Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles FormLl Library This book is DUE on the last date stamped below APR 3 1054 APR 3 RE L jCATIC 18*9 OCT 2019 NOV 1 1958 ti DEC 2 2 19! HAR 1 5 1960 SUBjr^T TO FINE IF ETURNEDlK COPYRIGHT. Entered at Stationers' Hall. REPORTS THE MOSELY EDUCATIONAL COMMISSION 7 O ingot' prominent educationalists convened iii London to ng the subjects for inquiry and tl. .on of , mid i now wish to thank all tho.-- nt at Mig for their E i vice, which pi tails of the Commission. Tin- 1):. iishire, then l'r< sident of the Board of Education, in an inter- . his s\mpv;hy with my project ; Arthur 1 Sal four, to whom I had obtained an introduction through the courtesy of Mr. (id-aid Balfour, Pivsideir of r rra.de (to whose department 1 w.is greatly indebied in connection with my Imiustrial Commission), also >ho\ved hini'l!' jut. my ])lan and wished me success. To all those who so kindlv helped desire to tender my thanks in particular to I.< .who d no trouble in .uivin^ me the ! iiis advic.-. and to Mr. i-, whose kno\\led^e and good ollice- , n y disposal and who also devoted much of h. rk on my nt. I have also to acknowledge my obligations to Mr. . >g (now Academic Kegistrar to the University of London), wlio rendered valuable assistance as ( )r<_';mising Secretarv. my thanks to Professor An. -.vho kindly undertook to write I the reports, and to the Rev. A. \V. .iephson. ; red to the Commission. 1'inally, it remain- thank alemen who did me the honour to accept my invitation, and to sa\ how zealous they were in their work and with nation they set about obtaining all possible facts and i at the expense of foregoing pleasure and t-veii c The new Education Act opens the iield for some really useful work to be achieved b -ion containing, like th> : al! branches of education. The worked out on line.s somewhat similar to tin n the In that country each State make regulations with regard to : ! it of li . irred. The nev. s similar powers, within certain specified limits, to the County Con:; it now remains for those bodies and the puMic at large to decide IV. what shape public education shall take in the future, \vhatmoney shall : --hall be administered. I venture, there- to tbnik that my Commission conies at a very opportune moment, ami should largely help to mould public opinion in regard to points upon which it needs enlightenment The delegation arrived at New York on the morning of Saturday, 10th ' At :i meeting hold the same evening, attended by of the members, a resolution was passed to the effect :n the reports to be drawn up after the completion of the inquiry (and now published in this volume) no reference should be made to politics in any shape or form, and also that the thorny question of ! controversy in connection with education hhould be absolutely ignored, even to the extent of not putting on 1 the views held on the subject in America. It was felt by all the Commissioners that if any good is to result from the work they were about to commence, all such contentious matters must be omitted from their reports ; and I can only congratulate them upon the decision thus wisely made. The following gentlemen who were members of the Commission have sent in reports, which are included in this volume, arranged, as far as possible, alphabetically : AKTHIM; ANHKKTON, KSQ., J.P., Alderman, and Chairman of the Technical Instruction Committee of the West Biding County Council. (Nominated by the County Councils Association.) HENRY E. ARMSTRONG, ESQ., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Central Institute. W. E. AYRTON, ESQ., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Central Institute, Past President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. THOMAS BARCLAY, ESQ., LL.B., PH.D., late President of the Paris Chamber of Commerce. A. W. BLACK, ESQ., J.P., Mayor of Nottingham, Chairman of the Nottingham Education Committee. R. BLAIR, ESQ., M.A. (Edin.), B.Sc. (Lond.), Assistant Secretary for Technical Education of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, Ireland. (Nominated by the Department of Agriculture and Technical Education, Ireland.) J. ROSE BKADFOUI.. KSQ., M.D. (London), D.Sc., F.R.C.P., F.R.S , Professor of Medicine, University College, London. ^ C/OWABP, KSO-. iVrsident of the National Union of Teachers (Nominated by the National Union of Teachers.) JOB Km, AY. S.J., F.R.U.L, Member of the Inter- mediate I : Board and the Technical Education Board, Ireland ; Professor of Political Economy, University College, Dublin. (Nominated as official representative of the Board of Agriculture and Technical Education of Ireland.) T GREGORY FOSTKR, ESQ , B.A., Pe.1)., Assistant Professor of English in University College, London, and Secretary to the College. V. W. r FLITCHEB, "Ks. v M ^.Im's Coll< gr>, (';Liiil)ri(l: B ' W. II. GASKI M .1) . I.I, I' . 1 l; S.. F.-ll.r.v of Trinity Hall, Carnhridg' : I'm. : vsiology. BBV. H. I'. GBAI D.D xford), Warden of Bradfit! 1 ' \V. P. (iiiOsKH, F,SQ., of the Imv 'n^thel mentary Industry ('(Hiiniit tee, and to r ESdocati Ai.i'KKM\N .1. I;. HI:AIK, J.P., Vic of the Education Committee, Chairman of the Rochdale Technical School. TMK H ,v A. \V. Jiiiisos, M.A., Member of the London School Board. M ACINI'S MACLEAN, ESQ., M.A., D.Sc., F.K.S.H , Professor of Electrical Engineering in (llasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow. (Nominated official representative by (1) Glasgow and West Scotland Technical College; ('!) Mdinhiirgh School Board; (3) the Technical and Secondary Kducation Committee of the Ayrshire County Council.) BBV. T. L. PAPILLON, M.A., Vicar of Writtle, Essex; late Fellow and Tutor of New College, Oxford ; formerly Fellow of Merton College. HKKHKKT R. RATHRONE, ESQ., B.A., Barrister-at-Law, Meml) the Education Committee and Deputy Chairman of the mittee on Elementary Education, Liverpool. . RKICHEL, ESQ., LL.D., late Fellow of All Soul's Colle-e, Oxford; Principal of University College of North \Y Mangor, and Member of the Welsh Intermediate Edu. Hoard. (Nominated as official representative of University Colleges of Cardiff, Aberystwyth, and Bangor.) JOHN RHYS, ESQ., M.A., D.LITT. (Oxford), HON. LL.D. (Edinburgh); Professor of Celtic, and Principal of Jesus College, Oxford ; Fellow of the British Academy. W. RIFPKR, ESQ., M.I.C.E., Professor of Engineering in I College, Sheffield; Member of the Sheffield Education Committee. CHAKLKS KO\VI,KY, ESQ., M.A., .I.P.. Member of the ^lanc! Education Committee and of the Manchester School of nology ; Chairman of the Manchester School of Art. A. J. SHKTHEARD, ESQ., Chairman of the Technical Education Board of the London County Council. A. KmirNn SIM:NI>KH, ESQ., B.A. (Oxford), Barrister-at- : Director of Plymouth Clirls' High School ; Member of Plymouth Chamber of Comme itive ; Member of Committee of the " Mount Edgcumbe " Industrial Training Ship. JOHN "\YHITBUKN, ESQ., Member of the Education Committee of Mi \vcastle-on-Tyne. VI. . 73' / Ittoselp educational Commission. PREFACE. inator of the Industrial Commission to the United : ie in tha present instance to follow the I in connection with the report on that occasion, viz. : to w ; :rt introduction giving my own impressions, not a3 I. ut simply as a business man: and to leave the I...TS of the Commission, who have made a special study b practically all its aspects, from primary teaching in '.oard schools to advanced university practice, to state their elusions in their individual reports. The st.-i-y of the origin of the Industrial and Educational Com- ! kes me back to South Africa some i for muny \ears been engaged in mining Kimherles, which, in common with the work of the '. bulk of the diamond diggers, had proved unremunerative, (iardnor Williams, the Californian engineer, arrived in South ,ci- tin- management of the De Beers ( i,. (.'ceil Rhodes was just then amalgamating. icr \\'illi;uns in turn imported the late Louis Seymour. To the latter, by the w;i\, the British nation owes a debt of gratitude for his engineering work in Natal in the early stages of the recent Boer War. By repairing bridges as fast as were destroyed by the enemy, and so keeping open the of communication without which operations in Natal would ha\e been impossible, he and his volunteer company did rvice : and ultimately he lost his life whilst leading some of his men to cover in the defence of a bridge at Zand Eiver. Williams and Louis Seymour were followed by many other : icers, including Perkins, Jennings, and Hammond, the two !;:->;, it U interesting to note, being graduates of Harvard I'lider the guidance of these able men and many velopment of South Africa was started; and, in my ber mining centres largely owe their primary success and '("nt pi to their efforts. Others from 'England and have, of course, helped, but to Gardner Williams and nour belongs the honour of being the first to put mining -all Africa on a sound basis, and to begin the building up of MOW one of the most important industries in the world, nly one of the richest heritages possessed by Great in. r ^"' :eers turned my attention to the United jo I paid my 'first visit there for the ing what sort of country 'it was that was responsible > many level-headed men to the Cape. I spent in the. country investigating, and was astounded around me, not so much at the state of develop- ment that, bad been reached at that time as at what I discerned f tl: ' f(J !' that a country teeming with such natural resources must, in the hands of capable men thoroughly acquainted vii. FACE. with re of vorM, ai as I was able to (" edu< Q the : r visit the c i felt that not only hut that the work what is being dono on io\v too v. it that tho United half it, dollar in wa.^es where we pay a Khillinu'. and \<-' . us in the markets of the we. found in my own views on the - id in of the twenty of the Industrie .:>jeetd placed for investigation before my Kdiu-aJuii Commission v. 1. Tlie development of individuality in the primary schools. i intellectual effects of the wide distribution of nication. of specific instruction given (a) in business methods; (b) it; i science. The present state of opinion as to the value of professional Jind ti instruction of university rank designed with special rence to the tasks of business life. vhich is only a pleasure, is to thank the good people of the Tinted States, especially those connected \vith edueation, for the help they so freely offered on all t because the country had no resources, but because ition there had not reached the same high plane that it has iu the United St;> On leaving New York, the whole Commission travelled to iingtou, where President Eoosevelt honoured us by giving us a reception at the White House, and making a most interesting address to the delegation One notable passage in his speech was the i to his belief that while education could not make a country, the nation that neglected to educate its people would be undone in the long run. From Washington we journeyed .iltimore, Philadelphia, New Haven, Boston, Niagara, and igo, certain of the Commissioners seeing also many educational institutions off the beaten track. At Chicago the party, already reduced iu numbers by various members having separated from it ne purpose of special investigations, finally dissolved, some _' dispatched on missions of inquiry as far West as California, others going West and North-West, some into Canada, whilst a ilerable number returned East via Indianapolis, Dayton, and i'urg. The longest stays were made at New York (some ten i) and at Boston and Chicago (a week each). Although I do not desire in any way to encroach on the reports of the delegates, nor do I pose as an educationalist, a few remarks from myself may be of interest. One of the things that struck me, all through the United States, was the large amount of money devoted to educational purposes, the buildings being ilicent and the equipment lavish. The teachers seem fired with enthusiasm, and there is a thirst for knowledge shown by pupils of all ages which is largely lacking in our own country. In ist to our education, which has to a large extent been "classical," I found that in America it is the "practical" subjects which are principally taught, and technical classes and schools are to be found everywhere. There are also excellent opportunities, for those going into the professions to take up classical subjects ; but with the ordinary "everyday" boy who has to fight his way in the world, the bulk of the time is devoted to practical subjects likely to he of most use to him in after-life. American boys remain at school much longer than is the case here, often, in addition, passing through to the secondary schools and colleges at little or no expense to their parents or themselves. I am disposed to think that our own boys leave school much too soon. The arrangements here in regard to school vacations in agricultural ix. FACE. districts are not such as best meet the needs of the funning In ti so aiT:in;"-d Unit, during harvest time, when tti he of n to tln-ir |i.uvnts and ;iL he good l'n-sli air from the fields, the schools . . hub the Christmas vacation is very short. My ohservations lead mo to believe that the average American ! i finitely better littcil for his vocation and struggle in life than tii-- Knglish ho;. . in consequence there are in (lie l'nit< -d States a smaller proportion of "failures," and fewr who slide downhill and eventually join the pauper, criminal, or " subn nth " class. The aim of education in America is to make every boy fit for :inite calling in life, and my own experience leads rne to think that n everv lad if properly trained is lit for something. All cannot be great successes, and clever, successful men are to a largo extent Ix irn, not made; but I do believe that it is possible to teach every me branch of industry that will enable him to earn an honest livelihood and make him a help rather than a burden to society. As I have said, the true-born American does not become a drag upon his fellows, but takes his place as a respectable citizen, earning his living soberly and honestly. The types of men that the educational methods of America have developed appear to me to be entirely different from what we produce at home. President Murray Butler, for instance, is not only a man of great learning and high academic attainments, but possesses the initiative and organising capacity that are required in a railroad president or chairman. Another instance is President Eliot, of Harvard University, who not only presides over that institution, but steps out into the area of public affairs to give the people the advantage of his great learning and experience : he is also one of the moving spirits