural sciences were 
 the more apparent ; and in place of the desultory work in 
 general science, systematic study of particular sciences was 
 introduced. 
 
 The natural sciences have been prescribed as an integral 
 
 part of the curriculum of all Prussian higher schools since 
 
 1816. The southern states did not recognise 
 
 Lehrplan of 1816. , . & 
 
 the innovation for several years ; and when they 
 did, less time was given to the sciences than in Prussia. This 
 distinction is still maintained in respect to the comparative 
 time allotment. The Prussian Gymnasium has eighteen 
 week-hours in the sciences, an average of two hours a week 
 for each class ; Bavaria gives but five hours to natural history, 
 as compared with eight hours in Prussia, and does not yet 
 recognise physics as a subject independent of mathematics ; 
 Wiirtemberg prescribes a total of fourteen week-hours for 
 natural history and physics, an average of one and four- 
 teuths hours a week. 
 
 At the present time the biological sciences are everywhere 
 completely separated from physics and chemistry. The course 
 in natural history begins in Sexta with children of nine years 
 of age, and is continued in the Prussian Gymnasien during 
 the succeeding four years, in the Realgymnasien and Ober- 
 realschulen for six years. Physics and chemistry are taught 
 only in the upper classes. 
 
 The chief aim of all instruction in the natural sciences is 
 
 to cultivate the habit of keen and accurate observation, to 
 
 strengthen the pupils' reasoning powers and 
 
 The Chief Aim. i ; f . 6 
 
 to increase his ability of expressing clearly what 
 he sees and thinks. The acquisition of a fund of systematic 
 knowledge or useful information is a secondary consideration. 
 P*%dsgogical writers and practical teachers are agreed in this ; 
 /nrthermore, there is general unanimity of opinion touching \
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 331 
 
 the subject-matter and methods of instruction. So far as is 
 possible, the material used should be taken from the pupils' 
 immediate environment ; the order of progression should be 
 from the near and simple to the more remote and difficult. 
 In methods, it is generally agreed to be advisable to work in- 
 ductively rather than deductively. A revolution in methods 
 of teaching is even now taking place. 
 
 A few years ago the ideal was to give a systematic presenta- 
 tion of each science ; the subject-matter might come from 
 near or far, providing it satisfied the general 
 
 m , r , . , . Former Ideals. 
 
 scheme. The leaders in theory and practice 
 of the present day have no hesitation in throwing over any 
 scheme that early takes the child out of his local environment 
 and substitutes for his own observation, crude though it may 
 be, the ready-made reflections of the text-book or the opinions 
 of the teacher. As between a little of all that can "be known 
 and all that can be known of a little, there can be no doubt 
 in the German mind ; to drink deep or not at all is surely a 
 German characteristic. Nevertheless, it is impossible to follow 
 out all lines that have their origin in the home environment ; 
 a selection must be made, and the government allows absolute 
 freedom of choice to schools and teachers as to what shall be 
 taught within the limits above mentioned. Success or failure, 
 therefore, in science work reflects directly upon the teachers 
 and the management of schools. 
 
 The first steps in natural history lead the child to observe 
 the simplest and most familiar forms of plant and animal life 
 in his home region. The wisdom of the teacher 
 is manifested in the selections he makes for class 
 instruction ; not all groups are represented in 
 the local flora and fauna, and consideration of too many rep- 
 resentatives from any one group is precluded for lack of time. 
 Training in observation demands that the pupil handle the 
 specimens studied and report his own opinions. In botany 
 this can be easily managed, but in zoology it becomes a differ- 
 ent problem. No laboratories are provided for individual 
 work in natural history, and consequently from the very be-
 
 332 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ginning the opportunity for individual observation is greatly 
 restricted. To overcome this obstacle, magnificent collections 
 illustrating almost every department of natural science havs 
 been gathered by many of the leading schools. In botany, 
 most schools will have a complete herbarium of domestic 
 plants and many specimens of foreign flora. Besides this, 
 models are commonly used for class demonstration, and ex- 
 cellent charts of foreign plants supplement the illustrations 
 of text-books. 
 
 Mounted animals, skeletons and preparations in alcohol are 
 found in large numbers in some schools, and are put to good 
 use in the class-room ; but without laboratory work there 
 is small chance of promoting those habits of "keen and ac- 
 curate observation " everywhere demanded of instruction in 
 science. Again, the teacher must rely largely on models 
 and charts. And although the German teacher is fortunate 
 in having his choice of the best models and charts in the 
 world, yet there is an obvious contradiction between the de- 
 mands of theory and the results of practice. In other re- 
 spects, too, practice often lags so far behind theory, that one 
 is inclined to doubt the all-sufficiency of high ideals even in 
 Germany. 
 
 It is with no little hesitancy that I attempt an explication 
 of the prevailing methods of teaching the natural sciences in 
 the German schools. So much of the instruction to which I 
 listened was unpardonably bad, that I much distrust my ability 
 to present clearly that which is obviously commendable. 
 Fortunately, my experiences were not always disappointing ; 
 and, on the whole, it may be quite as well for the reader to 
 know that German schools and German teachers are not 
 always the paragons of excellence that some would have us 
 think. 
 
 We have seen that more time is given to the sciences in the 
 
 Real-schools than in the Gymnasien in Prussia, a total of 
 
 thirty week-hours in the Realqvmnasien and 
 
 Time Allotment. .,.....-. *i 777 
 
 thirty-six in the Ooerreahclmlen, as compared 
 with eighteen in the Gymnasien. Furthermore, the science
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 333 
 
 work in the Real-schools is taken more seriously than in the 
 Gymnasien. In consequence, I have selected as a type of what 
 is done in Prussia the course of study prescribed in the Konig- 
 stadtisches Realgymnasium of Berlin. This is one of the oldest 
 Real-schools of the city, founded in 1832, and now attended 
 by nearly six hundred students. For the fifteen classes there 
 are twenty Oberlehrer and six Hilfslehrer, besides four teach- 
 ers of drawing, music and gymnastics. Three Hilfslehrer 
 and six Oberlehrer teach natural science no one, however, 
 devoting himself exclusively to science work. The most fre- 
 quent combinations are natural history, geography and arith- 
 metic ; natural history, geography and German ; physics (or 
 chemistry), algebra and geometry ; chemistry, natural his- 
 tory and arithmetic. The Director teaches physics, natural 
 history and religion. 
 
 The course followed in this school comes near the high- 
 water-mark in Prussia. Such differences as exist in other 
 schools are chiefly due, as I have shown, to the 
 preferences of individual teachers. The teacher The g < ^ r8e of 
 who delights in field work will arrange for class 
 excursions, not merely for the sake of securing botanical 
 specimens, but with a view of interesting his pupils in nature 
 and nature study. Another teacher may have a genius for 
 class-room demonstration, and succeed thereby in arousing the 
 right form of scientific curiosity. A third may know how to 
 utilize the laboratory and make it an efficient instrument in 
 promoting inductive research. The Konigstadtisches Gym- 
 nasium has such teachers, and we find represented here 
 all phases of scientific work to be found in any secondary 
 school. 
 
 The course in natural history, as outlined in the program 
 of 1895-1896, is as follows : 
 
 Sexta : 2 hours. Summer Description of various plants 
 with large and simple flowers. Explanation of morphological 
 cal principles. Winter Description of various NatnralHIpto _ 
 mammals and birds and their habits. Explana- 
 tion of the most important zoological principles and laws.
 
 334 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Text-book, Vogel, Miillenhoff, Kienitz-Gerloff, Botanik und 
 Zoologie, Teil I. 
 
 Quinta : 2 hours. Summer Comparative description of 
 plants of simple structure, with a view to their classification 
 according to common and differential characteristics. Study 
 of morphological principles continued. Winter Comparative 
 description of mammals and birds, with special attention to 
 scientific classification. The skeleton of man, of other mam- 
 mals and of birds. Text-book, same as in Sexta. 
 
 Quarta : 2 hours. Summer Comparative description of 
 related plants and species, with special attention to various 
 representatives of families of highly developed plants ( Um- 
 belliferce and Composite^). Extension and classification of 
 the principles of morphology. Toward the end of the se- 
 mester practice in plant analysis according to the Linnaean 
 system. Winter Comparative study of mammals and birds 
 continued. Description of various representatives of reptiles, 
 amphibians and fishes. Principles of the skeleton of verte- 
 brates. Classification of vertebrates. Text-book, same as in 
 Quinta. 
 
 Untertertia : 2 hours. Summer Comparative study of 
 compound flowering plants, e.g., Amentacem and Gram- 
 inacece. Characteristics of the most important families of 
 uncultivated plants. Study of plant morphology continued. 
 Study of plant growth. Analysis of plants. Winter Com- 
 parative study of the anatomy and growth of articulates. 
 Characteristics of insect species. Review of the system of 
 vertebrates. Text-book, same as in Quarta, Teil II. 
 
 Obertertia : 2 hours. Summer Study of gymnosperms 
 and cryptogams, and the most important of cultivated foreign 
 plants. Explanation of the chief morphological, biological 
 and anatomical characteristics of the same. Arrangement 
 according to the natural system of all plants thus far studied. 
 The simplest principles of plant distribution. Practice in 
 plant analysis. AVinter Description of certain representa- 
 tives of the lower animals. Review of all animals thus far 
 studied, according to types and classes of the natural system. 
 Fundamental principles of palaeontology. Text-book, same 
 as in Untertertia. 
 
 Untersecunda : 2 hours. First semester The anatomy and 
 physiology of plants and animals continued and extended. 
 Anthropology. Second semester Physical and chemical 
 peculiarities of water, air, fire and earth. Text-book, same, 
 as in Obertertia, Teil III,
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 335 
 
 The instructions of the Prussian department of education 
 emphasize observation and description of natural objects. 
 The importance of accurate description is seen in the terms 
 everywhere used in Prussia designating the first division 
 of science work, Naturbeschreibung ; the older designation, 
 Naturgeschichte, is still used in Hamburg and some of the 
 southern states. 
 
 A necessary prerequisite to observation and description is 
 that the child shall have something to observe and describe. 
 Specimens of plants may be put in the pupil's 
 hand for this purpose, and the entire work re- 
 stricted to the class-room. Such a plan may 
 give practice in description, but intelligent observation of 
 nature can be taught only by going to nature herself. The 
 structure of plants and animals may be learned in the class- 
 room and laboratory ; but the significance of plant and animal 
 life, the interdependence of the lower and higher orders and 
 the influence of climate, soil and moisture upon all forms 
 of life are to be seen only out-of-doors. For this purpose 
 class excursions are usually arranged on half-holidays. The 
 Konigstddtisches Gymnasium arranges for one excursion a 
 week. Pupils of any class in natural history may take part, 
 but the participation is optional. The success of the under- 
 taking is entirely dependent upon the teacher. As may 
 be imagined, some teachers have more followers than they can 
 readily manage ; others, after making a few trials, conclude 
 that field work is a farce. 
 
 These excursions are generally of a half-day's duration, 
 but in some schools there is a midsummer outing of a week 
 or two. The pupils visit various places of in- 
 
 , . * ,. f , Class.Excursiona. 
 
 terest pertaining to some particular study or 
 line of work which they are about to begin. Geographical 
 points are located, and historical events impressed upon the 
 children's minds by perceiving the actual places of their oc- 
 currence. Botany, zoology, geography, geology and miner- 
 alogy are thus studied objectively, and much material is col- 
 lected for use in the class-room. The appearance and habits
 
 336 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 of various birds and animals are discovered by experience ; 
 the life and habitat of many plants are made known ; and 
 all this, scientifically conducted and explained by the teacher, 
 serves not only to increase the knowledge but also the inter- 
 est of the pupil in the pursuit of his studies. The main ob- 
 ject, that of increasing the power of observation, is certainly 
 accomplished. It is a difficult matter in the large cities to 
 arrange for excursions far enough into the country to see na- 
 ture at her best, but parks and zoological gardens offer a fair 
 substitute. It must be said, however, that a trip through a 
 city park does not furnish much material for class use. To 
 offset this difficulty, many city schools have adopted the 
 charming expedient of maintaining flower-gardens of their 
 own. The children plant the seeds and tend their growth, 
 labelling each specimen in true botanical fashion. I have 
 observed, too, that in some of the smaller towns the schools 
 have not only beautiful gardens of flowering plants, but min- 
 iature parks, set out with trees and shrubs of rare beauty. A 
 more effective means of awakening an interest in botany, I 
 think, would be hard to devise. Here is a suggestion of what 
 might be done with the spacious grounds of our American 
 public schools. 
 
 I have already spoken of the part played in instruction by 
 
 the school museum. Considered as a means of elucidating 
 
 obscure problems incident to class teaching, 
 
 School Museums. A 
 
 these collections are very valuable. In this 
 respect some secondary schools rival the smaller universities. 
 The danger is that, so long as somewhere in the school there 
 is a chart, model or mounted specimen of each object studied 
 in class, the museum will be drawn upon for its stores to the 
 neglect of almost all field work. Precisely this state of af- 
 fairs exists in the majority of schools that I have visited. My 
 own experience would lead me to say that the average teacher 
 relies almost exclusively upon accumulated stores of past- 
 years. While in tneory each pupil is expected to have in 
 his hands a specimen of all the common plants as they are 
 discussed in class, I have seen the pea studied by a class of
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 337 
 
 thirty boys from a model that was not taken from the teacher's 
 desk during the hour ; and at the close of the lesson not a 
 word was said about noting the plant in its cultivated state, 
 although acres of it were growing within a mile of the site, 
 but, on the contrary, the home task as assigned was to copy 
 the drawing given in the text-book. I still have my doubts 
 whether the majority of the class did not conceive of the true 
 flower as being about a foot in diameter. 
 
 Such an instance as the one just related is, of course, an 
 extreme case. The teacher, if he had any object other than 
 drawing his salary, was aiming at systematic botany. And, 
 notwithstanding the efforts of recent years, many of the sci- 
 ence teachers are still engaged in teaching botany and zo- 
 ology, physics and chemistry. There is plenty of evidence 
 of this in almost every school. Even the course of study 
 outlined above seems to emphasize at every turn the syste- 
 matic presentation of the subjects. In the last resort, we must 
 turn to the methods employed in instruction rather than the 
 material of the course in order to evaluate correctly the work 
 in natural history. 
 
 Observation, inference and description go hand in hand. 
 Assuming that a class is provided with something to examine, 
 it is a teacher's business to see that right ob- 
 servations are made. Nothing is gained by 
 puzzling the child or allowing him to waste 
 time and energy in a fruitless search for something he might 
 find instantly if properly guided. As if anyone ever learned 
 to see by groping in the dark ! This conception of teaching 
 is characteristically German. One of its principal advant- 
 ages is that it permits the teacher to lead his pupils quickly 
 and easily to an understanding of some general principle 
 which might otherwise be misinterpreted or overlooked en- 
 tirely. The course of study, therefore, outlines the general 
 principles which are to be arrived at ; the teacher alone is 
 responsible for the methods of procedure. 
 
 I find among my notes a fairly typical lesson in zoology 
 with boys of ten years of age (Quintet). The school /s a pri-
 
 338 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 vate institution in central Germany ; the topic, " The Seal." 
 The lesson opened with a review of the families of animals 
 already studied, a few individuals being cited 
 as characteristics of each group. Next followed 
 a brief summary of the previous lesson, on the 
 means of identifying animals by the teeth and skull. Speci- 
 mens of these parts were distributed among the class, and each 
 boy was requested to name the animal to which his specimen 
 belonged and state the grounds on which he based his infer- 
 ence. Great interest was manifested in this part of the work, 
 which was continued for about twenty minutes. 
 
 The teacher next directed their attention to a finely 
 mounted seal standing upon his desk. His questions ran 
 somewhat as follows : " What is it ? Who has seen one ? 
 Where ? What did it do ? How long can it stay under 
 water ? What does it do when it comes again to the surface ? 
 How is it able to stay so long under water ? Why does it go 
 under water ? What does it get there ? What else will it 
 eat ? Will it eat fresh-water fish ? (Several boys are called 
 up to examine its nose and feet.) What about his legs 
 number, shape fingers, etc. ? How can it close its nostrils ? 
 What can you say of its coat ? How does the fur lie ? What 
 advantage is it to the animal ? How long are its whiskers ? 
 What are they for ? How long is this seal ? (Boy measures 
 it, and reports to class.) How broad ? What is the shape of 
 its body ? Why does it not freeze in the ice-cold water ? 
 Is the body of the living seal of the same temperature as the 
 water ? What is the temperature of this room ? What is the 
 temperature of your body ? What enables the seal to keep 
 so warm amid such cold surroundings ?" 
 
 From the trend of these questions, it is easy to infer the 
 answers given by the class. In regard to the habits and 
 habitat of the seal, the teacher had to supplement the knowl- 
 edge of the class. The main purpose of the lesson, apparently, 
 was to emphasize the difference in temperature between the 
 animal's body and its surroundings. The subject of food as- 
 similation and oxidation of tissue was treated at length. The
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 339 
 
 recitation, measured both by the interest manifested by the 
 pupils and the skill with which the teacher brought the les- 
 son home to them, was a decided success. 
 
 An essential part of the descriptive work in science is the 
 making of a detail drawing of every object studied in class. 
 In general, this is the only home task in science 
 work. The care exercised in writing up the 
 note-books and in making the drawings is everywhere appar- 
 ent ; sometimes, I suspect, teachers of doubtful ability cover 
 up their own sins by fine displays of note-books on all public 
 occasions. But, whatever the motive may be, it is certainly 
 true that drawing is of most effective service in all science 
 teaching. 
 
 Laboratory work, as has been said, is practically unknown 
 in natural history. The nearest approach to it is in plant 
 analysis, but the methods employed preclude 
 
 ,. J ' . i mu Laboratory Work. 
 
 the possibility of independent work. The pro- 
 cess is precisely the same as is followed in the solution of 
 mathematical problems. Pupils are not given a number of 
 specimens and told to work them out previous to the next 
 lesson. Having learned inductively the main principles of 
 the Linnaean system from the classification of individuals 
 studied, this knowledge is applied in the process of identify- 
 ing new specimens. The teacher asks for each of the essential 
 characteristics. The responses of the class are based on strict 
 observation of the specimen in hand. At each step the 
 teacher reviews past observations and calls up the peculiarities 
 of the various classes, orders and families. Under such 
 leadership, it would be strange if any pupil should fail in 
 identifying his specimen. Notwithstanding the great stress 
 put upon observation and description in natural history, one 
 is forced to the conclusion that there is little independent 
 observation or unbiased description. 
 
 There is something to be said for the teacher who is unable 
 to make his work popular and successful. The residuum of 
 many conversations with science teachers and others is to 
 this effect : In the first place, the universities, where all sec-
 
 340 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ondary teachers must get their training, give no heed what- 
 soever to the needs of the schools. The sciences are taught 
 in the most thorough and intensive manner 
 P ssible - In other words, the man who after 
 five years of advanced study in the university, 
 the greater part of the time devoted to independent research, 
 can adapt himself to the needs of nine-year-old children is a 
 genius. It is too much to expect of the average man till the 
 university offers training courses for teachers. In the second 
 place, the government, while apparently expecting field work 
 from the fact that botany is regularly put in* the summer 
 semester, makes absolutely no provision for it and allows no 
 credit for what may be done. It means, too, that teachers 
 and pupils must give up their half-holidays to outside work. 
 Furthermore, the government makes no allowance for the 
 extra demands made upon the science teacher in the collection 
 and preservation of material, the preparation of objects for 
 demonstration and the supervision of the laboratory work ; 
 he must put in full time twenty to twenty-four hours a 
 week the same as his colleagues. And, finally, the excuse is 
 often urged that in the Gymnasium the pupils feel it is of 
 small consequence whether they are proficient in the sciences 
 or not ; there is no final examination, and even the indolent 
 and dullards will be promoted if only they know some Latin, 
 Greek and German. The science teacher, especially if he 
 be not cast in the classical mould, sometimes is made to feel 
 that his social and professional standing is questionable. 
 
 Such statements, though coming from thoughtful teachers, 
 should not be regarded as the whole truth. It is unquestion- 
 ably true that in some schools the teachers of 
 
 Class Distinctions , J 
 
 science belong to a different social stratum 
 from the other teachers ; but the accident of birth is the 
 important factor. A gentleman may teach science and not 
 lose caste. Germany is far from being a pure democracy, and 
 social distinctions are not always obliterated by recognition 
 of personal worth. On the other hand, there is just cause for 
 complaint from gymnasial teachers when proficiency in other
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 341 
 
 subjects will secure a pupil's promotion in science. This is a 
 serious problem ; and, so long as the government leaves it un- 
 solved, there can be no doubt that science is really considered 
 a second or third-rate study. 
 
 But after all the shortcomings in the teaching of natural 
 history in the German schools are discovered, we are obliged to 
 express high regard for what is accomplished 
 by the leaders of the new movement. As a Jena c ^ e uasial 
 conspicuous instance of the acme of arrange- 
 ment and method, I subjoin an outline of the course in nature 
 study followed during the first two years in the Jena Gym- 
 nasium. It will be noted that the aim is not only to give 
 the child information about nature, but to help him to see 
 scientific facts in their interrelations. For this purpose 
 nature study is closely correlated with Heimatskunde that 
 branch of study which aims to give the child an elementary 
 knowledge of his home environment, physical and social. 
 Side by side with the study of botany and zoology goes that 
 of geography, history and the legendary tradition of the 
 country. Few schools in Germany show such careful atten- 
 tion to details, and have so successfully worked out the cor- 
 relations with kindred subjects. 
 
 Nature study in Sexta : l The local environment : (a) 
 Surface elevations ; hills and valleys of the neighbourhood, 
 (b) Water-courses and roads : formation of valleys. Neigh- 
 bouring watersheds. Influence of the water-courses on the 
 local industries ; grist-mills on the smaller streams ; city 
 woollen mills on the Saale. Land, road and water-ways : 
 paths, roads, highways, railroads, boating, rafting, (c) 
 Climate of mountains and valleys. Influence of mountain 
 and forest on atmosphere. Vegetation of mountain sides 
 influenced by position, exposure, etc. (d) Plants and ani- 
 mals : grasses cultivated for fodder (clover, lucerne, etc.), 
 grains (wheat, rye, oats, barley, etc.), esculent plants, plants 
 valuable for manufacturing purposes (flax, hops, etc.), garden 
 fruits and wild flowers (violet, rose, bell-flower, sunflower, 
 
 1 See Program of the Jena Gymnasium, 1891.
 
 342 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 crane's bill, etc.). Plant life : distribution, habitat, depend- 
 ence on soil, climate and animals these facts to be pointed 
 out and studied on the class excursions. The animals studied 
 are as follows : bat, porcupine, mole, shrew-mouse, field- 
 mouse, weasel, squirrel, swine, deer, horse, duck, goose, 
 eagle, woodpecker, song-bird, common adder, lizard, frog, 
 carp, honey-bee, May beetle and ant. Interdependence of 
 animals and man. 
 
 In Quinta the work is extended beyond the local environ- 
 ment, but is conducted upon the same general principles. 
 While the geography of Thuringia is being 
 s ^ u( iied, the names and location of the moun- 
 tains, towns, valleys and river - courses are 
 learned. In the lessons devoted exclusively to nature study, 
 the influences of these natural phenomena upon the climate 
 and industrial life of the people are emphasized. Special 
 industries and natural resources of certain towns, as glass- 
 blowing, the making of pottery, mining of iron and coal, hot 
 springs, etc., are carefully explained, and, when possible, ex- 
 cursions are made to the more accessible towns. The prod- 
 ucts of the land, its flora and fauna, are studied in so far as 
 it is a continuation of the work in Sexta. In a country so 
 diversified as central Germany, it is possible to find types of 
 the most common plants and animals within a radius of fifty 
 or a hundred miles. The extensive mountain forests, with 
 their well-stocked parks (game animals) and fertile valleys, 
 afford abundant opportunity for elementary study of forestry 
 and the more important agricultural industries. 
 
 The excellent results obtained in the Jena Gymnasium in 
 some classes, and in some schools in all classes, lead me to 
 infer that when the sciences are poorly taught the causes are 
 not far to seek. "Where there's a will there's a way" is 
 certainly true in respect of this subject, as of all others. The 
 reason why most schools have no " way " worth following is 
 because there is no " will " worth consideration. This is 
 conspicuously true in the case of physics and chemistry in 
 all Gymnasien, and with botany and zoology in not a few.
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 343 
 
 Thus far I have been considering chiefly the teaching of 
 natural history in the first six years of the higher schools. 
 Inasmuch as the age of the pupils in Sexta is between nine 
 and ten years, the greater part of the course would corre- 
 spond to the upper primary and grammar school course in 
 American schools. The work in physics and chemistry in 
 the German schools corresponds more nearly to our high- 
 school standards. 
 
 The following outline of the course in physics and chem- 
 istry is from the program of the Konigstddtisches Realgym- 
 nasium, Berlin, 1895-1896 : 
 
 UNTERSECUNDA. 
 
 Physics, 3 hours. First semester : Frictional electricity, 
 and phenomena out of the domain of magnetism and galvan- 
 ic electricity. Acoustics and optics. Second 
 semester : Mechanics of solid, liquid and ga- 
 seous bodies. General properties of matter. 
 Parallelogram of forces and of motion. Laws of falling and 
 vertically projected bodies. The simple machines. Text- 
 book, Jochmann, Grundriss der Experimental Physik. 
 
 OBERSECUNDA. 
 
 Physics, 3 hours. First semester : Magnetism and gal- 
 vanic electricity. Second semester : Heat. Repetition and 
 extension of mechanics, especially of oblique projection and 
 of central motion. Text-book, same as in Untersecunda. 
 
 Chemistry, 2 hours. First semester : Discussion of the 
 elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, 
 iodine, fluorine, in connection with experiments suitably se- 
 lected. Foundation of the conception of element, compound, 
 base, acid and salt. The law of Marriotte and Gay-Lussac 
 [the gas law, PV = RT], the law of combination by weight 
 and by volume [law of Gay-Lussac], the hypothesis of Avoga- 
 dro, the molecule, the atom, valance. The regular [isometric] 
 system (magnetite, rock-salt, fluor-spar), the quadratic [te- 
 tragonal] system (cassiterite). Angle measurement with the 
 goniometer, the solution of stoichiometrical problems. Sec- 
 ond semester : Discussion of the elements sulphur, phos- 
 phorus, arsenic, boron, carbon and silicon, with experiments.
 
 344 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Extension of the crystallographic idea. The orthorhombic 
 and monoclinic systems (snlphur). Dimorphism, allotro- 
 pism ; the rhombohedral system (calcite, quartz). Angle 
 measurement with the goniometer. Solution of s.toichiomet- 
 rical problems. 
 
 UNTERPRIMA. 
 
 Physics, 3 hours. First semester : Wave theory, acoustiCb 
 and optics. Second semester : Mechanics. In both semes- 
 ters, reviews and more thorough mathematical treatment of 
 particular parts of the earlier work. Solution of problems. 
 Text-book, same as in Untersecunda. (Physical laboratory 
 exercises, 2 hours, optional.) 
 
 Chemistry, 2 hours. First semester : Discussion of the 
 elements potassium, sodium, calcium, barium, strontium and 
 magnesium, with experiments. Vapour density. Volumetric 
 analysis. Extension of the crystallographic idea (hemihe- 
 drism, twinning, isomorphism, pseudomorphism ; the phys- 
 ical appearance of crystals). Manufacture of gunpowder ; 
 production of salt, soda, chalk and gypsum. Angle meas- 
 urement with the reflection goniometer. Solution of stoichi- 
 ometrical problems. Second semester : Discussion of the 
 elements of zinc, lead, iron, copper, manganese, cobalt, nickel, 
 chromium. The law of Dulong and Petit. Extension of the 
 crystallographic idea. The monoclinic system (green vitriol). 
 The triclinic system (blue vitriol). Metallurgy of ores of 
 lead, zinc, iron and copper. Solution of stoichiometrical 
 problems. Technological excursions. Work in the chemical 
 laboratory. Illustration of preparations. Qualitative anal- 
 ysis by the "wet" method. Blow-pipe analysis ("dry" 
 method). Physical experiments important for chemistry. 
 
 OBERPRIMA. 
 
 Physics, 3 hours. First semester : Optics. Second semes- 
 ter : Mechanics. In both semesters, reviews and more thor- 
 ough discussion of parts of the earlier work, especially quan- 
 titative determinations and methods of measurement. Text- 
 book, same as above. (Physical laboratory exercises, 2 hours, 
 optional.) 
 
 Chemistry, 2 hours. First semester : Discussion of the 
 elements tin, aluminum, antimony, bismuth, mercury, silver, 
 gold, platinum, with experiments. Manufacture of alum. 
 Periodicity of the elements. Solution of stoichiometrical
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 345 
 
 problems. Work in the chemical laboratory. Illustration 
 of preparations. Some quantitative determinations. Volu- 
 metric analysis. Second semester : Introduction to organic 
 chemistry. Elementary ("ultimate") analysis. Acids, al- 
 cohols, aromatic substances, carbohydrates, fermentation, al- 
 buminates, organic synthesis. Chemical theories. Manufact- 
 ure of paper, starch and sugar. General view of the natural 
 processes of the organic world (germination, food assimilation, 
 respiration, decomposition, putrefaction). Solution of stoi- 
 chiometrical problems. Technological excursions. (Work in 
 the chemical laboratory. Illustrations of organic prepara- 
 tions ; determination of sugar by chemical and optical meth- 
 ods, 2 hours, optional.) 
 
 This outline leaves little to be said on the subject-matter of 
 instruction in physics and chemistry. The aim in the teach- 
 ing of physics, as in natural history, is not so 
 much acquaintance with a large number of 
 facts as the cultivation of the pupil's ability to 
 make accurate observations and the development of his 
 logical powers, chiefly with reference to the causal relations 
 existing between particular natural phenomena. In this re- 
 spect the Real-schools can show better results than the Gym- 
 nasien. But in all schools the government emphasizes the 
 need of scientific observation, confirmed and strengthened by 
 a certain amount of formal practice. 
 
 According to the Prussian syllabus of 1892, the course in 
 physics is divided into two parts. The part first is intended to 
 give the pupil some notion of the fundamental 
 principles of the subject as exemplified in the 
 ordinary and more familiar manifestations of nature ; it is 
 concluded with Untersecunda. The continuation of the 
 course aims to give those who may pass on to the university 
 a more comprehensive understanding of physical laws and 
 their applications. This division is in strict accord with a 
 prevailing idea of the Berlin Conference, that those leaving 
 school at sixteen should have as symmetrical training as it is 
 possible to provide. Only the most important principles are 
 taught in the first part of the course, and much stress is put
 
 346 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 upon the application of these to the practical affairs of every- 
 day life. 1 
 
 The advanced course is first of all a repetition and extension 
 of the earlier work, and in the second place a more extended 
 mathematical treatment of the subject. This latter phase 
 of the work can be done successfully only in the Real-schools, 
 inasmuch as the mathematics taught in most Gymnasien is in- 
 sufficient for the purpose. The Realgymnasium of Weimar, 
 for example, provides a special course in mathematics during 
 the last two years devoted exclusively to mechanics. Particu- 
 lar attention is given to mathematical geography and the ele- 
 ments of astronomy. 
 
 It is only in the Oberrealschulen that a separate course in 
 chemistry is given in Untersecunda. Other schools are re- 
 quested to present a few important chemical 
 facts in connection with the study of galvanic 
 electricity. At best, but little can be done. Organic chem- 
 istry and its applications are practically untouched in all 
 schools ; any consideration whatever of the subject must be 
 purely incidental, and confined to those processes of greatest 
 practical importance. 
 
 Stoichiometry is the one branch of chemistry which is thor- 
 oughly taught, and it is the mathematical treatment of this 
 branch which receives most attention. Mineralogy is a side 
 issue ; so far as I have observed, it amounts to little more 
 than a formal study of crystallography. 
 
 A text-book is always employed in teaching physics and 
 chemistry, precisely in the same manner as in teaching nat- 
 ural history. But, unlike the methods com- 
 monly found in American and English schools, 
 German teachers invariably use these books for reference 
 only. It is not expected, however, that they will take the 
 place of the elaborate compendiums found in each school- 
 room ; they are mere outlines of the subject, intended to as- 
 
 1 Full information of what may be accomplished in this preliminary 
 course may be found in the Zeitschrift fur den physikalischen und chcmi- 
 tchen Untemcht, Jahrgang K, Heft 4 (April, 1892).
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 347 
 
 sist the pupil in making scientific classifications, not for pur- 
 poses of recitation. In fact, as we have repeatedly observed, 
 the German teacher never assigns a lesson in advance to be 
 studied out at home. Recitations, therefore, at least in the 
 American sense, are unknown. 
 
 A typical lesson always includes a review of the principles 
 and experiments of past lessons which have a direct bear- 
 ing upon what is next to be presented. The 
 teacher explains the nature of the apparatus 
 with which he is to deal, and places it upon his 
 desk in full view of the entire class. (It may be observed, in 
 passing, that school-houses of recent construction have a lect- 
 ure-room for the classes in physics and chemistry in which 
 the seats are elevated, generally in a semicircle about the 
 teacher's desk.) Certain conditions are stated, and the class 
 questioned as to what results may reasonably be expected. 
 This preliminary discussion having carefully prepared the 
 way for a right understanding of the experiment, the demon- 
 stration by the teacher follows. The students are required 
 to make note of the apparatus used, the principles involved, 
 the conditions under which the reaction occurred and the 
 results obtained. By means of a running fire of questions, the 
 teacher keeps himself informed in regard to the mental state 
 of his class ; for it is his duty to see not only that all under- 
 stand the trend of the experiment, but also that its signifi- 
 cance is realized. 
 
 German practice is always consistent in its adherence to 
 the idea that good teaching never leaves the pupil in doubt. 
 In mathematics he is not assigned a problem to 
 wrestle with by himself alone ; in the early days 
 of his language study all the translations are 
 made in class ; and even in natural history we have seen how 
 he is guided, step by step, first in making his observations 
 and then in describing what be has discovered. 
 
 We observe the same facts in the prevailing methods of 
 teaching physics and chemistry. Every principle worth 
 demonstrating is illustrated in class. But the teacher does
 
 348 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 more than demonstrate ; he teaches as well. And successful 
 teaching requires that present impressions be definitely re- 
 lated to past experiences. Wrong relationships, or none at 
 all, are an inevitable consequence of misapprehension. For 
 this reason the German teacher counts it his duty to prevent 
 his students drawing wrong inferences. They have not yet 
 arrived at the stage of independent study ; that comes in the 
 university. In the secondary schools no time should be wasted 
 in beating about the bush. The ability to make an occasional 
 lucky guess is in nowise identical with sustained logical 
 thought. 
 
 At the conclusion of a lesson topic, the pupil is directed to 
 consult his text-book and afterward write up his notes. This 
 done, the teacher inspects the book at his leisure. 
 
 Laboratory exercises, if required at all, are introduced at 
 
 this point, in order that students may themselves duplicate 
 
 the experiment performed by the teacher or 
 
 Laboratory Work. J 
 
 make other demonstrations putting to practical 
 test the knowledge just acquired. The function of laboratory 
 practice, as will be seen, is to make application of facts 
 already learned, not at all for the purpose of presenting new 
 truths or arriving at new deductions. Inasmuch as laboratory 
 practice is optional, and the exigencies of the time-card 
 usually place it out of school hours, few students enter 
 for it. 
 
 No harm is done, however, if only a part of the class avail 
 themselves of the opportunity. They learn something there- 
 by, to be sure ; but their previous knowledge is intensified 
 rather than extended. In other words, the certainty of pro- 
 motion is not jeopardized by failure to elect the laboratory 
 course. 
 
 Probably the best adducible evidence of the relative value 
 of the various studies, as popularly estimated, is the part each 
 
 plays in the final examination. Judged in this 
 Examinations wav > * ne 8 i ences take low rank. Physics may 
 
 be counted as a fourth part of mathematics in 
 the gymnasial examination ; in the .ReaZ-schools, one problem
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 349 
 
 is assigned in physics and one in chemistry. 1 The worst of it 
 is that "nothing short of a miracle," to quote a German 
 teacher, "can prevent the promotion of the most deficient 
 member of the class, provided his attainments be satisfactory 
 in other subjects." 
 
 In conclusion, it need hardly be said that the teaching of 
 science in the German secondary schools is intended primarily 
 to provide formal discipline of the powers of observation, of 
 logical thought and accurate description. Evidence is not 
 wanting to show that the sciences are not taught as distinct 
 
 1 The problems in science assigned at the Abiturientenprufung in the 
 Konigstadtisches Realgymnasium, Berlin, were as follows : 
 
 Physics, Michaelmas, 1895. " To determine the internal resistance of 
 a Bunsen battery cell, the following experiments are made : 
 
 " (a) In one arm of a Wheatstone's bridge a resistance of one ohm is in- 
 serted ; in the other arm, a rheostat. The galvanometer needle shows no 
 deviation when the rheostat resistance, rj=4.5 turns of the wire. 
 
 " (b) There is now introduced into one arm of the bridge a copper wire 
 whose length, 1=9.8 meters, and whose thickness, d=l millimeter; and 
 again in the other arm, the rheostat. The galvanometer needle now 
 shows no deviation when the rheostat resistance, r a =0.84 turns of the 
 wire. 
 
 " (c) Through the same copper wire, and through a tangent galvanometer 
 (joined in series), a current is led by means of the Bunsen cell under 
 investigation. The needle of the tangent-galvanometer now shows a devia- 
 tion, a, = 17 30'. 
 
 " (d) A second and like Bunsen cell is now introduced into the circuit in 
 series with the first. The needle now shows a deviation, a t =25. 
 
 " How great, according to these experiments, is the internal resistance 
 of a Bunsen cell ? 
 
 " Further, how great, according to the experimental results obtained, is 
 the specific resistance of copper ? 
 
 " The above experiments especially the arrangement and mode of oper- 
 ation of the Wheatstone's bridge are to be described and explained by 
 means of a simple diagrammatic figure." 
 
 Chemistry, Easter, 1896. " The description of the most important 
 chemical and crystallographic properties of silicic acid, and the explana- 
 tion of its importance in the plant and animal kingdoms, with some ex- 
 amples."
 
 350 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 subjects, but as a means of assisting the individual to a more 
 complete realization of his environment. Pedagogic writers 
 emphasize repeatedly the futility of attempting 
 
 to &* ve ^ e P re P arator y student a thorough 
 knowledge of the principles even of a single 
 science ; this is the work of the university. The aim of 
 the secondary schools should be to provide such training 
 as will enable the student when he enters upon his university 
 career to begin the study of any science intelligently. In 
 other words, an understanding of the relations existing be- 
 tween sciences is of more worth than an extensive knowledge 
 of any one. Therefore, the principles of biology and of 
 physics, properly taught, are the sole requisite for entrance 
 upon university work. The physical conditions under which 
 life develops are an important accessory to the study of bi- 
 ology, and the principles of chemistry supplement advanta- 
 geously the teachings of physics. 
 
 The presence of laboratories well equipped for individual 
 work, and supported by annual appropriations, in most Ger- 
 man schools, shows that the present method of 
 
 Recent Tendencies. . ... ,. . ,. 
 
 science teaching is a reaction against earlier no- 
 tions concerning the function of laboratory practice. So long 
 as the aim was to teach the sciences per se, laboratory work 
 was necessary for each individual ; but with the advent of the 
 idea that the sciences are no more to be considered independ- 
 ent studies than other subjects of the curriculum, and that 
 mental development of the pupil is of more consequence than 
 definite information in any one subject, class instruction at 
 once comes into the foreground. Laboratory work is still 
 counted an exercise of great value, but its aim is to facili- 
 tate application rather than to promote individ- 
 Vaiue of j investigation. The right use of the induc- 
 
 Laboratory. . . 
 
 tive method by no means shifts the responsibility 
 from the teacher to the pupil. The teacher must do even 
 more teaching ; in fact, the pupil can be more safely trusted 
 to work independently along deductive lines than inductive. 
 But as I have repeatedly cautioned the reader not to confound
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES 351 
 
 class instruction with the hearing of a recitation, no one will 
 identify the German method of teaching science with certain 
 practices well-nigh universal in America. 
 