of the Civic Federation an institution for the settlement of labour disputes, not so much by arbitration after a rupture has openly occurred, as by bringing the parties together for conference in order that they may adjust their differences at the very earliest sign of a dispute. Again, President JIarper, of the Chicago University, is a man of enormous resource and organising capabilities, a professor of the dead languages who has made a special study of Hebrew and the Semitic tongues generally: he not only manages this astonishing institution, but actually himself raised the money required to bring it into existence. Mr. Rockefeller, of the oil industry, has given immense su; help this university. Pratt Brothers, in providing enormous sum- of money for the Pratt Institute, besides giving it their time attention, also form another striking object-lesson : and the Cooper Union supported by the Hewitt family is performing more than useful service to New York. Many other names might be :. tioned, for everywhere one is confronted with tin up-to-date, organising men, who possess these business qualiti- cations in addition to their academic learning. How compare with our own professors and heads of universities, etc. '? I must leave the reader to draw his own conclusions. Another point that struck was the intense belief of the Americans in the education of the masses. They feel that their country cannot progress and prosper without it, and that if the people are to be raised it must be done through the medium of education. Not only do they see in it a "moral policeman," but they argue also that in PKEFACE.] x. the long run it is far more economical to educate the people than to to support in the prisons, workhouses, etc., the unfortunates who, through an inferior education, or none at all, have been left led to earn their livelihood. It is felt, indeed, throughout the United States that education is their safety and salvation: in the words of i :;t Roosevelt, when addressing the Commission at ington (which I again take the liberty of quoting), " Education :ot make a nation, but a nation would certainly be ruined v,-ithout it." Further, from a purely business point of view, Americans see in the money spent on education a magnificent investment for their country. Their conception of the matter from this aspect is well illustrated by a presidential address delivered in December, 1903, by Mr. James M. Dodge to the American Society of Mechanical :eers, on the " Money Value of Technical Training."* In this he outlines the actual progress made by four groups of men working in the mechanic arts the unskilled labour group, the shop-trained or apprentices group, the trade school group, and the technical school group and plots out his average results in a graphic form on the chart which is here reproduced. The curves scarcely need explanation : each shows the average progress in earning capacity of the groups to which it refers. It will be seen that for the unskilled labour group (though the data are lacking for its early progress) the maximum is low T est bub is earliest reached. The apprentice, regarded as the representative of the shop-trained group, begins to earn 3dols. a week at the age of 16 (3dols. a week for 50 weeks = 150dols. 5 per cent, on 3,000dols., which is, therefore, taken as his "potential or invested " value) ; his wages, and, therefore, his value, rise rather more rapidly than those of the unskilled labourer, and his maximum is somewhat r. The average member of the third group spends three years at a trade school, which he leaves at the age of 19 and gets a ion at 12dols. a week as much as is earned by the apprentice group at 21 and his earnings increase up to 22dols. a week at the age of 25. Data are lacking to determine his further progress, but the presumption is that the rate of increase will slacken, and the curve will ultimately become parallel to that of the shop-trained man, though higher on tho chart. The fourth class consists of those who stay at school till 18, and then study at one of the higher technical institutes till 22, when they begin practical w r ork. At that age their average weekly value is 13dols., or Sdols. less than that of the trade school group. But the difference is soon made up, anJ at the age of 25 the two groups stand level, but the curve of the technically trained men subsequently continues to rise vapidly long after that of the trade school group has (probably) become level. Again, whilst our rich men spend large sums upon sport of various kim's, it appears to be the hobby of moneyed Americans to devote enormous amounts of money to the endowment and equipment of various educational institutions. They pass their lives in strenuous work, and their labours in building up industries and developing ijfritory are of infinite value to their people, recalling what was the * Mr. Dodge also expressed his ideas on this subject in a somewhat different form in tho November number of the St. Nickola* Magazine, and I have to thank the editor for courteous permission to make use of the article. ~GES 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 EACH VERTICAL LINE 24 25 26 27 28 2? REPRESENTS ONE YEAR. 30 31 THE MONEY VALUE OF TECHNICAL TRAINING. PI;I:I . xii. ideal of the late Cecil Khocles, viz. : that the truest philanthropy consists ii Ej industries and fields of industry to occupy the masses anil a!'i'..rd them remunerative employment. It h bimea l>;-en urged that the American is a materialist. Those who hold such an opinion cannot, I think, have carried their analysis vi deeply; and they fail to distinguish between materialism and ambition qualities in reality as wide apart as the poles, although very easily mistaken at first sight. The one has every vice, the other every virtue. Personally I credit the American nation with an intense ambition not only to raise them- selves individually, but also to use their efforts for the raising of their fellows and for the furtherance of civilisation. Again, I have heard it urged that in America there is no aristocracy but that of money. Once more I beg to differ. The contention may on the surface appear to be true, but if the matter be probed a little deeper it will be found that in reality the aristocracy of money is an aristocracy of brains, for the reason that since few of the people of the United States have, as yet, inherited riches, the fact that they have succeeded financially and become w r ealthy is a proof that they must have possessed remarkable ability and brain power in order to achieve their success. I would mention that, though I was not in the States to criticise, I was desired by many of those interested in education there to do so ; and although I prefer in general to leave this matter to the expert judgment of my Commissioners, there were several notable points that struck me forcibly. One was the large preponderance of women teachers in all branches of education throughout the country. Personally, I should favour the employment of female teachers for both boys and girls up to the age of, say, twelve years : for the reason that (as it appears to rue) the woman claims the sympathy of children in younger years, and understands the working of their minds, in a way and to an extent that no man can. Beyond this point, however, I am in favour of turning the pupils over to men : and here, if I may say so, American education in my view requires some overhauling. Not only did I find comparatively few men engaged in teaching, but also few preparing to become teachers : and upon further investigation I discovered the reason to lie in the smallness of the remuneration, which is insufficient to attract a good class of men. This I think a serious defect, and I venture to suggest that higher salaries should be paid to teachers of both sexes, but especially to men, in order to make it \vorth their while to take up the profession not merely as a duty but as a remunerative occupation. A second point I noticed was the neglect of musical talent amongst the school children. How music makes for a bright and happy home and tends to raise the standard of life from an idealistic point of view need not be enlarged upon, yet nowhere did I find instrumental music forming a part of the instruction, and in the few cases where vocal music was included it was but poorly taught. The same characteristic prevailed in the homes of the people, many of which I had the privilege of visiting on my various trips. Usually there was a handsome piano in the house, but I saw few signs of its being used. Occasionally there were also other instruments, such as harps, etc., but again, on inquiry, I learned that these were, in the great majority of instances, merely ornaments. Seeing how large a proportion of the population xiii. FACK. are of (Jerman or oth !, the llC^lcct of til; The <|ue-iion of sports in tin- American Bob ; with those of this country also impressed me. of course, the. people of America an' fond a keen i .1 and football, hut such mutters do not form an\ihing like so important a part of t'i, the school I >o\ tip and not nearly so much time is devoted to them. Further, sehool- rs in tli> States an :'or their academic ml power of imparting knowledge to their pupils, without i to their athletic qualities or achiev< Tim i te devotion to sports, to the exclusion ol almost all o -rests, \vhich oi into all : Kn^lish schools, , J think, one of the- weakest points in our education Although, as :drc:i iat it \vafl the mainspring of all thi.-ir iiKjuiries; but how fa. must leave the reader to judge for hu A. Mos XVI. Ittoselp educational Commission. CONTENTS OF REPORTS. The following brief summaries of the main topics discussed by each of the Commissioners are given to facilitate reference to their reports. It is to be noted that Drs. Bradford and Gaskell confine their attention to medical education, Professor Ayrton deals specially with the education of the electrical engineer, Mr. Barclay with commercial education, Mr. Blair with technical education, Mr. Groser with legal education, and Mr. Spender with truant and reformatory schools. The remaining reports are of a more general character. MB. ARTHUR ANDERTON [pp. 1-6] calls attention briefly to the main features of the American school system ; he also refers to higher education as well as to the important work which is being done by the Bureau of Agriculture at Washington. In summarising his impressions, he dwells on the belief in education which is every- where apparent and on the recognition by the leaders of industry of the value of well-educated men who have enjoyed the advantage of technical training. He comments on the predominance of female teachers in the schools. PROFESSOR H. E. ARMSTRONG [pp. 7-25] deals briefly with the various grades of educational activity, contrasting American work with that of corresponding English institutions. In connection with the common and high schools, he refers particularly to the maintenance of discipline and to the lack of the power of concentrating attention manifest in the scholars. The value of manual training is insisted on. Co-education and the predominance of female teachers ara discussed. The undue length of the college course and of the subsequent professional course is commented on : its unfortunate conse- quences are pointed out, as well as the need, both in America and here, of reforming and improving the system of education so as to shorten the period of training. The remarkable manner in which science is organised in the service of the State in America is illustrated more particularly by reference to the work done in Washington by the Department of Agriculture ; and our need of effective organisations similar to those which exist in the United States is insisted on. PROFESSOR W. E. AYRTON [pp. 26-37] deals only with the education of the electrical engineer. He expresses the opinion that in their method of training electrical engineers the United States are in advance of Great Britain, more especially because of the close bond of union established between the colleges and the works. He points out that it is generally agreed both that an engineering apprentice should be a college-trained man and that NTS an engineering profess r in ^ r ed in the practice of In- : theme is fully developed in the report, details being given of tin- actual working of the system. Alter considering the som* to age at which students enter the \\.>H . r tfetsor .\\iton draws attention to the superior Misation of the American . nid to th> r in which the teaching of electrical \8 suhdivided, the tendency being to draw lines vertically between branches of the subject and not horizontally between of different ages. The final conclusion is that whilst the American student is usually not as scholarly nor as well read as tin- Knglish student of the same age, "he has his knowledge ;n a better form to apply": the British :i turns out a man full of knowledge and principles, whilst \mericaii product is a business man with a scientific training. Mi:. TH pp. 394-400] deals only with commercial education. He discusses tin- American standpoint and shows that it :it from our own, in that there is, he thinks, no problem, i.nd it, of commercial education, the only questions to - the proper age for a young man to enter business and whether a college education is desirable. The character of the product coming from the schools is commented on. Mr. Barclay also discusses the causes of American prosperity, pointing out that education, at present, is effective only in a minor degree. Mu. A. \Y. BLA< \ pp. iS-39] records his experiences very briefly, his conclu ng (1) that public opinion is much more strongly in favour of education than it is in this country ; (2) that the scholars in America take a keener interest in their studies than is generally apparent here ; and (3) that the teaching given in the elementary schools produces mental alertness and readiness of mind to a greater extent than is secured in this country. MR. R. Bi.uu [pp. 40-63] devotes the whole of a lengthy report to the consideration of technical education. The British system is first compared with the German and American, especially with reference to the part played by evening schools of which there are far more in this country. The schools are then discussed under three heads trade schools, secondary technical schools and schools for captains of ind Che Pratt Institute, New York City, is fir -d to, the ideas which govern its two years' day course being set forth at length ; it is pointed out how success has been found to depend on close contact with industrial work. Sibley College, Cornell, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are taken as examples