 We may criticise the methods of the German teacher how 
 we will ; we may disapprove of his selection of subject-matter, 
 his apparatus, laboratory and text-book ; and 
 
 **. . "1 -ii - A Kesults Attained. 
 
 especially we may refuse to recognise the legit- 
 imacy of his aim and the worth of his ideals ; and yet, when 
 all is said, the German teacher has some convincing arguments 
 in store. He can point triumphantly to a long line of Ger- 
 man scientists, once his pupils. He will tell us that all stu- 
 dents entering the university are familiar with at least the 
 elements of physical and biological science ; that this work has 
 been an integral part of their school training for nine years ; 
 that the classical students are broadened by contact with the 
 real studies, and that the scientific men are more liberal for 
 having included the humanities in their education. The 
 clinching argument, however an argument convincing at 
 least to the commercial world is that the marvellous indus- 
 trial progress of Germany in the last quarter-century is due 
 ultimately to the superior skill and wisdom of the German 
 scientists. England to-day witness the recent action of the 
 government in promoting the teaching of science and the res- 
 olutions of learned societies and trade-unions is assured that 
 the preservation of her supremacy in the markets of the world 
 is largely dependent on her ability to train up such scientists 
 as now direct the development of the industrial arts in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Rossmassler, Der natunzissenschaftliche Un- 
 terricht, Leipsic, 1860; Loew, Die Stellung der Schule zu naturw. Un- 
 terricht, Berlin, 1874 ; Schwalbe, Geschichte und Stand der Methodik in 
 den Natururissenschaften, Berlin, 1877; Baenitz, Der naturw. Unterricht 
 an gehob. Lehranstalten, Berlin, 2d ed., 1882; Zwick, Der naturw. Unter- 
 richt, Berlin, 2d ed., 1884; Piltz, Aufgaben und Fragen fur Naturbeo- 
 bachtung, Weimar, 3d ed., 1887; Zeitschrift fur den physikalischen und 
 chemischen Unterricht, Berlin; Baumeister, Ifandbitch,Vo\. IV. ; Encyclo- 
 pedias of Schmid and Rein ; Schiller, Praktische Pddagogik.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 
 
 TEACHING has been a profession in Germany since the 
 close of the Napoleonic wars. The first decade of the cen- 
 tury marks the turning-point from the old re- 
 </* me t the new. Up to that time the teachers 
 had been either novices awaiting holy orders or 
 one-legged veterans unfitted for further military service. At 
 least, such instances were sufficiently numerous to give the 
 impression that the schools were philanthropic institutions, 
 designed chiefly to afford employment to those who might 
 otherwise become public charges. 
 
 Early in the seventeenth century Ratke and Comenius had 
 urged the necessity of having trained teachers in the schools. 
 In 1707 Francke established the Seminarium 
 Development selectum prceceptorum in Halle the outgrowth 
 of several years of trial in the training of teach- 
 ers ; and under his influence more than a thousand Volks- 
 schulen were created in Prussia by Frederick William I., and 
 placed under teachers nominated, as far as possible, by 
 Francke himself. Under Frederick the Great the policy of 
 securing trained teachers for the elementary schools was ad- 
 hered to, and teachers' seminaries became a necessary part of 
 the public school system. The next important step was 
 taken in 1763, when Frederick the Great ordered that all teach- 
 ers should be required to pass a state examination in certain 
 specified subjects, and that only those persons who had been 
 trained in the Berlin Seminary should be eligible for ap- 
 pointment as teachers in elementary schools supported by the 
 
 352
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 353 
 
 crown. It is certain that the regulations of Frederick the 
 Great made a great advance in the condition of the public 
 schools and in the position of the teachers ; but, so long as 
 there were non-public schools, many of them entirely re- 
 moved from government influence, whose teachers were ap- 
 pointed by the church or private patrons, there could be no 
 standards applicable to all. It was the Allgemeine Landrecht 
 of 1794 that finally declared all schools to be state institu- 
 tions, and at all times subject to the inspection and examina- 
 t ; on of the state. 
 
 The complete secularization of the secondary schools fol- 
 lowed tardily after the emancipation of the elementary 
 schools from ecclesiastical control. Appli- separation of 
 cants for positions in the higher schools were school and 
 required to show their fitness by examination 
 or otherwise even prior to 1790, but the clergy still main- 
 tained the upper hand. In 1779 Frederick' the Great struck 
 the first serious blow at clerical influence ; he decreed that 
 henceforth " philosophy should be taught in the higher 
 schools only by laymen." All during the century able school- 
 masters had been trained in the Seminarium in Halle, and 
 they were men of influence in the state. Many students of 
 Gottingen, between the years 1735 and 1775, fell under the 
 spell of Gesner and Heyne, and thereby grew into enthusi- 
 astic teachers of the classics. Indeed, the Zeitgeist of the 
 last half of the eighteenth century was decidedly helpful in 
 promoting an interest in the work of the classical schools for 
 its own sake ; and just as the work of the schools was appre- 
 ciated for its own sake did the social rank of the teachers rise 
 in importance. But still it was lamentably true that the ex- 
 amination for teachers' certificates was the examination for 
 holy orders. 
 
 The death of Frederick the Great, in 1786, left many of 
 his plans for the improvement of the higher schools unfin- 
 ished. His successor, however, established in the first year 
 of his reign an Oberschulcollegium, which was given the 
 supervision of secondary education in the kingdom. A year 
 
 23
 
 354 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 later, in 1788, it was decreed that students should take a final 
 
 examination on leaving the Gymnasien ; in 1812 the require- 
 
 workof ment was made obligatory and universal. In 
 
 Frederick the this way the government ascertained the qual- 
 ity of secondary - school work, but students 
 might enter the university and study for the learned profes- 
 sions whether they passed this examination or not. Indeed, 
 not till 1834 was it finally settled that the certificate of grad- 
 uation from a higher school was an essential prerequisite for 
 admission to the university, and eventually to the professions 
 and the higher grades of the civil service. 
 
 By the establishment of the Oberschulcollegium the church 
 was deprived of some important prerogatives ; still others 
 were taken away by the Allgemeine Landrecht 
 of 1794 5 but the com P lete emancipation of the 
 teacher from ecclesiastical control was secured 
 in 1810, by an order requiring of all intending teachers in the 
 higher schools an examination separate and distinct from the 
 examination for admission to holy orders. However easy 
 the step might he for a theological student to become a 
 higher-school teacher, yet it was a step that he had to take ; 
 and he had to take it just as other candidates did by exam- 
 ination before a board of teachers. Then teaching became a 
 profession, and the teacher a highly honoured member of the 
 civil service. Every subsequent enactment has been to in- 
 crease the dignity of the profession, and to make its honours 
 more difficult of attainment. Every decade has seen some 
 additional requirement made of those who would enter the 
 ranks ; and with every decade there have come increased 
 emoluments and social advantages of a nature to invite 
 service. The result is the best equipped and most exclusive 
 body of teachers in the world. 
 
 One of the striking peculiarities of German social life, as 
 viewed from the American stand-point, is that the average 
 boy in his teens, or even earlier, knows precisely what his 
 life work is to be. Long before he leaves school he begins 
 to shape his course for the profession that he has in view j
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS . 355 
 
 indeed, it is probable that the most important decision of his 
 life is made when he enters school at nine years of age. And 
 with each succeeding school year the range of 
 possible choices steadily diminishes. It is im- 
 portant, therefore, that parents early decide 
 upon the course of study best suited to their children, and 
 that the children themselves fully realize the bearing of their 
 school work on their subsequent careers. 
 
 The student of the Gymnasium knows that he has the 
 privilege, among others, of preparing himself for any position 
 in the higher schools ; the.graduate of the Real- 
 
 Privileges. 
 
 gymnasium may become a teacher of the mod- 
 ern languages, mathematics or the natural sciences ; and but 
 recently the privilege of becoming a teacher of mathematics 
 and the natural sciences has been conferred on graduates of 
 the Oberrealschule. 
 
 The professional training of the higher-school teacher 
 really begins with the university course. Although gradu- 
 ation from a higher school is an essential pre- 
 requisite, it is only in the university that he 
 gets the special training required of all candi- 
 dates for positions in the secondary schools. The minimum 
 course in the university, as required in most German states, 
 is set at three years ; but four or five years are nearer the 
 average. The student, on coming up to the university, 
 knows full well what profession he is to follow ; and the in- 
 tending teacher has his specialties already in mind. In gen- 
 eral, the greater part of his work is directed to those subjects 
 which he expects to teach, or, better, to those subjects in 
 which he will later be examined. But there is no prescribed 
 course which he is bound to follow. For a year or two he 
 follows his own personal inclinations, without overmuch 
 thought of the future sometimes without overmuch atten- 
 tion even to the present. In time, however, he falls into the 
 routine which invariably marks the preparation for the state 
 examination. 
 
 The Staats-Examen is the sole test of a candidate's prepara-
 
 356 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 tion for any professional career. Neither the degree of doctor 
 of philosophy, nor any other scholarly distinction, can ex- 
 empt him from the necessity of proving himself 
 Examination before a state board of examiners. In the 
 smaller German states these boards are gen- 
 erally located at the capital or in the university towns ; some 
 states have none at all, having delegated their prerogatives to 
 the boards of adjoining states. Prussia maintains ten ex- 
 amining boards for the higher-school service, called Wissen- 
 schaftliche Prilfungs-Commissionen. The majority of the 
 members of these boards are university professors ; but there 
 are usually a few prominent secondary-school men and ad- 
 ministrative officers of the department of education among 
 the members. They are appointed annually by the minister 
 of education, but in practice there are few changes for years 
 together. There is no prescribed number of members, ex- 
 cept that there must be at least one examiner for every sub- 
 ject that a candidate may offer ; this means, as a rule, from 
 twenty to thirty persons. 
 
 The aim of the state examination is to test (1) the appli- 
 cant's proficiency in pedagogy and philosophy, including 
 psychology, logic and ethics ; (2) his familiar- 
 ity with the German language and literature ; 
 
 (3) his acquaintance with the doctrines of his religion, and 
 
 (4) his knowledge of the subjects which he expects to teach. 
 In all these lines, possibly excepting religion, he will have 
 had special training under university professors. In philos- 
 ophy and pedagogy, in German and in religion, the require- 
 ments are of a general nature, intended to disclose the appli- 
 cant's breadth of training and the nature of his religious 
 faith ; it is the fourth requirement that constitutes the crux 
 of the examination. 
 
 A certificate based upon the state examination does not 
 by any means permit the holder to teach what he will any- 
 where he gets the chance. Under the Prussian system, a 
 teacher, in addition to the requirements above mentioned, 
 mast be qualified in at least four subjects or their equiva-
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 357 
 
 lents, and he must not presume to teach anything in which 
 he is not properly certificated. Furthermore, he may not 
 teach those subjects in which he is certificated 
 beyond a certain class, that class being deter- certificates 
 mined by the grade of his certificate. Three 
 grades are recognised ; these correspond to the three general 
 divisions upper, middle and lower of the higher schools. 
 A first-grade certificate in any subject is good for any class 
 in a nine-year school ; a second-grade is good for all classes 
 below the three highest ; a third-grade is good only for the 
 lower classes. Third-grade certificates are granted only in 
 those subjects which are taught in the higher schools the 
 full nine years. Thus, in Latin, German, French, religion, 
 history, mathematics and geography certificates may be of 
 the first, second or third grade ; in Greek, English, Hebrew, 
 Polish, Danish, physics, chemistry and mineralogy, botany 
 and zoology, of the first or second grade. Applicants for cer- 
 tificates may enter, under certain restrictions, for any subject 
 and any grade in that subject. 
 
 The subjects which are taught in the higher schools 
 therefore those in which state examinations may be taken 
 are classed in two general groups : the lan- 
 guage-history group, and the science-mathe- 
 matics group. The former includes German, 
 Latin, Greek, French, English and history ; the latter in- 
 cludes mathematics, physics, chemistry and mineralogy, 
 botany and zoology ; geography of the first or second grade 
 may be classed in either group. Hebrew, Polish, Danish 
 and religion are extra subjects, properly belonging to the first 
 group. Of the four subjects in which every teacher is ex- 
 amined, the first two are known as majors (ffauptf acker) 
 those which he prefers to teach ; the other two are minors 
 (Nebenfdcher). Now, in order that the most favourable com- 
 binations may be made favourable both for the schools and 
 the teachers' scholarship certain restrictions are placed upon 
 a free choice. The most important are the following : (1) 
 both majors and one minor must be of the same group ; (2)
 
 358 QEllMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 first-grade Latin goes with second-grade Greek, and second- 
 grade Latin with first-grade Greek ; (3) first-grade mathe- 
 matics takes second-grade physics ; (4) third-grade Latin is 
 required with any grade of French or English ; (5) third-grade 
 geography mast be taken with any grade in history ; (6) a 
 major in religion takes Hebrew as its accompanying major. 
 Geography, placed, as it is, in both groups, is always a pop- 
 ular minor ; it may also be counted a major in either group. 
 
 The university student who looks forward to teaching as 
 a profession early selects the combination of subjects which 
 he prefers to teach, or which is likely to bring 
 mos t rapid promotion. To these subjects he 
 gives his main attention for three to five years. 
 If he can afford the luxury of taking his Ph.D it costs 
 from one hundred, to two hundred dollars and a good deal of 
 time he will, in the meantime, write a dissertation and be 
 examined on three of his four subjects. That the degree is 
 looked upon as a luxury, and one that can be easily dispensed 
 with, is evidenced from the fact that less than one-half of 
 the Prussian teachers have taken the pains to secure it. The 
 Staats-Examen is not only more difficult, but more honour- 
 able, because obligatory. 
 
 There are in Prussia ten State Examination Commissions, 1 
 located in the university towns. An applicant for examina- 
 tion cannot come before any of these at will. 
 He must ch ose the commission (1) of the 
 province in which he was born or in which he 
 resides, or (2) of the province in which the university is situ- 
 ated where he has spent at least two semesters, including the 
 last, or (3) of the province in which he expects to teach. All 
 foreigners, including residents of other German states, must 
 secure the endorsement of the minister of education to their 
 application. 
 
 1 East and West Prussia, at Konigsberg ; Brandenburg, at Berlin ; Pom- 
 crania, at (ireifswald ; Posen and Silesia, at Breslau ; Saxony, at Halle ; 
 Schleswick-Holstein, at Kiel; Hanover, at Gottingcn; Westphalia, at 
 Monster ; Hesse-Nassau, at Marburg ; lluine province, at Bonn.
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 359 
 
 The application itself is a serious affair. First there is the 
 fee to be paid, which amounts to $7.50 (30 m.) for each ex- 
 amination and re-examination ; $3.75 (15 m.) for 
 each supplementary and extension examination. 
 Then there are the certificates and testimonials 
 of the applicant's higher-school course and his university 
 training, without which no one can hope to be admitted, un- 
 less by special order of the minister. These papers show 
 precisely what he has done, and how well he has succeeded 
 since he entered school at nine years of age. Next he 
 makes known his combination of subjects which he elects as 
 majors and minors, and the grade of examination which he 
 desires in each. In his Vita, which is next in order, the ap- 
 plicant tells who he is, when he was born, what the rank or 
 occupation of his father is, of what church he is an ad- 
 herent, and, finally, he calls attention to special points in 
 his preparation and any noteworthy work that he may have 
 done. This sketch of his life must be written in Latin, if 
 the applicant's major subjects are the classical languages ; if 
 they are the modern languages, it must be in French or Eng- 
 lish; in all other cases it is optional whether it be in German 
 or a foreign language. 
 
 After review of the application thus made, the commission- 
 ers decide upon admission to the examination. If the appli- 
 cant's preparation seems faulty, they advise him 
 
 ' r. Admission. 
 
 not to attempt the examination ; if they have 
 serious doubts as to his moral character, if they suspect him 
 of being disloyal in religion or politics, they may refuse his 
 application altogether, in which case an appeal may be taken 
 to the minister if the applicant doesn't mind courting al- 
 most sure defeat. If his credentials are acceptable, however, 
 he is soon notified when to appear for examination. 
 
 The examination is both oral and written. The written 
 test comes first, and consists in the writing of elaborate essays 
 on themes assigned by the commission. One theme is on 
 some topic in philosophy or pedagogy, and is designed to 
 test the candidate's knowledge of the philosophical basis of
 
 360 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 pedagogy and didactics, and of the development of educa- 
 tional thought since the sixteenth century. The applications 
 of modern psychology to teaching are fruitful 
 ^emes for such essays. The candidate must 
 also write essays on themes selected from each of 
 his major subjects. When one essay will include both major 
 subjects, the two may be combined, as frequently happens in 
 classical and modern philology, physics and mathematics, 
 history and geography, etc. If the applicant has published 
 something of note, as, for instance, a dissertation for the de- 
 gree of doctor of philosophy, it may be offered as a substitute 
 for one of the essays. Essays that deal with a classical lan- 
 guage must be written in Latin ; with the modern languages, 
 in French or English, as the case may be ; and with all other 
 subjects, in German. Six weeks are allowed for the prepara- 
 tion of each essay, and the commission is empowered to grant 
 an extension of six weeks making twelve weeks in all, if 
 necessary, on the subject. Any further extension must be 
 authorized by the minister. 
 
 At the expiration of the time allowed the essay is forward- 
 ed to the chairman of the commission, together with a com- 
 plete bibliography of references consulted, and 
 a declaration by the candidate that he has re- 
 ceived no personal assistance in the preparation of the essay. 
 A false declaration would disqualify a candidate for further 
 examination ; if the fraud were not detected till after the 
 certificate had been granted, disciplinary proceedings would 
 be instituted as against any other state official. If the essays 
 are not comprehensive enough to satisfy the commission of 
 the candidate's breadth of scholarship, supplementary tests 
 may be required by way of short written examinations or 
 laboratory work. Thus the candidate shows his familiarity 
 with the literature of his subjects and demonstrates his abil- 
 ity to do independent work. 
 
 If now the written examination satisfies the commission, 
 and the candidate appears not to be an atheist or a socialist, 
 a day is set for the oral examination. It is an open secret that
 
 few Jews reach this stage, no matter what their qualifications 
 may be ; and those who do succeed in overcoming all prelimi- 
 nary hindrances are, nevertheless, quietly dis- 
 posed of at a later stage in a way to minimize 
 their influence. The Prussian examination system, as act- 
 ually conducted, is designed primarily to keep undesirable 
 persons out of the profession ; there are many requirements 
 that would not be made if the sole object were to secure the 
 best teachers. 
 
 The oral examination is intended to test the general cult- 
 ure of the candidate and his ready command of philosophy 
 and pedagogy, and to ascertain his fitness to teach his chosen 
 subjects in a higher school. The examination in each sub- 
 ject is conducted by a specially appointed examiner, in the 
 presence of other members of the commission. Candidates 
 for first-grade certificates in Latin or English, or for first or 
 second-grades in French, must nse the respective languages 
 in examination, at least to the extent of showing a ready 
 command of the spoken forms. Thus the candidate shows 
 what he knows as well as what he can do. 
 
 The oral test concludes the examination. The commission- 
 ers now decide whether the total examination has been satis- 
 factory or not. If any part is unsatisfactory, 
 no certificate is granted; but, instead/ a testi- certificate, 
 mouial is issued to the candidate, which spec- 
 ifies the exact results attained in each subject, the grade 
 secured in all subjects that were passed, and the day (never 
 within six months) when the candidate may come up for 
 re-examination. The second trial is his last, if he again fails 
 to meet the minimum requirements. 
 
 The successful candidate not only receives a certificate of 
 fitness to teach (facuUas docendi) certain subjects in spec- 
 ified classes ; but his certificate is ranked ac- 
 cording to the grades he holds in the varioijs coruscate 
 subjects in which he is examined. A first-rank 
 certificate, which renders the holder eligible at some future 
 time for appointment to the position of head-teacher, with
 
 862 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the title of professor, indicates that the holder has secured 
 upon examination either two majors of first-grade and two 
 minors of second-grade, or two majors and one minor of first- 
 grade. A second-rank certificate, which entitles the holder 
 to the position of ordinary teacher (Oberlehrer), indicates the 
 possession of two majors and one minor of second-grade and 
 one minor of third-grade. In other words, the person hold- 
 ing a first-rank certificate is entitled to teach (1) two subjects 
 in all classes and other two subjects in the lower six classes, 
 or (2) three subjects through all nine years of the higher 
 schools. The second-rank certificate entitles the holder to 
 teach three subjects through the first six years, and one 
 subject through the first three years. A certificate of the 
 second rank, therefore, excludes the holder from teaching 
 in the three highest classes of the higher schools, and denies 
 him the honour reserved for head-teachers. 
 
 If the candidate has been successful in both majors, but 
 has failed in his minors, he may be granted a second-rank 
 certificate on condition that he secure by supplementary ex- 
 amination second-grade in both minors or first-grade in one. 
 Such deficiency must be made up within three years from 
 the date of the first examination. Supplementary examina- 
 tions must be taken before the same commission as was the 
 first examination, unless the minister of education gives the 
 candidate permission to apply elsewhere. Only one such ex- 
 amination is permitted. 
 
 It will be seen that a teacher's chances of securing a posi- 
 tion are limited (1) by the subjects in which he is certificated 
 and (2) by the rank of his total certificate. 
 Grate amTRank. ^ n unfortunate combination of subjects often 
 seriously interferes with the promotion of a 
 candidate. It happens, therefore, that many teachers seek 
 to qualify themselves in as many subjects as possible, and to 
 secure the highest grades in each. Such persons are per- 
 mitted to take two extension examinations before the com- 
 missions by which they were first examined, or before the 
 commissions of the provinces in which they are teaching.
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 363 
 
 The second extension examination closes the door on further 
 opportunity. The limit is practically fixed at four or five 
 first-grade certificates ; few teachers, in fact, ever secure 
 more than three. The only incentive to add to the number 
 of privileges is that thereby an appointment may possibly be 
 secured a year or two earlier. The game is hardly worth the 
 candle. 
 
 The intending teacher, even with his certificate in his hand, 
 has yet other gauntlets to run. The certificate of itself con- 
 fers no right to teach. Something more than 
 general culture and minute scholarship is re- 
 quired. It is safe to say that Germany owes 
 more to the pedagogical training of her teachers than to any 
 other factor in their preparation. It is the professional 
 spirit, which every German teacher feels, that differentiates 
 him from his species in other countries, and this spirit is the 
 result chiefly of his pedagogical training. 
 
 When the examination pro facilitate docendiwas first estab- 
 lished, in 1810, it was specified that all candidates should 
 demonstrate their ability to teach by giving a 
 
 . J . , , mf- Early Attempts. 
 
 lesson before the examining board. Ihis plan 
 was soon found to be impracticable ; few candidates could 
 make a respectable showing. Afterward the trial lesson was 
 given in private before a school inspector, but even this was 
 unsatisfactory. Consequently, in 1826 the Prussian govern- 
 ment introduced the plan, which has since been adopted by 
 all the German states except Wiirtemberg, of requiring all 
 
 candidates, after the completion of the exam- 
 Trial Lesson, 
 ination pro facilitate docendi to spend a year 
 
 as trial teacher (Probe-Candidat) in some approved higher 
 school. The Probejahr, as we learn from a ministerial re- 
 script of 18G7, was intended to give the intending teacher 
 an opportunity to familiarize himself with the duties of his 
 future office, and to prove to the satisfaction of the school 
 authorities that he had the practical ability requisite for a 
 successful teacher. Candidates were expected to teach six or 
 eight hours a week under the immediate supervision of the
 
 364 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 director or head-teachers of the school. Besides this, there 
 were special requirements concerning the visiting of classes 
 taught by the regular teachers, preparation of lessons, super- 
 vision of scholars, attendance at examinations and teachers' 
 conferences and participation in all the practical workings 
 of the school. 
 
 The Probejahr proved in time to be insufficient for the de- 
 mands placed upon it. Too many candidates were seeking 
 appointment to the higher schools. Something 
 had to be done to shut out undesirable persons, 
 and at the same time to raise the standards of professional 
 attainments. In point of didactic skill it was recognised 
 that the elementary teachers trained in the normal schools 
 (Lehrerseminarien) were distinctly superior to the teachers of 
 the secondary schools. It was decided, therefore, to lengthen 
 the term of practical training rather than to increase the 
 scholastic requirements. Following the example of Hesse, it 
 was decreed in 1890 that intending teachers in the higher 
 schools of Prussia should have two years of 
 pedagogical training instead of one. The last 
 year was to remain much as before, and still to be known as 
 the Probejahr. The first year of practical training, following 
 directly after the state examination, was intended to bridge 
 over the gulf between the university and actual school work. 
 Candidates were to be assigned to Seminarien, where they 
 might have the advantage of superior instruction in the 
 art of applying the general principles of education already 
 studied in the university to the practical problems of the 
 secondary school?. The bulk of the work was expected to 
 be theoretical, but always to be presented with a view to its 
 practical application. 
 
 Such are the specific requirements at the present time of 
 all intending higher-school teachers in Prussia : nine years a 
 pupil in a higher school, four years of univer- 
 sity study, one year in examination, one Semi- 
 narjahr, and one Probejahr. If to this we add 
 the year of military service, which all able-bodied men must
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 365 
 
 perform, we find that the minimum requirements demand 
 seventeen years in preparation ; it is oftener eighteen or 
 twenty years. Only a few of the German states have as yet 
 adopted the Prussian plan, in introducing the Seminar jahr ; 
 but where Prussia leads the others are sure to follow if only 
 at a respectful distance. 
 
 The Prussian Seminarien, to which candidates are assigned 
 on passing the examination pro facilitate docendi, are of two 
 kinds : (1) those under the immediate direction 
 of the provincial school-boards, twelve in all Prussian 
 
 Seminars. 
 
 two in Berlin, and one each in Breslau, Gottiug- 
 en, Konigsberg, Magdeburg, Stettin, Posen, Dantzic, Cassel, 
 Minister and Coblentz ; (2) those instituted by ministerial 
 rescript of March 15, 1890, which are connected with the 
 leading Gymnasien and Realgymnasien, and are each under 
 the direction of the director and one or two associated head- 
 teachers of the school. 
 
 The Seminarien of the first class are state institutions on 
 special foundations, many of them having a specific purpose, 
 as the training of teachers of religion, of modern 
 languages, etc. These royal Seminarien admit 
 few candidates, and, as a rule, all members re- 
 ceive valuable stipends. The twelve institutions together do 
 not have more than seventy members, but all are picked men. 
 
 For some time prior to 1890 the average number of candi^ 
 dates for the Probejalir in Prussia had been over five hundred 
 annually. Since the introduction of the Sem- 
 inar 'jahr , however, the number has steadily 
 decreased. In 1894-1895 there were only one 
 hundred and ninety-two persons in the Seminar jahr and 
 two hundred and twelve in the Probejalir. Hence only 
 about thirty gyranasial Seminarien, of the seventy that were 
 planned, have been needed. These, as above stated, are un- 
 der the direction of principals of higher schools, who are 
 relieved of about one-fourth of their regular teaching in 
 order that they may have time for this work. 
 
 During the Seminar jahr two main objects are kept always
 
 366 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 in view a clear understanding of pedagogical and didactic 
 principles, and an introduction to the practical workings of a 
 
 higher school. Once a week the Director leads 
 The Tn ning a dj scuss i on on SO me pedagogical topic, with a 
 
 view to a hetter understanding of its practical 
 application to teaching. The members of the Seminar mean- 
 while are observing the teaching of various masters, and after 
 the first three months are themselves permitted to give two 
 or three lessons a week. The Director, or some member of 
 the faculty delegated by him, hears all these lessons and 
 guides the young teachers' work. From time to time special 
 lessons are given, which are attended by all the members of the 
 Seminar, and by the director and his associates. The teacher 
 presents the lesson according to a previously prepared out- 
 line, copies of which are in the hands of the critics during 
 the progress of the lesson. Then comes the criticism, in 
 which the teacher first gives his views of his own work, fol- 
 lowed by the other members of the Seminar; the director 
 sums up the discussion, and points out possibilities of future 
 improvement. Throughout the year the young teachers are 
 instructed in the use of special school apparatus, books and 
 other teachers' helps ; they attend all faculty meetings, have 
 a share in the oversight of pupils and are inducted into the 
 mysteries of the final examinations. Three months before 
 the close of the school-year each member of the Seminar 
 hands in a dissertation on some subject closely connected with 
 his previous work. The director thereupon makes an ex- 
 haustive report to the provincial school-board of the year's 
 work, in which the abilities of the various candidates are 
 passed in review. On the basis of these returns and the 
 records of the examination pro facilitate docendi, the inspec- 
 tors (Oberschulrate) advance the candidates to their Probe- 
 jahr, or refuse altogether to give them further training as 
 men unfitted for the teachers' profession. 
 
 Of the noted institutions of Germany designed for the 
 training of teachers for the secondary schools may be men- 
 tioned the University Seminarien of Jena, Leipsic and
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 367 
 
 G lessen. The first named is well known in this country 
 from its director, Professor Rein, and bears a deservedly good 
 name at home because of the progressive school- 
 masters that it has sent out. Unfortunately, 
 however, its influence is more on the side of 
 elementary education ; the training school, which is also 
 under the direction of Professor Rein, is composed of folk- 
 school pupils ; and the practical problems that 
 come up for discussion are almost invariably the 
 problems of the lower schools. It cannot be said, I think, 
 that the Jena Seminar, at least under Professor Rein's ad- 
 ministration, has exercised any great influence on the second- 
 ary schools. Nevertheless, the general pedagogy that is so 
 ably presented there is now being utilized indirectly through 
 the medium of a gymuasial Seminar of the Prussian type 
 which has been recently established in connection with the 
 Jena Gymnasium. In this way intending secondary-school 
 teachers can avail themselves of Professor Rein's lectures and 
 all the general discussion of the University Seminar, and at 
 the same time keep in touch with gymnasial affairs and give 
 practice lessons under the direction of Dr. Gustave Richter, 
 director of the Gymnasium. 
 
 The Seminar in Leipsic is only remotely connected with 
 the university. It is under the direction of Dr. Richard 
 Richter, who is both director of the royal Gym- 
 nasium and professor in the university. The 
 candidates do their general work in the university, and come 
 to the Gymnasium for training in practical lines. It has only 
 a one-year course, and, inasmuch as its members are in prep- 
 aration for positions in the higher schools of Saxony, the 
 Seminar has little influence beyond the kingdom. 
 
 It is somewhat different with the Seminar at Giessen. 
 From its beginning in 1876 it has been under the leadership 
 of Dr. Hermann Schiller, who is at once Pro- 
 fessor of Pedagogy in the University, director 
 of the Gymnasium, and Oberschulrat of Hesse. It is the pio- 
 neer institution of the modern type, and has given direction
 
 368 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 to the recent development of the Prussian gymnasial Semina- 
 rian. Schiller's Handbuch der praktischen Pddagogik and his 
 Geschichte der Pddagogik indicate the scope of the work. 
 By means of lectures, discussions and dissertations, the way 
 is prepared for the practical application of the principles of 
 psychology and ethics. Every problem is a problem of sec- 
 ondary education, and every member of the Seminar is in 
 training for the secondary schools. An unusual amount of 
 work is required of the Seminar members ; but, so far as I 
 can judge from a short visit, it is done fairly well. It is evi- 
 dent, however, that better financial support would work 
 great improvements. But in theory Schiller's Seminar is far 
 and away ahead of any institution in Germany designed for 
 the training of teachers for the secondary schools. It comes 
 near being a model training school for secondary teachers. 
 
 The honours of leading the recent movement in Germany 
 for better pedagogical training are about equally shared be- 
 tween Dr. Schiller and the late Dr. Frick of 
 Halle. The former was the pioneer ; but in 
 1881 Dr. Frick reorganized the Seminarium Prceceptorum of 
 the Franckesche Stiftungen, and became at once a recognised 
 leader of pedagogical thought in Prussia. Since his death, 
 in 1892, the Seminar has been conducted by his successor, 
 Dr. Fries, on the Prussian gymnasial plan. 
 
 The Probejahr, as I have already indicated, has not been 
 
 much affected by the introduction of the Seminar training. 
 
 As heretofore, the candidates are told off in pairs 
 
 Trial Year 6 ^ or serv i ce * n the larger schools. Their work 
 
 is mostly class instruction, under the guidance 
 
 of older teachers. Besides the six or eight hours a week of 
 
 teaching, they may be called upon for a certain amount of 
 
 supervision ; they must attend all faculty meetings, and 
 
 otherwise identify themselves with the life of the school. 
 
 For all this they receive no remuneration whatever ; but, on 
 
 the contrary, if their work is not acceptable, they may, on 
 
 report of the director, be dismissed from the service. But if 
 
 their record is satisfactory at the ed of the Probejahr, their
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF TEACHERS 369 
 
 names are inscribed on the list of teachers eligible to appoint- 
 ment in the higher schools of the province. Their period of 
 probation is finished; they have only to wait a few years 
 before beginning their life work. This work, once begun 
 and attended to with reasonable diligence, will insure them a 
 competency for the rest of their days. It is a slow process, 
 but sure. The end, however, is a desirable one both for the 
 teachers and for the state. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Fries, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fur das 
 Lehramt, Vol. II., Pt. I., of Baumeister's Handbuch. (This comprehensive 
 study was not published in time to be of service in the preparation of this 
 chapter ; I specially commend it to those who are interested in the train- 
 ing of teachers for secondary schools. J. E. R.); Loos, Die praktisch- 
 padagogische Vorbildung in Deutschland, Zeitschrift fur osterr. Gym., 
 Vienna, 1893 ; Schiller, Die pddagogische Vorbildung der Gymnasial- 
 lehrer, address before the 41st Philologenversammlung (gives the Giessen 
 plan) ; Frick, Pddagogische und didaktische Abhandlungen Das Sem- 
 inarium prceceptorum, Halle, 1893; Rein, Aus dem pddagogischen Uni- 
 versitdts- Seminar zu Jena, Langensalza; Zange, Gymnasialseminare 
 und die pddagogische Ausbildung der Kandidaten des hoheren Schulamtes, 
 Halle, 1890 ; Beyer, Zur ErricJitung Pddagogischer Lehrsluhle an unseren 
 Universitdten, Langensalza, 1895; Windscheid, Das Lehrerinnenbild- 
 ungs- und Prufungswesen, in Wychgram's Handbuch des hoheren Mdd- 
 chenschulwesens, Leipsic, 1897; Schiller, Praktische Pudagogik ; Schra- 
 der, Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, Berlin, 1893; Encyclopedias of 
 Schmid and Rein. And see Bibliography, p. 455, Nos. Ih, 2, 4. 
 
 NOTE TO SECOND EDITION: 
 
 Regulations adopted in 1898 prescribe the following subjects for exam- 
 ination: (1) General test philosophy, pedagogy and German literature 
 also for members of Christian churches, religion ; (2) Special test 
 Christian religion, philosophical propaedeutic, German, Latin, Greek, He- 
 brew, French, English, history, geography, pure mathematics, applied 
 mathematics, physics, chemistry, including mineralogy, botany and 
 zoology, and Polish and Danish (for certain candidates only). No group- 
 ing of subjects is officially made, as formerly, except that in certain sub- 
 jects the following combinations must be made : Latin and Greek, French 
 and English, history and geography, religion and Hebrew, pure mathe- 
 matics and physics, chemistry and either physics or botany and zoology. 
 German may be substituted for Latin, French. Hebrew, or history in the 
 above combinations. Only two grades of certificates are now recognized : 
 Erste Stufe entitles the candidate to teach the subject in any class; 
 Zweite Stufe is good only in the lower classes lip to and including fhfer- 
 Kecunda. See Beier, Die hoheren Schulen in Prensscn und ihre Lehrer, 
 for recent official regulations.
 
 CHAPTEK XIX 
 
 APPOINTMENT, PROMOTION AND EMOLUMENTS OF 
 TEACHERS 
 
 CANDIDATES for teachers' positions in the higher schools 
 who have successfully passed the state examination and com- 
 pleted the prescribed course of professional 
 fcrainin g make formal application to the Pro- 
 vincial- Schulcollegium in the province where 
 they wish to teach. In case several applicants have completed 
 their trial year ai, the same time, priority is determined by 
 the dates of the state examination. This fact is of great im- 
 portance, inasmuch as teachers are appointed to permanent 
 positions in government schools in order of seniority as de- 
 termined by the official list. Each candidate, it is to be 
 noted, is certificated only in certain subjects and for definite 
 grades. As vacancies occur in the state schools, appointments 
 are necessarily made from those possessing the requisite 
 qualifications. 
 
 This method of appointment was especially emphasized in 
 the Berlin Conference of 1890 as the only satisfactory mode 
 of checking favouritism. The plan has its ad- 
 Procedure vantages ; it also has its defects. For example, 
 it may happen that well-qualified men, polished 
 gentlemen, will be sent to comparatively unimportant posi- 
 tions, while men of less merit fall into more desirable and 
 more exacting berths. It is always possible, however, for a 
 Candidate to surrender his chance to the man next in order, 
 and still retain his place at the head of the list. On the other 
 hand, if a candidate refuses an appointment once it has been 
 
 370
 
 APPOINTMENT AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 371 
 
 made, he may be set back six months, put at the foot of the 
 list or dismissed altogether, at the discretion of the provin- 
 cial school-board. Such an extremity, however, is usually 
 avoided by a little foresight on the part of the Oberschulrat. 
 A candidate holding the first place on the list may be advised 
 by the inspector to retire in favour of the next in line, when- 
 ever it seems desirable that the first eligible candidate should 
 not be appointed to a particular position. For 
 
 l A i r> i i.- i a , In Royal Schools. 
 
 example, A and B, ranking respectively first 
 and second in the official list, are both qualified in the major 
 subject required to fill a vacancy existing at some important 
 place. The inspector knows that a place much more suited 
 to A is likely to become vacant in a few months ; he advises 
 A accordingly to give way to B, who is immediately appointed 
 to the inferior position. If B refuses to accept, he will be 
 set back far enough to give no trouble for some time to come. 
 Indirectly, therefore, the inspectors have considerable power 
 in placing men ; they use it freely to advance the interests 
 of the best candidates and the most progressive schools. It 
 is always the senior candidate's right, however, to demand 
 appointment to the first position falling vacant for which his 
 credentials qualify him. Once on the official list, nothing but 
 gross negligence can prevent his ultimate appointment to 
 some position. 
 
 Teachers in higher schools, of whatsoever kind, must be 
 selected from the provincial list. Vacancies in state schools 
 must be filled in order of seniority, as described 
 
 J , . , In City Schools. 
 
 above ; but city schools and others under special 
 patronage are free to select from the list regardless of order. 1 
 The local board nominates a candidate for a vacancy, and asks 
 the approval of the provincial inspectors. This granted, the 
 appointment is made in regular fashion. Herein again the 
 inspector shows his power. By refusing to confirm a nomina- 
 tion made by a local board, and forcing, if needs be, a series 
 of choices, the government can determine, indirectly at least, 
 the character of the teaching force in schools not immediately 
 under its jurisdiction. It must be conceded, however, that 
 
 1 " SLx highest on the list "Regulation of April, 1898, Beier, p. 417.
 
 872 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the privilege allowed to the focal boards of selecting teachers 
 at will from the eligible list tends to take the best teachers 
 away from the state schools. The cities generally pay larger 
 salaries and take younger men all of which is a great induce- 
 ment to eager candidates. But many teachers prefer to wait 
 their turn for appointment to a state school, because of the 
 greater dignity attached to the government service. The 
 civil servant enjoys a certain rank at court, and has the proud 
 satisfaction of knowing that no favouritism or political bias 
 enters into his appointment. 
 
 All definitely appointed teachers are required to take the 
 oath of office, which is administered by the directors of the 
 state schools or by the local magistracy in behalf 
 of city schools. By order of 1848, it runs as 
 follows : " I swear to God the Almighty and Omniscient 
 after I have been installed as of to be sub- 
 missive, loyal and obedient to His Royal Majesty, King of 
 Prussia, my most gracious lord, to fulfil all the duties of my 
 office according to the best of my knowledge and belief, and 
 also faithfully to observe the constitution. So help me God." 
 The ceremony closes with a formal handshake, whereupon the 
 person is installed in the service of the crown. But lest he 
 forget his professional duties, a special ministerial rescript 
 reminds him that " the teacher in a public school must 
 possess both the intellectual and moral strength which en- 
 ables him to be an example in all respects to his pupils. He 
 should recognise no higher duty than with fidelity to his 
 self-chosen profession to avoid in instruction and association 
 with his pupils all that might tend to disturb the natural and 
 sound development of youth, all that cannot be conceived 
 and rightly judged by youth, all that might tend to displace 
 right religious feelings or reverence for what is noble and 
 good." 
 
 The intending teacher in Germany does not expect a speedy 
 appointment to a governmental post. In fact, he expects to 
 wait years for it. The certificated candidates who received 
 appointments in the province of Hesse-Nassau in 1894 had
 
 APPOINTMENT AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 373 
 
 waited already an average of six years since the expiration 
 of their respective trial years. The same test applied to other 
 provinces gives the following results : Branden- 
 burg, 8 years ; Hanover, 5.5 years ; Saxony, 
 3.5 years; Silesia, 7.5 years; Posen, 5. 4 years; 
 West Prussia, 8.1 years; Westphalia, 4. 4 years; Schleswick- 
 Holstein, 4.2 years ; Rhine Province, 3.8 years. This makes 
 an average period of waiting for the average candidate of 5.6 
 years. 1 
 
 The variation in the several provinces is due to the relative 
 desirability of positions, the number of city schools, condition 
 of social life as determined by large cities and 
 
 J Causes of Delay. 
 
 personal reasons. Candidates are free to make 
 application for a place in the official list of any province, but 
 they are not permitted to register in more than one. Some 
 provinces, therefore, have more eligible candidates than 
 others ; some have been so unpopular at times as not to have 
 candidates enough to fill their vacancies. But the ministry 
 now reserves to itself the right to permit voluntary transfers 
 from one province to another, and in case of necessity arbi- 
 trarily to equalize the lists. Eligible candidates from other 
 states may also be assigned by the ministry to particular prov- 
 inces. A candidate who leaves his province without per- 
 mission, or accepts a permanent appointment to a school not 
 under royal patronage, or engages in an employment not ap- 
 proved by the authorities, loses thereby his place in the 
 eligible list. 
 
 An unfortunate combination of subjects in which a candi- 
 date is certificated may long defer promotion. According to 
 the list of certificated candidates in Hesse-Nassau, above re- 
 
 1 Statistics for the first half of the year 1897 show that in the province 
 of Brandenburg, in which the city of Berlin is situated, twelve perma- 
 nent appointments were made. The waiting periods were respectively 11, 
 10.5, 10, 9.25, 9, 8.5, 8, 8, 7.5, 7.6, 6 and 5.5 years average, 8.33 years. 
 The ages of the teachers thus first appointed to their life work were re- 
 spectively 36, 34, 42, 41, 41, 36, 35, 38, 43, 33, 36 and 31 years. Pdda- 
 gogischea Archiv, Vol. XXXIX., p. 176.
 
 374 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ferred to, the distribution among major subjects was as fol- 
 lows : Religion and Hebrew, 7 ; Latin and Greek, 54 ; French 
 and English, 15 ; mathematics and physics, 32 ; 
 ^"su'b ecu 1 f Cnemistl 7 and natural sciences, 2 ; history and 
 geography, 8 ; gymnastic training, 9. If there 
 were the same number of positions requiring these subjects 
 in the schools of the province, the candidate in chemistry and 
 natural sciences would have twenty-seven chances of promo- 
 tion to one for Latin and Greek. But there are more teach- 
 ers wanted for the classics than for the sciences. An examin- 
 ation of the faculty lists of three typical schools shows sixteen 
 teachers of Latin and Greek to seven teachers of chemistry 
 and natural sciences (or either). This reduces the chances of 
 the candidate in science very materially, and yet the ratio is 
 about twelve to one in his favour. But the law of supply and 
 demand will regulate all these defects in time. This happens 
 to be a period of rapid advancement in science, and good 
 teachers are few. 
 
 There is still another factor that influences appointments 
 and tends to delay promotion. When vacancies occur from 
 death or retirement, the probabilities are that 
 superior places are to be filled, and that many 
 changes will be made before there is need of 
 calling in a new man. Untried men are never appointed to 
 any particular position, but rather to a position which is 
 pretty certain to be near the foot of the faculty list. You nor 
 men often have to stand aside and let experienced teacherw 
 from other schools step into the places that seemed to ba 
 theirs. In fact, the transfer of teachers from school to school 
 is much more frequent than would seem possible under the 
 system. Some positions are eagerly sought, because of special 
 advantages attached thereto. The Friedrichs- Werdersches 
 Gymnasium of Berlin and Schulpforta, for example, have 
 special foundations for teachers, widows and orphans, and 
 valuable stipends for the education of teachers' sons. But 
 despite all such attractions, a vacancy will be sifted out some- 
 where to which a young candidate may be appointed.
 
 It is not to be understood that the candidate spends the 
 time intervening between the trial year and his permanent 
 appointment in idleness. Some are employed 
 as assistant teachers at a salary of 1,500 marks During the 
 ($375) per year. Others seek employment as Waitin Period - 
 private tutors, journalists, book-keepers or what-not. Prac- 
 tically, however, most candidates are unable to do anything 
 but teach ; they have had no training for anything else, and 
 competition is too severe in Germany to let choice positions 
 go a-begging. Often a candidate prefers to serve a number of 
 years as assistant in a good school, awaiting appointment in 
 that place, than to accept a permanent position in an undesir- 
 able locality. In Hesse-Nassau, in 1894, of one hundred and 
 seventeen certificated candidates awaiting appointment, thirty 
 were assistants and ten were employed in other capacities in 
 the public schools. Sixty-five were over thirty years of age. 
 They had spent, on the average, fourteen years in prep- 
 aration nine in the Gymnasium, three in the university 
 and two in professional study and were destined to wait full 
 six years after being declared fit for their life work. 
 
 After taking the oath of allegiance and having been in- 
 stalled in a definite position, the teacher is a government of- 
 ficer. His tenure of office is secure, and upon 
 retirement after ten years of service he is en- 
 titled to a pension. His salary and pension are determined, 
 primarily, by the position which he occupies and length of 
 service. While a teacher must always confine his instruc- 
 tion to the subjects in which he is certificated, an effi- 
 cient teacher is certain of advancement in rank. Leaving 
 assistants (Hilfslehrer) and special teachers out of account, 
 there are three ranks : regular teachers (Oberhhrer), profes- 
 sors and directors. The title of professor, however, is purely 
 honorary, and carries with it no substantial benefits. It is 
 one of the practical results of the Conference of 1890, in- 
 tended to better the social standing of higher-school teachers. 
 By royal order, it is decreed that one-third of the regular staff 
 of the higher school may be appointed by the ministry to a
 
 376 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 rank equivalent to that of university professor and have the 
 title. The honour is intended to be an award of merit ; but in 
 practice it is the upper and older third of the faculty who 
 receive it, regardless of merit. 
 
 Special privileges are granted to teachers in accordance 
 
 with their rank. All state officials of Prussia are carefully 
 
 classified, and the gradation is punctiliously 
 
 Privileges. ,\ 
 
 observed on all state occasions. The ordinary 
 higher-school teachers belong to the fifth class ; directors and 
 professors of twelve years' service belong to the fourth class ; 
 and occasionally the crown honours a very old man who is dis- 
 tinguished as a teacher and director with the privileges of the 
 third class and the title of Gelieimer-Regierungs-Rat. Pro- 
 vincial school inspectors and ministerial councillors, being 
 administrative officers, are ranked by themselves in higher 
 classes. 
 
 Great care is exercised in the selection of directors of 
 higher schools, not only for the professional responsibilities 
 involved, but also because through them the 
 government expects to watch over the politi- 
 cal development of future leaders in the state. 
 From the time Of the Reformation down to 1810, it was the 
 custom for the city magistrates to nominate principals of 
 schools under their patronage, subject to the confirmation 
 of the local pastor and the superintendent of the ecclesiastical 
 district. Humboldt made the election of directors of Gym- 
 nasien dependent upon the approval of the crown. In 1817 
 the provincial consistories were given the right to appoint, 
 or approve the appointment, of all higher-school teachers, 
 except that the assent of the ministry was necessary in case 
 of head-teachers and directors. A few years later the minis- 
 try assumed the entire appointive powers, and in 1836 the 
 appointment of directors was again direct from the crown. 
 And there it remains to-day. By custom, however, the 
 choice of director is almost entirely left to the judgment of 
 the provincial inspector himself persona grata to the king 
 and ministry who retain him in office. The inspector, as he
 
 APPOINTMENT AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 377 
 
 moves about the schools of his province, marks those teach- 
 ers who seem to have the quality of leadership. When a 
 vacancy occurs in a state school, he knows at once the man 
 for the place. Whenever possible, the selection is made from 
 the faculty of the school ; but petty jealousies often make this 
 impracticable. In case of city schools, the local board usually 
 seeks the advice of the provincial inspector. But no city is 
 bound to take the man who may be the choice of the inspec- 
 tor ; on the other hand, the inspector, with the consent of the 
 crown, can veto any appointment the city board may make. 
 Thus a dead lock may occur if a city government is strongly 
 liberal or progressive, and aims at getting a school director of 
 the right political stripe. The government would unhesitat- 
 ingly refuse to confirm the appointment of any man known 
 to be of a socialistic turn of mind. In such an event the local 
 board must proceed to another election, and so on till a compro- 
 mise candidate is found. The state is bound to win in the end ; 
 it is extremely imprudent to oppose one's superiors in Prussia. 
 The successful candidate for the vacant principalship is 
 generally the one who has made no move to secure it. Elec- 
 tioneering on a candidate's part would surely 
 defeat him ; such action is branded as unprofes- 
 sional in Germany, and un worthy of a teacher 
 and a gentleman. Nothing prevents a person making an ap- 
 plication for a position, even in a state school ; but a good deal 
 depends on how it is done. Public advertising or the exer- 
 tions of "teachers' agencies" would be of little use. The 
 approved method is to keep in close touch with the provincial 
 inspector. There is nothing discreditable in a young man's 
 telling the inspector that he prefers promotion in line of 
 principalship, rather than as master. If such a man is willing 
 to take the leadership of a small provincial school, his chances 
 of advancement are good. Promotion to a better post may 
 come, if one's record is good ; but it will come slowly The 
 typical director of a higher school is a man above fifty years 
 of age ; the directors of th^ state schools in Berlin in 1894 
 were of the average age of sixty years.
 
 378 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 9 
 
 The installation of a director of a higher school is an inter- 
 esting ceremony. A representative of the government, gen- 
 erally a provincial school inspector, makes an 
 address and inducts the director into office. 
 Besides this, there is generally a place on the 
 program for music, speeches by local dignitaries and an in- 
 augural address by the newly installed officer. No oath is 
 required, as the director is already in the civil service ; he is 
 merely transferred to a new field. And, in general, no ex- 
 amination of any kind is required, although provision is 
 made for a Colloquium pro rectoratu, which is specially de- 
 signed to test the director's familiarity with the laws and 
 ordinances governing his office. These are so many and so 
 intricate that, as a provisional inspector once said to me, 
 " the average teacher can hardly be expected to know them." 
 Hence the omission of this test. 
 
 It would far exceed the limits of this essay were I to attempt 
 to give in detail the duties of higher-school directors, as de- 
 fined by the ministerial orders, circular rescripts 
 an( ^ provincial regulations which have been 
 
 issued for the guidance of these officials. Suf- 
 fice to say, that there is no code of school laws in Prussia, and 
 that precedent determines everything. The briefest possible 
 summary of the official orders given to the directors from 
 1867 to 1873 covers over one hundred finely printed pages in 
 Wiese-Kiibler's Laws and Orders. Besides being required 
 to teach at least twelve hours a week, the director is charged 
 with the entire responsibility of his school. He oversees 
 the work of all his teachers, and is obliged personally to ob- 
 serve their work and to keep a written record of his observa- 
 tions. He must settle all disputes within his faculty, and re- 
 port cases of negligence to the provincial school-board ; he 
 must be the leader in the professional life of his school ; he 
 must be in constant communication with the parents of his 
 pupils, and see to it that the regular notices and reports are 
 issued at the proper time ; he must make exhaustive annual 
 and semi-annual reports to his superiors, and be ready at any
 
 APPOINTMENT AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 379 
 
 time to supply all statistics and special information that the 
 government may require ; and once in three years he must 
 file a comprehensive report of his administration, which in- 
 forms the government of the condition of his school, its 
 needs and the quality of the work and character of each in- 
 structor. In short, there is nothing that a school principal 
 can be conceived as doing which is not directly enjoined or 
 prohibited in the numerous precedents established by official 
 orders. And I wish to say that, so far as my observation 
 goes, the conscientious director of a higher school in Germany 
 is the hardest worked man I have ever seen in the profession. 
 Principals of schools and colleges in England and America 
 may occasionally be charged with greater responsibility ; but I 
 have never found elsewhere so much detail work and so much 
 teaching coupled with the necessity of professional growth 
 and intellectual productivity, nor have I ever seen elsewhere 
 so much energy wasted for lack of clerical assistance. It is 
 painful to see a great school-master doing unaided what a 
 third-rate stenographer could better do. But the day of type- 
 writers has not yet dawned on the fatherland ; the old way is 
 quite satisfactory, if the new happens to cost money. 
 
 An extract from a private letter from one of the foremost 
 directors in all Germany tells its own story : " I am at present 
 quite overwhelmed with work, which, to my 
 regret, is chiefly administrative and always tin- instance 
 congenial to me. I am still compelled to turn 
 night into day, in order to perform the most necessary duties. 
 Then, all my spare time is taken up with class visitation, 
 criticism of teachers' work and devising means of assisting 
 them to better results. It takes so much time ; but I must 
 do it, as I can find no other way of interesting them in new 
 methods. Besides, my notion of a pedagogue compels me to 
 regard this work as my highest duty ; it is in the interests of 
 the moral education of my pupils, which is certainly not less 
 important than their intellectual development. The next 
 step is to secure the friendly co-operation of the parents, for 
 the sake of complete harmony between home and school. All
 
 380 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 this is desirable, and I am compelled to do it. Note, too, 
 that I must also keep regular office hours for parents and 
 pupils ; hold conferences ; that I give thirteen hours of in- 
 struction a week, for which papers must be prepared and cor- . 
 rected ; that I have two trial teachers entrusted to me, whose 
 training I must supervise with special care ; that I must, 
 unaided, make up the numerous government reports and 
 conduct all my correspondence. Note all this, and you will 
 readily see that more than one man's strength is demanded 
 or much must be neglected. But even this is not the end : 
 I had almost forgotten the regular directors' meeting (of the 
 city) ; consultation with the local board ; special conferences 
 (just now it is the question of school gardens) ; the numerous 
 educational meetings which one must attend occasionally, for 
 the sake of appearances ; social obligations, which one can 
 never entirely shake off ; and, finally, family but there is 
 nothing left for them, poor things ! " One wonders that 
 there is anything left of the man. But the picture is true 
 to life, as I can testify from personal observation of the\ 
 school. I need scarcely add that for six years this man has 
 been vainly trying to revise a little book of his which the 
 public demands in a new edition. 
 
 Necessity has invented a way of piecing out a director's 
 
 strength and extending his authority. It is the discovery of 
 
 the class-master, or Ordinarius, and his possi- 
 
 The Class-Master ' r 
 
 bilities. The Ordinarius is a regular teacher 
 who is chosen by the director, with the consent of the pro- 
 vincial school-board, to act as the director's representative in 
 a particular class. There are, therefore, as many class- 
 masters as there are classes in the school. Each class-master 
 is selected from the teachers who give instruction in the class 
 generally the one who teaches the largest number of hours. 
 The class-master is expected to be teacher, guide and friend 
 of his class. All other teachers report to him, and the class 
 record is his special care. Pupils must first seek his advice 
 before going to the director; he becomes personally acquainted 
 with the parents of his boys ; he studies the condition of
 
 APPOINTMENT AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 381 
 
 their home life and their conduct out of school ; he has 
 charge of the trial teachers who may be assigned to the class, 
 and sees to it that no harm comes from their 
 teaching ; and in all faculty conferences he 
 acts as spokesman for his class. From the reports of other 
 teachers he knows just what each boy is doing, and is pre- 
 pared to talk intelligently with teacher or boy, as the case 
 may be. Thus, he is responsible for the industry, progress 
 and morals of his charges. But he is not allowed to hear 
 pupils' complaints against other teachers, nor can he inter- 
 fere with the execution of any order that a colleague may 
 give. A question involving the judgment or goodwill of an- 
 other teacher must go to the director. 
 
 It will be evident that the class-master can be of great ser- 
 vice to the director. When the office is faithfully filled, as 
 I believe it generally is, not only is the director saved much 
 anxious care, but the work of the school is wonderfully im- 
 proved. And, best of all, the system provides for that close 
 and intimate contact between pupil and teacher which is so 
 essential in a secondary school ; at no time in a boy's course 
 is it so necessary to have the close, personal and intensely in- 
 terested guidance of some one upon whose experience and 
 advice he may rely. To be sure, not all class-masters are 
 successful, or even conscientious, in the performance of their 
 duties ; but enough of them are to remove all basis for that 
 charge which is so often, and so falsely, made against German 
 school-masters namely, that they have no personal interest in 
 their pupils. 
 
 Regular teachers are required to give at least twenty-two 
 hours of instruction per week, but professors may fall under 
 this minimum two hours without losing a pro- 
 portionate amount of their salary. Assistants 
 must teach twenty-four hours, and special 
 teachers twenty-six hours per week. Every instructor is 
 liable to be called upon at any time for extra service, in case 
 of need, without remuneration. The teacher is required to 
 obey the orders of the director in all official matters. lie
 
 382 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 must faithfully carry out the official program, keeping in mind 
 the general administration and educational purposes of the 
 school. He must see that the physical powers of the pupils 
 are not overtaxed, and that all instruction is made pedagog- 
 ical and clear. He must hold all recitations punctually ; 
 make all corrections of pupils' work regularly and exactly ; 
 record all cases of punishment, with explanations, and report 
 such cases to the class-masters and director. He can commu- 
 nicate with higher state officials only through the director. 
 He cannot marry without the consent of the provincial school- 
 board. He may not take up outside duties, nor give in- 
 struction to pupils in the regular course, without the consent 
 of the director. He must notify the director in case he wishes 
 to make a journey during vacation ; or, if he wishes to resign 
 his position, he must notify the provincial school-board at 
 least three months in advance. Especially are teachers re- 
 quired to hold themselves aloof from all political controver- 
 sies, and from publishing or writing essays or themes on po- 
 litical subjects. 
 
 The director is expected to supervise and criticise the work 
 of his staff. If a teacher remains indifferent, he may be re- 
 proved by his colleagues in faculty meeting, or 
 ^ e director may report the case direct to the 
 provincial school-board, which is authorized, 
 after special investigation, to take final action. The offender 
 may be fined, suspended from office for a time or dismissed 
 from the service altogether. Naturally, extreme measures are 
 taken very seldom, and only for the grossest misconduct or 
 impropriety. The usual means of whipping a negligent 
 teacher into line are the director's criticisms and the fear of 
 losing caste with his colleagues. It is a hard blow for a 
 teacher to be proved inefficient by his successor in the next 
 higher class. Such a condition is sufficient reason for faculty 
 censure, which is about as hard to bear as the extreme pen- 
 alty. Indeed, it is generally felt that the teacher who con- 
 ducts himself in a manner to merit the disapprobation of his 
 fellows would accept dismissal quite as gracefully as censure
 
 APPOINTMENT AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 383 
 
 from the faculty. It happens very seldom, therefore, that a 
 teacher is publicly reprimanded probably all too seldom. 
 The esprit de corps of German teachers is very marked ; but 
 action or rather inaction is more influenced by the univer- 
 sity custom of letting each man do as he will, than by the 
 military ideal of upholding the honour of the profession. The 
 fact is and there is no denying it a large percentage of the 
 staff of each school is a dead weight which the rest must 
 carry. Whatever be the theoretical means of detecting poor 
 work, and of prodding the inefficient teacher, in practice all 
 depends upon the personality of the director. If he is a pro- 
 gressive man, and knows how to inspire his teachers with 
 high ideals, all goes well ; but if he is himself weak, or too 
 diplomatic to stir up bad odours, the rotten parts will be dis- 
 creetly covered. This is undoubtedly the usual state of affairs, 
 due in a large measure to the fact that in each school some 
 teachers are long past their prime. These men may have 
 been good teachers twenty years ago ; but the times have 
 changed. New tasks have been imposed upon the school, and 
 there is not enough vitality in reserve to meet the emergen- 
 cies. In many cases it is not a lack of goodwill, but absolute 
 inability to see things in their modern perspective. 
 
 The advantages of the Prussian system are obvious. Its 
 chief defect is the difficulty of getting rid of incompetent 
 teachers. The teacher's tenure of office is based 
 upon such grounds, and governed by such laws, pnJj^ system 
 as make expulsion from the service exceedingly 
 difficult. Not only is it difficult to prove charges of inef- 
 ficiency, but it injures a school to make the trial. The next 
 best plan the one that is regularly enforced in the army 
 is to force the incompetent teacher to retire and make way 
 for a better. This step, however, necessitates the payment 
 of the pension to which every retiring higher-school teacher 
 is entitled. It costs money, and consequently the step is re- 
 luctantly taken. 
 
 The teaching profession in Germany cannot expect to rival 
 the military, but the two are drawing nearer together. The
 
 384 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 effort is being made to establish a professional code of honour, 
 as in the army, in which the younger teachers are trained by 
 the older ones. The policy of having a gen- 
 erous sprinkling of reserve officers in the teach- 
 ers' ranks is decidedly helping to establish a 
 norm. The ideal teacher of to-day is not that of twenty on 
 thirty years ago. He is not the absent-minded, black-coated, 
 seedy individual that once typified the scholar, but a wide- 
 awake man of the world. Of course, the gradual separation 
 of the schools from clerical influence is largely responsible for 
 this change ; yet it is the military spirit that has set the ideal 
 for the modern teacher. The man who stands before his 
 class erect and stiff as a statue, buttoned to the chin and in 
 faultless attire this is the man who inspires German pupils 
 with the highest respect, even though his speech in the class- 
 room is as short, sharp and imperious as that of the parade 
 field. In referring to my observations on this point, one of 
 the most progressive inspectors of Prussia freely expressed 
 himself as convinced that the military type of teacher was the 
 coming one. He maintained, too, that the increased atten- 
 tion to gymnastics and field-sports was tending to strengthen 
 the military spirit among the pupils. " For us there is no 
 other way/' he said ; " we are and must remain a nation of 
 soldiers. When we cease to be that we are nothing." It remains 
 to be seen whether the military spirit will sufficiently pene- 
 trate the profession as to make it impossible for a master to 
 shirk his duty ; whether the best interests of all will be sacri- 
 ficed to the indolence, indifference or inability of a few. 
 
 The salaries of teachers in the higher schools of Prussia 
 vary, as has been said, according to rank and length of service. 
 Directors of full nine-year schools in Berlin re- 
 ceive from $1,500 to $1,800 a year, and $375 for 
 house rent if an apartment is not provided in the school 
 building. The initial salary of directors of complete schools 
 in cities of over 50,000 inhabitants is $1,275 ; after fifteen 
 years of service the maximum, $1,800, is reached. The initial 
 salary in smaller cities is $1,200. Directors of six years'
 
 APPOINTMENT AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 385 
 
 schools begin in Berlin and other large cities with $1,275, 
 
 and work up to $1,500 : :a the smaller cities, the limits 
 
 are $1,125 and $1,500. Regular teachers in 
 
 state schools receive an initial salary of $675, 
 
 wh'c'i is increased $75 trieunially until the maximum, $1,275, 
 
 is reached, after twenty-four years of service. One-half of 
 
 all the teachers in the complete schools and 
 
 one-fourth of those in the incomplete schools 
 
 may receive an additional allowance of $225 per 
 
 year for distinguished services. The salaries of technical 
 
 teachers, assistants and others of like grade range from $375 
 
 to $900. To these amounts should be added 
 
 the annual allowances for house rent : directors, Teachm. 
 
 $150 to $250 ; regular teachers, $90 to $225 ; 
 
 and others, $40 to $135 according to the size of the city in 
 
 which the teacher must reside. City schools and those under 
 
 private patronage may be permitted to pay larger salaries 
 
 than the state allows; but in no case can they pay less. 1 
 
 The salaries of directors and teachers of higher schools are 
 very low in comparison with the salaries paid to men of equal 
 worth in American or British schools. It will 
 be seen that $2,000 is beyond the reach of the 
 best men in the state schools, even after twenty 
 .-years of service. A few city schools, and some on special 
 foundations, do approximate that amount. And these men, 
 be it understood, are holding positions equivalent to the 
 presidency of a high-grade American college or the head- 
 mastership of an English public school. The discrepancy is 
 often explained on the theory that it costs correspondingly 
 less to live in Germany. That living expenses are less in 
 Germany than in America is true, but it is not because foods 
 are cheaper there than here. The fact is, as everyone knows 
 who has tried it, that it costs more to live in Germany than 
 in America, if you live in the same way. Provisions of all 
 kinds are more expensive ; clothing and domestic service 
 
 1 The complete salary schedules of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Wiir 
 temberg are given in Appendix.
 
 386 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 alone are cheaper. The German family has learned the les- 
 son of economy ; the same economy, if practised in Amer- 
 ica, would yield still better results. The sole advantage 
 which the German teacher has, as I see it, is in his tenure of 
 office and pension. This may make good the difference or 
 not, just as one looks at it. 
 
 It is no wonder that with such meagre income German 
 teachers rarely travel beyond the fatherland. Leave of absence 
 may be granted, but the teacher must bear the 
 expense of a substitute. Prussia, however, ex- 
 pends yearly 5,000 marks in assisting teachers, 
 especially of modern languages, to study abroad. The city 
 of Berlin provides an annual fund of 6,000 marks for the 
 same purpose, and a few other cities do almost as much. 
 Special foundations exist, too, for the purpose of assisting 
 classical teachers to a period of travel in Italy and Greece. 
 These grants range, according to the circumstances, from 500 
 marks upwards. In case of illness, no deduction is made ; the 
 director will divide up the work among the other members of 
 his staff. If, however, there are no signs of ultimate recovery, 
 the teacher is ordered before an examining board for retire- 
 ment. 
 
 Teachers of all grades in the civil service retiring after ten 
 years of service or earlier, if because of disabilities incurred 
 in the discharge of their duties receive a pen- 
 sion of $ of their last year's salary. For each 
 year of service beyond ten years, J ff of the last year's salary is 
 added, until, after thirty years, the maximum of ff is reached. 
 A teacher who has an income, from all official sources, of $1,600 
 will receive, therefore, a pension of $1,200 for the rest of his 
 life. More than that, after his death his widow is entitled to 
 one-third of his pension; and each child under eighteen years 
 of age, to one-fifth as much as the mother. 1 
 
 On the whole, it must be conceded that the German teacher 
 is tolerably well provided for. His income is small; but in 
 
 1 See Appendix for a summary of pension laws.
 
 APPOINTMENT AND PROMOTION OF TEACHERS 387 
 
 comparison with members of other learned professions, he is 
 not far in the rear. He can live as his neighbours do, enjoy 
 cultivated society, rear a large family, send his sons to the 
 university, fit his daughters to be as cheerful, industrious 
 and frugal as their mother, and be assured of a competency 
 in his old age. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Wiese, Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen ; 
 Wiese-Kiibler, Verordnungen und Gesetze ; Instruction fiir die Directortn 
 an den hbheren Unterrichtsanstalten der Provinz Brandenburg (and same 
 for Lehrer and Ordinarien), Berlin, 1868; Bestimmungen uber das Mdd- 
 chenschulwesen, 31 Mai, 1894, Berlin, 18!)5 ; Wychgram, Handbuch des ho- 
 heren Madchenschulwesens, Leipsic, 1897 ; Encyclopedias of Schmid and 
 Rein; Stdtistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen ; Kunze, Kalendar fiir 
 das hohere Schulwesen Preussens, Breslau, 1894 : Centralblatt fiir die ge- 
 sammte Unterrichts- Verwaltung in Preussen (official organ of the Prus- 
 sian Education Department). See Bibliography, p. 455, Nos. Ih, 2, 4.
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL KEFORM 
 
 THE German school system in its present form is the out- 
 come of a long process of development, in which there has 
 been continual adaptation of means to ends. 
 A complex The system of t h e future will be the result of 
 
 Problem. J 
 
 an evolution in what is now at hand. The 
 factors in this problem are so numerous, and their interrela- 
 tions so complex, that it is almost presumptuous in a foreigner 
 to suggest a possible solution. Nevertheless, there are certain 
 tendencies so manifestly important that they deserve special 
 mention. This chapter, therefore, is the projection of the 
 historical introduction to this study into the present and 
 future. 
 
 The pressing problems in German educational affairs are 
 
 unmistakably those relating to the function of the higher 
 
 schools questions of the end and means of 
 
 The Main secondary education, of state control and indi- 
 
 Qaestions. J 
 
 vidual freedom. Of course, there are many less 
 important questions ; and it is characteristic of the German 
 way of doing things to slight nothing because of its apparent 
 insignificance. There are questions of methods of teaching, 
 of internal organization and conduct of school work, of hy- 
 giene, of salaries and pensions, of the social rank and stand- 
 ing of teachers, of the professional training of teachers all 
 these and many more are constantly in the minds of German 
 educators, as the flood of current literature clearly demon- 
 strates. At intervals, these questions come into prominence; 
 but with few exceptions the course of development is well 
 
 888
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 389 
 
 understood, or waits on the solution of more fundamental 
 problems. 
 
 The struggle between humanism and realism in higher 
 education goes back centuries. It had passed through several 
 stages even before Sturm and Comenius en- 
 tered the lists ; since their day there has been H^ 8 "- 
 
 ' * Realism. 
 
 no cessation of hostilities. The latest stage of 
 development was entered on in Germany about forty years 
 ago, when Real-schools began to be fostered by the state. 
 Then, for the first time, the "gymnasial monopoly " was 
 forced to reckon with a real adversary. It is the same old 
 struggle, but in modern dress. In this case both humanism 
 and realism have been touched with the prevailing civic ideals 
 of education. The problem is to reconcile the conflicting 
 claims of humanism, realism and nationalism. 
 
 I have already attempted to show that the higher schools 
 are expected to enter readily into the service of the state. 
 The emperor, in an order dated May 1, 1889, 
 said: "I have for a long time been occupied 
 with the thought of making use of the schools in their sepa- 
 rate grades for combating the spread of socialistic and com- 
 munistic ideas. The prime object of the schools will ever be 
 to lay the foundations for a sound comprehension of both civic 
 and social relations, by cherishing reverence for God and love 
 for the fatherland. But I cannot fail to recognise that in a 
 time when the errors and misrepresentations of social democ- 
 racy are spread abroad with increased zeal, the school is called 
 upon to make increased efforts to advance the recognition 
 of the true, the real and the possible in the world. The 
 school must endeavour to create in the young the conviction 
 that the teachings of social democracy contradict not only the 
 Divine commands and Christian morals, but are, moreover, 
 impracticable and, in their consequences, destructive alike 
 to the individual and to the community. The school must 
 bring the new and the newest history of the times more than 
 hitherto into the circle of the subjects of instruction, and 
 show that the power of the state alone can protect for the in-
 
 390 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 dividual his family, his freedom and his rights. And it 
 must bring the youth to know how Prussia's kings have ex- 
 erted themselves to elevate the condition of the labourers, in 
 a continuous development from the legal reforms of Frederick 
 the Great, and from the abolition of serfdom to the present 
 day. Moreover, the school must show by statistics how con- 
 siderably and constantly in this century the wages and condi- 
 tion of the labouring classes have improved under this mo- 
 narchical protection." 1 
 
 This led to .definite proposals by the ministry of state fo* 
 carrying out the emperor's wishes. In August of the same 
 year another imperial order directed the calling 
 serve rtTe^state ^ ^ e Conference which met in Berlin in De- 
 cember, 1890. This order supported the posi- 
 tion formerly taken in the following terms : " The duty falls 
 upon the higher-school system, in a more effective pursuit of 
 its former objects, not only to equip those social classes that 
 are called to exercise a critical influence upon the entire life 
 of our people with the knowledge necessary to produce such 
 results, but also to give them, by means of an education based 
 upon Christianity and the national German spirit, a perma- 
 nent tendency of the will and of the character. Therefore, 
 above all, those subjects of instruction which are calculated 
 to determine immediately the sensibility and will are to be 
 employed to the greatest extent possible. Along with these 
 duties, common to all the higher schools, the goals fixed for 
 individual classes of schools are to be kept firmly in view. If, 
 however, in this, not merely a more highly cultured person- 
 ality, but also an intellectually composed and a morally con- 
 firmed personality, is everywhere striven for as the result of 
 the instruction, then all the scientific work of the higher 
 schools will serve the ends of true education. This is univer- 
 sally recognised ; but different views prevail as to the way 
 that should be taken to reach this goal, and these views are 
 in part contradictory. Therefore, it has been recommended 
 
 1 Report of the Commissioner of Education, Washington, 1889-189ft 
 p. 344.
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 391 
 
 
 
 to ascertain, through the joint deliberations of men of differ- 
 ent positions in life, which of the numerous proposals for 
 improving our school system are justified, and how the same 
 are to be equalized ; especially, however, how they are to be 
 made available for school forms that have come down to us 
 through history." 1 
 
 Again, in his address before the assembled Conference, he 
 returned to the same theme. " This order in council," he said, 
 " would, perhaps, have been unnecessary, if the 
 schools had stood at the stand-point which they 
 ought to occupy. If I shall become somewhat 
 sharp in my subsequent remarks, I will state here, in advance, 
 that these remarks refer to no one in particular, but to the sys- 
 tem, to the whole situation of affairs. If the schools had ac- 
 complished what must be demanded of them I speak to you 
 as one who is not unfamiliar with them, for I have attended 
 the Gymnasium and know how things go there they, of their 
 own accord, would have undertaken the fight against social 
 democracy from the very beginning. The teaching faculties 
 of our schools ought to have taken a firm hold of the situa- 
 tion, and ought to have instructed the growing youth in such 
 a way that the young people who are of my own age, about 
 thirty, would now furnish me the material wherewith I might 
 accomplish the overthrow of this movement. But such has 
 not been the case. . . . But just here lies the punctum 
 saliens. Why are so many of our young people led astray 
 by crude theories ? Why is it that so many so-called reform- 
 ers of the universe ( Weltverbesserer) make their appearance 
 among us, with their confused and incoherent notions ? 
 What is the reason why so much fault is continually found 
 with our government, and we are perpetually referred to for- 
 eign nations for example ? Because our young people are 
 ignorant as to the historical evolution of the conditions of our 
 time, and as to the fact that they are the outgrowth of the 
 
 1 See Verhandlungen iiber Fragen des hOheren Unterrichti, Berlin, 1891 ; 
 also Report of Commissioner of Education, Washington, 1889-1890, p. 346.
 
 392 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 age of the French Revolution. . . . The question, then, 
 before us is, how can we best reach the desired results with 
 regard to classical and scientific training (Real-bildung), and 
 as to the requirements for the one year's service in the army? 
 The easiest way, in my opinion, to get at these results is by 
 changing, with one decisive and radical step, our former 
 views, and by saying : Classical Gymnasien for classical educa- 
 tion, and another kind of schools for scientific training (Real- 
 bildung), but no Realgymnasien. The Realgymnasien are 
 only half-way measures, which give but a partial education, 
 and produce, therefore, only incomplete preparation for life." l 
 The emperor's words were a direct challenge to all parties. 
 The humanists were charged with being philologists merely, 
 not educators in the truest sense of the term, 
 deeded ' " r ^^ ie foundation of our Gymnasium must be 
 German. It is our duty to educate young men 
 to become young Germans, and not young Greeks and Ro- 
 mans." The Real gymnasium was declared to be a hybrid in- 
 stitution, which gives " but a partial education and . . . 
 incomplete preparation for life." And, lastly, the entire sys- 
 tem, Realschulen included, was condemned as wanting a na- 
 tional basis. 
 
 While the charge that the higher schools were responsible 
 for the growth of social democracy was indignantly repudi- 
 ated by the conference, the results of their 
 Nationalism deliberations appear in the school curricula of 
 1892, in which the subjects of religion, German 
 and history are made the centres of instruction. To that 
 extent nationalism, as represented by the emperor, might 
 claim a victory. 
 
 The cause of ultra-realism was decidedly advanced, in that 
 the Realschulen were given a definite place in the school sys- 
 tem, and endowed with some privileges hitherto 
 confined to the classical course of training. In 
 consequence, these schools have had a remark- 
 able growth in the last five years. In 1890 there were in 
 
 1 Educational Review, I., pp. 201 ff.
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 393 
 
 Prussia only nine Oberrealschiilen and twenty Realschulen ; 
 these numbers had increased in 1896 to twenty-four and 
 seventy-three respectively. In the meantime the attendance 
 had increased from 4,177 and 6,940 to 10,288 and 19,67s. 1 
 
 The signal advantages accorded to the Realschulen have 
 put the advocates of a humanistic education on the defensive. 
 The emperor's a.dvice to convert all Realgymnasien into Ober- 
 realschulen, and the action of the ministry in discrediting 
 classical instruction in classical schools, precipitated a heated 
 discussion concerning the true significance of humanistic 
 training. 
 
 Advocates of the Realgymnasium have always insisted that 
 that institution was designed to afford a liberal education on 
 the basis of modern culture. They contend xheprobiemof 
 that no secondary school can give both the theReaigym 
 ancient point of view and the modern also ; that 
 the attempt to do both is the only " half-training" which is 
 known in German schools. Better cut the knot at once, 
 then, and acknowledge that Greek is not absolutely essential 
 to a well-rounded humanistic training. You can have a hu- 
 manistic education founded on the Greek and Roman cult- 
 ure, with a modicum of the modern added ; or you can have 
 a humanistic training based on Latin, French and English, 
 with such understanding of Greek culture as can be gained 
 through art and philosophy and literature, without a knowl- 
 edge of the Greek language. They point out that in the 
 ministerial order of 1859, which established the Redlgymna- 
 sien, it was expressly stated that these institutions were not 
 intended to be schools merely for the furtherance of realistic 
 education. "They are not technical schools (FachscJiulen), 
 but, like the Gymnasten, have to do with the general means 
 of education and fundamental knowledge. Be- 
 tween Gymnasien and Realxchulen, therefore, 
 there is no essential opposition, but a relation 
 of mutual support. They share the task of providing 
 the basis for the higher education necessary for the learned 
 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch der Hoheren Schulen.
 
 394 GERMAN SIQHER SCHOOLS 
 
 professions. This division has become necessary through the 
 development of the sciences and social conditions." This 
 principle was again recognised in 1882, when the Real-schools 
 with Latin (Realschulen I. Ordnung] were given the gymnasial 
 title. 
 
 But time effects many changes among them changes in the 
 personnel of the ministry of education. Hence in 1890 the 
 proposition to abolish these modern humanistic institutions 
 altogether. But the attempt was a failure ; these schools ex- 
 ist, and are probably stronger to-day, because of the persecu- 
 tion, than they were in 1890. 
 