of leading institutions training the captains of industry. The success of the latter especially is considered under the significant headings, " Hard Work," " Close Touch with Industries " (Mr. Blair supports Professor Ayrton's view), ctical Character of the Instruction," "Boldness of the Students," and " Minor Causes," the absence of prizes and of ranking being mentioned under this last head. After an important reference to the \V barton School of Commerce, Mr. Blair proceeds to consider at length the relation of technical education to ind and shows that American experience is now entirely favourable to the introduction o f the college-bred man into commerce and industry. CONTEXTS.] xviii. Du. .1. Rosi: P deals only with advanced A education, considering these under heads such as Jon of Hospitals 10 Medical Schools, Chemical Laboratories^ Teaching of Medicine and Pathology. He was much im]nvrii 's, the, equipment being of a high order of exerllcuce. In all the medical schools there is a tendency to bring clinical medicine more closely into relation with recent scientific develop- ments than is the case here, blood-counts and other investigations being made not from a mere diagnostic point of view but in a more 38 routine fashion. Such a practice must tend to put medicine on a more scientific basis. Instruction is far more systematised j There js a marked tendency to abolish didactic lectures and to pay increased attention to laboratory instruction, but the opportunities afforded to students of obtaining practical acquaintance with disease are fewer than are given here. In the examination for the degree the record of the work done by a student plays an all important part. MB. H. COWAKD [pp. 79-99] gives his report in the form of an itinerary, the schools and other institutions visited in each town Vainer commented on in succession and their good points noted. He id enthusiastic in his appreciation of American belief in the value of education, and paints the United States as far in advance of us in that it has a graded and co-ordinated educational system from the kindergarten to the university. THE REV. T. A. FINLAY [pp. 100-105] deals appreciatively with all grades of education, outlining the essential features of each. Incidentally, he calls attention to the fact that no boy in an American school looks forward to digging and delving for hire as a, means of livelihood, nor does any girl contemplate domestic service as her future work in life. Reference is made to the parochial schools which, built and equipped by voluntary contributions, impose a heavy burden on their supporters. PROFESSOR T. GREGORY FOSTER [pp. 106-129] dwells on the manner in which the belief in education permeates American society, and on the consequent development of educational agencies. He then considers critically and at length the organisation and working of the higher institutions more especially in regard to the teaching of English, of history and of modern languages and literature. Attention is drawn to the advantages which the teacher derives from the comparative absence of examinations; and the system of " accredited schools " from which students pass without examination directly into the university is fully explained. The training of teachers is dwelt upon at some length. Methods of organisation and administration are considered in a final section, in which the esprit do corps and devotion to their Alma Mater that actuate students, past and present, in the universities and colleges is specially referred to. MR. W. C. FLETCHER [pp. 130-146] first considers the appreciation of education in America, especially as shown by the development of tha secondary school system. He then deals at length with the work done in the schools, which he characterises as mediocre, whilst xix. [C ho speaks of tho discipline and th<> toi ing in them aa client. The influence of . spent in in. ' oi'imeiited on. Particular-; are g ;versity of l\ ;d of Illinois. M;. 1 ilso K. \V. II. (i \-KKI, I, i|ip. 117 1' .< Of nnaK>;n v and pi I le fn : hat there are i .-iinincrs in the medical schools and that whether a The I lai'.ard met; sni t.hen full;. isun with our I !l out, and th lity of introducing . gth '>. Dr. < insists on the advantage of bring; of teaching all the prelimmar. from the liospital. 1'inaily, ; tlie -.dth of provisio'i heinv; dwelt upon. J>r. Gaskcll irly dircc.ts attention to the lar^e nuinl/ ling tho classes iii experimental psychology and to the absence of provision for this subject here. TIIK KKV. DK. ^iu.\v pp. Ll -lous causes of industrial ])ro^ress in the United State 'n<^ the. opinion that whilst ti. the c.t rather than one of the causes still less tip -of pro.. "ct is every day becoming more ;l nd m , ' ige> tie - the, position of the teachers, pointing out that ' profession as a wliol- . few of the 1 He vi. the preponderance of wo i - with alarm. Co-education is r ) as having adva hich outweigh t: iu- Dr. -210] first refers to the profound belief in the I'nited States in the value, and importance of education and the manner in which it . ,mg of ourdeticien he proceeds to consider the inc.lusion of educational handwork in curriculum. lie points out that although in the tear' of sewing and cooking to girls we are in '. ' is a deplorable gap, si/ I, between the CONTEXTS.] sx. kindergarten and the commencement of woodwork at 12 years of of a<*e. He then refers to the work which is being done in this direction by two pioneer institutions, the Teachers' College, New York, and the School of Education under Dr. Dewey in Chicago. He then passes to the consideration of manual training proper, urging that greater facilities should be afforded for such work. THE REV. A. W. JEPHSON ^pp. 211-234" first comments on the similarity in the educational methods adopted throughout the United States, on the enthusiasm for education which is every- where manifest, and on the systematic way in which education is administered. He illustrates the manner in which the various grades of free schools are co-related by quoting the courses of instruction given in several kinds of schools. After commenting at length on the arrangement and work of the elementary schools, he briefly discusses the training of teachers, appending to his remarks the scheme of lessons given at the Peabody School in Nashville, Tenn. Evening and vacation schools are alluded to in a final paragraph. PROFESSOR MAGNUS MACLEAN [pp. 2C5-245] first deals generally with the development of the American educational system, and then considers in detail the attitude of employers towards the technically trained students of the higher institutions, his conclusion being that the attitude of favour with which college training is regarded by employers exercises a telling influence, as it gives parents and children an interest in school work from the primary grade upwards. The features of American technical education are then discussed and contrasted with our own ; the work done by correspondence schools is referred to in this section. THE EEV. T. L. PAPILLON [pp. 246-255] first considers the extent to which education is a factor in the industrial progress of America. After touching on the facts that there is no "religious difficulty" and that education is comparatively free from the tyranny of examinations, he dwells on the manner in which it is being brought into close contact with life and the needs of life and on its eminently practical and popular character. Throughout the report, a comparison is made between American institutions and our own. MR. HERBERT R. RATHBONE [pp. 256-273] , after referring to the esteem in which education is held, proceeds to consider in detail the arrangements of the elementary schools under the heads building, staff, discipline, moral teaching, manual training, physical culture, co-education, and organisation. After briefly referring to museums, he calls attention to the work done by the department for children in the Boston Public Library. He then gives an account of the impressions he formed during the visit which a small party of the Commissioners, of whom he was one, paid to the West and South, including the newly-settled Oklahoma Territory. PRINCIPAL H. R. REICHEL [pp. 274-309] deals at considerable length with the subject of manual training, insisting on its importance, and describing the character of the work done in various school*. He then considers the State university system of the Middle West with reference to the universities at Ann Arbor (Michigan), Madison (Wisconsin), and Minneapolis (Minnesota). xxi. [t< The accrediting system of admitting pupil work of the agricultural coi -nment stations and of tho Bureau of Agriculture at Washington is lully dealt with. After recording his ge.ieral impi- looN, hi- passes to the consideration of the ('aii;uli;in universities and >.;hools. PKOFESSOB Kins pp ' comments on the earnestness with which Americans regard education and their consequent willin, to spend money on it ; he also contrasts the liberality of their wealthy men with the niggardliness of the hulk of si: (Englishmen. After discussing the relations between teacher and taught and the question of discipline, lie refers to the leisurely way in which education is carried on ; to the liberty of action en, by teachers owing to the absence of examinations ; and to th' that the schools are but little influenced hy e tions of social status or hy any religious difliculty. lie hints, however, at the possibility that a demand for denominational teaching may arise. He somewhat deprecates co-education and the preponderance of women teachers. College and university education is then dis- cussed, especially with reference to the teaching of languages. The attention paid to ethnology in America is contrasted with our gross neglect of the subject. PROFESSOR W. BIPPKR [pp. 330-343] deals chiefly with the educa- tion of engineers. In speaking of the common schools, he reff the preponderance of women teachers. Passing to the secondary schools, he points out how these are as much a part of the system of education as the elementary schools are. The existence of manual training and of commercial departments in the schools is touched upon. College education is then considered and its value pointed out. Much is said of the ambition of students and of the sacrifices they make to obtain an education. The opinion which the practical man has of the college trained man is referred to, its adverse as well as its favourable character being noted. Professor Ripper then touches on the advantage American teachers enjoy from having students of a ripe age ; on the relation between manufacturers and colleges; on the education of apprentices; on evening cla- on correspondence schools ; and on the industrial success of America. A series of conclusions terminates the report. Mi;. CHAKT.F.S ROWLEY [pp. 344-350], after referring to home conditions, of which he declines to say anything unduly depre- ciatory, criticises the products of American arts and crafts somewhat unfavourably; he contrasts the condition of the poor with the costly but often unattractive magnificence of public buildings in the . cities. The condition of journalism is referred to. The great work which is being done at Hampton and Tuskegee to educate coloured children is commented on appreciatively. Mi;. A. -I. SHI.PHDAHD [pp. 351-359] briefly considers the general views on education held in America ; the organisation of tho education authority; teachers their training and their work; manual training ; and technical education. He dwells on the facti that education is mainly under the guidance of paid officials, and deplores the exclusion of the voluntary element. He regards the preponderance of female teachers unfavourably. Mr. Shepheard urges very strongly the importance of granting degrees to those CONTENTS.] xxii. who have attended courses specially arranged for teachers. He amends that experiments should be made to test in -a systematic manner, both in elementary and secondary schools, the value of an extended course of manual training. Mn. A. Kmirsr) SI'KNDEK 'pp. 360-375] deals exclusively with truant and reformatory schools and with the measures adopted in dealing with juvenile offences. The measures used for the purpose of reform arc described under three heads the methods of persuasion, caution, and detention ; the first and second of these are considered more particularly as being almost peculiar to America. A full account is given of the working of the juvenile courts, by the establishment of which the trial of cases in which children arc offenders is entirely dissociated from the contamination and publicity of police-courts. Much information is given as to the working of the parental schools and as to the superiority of the cottage system over the barrack system too frequently in vogue in our country. The manner in which the principle of self-government i^, applied in some of the reformatory schools is also described. COUNCILLOR J. WIIITBURX [pp. 376-393] deals in a very general manner but at length with the various grades of schools, recording an almost uniformly favourable opinion of them. He enters very fully into an account of the International Correspondence Schools at Scranton, Pa., 'and has much to say of the value of teaching by correspondence. The effect of education upon industrial progress is discussed in the final section of the report, to which a series of recommendations is appended. Ittosclp Educational Commission, JOINT REPORT. The undersigned members of the Mosely Educational Commission are deeply impressed by tin- evidem-e they have ga . M the : bsolute belief in the value of education both to the community at large and to agriculture, commerce, manu- rea and tin- service of the Slate. Although, in the past, the in education has been the effect rather than the cau Ame: perity, during the last quarter of a century education werful and far-reaching influence ; and it cannot be doubted thai, in i he future, it will become more and more the 8 of industrial and commercial progress and of national well- being. They are satisfied that, in years to come, in com; with American commerce we shall be called upon to face trained men, gifted \\ith both enterprise and knowledge. They desire to impress on the British public the absolute need of immediate naration on our part to meet such competition. The i-;o been impressed with the spirit which animates i'oth teachers and pupils, and by the manner in which the two .n tiie -<-hools and colleges. Willingness, if not an overwhelming desire, to learn seems to characterise in,- scholars; and teacli : to be possessed of but one wish that of helping their pupils in every possible way. The absence of c and