 The humanistic party is divided against itself. Both fac- 
 tions accord the Oberrealschnlen a legitimate place in the 
 school system. The realists, therefore, are for 
 (MniOTH the nonce quite satisfied. The out-and-out 
 classicists claim that enough is conceded ; the 
 Realschulen are pre-eminently the schools for those who want 
 only modern culture. The more liberal faction asserts that 
 there can be no understanding of modern culture without the 
 historical setting that conies from a study of the life and lan- 
 guage of Home. Greek, too, is desirable ; but it should be an 
 optional subject. 
 
 This is the attitude of Professor Paulsen ; and it accounts 
 for the fact that, in gymnasial circles, he is one of the most 
 cordially hated men in Germany. He is at the 
 same time, I may also add, one of the most 
 popular men in other circles. He is a hard 
 fighter, and cannot be terrified into silence. His creed is as 
 follows : " A school without Latin cannot be the culture- 
 school (Gelehrtenschule) of the present. It may be that the 
 Oberrealschule is the school of the future ; it may be that, in 
 one hundred, or two hundred, or five hundred years, a school 
 not only without Greek but also without Latin will suffice 
 in preparation for the learned studies of that period. In fact, 
 I have no doubt that the significance of the ancient languages 
 will continue to decrease, just as in the past three hundred 
 years. But this must be said : The school of the future is
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 395 
 
 not the school of the present. The knowledge of the Latin 
 language is to-day indispensable for most higher studies. 
 . . . If Latin is no longer the universal literary language, 
 it is still the language without which a deep historical educa- 
 tion is impossible. He who undertakes Latin has the possi- 
 bility of stepping out of the narrow circle of the present. 
 He has access to a world that lies entirely beyond the inter- 
 ests and passions of the day, a world that has become entirely 
 historical. Thus he can observe the present as from out- 
 side ; in old Kome he moves in a world which had its own 
 centre, and knew nothing of the world that stirs about Berlin 
 and Paris, London and Moscow, and which fights about pope- 
 dom and Lutherdom, revolution and reaction, and whatever 
 other names are given to the antitheses of the present time. 
 So he gains an objective point of view for these things, to 
 use Spinoza's expression sub quadam ceternitatis specie. Just 
 as Rome is the Eternal City, so is Latin also the language 
 of eternity. Indeed, a language of an astonishing range : 
 Caesar wrote in it his reminiscences and Augustine his con- 
 fessions ; Catullus sang in it his songs and the mediaeval 
 church its awe-inspiring hymns ; Lucretius composed in it 
 his poem ' On the Nature of Things' and Spinoza his ethics ; 
 and twice did Rome write in it laws for the world/' 1 
 
 Professor Ziegler, of the University of Strasburg, is of the 
 same opinion. In a public address in 1894 he spoke thus 
 plainly to the representatives of the Gymna- 
 sien : " We do not at all deny the educational 
 value of Greek. We do not for a moment dis- 
 pute the splendour and lustre of the Greek spiritual life, its 
 ideal worth and its great educational value. But when we lead 
 our youth to Lessing and Schiller and Goethe, and, instead of 
 Sophocles, to Shakespeare, we also mean thereby to open to 
 them the highest spheres of the spiritual life of man ; and 
 when we let them look deeper than yon do into the secrets of 
 nature, an ideal element of a different kind reveals itself, which 
 consists in the recognition of the subjection of man to Nat- 
 
 1 Uber die gegenwdrtige Lage dct hoheren Schulwcsent, Berlin, 1893.
 
 396 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ure's Law, and which can be made by ns a great educational 
 power. But we want to meet you on the same ground in the 
 study of the mother-tongue and of history, as well as instruc- 
 tion in Latin for the sake of linguistic culture and for the re- 
 cognition of the historical connections of our whole civiliza- 
 tion and spiritual life. And when you seek to strengthen 
 your Latin instruction because it no longer adequately serves 
 its purpose, we stand with you shoulder to shoulder ; for we 
 are Gymnasien as well as you, i.e., preparatory schools for 
 the university." 1 
 
 The leaders of the conservative wing are Professor Uhlig, 
 of Heidelberg, and Dr. Jaeger, of Cologne. They uncom- 
 promisingly opposed all suggestions for reform 
 ^ n * ne Berlin Conference, and on principle 
 never fail to urge the advantages of a complete 
 classical training. It is not how many things a pupil knows, 
 but what he knows, that counts ; and not so much what he 
 learns as how he learns it. Everything cannot be taught in 
 the schools ; a selection must be made, and it is well to 
 choose what is of lasting worth. " In every word of Lathi 
 a bit of Culturgeschichte is hidden away, and that prevents 
 the instruction from sinking into triviality ; it makes it 
 scientific even for nine-year-old boys. 
 
 Their Arguments. . J ' . 
 
 The Gymnasium must be preserved in its in- 
 tegrity. The essence of the Gymnasium does not consist in 
 that the pupil reads any particular Greek or Latin author in 
 his fourteenth, or even in his sixteenth year, and also not 
 altogether in that he is introduced to antiquity ; but it con- 
 sists in this alone, that by a gradual accustoming to exact 
 knowledge, however it is grasped, the pupil is educated to 
 knowledge in its highest sense." 2 
 
 The same idea came to expression over and over again in 
 the conference. The Realgymnasium was charged with being 
 
 1 Notwendigkeit und Berechtignng des Realgymnasiums, Stuttgart, 
 1894. 
 
 * Jaeger in Vcrhandlungcn uber Fragcn des hoheren Unterrichts, Ber- 
 lin, 1891.
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 397 
 
 a school with no " centre ; " with a cnrriculum made up of 
 a little of everything that seemed to cater to popular needs. 
 " Above all," said one speaker, " it matters not so much 
 what is taught as how it is taught. * Man lives not, nor 
 shall live, by the bread alone that the school crumbles for 
 him.' He lives also from that which other forces reach out 
 to him the force of the family, that of the church and that 
 of the entire life of the people. These forces must also share 
 in the school ; must take hold and co-operate with it. Not 
 knowledge, but culture is the chief thing." * 
 
 It is evident that the opponents of the Realyymnasium put 
 the emphasis on the Real, while its advocates are anxious to 
 lay stress on the latter part of the compound. 
 In other words, what is troubling the German 
 educational world is the " Greek question." 
 British and American school-masters know well what that is ; 
 but it is doubtful if any of us can imagine what it might have 
 been if every gate to our leading public and professional 
 occupations had been barred by six years of prescribed Greek. 
 That is precisely the rub in Germany to-day. Six years of 
 Greek and nine years of Latin are required of every applicant 
 for the coveted posts in professional and civil service. The 
 prevailing opinion is that these positions should be occupied 
 only by men who have enjoyed a humanistic training. But 
 what is humanistic training ? and how should it be rewarded? 
 
 A calm view of the situation seems to me to present a two- 
 fold opposition to the " gymnasial monopoly." One force is 
 represented by those who would make Greek 
 optional ; these support the Realgymnasium. 
 The other element will hold tenaciously to 
 Greek, but make the gymnasial course more popular, and 
 thus overcome the opposition to the classical training ; these 
 are the advocates of the Reform- Schulen, as found, for example, 
 in Frankfort-am-Main. It is a curious fact, too, that in all 
 
 1 Dr. Uhlhorn. See Professor Thurber's excellent review of the pro- 
 ceedings of the Berlin Confere....e in the Report of the Commisrioner of 
 Education, Washington, 186i- - -X).
 
 398 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the discussions very little is heard of the value of Greek. 
 The struggle turns on the position of Latin. Indeed, it comes 
 near being a contest between scholasticism and humanism. 
 The conservatives will hear nothing of optional Greek. They 
 will not concede to the Realgymnasium the gymnasial Latin 
 course ; they will not grant additional privileges to the schools 
 which offer Latin, but no Greek. They lose no chance to take 
 unfair advantage of their opponents ; even the Berlin Confer- 
 ence, it is charged, was a "packed " convention, and destined 
 for its initiation to oppose any proposition looking to equal 
 rights for all humanistic schools. 1 In the eyes of the liberals, 
 the representatives of the Gymnasien are dogs in the manger. 
 
 1 " Dr. Hornemann, Dr. Albrecht and Dr. Holzmiiller were all well- 
 known opponents of the .ffeaJ-institutions. All the most prominent repre- 
 sentatives of the Realgymnasien, as, for^example, Steinbart, Schwalbe, 
 Schineding, Krumme in Brunswick, and Dillman in Stuttgart and Prof. 
 Preyer in Berlin, were not summoned. All members of the congressional 
 committee on education who had spoken in favour of the equalization of 
 the Realgymnasien, like Seyffardt. Schmelzer and Arendt, were also 
 missing. On the other hand, the deputies Graf and Kropatschek, who 
 had always opposed the wishes of the Real-school, were included. There 
 was one mathematician Holzmiiller, he a declared opponent of the Real- 
 gymnasien ; no naturalist, unless we count the physicians as such ; no 
 teacher in a technical high school ; no artist ; no architect ; no engineer ; 
 no forester ; no merchant ; one manufacturer, and one mine-owner. The 
 association of .ffea/-schoolmen had good reason to complain; its most 
 violent opponents were summoned, and its chief advocates were not. 
 Much might be expected, however, in the way of such reforms as did not 
 involve a serious change in school organization. Schenkendorf, Eitner 
 and others might be expected to advocate warmly the cause of physical 
 culture. Frick and Schiller would take ground for a pedagogical prepara- 
 tion of teachers. There was ground to hope that some measure would be 
 taken against over-pressure and the causes of near-sightedness. There 
 was lamentation that no one appeared to plead the cause of drawing and 
 art in the Gymnasium. Some practical improvements in existing institu- 
 tions might be expected from such a commission, but no radical changes. 
 The friends of the new German school, however, expected little ; and 
 they would have been less disappointed than they were but for the 
 energetic interference of the Emperor." Professor Thurber, in Report 
 of Commissioner of Education, 1889-1890, p. 349.
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 399 
 
 The truest friends of classical culture, in my opinion, are 
 the liberals. Germany is no longer a part of the Holy Roman 
 Empire. Since 1870 the German nation has German Educa- 
 stood on a modern basis. Her civilization is, tkm Must be ciae- 
 indeed, rooted in classical culture, and she feels 
 her kinship with the past more certainly than can England 
 or America. It must needs be, therefore, that her education, 
 under wise management, will long continue to be of the clas- 
 sical type. But the conservatives fail to recognise that social 
 conditions are not what they were; that modern life is differ- 
 entiated to a far greater degree than the life of the past, and 
 that this differentiation demands variety in the training of 
 youth. Moreover, they fail to appreciate the significance 
 of the constantly increasing encroachments of the govern- 
 ment. The mere fact that the government has been partial 
 to the classical schools for seventy-five years does not neces- 
 sarily guarantee the same attitude during the next seventy- 
 five. The general will is long-suffering in Germany ; but 
 once let popular opinion become hostile to the Gymnasien, 
 the cause of humanistic education will be set back a century, 
 if not utterly ruined. And when classical education breaks 
 down in Germany, classical culture will vanish from the earth 
 unless, perchance, a better than Germany arises. 
 
 I have already spoken at length of one liberal movement, 
 the Realgymnasium; the other and the one which seems to 
 me to promise better immediate results is the 
 Reform-school movement. It has already been The 
 referred to several times in this book as the Reform-school. 
 Frankfort plan. 
 
 The idea of national unity which pervaded all classes of 
 German society at the time of the revolution in 1848, and 
 which later found expression in the new German Empire, has 
 as its correlate in the educational world the idea of an Ein- 
 heitsschule. This "Union School" was intended to absorb 
 all the existing common and higher schools, and, by welding 
 them together, to make one school suitable for all purposes, 
 continuous from the lowest grades to the university. This
 
 400 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ideal was neralded as the panacea for all educational ills by 
 zealous pedagogues, who established unions, founded journals 
 and made many speeches in its support. The movement was 
 popular altogether too popular to suit German bureaucracy. 
 The emperor agreed with Bismarck in thinking that the 
 "educated proletariat" were already too numerous; fewer 
 university graduates, rather than more, was the chief desider- 
 atum. The Einheitsschule was snuffed out, therefore, by the 
 Berlin Conference. It was too democratic for Prussia. 1 
 
 The Reform-Schnle is not the descendant of the Einheits- 
 schule, although it bears some relationship to it. In 1865 
 Director Ostendorf, of Lippstadt, began the 
 Derek.pment agitation for the earlier introduction of French, 
 as a step toward Latin. The attempt was first 
 made at Altona, in 1871, but complete arrangements were 
 delayed until 1878. In that year Dr. Schlee was allowed to 
 make the course in the first three years of the Realschule and 
 Redlgymnasium identical. During the first two years French 
 was the only language taught at both schools ; in the fourth 
 year Latin was introduced in the Realgymnasium^ and Eng- 
 lish in the third year in both schools. In 1892 the plan was 
 adopted in the city schools of Frankfort-am- Main, and was 
 extended to include a half of the Gymnasium, two Real- 
 gymnasien, the Oberrealschule and all the Realschulen of the 
 city. The comprehensiveness of the trial in Frankfort has 
 given it first place in public opinion ; hence the popular 
 term, " Frankfort system," has replaced the older and more 
 strictly historical term, " Altona system." 
 
 The principle underlying the Reform-Schule is that of com- 
 paratively short and intensive courses. In Frankfort, six 
 years of Latin and four of Greek replace the 
 usual irine and six years' courses in these sub- 
 jects. Hence the decision on which a boy's 
 future rests is postponed from three to five years later than 
 in the regular royal schools. This gives time for teachers to 
 
 1 The important literature on the Einheitsachule is given in the Edu- 
 cational Review, I.. 380.
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 401 
 
 test his ability, and a basis on which they can intelligently 
 advise his parents. It retains for the strict classical course 
 all those who are by nature fitted for it ; it gives the Real- 
 schools the material which can best profit from realistic in- 
 struction. The tendency is to relieve the higher schools of 
 all kinds from the dead weight which each must carry when 
 pupils are forced to decide upon their course before their 
 powers have been tested. 
 
 Undoubtedly, school politics has much to do with the intro- 
 duction of the reformed organization. The middle class in 
 society looks upon the long classical training as 
 
 an evil a necessary evil, perhaps, but still some- i!* courses 
 thing that should be swallowed as quickly as 
 possible. A diminution of three years in the Greek and Latin 
 courses, therefore, is likely to meet with popular favour. But 
 a pedagogical principle is also involved which commends it- 
 self to many school-masters, the expediency of prefacing the 
 study of a dead language with a good working knowledge of 
 a living tongue. The three years exclusively devoted to 
 French work wonders, as I have related elsewhere ; and if 
 present indications mean anything, the Frankfort experiment 
 will demonstrate that as great proficiency in Latin can be at- 
 tained in six years, if preceded by French, as in nine years 
 without it. On this point I quote from a report, made in 
 1896 by the mayor of Kiel to the city magistrates, recom- 
 mending the adoption of the Frankfort plan, which he had 
 personally investigated both in Frankfort and Altona. His 
 recommendation is significant of the attitude of many 
 thoughtful men outside of the teaching profession ; his opin- 
 ion of the quality of work done accords with the estimate 
 that has been given by all unprejudiced observers. He says: 
 " In Altona, where at present we find the only opportunity 
 of seeing a Reform-Schule carried through to the highest 
 class, I was especially interested in the instruction in Latin. 
 I followed it through classes from the Untertertia to the 
 Prima of the Realgymnasium. In the Untertertia, where Lat- 
 in is begun, the pupils showed an unmistakable interest
 
 402 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 in the new language ; the grammatical questions of the teach 
 ers were answered with great readiness, and short sentences 
 
 were translated with ease from German into 
 ^itona n h Latin. In the Obertertia a connected passage 
 
 unfamiliar to the class was translated into Latin 
 with remarkable confidence. Latin authors are taken up only 
 in the Secunda. Caesar's Gallic War is read in Untersecunda 
 exclusively, and in the Obersecunda simultaneously with Sal- 
 lust and Ovid. I heard the pupils of the Untersecunda 
 translate a chapter from Caesar at sight, and it seemed to 
 present to them no difficulties whatever ; the Latin text was 
 read aloud by the teacher only. In the Obersecunda a simi- 
 lar extempore translation of a particularly difficult chapter 
 from the same author was given with equal success. In 
 Prima Livy and Tacitus, of the historians, are read ; of poets, 
 Vergil and Horace. The director himself conducts this in- 
 struction. He had his pupils read for us two chapters from 
 Livy, XXII. (chapter 39 after preparation, and chapter 56 
 extempore), and proved his skill in the highly developed ability 
 of the pupils at once to fully understand the meaning of the 
 Latin construction and to translate it into good German. The 
 recitation of an ode of Horace (II., 10, in praise of the aurea 
 medocritas) finally showed that the pupils fully enjoyed the 
 exquisite music of these lines. The aim of Latin instruction 
 has been attained by the Primaner of the Altona Gymnasium 
 at least as successfully, if not more so, than in any Realgym- 
 nasium of the old sort. . . . In Frankfort-am-Main Latin 
 has been so far introduced only in the Untertertia. The in- 
 struction had begun three-fourths of a year before ; still, that 
 
 short period was sufficient to show how easily the 
 
 In Frankfort. .. r . . , , , , , 
 
 pupils who have had a three years preparatory 
 course in French can overtake the pupils trained in the old 
 way. The city Gymnasium at Frankfort has the advantage 
 of a first-class corps of teachers and a highly gifted director, 
 whose fame to a great extent consists in- his allowing the 
 teachers to use their own methods. Naturally, the Gymna- 
 sium attracts superior material. Still, I would attribute a
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 403 
 
 great part of the successful work I have seen there to re- 
 formed methods. I witnessed the Latin instruction in both 
 parallel classes of Untertertia, one of which was taught by 
 the director himself. The readiness with which the pupils 
 answered the rapid questions of the teachers was really aston- 
 ishingi Even when the director put his questions in Latin, 
 the answers in short Latin sentences were promptly given a 
 readiness which I can only explain by the pupils' confidence 
 obtained in the use of the related language, the French." 
 
 The following extracts from a circular letter addressed to 
 the patrons of the higher schools in Hanover, advising them 
 of the introduction of the Reform -school curri- 
 cula in that city, shows the arguments which 
 appeal to parents : " The Reform- Scliule obvi- 
 ates the necessity of parents' choosing for their nine-year- 
 old son what career he shall follow. This important deci- 
 sion is postponed until his natural inclinations and abilities 
 can be more readily ascertained. Very often, too, a change 
 in the circumstances of the parents makes it desirable that 
 there should be more freedom in the choice of education for 
 their children. . . . French is the foreign language first 
 taught, and it is from the very beginning treated as a living 
 tongue. . . . Such a beginning accords with the peda- 
 gogical requirement that the subject-matter of instruction 
 should correspond to the mental development of the pupil, 
 and that the easier should precede the more difficult. When 
 Latin is begun in Untertertia, the pupil is mentally ready for 
 it. ... Since by the new program of instruction the 
 Latin essay is abolished, the scope of Greek prose composi- 
 tion limited and the interpretation of the literature is made 
 the chief object in classical instruction, it follows that . . . 
 there can be no great difference between the gymnasial pupils 
 and those from the new schools as shown in the final exam- 
 ination. For in the development of mental power the new 
 school will not have less means, nor will it be behind the 
 other schools in directing the mind toward the ideal. . . . 
 Through the prominence given to the study of French, and
 
 404 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 because of the increase in the number of hours given to Ger- 
 man, the Reform-Schule becomes an institution resting on 
 a modern basis, and meets the needs of the times for an edu- 
 cation more independent of the ancient languages. ' The 
 spirit of the school must be nourished by the life surrounding 
 us, with whose changing tides the principles of education 
 vary ; but for the success of all instruction faith in the utility 
 and necessity of the knowledge acquired is of the greatest 
 significance/ The new school believes in connecting the 
 present with the historic past." 1 
 
 It is easy to detect in this announcement the mingling of 
 politics, expediency and pedagogy. But what the people 
 really want they will some time get, in Germany 
 as e l sewnere - It matters not that the old party 
 predict the failure of the new school on a priori 
 grounds ; the trial is being made with the consent of the 
 government. In one form or another, it is being tried in 
 Altona, Frankfort, Giistrow, Magdeburg, Essen, Iserlohn, 
 Hildesheim, Harburg, Osnabriick, Lippstadt, Bremen, Bres- 
 lau, Hanover, Schoneburg, Charlottenburg, in the French 
 Gymnasium of Berlin and in the Realgymnasium of Carls- 
 ruhe. If the experiment is a failure, it will be. because the 
 task is an impossible one. The first real test will come in 
 1901, when the first graduates from the Frankfort schools will 
 have a chance to demonstrate their knowledge of Greek and 
 Latin side by side with those who complete the regular course. 
 It is dangerous to venture a prediction as to the final out- 
 come of the present struggle ; but to a person with a demo- 
 cratic turn of mind, one of two possible solu- 
 
 The Outlook. . r 
 
 tions seems inevitable : either Greek will be 
 made optional, or the gymnasial monopoly will be broken 
 down. If additional privileges are given to the Real-schools, 
 Greek may be preserved in its integrity for many years to 
 come ; if six years of Greek must continue to bar the way to 
 
 1 Jahresbericht des stadtischen Leibniz-Realgymnasium zu Hannover^ 
 1895.
 
 TENDENCIES OF SCHOOL REFORM 405 
 
 professional life, then Greek will eventually become what it 
 was before 1810 a dead weight in the curriculum. An 
 American or an Englishman, with his national predilection 
 for freedom, finds it almost inconceivable that the Frankfort 
 plan should fail ; it is essentially that which we ourselves are 
 rapidly coming to believe in. The first three years, in which 
 the course is common to all, are our " grammar-school " 
 grades ; the upper six classes differentiate along the " clas- 
 sical/' the " Latin-scientific" and the "scientific" lines. 
 But the German mind is not democratic ; it is monarchical, 
 and accepts class distinctions. The old gymnasial course is 
 the aristocratic course, and the privileged classes are deter- 
 mined to keep it so. The Gymnasium or, rather, its sup- 
 porters is largely at fault for the growth of social democ- 
 racy ; but not, as the emperor thought, because it is doing so 
 much, but because of what it is not doing. It will not grant 
 that freedom of choice, variety in education and equal op- 
 portunity for all, which modern life demands. I have more 
 faith in modern ideals even in Germany than I have in 
 German bureaucracy. The bane of the German schools is 
 the system of privileges. When that is abolished, humanism 
 and classical education of the right sort will flourish as never 
 before. 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : Verhandlungen iiber Fragen des hoheren 
 Unterrichts, Berlin, 1891 ; Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts 
 (new edition, last chapter) Das Realgymnasiurn und die humanistische 
 Bildung, Berlin, 1889; Uber die gegenwdrtige Lage des hoheren Schul- 
 wesens in Preussen, Berlin, 1893; Ziegler, Die Fragen der Schulreform, 
 Stuttgart; Notwendigkeit und Berechtigung des Realgymnasiiims, Stutt- 
 gart, 1894; Bahnsch, Der Streit urn den griechischen Sprachunterricht, 
 Dantzic, 1893; Ohlert, Die deutsche hohere Schule, Hanover, 1896; Wer- 
 nicke, Kultur und Schule, Osterwieck-Harz, 1896: Munch, Neue pada- 
 gogische Beifrage, Berlin. 1893 ; Frick, Die Einheit der Schule Mog- 
 lichkeit der hoheren Einheifsschulen in Pdd. und didak. Abhandlung- 
 en, Halle, 1893; Rein, Am Ende der Schulreform t Langensalza, 1893 
 (gives bibliography down to 1893); Das humanistische Gymnasium; 
 Zeitschnft fur das O ymnasialwesen ; Central-Organ fur die Interessen 
 des Realschulwesens. See Bibliography, p. 455.
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 MERITS AND DEFECTS OF GERMAN SECONDARY 
 EDUCATION 
 
 THE two dominant forces in the later development of the 
 German school system have proceeded from the State and the 
 University. The one has made the system ; 
 the other, the school. Whatever merits or 
 defects are discernible, therefore, in German 
 secondary education, aside from those due to local influences, 
 which might arise anywhere and under almost any circum- 
 stances, can be traced to one or both of these sources. In 
 their tendencies these forces are radically different ; it is an 
 opposition of the centripetal and the centrif- 
 ugal. The state is authoritative, autocratic, 
 conservative ; the university is free, liberal and democratic. 
 The university embodies the highest ideals of the spiritual 
 life and culture of the German people ; the 
 
 8. The University. , . 
 
 state represents their genius for self-control, 
 organization and government. It is at once the strength r.nd 
 the weakness of the school system that it is the resultant of 
 several forces. 
 
 In ascribing to the state so large a share of honor in the 
 development of secondary education, I do not mean to dis- 
 credit the influence of the Church. Until the 
 Vpower* 1 " present century the church was practically in 
 supreme control. But since the Napoleonic 
 Wars, the state has superseded the church in the management 
 of school affairs. The spiritual leadership of the church is 
 perhaps as strongly marked now as ever, but it is maintained 
 
 406
 
 GERMAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 407 
 
 indirectly through the good offices of the state and university. 
 The university provides for the theological training of intend- 
 ing teachers ; the state prescribes the course of religious in- 
 struction in the schools. 
 
 It is not too much to say that without the fostering care of 
 the state the present efficiency of secondary education could 
 hardly have been attained. The state com- 
 pels parents to send their children to school, 
 provides ample means for their instruction, 
 cares for their physical well-being, directs their course of 
 training and sets standards for promotion and graduation ; 
 it has perfected an organization which permits a high degree 
 of central control, and yet allows considerable freedom in the 
 local direction of school affairs ; it insists on high scholar- 
 ship, thorough professional training and pedagogical skill 
 from all its teachers ; it recognises a teaching profession, and 
 agrees to support it even unto death. All this has been 
 achieved by the German state in less than a century. It is 
 an achievement of which any people might well be proud. 
 
 The compulsory school laws of Germany are most salutary 
 in their effects. They are severe, but they work no hard- 
 ships. It has come to be so much a matter of 
 course for children to enter school at six and 
 attend every day regularly until they are four- 
 teen, that to the average child it seems as inevitable as his 
 birthdays. This assures to every child who is physically and 
 mentally able to receive it full eight years of schooling. 
 'Luther proclaimed it the right and duty of the state to 
 compel parents to send their children regularly to school ; 
 Weimar enacted the first compulsory education law in 1619 ; 
 Gotha followed in 1642 ; Brunswick in 1647 ; Wurtemberg 
 in 1649 ; and finally, in the reign of Frederick the Great, 
 Prussia introduced the plan which has since become univer- 
 sal in Germany. The responsibility is placed where it be- 
 longs on the parent. Complete census lists are kept by 
 the local police ; and twice a year, before the opening of each 
 term, the school authorities are given the names of all chil-
 
 408 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 dren who should enter school. Those who are not enrolled 
 in the higher schools, and who have not received permission 
 to undertake private study, are required to show cause for 
 not attending the common schoc Delinquents who do not 
 satisfactorily excuse their shortcomings are reported to th 
 police or truant officers, whose duty it is to make investiga- 
 tions and institute th r necessary legal proceedings. In the 
 higher schools the proolem is much simpler than it is in the 
 common schools, simple as it is anywhere. The necessity of 
 earning the privileges connected with promotion in the 
 higher schools effectually keeps all laggards in line ; the 
 assistance of the law is rarely necessary. 
 
 The care of the state is most beneficent in the regulations 
 concerning hygienic conditions of school work. No school 
 building can be constructed, whether by royal 
 Precautions or mun i c ip a l authority or by private or corpo- 
 rate bodies, which does not conform to officially 
 accepted standards of sanitary science. In the selection of 
 school sites ; in the arrangements for heating, lighting, ven- 
 tilation and plumbing of school-houses ; in the precautions 
 taken for the prevention of contagious and infectious diseases, 
 the government has taken modern science into its service. 
 If the construction, equipment and management of German 
 schools are not the best in the world, it is not the fault of 
 the system. The health of the children in school is every- 
 where looked upon as a matter of grave importance, which is 
 greatly complicated by the natural inclinations of the Ger- 
 man boy to lead a sedentary life. The German boy seems to 
 have an aversion for outdoor games ; it is partly the fault of 
 the pressure he works under in the schools, partly because he 
 is a German. Whatever else may be done or left undone, the 
 state insists on its children having sound bodies, as the funda- 
 mental condition of developing sound minds. The emperor 
 told the Berlin Conference that he was " looking for soldiers ; 
 . . . for a robust generation who can also serve the fa- 
 therland as intellectual leaders and public officials. 
 I consider it very urgent that the question of hygiene be taken
 
 GERMAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 409 
 
 up in the training schools for teachers, and that with it be 
 joined the requirement that every teacher who is healthy 
 must be able to go through the gymnastic exercises, and 
 must do it every day." 
 
 A uniform course of study for all schools of a particular 
 grade, and a common standard for promotion and graduation, 
 can be made most serviceable in a national 
 
 , . . mi , Uniform Curricula. 
 
 scheme of education. There is, however, one 
 important proviso : The regulations must be wisely made and 
 still more wisely administered. The German states have not 
 always acted thus wisely, but no one can deny that much 
 good has resulted from uniformity. Under the old regime 
 there were some grand schools, some great school- masters, 
 some excellent scholars ; but the average level was deplorably 
 low. For every really good school a score of wretchedly poor 
 ones could be cited ; and with each student who entered the 
 university well prepared, fifty others were admitted who had 
 no business there. The present plan insures a high standard 
 for ull : it protects the university from being deluged with 
 immature students ; it guards the pupil against incompetent 
 leadership and partisan interference. 
 
 The organization of the higher-school system, especially in 
 Prussia, is worthy of general imitation. It provides for a 
 central bureau, local school-boards and pro- Or anizatlon of 
 vincial Schulcollegien intermediate between the the school 
 two. The provincial inspectors of schools 
 supervise and unify the educational interests of their respec- 
 tive districts ; the central authority is extended immediately 
 over the provincial boards, and through them indirectly over 
 all schools in the kingdom. The provincial inspectors, or- 
 ganized as they are in semi-independent bureaus, have prac- 
 tically entire control of all ordinary school affairs within 
 their respective territories; and thus they can do much tow- 
 ard granting local option. On the other hand, matters in 
 dispute can always be appealed to the ministry, or even to the 
 crown in the last resort. Eacli school is given considerable 
 freedom in working out its own policy, and each teacher has
 
 410 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 a chance to stamp his own individuality on all his work. 
 Courses of study and the regulations for school management 
 are seldom minutely prescribed ; they are transmitted in out- 
 line, with a statement of the minimum standards, leaving to 
 individual initiative entire freedom in practical application. 
 The many defeats suffered by the government in attempting 
 to codify the school laws are popular recognitions of local 
 rights. It is greatly to the credit of the Prussian school- 
 masters that, while granting to the state general directive and 
 supervisory powers, they have tenaciously adhered to their 
 individual and professional rights in the exercise of these 
 duties. No ministry has, thus far, violated these rights with 
 impunity. I have stated elsewhere my reasons for thinking 
 that much credit is due to the provincial school-boards for 
 this good fortune. The partial isolation of the boards, their 
 personal contact with the schools on the one hand, and their 
 dependence on the ministry on the other hand, tend to make 
 them peace-makers. In theory, if not always in practice, 
 their mission is blessed. 
 
 The greatest service that the German states have done for 
 the cause of education is unquestionably the creation of a 
 
 creation of teaching profession. That first step taken by 
 Teaching Humboldt in 1810, which provided for the ex- 
 Profession, amination and certification of teachers, was the 
 inauguration of a policy to which Prussia has converted the 
 civilized world. And as Prussia was the first to take her 
 teachers into the service of the state, so she has maintained 
 her leadership in making the profession worthy of public 
 honour and preferment. No other country has done so much 
 to dignify teaching, and to attract to it the best talent ; none 
 has so persistently and intelligently pursued the policy of 
 making the teacher's position worthy of the man ; nowhere 
 else can such teachers be found. Prussia has not only created 
 a teaching profession, but she has trained up a body of men 
 to occupy it who are without rivals the world over. This is 
 not mere flattery. It is a calm conviction growing out of 
 a long personal acquaintance with the men of whom I speak,
 
 GERMAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 411 
 
 and a somewhat intimate knowledge of conditions in other 
 European countries. The Prussian teacher has his faults, 
 and I have taken occasion elsewhere to expose them ; but 
 when these are set off against his virtues, it seems almost 
 trivial to criticise. The Prussian teacher, generically speak- 
 ing, is a man of noble character, high ideals, generous im- 
 pulses, broad and accurate scholarship and technical skill ; 
 he is a gentleman, patriot and educator. 
 
 The making of teachers is the joint work of state and uni- 
 versity. The state has made the teaching profession attrac- 
 tive by protecting it at all points, and supporting 
 it most generously ; the university has trained 
 the teacher, given him his ideals and sent him 
 forth thoroughly equipped for his life's work. The character 
 of his equipment may well be shown by a comparison. Pub- 
 lic opinion in America is coming, somewhat tardily it must 
 be confessed, to demand a college training of its high-school 
 teachers. In Prussia the teacher in a higher school has a 
 training equivalent to the American college course, plus two 
 years of post-graduate study, plus other two years of profes- 
 sional training and trial teaching. Those who believe in the 
 all-sufficiency of erudition, as well as those who believe in the 
 necessity of professional training, must grant the superiority 
 of the German teacher in point of preparation. And even 
 those very respectable people who profess to believe that 
 teachers, like poets, are born, not made, must confess that 
 Germany has, at least, a fair chance for distinction if the 
 laws of heredity operate elsewhere than in their own families. 
 
 It should be remembered that Germany is in Europe, and 
 that Europe stands armed for war. " The first and para- 
 mount duty of our European States is to guard 
 against aggression from without ; and this duty, Mmtarism. 
 which is forced upon them by the enmity and 
 rivalry of their neighbours, frequently overshadows the higher 
 aims of civilization and culture." l This is a condition 
 
 1 Professor Ziegler, of t,h University of Straaburg, in Fornm } XXV., 
 4, p. 457.
 
 412 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 which has to be reckoned with in estimating the merits and 
 defects of the German school system. War demands men ; 
 they should be both intelligent and loyal. The schools are in- 
 stitutions supported by the state in the interests of the state. 
 What more likely than that the government should seek to 
 convert the schools into training camps for the army ? 
 
 It should also be remembered that the government is 
 
 monarchical ; the crown is established by divine right so, at 
 
 least, runs a recent dictum from the throne. 
 
 AteAnttan. What more likely than that patriotism should 
 
 be officially interpreted as loyalty to the crown 
 
 and established institutions ? 
 
 The chief defects in the German school system may be 
 traced to these sources. For upward of a century the man- 
 agement of the schools has steadily been be- 
 coming more bureaucratic. The demands of 
 militarism have begotten the privilege of one- 
 year volunteer army service ; the Absclilussprilfung is the 
 latest encroachment on the domain of public secondary edu- 
 cation for military purposes. Indeed, the whole system of 
 privileges, which I have characterized as the bane of German 
 secondary schools, is an evidence of bureaucratic control. 
 Year by year new regulations are made which tighten the 
 grip of the central authority, and leave correspondingly less 
 freedom for local option. The trend is toward officialism and 
 formalism. It weighs on the teachers in their class-rooms, in 
 so far as they are required to observe ends which are foreign 
 to true pedagogical ideals ; it distracts the pupil's attention 
 from his study for its own sake, and centres it on rewards to 
 be attained out of school } it lowers the standards of scholar- 
 ship, by forcing schools to carry too heavy a load of super- 
 annuated teachers and unambitious scholars. In a word, the 
 tendency is to place altogether too little reliance on individ- 
 ual liberty and personal ambition. 
 
 The German university is the nursery of German idealism 
 and individual liberty. From the days of Luther until the 
 present time it has been the mother of revolutions. The
 
 GERMAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 413 
 
 Reformation centred about Wittenberg, and Halle was founded 
 two centuries ago on the principle of Lernfreiheit. Freedom 
 of research, freedom in teaching, is the corner- 
 stone of university education in German. And yet 
 the universities are state institutions and stand 
 under royal patronage. It is a curious and instructive fact 
 that such a democratic institution as the German university, 
 pledged as it is to absolute freedom and independence in all its 
 work, can exist in a German state. They are essentially in op- 
 position to each other at every point. Time and 
 again this opposition has resulted in open hos- 
 tilities, and many learned professors have found 
 it prudent to accept voluntary exile. Twice within five years 
 the attempt has been made to enact imperial laws restraining 
 the freedom of speech in university circles. In the session 
 of 1894-1895 the government introduced a bill in the Reich- 
 stag which provided a penalty of imprisonment for not longer 
 than two years or a fine of not more than six hundred marks, 
 in case of derogatory expressions publicly directed against 
 religion, monarchy, marriage, family or property. 1 The aim 
 of the government was to combat the rising social democracy, 
 and in order to do that the law had to be all-embracing. 
 Freiherr von Stumm, one of the stanchest supporters of the 
 government, expressly stated that the intention was to put 
 down by " the iron hand " all opposition to authority wher- 
 ever found. " Though I have said some hard things against 
 the employer of labour, yet I am willing to acknowledge a 
 shadow of excuse for him, viz., the coquet- 8trug g le Between 
 ting of certain learned circles with social state and uni- 
 democracy or, what is the same thing, with 
 revolution, as was the case shortly before the French Revolu- 
 tion. Gentlemen, right here in Berlin has been developed a 
 complete university socialism. Every professor, especially in 
 political economy, who does not fall in with socialistic views 
 
 1 " ... welcher in einer der offentlichen Frieden gefahrdenden 
 Weise die Religion, die Monarchic, die Ehe, die Familie, oder das Eigen- 
 thum durch beschimpfende Aeusserungen offentlich angreift."
 
 414 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 is boycotted, as was the case in France ; he is persecuted, 
 pronounced unscientific and is never advanced. Under such 
 influences our future officials are being trained ! Things 
 have come to such a pass that the attempt is being made to 
 bring the social democratic students into closer association 
 with the others. ... A certain part of the Evangelical 
 Church is directly aiding the democrats. The civil service is 
 becoming tainted. It is high time that something be done. 
 This bill is the first step toward a cure. Its great advantage 
 is that it reaches not only the law-breakers, but those who 
 directly or indirectly incite to crime. There can be no ex- 
 ceptions ; there can be no law of exceptions." 
 
 Another speaker, a representative of the powerful Catholic 
 " Centre," which is stronger since the election of 1898 than 
 ever, disclosed the attitude of the clerical party toward the 
 freedom of the university. "This protection of the German 
 professor is, in my opinion, exceedingly imprudent and wrong. 
 Imprudent for how can we prevent the people from saying 
 and doing precisely what these professors are saying in their 
 lecture-rooms, repeating in popular forms and writing in 
 their books ? It is sheer nonsense to permit in the upper 
 strata what is forbidden in the lower. And more it is 
 wrong. The great danger comes not from below, but from, 
 above." 1 
 
 The astonishment produced by this debate among progres- 
 sive university men can well be imagined. It had an inquisi- 
 tional sound that harmonized ill with nine- 
 teaching 11 teenth century ideals. So great indignation was 
 aroused, and so fierce opposition, that the gov- 
 ernment abandoned the bill. The principle, however, that 
 was involved has not been abandoned. Very recently another 
 attempt has been made to stifle free speech in the universities 
 of Prussia ; and it has partially succeeded, in that men of 
 known progressive views have been put aside for those who 
 will yield to authority. But no one really believes that the 
 
 1 See my paper on The University Crisis in Germany, Educational 
 fieview, April, 18D5,
 
 GERMAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 415 
 
 universities will give up their independence. When the 
 university falls, the throne will go with it. The one ex- 
 presses the traditional love for personal liberty ; the other 
 embodies the national sense of law, order and authority. 
 These two irreconcilable facts are characteristic of the Ger- 
 man mind. 
 
 In one important respect the universities, contradicting 
 themselves, join hands with the bureaucracy in perpetuating 
 class distinctions. Theoretically, it is the pride 
 of the German university that its doors are 
 open to all, high or low, rich or poor, democrat 
 or royalist ; practically, however, the universities are to blame 
 for the present chaotic condition of secondary education. 
 The " gymnasial monopoly " has been fostered in season and 
 out of season by the great majority of university men. Even 
 the medical faculties, supposedly composed of scientific men, 
 and imbued with the modern spirit, have repeatedly rejected 
 all overtures from the Realgymnasien, It is Fosters 
 impossible to give a satisfactory excuse for such Gymnasial 
 action on the part of an institution which pro- 
 fessedly stands for equality and freedom, and which prides 
 itself on recognising no distinctions but those of worth. 
 Lernfreiheit is the necessary corollary of freedom in teaching. 
 A university bureaucracy that attempts to deprive students 
 of the benefits of higher study for which they are fully pre- 
 pared (as is granted by all who are best qualified to judge in 
 the matter of admitting graduates of tlie Realgymnasium to 
 the study of medicine) deserves itself to be subjected to some 
 higher power. 
 
 The truth is, that at bottom this question, like a good 
 many others that interrogate educationists, is one of expe- 
 diency. It involves class distinctions. The Gymnasium is 
 the aristocratic school, and he who would be counted among 
 the elect must tread its narrow path. The physician who 
 has completed the gymnasial course is socially correct, and 
 that covers a multitude of sins. 
 
 The boasted freedom of the universities is again contra-
 
 416 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 dieted in their attitude toward the education of women. No 
 one expects the state to be liberal, but liberality is looked 
 Opposes ^ or * n ^he highest educational centres of the 
 Admission country. But with what results ? Determined, 
 of Women. a i mO st fanatical opposition to the extension 
 of university privileges to women. I do not refer now to the 
 general policy in girls' education, for in the main I am in 
 hearty accord with it. Ninety per cent., or more, of German 
 women are better off with the German training than they 
 would be with the results of such a system as is in vogue in 
 England and America. But for those women who desire to 
 secure a broader education than is afforded by the girls' 
 schools, and who can easily enough take up university work 
 and profit from it, there can be no valid reason for keeping 
 them out. It makes one lose faith in the ideals of university 
 enlightenment. But that would be judging a German institu- 
 tion from an American stand-point. It is difficult for us to 
 realize the strength of tradition in the German universities. 
 Indeed, if it were not for this very potent force, the radical 
 tendencies in university life would long ago have been their 
 destruction. But whatever the reason, it remains a fact that, 
 while women have gained access to university study, the doors 
 are being opened very slowly and with unusual circumspec- 
 tion. In effect, the universities have joined with the bureau- 
 cracy in upholding the gymnasial monopoly, not only against 
 the advocates of a modern humanistic training, but against 
 the advocates of classical training as well, if it happens to have 
 been taken by a woman. 
 
 The precedent has been established of admitting graduates 
 of girls' Gymnasien to university study. Prussia and Baden 
 grant them the privilege of taking the regular 
 Maturitdtsprufung. In 1896 six girls from 
 one school took the final examination set for 
 the boys of a Berlin Gymnasium, and received high rank. 
 Four or five other schools are graduating classes of six or 
 eight. As yet the movement is in its infancy ; the time will 
 come when another Schulfrage, infinitely more troublesome
 
 GERMAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 417 
 
 than any of its predecessors, will confront German education- 
 ists and demand a hearing. 
 
 The general policy of Germany in respect to woman's edu- 
 cation is, in my opinion, eminently satisfactory. The masses 
 of women receive a far better training than the Q^^ Poll 
 American plan would give them under similar in woman's 
 conditions. Life is hard, but it is not the fault E^ 1 * 1011 - 
 of the schools. A university, or even a high school, training 
 for every woman would not lessen the ills of militarism ; no 
 amount of higher education would nullify the aggression of 
 foreign powers. " Let us not forget," says an ardent advo- 
 cate of the higher education of women, " that the most press- 
 ing necessity is not found in universities for women, nor in 
 the participation of women in the scientific labour of the 
 times, nor in the opening of higher professions for women, 
 but in the care and extensive education of the millions of 
 girls indeed, for the education of the mothers of the coming 
 generation. The graceful structures of a higher education 
 and the capstone of the edifice will remain insecure until 
 they can rest upon the broad and secure foundation of a gen- 
 eral education of the people. A state which neglects this 
 and promotes higher education exclusively, works for show 
 and neglects the general weal of the people, while it may sat- 
 isfy the desires and claims of a noisy minority. Let us not 
 forget that more important than the results of intellectual 
 education, which are easily recognised and estimated, are the 
 ethical effects of education which are taken into life and 
 manifest themselves as determination of the will a quality 
 which is not easily estimated, because not visible to the eye." 1 
 
 The government seconds this view by publishing the ad- 
 dress in the official organ of the education department. The 
 poverty of the state is urged as the sole excuse for not grant- 
 ing financial aid to girls' schools. " As yet the lecture-rooms 
 
 1 Dr. Waetzoldt, provincial inspector of schools, in Centralblatt for 
 1895, p. 741. The entire address is translated in the Report of the Com- 
 missioner of Education, 1894-1895.
 
 418 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 of our universities are open only to very few women ; as yet 
 the professions which do not agree with the constitutions of 
 women, and for which the state demands an academic prep- 
 aration, are still closed to them, while in other 
 civilized states the women have succeeded in 
 
 Considerations. 
 
 securing admission. Is this fact explained 
 simply by an unjust valuation of woman's work, by the un- 
 dervaluation of woman's capacity, by the imperiousness of 
 man and his anxiety lest woman's competition will interfere 
 with his success ? Let me say, first, that the state with us 
 is not only a police institution to protect life and property, 
 but its object is the promotion and equalization of all inter- 
 ests and culture. It is obliged to ask, with every newly aris- 
 ing claim, whether and how far it meets recognised needs. It 
 is a sound and safe policy of the public-school authorities 
 not to interfere with things that are only beginning and de- 
 veloping, but to give time and space for healthy growth ; 
 not to feed and nurse young forms artificially, but to wait 
 patiently and see whether they have a vigorous life and find 
 good soil among the people. To remodel anything ancient 
 that has long stood the test, in order to introduce something 
 new that has not yet proved its value, is always doubtful. 
 Now, with us, as it is well understood, the condition for aca- 
 demic or university study is the graduation diploma, which 
 is granted alone by classical high schools, called Gymnasien, 
 for young ladies. Shall the state establish them ? Prussia 
 is not wealthy enough for that, and should we really lead our 
 girls upon an educational path which is exclusively designed 
 and planned for boys intending to devote themselves to the 
 higher professions and offices of the state ? Shall we for the 
 girls fix a course of study with the authority of the state, a 
 course which many and many of us think badly needs reform ? 
 When, as in Berlin, Leipsic and Carlsruhe, private Gymnasien 
 for girls were established in order to give them an education 
 such as the boys' schools offer, the state authorities certainly 
 did not interfere or prohibit them. The first Prussian female 
 graduate has passed her examination well. That whish is
 
 GERMAN SECOND ART EDUCATION 419 
 
 wanting in the realm of higher education of women here in 
 Germany is not so much favours from the state as from great 
 philanthropists, such as Rockefeller and Holloway, and wealthy 
 corporations, such as the Brewers' Guild in London, who 
 gave large donations for the higher education of women. 
 Such means flow very scantily in Germany, as the interest 
 for our aspirations is not very extended as yet among the 
 people. More pressing needs claim the strength and means 
 of the state." 1 
 
 Such excuses, however, have little influence on the minds 
 of the women of Germany who demand equal rights for their 
 sex. They insist that not only should the uni- 
 versities be opened to women who are prepared 
 to enter, but also that they should be admitted 
 to the professions of teaching and medicine. Forty-five per 
 cent, of the women of the upper classes have no chance to 
 marry, for the simple reason that the men who are their 
 equals hesitate to incur the expense. They will not be de- 
 pendent ; they must have equal rights with men. They ask 
 no favours from the state, except the opportunity to demon- 
 strate their ability to undertake university study and profes- 
 sional employment. 
 
 Such arguments are convincing, and are bound in time to 
 win their way. At present, however, the government is en- 
 gaged in checking the growth of Gymnasien 
 for girls. In April, 1898, a petition from Bres- 
 lau for permission to establish such a school 
 was curtly refused by the Prussian ministry. When the 
 government was interpellated in the Diet by the member 
 from Breslau, the minister of public instruction gave, as his 
 chief reason for denying the petition, the answer that the 
 proper function of women was to be intelligent helpmates to 
 men, that equal rights involved the sharing of burdens as 
 well as privileges, and that until women were ready to enter 
 the army and serve in the Reserve and Landwehr the govern- 
 
 1 Ccntralblatt, 1895, p. 469-470.
 
 420 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ment could not consistently advocate unrestricted compe- 
 tition of the sexes. Later in the summer, if press accounts 
 are reliable, the national association of physicians and sur- 
 geons, in a meeting at Wiesbaden, resolved that with their 
 permission no woman should study medicine. The reasons 
 alleged for this action were that woman is by nature unfit for 
 scientific work ; her mental powers are acquisitive rather than 
 inventive ; memory and imagination, rather than observation 
 and reason, are the faculties on which she naturally relies. 
 In short, they are in accord with the emperor's dictum that 
 woman's province is Kiiche, Kinder und Kirche cooking, 
 children and church. 
 
 It will be seen that the " woman question " will soon super- 
 sede the " Greek question." There would be no serious con- 
 sequences from the discussion of either were it 
 Results of class no t that class and sex prejudices are involved. 
 
 Distinctions. ^ i J 
 
 As it is, neither problem can be satisfactorily 
 solved until society is reorganized on a basis of equality of op- 
 portunity and freedom of choice for all. The gravest defect 
 in the German school system is the organization which fosters 
 distinctions of class and sex. The common schools are for 
 the common people ; the Real-schools are for the middle 
 classes ; the classical schools are for the aristocracy ; and in 
 secondary education the sexes are kept apart. The lines of 
 cleavage are distinctly marked, and in practice generally ob- 
 served. Were conditions otherwise, there would be no quib- 
 bling over an Einheitsscliule. If class prejudice did not 
 exist, one high school could easily perform all the functions 
 of secondary education by the simple arrangement of elective 
 subjects. But class distinctions do obtain in German society, 
 and are not likely soon to be obliterated. Hence differentiation 
 in school organization is inevitable. It may be theoretically 
 deplorable, but it is a practical necessity in German society. 
 
 No such axiom as that the school exists for the pupil is re- 
 cognised in German educational philosophy. The German 
 school exists primarily for the state. The pupil is a citizen in 
 training. That he should be an obedient, loyal, submissive
 
 GERMAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 421 
 
 subject is a self-evident truth. Respect for authority is the 
 one essential prerequisite to German citizenship. In the 
 selection of a school and the course of study, 
 
 . i -i ,1 , T.I Individualism vs. 
 
 in seeking admission to the university and the 
 
 vocations of civil life, the individual has little 
 freedom of choice. The rigorous discipline of the schools, 
 which brooks no opposition and tolerates no parental inter- 
 ference ; the methods of instruction, which leave nothing 
 to chance and individual initiative ; the system of privileges, 
 which dominates teachers and pupils alike all tend to the 
 development of character which feels no restriction of per- 
 sonal liberty in the constant surveillance of the police and 
 the rule of a military despotism. The social institutions, the 
 school system and the methods of instruction in Germany 
 are calculated to beget dependence on authority, rather than 
 independence and freedom of action. Individualism in edu- 
 cation yields to paternalism in government. German society 
 is founded on the principle that the greatest good of each is 
 included in the greatest good of all, rather than on the prin- 
 ciple that the greatest good of all is subserved by the highest 
 individual development of each. 
 
 It is to the credit of the German school system that it is 
 thoroughly German ; that it promotes German culture and 
 German civilization ; that it strives to realize , 
 
 German Schools 
 
 German ideals in the social, industrial and for German 
 political life of the German people. The for- People> 
 eigner may not admire German ideals, he may even despise 
 German culture and German civilization ; but if he is an ob- 
 servant school-master, he cannot fail to admire the practical 
 workings of the German schools. The sole test that can rea- 
 sonably be applied is adaptation of means to ends ; and, 
 judged by this standard, it must be acknowledged that the 
 German schools are master-pieces of intelligent design. To 
 criticise them for not serving other ends is like criticising a 
 delicately adjusted watch for not recording changes in tem- 
 perature. So long as schools remain social institutions de- 
 signed to realize in the young the ideals of the social whole,
 
 422 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 so long must they be regarded entirely apart from national 
 and racial prejudices. It follows that, just in proportion as 
 German schools are German are they un-American, and in- 
 capable of satisfying American needs. It is not to be ex- 
 pected, therefore, that the German system or German meth- 
 ods can be directly applicable to American schools. Only in 
 so far as German education is concerned with 
 ^ ne development of man as man, apart from his 
 relations to any particular society or special 
 end, can it be immediately serviceable. To be sure, much 
 can be learned from a comparative study of national school 
 systems ; but whatever information is gained from foreign 
 sources must be transformed and readjusted to home condi- 
 tions. What is eminently fitting in one place may be ill 
 adapted to another environment. Each nation must work out 
 its own educational salvation in fear and trembling. It is a 
 work that should be free from servile imitation, but ever ready 
 to profit from the experience of others. The experience of 
 Germany can teach us much, if we will but learn to consider 
 it aright. Indeed, the future of American civilization and 
 the rich blessings of republican institutions will be assured 
 if we can interest the best talent of the country in education, 
 and evolve a school system which shall be as nicely adjusted 
 to our national requirements as the German system is to Ger- 
 man needs.
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 
 1898-1905 
 
 THE decade following the adoption of the new Prussian 
 curriculum in 1892 marks the culmination of the leading 
 movements that characterize the preceding fifty 
 or one hundred years of the history of German 
 higher schools, and with the turn of the century 
 has come a new stage in the development of secondary edu- 
 cation. Problems that have agitated the educational world 
 for years have been solved or set aside, others, although not 
 new, have come to the front. Realistic education i. e., the 
 modern and scientific as distinguished from the classical 
 has received the recognition for which it has fought for fifty 
 years. The Oberredlschule and the Realgymnasium are recog- 
 nized as having equal cultural value with the Gymnasium. 
 Their graduates have had practically all fields opened to them 
 except that of theology in the case of the Realgymnasium, 
 and theology and medicine in the case of the Oberrealschule. 
 The so-called " gymnasial monopoly " has been broken ; the 
 question of privileges, which the Germans themselves have 
 recognized as a disturbing factor in true educational progress, 
 has been solved, if not completely, at least in its most im- 
 portant aspects; the Abschlusspriifung has been abolished 1 , 
 and finally, schools with modern " reform " curricula have 
 received not only recognition but official encouragement. 
 
 1 The privilege of one-year volunteer service is now granted to all who 
 complete successfully a six-year course in any approved higher school. 
 
 423
 
 424 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Thus a better opportunity and a larger freedom are allowed 
 for the solution of the more strictly educational problems of 
 method and of curricula, which have recently come into 
 prominence. But this does not mean that essentially new 
 problems have arisen, for in the twentieth as in earlier cen- 
 turies will be found in one form or another the perennial 
 strife between humanism and realism, between classical and 
 modern education. The abrogation of the exclusive privi- 
 leges of the Gymnasium marked the transition 
 
 A New Stage m 6 
 
 the Develop- from what may be called an external stage in 
 ment of the fa j s conflict to the internal or pedagogical stage 
 
 Higher Schools. , . 
 
 of unrestricted and, it is hoped, more friendly 
 competition between the classical and the modern schools, 
 between conservative and " reform " methods. 
 
 A brief review of the steps by which this far-reaching re- 
 form was accomplished will throw further light on its mean- 
 ing. It should be remembered that the gym- 
 nas i a l monoply was of comparatively recent 
 origin, dating only from 1834, and that it was 
 for a long time no more a matter of preference than of neces- 
 sity there were no other institutions that could prepare for 
 the university. Since 1858, the time when the cities, which 
 have been the chief promoters of the Realscliulen, first peti- 
 tioned for a recognition of these schools, the movement has 
 been gaining momentum and a .change was bound to come. 
 That it came so soon and was so sweeping was due in large 
 measure, I believe, to the energetic intervention of the 
 Emperor. 
 
 The Conference of 1890, it will be recalled, although recog- 
 nizing the Oberrealschule and granting to it the same limited 
 conference privileges that the Realgymnasium enjoyed, not 
 of 1890 on only refused to recognize the equality of the 
 Privileges. three types of schools, but even went so far as 
 to recommend the abolition of the Realgymnasium. But 
 this only served to spur the friends of the real schools to re- 
 new their demands for privileges with ever-increasing insist- 
 ence. Along with this went the agitation for the so-called
 
 THE PROGRESS OP SOffOOL REFORM 425 
 
 gemeinsame lateinlose Unterbau an arrangement that makes 
 the first three years of all three higher schools identical 
 chiefly by substituting French for Latin during these years. 
 The lead in this combined movement was taken by such or- 
 ganizations as the Realschulmannerverein, the 
 Verein fur Schulreform and the Verein far 
 Fbrderung des lateinlosen hoheren Schulwesens, 
 which with their meetings, official organs and other publica- 
 tions carried on an effective campaign. Their opponents, the 
 gymnasial party, were no less active. Even before the close 
 of the Conference of 1890, fearing that the radical views there 
 expressed boded danger for the Gymnasium, they had organ- 
 ized the Gymnasialverein which, with its organ Das human- 
 istische Gymnasium, has ever since been a staunch defender 
 of the old Gymnasium and of classical education. 
 
 A misadjustment between the curriculum of 1892 which 
 had reduced the time allotted to Latin by fifteen hours, and 
 the "leaving examinations" which still required 
 a translation into Latin, aroused much com- Revival of * he 
 
 Reaigymnasmm. 
 
 plaint from classical teachers and led in 1895 to 
 an increase of three hours for Latin in the Gymnasium, but 
 nt the same time to an increase of four hours in the Real- 
 gymnasium. This latter action was significant of a change 
 in the government's attitude toward this school, for since 1890 
 it had been a question whether it was to retain even the right 
 to life. Up to 1897 thirteen Realgymnasien had been trans- 
 formed into other schools, but now within the two years fol- 
 lowing eight new ones were established. Thus the Realgym- 
 nasium, characterized by the Emperor in 1890 as a hybrid 
 and a half-way measure and condemned to death by the Con- 
 ference, seemed destined to obtain a new lease of life and 
 growth. Naturally the hopes of its supporters revived and 
 the possibility of its eventual recognition along with the more 
 popular and rapidly growing Oberrealschule as equal with the 
 old Gymnasium became more certain. 
 
 On the other hand, by the year 1900 there had come a 
 marked change in the attitude of the gymnasial party toward
 
 426 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 the question of privileges, a willingness to grant that in some 
 
 Gymnasia! Par- sense a ll the three types of schools should be 
 
 ty'e change of considered equal. Whatever may have been 
 
 the cause of this change, it aided as much as 
 
 any other influence in bringing about the subsequent reform. 
 Finally the government decided to call another conference 
 
 to meet in June, 1900, to consider questions relating to the 
 reform of the higher schools. Hereupon each 
 P art y drew up its declaration of principles and 
 attempted to show its strength by obtaining 
 
 signatures thereto. A joint meeting in Berlin of the friends 
 of the real schools declared for (1) equal privi- 
 l e g es f r a ^ three types of higher schools and 
 (2) a common course without Latin for the 
 
 first three years of all higher schools. Just before the con- 
 vening of the June conference a Brunswick 
 mee ting of the Gymnasialverein adopted the 
 following notable declaration : 
 
 1. "The Oymnasialverein declares against the universal 
 adoption of the so-called ' reform ' Gymnasium and against 
 the introduction of the common fundamental course for the 
 nine-class higher schools ; it wishes rather that the Gymna- 
 sium retain its distinctive organization from top to bottom 
 and especially that the time allotment and course in Greek 
 remain unchanged and obligatory." 
 
 2. "The Gymnasium has not the right but the duty to 
 furnish the universal preparation for university study and is 
 organized with reference to this end. Should this task be 
 assigned also to the Oberrealschule and the Realgymnasium 
 with their present organization, no objection will be raised on 
 the part of the Gymnasiumverein to the granting of the ap- 
 propriate privileges. With this, however, there is no change 
 in the conviction of this society as to the peculiar mission of 
 the Gymnasium and of Greek instruction in its present form 
 with reference to national education." l 
 
 1 Translated from Pcidagogiaches Archiv, Vol. 42 (1900), p. 403.
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 427 
 
 Both of these declarations were widely circulated and each 
 received something like twenty thousand signatures. Some 
 have claimed that just as the gymnasial party 
 in 1890 united with the real school party and 
 conceded limited recognition to the Oberreal- 
 sclmle merely in self-defense and as a means of overthrowing 
 its rival the Realgymnasium, so again in 1900 it was forced to 
 recognize the equality of the different schools not so much out 
 of love for them as from the desire to preserve the Gymna- 
 sium with its old curriculum intact and to be able to insist 
 more strongly against the Reformgymnasium with its com- 
 mon fundamental course without Latin. Be that as it may, 
 this concession on the part of the conservative party was a 
 most politic and timely move. 
 
 When the conference assembled, the question of privileges 
 which had been avoided in the conference of 1890 was the 
 first one to be considered, and it was almost 
 unanimously agreed that from the point of ^onfereL 
 view of general education all three types of 
 schools should be considered of equal worth. Having made 
 this concession to the reformers the conservatives could with 
 some justice insist on maintaining the gymnasial curriculum 
 intact and even ask for additional time for Latin and Greek, 
 while on the other hand they took the wind from the sails of 
 the reform party by destroying one of its strongest arguments 
 for its common fundamental course without Latin. As the 
 results have shown, the conservative party was on the whole 
 successful on all these points. 
 
 But it is not the deliberations of the June Conference, 
 however distinguished its participants, so much as it is the 
 Royal Decree of November 26, 1900, l to which 
 we must turn for the principles underlying and 
 guiding all recent reforms. In this brief docu- 
 ment the Emperor boldly and forcefully announces the re- 
 forms he wishes inaugurated, and he does not always agree 
 with the opinions of the preceding conference. 
 
 1 See Appendix A for translation in full.
 
 428 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Here, then, we find the Emperor declaring that " with ref- 
 erence to the question of privileges the principle must be that 
 its Declaration as * ne Gymnasium^ the Realgymnasium and the 
 to Equality and OberrealschuU are to be considered of equal 
 
 Privileges. value in the training for general culture, and 
 require supplementing only in so far as for certain lines of 
 study and professional pursuits special preparatory studies 
 are necessary which do not enter or at least not to the same 
 extent into the curriculum of each institution. Conse- 
 quently provision is to be made for the extension of the privi- 
 leges of the realistic institutions. In this there is indicated 
 at the same time the best method of raising the repute and 
 increasing the attendance at these schools and of thus effect- 
 ing a wider spread of realistic learning. 
 
 Within two years following this declaration such provisions 
 were officially promulgated whereby the privileges of both 
 Privileges of Real ^ e Realgymnasium and the OberrealschuU 
 
 schools EX- were greatly increased. 1 By far the most im- 
 portant were those whereby a leaving-certificate 
 from a Realgymnasium now admits to the study of medicine, 
 and one from either a Realgymnasium or OberrealschuU ad- 
 mits to the study of law and to courses for teachers of any 
 subject in the higher schools. In other words, since 1902, in 
 Prussia at least, six years' study of Latin but no Greek is 
 required for admission to the study of medicine, while neither 
 Greek nor Latin is required for admission to the study of 
 law, teaching or technical courses, nor even for the degree of 
 Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Outside of Prussia the privileges of non-classical schools 
 
 are as yet more restricted. a This is due partly to the stronger 
 
 hold which the classics have in such states as 
 
 o U sStei n Saxon y> Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and partly 
 
 to the less developed condition of these schools. 
 
 All states are alike in requiring the leaving-certificate of a 
 
 1 For complete statement see Appendix 0. 
 
 * For a comparative table for all states see Appendix D,
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 429 
 
 Gymnasium for admission to the study of theology, and, since 
 the practice of medicine is controlled by the Imperial Gov- 
 ernment, in all states the certificate of a Realgymnasiurn as 
 well as of a Gymnasium admits to the study of medicine. 
 Wurtemberg and Saxony are the only important states out- 
 side of Prussia that admit Realgymnasium graduates to the 
 study of law, while Prussia stands practically alone in admit- 
 ting to this study graduates of the Oberrealschule as well. 
 Among the principal states Prussia also stands alone in ad- 
 mitting both graduates of the Oberrealschule and Realgym- 
 nasium to the study of classical philology and history and 
 graduates of the Oberrealschule to the study of modern phil- 
 ology in preparation for teaching these subjects in the higher 
 schools. Outside of Prussia, too, the privileges of graduates 
 of the Oberrealschule are considerably limited with reference 
 to the higher civil service and technical positions. 
 
 This reform has been carried through in the face of united 
 and long-standing opposition on the part of universities and 
 learned professions an opposition based partly 
 on the conviction that classical education alone 
 properly fits for professional study, and partly, 
 though perhaps less openly, on the fear that the learned pro- 
 fessions would become over-crowded or would lose their social 
 prestige and exclusiveness by the admission of non-classical 
 school graduates. This social side of the question the in- 
 fluence of class distinction and bureaucratic control has 
 always to be borne in mind. Now that the reform has been 
 so largely accomplished some of the gymnasial party seek to 
 minimize its importance by explaining the recognition as a 
 mere matter of politeness or of administrative formality. 
 
 The liberals see in this reform a far greater significance 
 and more truly appreciate, I believe, its importance. It is 
 said that " what has been consummated is noth- 
 ing less than the overthrow of the pillars of our views of Liberals, 
 present educational structure and the founding 
 of a new one the overthrow of the dogma of the unapproach- 
 able and incomparable cultural value of the classical Ian-
 
 430 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 guages." 1 Similarly, Professor Paulsen says, "With the 
 school conference of 1900 and the Royal Decree of Novem- 
 ber, 1900, the gymnasia! politics of the nineteenth century 
 politics that bore the stamp of ' the new humanism ' and ' the 
 gymnasial monopoly ' came to a definite close. We have 
 taken our stand upon a new principle the principle of the 
 equal value of modern and classical education." 2 
 
 The general acceptance of this principle means that the 
 realistic schools are recognized as occupying a place side by 
 *he ^ Gymnasium, of equal impor- 
 
 Purpose of tance and value for all purposes of general cul- 
 
 ' Equalization." o ^ mean neCCS- 
 
 sarily that each type of school prepares equally well for any 
 and all professional studies, nor that all higher school grad- 
 uates are admitted without restrictions to all university 
 courses. Naturally some courses require special preparation 
 which may not be included in the curriculum of the differ- 
 ent higher schools. Thus, for example, courses in element- 
 ary Greek and in Latin writers on jurisprudence are provided 
 by the universities for students without classical training. 
 Such knowledge, although it may be obtained elsewhere, is 
 absolutely necessary for the study of law as at present con- 
 ducted at German universities. It is on this account that the 
 official regulations referring to the study of law specifically 
 recommend the Gymnasium as furnishing the best prepara- 
 tion for such study. Similarly, when these regulations make 
 it possible for graduates of the Oberrealschule, who have 
 never studied Latin or Greek, to pursue courses in classical 
 philology, no one imagines that, therefore, the non-classical 
 schools furnish as satisfactory a preparation for such study 
 as the classical. 
 
 The purpose of the recent reform has not been to declare 
 equal what is inherently unequal, but to remove external 
 restrictions and social and legal differences between the 
 
 'Schmeding: Pddagogisches Archiv, Vol. 45, p. 714. 
 
 s Die h8heren Schulenunddas Universitatsstudium im20. Jahrhundert.
 
 TSB PROGRESS OF SCHOOL RtiFORM 43l 
 
 schools ; and it means that a little more is to be left to the 
 initiative of the individual in obtaining such special knowl- 
 edge as may be indispensable for the various 
 university courses. The pedagogical question, its significance, 
 therefore, as to what school furnishes the best 
 preparation for particular professions is not thereby decided. 
 Naturally the adherents of the old Gymnasium still insist 
 that their school affords the best preparation for any of the 
 professions even, some claim, for technical courses. Argu- 
 ments, therefore, when not mere generalizations 
 about "formal discipline," are often based on a 
 misinterpretation of facts. Time and again the 
 testimony of university professors and others has been cited 
 to show that gymnasial graduates surpass their fellows from 
 the other schools, but just as often is the patent fact over- 
 looked that such comparisons are unjust and 
 invalid since the factor of selection, which Ne ^ le ' 
 
 meiit of Selection. 
 
 largely determines the class and character of 
 students going to each school, is entirely overlooked. The 
 Gymnasium has been from the first the "Gelehrtenschufo " 
 the school for the scholar and the learned professions. Natu- 
 rally, then, it would attract a different kind of student than 
 would the more or less despised and " utilitarian" Realschule. 
 It must be said that the reformers, on the other hand, make 
 a similar mistake when they point to the incompetence of 
 the gymnasial graduates, for they invariably have in mind 
 another selected group those who attend the Gymnasium 
 not on account of its scholastic superiority but for its social 
 prestige and the many external privileges open alone to its 
 graduates. 
 
 The marked inequality of the two schools with respect 
 both to the privileges of their graduates and their social and 
 political standing has in the past not only pre- 
 vented just comparison of their relative worths 
 but has also greatly hindered their free and 
 natural development. What the future has in store is of 
 course difficult to predict, but it is certain that, to the extent
 
 432 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 that all types of schools are freed from purely external handi- 
 caps or advantages, just to that extent will they stand solely 
 upon their intrinsic merits and be fairly judged only by their 
 actual results. The relative values and advantages of classical 
 and modern education are still open questions in Germany as 
 elsewhere, much discussed and perhaps never to be finally 
 settled. Since 1900 the question stands a far better chance 
 to receive fairer treatment and to be studied from a peda- 
 gogical rather than a political standpoint certainly an im- 
 portant advance in educational development. As one writer 
 puts it : " Each of the three nine-class schools can henceforth 
 compete with the others for the recognition of its particular 
 services under essentially equal conditions. Each is now 
 enabled to stand in its own strength and is allowed to move 
 treely in its own peculiar field. Thus all three types of school 
 have received an effective means of more fully developing 
 their individual excellences, and it must be viewed as a very 
 great cultural gam for all higher professions that henceforth 
 there will be found associated therein men that have come 
 by the different paths of the several higher schools." 1 
 
 What will be the effect of this reform upon the organiza- 
 tion, curricula, and attendance of the higher schools and the 
 universities? It is too soon to speak positively. 
 However, certain tendencies are already notice- 
 able and recent statistics are significant. In 
 the first place, there is no doubt that the action with regard 
 to privileges has been the means of preserving at least for 
 some time to come the distinctive character of 
 tn6 ^ Gymnasium. It was evident long before 
 the Conference of 1900 that either the Gymna- 
 sium must modify its curriculum to meet the increasing de- 
 mands of modern life or else the modern schools must be 
 allowed to do this by receiving equal privileges with the 
 Gymnasium. By accepting the latter alternative in their 
 Brunswick Declaration and acting upon it in the June Con- 
 
 1 C. Rethwisch in Lexis : Die Reform des hoheren Schulwesens in 
 Preuasen, p. 34.
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 433 
 
 ference, the gymnasial party were enabled to obtain increased 
 time for Latin and Greek and to preserve the gymnasial cur- 
 riculum essentially unchanged. Just to the extent to which 
 the other schools may now help meet the modern demands, 
 to that extent has the pressure upon the Gymnasium been 
 removed. And so, while the position of the Gymnasium may 
 not hereafter be so large or exclusive, it seems likely to be- 
 come more firmly established and more effective. 
 
 With the overthrow of the dictum that the Gymnasium is 
 not necessarily the best nor the only preparation for all higher 
 study, has come the recognition of the converse (b) To Empha8ize 
 principle that certain preparatory courses lead individuality of 
 naturally to certain higher courses, and that the 
 Realgymnasium or the Oberrealschule may even be better 
 suited than the Gymnasium to prepare for scientific and 
 technical courses. They are at least officially recognized at 
 present as being as good as the Gymnasium. Of course, the 
 Gymnasium will long perhaps always remain the school 
 whose peculiar function it is to fit for the learned professions. 
 That each of the higher schools has its distinctive function 
 and should aim to develop its individual character is empha- 
 sized in the Royal Decree. "In thus acknowledging the 
 equality of the three types of schools, it will be possible more 
 thoroughly to strengthen the peculiar nature of each." The 
 desire seems to be that each school shall be free to do its own 
 peculiar work and to prove itself worthy of gaining or of 
 retaining a place in the educational system. Whether the 
 Gymnasium, freed from all external aids, can retain its place 
 at the head remains to be seen. No doubt it will become 
 numerically less dominant, but we cannot be- 
 lieve that Germany will ever consent to giving 
 it a second place in her affections. It must be 
 remembered that it still possesses some exclusive privileges, 
 and that long after these are gone it will still retain its social 
 prestige. To an outsider, however, it seems merely a matter 
 of time for the social to follow the educational and external 
 equality of all higher schools.
 
 434 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Not only has the recognition of the equality of the schools 
 brought about this emphasis of the individuality of each, but 
 there is also discernible an opposite tendency 
 ( Untf rmity t0 toward uniformity. As students of the Rea^- 
 gymnasium and Oberrealschule come to realize 
 that various university courses are open to them, there will 
 come a demand for the requisite preparatory studies in the 
 higher schools. It is a significant fact that the Ministry has 
 already permitted the teaching of Latin in the Oberrealschule. 
 But this requires special permission in each case from the 
 central authorities, must be given only as private instruction, 
 and is placed under other close restrictions. Perhaps there 
 is some ground for the fear expressed by Professor Uhlig as 
 early as 1900, that eventually one school will trespass so much 
 on the field of the other that there will have to be instituted 
 a fourth type a real Realschule. But the authorities are 
 alive to such possibilities, and equality is not likely, at least 
 not very soon, to lead to uniformity. The need 
 ^ or P re P ara tory courses, especially in Latin and 
 Greek for non-classical students, was recognized 
 as soon as the question arose of their admission to university 
 study demanding such preparation. This has been provided 
 for by introducing these courses, with the exception of 
 elementary Latin, into the universities rather than into the 
 higher schools. 1 On the other hand, the extension of the 
 " reform " curriculum which allows a freer transfer from one 
 school to another for students desiring to change their course 
 will obviate the need for similar courses in the several schools 
 and allow them to emphasize their special characteristics. 
 On the whole, then, it seems that the recognition of the gen- 
 eral and external equality of the three types of higher schools 
 will, if anything, aid in allowing them to develop whatever 
 
 1 Since 1902 two such courses have been provided at all Prussian uni- 
 versities: one in beginning Greek, and the other covering two semesters, 
 an introduction into the literary sources of Roman Law. The latter 
 courses require an elementary knowledge of Latin which in the case of 
 graduates of the Oberrealschule must be obtained by private instruction.
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 435 
 
 individual superiorities they may possess. This is perhaps 
 the greatest gain that the reform of 1900 has brought with it. 
 One school has been helped as much as the other, the Gym- 
 nasium has been released from the intolerable position of 
 trying to cover all fields, the realistic schools have been given 
 the opportunity to develop more fully and freely in their own 
 sphere. 
 
 What effects the reform will eventually have upon the at- 
 tendance at the different schools cannot be definitely pre- 
 dicted. The natural inference is that the real- 
 istic schools will gain at the expense of the ^tendance* 
 classical. Enough time has not elapsed to show 
 permanent or final effects. A study of the changes both in 
 the number and attendance of the higher schools during the 
 last decade will show certain definite tendencies. Both the 
 Real- and the Oberrealschulen have continued their rapid 
 growth. In the nine years from 1894 to 1903, both in num- 
 ber and in attendance the Oberrealschtilen have more than 
 doubled, while the Realschulen have likewise (1) Real School8 
 more than doubled in number but not quite in and Reaigym- 
 attendance. The Realgymnasien reached their 
 lowest ebb in 1899, but since that time have shown signs of 
 vigorous growth owing to the new lease of life granted them 
 in 1900; so that in 1903 they numbered seven more than in 
 1894, and enrolled a slightly larger number of students. The 
 Gymnasien have had an even, continuous growth since 1892, 
 gaining slightly before 1900 at the expense of 
 the Realgymnasium, but since that time gaining 
 relatively less than either of the other schools. 
 Table I. shows in detail the growth of the schools before and 
 during this period. The percentages indicate the proportion 
 of the total enrollment found in the three types of schools. 
 Thus while in 1860 the classical schools enrolled 69 per cent, 
 of the whole number of secondary school students, in 1890 
 this percentage had decreased to 60, in 1900 to 58.4, while in 
 1903 the percentage was only 55.2.
 
 436 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 (a) Number of Higher Schools in Prussia. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Classical. 
 
 Semi-classical. 
 
 Non-classical. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gym. 
 
 Progym. 
 
 Real- 
 gym. 
 
 Real- 
 prog. 
 
 O. R. S. 
 
 Realsch. 
 
 I860 
 
 136 
 228 
 249 
 259 
 268 
 274 
 273 
 276 
 279 
 287 
 291 
 295 
 303 
 315 
 324 
 
 24 
 88 
 
 35 
 38 
 46 
 44 
 45 
 49 
 48 
 51 
 49 
 59 
 52 
 44 
 39 
 
 32 
 80 
 84 
 89 
 87 
 86 
 86 
 83 
 79 
 79 
 75 
 76 
 80 
 86 
 93 
 
 3 
 91 
 99 
 86 
 86 
 75 
 73 
 64 
 38 
 26 
 24 
 21 
 20 
 19 
 23 
 
 '3 
 14 
 9 
 22 
 24 
 26 
 28 
 30 
 35 
 37 
 40 
 42 
 47 
 
 34 
 17 
 19 
 37 
 53 
 68 
 73 
 78 
 106 
 123 
 131 
 138 
 141 
 144 
 145 
 
 229 
 449 
 489 
 523 
 549 
 569 
 574 
 576 
 578 
 596 
 605 
 626 
 636 
 650 
 671 
 
 1875 
 
 1880 
 
 1885 
 
 1890 
 
 1894 
 
 1895 
 
 1896 
 
 1897 
 
 1898 
 
 1899 
 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 
 1902 
 
 1903 . . . 
 
 (b) Attendance at Higher Schools in Prussia. 
 
 
 Classical. 
 
 Semi-classical. 
 
 Non-classical. 
 
 
 Year 
 
 
 
 
 Tntnl 
 
 
 Gym. 
 
 Pro- 
 gym. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 Real- 
 gym. 
 
 Real- 
 prog. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 O.R.S. 
 
 Real- 
 sch. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 1 ' 'i .u. 
 
 I860.. 
 
 38,078 
 
 2,100 
 
 69 
 
 11,058 
 
 276 
 
 
 
 6,780 
 
 
 58,292 
 
 1875.. . 
 
 60,029 
 
 3,511 
 
 61 
 
 26,955 
 
 13,082 
 
 
 
 5,223 
 
 
 114,800 
 
 1880.. . 
 
 75*, 190 
 
 4.034 
 
 63 
 
 27,066 
 
 13.204 
 
 
 1,656 
 
 5,390 
 
 
 126,600 
 
 1885.. . 
 
 80,019 
 
 4,272 
 
 63 
 
 24,706 
 
 9,050 
 
 
 5.120 
 
 10,082 
 
 
 133.251 
 
 1890.. . 
 
 77,811 
 
 5,445 
 
 60 
 
 26,272 
 
 8,858 
 
 25" 
 
 4,177 
 
 17,238 
 
 is" 
 
 139,801 
 
 1894 . . . 
 