of any " religious diiliculty " serves most materially to facilitate the work of the schools. The closest connection is being established between theory and practice, the practical bent of the men of letters and science and the breadth of their outlook being very remarkable. The services of experts in various brandies of knowledge are, therefore, held in high esteem and are in constant demand. The important part which manual training is beginning to uld draw attention to the extent to which the work of education is organised and it- various grades co*ordii: whereby harmonious working is secured and overlapping avoided. JOINT REPORT.] xxiv. The need of effecting such organisation in this country, which wag before apparent, now seems to them imperative, in view of the experience they have gained in the United States. Although individual members of the Commission have expressed their thanks both to Mr. Mosely and to all those who have assisted them in the United States, they wish in their collective capacity to record their high appreciation of the value of the opportunity which Mr. Mosely gave them to gain experience likely to be of signal value to them in carrying on their work at home. They also desire to acknowledge with gratitude the courtesy with which thev were invariably received, and to express their deep sense of the obligation under which they have been placed by all who assisted them in their inquiries ARTHUK ANDERTOX. W. P. GROSER. HENRY E. ARMSTRONG. JOSEPH E. HEAPE. :;: W. E. AYRTON. ARTHUR W. JEPHSON. THOMAS BARCLAY. MAGNUS MACLEAN. ARTHUR W. BLACK. T. L. PAPILLON. ::: E. BLAIR. HERBERT E. EATHBONE. JOHN EOSE BRADFORD. H. E. EEICHEL. HARRY COWARD. JOHN EHYS. T. A. FINLAY. W. EIPPER. W. C. FLETCHER. CHARLES EOWLEY. T. GREGORY FOSTER. ALFRED J. SHEPHEARD. W. H. GASKELL. A. EDMUND SPENDER. H. B. GRAY. JOHN WHITBURN. * Professor Ayrton does not agree with the reference to the preponderance of women teachers, and Mr. Blair regards the subject as an open question. IPosclp Educational Commission. Report of Mr. ARTHUR ANDERTON, Representative of the County Councils' Association of England and Wales. The people of the United States have long since made up their minds that the foundation of national and individual success is, to a large extent, to be found in the establishment of a sound general education. Having come to this conclusion they spare no expense in providing the necessary free schools, where children can obtain elementary and secondary education of the best type. The school system generally consists of primary and grammar schools, these schools combined being equivalent to our elementary schools; and high schools, representing our ordinary day grammar schools and organised science schools. The primary and grammar schools are designed to take the children from the kindergarten to the eighth grade, which they should reach at the age of 14 years ; having successfully passed through the grammar school, they are then at liberty to enter the high school and there take a four years' course, which closes the free education provided by the State, or the city. The schools are frequently mixed (boys and girls in the same classes) ; they are presided over by a head teacher, who has the assistance of a secretary and a complete staff of assistant teachers for every grade, the great majority being women. The teachers in many of the cities are well paid oc a scale fixed by the Board of Education of each city or State. In some places we heard com- plaints of inadequate salaries. The head teachers are consulted, and have considerable freedom in settling the curriculum of their particular schools. The character of the teaching is based on the deductive method, which undoubtedly has the great advantage of securing the attention of the children, in addition to training them to think for themselves, and creating a self-confidence and power of expressing their thoughts which is most valuable when they enter upon the active duties of life. The children are led at the very outset to believe that the teacher wishes to know their opinion, and, if it is wrong, will correct it. The system further leads the children openly to help one another, and fearlessly express their views in the presence of the whole class, thereby helping the creation of an esprit de corps which cannot but tell for good in after life. The self-consciousness that one so frequently notices in school children of the same class in England is almost entirely absent in American children, a result very largely brought about through the influence of the schools. It is very possible that American children may not acquire the same amount of " book " knowledge as children do in English schools, but they undoubtedly learn to apply what they do know much more successfully than is generally the case here. Very great importance is attached to the training of teachers. In all the cities and States ample provision is made for the training of all candidates for the teaching profession. It is essential that ANDEKTON.] ^ before a candidate is considered qualified to enter the normal training school he should have successfully passed through the high school, thus giving assurance of a sound general education as a basis on which to specialise. There is no pupil-teacher system. In order to keep regular teachers in touch with the work of schools other than their own, frequent conferences are held when matters are discussed bearing on all phases of the work in which teachers are engaged, new suggestions are invited, and generally the teachers are encouraged by the knowledge that their work is not confined to their particular school, but part of a great work extending through and influencing the life and character of a city, or a State, and the nation as a whole. Usually these conferences are presided over by the Superintendent of Education, who is thus brought into touch with the teachers of the district over which he presides. Manual training is practised in many of the schools, and in some of the high schools the equipment for this purpose is very complete, and the training excellent. In fact one is impressed on every hand with the practical character of the training in the State and city schools generally. Great attention is paid to physical culture in most of the schools. Evening schools, under the city or State authorities, are not so general as in England, but they are now established in some of the more populous centres of the cities and seem to appeal to the young people. The work undertaken is generally of a practical kind. In New York, during the summer vacation, which is usually much longer than in England, a vacation course has been established for children living in the crowded districts of the city. The work is principally manual, such as sewing, basket work, iron and copper work, leather work, etc., etc. The exhibition of this work done during the last vacation was very interesting, and showed much skill on the part of the scholars. The New York Board of Education provide a series of public lectures during the winter months ; in character they are educational and recreative, and are intended to help parents who have not had the advantages the children now enjoy to obtain useful information. There are also a series of popular lectures provided for teachers every week, dealing with subjects of interest to the American citizen. The lectures are illustrated by beautifully coloured lantern slides. In connection with the schools there is no prize system or scholarships, the belief being that educationally such a system is undesirable. (In connection with some of the universities there are a few modified scholarships, but they are not general, and are not encouraged.) One great difficulty has to be provided for by the school authorities which perhaps does not present itself to any other nation, that is the provision for dealing with the enormous number of children of foreign parents who are constantly pouring into America to find new homes. It was interesting to see the method of teaching these children the English language, and surprising to hear how quickly they acquired sufficient knowledge to enable them to take their places in the ordinary school classes. Great importance is attached to the teaching of the duties of citizenship, and this is emphasised .in the schools by the parade of the national flag, which is saluted by 3 [ANDERTON. the children as they pass out of the Assembly Hall. National songs are sung in all schools, so that very early in life not only the nativi' lx>rn American children, but also thf3 children of foreign immigrants, having had put before them the greatness and possibilities of the nation, soon become imbued with national instincts and aspirations. Attendance at school is compulsory up to 14 years of age (then- is no half-time system), but attendance ofiicers are few in number, so that OIK; might infer th;il this side of the administrative work is not strictly curried out, but we were assured that the public sentiment in favour of education is so strong there is not so much necessity for the use of official pressure as in England. The high schools being free, a large number of children pass into them from the grammar schools. But they soon discover that the work is more difficult than they anticipated, or their parents require them to enter on some remunerative employment, and both causes lead to the retirement of a large number during the first year (in New York as many as i5 per cent.) Those who remain for the full four years' course may, therefore, be considered generally to be the children of ability who are able to profit by the instruction, ami eventually become a valuable asset, making for the industrial pro- gress and stability of the nation. In the administration of education there is greater elasticity than in England. There is no Central Department dealing with the nation as a whole. Each State and large city has its independent authority, with a free hand to adopt the policy most suitable for its own particular requirements. The Central Government simply provides a department, presided over by Dr. Harris, at Washington, for compiling statistics, and generally keeping the numerous authorities in touch with one another. The constitution of the education authority in the different areas varies. In the large cities, such as New York, Washington, Philadelphia, and Chicago, the members are selected by the Mayor or other officials, the taxpayers having no direct voice in the election of the board. It strikes one from England as very strange that in a country so essentially democratic as America the people should be satisfied with such an anti- democratic method of constituting the authority having charge of education. In Boston the board is directly elected. In New York the Board of Education consists of 46 members, one-sixth retiring annually. There are 46 District Committees, who inspect schools, etc., in their respective districts, but they have no administrative powers. The Board appoints the superintendent of education, who has the assistance of eight associate superin- tendents appointed by the Board on his nomination. These officials practically form the Executive, and exercise a powerful influence in the general and detailed administration of the educational work of the city. All teachers are appointed on their recommendation from an approved list, and in the general management of the various schools they have a controlling voice. The school buildings are generally good, the newer ones excellent, and the equipment all that could be desired ; in fact, the efficiency of the school is the one thing aimed at, and no expense is spared to attain this desirable end. Many of the schools in the cities are very large, accommodation being frequently provided for 2,000 to 3,000 scholars, and, in some ANDERTON. 4 cases, even more. The plans for the buildings are all prepared by the architect to the Board, and are admirably conceived and carried out. It was interesting to hear that in carrying out the buildings the architect so carefully considers every detail that no extras are incurred, and the school is usually completed within the estimated cost. The books and materials required in the schools are selected by the superintendent and his associates. A considerable choice is afforded, and the head teacher of each school has some voice in the selection from the authorised list of the particular books most suitable for the respective schools. At present the books, etc., are distributed through a central dep6t, but this plan has not been a success, and it is in contemplation to adopt a simpler method. The salaries of the teachers are all paid from the central office through the head teacher of each school, a separate cheque being made out for each individual teacher. The organisation of this central office, and, indeed, of the whole work of the Board, is excellent. In the matter of organisation we have a great deal to learn from our American cousins, and one feels that it would be a great advantage if many of the new officials recently appointed to organise educational work in our counties could have the advantage of a visit to the offices of the Board of Education in New York. The free schools are largely used by all classes. The son of the wealthy man sits in the same class with the son of the labourer. In Washington, we saw the son of the President of the United States, two grandsons of the late President Garfield, and many children of members of Congress sitting and working in the same classes as the children of coachmen, gardeners, labourers, etc. Not the slightest difference is observed in regard to these children ; they mix in the classes and play- grounds on terms of perfect equality. Higher education above the free high school is provided by the various technical institutions, colleges and universities. Many of these institutions have been founded and endowed by wealthy citizens of the United States who have realised the great value to the individual and the nation of the highest educa- tion. Students who enter these colleges for the full course are required to have graduated at the high school, which is generally accepted as a sufficient guarantee that they have received a good general education as a foundation on which to specialise. The equipment of many of the technical colleges is excellent, the teaching good, and the keenness of the students very marked. Among many excellent institutions of this class may be mentioned the Pratt Institute at Brooklyn, founded and endowed by the late Mr. Pratt, and now managed by hjs three sons ; the Drexel Institute, and the School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia; the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston ; the Armour and the Lewis Institutes, Chicago ; the Textile School, Lowell ; and many others. Many of the universities and colleges have also received great assistance from the princely gifts of wealthy men, some of them having been built and endowed entirely at the cost of single individuals. Fees are charged at all these various institutions, and after passing successfully through the full course students have 5 [ANDEHTON. no difficulty in entering with every prospect of success t offered by the professions or the public and private industrial concerns of the States. Of the universities I will not attempt to write, as this phase of the educational work will be dealt with by other members of the Commission. ^ There are many excellent colleges provided for the higher education of women. Amongst others we saw Barnard College, New York ; Yasser College, Poughkeepsie ; Wellesley College, near Boston. These colleges consist of very fine buildings, and the equipment is excellent. At Washington I had the opportunity of a most intere- conversation with Dr. Wylie, the head of the Depart of Agricultural Chemistry. In recent years a great advance has been made in applying science to agriculture in th various States, and there are now many colleges largely devoted to the training of students in this branch of science. There are also observation stations established at many centres. The Central Department at Washington collects and tabulates statistics, analyses soils, seeds, manures, etc., and advises generally on all questions bearing on the subject of agriculture. We were told that as a result of this policy land in the Eastern States which for years had been out of cultivation was now being reclaimed and again becoming valuable. To review the general impressions received from my visit, the following are the points with which I was specially struck : 1. The people as a whole believe in the absolute necessity of a good, sound, general education as one of the principal factors in the building up of a successful State, and as a consequence of this belief they are willing to contribute without stint to the building and equipment of the common schools, which are absolutely free to ;ill children. 2. A good general education is generally recognised as the necessary basis for specialising in the higher institutions. 3. The large corporations and heads of industrial concerns recognise the value of well-educated men who have made a special study of some branch of science applicable to the industry they intend to follow. The demand for such young men is always in excess of the supply, and is increasing. As a consequence, there is a desire on the part of the students to equip themselves .'to meet the demand, which cannot but materially add to the efficiency of the industrial life of the nation. A spirit of hopefulness is apparent in the high schools and colleges, which shows itself in application and attention, and a general keenness to make the best of the oppor- tunities offered. 4. Education is, as far as the public are concerned, treated on its merits ; there is no acute religious question obscuring the great issues involved. 5. The organisation of secondary education on a broad and liberal basis and as part of the public school system results in a better prepared class of students entering the higher institutions than is generally the case in England. In this branch of education the United States have adopted a wise policy, whilst in England we have not yet sufficiently recognised its importance. 6. Generally the American system is more practical than the English. ANDEKTON.] G 7. There is nothing in America quite to compare with our great public schools and Oxford and Cambridge Universities. 8. The predominance of female teachers throughout the city and State schools is very marked, and it is a question whether, as far at least as the boys are concerned, it would not be better to offer inducements to bring more men into the profession. At the same time one could not fail to be impressed with the character, ability, and bearing of the female teachers generally. They are a great power for good. In conclusion, I should like to express my personal thanks to the authorities wherever we went for their great kindness and attention. The hospitality we received on every hand will never be forgotten by any member of the Commission. I trust that Mr. Mosely's public spirited action in organising and bearing the cost of the Commission may result in much good to education in England. ARTHUB ANDERTON. IHoselp educational Commission. Report of Professor HENRY E. ARMSTRONG, Ph.D., LLD., F.R.S. The places visited by me as a member of the Commission were New York, Baltimore, Washington, Cleveland (Ohio), Buffalo, Ithaca (Cornell University), Boston, Yale and Middletown (Conn.). But on a previous occasion, six years ago, when I was tkree months in the country, I crossed^ the American continent twice from East to West, including the journey from Montreal to Vancouver by the Canadian Pacific Kailway. I then spent a considerable time in the West and saw much of Chicago, as well as of Minneapolis and the great wheat region in the north-west. As a student, I was brought much into contact with Americans ; this has led me always to take a special interest in them and I have all my life been a close observer of American scientific work. Any opinions that I may have formed are, therefore, somethingmore than mere impressions derived from my recent brief visit. It is very difficult to evaluate the part which school education plays in the United States of America. That it plays a real part \ cannot be doubted ; but there is clearly a tendency somewhat, if I not greatly, to exaggerate its relative importance as a factor in the national welfare. In point of fact, American cuteness would seemj to be conditioned by environment rather than by school education.' The country was settled by adventurous, high-minded men ; the adventurous and restless spirits of Europe have been attracted there for generations past ; the conditions have always been such as to develop enterprise and to stimulate individuality and inventiveness : so that, during the whole period in which the continent has bean gradually acquired and settled on, there has been a constant invigourating struggle going on against nature in one form or another, the Indian probably having played no mean part in the education of the race. Such being the case, it is important to remember that some at least of these influences are now withdrawn and that development may, in consequence, be along different lines in future, especially as the enervating influence of machinery is also coming into play more and more. In some respects, the Americans may be said to be a distinct if not an improved breed. Certain proclivities have undoubtedly been unconsciously selected out, and there has been much cross breeding ; hence a race has been developed differing in important respects in its type of thought, if in no other way, from those represented in Europe. Moreover, success has given them belief in themselves and leads them to trust themselves. The natural resources at their disposal are boundless and their outlook is extraordinarily hopeful ; they are born optimists, in fact. They have also learnt to work together and to accept and support party rule ; they seem, indeed, to tolerate direction and to subordinate their individual opinions to ARMSTRONG.] an extent which we have difficulty in believing possible so much so that they may be said to lack individuality. Willingness to organise and to be organised is almost characteristic of the nation. Unin- fluenced by tradition, they are eminently receptive always ready to consider and test new ideas; nevertheless, the conservatism characteristic of a young country is in many ways still manifest among them. It is difficult to trace the development of any American peculiari- ties to the schools or to find any evidence even that the schools seek to utilise and develop the national idiosyncrasies. After seeing a number of schools in detail both common schools and public high schools it seems to me that they are much as our schools ; that the problems they are seeking to solve are our problems ; that their difficulties are our difficulties. In matters of organisation and administration, we apparently can learn many things from them ; but, as regards method, it seems to me that we have very little to learn ; indeed, in depth of purpose and originality, our best work may not unfairly be said to be considerably in advance of theirs. But whereas here we have no general belief in education, in America the common school system is universally held in high esteem and its influence is very great. The mere fact that all classes are brought together in the common school is in itself of the utmost importance as affecting the social outlook ; even those who prefer to send their children to private high schools seem to think it desirable that they should first attend the common school in order that they may consort with others. The belief in secondary education, especially for boys, is far less general it is probably no greater than ours and yet, it seems to me, that it is by the existence of a well-developed public high school system that America is distinguished most from us, and potentially placed most in advance of us. What has until recently counted as university education here is almost unknown in America. What will count as university educa- tion here ere long, as the various provincial universities become effective, is already developed in America to a considerable extent and is advancing with giant strides. The support of university education is become a fashionable practice among multi-millionaires, and the appreciation of such education by employers generally has reached a point as yet undreamt of here and is growing rapidly, owing to the establishment of an effective working connection between the manufacturing industries and the colleges. The belief in higher education may be expected to grow at a compound interest rate. This, it seems to me, is the great fact to be taken note of, if as we undoubtedly must we are to regard education as an effective means of promoting national welfare. It will undoubtedly force on th$ development of the public high schools. But, as I shall have occasion to point out, American education is for the most part still governed by eminently academic and conservative tradi- tions ; in some respects it lacks depth and practical outlook to a strange extent. The movement which has led here, during the past 20 years, to the erection of technical schools all over the country and of the numerous polytechnics in London is only beginning to come into evidence in America. Evening class instruction, such as has grown up under our Science and Art Department, is almost unknown there. 9 [AltMKTHONO. In New York and other large towna we saw many fine public school buildings. But if buildings are to be regarded as evidence of appreciation, we may point to those erected by School Boards all over this country ; it is probable that in size, number and appointments they compare not unfavourably with those to be found in Aiiirnr;i, taking into account the areas dealt with. The building, it must not be forgotten, appeals to the public sense: it can be pointed to with pride. This is distinctly the attitude adopted in America towards the public school buildings. I am not aware that ke particular pride in the erection of our Board schools: it is rut her our habit to grumble at the outlay they involve. Tun COMMON SCHOOLS. In interior arrangements even the most modern schools are not superior to our own. And there is even less attempt made in them to provide pictorial decoration. Thring's doctrine of thinking in shape has, if possible, made less advance thus far in the American common schools than in ours. Much has been said of the importance attached in the American schools to the teaching of patriotism and to the practice of saluting the flag which prevails in them. This involves the recitation occasionally of the formula : " I pledge allegiance to my flag and to the Kepublic for which it stands one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." This appeared to me to be a somewhat p-rfuiK-.tory exercise when I witnessed it. Thinking Americans with whom I discussed the question seemed to regard the practice as of some value in cities like New York and Chicago, where a large alien element has constantly to be absorbed into the population ; but apparently they were of opinion that it was undesirable as a general practice. It is almost unnecessary to say that the amount of attention paid in the common schools to reading and composition is in no way sufficient or satisfactory, the neglect of English among English- speaking people being proverbial. Apparently no greater effort is made in the American schools than in ours to lead children to read and to become really fond of reading. The teaching of drawing is also undeveloped. Simple measure- ment work in association with drawing, which is being so much advocated here and which is gradually assuming importance in our schools, seems to be almost, if not quite, unknown. I did not learn that the att-'inpt was being made anywhere to put the teaching of arithmetic on a practical commonsense basis. Although manual training figures in the programme, the interpre- tation put upon the term seems to be very different from that which is usual here, drawing commonly counting as manual training. In some of the schools, where space permits, woodwork is introduced into the upper classes for boys, and cookery and needlework for girls. The belief in such work is evidently growing ; but at present the schools are undoubtedly behind ours in promoting it and even more bookish than ours in their tendencies. The Nature study lessons I witnessed, when not specifically botanical or zoological and scientific in character, were eminently superficial and worthless. As all classes attend the common schools, these cannot be compared directly with our elementary schools, but must be thought of in connection both with these and with all other types of preparatory schools. ARMSTRONG.] 