 77,300 
 
 4,474 
 
 57 
 
 25,213 
 
 7,238 
 
 23 
 
 9,715 
 
 19,478 
 
 20 
 
 143,418 
 
 1895. . 
 
 77,791 
 
 4,672 
 
 57 
 
 25,148 
 
 6,720 
 
 22 
 
 10,571 
 
 19,930 
 
 21 
 
 144.832 
 
 1896.. 
 
 80,024 
 
 5,431 
 
 57.2 
 
 24,341 
 
 6,287 
 
 21 
 
 11,357 
 
 20.887 
 
 22 
 
 149,327 
 
 1897 . . . 
 
 81,591 
 
 5,360 
 
 57.4 
 
 23,704 
 
 4,130 
 
 18.4 
 
 12,692 
 
 24.104 
 
 24.3 
 
 151,581 
 
 1898.. . 
 
 j,123 
 
 5,941 
 
 58.3 
 
 21,609 
 
 2,625 
 
 15.5 
 
 12,450 
 
 27,839 
 
 26.2 
 
 155,887 
 
 1899.. . 
 
 87,701 
 
 5,664 
 
 58.4 
 
 20,863 
 
 2.197 
 
 14.4 
 
 14,153 
 
 29.331 
 
 27.2 
 
 159,909 
 
 1900.. . 
 
 89,257 
 
 7,097 
 
 58.4 
 
 21,433 
 
 1,815 
 
 14.1 
 
 15,134 
 
 30,149 
 
 27i5 
 
 164,885 
 
 1901.. . 
 
 91,492 
 
 6,229 
 
 57.2 
 
 22,693 
 
 1.831 
 
 14.3 
 
 16,322 
 
 32,387 
 
 28.5 
 
 170,954 
 
 1902.. . 
 
 94.845 
 
 5,211 
 
 56.2 
 
 24,381 
 
 1,602 
 
 14.6 
 
 17.650 
 
 34,420 
 
 29.2 
 
 178,109 
 
 1903.. . 
 
 97,892 
 
 4,420 
 
 55.2 
 
 26,393 
 
 2,099 
 
 15.5 
 
 19,992 
 
 34,632 
 
 29.3 
 
 185,428 
 
 (c) Attendance in other German States and Empire (1902). 
 
 
 Gym. 
 
 Progym. 
 
 K.-al- 
 gym. 
 
 Real- 
 prog. 
 
 O. R. S. 
 
 Realsch. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bavaria 
 Saxony 
 WUrtemburg . 
 Baden . . . 
 
 17,100 
 6,497 
 4,304 
 4 714 
 
 2,488 
 
 296 
 245 
 
 1,113 
 4,889 
 1,605 
 1 429 
 
 780 
 802 
 
 4',527 
 3 K97 
 
 13.675 
 8,579 
 3,234 
 3 194 
 
 34.376 
 19.905 
 14,746 
 13,781 
 
 Empire . . . 
 
 144.673 
 
 9.007 
 
 39.077 
 
 3.418 
 
 31.707 
 
 74.005 
 
 301.887 
 
 1 Compiled from Lexis : Die Reform df hiiheren Schulwesens in Preussen, and 
 from Ergdnzungaheften (Noa. 11-21, 1894-1005), of CentrnlMatt, etc. 
 
 * Compiled from Lexis : Das Unterrichtawesen im Deutschen Reich. Vol. IL, p. 218.
 
 PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 
 
 437 
 
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 438 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 larger attendance in the future. As can be seen from Table 
 Relative increase ^" * ne num ber of students at the Prussian uni- 
 of students from versities entering on the leaving-certificates of 
 8 ' Realgymnasien and Oberrealschulen increased 
 during the years 1902 to 1905 over 430 per cent, (from 601 to 
 2599), while, what is even more remarkable, the number en- 
 tering on Gymnasien leaving-certificates increased over 200 
 per cent, (from 6914 in 1901-02 to 14124 in 1904-05). Al- 
 ready in the year 1904-05, over 9 per cent, of the students of 
 law and medicine entered on leaving-certificates of Real- 
 gymnasien and Oberrealschulen. When it is remembered 
 that this is only three years from the time these faculties 
 were first thrown open to such students, the percentage is 
 certainly large. Moreover, to make the comparison more 
 equal, if only the number of first semester students in 
 1904-05 is considered, it will be found that the percentage 
 entering from Realgymnasien and Oberrealschulen is consid- 
 erably higher (13 per cent, in law, 10.5 per cent, in medicine 
 and 31.2 per cent, in philosophy). 
 
 The following statistics (Table III.) indicate the same gen- 
 eral tendency toward increased university attendance and 
 especially a growth in the number of real school 
 graduates who take up advanced study. In 1895 
 less than 19 per cent, of the whole number of 
 Realgymnasium graduates went to the universities, while in 
 1904 over 50 per cent, declared their intention of so doing. 
 
 Likewise the fact is here shown that a very large propor- 
 tion of all university students are still furnished by the Gym- 
 nasien. But it will be seen that this proportion 
 has diminished. Thus, of the whole number 
 who entered in 1885-86, 94 per cent, came from 
 Gymnasien, while in 1903-04 only 86 per cent, came from 
 such schools, and of course the proportion from real schools 
 has increased correspondingly. 
 
 The figures of the table also bring out another difference 
 between Gymnasien and real schools : a much larger propor- 
 tion of the students remain to the end and finish the course
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 
 
 439 
 
 in the Gymnasien than in the other schools. Of the whole 
 number of higher school graduates in 1903-04, only 20 per 
 cent, were from real schools. "When these pupils 
 entered school nine years ago, the real school 
 students constituted over 49 per cent, of the 
 total enrollment in Sexta. The sanie fact can be seen by 
 comparing Tables I. and III. Eliminating the influence of 
 the preponderance of real schools among the six-class schools 
 by taking only the nine-class schools, it will be found that in 
 1903 the Gymnasien contained 68 per cent, of the whole num- 
 ber enrolled, the real schools 32 per cent., while of the whole 
 number of graduates of the same year, the Gymnasien turned 
 out 80 per cent., the real schools only 20 per cent. 
 
 All this goes to show, of course, that a larger number of 
 real school students drop out during the course to enter 
 practical life, and that the Gymnasien hold their students 
 better to the end. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Number of Students Receiving Leaving-Ceriificales from Pntssian 
 Higher Schools and Number Declaring their Intention of Enter- 
 ing the Universities. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gymnasien. 
 
 Realgymnasien. 
 
 Oberrealschulen. 
 
 Total. 
 
 To Univ. 
 
 Total. 
 
 To Univ. 
 
 Total. 
 
 To Univ. 
 
 1885-86 
 
 3,505 
 3,776 
 4,169 
 4,587 
 4,539 
 4.785 
 
 2,913 
 2,731 
 3,049 
 3,342 
 3,303 
 3,624 
 
 567 
 553 
 726 
 758 
 703 
 723 
 
 181 
 104 
 135 
 209 
 215 
 363 
 
 30 
 34 
 86 
 211 
 310 
 462 
 
 'ie 
 
 213 
 
 1891 92 
 
 1894-95 
 
 1897-98 
 
 19(10-01 
 
 1903-04 
 
 
 It may be of interest to compare the relative number of 
 classical and non-classical students in technical high schools 
 with the proportions given in the preceding 
 tables for the universities. Here, too, the gym- 
 nasial prepared students constitute the largest 
 single element although the percentage of real school students 
 is very much larger than at the universities. This is shown
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 in Table IV., which gives the attendance at the three Eoyal 
 Technical High Schools of Prussia for the winter semester 
 1902-03. 
 
 TABLE Ty.i 
 
 Attendance at Prussian Technical High Schools (Berlin, Hanover, 
 Aachen), W. S. 1902-03. 
 
 Preparatory School. 
 
 Attendance. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Gymnasium 
 
 2429 
 
 46 2 
 
 
 1 601 
 
 
 Oberrealschulen 
 
 693 
 
 V 43 3 
 
 Other Realschulen 
 
 27 
 
 
 Foreign Schools 
 
 618 
 
 11 5 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 5368 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 The " Reform 
 Schools. 
 
 Recent 
 Development. 
 
 One of the most notable developments within the past 
 decade has been the increasing growth and popularity of the 
 so-called " Reformansta.lt 'en" that is, schools of 
 the Altona and Frankfort type 2 in which the 
 study of Latin is not begun until the fourth 
 year (Untertertia), so that there is no differentiation between 
 Gymnasium, Realgymnasium and Oberrealschule during the 
 first three years. Despite strong opposition from the con- 
 servatives, these schools made rapid headway 
 during the period from 1892 to 1900 ; while the 
 Eoyal Decree of the latter year gave an added 
 impetus to their growth, so that from 1900 to 1904 more 
 
 1 From Monatschrift fur hohere Schulen, Vol. II., p. 589. 
 
 9 These types differ in minor details. The Altona curriculum includes 
 only Realgymnasien and Realschulen, while the Frankfort plan applies 
 to Gymnasien as well. Both begin French (rarely English) in the first year 
 and Latin in the fourth year, but the Altona plan introduces English in 
 the third year and carries it six years, while the Frankfort plan begins 
 English only in the sixth year carrying it four years but with more hours 
 per year. The fact of note here is that, with the establishment of the 
 Goethe-Gymnasium at Frankfort, the reform was for the first time ap- 
 plied to the more important instruction in Latin and Greek in the Gym- 
 nasium Greek receiving 8 hours per week for 4 years instead of 6 hours 
 for 6 years as elsewhere.
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 441 
 
 reform schools were established than in all the years preced- 
 ing. In 1892 there were but seven reform schools ; in 1900 
 the number had grown to thirty-five, while by August, 1904, 
 they numbered seventy-one, with more in process of establish- 
 ment. 
 
 The June Conference of 1900 showed a much more favor- 
 able attitude toward these schools than its predecessor. While 
 opposed to the immediate and universal adop- Attitude of the 
 tion of the reform curricula, it was not averse conference 
 to allowing them freer and wider trial. The 
 Emperor puts it as follows in the Eoyal Decree : " The estab- 
 lishment of schools with the Altona and Frankfort curricula 
 has heretofore justified itself, on the whole, for those places 
 where it has been tried. Since this arrangement 
 provides a common elementary course identical ^^ sch^is" 
 with that of the Realschulen, it likewise affords 
 no inconsiderable social advantages. I desire, therefore, not 
 only that the experiment be continued in such manner as to 
 be most effective, but also that it be tested more widely where 
 conditions make it advisable." 
 
 Accordingly, the plan has received this more extended and 
 effective testing. Since 1900 several of these schools have 
 turned out their first graduates who according to all reports 
 have shown themselves in university work and otherwise the 
 equal of graduates of the old Gymnasium. In 1903, Dr. Alt- 
 hoff, a member of the ministry, declared in a speech in the 
 Upper Chamber : " The experiences up to the present with 
 these reform institutions, especially with respect to Latin, are 
 very favorable and we have had reports from the universities, 
 according to which students who have been prepared at the 
 Goethe-Gymnasium at Frankfort have distin- 
 guished themselves especially in the ancient 
 languages." " However," the speaker goes on 
 to say, " to judge from these single instances would, of course, 
 be erroneous ; the matter is not fully determined. We are of 
 the opinion that the position of the Keformgymnasium is 
 still unsettled, that it is an experiment concerning the out-
 
 442 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 come of which we will be able to judge definitely only in ten 
 or fifteen years." 1 More recently General Inspector Kein- 
 hardt made the assertion in the Prussian Chamber that of 
 123 pupils who had up to that time (March, 1905) taken the 
 leaving examinations at three such Reformgymnasien only 
 four had failed, and of these four three were successful six 
 months later. 2 
 
 Meanwhile, in spite of official encouragment and successful 
 work, the opposition to these schools has by no means died 
 
 out. Those still bound to traditional methods 
 Pedagogical' ^ teaching the classical languages and with 
 
 unshaken faith in the supreme cultural and 
 disciplinary value of such study vigorously oppose the reform 
 organization and methods on pedagogical grounds more 
 vigorously perhaps than logically. At the basis of much of 
 this lies the deeply intrenched faith in the formal discipline 
 theory in its older and more untenable form a belief that 
 the very difficulty, disagreeableness, or non-practical charac- 
 ter of a study and the consequent compulsion to which the 
 student must be subjected, constitute in themselves a most 
 valuable training and the best preparation for future study or 
 practical life. And, it is contended, no subject meets these 
 requirements so well as the classical languages. " The work 
 of developing the abilities necessary to university study (the 
 peculiar function of the Gymnasium) is best accomplished 
 by means of a curriculum which makes from first to last a 
 single field of knowledge, and one whose mastery demands 
 the energetic application of youthful powers, the principal 
 subject of study. The effects of such an arrangement cannot 
 be replaced by any correlation or concentration, however 
 skilful, of the various kinds of subject matter of instruc- 
 tion." ! This reference, of course, is to the curriculum of 
 
 1 Das humanistische Gymnasium, Vol. XIV., p. 127. 
 
 9 Monatschrift fur hShere Schulen, May, 1905, p. 229. 
 
 8 G. Uhlig : Theses concerning the preservation and extension of the 
 individuality of the humanistic Gymnasium, Vol. XV., p. 20, of Das 
 humanistische Gymnasium.
 
 ' O<0/<V^ 
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 443 
 
 the Realgymnasium. Numerous other arguments are ad- 
 vanced especially against the Reformgymnasium and the 
 modern methods of language instruction against beginning 
 with a modern instead of an ancient language, against short- 
 ening and intensifying the course in Latin and Greek, against 
 studying foreign languages one after another instead of side 
 by side. They are best substantiated or refuted by careful 
 comparisons of actual results, which are becoming more and 
 more accessible as the number of reform schools increases. 
 
 Many object to the new schools for fear that social and 
 class distinctions will be broken down by thus uniting real 
 schools with Gymnasien so that for three or for 
 five years their courses are identical. This is 
 the old spectre of the Einlieitsschule which it was 
 hoped had been forever banished by the Conference of 1890. 
 The dangers, real or imaginary, of an " educated proletariat," 
 seem thus to follow in the train of this movement. The feel- 
 ing seems to be more or less prevalent in the learned profes- 
 sions that these schools encourage undesirable students to 
 continue in university study and so lead to an overcrowding 
 of the professions. In other words, the ancient languages 
 taught in the old way are felt to be the best " sifters " for the 
 selection of those most capable of advanced studies. 
 
 To an American, with the unlimited opportunities of his 
 own country in mind, such fears as these may seem ground- 
 less or imaginary, but with the far harder strug- ^orm schools 
 gle for existence and more highly complex or- and university 
 ganization of life in older countries such as Attendance. 
 Germany, there are perhaps some grounds for apprehension. 
 However, I believe it is wrong to consider a particular form 
 of school organization as a possible cause of such conditions. 
 In fact, the supporters of the reform schools, on the other 
 hand, have argued that their introduction would tend to 
 diminish university attendance. The avowed aim of the 
 Gymnasium has been to prepare for university study. As 
 long as it is preferred for social reasons and as long as it is 
 the only school to be found in many localities (there are 172
 
 444 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 cities in Prussia with no other higher school than a Gymna- 
 sium) many students will attend and will be led by the pre- 
 vailing custom and spirit of the school to pass over to the 
 university without special fitness or positive inclination 
 thereto. Whereas, if the Gymnasium had realistic courses 
 side by side with the classical such students would have the 
 chance to go into technical, commercial and other pursuits 
 for which they are better suited. If university attendance 
 is on the increase, whether this be viewed as an evil or not, it 
 seems more probable that the cause lies in the extension of 
 privileges in opening up to graduates of the real schools 
 many fields of university study hitherto closed to them. 
 Figures previously given make it quite evident, at least, 
 that this class of students has been increasing rapidly 
 since 1901. 
 
 In the light of conditions in other European countries and 
 America, the reform schools, on the whole, seem to have the 
 largest promise for the future and to accord 
 best with the trend of educational thought, the 
 demands of modern life, and with Prussian of- 
 ficial predilections. This conclusion is confirmed by such 
 words as the following from Kudolf Lehmann in the semi- 
 official publication for the St. Louis Exposi- 
 tion : ' " When [i is remembered that, so far as 
 experience entitles one at present to any judg- 
 ment, it has borne out the theoretical arguments for the re- 
 form schools, and that on this point there is almost universal 
 agreement, the preference which the Prussian government 
 has for some time shown toward these schools is easily under- 
 stood and the prediction is justified that we have in them at 
 least one if not the form of school organization of the future." 
 Of even greater significance is the fact that Dr. Reinhardt, 
 formerly Director of the Goethe-Gymnasium, has recently 
 been called into the Ministry of Education to the position of 
 General Inspector of reform schools. Many things have 
 
 1 Lexis : Das Unterrichtswesen im Deutsclwn Reich, Vol. II., p. 109.
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 445 
 
 worked together to cause their rapid development during re- 
 cent years ; and, although the conservatives predict and hope 
 that, so far at least as the Reformgymnasium is concerned, 
 the movement will be short-lived, I believe that the future 
 has in store a still larger if not a predominant place for the 
 new type of schools. Their economic and social advantages 
 have often been pointed out and have largely been the cause 
 of the favor with which the Government and especially the 
 Ministry of Finance have looked upon them. 
 
 From the pedagogical standpoint, the reform schools seem 
 to be decidedly superior to the old Gymnasien in that they 
 accord better with two general tendencies which 
 have become prominent in recent educational 
 thought in Germany. The first of these is the 
 conviction that the educational ideal must mediate between 
 the conception of all-round culture and that of 
 extended efforts in a narrow field. The latter (1 > ^ Jf^ 
 
 tional Ideal. 
 
 was the ideal of Sturm, who taught from first 
 to last practically nothing but the classics in his school. The 
 whole history of the Gymnasium from that day to this has 
 been marked by the struggle to broaden that curriculum and 
 to make room for new studies in other words, a struggle be- 
 tween the ideals of narrow discipline and all-round culture. 
 As modern sciences developed, the attempt was made to add 
 one study after another to the curriculum and to maintain 
 at the same time its universally obligatory character. The 
 limit of capacity of both the teacher and the pupil was in- 
 evitably overstepped and the fundamental error of the prin- 
 ciple gradually came to be recognized. The school cannot 
 be " all things to all men." There results either an undue 
 multiplication of studies and dissipation of energy or the oft- 
 condemned over-pressure of pupils. Even at 
 the present time the ten-year-old lad in Sexta 
 begins with seven distinct studies, which by the 
 time Untertertia is reached increase to ten and include three 
 foreign languages. This longitudinal splitting-up is the 
 most marked characteristic of the curriculum pf German
 
 446 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 higher schools. * The evils incident thereto have long been 
 recognized and many efforts have been made to unify and 
 simplify the courses of study, and at the same time to differ- 
 entiate them sufficiently to meet the needs of the various 
 classes of students and the special requirements of the differ- 
 ent fields of higher study. Chief among the 
 
 Corrected by (a) b J . & 
 
 Division of Prin- means f or accomplishing this has been the dis- 
 cipai and Sec- tinction drawn between principal and minor 
 
 ondary Subjects. , . ,-, , i i . , -t , 
 
 subjects. Each school is expected to empha- 
 size those particular subjects which belong to its peculiar 
 sphere. Thus in the Gymnasium German, Latin, Greek and 
 mathematics constitute the main subjects and receive chief 
 attention, in instruction and in the examinations ; in the 
 Realgymnasium either French or English, as the case may 
 be, take the place of Greek ; in the Oberrealschule natural 
 science, French and English take the place of Latin and 
 Greek ; German and mathematics, it will be noticed, are com- 
 mon to all schools. The danger of such an arrangement is 
 always that minor subjects will not only receive less time but 
 will be taught poorly and by inefficient teachers. 
 
 An additional remedy and, I believe, an even more effective 
 one, is that afforded by the reform curriculum whose chief 
 virtue lies in substituting for the old, diffuse 
 an( ^ P ara ^ e l study of the languages, where the 
 difficulty was greatest, a shorter and more in- 
 tensive study of each in succession. Beginning with French 
 as the only foreign language studied during the first three 
 years, more than the normal time is given to it. It thus pre- 
 pares for the study of Latin or English, as the case may be, 
 
 1 "This splitting-up defies all the laws of psychology and all the ex- 
 perience of life. Is the human spirit, especially in the young with whom 
 we are here concerned, a sponge that can absorb a great mass of material 
 without injury to itself! But who is it that accomplishes things in life? 
 It is he who with energy and singleness of aim devotes himself wholly to 
 one definite task. In intellectual as well as in industrial life the division 
 of labor is continually increasing." M. Heynacher in Lexis : Die Reform 
 det hQheren fJchulwesens in Prcusscn, p. 119.
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 447 
 
 begun in the fourth year. Latin in turn receives chief em- 
 phasis for two years, when finally in the sixth year Greek is 
 taken up with more hours per week than is given in the nor- 
 mal curriculum. 
 
 Along with this reform in the organization of the curricu- 
 lum has gone a reform in the methods of teaching the modern 
 languages. These two movements are, however, Reform O rganiza- 
 distinct. The one is not always found beside tion Reform 
 the other. Many favor the reform methods but MethodB Di8tinct " 
 oppose the reform curriculum, so that in the "old " Gymnasi- 
 um will be found the "new" methods. Nevertheless schools 
 with reform curricula employ the reform methods and have 
 always been their chief advocates and best exponents. Not 
 only have the new methods greatly benefited modern language 
 instruction but they have reacted favorably upon the teach- 
 ing of Latin and Greek in the old Gymnasium. 
 
 It seems evident to an American that experience will event- 
 ually prove, if it has not done so already, that on the whole 
 the reform curriculum is pedagogically superior to the old 
 and productive of superior results, although no doubt as with 
 all other improved methods it demands superior teachers. 
 
 The second note running through very much of recent 
 thought and reiterated with increasing insistence is the de- 
 mand, voiced by such-leaders as Paulsen, Mat- (2) Second Move . 
 thias, R. Lehmann, and others, for greater free- ment Demand 
 clom in the school ; freedom for parent and 
 pupil to select suitable courses, to postpone final choice of 
 pursuits, to specialize in the higher classes, to substitute good 
 work in one study for a minimum in another ; and, finally, 
 freedom for individual teachers and schools to do their work 
 with less minute official prescriptions. 
 
 That the reform schools are more in harmony with these 
 demands than is, for example, the old Gymnasium is quite 
 evident. The three or five years' common course in these 
 schools makes possible a postponement of the final choice of 
 courses and so of pursuits, and allows free movement to and 
 from Gymnasium, Realgymnasium,&ud Oberrealschule during
 
 448 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 these years. Naturally too, the union of two or even all three 
 of higher schools in a single institution, which the reform 
 plans encourage, furnishes more opportunities of choice be- 
 tween courses. 
 
 A great variety of combinations is thus to be found in re- 
 form institutions. One or two or all three types of nine-class 
 schools are found united with one another or 
 Conibinations w ^h a Reolschule or other six-class school. Of 
 the seventy-three schools in Germany in 1904 1 
 where the reform curriculum is followed, twenty-three were 
 separate schools with a single curriculum (seven Gymnasien, 
 twelve Realgymnasien, and five Realprogymnasieri), while 
 fifty were institutions where two or more kinds of schools 
 were united in one. 
 
 Another noteworthy fact is that there are seventeen Gym- 
 
 nasien with the reform curriculum ; and it is these Reform- 
 
 gymnasien that have caused the greatest strife 2 
 
 The 2ur gym " and are the thorn in the flesh of tbe old gy m - 
 
 nasial party, who fear that these schools will 
 'subvert the essential nature of the Gymnasium. The danger 
 is felt to lie in the position and treatment of Greek in the 
 reform curriculum. Begun in the Untersecunda it must be 
 studied for a single year by the large number of one-year 
 
 volunteer students who leave at the end of that 
 The Gre B ek n f y ear - Such an evidently undesirable state of 
 
 affairs will need remedying and, the prophets 
 point out, either Greek will become wholly optional or it 
 will be pushed forward one year. In the latter case the time 
 left (three years) will be entirely inadequate and most unsat- 
 
 1 From a complete list of the various reform schools in Germany, found 
 in Monatschrift fur hohere Schulen, Vol. III. (1904), p. 281. 
 
 * A proposition to establish one of these schools is generally the occa- 
 sion for much discussion and argument, sometimes assuming the charac- 
 ter of a political campaign. Thus in 1904 two such attempts, one at 
 Berlin, the other at Dresden, to establish Reformgymnasien occasioned 
 much controversy. The movement succeeded at Dresden but failed in 
 Berlin, which up to the present (1905) has no reform schools whatever.
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 449 
 
 isfactory work will be the result. In either case, it is said, 
 the Gymnasium will no longer be a Gymnasium, for its cen- 
 tral and distinguishing characteristic a thorough study of 
 Greek will have disappeared. That the future has some 
 changes in store is quite possible. That they will seriously 
 injure the Gymnasien need not be feared, at least by those 
 who believe that the ancient languages have no such supreme 
 and unapproachable value as compared with the modern, and 
 that consequently an intensive study of French or English is 
 not wholly an inadequate substitute for Greek. But that 
 there are many who even at the present day do not believe 
 this is evident from the fine irony of such a deliverance as 
 the following from the rector of a Gymnasium : J " If clas- 
 sical instruction is allowed to fall or is so limited that it be- 
 comes worthless, then other subjects must be 
 substituted which will no doubt prepare better Att " J at ' e8 Con ~ 
 for 'practical life' and for the 'struggle for 
 existence.' French and English language and literature will 
 take the place of Latin and Greek, our graduates will leave 
 the Gymnasium as finished Frenchmen and Englishmen, 
 presumably also as highly modern persons, for whom Shake- 
 speare and the French writers of the seventeenth century 
 will be just as much superseded as are Sophocles and Hor- 
 ace, and they will get along finely in the world, earn much 
 money and seek their fortune, very shortly to become 
 Frenchmen, Englishmen or Americans." 
 
 Another in speaking of the characteristic of the Gymnar 
 slum and of English as an alternative for Greek goes so far 
 as to say : " This whole principle of elective and alternative 
 subjects is false. Within a well thought out 
 curriculum nothing must be left to the incli- < 
 nation of the learners ; outside the closed cir- 
 cle of instruction they have enough room for the exercise of 
 their favorite activities. For who would loosen a single 
 
 1 Otto Kaemrael : Der Kampf um das humanist ische Gymnasium, 
 Leipsic (1901), p. 52.
 
 450 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 stone in a well-built structure, above all such a foundation 
 and corner stone as Greek in the Gymnasium? Optional 
 English (in place of Greek) is a foreign substance in the or- 
 ganism of the humanistic school and injures its inmost life 
 and healthy growth." 1 
 
 It is refreshing to turn to a writer like Paulsen, when, for 
 example, he points out the essential thing in education as 
 
 " not what one knows, but what one can do 
 The Liberal view, with his knowledge not ' kennen ' but ' kon- 
 
 nen.' The activity, spontaneous, living, in- 
 teresting, not the material, is of importance " ; or when he 
 savs : " We must hold fast to the ideal of humanistic cult- 
 
 tf 
 
 ure, but, following the general evolution, draw the circle of 
 the means employed a little larger. The ancient languages 
 are for the twentieth century no longer what they were for 
 the sixteenth nor yet the eighteenth ; the school, which does 
 not shape life but serves it, could not and dared not longer 
 hesitate to adjust itself to the changed conditions. If the 
 new order of things gives to the individuals greater freedom 
 to pursue, with different gifts, different paths, it will also 
 serve the end of personal culture. Not what one does, I re- 
 peat in conclusion, but how one does it that he does it with 
 his whole soul is the essential thing in education. May the 
 three forms of higher schools as a result (of the equalization 
 of privileges) compete in all good and useful works, but 
 above all in this, in leading their pupils to freer, independent 
 efforts self-activity alone forms the inner man." 2 
 
 That the government has no fear of English in the Gym- 
 nasium is evident from the words of the Emperor in the 
 
 Royal Decree : " I shall offer no objection to 
 At Emperor th< an i ncrease ltl the number of hours devoted to 
 
 Latin in the Gymnasium and Realgymnasium. 
 But in view of the great significance which the knowledge 
 
 1 H. F. Mliller in Das humanistische Gymnasium, Vol. XV., p. 162. 
 
 * Translated from an excellent article on "The Principle of Equality 
 among the three Types of Higher Schools," in Lexis: Die Reform des 
 hOheren Schulwesens in Preussen, pp. 32-48.
 
 THE PROGRESS OF SCHOOL REFORM 451 
 
 of English has assumed, I deem it of especial importance 
 that this language receive more attention at the Gymnasium. 
 Therefore side by side with Greek, English is everywhere to 
 be an alternative subject up to Untersecunda and, moreover, 
 in the three upper classes of the Gymnasium where local 
 conditions favor it, English is to replace French as the obli- 
 gatory subject, while the latter language is to be retained as 
 optional." 
 
 This provision for an optional course is evidently intended 
 to help the Gymnasium meet modern needs and to furnish 
 an alternative course for those indisposed tow- 
 ard or incapable of mastering Greek. The 
 apparently anomalous regulation permitting 
 the option generally up to Untersecunda and not in the 
 three higher classes is explained by the fact that this ar- 
 rangement is intended primarily for one-year volunteers 
 leaving school at this point, to whom it assures a more prac- 
 tical training, and partly by the fact that the arrangement 
 of the alternative courses, including French and mathematics 
 as well as English, is similar to the curriculum of the corre- 
 sponding classes of the Recdgymnasium, so that those who 
 wish to study further can easily pass from Untersecunda 
 of the Gymnasium to Obersecunda of the Realgymnasium. 
 English is, therefore, not optional with Greek throughout 
 the course, and Greek is still obligatory at least in the three 
 upper classes. 
 
 The opposition to the substitution of English or any other 
 subject for Greek is very strong among the conservatives. 
 Their general attitude here as elsewhere is : 
 Let the other schools have all the privileges 
 they wish, throw open to all the study of 
 theology and medicine even, but " hands off " the Gymnasium 
 curriculum. This must be maintained in its entirety, Greek 
 obligatory, Latin taught from first year to last and not accord- 
 ing to the reform plan, ancient history back to where it was for- 
 merly, and, if anything, more time for the classical languages 
 such as they enjoyed in the " good old days " before 1892.
 
 452 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 But events in Germany and elsewhere point to the hope- 
 lessness of carrying out such a program. In spite of its 
 ardent defenders the " old " Gymnasium is becoming more 
 modern year by year, and, although it may never be wholly 
 "reformed " according to the Frankfort pattern, it cannot long 
 retain its hard and fast organization of a century or even of 
 a decade ago. Nor can the classics continue 
 ^ dominate the curriculum to the extent that 
 they did fifty years ago. Latin, it is true, has 
 received a considerable increase in time, and the Latin 
 schools, the Realgymnasien, have promise of a larger place 
 in the future. Greek, too, has been apotheosized as never 
 before. It is declared to be the very heart and life of a 
 liberal education, not only of supreme cultural and disci- 
 plinary value in itself, but a great aid to all other studies 
 religion, the mother tongue, Latin, modern languages, his- 
 tory, mathematics, sciences and philosophy. 1 Moreover the 
 very fact that the classicists are willing to throw away all 
 external props of exclusive privileges is a sign of a deeper 
 faith in classical education, and of a willingness to let it 
 stand strictly on its intrinsic merits. All of this leads 
 Mr. Sadler to remark that " there has arisen a new wave of 
 enthusiasm on behalf of the classical humanities." 5 But in 
 part, at least, it is the practical and technical value of Latin 
 that has recently been recognized and that accounts for the 
 revival of the Kealgymnasium, rather than increased faith in 
 its purely cultural and disciplinary value. This is true also 
 in regard to Greek. It is not the study of the Greek lan- 
 guage per se and philology that is emphasized but the great 
 value and deep significance of Greek thought, life, art, litera- 
 ture and philosophy. It is being urged more and more, in 
 fact, that most students can profit by this valuable material 
 more by means of translations than through the study of the 
 
 1 See, for example, Uhlig's : Theses concerning the preservation and 
 extension of the individuality of the humanistic Gymnasium, in Das 
 humanislische Gymnasium, Vol. XV., p. 17ff. 
 
 English Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol. 9, p. 89.
 
 THE PROGRESS OP SCHOOL REFORM 453 
 
 original language. So much for the "Greek question" in 
 Germany. 
 
 The tendency in Germany is at present, as it has been for 
 years, away from the scholastic and purely formal in classical 
 education, and perhaps away from strictly classical education 
 itself, but I do not believe that it is away from truly human- 
 istic and liberal education. Instead, the tendency is to rec- 
 ognize that modern languages and the sciences can have a 
 truly cultural value and constitute a liberal education as 
 well as the old " humanities " if they are properly taught. 
 And not the least benefit of the recent reforms will be an 
 increased attention to the subject matter and methods of 
 instruction of the modern subjects from this broader point 
 of view. With the abandonment of the gymnasial monopoly 
 and the abolition of the mid-course examination the system 
 of privileges is broken up so far as the higher schools are 
 concerned. Free competition is now possible among all 
 grades of schools that fit for leadership. This accomplish- 
 ment is the most significant event of the past decade and 
 shows conclusively that modern Germany is keenly alert to 
 the demands of modern life. The economic situation has 
 forced a reconsideration of educational theories and a reform 
 of educational practice, but amidst all changes Germany is 
 true to her ideals of humanistic culture and practical effi- 
 ciency in school training.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 A. The most important general sources concerning recent reforms in 
 German, more particularly Prussian, Higher Schools : 
 
 1. Lexis, W., and others : Die Reform des hoheren Schulwesens in 
 Preussen. Halle. 1902. Herein (a) C. Rethwisch: Historical Review; 
 (b) F. Paulsen : The Principle of Equality of the three Types of Higher 
 Schools ; (c) W. Lexis : The Question of Privileges ; (d) M. Heynacher : 
 The Instruction in General ; (e) A. Waldeck, von Wilamowitz, R. Leh- 
 mann, W. Mangold, F. Neubauer, H. Wagner, F. Klein, J. Norrenberg, 
 L. Pallat, H. Wickenhagen : The Instruction in the Various Branches ; 
 (f) K. Reinhardt : The Reform Schools ; (g) H. Halfmann : The Position 
 of the Six-Class Schools; (h) W. Fries and A. Tilmann: The Prepara- 
 tion and Position of Teachers ; (i) E. Horn : Bibliography ; and (j) Sta- 
 tistics. 
 
 This book, semi-official in character, gives the best all-round view of 
 the situation. 
 
 2. Lexis, W. : Das Unterrichtswesen im Deufschen Reich, Vol. II. ; 
 C. Rethwisch, R. Lehmann, G. Baumer : Die hoheren Lehranstalten und 
 das Mddchenschulwesen. Berlin, 1904. 
 
 This admirable treatise is in a series prepared for the St. Louis Expo- 
 sition. 
 
 3. Lexis, W. : A General View of the History and Organization of 
 Public Education in the German Empire. Berlin, 1904. Translated 
 from an abridgment of the preceding work. 
 
 4. Beier, Adolf: Die hdheren Schulen in Preussen und ihre Lehrer. 
 2d Edition, Halle a.S., 1902. A collection of the official regulations per- 
 taining to the higher schools and universities. The Same : Erstes Er- 
 gdnzungsheft (April, 1902 ; Jan., 1904). 
 
 5. Sadler, M. E. : English Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 
 Vol. IX., Education in Germany. London, 1902. Herein : (a) Sadler, 
 M. E. : The Unrest in Secondary Education in Germany and elsewhere. 
 The best study of its kind in existence ; (b) Twentyman, A. E. : Note on 
 Revised Curricula and Programmes of Work, 1901. 
 
 6. The Same: Vol. III. London, 1898. Herein: (a) Problems in 
 Prussian Secondary Education for Boys, M. E. Sadler ; (b) The Curric- 
 
 455
 
 456 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ula and Programmes of Work for Higher Schools in Prussia, of 1891. 
 Translated by W. Q. Lipscomb ; (c) Hammond, H. E. O. : The Higher 
 Schools of the Grand Duchy of Baden ; (d) Rein, W. : Tendencies in the 
 Educational Systems of Germany. Translated by F. H. Dale ; (e) Ware, 
 Fabian : The Teaching of Modern Languages in Frankfort a.M. and 
 District with some account of the Frankfurter Lehrplan of 1892 ; (f) 
 Brebner, Mary : The Teaching of Modern Languages in Germany ; (g) 
 Hausknecht, Emil : The Teaching of Foreign Languages. Translated 
 by H. W. Atkinson ; (h) Ware, Fabian : The Teacher of Modern Lan- 
 guages in Prussian Secondary Schools for Boys. 
 
 7. Messer, August : Die Reformbewegung auf dem Gebiete des preus- 
 iischen Gymnasialwesens von 1882 bis 1901. Leipsic and Berlin, 1901, 
 p. 173. 
 
 8. Paulsen, Friedrich : Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts. 2d edi- 
 tion, Leipsic, 1897. Vol. II., final chapters : Die Zukunft des gelehrten 
 Unterrichts, pp. 631-687. A standard work with strong leaning to the 
 realistic education. 
 
 9. Paulsen, Friedrich : Die hoheren Schulen und das Universitats- 
 studium im 20. Jahrhundert. Brunswick, 1901, p. 34. 
 
 10. Russell, J. E. : German Higher Schools. New York, 1898. 3d 
 edition, 1905. 
 
 11. Hughes, R. E. : The Making of Citizens. New York and London, 
 1902. Herein Chapter X. : The Secondary School System of Germany. 
 
 12. Bolton, F. E. : The Secondary School System of Germany. New 
 York, 1900, p. 398. 
 
 13. Lentz, Ernst : Die Vorzuge des gemeinsamen Unterbaues aller ho- 
 heren Lehranstalten. Berlin, 1901, p. 58. 
 
 14. Kaemmel, Otto : Der Kampf an das humanistische Gymnasium. 
 Leipsic, 1901. 
 
 15. Muff, Christian : Humanistische und realistische Bildung. 1901. 
 
 16. Rein, W. : Encyklopddisches Ilandbuch der Padagogik. Vols. I.- 
 VII. Langensalza, 1895-1899. (A 2d edition is being issued, 1905) 
 Various articles : Gymnasium, Realschulwesen, Reformschulen, etc. 
 
 17. Fischer, Albert: Das alte Gymnasium und die neue Zeit. Gr. 
 Lichterfelde, 1900. 
 
 18. Weissenfels, Oscar : Kernfragen des hdheren Unterrichts. II. Vols. 
 Berlin, 1901, 1903. 
 
 19. Kretzschmar, J. F. : Das hdhere Schulwesen in Konigreiche 
 .Sachsen. Leipsic, 1903. 
 
 20. Joos, August: Die Mittelschulen in Grossherzogtum Baden. 
 Karlsruhe, 1898. 
 
 21. Statistisches Jahrbuch der hdheren Schulen Deutschlands. Vol. 
 XXIV. (1903-1904). Leipsic, 1903. Annual Volumes. An indispensa- 
 ble guide to the personnel of German schools.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 457 
 
 22. Centralblatt fur die gesamte Unterriclits-Verwaltung in Preussen, 
 with Statistische Ergdnzungsheften. Annual volumes up to date. The 
 official publication of the Prussian Department of Education. All school 
 laws and orders are published therein. 
 
 23. Liermann, Otto: Reformschulen nach Frankfurter und Altona 
 System. Erster Teil. Berlin, 1903. 
 
 24. StOtzner, Paul. Das offentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands in 
 der Gegemcart. Leipsic, 1901. 
 
 25. Dawson, W. H. : German Life in Town and Country. New York, 
 1901. Especially Chap. VI., Public Education, pp. 122-142. 
 
 26. Ware, Fabian : Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry. 
 New York, 1901. Chap. IV., The Foundations laid by German Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 27. Winch, W. H.: Notes on German Schools. New York, 1904. 
 (Chiefly Methods in Elementary and Realschulen.) 
 