10 There are two striking features in thorn the air of refinement due to the attention paid to dress, especially by the girls, the prepon- derating element in most classes ; and the attitude of familiarity assumed by the class towards the teacher. Distinctions such as poverty or occupation might well condition even in a democracy are scarcely perceptible. In America the teacher does not seem to be regarded as the natural enemy of the boy as a person to be circumvented. The method of teaching which appears to be generally adopted involves, as it were, the constant exchange of opinion between teacher and pupil not, as is here the case, either the communication of information to the class by the teacher or the mere wringing of what is supposed to have been learnt from the pupil by the teacher. The method has both its advantages and its disadvantages. It develops that readiness of address which charac- terises young Americans and leads children to give their opinions freely far too freely many think on all sorts of subjects ; and it encourages cuteness. But it imposes a very heavy burden on the teacher and operates against close study and concentration of attention. In American schools there is no enforcement of dis- cipline by means either of penalties or of prizes. Children are put on a footing with grown-up people and treated as young Republicans. How, then, is discipline maintained? Is it always? Perhaps the average American boy has not such a fund of animal spirits as the English boy he is sprung from a tolerant race and from an early age tends to ape the behaviour of his elders more than the English boy does. Certainly one great cause of good behaviour is the presence of girls along with the boys. On the occasion of my former visit, I discussed with one of the chief inspectors in Washing- ton the reasons why the system of mixed classes had been abandoned there and then resumed. I learnt that one of the possible reasons was that it had been found difficult to keep the boys in order when alone. But undoubtedly the chief hold teachers have on their classes is consequent on their maintaining the interest of the pupils. Many of my colleagues on the Commission not teachers in fact, expressed the opinion on more than one occasion that the teaching was most interesting. But looking below the surface I did not feel satisfied with all that I witnessed. Whilst every teacher will admit that it is necessary to create interest, we all know that it is not always possible to maintain this at bursting point and that in school, as in the world, uninteresting work must be done sometimes ; that, in point of fact, it is most important to acquire the art of doing uninteresting work in a serious and determined way. The American system seems to me to be one which imposes a fearful strain upon the teachers especially as they are mostly women. And it has some serious consequences. One of these is inability to concentrate the attention. Everywhere the heads of the high schools complained that the pupils who came from the elementary schools could not concentrate their attention upon then- work . Several were of opinion that under the somewhat more rigid conditions of the high school improvement in this respect gradually took place as the pupils moved up. On the other hand, in more than one case it was admitted candidly by the head teacher of the elementary school that the extent to which the children could con- centrate their attention diminished as they grew older and passed up the school ; thirty minutes, we were told, was the longest period during which boys could concentrate their attention and work effectively. This failing, I believe, is not unknown in our own schools. 11 [ARMSTRONG. PUBLIC II ion SCHOOLS. Although we have no schools which are the precise equivalent of these, some of our higher grade elementary schools come very close to them in many respects. It is noteworthy that, in a city like New York, few who can afford to semi th ir children to private schools make use of the public high school one chief reason assigned being that the classes in the latter are si. that individual pupils cannot receive sufficient attention. Of who enter, in New York, about 50 per cent, (mostly boys) during the t'ust \ear to go into business ; under 10 per cent, r- until the fourth year. It is said that a much larger proportion uie ned iii the schools in the Middle West. In common with all my colleagues, I was favourably impressed by the way in which English literature was taught, but I could not discover that the teaching was carried to a logical end and fon< for reading inculcated.* I found no more evidence that p attention was paid to writing and English composition than in our schools; the subject which of all other is of primary importance s to be equally neglected in both countries. I met with no p attempt to correlate the English composition with any of the practical work. In the teaching of mathematics and science, the American high schools seem to me to be considerably behind our best schools. I came across little evidence that the practical methods of teaching mathematics and geometry which are coming into vogue here are appreciated ; and the old academic methods of teaching science seem to prevail almost exclusively. No proper foundation for such work is laid in the elementary schools. In one respect there has been an important departure : the recognition of the value of manual training has led to the development of a special manual training department and, in some cases, of distinct Manual Training High Schools; in the latter, manual training takes the place of classics. In some cases, perhaps the, majority, these are tending to develop into trade schools and to aim at proficiency in w y ood and metal work ; they are elaborately equipped with tools. Nominally, they profess to regard the manual work from an educational standpoint, but it is quite clear that in most cases the will passes for the deed and that the teachers are not competent to develop the subjects pedagogically. But we met with one most remarkable exception in the Brooklyn Manual Training High School. The head master of this school, Mr. Larkin, has conceptions of the educational possibilities which manual training may afford which place him on a special plane. His school at present is very inadequately housed. New buildings, however, are to be provided, and it is to be hoped that these will not be so palatial and ornate as to destroy the true workshop-like characte^ and atmosphere of the cramped quarters in which the work is now carried on. In the first year the boys do woodwork; in the second, metal work chiefly forging ; in the third, printing ; in the fourth, machine-tool work. The second year work was in the hands of a man of exceptional ability, not merely a smith but an artist, so that the imagination as well as the mechanical aptitude of the boys * In the new Morris High School in New York a magnificent building to accommodate nearly 3,000 pupils a very fine library will be provided. The head master told us that it wag his intention to develop the use of this systematically and that many duplicates would be provided of important books. A feature in this school will a permanently darkened class-room wiu< I'lci'iric lantern, etc., into which classes can go to witness lantern demonstrations in vonnc'ciioii with geography lessons, etc. AKMSTRONG.] 12 \va being well developed. The printing was in charge of a master who also taught chemistry in the school an enthusiast who had mastered the art of printing and was teaching it con amore, Ocular demonstration of his persuasive powers was afforded by the presence in the workshop of a valuable linotype machine, which he had induced the makers to present to the school. We met with another man of this type teaching woodwork at a high school in Washington. He had been educated in the school and, perceiving the importance of. the subject, had served for several years as a pattern-maker in the Navy Yard at Washington ; then he had returned to the school as a teacher. It is men such as these that are needed to put manual training on a proper footing and it is all important that we should devise means of attracting such men into schools. The introduction of printing as a school subject may appear altogether absurd, but Mr. Larkin gave us clear evidence in proof of its value. Not only, he argues, is it of importance as a manual, mechanical exercise, as the means of bringing lads into contact with a set of facts outside ordinary experience, as well as of familiarising them with all that is involved in the production of the books they read, but it is also of value on the literary side. When lads are called upon to set up in type and print off something that they have written and to correct the proof, they begin to realise, in a way which is rarely done by the mere writer, how careless they have been in writing, how poor their style. We were favoured with copies of a journal produced in the school printed and illustrated there which certainly gave evidence of great skill. Mr. Larkin has a true conception of the educational possibilities afforded by proper manual training : while deprecating the attempt to train up skilled workmen as tending to stereotype the teaching, he sees very properly that it affords opportunities both on the mechanical and artistic side for general culture and that it may be made a most important adjunct of the literary and scientific work. Had I enjoyed no other opportunity than that of meeting him and of learning his views, I feel that my visit would have been a fruitful one. But elsewhere I found an almost absolute lack of imagination underlying the manual training work vague ideas of possibilities but neither real understanding nor sufficient executive power although technically much of it was excellent. It may be hoped that Manual Training Schools both primary and secondary will soon be established here in which at least half the time will be spent at experimental and manual work. There is no more important experiment to be made in education than that of determining the value of such schools. In these schools a whole floor at least should be fitted up as a workshop and every kind of manual work should be carried on, so that there might be unlimited manual temptation in the path of the scholar, who should be free to attempt anything that he liked without following a routine course. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. It is generally known that the American school system is very ineffectively controlled at the present time and that it is too often dominated by political influences. This is well brought out in a recent article in the Forum for October to December, 1903. In New York, both the elementary and the high schools are controlled by an able City Superintendent, who has a 13 [ARMSTRONG. staff of inspectors under him, and all appointments are made on a Civil Service basis ; but a year or two hetce, I believe, a Tammany- appointed inspector may be his successor. All the schools work to programmes authorised by the Superintendent, one programme being laid down for the elementary, another for the high schools. The latter, however, is based on the elective system, a considerable range in the choice of subjects being allowed. There is no doubt that this system is subject to considerable abuse and that "soft options " are much in request. It is beyond question most desirable that special aptitudes should be developed and that teachers should be in every way mindful of these ; but boys and girls cannot always be judges of what is good for them, nor have they the necessary worldly knowledge to settle for themselves. The Americans do not seem to have settled any more than we have what I are the necessary elements of a rational course of school study. As they work to a common programme, both the freedom of the high schools and the responsibility of their directors is limited in a way altogether unknown here, perhaps to an unfortunate extent. Given an ideal superintendent with an ideal staff, the system might work well. But no special effort is made or is likely to be made to secure such an ideal executive ; yet it should be aimed at. The combined intelligence of the teachers must be in excess of that of the executive and it should be brought more into operation ; unless the Americans desire to stereotype all teaching, they must be prepared to grant almost absolute freedon to their teachers. This does not preclude either the holding up of example or fair criticism. Both here and there the spirit of co-operation needs to be brought effectively into action. Our Education Department hitherto has had no Intelligence Department ; it has had no clearly thought-out, definite educational policy; there has been no effective means of keeping the inspectorate informed on all matters relating to educational method and no recognised means whatever of securing exchange of opinion and discussion either among the inspectors themselves or between them and teachers at large. The work of education has been carried on in holes and corners into which out- side influences have penetrated with difficulty. In both countries we need to organise the work on a scientific basis: there should be some conscious effort made to substitute the good for the bad and even for the mediocre. FEMALE TEACHERS. Most of us who are conversant with school work were struck by the distinctly low average of attainment in the American high schools. To what is this attributable ? In part probably to the conditions which prevail in American life ; but in I large measure also, I venture to think, to the prevalence of mixed/ schools and the preponderance of women teachers. Admitting that it may be possible, even desirable, to bring up the two sexes together in the earlier years of school life, I venture to think that we must sooner or later come to admit that it is wrong to do so during the later years, if the object be to develop a virile man. To put the matter in very simple terms, it seemed to me on the occasion of my former visit and the impression was confirmed during my recent visit that the boy in America is not being brought up to punch another boy's head or to stand having his own punched in a healthy and proper manner; that there is a strange and indefinable feminine air coming over the men ; a tendency towards a common, if I may so call it, sexless tone of thought. ARMSTRONG.] 