 28. Schmid, K. A. : Geschichte dcr Erziehung. Vol. V. (3 parts). 
 Stuttgart, 1901-1902. (a) Part I. (a') Bender: Geschichte des Gelehr- 
 tenschuhcesens in Deutschland seit der Reformation; (b') Schmid, 
 Georg : Das " zeitgemasse und nationals " Gymnasium ; (b) Part II. (a') 
 Hoffmann, R. : Geschichte des Realschulwesens in Deutschland, pp. 1- 
 106 ; (b') Wychgram, J. : Geschichte des hoheren Madchenschulwesens in 
 Deutschland, pp. 228-284; (c') Schmid, G. : Nachtrag zur Geschichte 
 der preussischen Gymnasien und Realgymnasien, pp. 310-316. 
 
 B. Magazine Articles : 
 
 1. Monatschrift fur hohere Schulen. Vols. I.-IV., 1902-1905. (a) 
 Reinhardt, K. : Der Plan des Reformgymnasiums. Vol. I., p. 485 ; (b) 
 Begemann, H. : Der Ersatzunterricht fur Griechisch in den Gymnasien. 
 Vol. II., p. 606 ; (c) Quossek, K. : Die Oberrealschule und das Universi- 
 tatsstudium. Vol. II., p. 377; (d) Rust, W. : Die Oberrealschule als 
 humanistische Bildungsanstalt. Vol. II., p. 619; (e) Matthias, A.: 
 Dbersicht uber die am 1. April 1904 ^ m Deutschen Reich bestehenden 
 Reformschulen. Vol. III., p. 281 ; (f) Summary of privileges in the dif- 
 ferent German States (1904). Vol. III., p. 46 ; (g) Paulsen, F. : Was 
 kann geschehen, um den Gymnasialstudien auf der oberen Stufe eine 
 freiere Gestalt zu geben. IV., p. 65 ; (h) Tilmann, A. : Statistics con- 
 cerning the leaving-certificates of students in Prussian Universities. 
 Vols. II., III., IV. ; (i) Reinhardt, K. : Die Reformschulen im preus- 
 sischen Abgeordnetenhause. Vol. IV., 229, (May, 1905). 
 
 2. Das humanistische Gymnasium, (a) Fritze, Dr. : Das sogenannte 
 Reformgymnasium. Vol. X., p. 130; (b) Hornemann: Thesen uber das 
 Wesen und die Organization des Gymnasiums in unserer Zeit. Vol. X t> 
 154; (c) Jiiger, O.: Politik und Schule. Vol. X., 7; (d) Seiliger, Jfiger: 
 Discussions of privileges and reform schools. Vol. XL, 106; (e) Uh- 
 lig, G. : Die Berliner Schulkonferenz von 6-8. Juni. Vol. XL, 134, and
 
 458 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 Vol. XII., 110; (f) Jager, 0.: Das Reformgymnasium. Vol. XI., 1; (g) 
 J&ger, 0. : Ereignisse des Jahres 1900 auf dem Gebiet des hoheren Schul- 
 wesens. Vol. XII., 159 ; (h) Der Erlass des Kaisers zur Schulreform 
 mit Bemerkungen von G. Uhlig. Vol. XII., 88; (i) Jager und Uhlig: 
 Die neuen preussischen Lehrpldne und Lehraufgaben. Vol. XII., 237, 
 and Vol. XIII., 1, 176 ; (j) Aly, Friedrich : Die gegenwartige Lage des 
 Gymnasiums. Vol. XIV., 91 ; (k) Uhlig, G. : Thesen uber Wahrung und 
 Ausgestaltung der Eigenart des humanistischen Gymnasiums. Vol. 
 XV., 17; (1) Cauer, P., and others: Die Eigenart der verschiedenen 
 hdheren Schulen. Vol. XV., 49 ; (m) Cauer, P. : fiber den gegenwartigen 
 Stand der Schulpolitischen Bewegung (especially Reformgymnasium). 
 Vol. XV., 154 ; (n) Miiller, H. F. : Von der " Eigenart " des Gymnasiums 
 und dem englischen Ersatzunterricht fur das Griechische. Vol. XV., 
 162. 
 
 3. Padagogisches Archiv. (a) Concerning the " Abschlusspriifung." 
 Vol. XL., pp. 131, 639, Vol. XLL, pp. 23, 385 ; Vol. XLVIL, p. 163 ; (b) 
 Concerning questions of privileges. Vol. XLI., pp. 193, 208, 402, Vol. 
 XLII., pp. 232, 476, 528, 593, 648, Vol. XLIII., p. 366, Vol. XLIV, p. 581, 
 Vol. XLVL, pp. 46, 158. (Other articles in Das humanistische Gymna- 
 sium. Vol. XI., pp. 165, 200, Vol. XII., pp. 6, 194, 209, Vol. XIII, 160, 
 161) ; (c) Wirth, Ph. : Zur Schulreform. Vol. XLII. 553 ; (d) Schmed- 
 ing, Fr. : Der Kaiserliche Erlass uber die Schulreform vom 26. Nov. 
 1900. Vol. XLIII., 161; (e) Schmeding: Die Verhandlungen uber 
 Fragen des hdheren Unterrichts in Berlin von 6-8. Juni 1900. Vol. 
 XLIII., 714, 777, Vol. XLII., 408 ; (f) Eichhoff, R. : Die Schulreform in 
 Berlin. Vol. XLV., 474, 44, 108; (g) Steinbart, Q., and Schmeding : 
 Der Abschluss der Schulreform in Preussen. Vol. XLV., 328, 355 ; (h) 
 Gutersohn, J. : fiber Reformschulen. Vol. XLVL, 90 ; (i) Paulsen, F. : 
 Die hdheren Schulen Deutschlands und ihr Lehrerstand in ihrem Ver- 
 haltnis zum Stoat und zur geistlichen Kultur. Vol. XLVL, 385 ; (j) 
 Eichhoff, R. : Parlamentsverhandlungen uber das hohere Schulwesen 
 (1904). Vol. XLVL, 472; (k) Herold, R. : Neue Bahnen im Unterricht. 
 VoL XLVIL, 276. 
 
 4. Educational Review, New York : (a) Viereck, L. : Reform of Sec- 
 ondary Education in Germany. Vol. XX., 170 ; (b) Wright, C. E. : The 
 Abolition of Compulsory Greek. Vol. XXIV., 48; (c) Butler, N. M.: 
 Changes in Secondary Schools of Germany. Vol. XXIII., 103. 
 
 5. Education, Boston : Wright, C. E. : The New Curricula in Prussia. 
 Vol. XXIII, 1. 
 
 6. The School Review, Chicago: (a) Thiergen, Oscar: The Struggle 
 for Equality of Rights between the German Gymnasium and the Real- 
 gymnasium. Vol. X., 243 ; (b) Sanders, Henry A. : Recent Changes in 
 the Curriculum of the Prussian Gymnasium. Vol. X., 456 ; (c) Good- 
 win, E. J. : Results in the Prussian Gymnasium. Vol. VII., 541.
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 A. THE ROYAL DECREE OF NOVEMBER 26, 1900. 
 
 B. CURRICULA OP PRUSSIAN HIGHER SCHOOLS SINCE 1901. 
 
 C. THE PRIVILEGED HIGHER SCHOOLS OF GERMANY IN 1903- 
 
 1904. 
 
 D. PRIVILEGES ATTACHING TO GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS IN 
 
 1904. 
 
 E. PRIVILEGES IN INDIVIDUAL GERMAN STATES. 
 
 F. SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS OF GER- 
 
 MANY LN 1904. 
 
 G. PENSIONS OF TEACHERS IN HIGHER SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 
 H. EXTRACTS FROM THE GENERAL PENSION LAWS OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 459
 
 APPENDIX A 
 
 The Royal Decree of November 26, 1900. 
 
 ' ' Following the report of November 20th of this year, it is my 
 pleasure that the reform of the higher schools initiated by me in 
 1890, be carried further in accordance with the following prin- 
 ciples: 
 
 "1. With reference to the question of privileges the principle 
 must be that the Gymnasium, the Realgymnasium and the Ober- 
 realschule are to be considered of equal value in the training for 
 general culture, and require supplementing only in so far as, for 
 certain lines of study and professional pursuits, special prepara- 
 tory studies are necessary which do not enter, or at least not to 
 the same extent, into the curriculum of each institution. Conse- 
 quently provision is to be made for the extension of the privileges 
 of the realistic institutions. In this there is indicated at the same 
 time the best method of raising the repute and increasing the at- 
 tendance at these schools and of thus affecting a wider spread of 
 realistic learning. 
 
 "2. In thus acknowledging the equality of the three types of 
 schools it will be possible more thoroughly to strengthen the 
 peculiar nature of each. In view of this I shall offer no objection 
 to a suitable strengthening of Latin in the curriculum of the Qym- 
 nasien and Realgymnasien. But I consider it especially impor- 
 tant, in view of the great significance which the knowledge of 
 English has attained, that this language receive increased atten- 
 tion at the Gymnasium. Therefore, side by side with Greek, 
 English is everywhere to be an alternative subject up to Unter- 
 secunda, and, moreover, in the upper three classes of the Gym- 
 nasium where local conditions render it desirable, English is to 
 replace French as the required subject, while the latter language 
 is to be retained as optional. It also appears to be desirable that 
 in the curriculm of the Oberrealschule, which admits of an exten- 
 sion, geography should receive more care and attention. 
 
 "3. Since 1892 undeniable progress has been made in the econ- 
 
 461
 
 462 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 ouiy of instruction in various branches. More must still be ac- 
 complished. Mindful of the admonition: " Multum nonmulta," 
 the directors will have to pay increased attention that equally 
 high attainments are not demanded in all subjects, but that the 
 most important among them, according to the nature of each in- 
 stitution, are emphasized and extended. 
 
 "In the teaching of Greek it is especially important to do away 
 with useless grammatical details, and chiefly to keep in mind that, 
 in addition to the aesthetic apprehension, a consideration of the 
 relations between ancient and modern culture should receive its 
 proper share of attention. 
 
 "In modern languages special efforts must be made to secure 
 skill in speaking the foreign idiom and a ready comprehension of 
 the most popular authors. 
 
 "In history two deficiencies continue to make themselves felt 
 the neglect of important portions of ancient history and the too 
 scanty consideration of German history of the nineteenth century 
 with all its wealth of stirring recollections and achievements for 
 our fatherland. 
 
 "In geography, in the Gymnasium as well as in the Realgym- 
 nasium, it is to be desired that the instruction be placed in the 
 hands of special teachers. 
 
 "In the teaching of natural science more time must be devoted 
 to observation and experimental work, and frequent excursions 
 must enliven the instruction; in chemistry and physics, the ap- 
 plied and technical side of the subject must not be neglected. 
 
 " In drawing (where, moreover, the ability to reproduce the re- 
 sults of observations in rapid sketches deserves consideration) 
 efforts are to be made at the Gymnasien to encourage those pupils 
 who intend to devote themselves to the study of technology, nat- 
 ural science, mathematics, or medicine, to take proper advantage 
 of the optional instruction offered in this subject. 
 
 "Besides the physical exercises which are to be made use of 
 more extensively, greater attention must be paid in adjusting the 
 time-tables, to considerations of health, more especially by prop- 
 erly placing and increasing the length of the pauses between les- 
 sons, which have hitherto been too short. 
 
 "4. Since the Abschussprilfung has not fulfilled the expecta- 
 tions formed of it when it was introduced, and in particular has 
 augmented instead of diminished the rush of students to the uni- 
 versities, it ie to be abolished as soon as possible.
 
 APPENDIX A 463 
 
 "5. The establishment of schools with the Altona and the 
 Frankfort curricula has heretofore justified itself, on the whole, 
 for those places where it has been tried. Since this arrangement 
 provides a common elementary course identical with that of the 
 Realschulen, it likewise affords no inconsiderable social advan- 
 tages. I desire, therefore, not only that the experiment be con- 
 tinued in such a manner as to be most effective, but also that it 
 be tested more widely where conditions make it advisable. 
 
 ' ' I cherish the hope that the measures thus to be introduced, 
 for the carrying out of which I count upon the constant loyalty 
 and intelligent devotion of the teachers, will redound to the 
 benefit of our higher schools and contribute their share toward 
 lessening the opposition between the representatives of the clas- 
 sical and the modern tendencies and thus bring about a lasting 
 reconciliation. 
 
 " Given at Kiel, the 26th of November, 1903. 
 "On board H. M. S. Kaiser Wilhelm II. 
 "WilhelmR." 
 
 To the Minister for Religious, Educational and Medicinal Affairs.
 
 APPENDIX B 
 
 CURRICULA OF PRUSSIAN HIGHER SCHOOLS OP 1901 
 (a) Curriculum of Gymnasien. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Compared with 
 
 
 p i 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 p"J 
 
 >-* 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 CQ 
 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 1892. 
 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 " 
 
 P 
 
 1=1 
 
 a 
 
 h- ( 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 O 
 
 ,j 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 Unchanged. 
 
 German and His- 
 torical Tales. . . 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 Unchanged. 
 
 Latin 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7' 
 
 71 
 
 71 
 
 68 
 
 Six hours add- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ed, one weekly 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ 
 
 1 
 
 
 in IV upward, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 except HB. 
 
 Greek 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 ft 
 
 6 
 
 C, 
 
 ej 
 
 6J 
 
 36 
 
 In upper classes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Greek may get 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the extra time. 
 
 French 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 One hour less in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IIlA and 1 1 1 it. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 hour more in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UA, IB, IA. 
 
 History 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 3' 
 
 3 
 
 171 
 
 History loses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in VI and V 
 what geogra- 
 
 Geography 
 Mathematics 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 8 
 
 1 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 < 
 
 '4 
 
 '4 
 
 9j 
 84 
 
 phy gains. 
 Unchanged, ex- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cept that per- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mission to al- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ter distribution 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in lln up is 
 
 Natural Sciences 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 2. 
 
 2 
 
 2. 
 
 2J 
 
 18 
 
 new. 
 
 Writing 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Unchanged. 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Unchanged. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 M 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 259 
 
 Total increased 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 by 7 hours. 
 
 Brackets indicate that the time for subjects enclosed may be redistributed if 
 desired. 
 
 To the above is added : 
 
 (a) As obligatory, 3 hours gymnastics throughout all classes, 
 and 2 hours singing in VI and V. Release in individual cases is 
 
 464
 
 APPENDIX B 
 
 465 
 
 allowed only on grounds of a physician's certificate and as a rule 
 only for half a year. Students with talent for singing are re- 
 quired to take part in chorus singing in IV upward ; 
 
 (b) As optional, 2 hours drawing in I IB upward ; 2 hours Eng- 
 lish and 2 hours Hebrew in HA upward. Enrollment for elec- 
 tives must be for at least one half year. 
 
 For pupils in IV and III with poor handwriting, special in- 
 struction in writing is to be provided. 
 
 A change from this schedule is allowed as follows: In the three 
 higher classes, in place of the required instruction in French, 
 similar instruction 3 hours per week in English may be given, 
 while French becomes an optional study with 2 hours weekly. 
 
 In place of the required study of Greek (6 hours weekly) in Ills, 
 IIlA and HB, there may be regularly assigned 3 hours English; 
 the remaining time, as a rule, to be distributed between French 
 and mathematics; in Ills and IIlA 2 hours French, 1 hour math- 
 ematics; in I IB 1 hour French, 2 hours mathematics and natural 
 science. 
 
 (b) Curriculum of Realgymnasien. 
 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 B 
 
 | 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 Compared with 
 1892. 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 
 German and His- 
 torical Tales. . . 
 Latin 
 
 ; 
 
 n* 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 49 
 
 Unchanged. 
 
 French 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4) 
 
 4) 
 
 4) 
 
 29 
 
 ly added in 
 Ills upward. 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 ! 
 
 ! 
 
 i 
 
 18 
 
 1 1 IB and I MA. 
 
 History 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 ft 
 
 ft 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 171 
 
 
 Geography 
 Mathematics 
 Natural Sciences 
 
 Writing 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 8 
 5 
 8 
 
 8 
 6 
 8 
 
 ,) 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 ..1 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 '5 
 5. 
 
 11 J 
 42 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 in VI and V 
 what geogra- 
 phy gains. 
 Unchanged. 
 One hour less in 
 
 IlB. 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 ft 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 86 
 
 26 
 
 t 
 
 BO 
 
 in 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 262 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 added to total. 
 
 Optional : From IIIx upward two hours weekly of mechanical drawing. 
 For gymnastics, singing, writing see under Gymnatien.
 
 466 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 (c) Curriculum of Oberrealschulen. 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 fl 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 t i 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 | 
 
 Compared with 
 1892. 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 ti 
 
 g 
 
 ft 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 Unchanged. 
 
 German and His- 
 torical Tales . . 
 
 French 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 5H 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 (| 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 51 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 4 
 41 
 
 34 
 47 
 
 Unchanged. 
 
 Freedom allow- 
 ed to redistrib- 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 25 
 
 tween French 
 and English in 
 HB up 
 
 History 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 ' 7 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 History loses 
 what Geogra- 
 phy gains in VI 
 and V 
 
 Geography 
 Mathematics 
 Natural Sciences 
 
 2 
 5 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 5 
 2 
 2 
 
 8 
 fi 
 2 
 9 
 
 2 
 8 
 8 
 
 8 
 5 
 4 
 
 1 
 5 
 6 
 
 1 
 5 
 6 
 
 1 
 5 
 6 
 
 1 
 5 
 6 
 
 14 
 47 
 36 
 6 
 
 History gains 1 
 hour in IV ; Ge- 
 ography loses 1 
 hour in HB and 
 gains 1 in HA up. 
 Unchanged. 
 Unchanged. 
 Unchanged. 
 
 Freehand Draw- 
 ine .. 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 a 
 
 16 
 
 Unchanged. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 *t 
 
 HO 
 
 HO 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 96? 
 
 ed to total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Optional: Mechanical Drawing HLi upwards 2 hours weekly. 
 For gymnastics, singing, writing see under Gymnasien. 
 
 (d) The curricula of the first six years of the Gymnasium, Real- 
 gymnasium and Oberrealschule constitute, respectively, the cur- 
 ricula of the Progymnasium, the Realprogymnasium and the 
 Realschule. 
 
 (e) Altona Curricula of Realgymnasien and Realschulen. 
 
 
 Common 
 Elem. Course. 
 
 Realschule. 
 
 Realgymnasium. 
 
 $ 
 
 t> 
 
 > 
 
 B 
 
 a 
 
 >-i 
 
 _!_ 
 
 13 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 i3 
 
 3 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 n< 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 6 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 5 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 6 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 5 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 
 '4 
 5 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 6 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 
 - 5 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 6 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 
 '6 
 4 
 
 19 
 29 
 
 86 
 37 
 22 
 17 
 10 
 44 
 29 
 4 
 16 
 
 263 
 
 German and His- 
 torical Tales. . . 
 Latin 
 
 French 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 6 
 2 
 
 '2 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 5 
 2 
 2 
 6 
 2 
 
 - 2 
 
 5 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 6 
 4 
 
 - 2 
 
 5 
 6 
 2 
 1 
 6 
 6 
 
 ' 
 
 33 
 18 
 8 
 11 
 34 
 17 
 4 
 10 
 
 English 
 
 History 
 
 
 
 Geography 
 Mathematics 
 Natural Sciences 
 Writing 
 
 2 
 6 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 5 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 Drawing 
 
 2 
 30 
 
 2 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Totals. 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 31 
 
 110 
 
 31 
 
 31 

 
 APPENDIX B 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 I 
 
 
 S 
 
 & 
 
 1 
 
 8 3 8 
 
 r; .- o 
 
 co 10 10 
 
 co 10 
 
 an 
 
 WVOS 
 
 TI 
 
 ai 
 
 TH 
 
 an 
 
 * S S 
 v-^ co BO 
 
 iS " 
 iv v4 
 
 oo t~ <x> 
 
 coooot 
 
 * TO CJ 
 
 co oooo 
 
 ecoot 
 
 otcoc* 
 
 gTTT 
 
 AI 
 
 'A 
 
 IA 
 
 2 -3 
 
 et 
 
 co^oi 
 
 <o 10 co 
 
 et 10 et et et 
 
 8 
 
 S3 
 
 Is 
 
 jg bO 
 
 .2 "3) 
 
 If 
 
 M a 
 gB 
 
 no 
 
 NOTE: Tables (a), (&), and (c) are compiled from Beier: Die 
 htfheren Schulen in Preussen, and from English Special Reports, 
 Vol. IX. Tables (e) and (/) are taken from article by K. Rein- 
 hardt in Lexis : Die Reform des Titiheren Schulwesens in Preus- 
 sen, pp. 340, 341.
 
 APPENDIX C 
 
 THE PRIVILEGED HIGHER SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 
 
 IN 1903-1904. 
 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch der Hdheren Schulen, 1093-1904, p. 244. 
 
 
 A 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 A- 
 b 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 & 
 
 "5 
 
 
 
 Oberrealschulen. o > 
 
 Progymnasien. p W 
 
 Realprogymna- M 
 sien. 
 
 Realschulen. c a 
 
 Progymnasien. P O 
 
 Realprogymna- _ 
 sien. 
 
 Realschulen. o O 
 
 Schullehrersemi- 
 anarien. 
 
 Other public in- _ 
 stitutions. 
 
 Private schools. 
 
 Schools in foreign 
 lands. 
 
 1 Prussia 
 
 0% 
 
 76 
 
 ar 
 
 
 
 
 5Q 
 
 27 
 
 135 
 
 115 
 
 1fi 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 \\ 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 
 ry) 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 A 
 
 
 4. WUrtemberg 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 t 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 5 Baden 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 6. Hesse 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 7. Mechlenburg-Schwe- 
 rin 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 8 Saxe- Weimar 
 
 S 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 9. Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 Oldenburg 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 1 . Brunswick 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 12 Saxe-Meiningen. 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 14. Saxe-Coburg-Qotha. . 
 15. Anhalt 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 9, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 
 'i 
 
 
 16. Schwarzburg-Sonder- 
 
 <> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 17. Schwarzburg - Rudol- 
 stadt 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 18 Waldeck 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 19. Reuss, a. L 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 20 Reuss j L 
 
 9: 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 21. Schaumburg-Lippe . . 
 22. Lippe Detmold 
 
 1 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 23. Lttbeck 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 24. Bremen 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 25. Hamburg 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 27. Foreign 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 466 
 
 19? 
 
 > 
 
 K 
 
 14 
 
 87 
 
 08 
 
 34 
 
 976 
 
 }m 
 
 33 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 Grand total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 378. 
 
 Schools under Aa, Ab, and Ac have a nine-year curriculum: the others are 
 normally schools with a six-year curriculum. The privilege of one year military 
 service is granted to all who complete successfully the work of the first six classes 
 in schools listed under A and B. A leaving examination is required of pupils who 
 graduate from the sixth year of all schools listed under Ca to Ce. 
 
 408
 
 APPENDIX D 
 
 PRIVILEGES ATTACHING TO PRUSSIAN HIGHER 
 SCHOOLS IN 1904 
 
 (A) Civil Service. 
 
 The completion of the work of the different grades of the higher 
 schools indicated below, admits to the various university and 
 technical courses and state examinations for the following pro- 
 fessions : 
 
 
 
 Gymna- 
 sium. 
 
 Real- 
 gymna- 
 sium. 
 
 Oher- 
 real- 
 schule. 
 
 1. Theology. 
 
 IA 
 
 
 
 2. Law and Political Science 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 
 4. Philosophy : 
 (u) Ancient Philology and History ; Teachers' 
 Certificate ... . 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 (6) Modern Languages : Teachers 1 Certificate. .. 
 (c) Mathematics and Natural Science; Teachers' 
 Certillcate. . 
 
 IA 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 IA 
 
 5. Architecture and Mechanical Engineering .... 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 6. Forestry ... .... .... 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 1 
 
 IA 1 
 
 7. Mining Engineering .. 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 8. Higher Post, Telegraph Service 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 9. Admission to Academic Institute for Church Music, 
 Berlin 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 10. Veterinary Medicine 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 11. Kood Chemist 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 12. Teacher of Agriculture in Agricultural Schools ... 
 13. Royal and University Library Service 
 
 lA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 
 14. State Archive Service . 
 
 IA 
 
 
 
 15. Suj>ernumerary in Indirect Revenue Service 
 16. Surveying . . 
 
 IB 
 HA 
 
 IB 
 HA 
 
 IB 
 II* 
 
 17. Dentistry 
 
 IU 
 
 HA 
 
 HA" 
 
 18. Imperial B'\nk Service . ... 
 
 HA 
 
 HA 
 
 HA 
 
 19. Immatriculation for four Semesters in Philosoph- 
 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 
 20. Admission as " Hosnitant " (Special Students) in 
 Technical High Schools and Mining Academies. 
 21. Admission to Agricultural Schools at Berlin and 
 Poppelsdorf 
 
 IlB 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 
 HB 
 
 22. Admission to Academic High Schools for Plastic 
 Arts, Berlin 
 23. Teachers of Drawing in Higher Schools 
 24. Admission to Academic High School for Music, 
 Berlin 
 
 111! 
 II'I 
 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 IlB 
 
 III! 
 
 Hu 
 
 IlB 
 
 III! 
 
 25. Teacher of Gymnastics 
 
 IlB 
 
 HB 
 
 IlB 
 
 26. Civil Supernumerary in Department of Justice. 
 Provincial Service and State Railway Service. . . 
 27. Apothecary Apprenticeship 
 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 IlB 
 
 HB 
 
 IlB 3 
 
 28. Admission to HorticulturaFlnstitute at Potsdam. . 
 29. Assistant in Subaltern Post and Telegraph Service 
 
 IlB 
 HlA 
 
 IlB 
 HlA 
 
 IlB* 
 HlA 
 
 1 Work in mathematics must be " unconditionally satisfactory." 
 
 * An examination in Latin is required of O&erreafsc/iuf-graduates. 
 
 * An examination in Latin is required of Real- and O6erreotcAu/-graduates. 
 
 * Sufficient knowledge of Latin to enter IIIii of a Gymnasium is required. 
 
 469
 
 470 
 
 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 (B) Military Service. 
 
 
 Gymna- 
 sium. 
 
 Real- 
 gymna- 
 sium. 
 
 Ober- 
 real- 
 schule. 
 
 30. Exemption from Ensign's Examination 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 31. Exemption from Midshipman's Examination. . ... 
 32. Admission to Ensign's Examination 
 
 IA 
 
 IlA 
 
 IA 
 
 IlA 
 
 IA 1 
 
 HA 
 
 33. Admission to Midshipman's Examination 
 
 IlA" 
 
 IlA a 
 
 HA 
 
 34. Paymaster Service in Navy 
 
 IB 3 
 
 IB 1 
 
 IB S 
 
 35. Marine Superintendency Service 
 
 IB 
 
 IB 
 
 IB 
 
 36. Supervision of Imperial Wharves 
 
 IB 
 
 IB 
 
 IB 
 
 37. Ship-Building and Naval-Engineering >, 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 IA 
 
 38. Marine Engineer Service 
 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 
 llii 
 
 39. Exemption from One Year of Service in Army . . . 
 
 III! 
 
 IlB 
 
 IlB 
 
 1 " Good " in English and French required of OberreaZsc/iwi-graduateS. 
 
 * " Good " in English required of all and " good " also in French for Oberreal- 
 schul-gr&du&tes. 
 
 In case of necessity HA is sufficient. 
 
 NOTE: The following are the official regulations with regard 
 to the study of law and political science : 
 
 "1. The most suitable institution for the preparation for the 
 legal profession is the humanistic Gymnasium. 
 
 "2. In addition to those possessing a leaving-certificate of a 
 German humanistic Gymnasium, such other students will be ad- 
 mitted to the study of law as have obtained a leaving-certificate 
 of a German Realgymnasium or a Prussian Oberrealschule. 
 
 "3. It is left to the individual responsibility of the students of 
 the last two categories, as well as to gymnasial graduates whose 
 mark in Latin was not at least ' sufficient ', to obtain elsewhere 
 the necessary linguistic and other preparation for a thorough 
 understanding of the sources of Roman Law. 
 
 " 4. Provision is to be made in the regulation of the study of 
 law and of the first juridical examination that the students re- 
 ferred to under 3 be tested for the preparatory studies mentioned 
 above."
 
 APPENDIX E 
 
 NOTE : All States admit all nine-class school graduates to Ship-building and 
 Marine Architecture and Veterinary Surgery, and exempt them from Ensign s and 
 Midshipman's examinations. 
 
 
 
 g 6 
 
 ft u? 
 
 -i 2 
 
 ND 
 
 DO rv 
 W S 
 0^ 
 
 wg 
 
 ^02 
 
 -2 
 SS 
 
 r 
 
 fe a 
 
 og 
 
 ^ 
 
 w 
 
 (3 
 
 ^ 
 J 
 
 P 
 
 ff 
 < 
 
 H 
 
 nged from Zeitschri 
 
 PUB 
 
 pro 
 
 E 
 
 Pvfl 
 *> o 
 'n d 
 
 fc^i 
 
 ^ C^ 
 
 PUB 
 
 s.ii JIMU..II jui\; 
 
 'S93Bn3aBq 
 UJ9POK (q) 
 
 (o) 
 
 f 
 Xpnjg 
 
 jo Xpni 
 
 O'H 
 
 S'H'O 
 
 o 
 
 ^'HJO 
 O 'H 
 
 o 
 
 'S'H'O 
 
 'S'H'O 
 
 o 
 
 'S'H'O 
 
 O'H 
 
 o 
 
 'S'H'O 
 
 'O'H 
 
 'O 
 
 'S'HX) 
 
 O 'H 
 
 'O 
 
 'O'H 
 
 '0 
 
 cSoSoJoScStScScStSoScScScS 
 
 ----------- 
 
 - --r:-- ------- 
 
 ------.-. ^ - s - -. 
 
 n ---- - . - - - - : - 
 
 (3s3a!a!c5dcJa5c5<Scao5e5 
 
 ------------- 
 
 -----------r- 
 
 ei<Sc3a58a5a5eSc5e38eaoJ 
 
 : as : as c ; 
 
 ------------- 
 
 --r-r--------- 
 
 f 
 Q. 
 
 EXPLANA 
 studies and 
 schule. Me 
 Schwartzbu 
 
 1 Like Prussia are Anhalt, Schwartzburg-Sonderhausen, Waldeck, and Alsace- 
 Lorraine. 
 
 1 Like Mecklenberg-Schwerin are Mecklenberg-Strelitz, Saxe-Meiningen and 
 Saxe-Altenburg. 
 
 ' Like Oldenburg is Brunswick. 
 
 4 Like Lippe are Reuss. Elder and Younger Line, and Schaumberg-Lippe. 
 
 Like Hamburg are LUbeck and Bremen. 
 
 471
 
 APPENDIX F 
 
 SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 OF GERMANY IN 1904. 
 
 PRUSSIA: Arranged and condensed from the budget of May 4, 
 1892, and amendments down to 1904. 
 
 1. Salaries of directors of nine-year schools: 
 
 (a) In Berlin, 6,000-7,200 marks. 
 
 (b) In cities of the first-class, or with more than 50,000 
 population, 5,100-7,200 M. 
 
 (c) In all other places, 4,800-6,900 M. 
 
 Salaries in (a) increase by 400 M. every three years; in (b) 
 and (c) by 500 M. after three years, and then by 400 M. 
 every three years. 
 
 2. Salaries of principals of schools with less than nine classes: 
 
 In (a) and (b) as above, 4,800-6,300 M. 
 (c) In all other places, 4,500-6,000 M. 
 
 The increase of 300 M. comes after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 years 
 of service. 
 
 3. Salaries of definitely appointed teachers (Oberlehrer), 2,700- 
 5,100 M. A special allowance of 300 M. is granted to certain 
 teachers of the upper classes after 9, 12 and 15 years of service, 
 making the maximum 6,000 M. The regular increase, includ- 
 ing the special allowance above, is 500 M. after three years, 
 400 M. after six years, 600 M. after nine, twelve and fifteen 
 years, and 300 M. after eighteen and twenty-one years of ser- 
 vice, respectively. 
 
 Heads of institutions have also either free house-rent or, in 
 lieu thereof, receive an allowance of 1,500 M. in Berlin, and 700- 
 1,000 M. in other places. Definitely appointed teachers also re- 
 ceive an allowance for house-rent of 900 M. in Berlin and 420- 
 660 M. in other places. 
 
 1 See Lexis: Das Unterrichlswesen im Deutschen Reich, II., pp. 222-223. 
 
 472
 
 Teachers of drawing receive 1,800-3,800 M. ; the maximum is 
 reached after twenty-seven years of service in periods of three 
 years each. 
 
 Other technical teachers in higher schools and teachers in ele- 
 mentary and preparatory schools receive in Berlin 1,800-3,600 M. ; 
 in cities of the first class, 1,500-3,400 M. ; in all other places, 
 1,500-3,200 M., the maximum being reached after twenty-seven 
 years of service. They also receive an allowance for house-rent 
 of 216-540 M. 
 
 Assistant teachers (not yet definitely appointed) receive 1,800- 
 2,400 M. 
 
 Teachers in city schools receive the same (or better) salaries as 
 those in the government schools. 
 
 OTHER GERMAN STATES : In most other states the regulations 
 are less satisfactory than in Prussia, and only in a few instances 
 are the salaries better. In Saxony the maximum salary of a 
 Rektor of a state Gymnasium or Realgymnasium is 7, 500 M. and 
 residence or allowance for house-rent. Sixty-seven teachers have 
 salaries reaching 6,600 M., while the others (about three-fourths 
 of all) have a maximum of 6,000 M. The initial salary is 2,800 M. 
 No allowance is made for house-rent, except in the boarding- 
 schools of Grimma and Meissen. Salaries hi Ltibeck, Bremen 
 and Hamburg are higher than in Prussia. In Ltibeck, directors 
 reach 9,000 M. and teachers 6,700 M. (with no allowance for 
 house-rent). In Bremen, directors reach 8,500 M., and teachers 
 advance from 3,500 to 7,000 M. (with no allowance for house- 
 rent). In Hamburg, directors reach 10,000 M. and residence (or 
 allowance), and teachers' salaries range from 3,600 to 9,000 M., 
 with no allowance for house-rent.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 PENSIONS OF TEACHERS IN THE HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 OF GERMANY 
 
 Statislisches Jahrbuch der Hoheren Schulen, 1903-04- 
 
 
 MINIMUM 
 AMOUNT. 
 
 AMOUNTS IN TERMS 
 OF THE LAST SAL- 
 ART AFTER 
 
 MAXIMUM 
 AMOUNT. 
 
 Amount of yearly dues. 
 
 1 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 Amounts to % 
 of last salary. 
 
 Reached after 
 
 Amounts to 
 
 10 yrs. 
 
 25 yrs. 
 
 40 yrs 
 
 1. Prussia and Alsace-Lor- 
 raine 
 
 Yre. 
 
 10 
 4 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 5 
 20 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 
 % 
 
 25 
 70 
 30 
 40 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 40 
 50 
 33* 
 45 
 25 
 40 
 33* 
 40 
 
 40 
 33* 
 40 
 40 
 30 
 40 
 33* 
 40 
 40 
 
 % 
 
 25 
 70 
 30 
 
 % 
 
 50 
 80 
 51 
 
 % 
 
 75 
 90 
 80 
 
 3 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 40 
 "46" 
 
 % 
 
 75 
 100 
 80 
 
 None. 
 
 2. Bavaria 
 
 
 4 Wttrtemberg 
 
 5. Baden 
 
 30 
 50 
 
 "46* 
 50 
 
 40.8 
 45 
 30 
 40 
 40.8 
 40 
 
 40 
 50 
 40 
 40 
 30 
 40 
 33* 
 40 
 40 
 
 52.5 
 72.5 
 55 
 62.5 
 65 
 63* 
 60 
 50 
 62.5 
 63* 
 62.5 
 
 62.5 
 66} 
 62.5 
 62.5 
 45 
 62.5 
 58* 
 70 
 62.5 
 
 75 
 90 
 75 
 80 
 80 
 85.8 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 85.8 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 "so" 
 
 80 
 70 
 80 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 
 40 
 50 
 50 
 36 
 50 
 50 
 40 
 40 
 50 
 49 
 36 
 
 37 
 25 
 87 
 87 
 45 
 87 
 35 
 30 
 50 
 
 75 
 100 
 90 
 80 
 90 
 100 
 75 
 80 
 100 
 100 
 80 
 
 80 
 66* 
 80 
 80 
 80 
 80 
 75 
 80 
 100 
 
 None. 
 
 3* 
 
 None. 
 
 2* 
 
 None. 
 
 6. Hesse 
 
 7. Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 8. Saxe- Weimar 
 
 9. Oldenburg 
 
 10. Brunswick 
 
 1 1 Saxe-Meiningen 
 
 12. Saxe- Altenburg 
 13. Saxe-Coburg-Qotha 
 
 14. Anhalt 
 
 15. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt . . 
 16. Schwarzburg - Sondershau- 
 sen 
 
 17. Waldeck 
 
 18. Reuss, a. L 
 
 19. Reuss, j. L 
 
 20. Schaumburg-Lippe 
 
 21. Lippe-Detmold . . . 
 
 22. Lttbeck 
 
 23. Bremen 
 
 
 
 In Mecklenburg-Strelitz the amount of pension depends on the will of the Sovereign. 
 1 Reached at seventy years of age. 
 
 * The teacher pays 2f toward the pension fund. The pension rises with every year 
 of service (a) \\% for salaries not higher than 2,400 marks ; (b) H% for those higher 
 than 2,400 marks. The maximum is reached at 40 years of service, and cannot ex- 
 ceed 6.000 marks. 
 
 ' That is, immediately after permanent appointment. 
 4 The pension begins to rise 1 \% only after five years. 
 
 * After fifty years of service the pension reaches lOOjf. 
 
 474
 
 APPENDIX H 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM THE GENERAL PENSION LAWS 
 OF PRUSSIA OF 1872, 1882, 1884 AND 1890 
 
 1. Every official drawing salary from the state treasury is en- 
 titled to a pension, if after ten years' service he becomes incapable, 
 in consequence of bodily injury or physical or mental weakness, 
 of performing his duties. But if his disability is the result of 
 an injury or disease contracted in the performance of his official 
 duties, he is entitled to a pension even before the expiration of 
 the ten-year period. Those who have reached the age of sixty- 
 five years need not show disability in order to receive a pension. 
 2. The pension laws do not apply to teachers in universities; 
 but they do apply to teachers and officers in all higher schools, 
 normal schools, institutions for the deaf and blind, art schools 
 and Bilrgerschulen. 
 
 3. If an official becomes unable to perform his duties before 
 the lapse of the ten-year period, and yet does not come under (1), 
 he may be granted a pension with the approval of the crown. 
 
 4. A pension amounts to $ of the last total income if an offi- 
 cial is retired after ten years' service, |$ after eleven years' ser- 
 vice and so on, increasing ^ up to forty years' service. This 
 gives a maximum of || of the last salary. 
 
 5. Regular allowances and supplies, as house rent, fuel, etc., 
 if entered on the budget as part of the official's remuneration, 
 are counted for pension. 
 
 Thus, an official with a salary of 4,800 marks and 492 marks 
 for house rent will receive on retirement, after fifteen years' ser- 
 vice, \% of 5,292 marks, or 1,764 marks, annually. 
 
 6. An official who accepts voluntarily a position at a lower 
 salary than is attached to the office to which he is justly entitled 
 receives on retirement a pension estimated on the basis of the 
 higher salary. 
 
 475
 
 476 GERMAN HIGHER SCHOOLS 
 
 7. Time of service includes time spent (a) under leave of ab- 
 sence, (b) in the service of the North German Confederation, (c) 
 in the service of the German Empire, (d) in technical studies re- 
 quired for admission to the civil service, (e) in the trial year of a 
 teacher, (f) in the military service, and (g) as prisoner of war. 
 