14 But if co-education be bad in itself, it becomes infinitely worse when the teachers are mostly women ; they should rather be men mostly. Nowhere is the claim on behalf of women to equality with men put forward so strongly as it is in the United States. Nowhere, I believe, would it be found to be more disproved in practice, if carefully inquired into. Women have sought in recent times to prove that they can compete successfully with men in every field ; they claim to have succeeded, but the claim cannot be allowed, I think. They have shown what it was unnecessary to show that they are indefatigable workers ; and they have shown that they can pass examinations with brilliant success. But what has been the character of the examinations ? Almost invariably they have been such as to require the reproduction of learning, not original effort. History records but very few cases of women with any approach to originality ; it proves the sex to have been lacking in creative and imaginative power. Those who have taught women students are one and all in agreement that, although close workers and most faithful and accurate observers, yet, with the rarest exceptions, they are incapable of doing independent original work. And it must be so. Throughout the entire period of her existence woman has been man's slave ; and if the theory of evolution be in any way correct there is no reason to suppose, I imagine, that she will recover from the mental disabilities which this has entailed upon her within any period which we, for practical purposes, can regard as reasonable. Education can do little to modify her nature. The argument is one which women probably will not, perhaps cannot, appreciate. No better proof could be asked for, however, than is afforded by the consistent failure of women to discover special wants of their own they have always merely asked to have what men have, to be allowed to compete with men. Domestic subjects have been taught in the most perfunctory manner possible. Among the colleges we visited was that at Vassar the chief college for women in the States. It accommodates some 900 students. The college is located amidst surroundings in full harmony with the grace of the inmates : their charm of manner overcame us completely, even in the brief period during which we were privileged to fraternise with them. The teachers are mostly men. The instruction is given entirely on academic lines : lectures afe delivered on economics but I could not discover that woman's work in the world ' domestics ' was considered in any specific way : it would come, I was told, under the head of technical education, which is eschewed. Apparently no use is made of the beautiful grounds in which the buildings are placed for Nature-study or instruction in horticulture ; as one of my companions remarked, Nature is looked at only in the laboratory down a microscope tube. In some of the Western co-educational colleges, arrangements have been made to provide for woman's specific requirements, which have given great satisfaction, I arn told ; but this has been done at the instance of the men teachers. The women teachers in America, it seems to me, are less likely fian ours are to take a feminine point of view in instructing girls. The general environment seems unfavourable to the development of domestic tastes. From the point of view that I have ventured to advocate, women teachers must be, for most purposes, relatively inefficient; uml as lo [AinisTi. teaching is an occupation in which more than any other imaginative power, individuality, insight and originality are wanted, it is important that men rather than women should exercise the predominant influence. If it be the province of education to mould the race, there is no other question of greater importance claiming our attention at the present time especially as the difiiculty of obtaining male teachers is increasing day by day. In both countries it is imperative that we should discover means of attracting men with practical instincts and of superior mental gifts into the teaching profession. THE TRAINING OP TEACHERS. The elementary schools, at least in the larger cities, enjoy an advantage over ours in that, I believe their teachers usually all pass through a period of high school training prior to entering the normal or training school ; their outlook is consequently, on the average, somewhat broader. The methods adopted in training teachers appear to be no lees academic than ours. The premier training establishment at the present time is the Columbia Teachers' College, New York a palatial establishment. The teaching given in this college is in part academic, in part professional, the predominant class of student being those who are training to become supervisors, i.e., advisory or teaching inspectors. I had hoped to find that in this college the academic training had a certain bias imparted to it, just as at our Cambridge a certain professional bias is given to much of the academic training of those who graduate in the engineering tripos. But I was disappointed. And I was also greatly disappointed by what I heard when attending some of the pedagogic classes : there was a high-flown air of unreality about the instruction; too much precept, too little practice ; no really severe practice ! The whole building seemed to me to be out of character with the work to be done : far too ornate ; and the students mostly women looked far too respectable and tidy to please me. If they had been men I should have said that they needed to take their coats off and not to be above making their hands dirty. It does not seem likely that teachers so trained will be able to give the simple, practical, commonsense instruction that boys and girls stand so much in need of at the present day. The whole appeared to me to be a good illustration of the tendency that I seem to see in America to be guided by sentiment and emotion, and to work on academic rather than on practical lines. I do not think that the Americans can long claim to rank as a practical nation if such methods are allowed to prevail. We have sinned and are sinning grievously here in the same way, but there are clear indications that we have recognised our mistake, and that we may shortly enter upon a new era in which common- sense will prevail. I saw no such signs in America. COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTION. Even if it were necessary it would be difficult to arrive at any consistent definition of the American college ; but as a rule it may be said to aim at giving a liberal education rather than professional training. Where colleges or schools for both purposes exist, side by side, they together constitute the university. It is noteworthy that, with a few exceptions, the term university has only recently met with general application : Yale College, for example, obtained the right to call itself Yale University only in 1887. ARMSTRONG.] 16 The college and university instruction, including that given in technical schools, is of interest to us at the present time from several points of view. In the first place, in America, as here, great complaint is made that students come to college ill-prepared to do the work * ; that games + occupy too large a share of attention ; and that the bonds of discipline have been unduly slackened of late years. Moreover, it is said that those who have been brought up in towns are not such satisfactory students as those who have been brought up in the country. The latter are not only more earnest but more practical. On this account the spirit prevailing in some of the western colleges is said to be far better than that met with in many i - n collegia. Although the elective system prevails very largely in those cases in which graduation from college is a necessary preliminary to pro- fessional study, the course is prescribed. It is very noteworthy that the course laid down is a broad one. Thus at the Johns Hopkins University, the following are the subjects prescribed in the chemical-biological or preliminary medical group : First year: Physics 9 hours week 1\ Chemistry 9 ,, ,, Rhetoric 3 ,, English Composition 4 ,, ,, Second year : Chemistry 9 ,, Biology 9 French 4 English Literature 3 ,, ,, Third year : Biology 9 Philosophy 5 ,, ,, History and Economics ... 4 ,, ,, Elective Course 2 ,, ,, English composition and reading, French and German, as well as Economics, are included in all the complete Engineering and * Professor J. J. Stevenson, of New York University, deals in a very outspoken manner with this question in the recent January number of the " Popular Science Monthly." To quote a few sentences from his article : " The old adage says 'he who would command must first learn to obey.' That American lads are sorely in need of such training is only too evident. . . . . Such training means training to think, to reason. Lads too often fail to receive this training in secondary schools, as any instructor who has had to deal with freshmen can testify. Secondary schools to-day are little better than cramming houses to fit pupils to answer odds and ends of questions in papers for entrance examinations. Loose thinking and restlessness under restraint characterise the American students in the lower classes at college; lack of home training may be responsible in part for the latter characteristic, inferior teaching in secondary schools for the former." t The report of the President of Harvard College for the year 1901-1902 contains for the first time the report of the Chairman of the Committee on the Regulation of Athletic Sports. President Eliot's comments thereon are highly instructive : ' This report is interesting from several points of view. It exhibits, in the' first place, the large number of students who are actively engaged in the competitive sports taken together. The figures given are not accurate, but it is reasonable to suppose that at least two thousand students out of the thirty- hundred in Cambridge take some active part in one or more of the thirteen sports in which an enumeration of the number of participants was made The chairman calls attention to the fact that tl e expenditures- 'or football are steadily increasing. A quarter part of all who U.ke part in this sport are injured enough to lay them up for ten days on the average,and a much larger proportion of those who really play the game are thus injured for the season. The changes in the rules during the past ten years have tended to increase the number of injuries rather than to diminish it. The temporary injuries are so numerous that it is impossible to count on putting any particular eleven men into an important game on a given day. In order to provide the necessary number of substitutes for each place, the football squad often numbers sixty men. Hence large expenditures. The outfit for candidates grows more expensive, because they wear about fourteen pounds weight of padding and armour. On the whole, the game, under the existing rules, tends to become slower and less visible in its details, and therefore less interesting. Moreover, the ethics of the game, which are the imperfect ethics of war, do not improve. The martial axiom attack the enemy's weakest ) oint inevitably leads to a deliberate onslaught on the cripple or the convalescent in the opposing line; and the habitual Tiolation of rules, if penalties be escaped, is regarded by many - U merely amusing." 17 chool of Applied Ohio. The same practice is fol Mtute 'linolo^y, \vlierc, in addition, history (American mid Kim figures in tin- programme. In these instituti< four years. The C reading prescribed in th- .-hool instructive ollc. I inquired specially into the teaching of English composition. AI the Massachusetts Institute the instructor was taking th pains t1G 1,367 15-8 Tale 119 398 29-9 iifornia U8 269 44-0 Chicago (Med.) 100 :5i2o 30-7 CorneE 7fi 607 12-3 ARMSTRONG.] 18 Harvard University " has definitely determined to pursue the policy of requiring for admission to its professional schools a preliminary degree and has already applied this policy in all its professional schools except the Dental School. The result has been an improve- ment in its professional schools striking in proportion to the strength of the contrast between the former students and the present in regard to their previous training." At the Johns Hopkins University, candidates for the degree of Doctor of Medicine must be college graduates or must give evidence by examination that they possess attainments indicated by & baccalaureate degree in arts or science. Entering college at 18, the student is 21 or 22 years old on commencing this course of professional study ; he is, therefore, at least 25 or 26 at the conclusion of the medical course. A period of post-graduate instruction at home or abroad is then often entered upon. It is not unlikely that the example set by law and medicine will ere long extend to other professions. The undue length of the course of study thus arranged has naturally attracted attention. Recently President Murray Butler, in particular, has commented on it and has proposed a further curtailment of the course. There are instances of such curtailment already. Thus at Cleveland, Ohio, where the Adelbert College and the Case School of Applied Science exist side by side, each having a complete four years' course, it has been arranged to give a double degree at the end of five years to those who have spent three years in the college and then two years in the school of applied science. President Butler proposes that the B.A. degree given at the end of a two years prescribed college course shall be made the condition of entry to a professional course. He would give the M.A. degree to those who have followed an arts course during four years. It is remarkable that a people supposed to be practical, like the Americans, should be prepared to devote so long a period to study. I had many conversations on the subject, in which I expressed my surprise ; but I must confess that, as a rule, my friends seemed surprised that I should take up such an attitude. I am almost led to doubt whether, in matters of education, our American cousins may justly be regarded as a practical people. A course of study prolonged to an age bordering on 30 rather than 20 implies a most serious limitation on the period during which the individual exercises- independence ; it casts an improper burden on parents ; and it postpones the age of marriage unduly. This last point especially deserves some consideration. The following table, given by President Eliot in his report, records the number of surviving children of members of six classes graduated from Harvard, from 25 to 30 years after graduation : Number o! Number Number of Class of A. B.'s married. children surviving l.'Oi 1872 114 82 165 1873 131 96 181 1874 165 124 247 1875 141 90 171 1876 142 106 212 1877 188 136 286 881 634 1,262 19 [Ai He points out that : " If it be asaumed that tbe surviving children are about one-half males, it follows that the six classes have by no means reproduced tbemseKeri ; that they have, indeed, fallen 28 per cent, short of it. Twenty-eight per cent, of the members of these classes are unmarried ; and those who are married have, on the average, only two surviving children ; so that tbe married pain just reproduce themselves on the average." It is impossible to overlook the significance of such facts. Again, to quote President Eliot : " The table suggests that the highly-educated part of the American people does not