 8. Pensions are paid monthly, in advance. 
 
 9. No pension can be transferred or seized for debt. 
 
 10. A pensioner loses the right to state aid (a) when he ceases 
 to be a German subject, and (b) when he receives a salary for ser- 
 vice to the state or empire which, added to his pension, exceeds 
 the amount of his original salary. In the latter case, he may 
 draw such part of his salary as will make his income equal to his 
 original salary. 
 
 The pension laws are strictly applicable to teachers in schools 
 supported entirely by the state. Patrons of schools which are in 
 part supported by the state must provide a pension schedule at 
 least as good as the state schedule ; they may do better, with the 
 approval of the government. No provision is legally made for 
 teachers in private schools and schools not under state control. 
 Such teachers must rely on insurance companies and organiza- 
 tions for mutual assistance of members. 
 
 PENSIONS FOR WIDOWS AND ORPHANS OF PRUSSIAN HIGHER 
 SCHOOL TEACHERS. 
 
 Extracts from Laws of 1882 and 1897. 
 
 1. Widows and legitimate children of public officials are en- 
 titled to pensions, if the official himself was entitled to one. 
 
 2. A widow's pension is four-tenths of the pension which her 
 husband would have received if he had been regularly retired on 
 the day of his death. A widow's pension, however, cannot be 
 less than 216, or more than 2,000 marks. 
 
 3. The pensions of orphans whose mother is living are each 
 one-fifth of the widow's pension ; in case of the death of both 
 parents, each child receives one-third of the pension to which 
 the widow would be entitled. But in no case can the total pen- 
 sion paid to the family of a deceased official amount to more 
 than he himself would have received upon retirement. 
 
 4. A widow is not entitled to a pension if married to the de- 
 ceased within three months of his death, and it is proved that 
 she married him for sake of the pension.
 
 APPENDIX H 477 
 
 5. Neither the widow nor her children are entitled to a pen- 
 sion if the marriage occurred after the official's retirement. 
 
 6. Pensions of widows and orphans are paid monthly, in ad- 
 vance. 
 
 7. Such pensions cannot be transferred or seized for debt. 
 
 8. The pension of a widow or an orphan lapses upon the death 
 or marriage of the person receiving it. An orphan's pension 
 lapses when the person reaches the age of eighteen years.
 
 INDEX 
 
 ADMINISTRATION, school, develop- inspectors, 113 ; of state exami- 
 
 ment of central control, 86-92; 
 the imperial system of, 108, 191 ; 
 basis of Prussian school laws, 
 109; Prussian administrative sys- 
 tem, 111; department of educa- 
 tion, 112 ; provincial school- 
 boards, 113; examination com- 
 mission, 114 ; local school-boards, 
 116; merits of Prussian system, 
 119 ; in other states, 119 ; restric- 
 tions on private venture, 135 ; dif- 
 ficulties of, due to established 
 precedents, 141-143 ; founding of 
 new schools, 143 ff. ; rules, regu- 
 lations and customs, 156-174 ; 
 examinations and privileges, 175- 
 193 ; in relation to student life, 
 194 ff . ; in relation to school offi- 
 cers. 370-387 ; tendencies of 
 school reform, 388-405, 423-453 ; 
 merits and defects of German 
 secondary education, 406-422 
 
 Agricola, 20 
 
 Alcuin, 5, 9, 10 
 
 Allgemeine Landrecht, Prussia, 88, 
 109 
 
 Altenstein, 101, 102 
 
 Altona Reform School, 251, 400- 
 402, 440 
 
 Appointment, of minister of educa- 
 tion, 111 ; of provincial school 
 
 ners, 114 ; of local school-boards, 
 
 116; of teachers, 370 ft See 
 
 Teachers 
 Architect, duties of supervising, 
 
 146 
 
 Arndt, 79, 91 
 Attendance, compulsory school, 
 
 151, 407 
 Auditorium of school building, 150 ; 
 
 used on public occasions, 195 ; 
 
 for religious exercises, 157, 164 
 
 BADEN, 98, 125, 128, 248, 468, 474 
 
 Basedow, 65 
 
 Bavaria, 98, 124, 126, 127, 128, 249, 
 471, 474 
 
 Benedictines, services to church 
 and school, 3 
 
 Berlin, Conference of 1890, 105, 
 390-398 ; schools and school ex- 
 penses, 154 ; University of, 
 founded, 93 
 
 Bible, and the Reformation, 28 ff. : 
 in German schools, 213 
 
 Boarding-schools, 196-212 ; clien- 
 tele of, 135 
 
 Boards, provincial school, organiza- 
 tion and duties of, 113; impor- 
 tance of , 119; control of profes- 
 sional training of teachers, 363 
 ff. ; of appointment and promo- 
 
 479
 
 486 
 
 INDEX 
 
 tion of teachers, 370 ff. ; local 
 school, 116 ; organization of, 116 ; 
 powers of, 117 
 
 Boniface Romanizes and Christian- 
 izes Germany, 3 
 
 Botany, 330, 333 ff. See Sciences 
 
 Buildings, school, 145 ff. See 
 Schools 
 
 Bureaucracy, triumph of, 90 ; Ger- 
 man absolutism, 412 
 
 Burschenschaften, 91 
 
 CALENDAR, Academic, 156 
 
 Charles the Great, first general 
 charter of education, 5; educa- 
 tional progress under, 8 ; the 
 palace school, 9 
 
 Chemistry, 330, 343 ff., 346. See 
 Sciences 
 
 Church, influence of, on education, 
 1, 16, 88, 406 ; attitude of, toward 
 city schools, 12, 15 ; toward com- 
 mon schools, 15 ; and the Refor- 
 mation, 23 ff. ; development of a 
 territorial, in Germany, 36 ; and 
 state, 89 ; attendance, 164 ; and 
 religious instruction, 224 
 
 Cities, function of, in creating a 
 middle class, 11 ; rapid growth 
 of, in modern Germany, 142 
 
 City schools, rise of, 13 ; adminis- 
 tration of, 117; foundation of, 
 144 ; for girls, 129-132 ; selection 
 of teachers for, 371 
 
 Civic ideals of education, develop- 
 ment of, 76 ff. ; as evidenced in 
 examination system, 175 ff. ; in 
 system of privileges, 189 ; atti- 
 tude of the government, 389; 
 service of the state, 406-412 ; the 
 German point of view, 420 
 
 Civil service, in Prussia, 90; con- 
 ditions of admission to, 192, 469 ; 
 
 teachers members of, 352-354; 
 oath of office, 372 
 
 Class distinctions, evils of, 420 
 
 Class-master, 380 ; duties of, 381 
 
 Class rooms, specifications for and 
 dimensions of, 145, 146 ; lighting 
 of, 147; heating of, 148; venti- 
 lation of, 148 ; seating of, 149 ; 
 equipment of, 149. See School 
 Buildings 
 
 Classes, in Gymnasium, 122 ; in 
 Progymnasium, 124 ; in Real- 
 schulen, 127; in girls' Gymna- 
 sien, 132 
 
 Clergy, low condition of, in the time 
 of Charles the Great, 9 ; attitude 
 toward secular schools, 12 ; need 
 of trained, in Reformation, 28; 
 Luther's appeal for schools for, 
 31, 34 ; Landesschulen for, in 
 Saxony, 38 ; in Wurtemberg, 41 ; 
 Jesuits, 47; and religious in- 
 struction, 224 
 
 Co-education, 129, 132. See Women 
 
 Columban, 1 
 
 Comenius, 58, 59, 291, 389 
 
 Compulsory school laws, 151,407; 
 suggested by Luther, 30 ff. See 
 Schools 
 
 Conference, Berlin, of December, 
 1890, 105, 390-398 
 
 Conference of 1900, 427 
 
 Constitution of Prussia, 88, 100. 
 See Allgemeine Landrecht 
 
 Courses of study, in religion, 213 
 ff. ; in German, 227 ff. ; in Greek 
 and Latin, 245 ff. ; in modern 
 languages, 266 ff. ; in history 
 and geography, 291 ff. ; in mathe- 
 matics, 312 ff. ; in the natural sci- 
 ences, 329 ff. See Curriculum 
 
 Culture studies, employed by early 
 humanists, 17-19, 24, 35 ; at vari-
 
 IXDEK 
 
 481 
 
 ance with aims of the reformers, 
 27 ff. ; Sturm's position, 42-44; 
 influence of French ideals, 51, 
 54; of pietism and rationalism, 
 60 ; return to the Greeks, 71 ff. ; 
 modern problems, 95 
 
 Curriculum, of the Prussian Gym- 
 nasium, 123 ; comparative table, 
 124; of Prussian Realgymna- 
 sium, 125 ; comparative table, 
 126 ; of Prussian Oberrealschule, 
 128; of Prussian Hohere Mad- 
 chenschule, 131, 464 
 
 Lehrplan of 1816, 97 ; place 
 
 of Greek and Latin in, 247 ; of 
 French, 267; of history, 293; 
 of mathematics, 312 ; of sciences, 
 330 
 
 Lehrplan of 1837, 247 ; place 
 
 of Greek and Latin in, 247 ; of 
 French, 267 ; of mathematics, 312 
 Lehrplan of 1859, 104 ; prob- 
 
 lem of the Realgymnasium, 393- 
 399 
 
 Lehrplan of 1882, 248; place 
 
 of Greek and Latin in, 248; of 
 French, 268, 270 ; of mathemat- 
 ics, 312 
 
 Lehrplan of 1892, 248, 249 ; 
 
 place of Greek and Latin in, 248 ; 
 of French, 268 ; of other modern 
 languages, 289; of history, 294; 
 of mathematics, 312 ; of sciences, 
 330 
 
 Lehrplan of 1901, 464 
 
 Customs, rules, regulations and, 
 156-174 
 
 DEFECTIVE CHILDREN, administra- 
 tion of schools for, 113 
 
 Deventer, 20 
 
 Director, selection of, 376; instal- 
 lation of, 378; duties of, 378- 
 
 380, 382 ; salaries of, in Prussia 
 and other German States, 472 
 
 Disciplinary studies, 74. See Cult- 
 ure Studies 
 
 Discipline, 161-171, 211 
 
 Drinking customs,* 165 
 
 EDUCATION, history of, in Germany, 
 1-107 
 
 Elementary, in Middle Ages, 
 
 15 ; after the Reformation, 28 ff.; 
 in Wiirtemberg, 40; revival of, 
 under Humboldt, 92; adminis- 
 tration of, 113 
 
 Secondary, in Middle Ages, 
 
 2 ff. ; church schools, 8 ; human- 
 istic schools, 25; protestant 
 schools, 37-44; schools for no- 
 bles, 71 ff. ; Real-schools, 64 ; re- 
 cent reforms in, 86 ff. ; present 
 tendencies in, 388-405 ; merits 
 and defects of, 406-422 ; admin- 
 istration of, in Prussia, 108-120 ; 
 higher schools of Prussia, 121- 
 137; foundation and maintenance 
 of higher schools, 138-155 ; rules, 
 regulations and customs of, 156- 
 174; examinations and privileges, 
 175-193 ; student life in higher 
 schools, 194-212 ; methods of in- 
 struction in, 213-351 ; profes- 
 sional training of teachers for, 
 352-369 ; appointment, promo- 
 tion and emoluments of teachers, 
 370-387 
 
 Higher, in Middle Ages, 13 ; 
 
 spread of humanism, 24; found- 
 ing of protestant universities, 36; 
 decadence of, 50-55 ; founding 
 of Halle, 61 ; work of Humboldt, 
 93; university influence on sec- 
 ondary education, 114, 355-361 
 406, 413-419
 
 482 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Einheitsschule, 399 ff. 
 
 Eisleben, 37 
 
 Elective studies, 65, 123, 266 ff., 
 420,449 
 
 English, instruction in, 266 ff. ; con- 
 troversies about, 272, 449 ; gym- 
 nasial course of study in, 273, 274 ; 
 Real-school course of study in, 
 275-277; typical lessons, 278-282; 
 direct method, 283-288 ; training 
 of teachers of, 288, 289 
 
 Enlightenment, coincident with 
 Frederick the Great, 62 ; motives 
 of, 63 ; influence of, on educa- 
 tion, 63-75 
 
 Erasmus, 20, 21, 24 
 
 Ernesti, 73 
 
 Examinations, students' final, 88, 
 90, 96 ; subjects of final, in Gym- 
 nasium, 182 ; in other higher 
 schools, 185 ; in six-year schools, 
 186; in the mid-course, 187; 
 examining board, 181 ; privi- 
 leges attached to, 189-193; in 
 mathematics, 325 ; in sciences, 
 384 
 
 teachers', 97 ; organization 
 
 of commission, 114, 115, 356-358; 
 development of, 352-355; pur- 
 pose of, 356; subjects of, 357; 
 conduct of, 359-361 ; grade and 
 rank of certificates for, 357, 361, 
 362; in professional training, 
 363, 364, 368; of directors, 378; 
 results, 407, 410 
 
 FEUDALISM, influence of, on educa- 
 tion, 10 
 
 Fichte, 80, 84 
 
 Francke, 63-65, 329 
 
 Franckesche Stiftungen, 134, 368 
 
 Frankfort plan, of shorter courses, 
 136, 252, 399, 402; Lehrplan, 
 
 Gymnasium and Realgymna- 
 sium, 136, 438, 464 
 
 Frederick the Great, reforms of, 
 62, 87 ; on the study of French, 
 267 ; on the study of history, 291- 
 293 ; on the training of teachers, 
 352-354 
 
 French, instruction in, 266 ff. ; his- 
 torical development of, 266-268 ; 
 controversies about, 272 ; gymna- 
 sial course of study in, 273, 274 ; 
 Real-school course of study in, 
 275-277; methods of teaching, 
 278; typical lessons, 282; direct 
 method, 283-288; training of 
 teachers for, 288, 289 
 
 Frick, 297, 298, 309, 368 
 
 Fries, 368 
 
 Furstenschulen, 38, 39, 196-198 
 
 GEDIKE, 73, 74, 88, 124, 245, 246 
 
 Geography, 297 ; relation to history, 
 298; Jena course of study, 298 ff.; 
 methods of teaching, 299, 300 ff. ; 
 correlation with other studies, 
 308 ; criticisms, 309-311 
 
 German, instruction in, 227-244; 
 aim of, 227; historical develop- 
 ment of, 229 ; Prussian course of 
 study in, 230, 235, 239; gram- 
 mar, 231, 236; literature, 228, 
 236, 238, 241; composition, 234, 
 236, 240; ideals and results of, 
 243 
 
 Gesner, 72, 97 
 
 Giessen, University seminar, 367 
 
 Girls, schools for, in Prussia, 129 ; 
 in Berlin, 155; in Hamburg, 133; 
 curriculum of, 131; Gymnasien 
 for, 132 ; problems of education 
 of, 416-420. See Women 
 
 Goethe, 71,84, 101 
 
 Greek, in the Middle Ages, 9 ; the
 
 INDEX 
 
 483 
 
 revival of letters, 18, 20, 23, 25 ; 
 Luther's attitude toward, 32 ff. ; 
 in protestant schools, 37-44 ; and 
 the new humanism, 70-75 ; later 
 development, 95 ff., 245-249 ; in 
 the curriculum, 98, 99, 101, 104, 
 450, 123, 124, 136, 137, 245 ff. ; 
 instruction in, 245 ff. ; methods 
 of teaching, 258 ; text-books, 264 ; 
 criticisms, 264 
 
 Grimma, 38, 98, 140, 144 
 
 Gymnasium, so-called since the 
 middle of the sixteenth century, 
 39: official designation, 96; ob- 
 ject of, 74, 122 ; original aim of, 
 138 ; some old foundations, 138- 
 140; Lehrplan of Prussian, 123, 
 464; comparative curricula of, 
 in Prussia, Bavaria, etc., 124, 
 468; function and position of, 
 124; teachers in, officers of the 
 state, 110; numbers of, and at- 
 tendance at, 125, 140; educa- 
 tional problem of, 397 ff. See 
 Altona, Frankfort, Civic Ideals, 
 Conference, Curriculum, Greek, 
 Latin, Realgymnasium 
 
 HALLE, the first modern university, 
 61 ; university seminar, 368 
 
 Hardenburg, 77, 78 
 
 Head-masters. See Directors 
 
 Hegel, 84, 100, 101 
 
 Hegius, 20, 23 
 
 Herbart, 99, 292, 302 
 
 Herder, 71, 84, 94, 95 
 
 Hesse, 128, 248, 468, 474 
 
 Higher Schools, definition of, 121 ; 
 aim "of, 175 ff.; statistics of, in 
 Germany, 436. See Gymnasium, 
 Realgymnasium, Realschulen 
 
 History, instruction in, 201 ff. ; 
 Comeiiius on, 291 ; historical de- 
 
 velopments of, 291; Frederick 
 the Great on the study of, 291, 
 293 ; subject-matter used in in- 
 struction, 294 ff. ; Prussian course 
 of study in, 295 ; Jena course of 
 study in, 299 ff. ; methods of 
 teaching, 300 ff. ; correlation with 
 other subjects, 308; criticisms, 
 309-311 
 
 Holidays, 157. See Calendar 
 
 Home study, 158, 160, 315 
 
 Honours attached to the teaching 
 profession in Germany, 375 
 
 Humanism, in Germany in the fif- 
 teenth century, 20 ; rapid spread 
 of, 24, 25, 26; influence of, 44; 
 and Lutheranism, 34, 44 ; Sturm's 
 position, 42, 43; repression of, 
 by counter- Reformation, 47; by 
 French ideals, 51 ff. ; by Thirty 
 Years' War, 52 ; by pietism, 59 
 ff. ; revival of, 69-75 ; incorpo- 
 rated in school curricula, 95 ff. ; 
 tendencies of school reform, 388- 
 405, 423-453 
 
 Humboldt, 89, 92-94, 101 ; on the 
 training of teachers, 354 
 
 Hygiene, school, 145-149, 159, 160, 
 408 
 
 IDEALISM, German, 83, 413 
 Imperial school commission, 191 
 Instruction. See Courses of Study, 
 Curriculum 
 
 JAEGER, 264, 396 
 
 Jena, University, founding of, 36 ; 
 Gymnasium, 302, 341 ; seminar, 
 367 
 
 Jesuits, 47 ff. ; success of, 48. 49; 
 influence on German school sys- 
 tem, 49; evidences of the work 
 of, 139
 
 484 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Journeys, school, in Stoy school, 
 209-211 ; excursions, 300, 335, 341 
 
 KANT, 83, 84 
 Kiepert, 297 
 Kirchner, 224 
 Klinghardt, 272 
 Klopstock, 71 
 Ktihn, 272 
 
 LABORATORIES in school buildings, 
 150; for science teaching, 339, 
 348 
 
 Landesschulen, 38, 39, 196, 198 
 
 Lange, 132 
 
 Latin, in various curricula, 2, 8, 13, 
 15, 18, 25, 38, 40, 66, 74, 96, 98, 
 99, 101, 103, 104, 123, 124, 125, 
 126, 136, 137, 142 ; first begins to 
 give way to the vernacular, 15 ; 
 in the Renaissance period, 19, 
 23, 25 ; in the protestant schools, 
 32, 33-44; reaction against for- 
 malism in teaching, 66 ff.; re- 
 cent development of, 99 ff., 246 
 ff. ; instruction in, 245 ff. ; Prus- 
 sian course of study in Gymna- 
 sium, 254 ff. ; methods of teach- 
 ing, 258 ff. ; text-books, 264; 
 criticisms, 264 ; in the Realgym- 
 nasium, 249 ; Prussian course of 
 study in, 254 ff. ; educational 
 problems, 393-405, 423-453 
 
 Lehrfreiheit, beginning of, in Ger- 
 many, 61 ; recent attempts at re- 
 striction of, 413-415 
 
 Leibnitz, 56 
 
 Leipsic, University, 14, 25, 36, 61, 
 133 ; seminar, 367 
 
 Lessing, 71 
 
 Libraries, defects and merits of 
 school, 150; defects of cata- 
 loguing. 150, 151; system through- 
 
 out Germany prevailingly bad, 
 151 ; redeeming features, 151 ; 
 pupils may not use public, 166 
 Luther, 25 ff. ; insight into edu- 
 cational needs in Reformation 
 times in Germany, 28 ; on school 
 curricula, 33; on school libra- 
 ries, 33; and Melanchthon, 34, 
 37; on instruction in religion, 
 213 
 
 MXDCHENSCHULE, H5here. See 
 Girls' Schools, Women 
 
 Manual training in Stoy school, 206 
 
 Marking system, 177, 178 
 
 Mathematics, instruction in, 312- 
 328 ; arithmetic, 314 ff. ; algebra, 
 314, 322 ff. ; geometry, 319, 321, 
 324 ; course of study in Realgym- 
 nasium, 314, 320, 323 ; Austrian 
 methods, 317, 318 ; final exami- 
 nations in, 325 ; criticisms, 326- 
 328 
 
 Meierotto, 73 
 
 Meissen, 38, 98, 140, 144, 197 
 
 Melanchthon, and Erasmus, 23 ; 
 and Luther, 34, 37 ; pedagogical 
 ideas of, 35 ; as an organizer, 36, 
 37 
 
 Middle Ages, German education 
 during, 1-16; ideals of, 17 
 
 Militarism, effects on education, 78, 
 121, 161, 162, 200, 212, 383, 411 
 
 Mittelschulen, 130. See Schools 
 
 Mosellanus, 23 
 
 Muff, 262, 264 
 
 Museums, school, for teaching sci- 
 ences, 336 
 
 Music, in mediseval church schools, 
 4, 8, 13 ; in protestant schools, 
 37, 38, 40; in teaching patriot- 
 ism, 79, 93 ; in school curricula. 
 See Curriculum
 
 INDEX 
 
 485 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, 330, 333-341. 
 See Sciences 
 
 Nature study, 341-343. See Sci- 
 ences 
 
 Nuremberg, 25 
 
 OBERREALSCHULE, 104, 105; grad- 
 uates of, 127 ; Lehrplan, 128, 466 ; 
 numbers, 128. See Realschule 
 
 Oberschulcollegium, 87-89. See 
 Administration 
 
 Ordinarius, 380. See Class-master 
 
 PAULSEN, 23, 37, 74, 394, 430, 447, 
 450 
 
 Pensions, of teachers, 386 ; compar- 
 ative table for all German states, 
 474 ; extracts from the general 
 pension laws of Prussia, 475 ; for 
 widows and orphans of higher 
 school teachers, 476 
 
 Pestalozzi, 92, 297 
 
 Pforta. See Schulpforta 
 
 Philanthropinists, 66 
 
 Philosophy, scholastic, 11 ; of the 
 seventeenth century, 55 ff. ; ra- 
 tionalistic, 59 ff. ; German ideal- 
 ism, 83, 84 ; the romantic school, 
 85 
 
 Physical training in Stoy school, 
 207 , Turnhalle, 147 
 
 Physics, 343-346. See Sciences 
 
 Pietism, 60, 64 
 
 Play - grounds, 146. See School 
 Buildings 
 
 Principal. See Director 
 
 Privileges, system of, 189-193 ; mil- 
 itary service, 190 ; university 
 study, 192 . state examinations, 
 192 ; tabulated statement of, 469, 
 471 ; relation to school reforms, 
 397, 404. 415. 424 
 
 Professions, preparation of students 
 for, 174. See Privileges 
 
 Program, school. See Calendar, 
 Courses of Study, Curriculum 
 
 Progymnasium, 124. See Gymna- 
 sium 
 
 Promotion, of pupils, conditions 
 of, 177, 189; of teachers, 370- 
 383 
 
 Protestant schools, rise and charac- 
 ter of, 22, 23, 26-45; and the 
 counter-Reformation, 46, 47, 50, 
 52-54 ; reaction against, 66 
 
 Pr iif ungscom mission, Wissenschaf t- 
 liche, 114, 115, 352-358. See Ex- 
 aminations, Teachers' 
 
 Prussia, development of, 76 ; con- 
 stitution of, 109; and War of 
 Liberation, 77; civil and military 
 reforms^ 78-82; central control 
 in school administration, 86-92 ; 
 school system of, 108-120; higher 
 schools of, 121-137; old schools 
 of, 138-142; school-year in, 156; 
 system of examinations and priv- 
 ileges of, 175-193, 468; profes- 
 sional training of teachers in, 
 352-369 ; appointment, promo- 
 tion, and emoluments of teachers 
 in, 370-387 ; tendencies of school 
 reform in, 388-405; merits and 
 defects of secondary education 
 in, 406-422; attendance in higher 
 schools of, 435-438 ; salary sched- 
 ules in, 472, extracts from pen- 
 sion laws of, 474 
 
 Publications, student, 166 
 
 Punishments in schools, 167. See 
 Discipline 
 
 QUADRIVIUM, 4 ff. 
 Quiehl, 272, 278 
 Quint iliun, 24
 
 486 
 
 INDEX 
 
 RATIONALISM, 59, 62 ff. 
 
 Ratke, 68 
 
 Ratzel, 297 
 
 Realgymnasium, rise of, 64, 104, 
 105; aim of, 125; Lehrplan of 
 Prussian, 125, 465 ; comparative 
 curricula of, in Prussia, Bavaria, 
 etc., 126 ; position of ( 126, 423 ff. ; 
 similar to American high school, 
 126, 127 ; number of, in the states 
 of Germany, 127; attendance, 127; 
 examinations in, 185; Latin in, 
 249; Prussian Latin course in, 
 254-257; modern languages in, 
 274 ff. ; mathematics in, 312 ff. ; 
 natural sciences in, 345 ff. ; the 
 problem of, 393-399, 415; priv- 
 ileges of, 464, 471 
 
 Realschule, rise of, 64, 65, 104 ; aim 
 of, 127; Lehrplan of, in Prussia, 
 128, 464; in Wurtemberg, 128; 
 numbers in German states, 128 ; 
 examinations in, 186; modern 
 languages in, 274 ff. ; mathe- 
 matics in, 312 ff. ; natural sciences 
 in, 345 ff. ; recent growth of, 392, 
 435; outlook for, 250, 389, 392, 
 394, 415, 432 ; privileges of, 469, 
 471 ; attitude of teachers toward, 
 326, 340 
 
 Reformation, influence of, on edu- 
 cation in Germany, 22, 26-45, 
 138 ; counter, 47. See Luther 
 
 Reformschule, 251 ff. ; Frankfort 
 plan, 399, 402-404, 440 ; Altona, 
 400-402,440; recent growth of, 
 404,440 
 
 Rein, 367 
 
 Reinhardt, 262, 422, 444 
 
 Religion, Luther's position, 27-32, 
 84, 37, 38, 213 ; supervision of, in 
 schools, 115,164; preferences of 
 students, 173; instruction in, 218- 
 
 226; teachers of, 214; Prussian 
 course of study in, 216-218 ; con- 
 firmation, 220 ; subject matter of 
 instruction in, 220; text-books, 
 221 ; defects of the system of in- 
 struction, 223 ff. 
 
 Renaissance, ideals of, 17, 20; in- 
 fluence of, 19-22, 24-26, 138 
 
 Reuchlin, 20, 21, 23 
 
 Richter, 262, 298, 367 
 
 Ritter, 297 
 
 Ritterakademie, 52, 54, 56 
 
 Romantic school of philosophy, 85 
 
 Rossleben, 197 
 
 Rules, regulations and customs for 
 guidance of students, 156-174 
 
 SALARIES, teachers', 154, 384, 385 ; 
 official schedules of, in Prussia, 
 Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemberg, 
 472 
 
 Saxony, school system of, in 1538, 
 37 ; in 1580, 41 ; old schools of, 
 144, 197, 198; teachers' salaries 
 in, 472 ; pensions in, 474 
 
 Schiller (Fr.), 71, 84 
 
 Schiller (Prof. H.), 306, 367 
 
 Schlee, 400 
 
 Scholarships, 36, 41, 152, 153 
 
 Scholasticism, influence of, on edu- 
 cation, 11 ; tendency toward, in 
 seventeenth century, 50 
 
 Schools, boarding, 133, 134, 135, 
 140, 196 ff.; cathedral, 8; church, 
 133 ; city, designed for the 
 middle classes, 12; foundations 
 of, 144 ; status of, 117, 143 ; clois- 
 tral, 41, 98; common, 15; com- 
 mercial, 133 ; Einheitsschule, 399 
 ff. ; Fttrstenschule, 38, 39; girls', 
 129 ; present status of, 130, 131 ; 
 Gymnasium, see Gymnasium ; 
 higher, definition of, 121 ; classi-
 
 INDEX 
 
 487 
 
 fication of, 122 ; aim of, 175 ff. ; 
 attendance upon, in Prussia from 
 1894-1903, 435 ; list of privileged, 
 468 ; Huhere Miidchenschule, 129- 
 131 ; Jesuit, see Jesuits ; Landes- 
 schule, 38, 39 ; Mittelschule, 136 ; 
 normal, 113; Oberrealschule, see 
 Oberrealschule ; protestant, first, 
 37; private, status of, 111, 116, 
 118; Progymnasium, 124; Real- 
 gymnasium, see Realgymnasium ; 
 Realschule, see Realschule ; Re- 
 formschule, see Reformschule ; 
 secondary, see Education ; state, 
 status of, 117; ideals of, 389; 
 Stoy school, 199 ff. ; union (Ein- 
 heitsschule), 399 ff. ; Volksschule, 
 129; destroyed by the Thirty 
 Years' War, 54; history of sec- 
 ondary, 1-107 ; supervision of, 
 382 ; ecclesiastical supervision of, 
 215; first step in secularization 
 of, 88 ; administrative system of, 
 111 ; maintenance of, 153 ; ex- 
 pense of maintenance in Prussia, 
 153 ; inter-relations, 135 ; pun- 
 ishments, 167; regulations of a 
 typical school, 168 ff. ; some old, 
 138, 139, 140 ; confessional char- 
 acter of, 214 ; reform of, 388 ff. ; 
 conference of December, 1890, 
 105,390; of 1900, 424 
 School system, of Saxony, 37, 38, 
 41 ; complete, first organized in 
 Wurtemberg, 40; centralization 
 of, 86-96 ; not imperial in Ger- 
 many, 108; and the state, 99, 
 105, 106, 109, 110, 406-412; a 
 product of German ideals, 107, 
 406- 412 ; the Prussian, 108-120 ; 
 merits of the Prussian, 119; in 
 the smaller German states, 119 ; 
 sources of chief defects of, 412 ; 
 
 expense of maintenance in Prus- 
 sia, 153 ; in Berlin, 154, 155 
 
 School buildings, construction and 
 equipment of, 146, 245 ; location 
 of, 146 ; lighting of, 147 ; venti- 
 lation of, 148 ; heating of, 148 ; 
 seating of, 149; general equip- 
 ment of, 149 ; equipment of, for 
 teaching sciences, 331 ; audito- 
 rium of, 150; hygienic precau- 
 tions, 408 
 
 School laws, not codified in Prus- 
 sia, 108; basis of, 109; rule of 
 precedent binding, 111 ff. ; com- 
 pulsory, 407 
 
 School year, 156 
 
 Schulpforta, 38, 95, 98, 140, 144, 
 197, 198 
 
 Schulze, 99, 247 
 
 Sciences, development of, and in- 
 fluence on educational ideals, 56, 
 57, 63-66, 102-105; instruction 
 in, 329 ff. ; historical develop- 
 ment of, 329, 330 ; chief aim, 330 ; 
 equipment for teaching, 331 ; 
 Prussian course of study nat- 
 ural history, 333; physics and 
 chemistry, 343 ff. ; school mu- 
 seums, 336; methods of teach- 
 ing, 337-339; laboratory work, 
 339, 348 ; nature study, 341-343 ; 
 final examinations, 348, 349 ; re- 
 cent tendencies, 351 
 
 Secondary education schools. See 
 Education 
 
 Seminars, pedagogical, early foun- 
 dations, 97 ; state, 365 ; gymna- 
 sial, 365 ; university, 367 
 
 Sessions, daily, 157. See Calendar 
 
 Sievers, 297 
 
 Social rank, of students, 172; of 
 teachers, 326, 340, 375; results, 
 420
 
 488 
 
 INDEX 
 
 State, control of school system, 86- 
 96, 108-120, 409; influence on 
 education, 406, 407-412; and 
 compulsory school laws, 407 ; 
 and hygienic precautions, 408 ; 
 and uniform curricula, 409 ; and 
 teaching profession, 410 
 
 Stein, 77, 78, 89, 90, 93, 354 
 
 Stoy school, 199; regulations of, 
 200 ; student life in, 202-212 
 
 Students, rules, regulations and 
 customs, 156-174; non-resident, 
 163 ; social rank of, 172 ; condi- 
 tions of promotion of, 177; ex- 
 amination of, 178-179; life in 
 higher schools, 194 ff. ; public ex- 
 ercises, 195; privileges attached 
 to completion of various grades 
 of higher schools, 189-193 
 
 Studies. See Courses, Curriculum 
 
 Study, home, 158, 160, 315 
 
 Sturm, 42, 43, 141, 389 
 
 Suicides among school children in 
 Germany, 147 
 
 Superintendent. See Director 
 
 Supervision. See Administration 
 
 Silvern, 96 
 
 TEACHERS, training of professional, 
 97, 352-369 ; university study for, 
 355 ; state examinations, 356 ; 
 examination commission, 358 ; 
 conduct of examinations, 360 ; 
 subjects for examinations, 357; 
 certification of, 95, 114, 115, 357, 
 361, 362; university degrees, 
 358; trial teaching, 97, 98, 364, 
 368 ; seminar year, 364 ; present 
 requirements, 364; Prussian semi- 
 nars, 365; university courses, 
 367, 368 ; religious training, 215 ; 
 of religion, duties of, 215; gen- 
 eral duties of teachers, 381, 382 ; 
 
 women as, 130. See Women ; ten- 
 ure of office, defects, 383 ; officers 
 of state, 161, 162; professional 
 strength of, 411 ; appointment 
 of, 114, 118, 370 ff.; in royal 
 schools, 371 ; in city schools, 371 ; 
 oath of office, 372 ; waiting pe- 
 riod, 373; salaries, 384; salary 
 schedules in Prussia, 472 ; Bava- 
 ria, 472 ; Saxony, 472 , Wiirtem- 
 berg, 472; travelling stipends, 
 386 ; honours, 375 ; pensions, 118, 
 386; comparative table of pen- 
 sions for the German states, 474 ; 
 for widows and orphans, 476 ; 
 pension laws of Prussia, 475 
 
 Teaching, freedom of, 61, 413-415 ; 
 methods of. See Religion, Greek, 
 Latin, etc. 
 
 Tenure of office of teachers, 383, 
 386, 407, 410 
 
 Text-books, for protestant schools, 
 35; control of, 113, 114; nature 
 of, in religion, 221 ; in German, 
 231, 233; in Greek and Latin, 
 264; in French and English, 
 274, 288; in history, 307; in 
 mathematics, 321, 322; in sci- 
 ences, 346 
 
 Thiersch, 98 
 
 Thirty Years' War, evil conse- 
 quences of, 52, 53, 54 
 
 Thomasius, 61, 68 
 
 Thurber, 398 
 
 Travelling stipends for teachers, 
 386 
 
 Trial year of teaching, 97, 98, 364, 
 368 
 
 Trivium, 4 ff. 
 
 Trustees, powers of school, 117 
 
 Tuition, in royal secondary schools, 
 151, 152 ; in city schools, 152 
 
 Turnhalle, 147
 
 INDEX 
 
 489 
 
 UHLIG, 396, 434 
 
 Universities, founding of Paris, 13 ; 
 founding of, in Germany, 14 ; 
 protestant, 36; decadence of, in 
 the seventeenth century, 55; 
 founding of Berlin, 93; influence 
 on secondary education, 406, 413- 
 416; idealism of, 413; struggle 
 between the state and, 413; Lehr- 
 freiheit in, 414; defects of, 415 ff. ; 
 foster gymnasial monopoly, 415 ; 
 oppose admission of women, 416 ; 
 Giessen, seminar, 367 ; Halle, 61, 
 368; Jena, seminar, 367 ; Leipsic, 
 seminar, 367 
 
 VACATIONS, 156 
 Victor, 271, 272, 273 
 Volksschulen, 15, 33, 40, 54, 64, 92, 
 129 
 
 WAETZOLDT, 272, 417 
 Walter, 272, 280, 282, 283, 284 
 War of Liberation Humboldt, 
 
 Arndt, Fichte, 77; effects of, 
 
 81 ff. 
 Weimar, 95, 314, 323 
 
 Wernekke, 314 
 
 William II., views on educational 
 matters, 105, 143, 389, 392, 461 
 
 Wimpheling, 20, 23 
 
 Windscheid, 132 
 
 Wittenberg, 25 
 
 Wittich, 313 
 
 Wolf, 74, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 101, 
 245, 292 
 
 Wolff, 61, 68 
 
 Women, teachers' association of, 
 129; as teachers, 130; higher 
 education of, 416-420 ; admission 
 to universities, 416 ; admission 
 to professions, 419 ; attitude of 
 Prussian state toward education 
 of, 419. See Girls' Schools 
 
 Wiirtemberg, school system of, first 
 complete, 40; school curricula, 
 98, 124-128, 249 ; schools of, 471 ; 
 teachers' salaries in, 472 , teach- 
 ers' pensions in, 474 
 
 ZEDLITZ, 73, 87, 88, 293 
 
 Zeller, 92 
 
 Ziegler, 395, 411 
 
 Zoology, 330, 333 ff. See Sciences
 
 AMERICAN TEACHERS SERIES 
 
 Edited by JAMES E. RUSSELL, Ph.D. 
 
 DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 In all the field of education there are no problems more difficult to 
 solve than those pertaining to the work of the secondary school. What 
 is the aim of secondary education ? What is its function in modern 
 society? What knowledge is of most worth? What means and 
 methods produce the best results ? Such questions as these come to 
 every secondary teacher and demand an answer. The most encourag- 
 ing sign of the times is the growth of a teaching profession pledged to 
 study these problems intelligently and to find some rational solution 
 of them. 
 
 The " American Teachers Series " will review the principal subjects 
 of the secondary school curriculum. The purpose is to discuss the 
 educational value of each subject, the reasons for including it in the 
 curriculum, the selection and arrangement of materials in the course, 
 the essential features of class instruction, and the various helps which 
 are available for teachers' use. The books are not intended to correct 
 the faults of ignorant teaching ; they are not put forth as manuals of 
 infallible methods. They are designed to be contributions to the pro- 
 fessional knowledge necessary in secondary education, and are ad- 
 dressed to teachers of liberal culture and special scholarship who are 
 seeking to make their knowledge more useful to their pupils and their 
 pupils more useful to the State. From the Editor s Preface, 
 
 The f oll<rMing volumes are published: 
 
 The Teaching of Latin and Greek. By Professors CHARLES E. BEN- 
 NETT and GEORGE P. BRISTOL, Cornell University. Crown 8vo. 354 
 pages. $..50 
 
 The Teaching ef History and Civics. By Professor HENRY E. 
 BOURNE, Western Reserve University. Crown 8vo. 395 pages. $1.50 
 
 The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics. By Professors ALEX- 
 ANDER SMITH, University of Chicago, and EDWIN H. HALL, Harvard 
 University. Crown 8vo. 384 pages. $1.50 
 
 The Teaching of English. By Professors GEORGE R. CARPENTER and 
 FRANKLIN T. BAKER, of Columbia University, and Professor FRED 
 NEWTON SCOTT, of the University of Michigan. Crown Svo. 390 
 pages. $1.50. 
 
 The Teaching of Mathematics. By Professor J. W. A. YOUNG, Uni- 
 
 versity of Chicago. $1.50 
 
 The Teaching of Biology. By Professors FRANCIS E. LLOYD and 
 MAURICE E. BIGELOW, Teachers College, xoo pages. 51.50
 
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