increase the population at all, but, on the contrary, fails to reproduce itself. If many other colleges and universities publish class reports analogous to the Harvard reports a competent statistician might establish from the assembled reports some interesting and important conclusions. It is probable that the regrettable result indicated in tbe table is due in part to the late postponement of marriage on the part of educated young men, a postponement which the pro- tracted education now prescribed for men who enter the learned and scientific professions makes almost unavoidable. Tbe young physician, lawyer, engineer, or architect is now fortunate if he marries at twenty-eight or twenty-nine; whereas he should have married at twenty-five or twenty-six. To make earlier marriage possible is one of the strong inducements for bringing to an end (he school course at seventeen or eighteen, the college course at twenty or twenty-one, and the professional training at twenty-four or twenty-five." Our blind belief in academic methods of training has perhaps led us to overlook yet other all-important reasons for shortening the courses. While at college or technical school the student is not only withdrawn from the world of experience and that, too, during tbe most susceptible period of youthful freshness but is always dominated by teachers; the time is so entirely spent in learning from others that there is no possibility of properly developing either imaginative power or individuality. Therefore, not only is physical power sacrificed but mental procreative power also this latter surviving only in the genius ; whereas, in reality, if education were of true avail, its one great and chief oflice should be to call forth and develop whatever spirit of originality, whatever element of genius, may lurk in the mind. Overteaching seems to me to be the bane of American schools of' every grade, even more than of ours. And there is grave danger, especially in America, that the work of education may be over- organised. Classes are being formed to give special instruction in every section of every subject ; in consequence much time is wasted in doing formally what might be done far more rapidly and effectively informally when occasion requires, under intelligent direction or with the aid of properly-written instructions. It would almost seem that higher education is being given mainly in the interests of those who are to occupy secondary positions. The industrial leaders in America, it is said, are mostly men who have not enjoyed the so-called advantages of a liberal education. They are men with minds unfettered by the traditions which education, as now given, is only too likely to impart, yet trained in the world of experience, possessed of commonsense. But there are exceptions which show that training in scientific method may be of advantage : a number of the men now at the head of the metallurgical industries commenced their career as chemists not as engineers, be it noted. The entire system of education, both here and in America, seems to require reconstruction from bottom to top ; it would be well, if I may say so, if we could scrap the whole wretched academic show And start afresh, in order thar, it may be greatly improved in quality iind shortened in duration. Two ideals should be kept in view we A KM STRONG.] 20 should aim at the development of individuality and encourage productivity. If a proper foundation were laid during early years a vast amount of time would be saved later on : if children were taught really to read, if they were thoroughly practised in the rudiments of scientific method, if they were even allowed to remain " Pcrplext in faith, but pure in deeds," there would be little that they could not afterwards accomplish within a reasonable time, because honesty of purpose would prevail among them and they would work with understanding and resist all but necessary guidance. The greater part of the work which is now done far too late at college might then be done at school ; or, still better, college might be entered with advantage at sixteen. We need to remember that, as Buckle tells us, the acquisition of fresh know- ledge is the necessary precursor of every step in social progress, and must itself be preceded by a love of inquiry and, therefore, by a spirit of doubt. One great reason of failure is that nearly all our teaching is dogmatic. To use Tennyson's words : " There lives more faith in honest doubt, Believe. me, than in half the creeds." We need to introduce broader and more philosophical conceptions into our educational practice : it is almost impossible to keep pace with the growth of knowledge and absurd to add perpetually to the burden imposed upon the student. Moreover, it is unnecessary. If more attention were paid to teaching principles and their application, less to mere facts, many of the difficulties with which the student's path is now strewn would disappear and he would do effective work ; our higher education is unfortunately afflicted with the disease of fact-megalomania ; if the meaning of one-tenth of the facts we now lay before the student were properly taught the remaining nine-tenths might safely be jettisoned. As a very large number of American teachers have studied in Germany and the teaching is often based on German models, it is remarkable that the university system should bear so little resemblance to that of Germany. As a rule, far more routine work is done and far less attention is paid to research work than in Germany. At Cornell University, for example, although the course laid down for students of chemistry covers four years, no thesis work is demanded. At the Johns Hopkins University, on the other hand, the graduate student who desires to take the Ph.D. degree follows a course almost precisely similar to the German course ; but this comes after a two years' graduate course, which has no equivalent in the German system. Of late years, however, much attention has been given to research work in America ; still, it is not yet rated at its proper value and those who are engaged in the work by no means enjoy the esteem they deserve on that account. Professor Kichards, of Harvard, for example, a chemist of brilliant originality as well as an extraordinarily exact worker, was not appreciated by his university until after he had been "called" to Gottingen. Work which has no commercial aim or value is not easily recognised as important. As the spirit of inquiry is the mainspring of progress, its cultivation should be a first charge on the bank of Education : Germany has long recognised this to be the case, but neither in tbe United States nor here does such a conclusion yet meet with acceptance. As the prizes offered by industrial enterprise are most alluring, it is essential that more 21 [Ait active measures should he taken to develop th-- capacity for research, so that a larger supply of competent ii -.hould be forthcoming. And such men an- .v>ivly ' as leadei every grade of education. Si IKNCE IN TIIH SKKVK K or Tin , -Tin- most striking illustrations of American organising ahility arc to \- met with at mgton. So i . there is nothing anywh> compare with the way in which science is being utilised in Un- set-vice of the State by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which is located in the capital. The origin and development of tin- Department is sketched in a separate bulletin published in IH'J" was established by an Act of Congress approved by President Lincoln, May 16th, 1862. Up to July 1st, 1897, it cost, all told, 26,915,988dols., or less than 500,000dols. a y Tho Department now comprises the following branches : Office of the Secretary. The Weather Bui- Bureau of Animal Industry. ,, ,, Plant Industry. Forestry. Chemistry. Soils. ,, Statistics. Division of Entomology. Biological Bun ,, ,, Accounts and Disbursements. Publications. Office of Experimental Stations. ,, Public Road Inquiries. Library. Agricultural experiment stations have been established in State of the Union under the Hatch Act of March 2nd, 1887. Agriculture is also supported by the endowment of agricultural colleges under the Morrill Law of August 30th, 1890, out of funds arising from the sale of public lands. A list of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, together with particulars as to courses of study, etc., is given in a separate bulletin (No. 122) pub- lished by the Department. The organisation of the Department in 1903-4, together with a brief statement of the work of each division, is to be found in a special circular (Division of Publica- tions Circular No. 1). Full particulars as to the appropriations for the current year are contained in the Act (Public No. 158). A year after its organisation its entire force consisted of 29 members, mostly clerks. On July 1st, 1902, the staff numbered 3,789, of whom 1,209 were executive officers, clerks and messengers, 2,081 scientific investigators, and 499 labourer The Agricultural Department in Washington is not merely an office it is also a busy hive of research. A large number of laboratories are attached to it, in which investigations are being carried on, bearing, in one way or another, on problems in agriculture. Much research work is also done in the State Experiment Stations ; in the main, however, these serve to bring under the * Since this report was in type I have received summary reports of work done in varioui bureaus of the Department: I owe them to the kindness of their several chiefs. It U impossible now to notice them in this report. but I trust to be able to deal with them specifically else" ; ARMSTRONG.] 22 notice of farmers the importance of science to agriculture by demonstrating the value of methods of cultivation, manures, etc. There is no question that the research work done under the auspices of the Agricultural Department and in the experiment stations is of the very greatest value, and is contributing most materially to the development of agricultural industry. To take only one illustration, whereas, in 1884, the amount of sugar made from sugar beet was only about 300 tons, the beet crop of the past year is estimated to yield 400,000 tons ; the amount of sugar made in the United States from the sugar cane being only about 300,000 tons. This extra- ordinary increase, I believe, is due practically entirely to the influence exercised from Washington. A map showing the regions in which the temperature conditions were favourable to the growth of the sugar beet was first prepared by Dr. Wiley, the head of the Bureau of Chemistry. Seed was then issued to farmers in various districts together with directions how it was to be dealt with, and the produce was subsequently examined for sugar ; in this way it was determined where the beet could be grown successfully. The advantages to be derived from the cultivation of the crop were also made clear to the farmers. An industry of great importance has in this way been gradually brought into existence ; at the same time, farming practice has been vastly improved and land has increased considerably in value owing to its having received proper treatment. The Department is undoubtedly exercising an extraordinary influence on the education of farmers by distributing literature among them and by encouraging and helping them in every possible way ; indeed, it is certain that, by one means or another, the American farmer is gradually being led to see that science is indis- pensable to agriculture. The work that is being carried on in New York State under the direction of Professor Bailey, the director of the College of Agriculture at Cornell University, Ithaca, may be referred to in further illustra- tion, as this is now a head centre of the Nature-Study movement. The character of one branch of the work may be best made clear by the reproduction of the following circular letter relating to a reading- course for farmers : To the Editor, Will you not help us to reach the farming community by inserting the following note ? The reading-course described below is provided for the farmer by Btate appropriation. We want him to receive the fullest possible benefit. Kindly end us a marked copy of the issues containing this notice. Very truly yours, S. W. FLETCHER, Supervisor of Farmers' Beading Course. WlNTKB EVBNLNGS ON THB FARM. The wide-awake farmer is now wondering what he can do in the long winter evenings to aid him in the work of next season. He would like to know more about the things with which he has to do ; how he can feed his crops better; how he can make a piece of "worn out " land fertile once more ; how he can get the greatest feeding value from the stock of hay and grain in his barn. Many of these practical questions are in his mind at this time. We would suggest that one of the best ways of answering them is through the " Farmers' Beading Course," conducted by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University. Once each month, from November to Mar,ch, a short lesson on some practical farm topic is sent to each member. These lessons are written in a plain way, so that any farmer can readily understand. The only expense to the reader is an occasional stamp in reply. Many thousand New York fanners are now -enrolled in this reading course. All that is necessary to become a member is to send your name on a postal card to Farmers' Beading Course, Ithaca, N.Y. The State pays for this work, and every one in the State interested in farming has a right to its benefits. 23 For many years Professor Bailey has been studying the improvement of the grounds of rural schools. Recognising that the school playgrounds are, as a rule, " bare, harsh, cheerless, immodest!" he has sought to interest those connected with the schools in making them attractive and has put forward hints for the proper laying out of the grounds. The literature on this subject issued from Cornell is of a most valuable charat t But perhaps the most interesting of the movements going on under Professor Bailey's influence is the formal organisation of junior naturalist clubs in schools all over the State. This is under the direction of Mr. John W. Spencer, known as Uncle John, whom I had the privilege and pleasure of meeting. The object of such clubs " is the study of nature to the end that every member thereof shall love the country better and be content to live therein. Each member is expected to tell Uncle John at least once a month by letter or by drawings what he or she has seen or thought on some topic in nature-study suggested by the teacher or by the Bureau of Nature- Study." These letters are duly registered and read. On the receipt of the fourth, a badge-pin is sent to be worn as a testimony that the owner is entitled to all the honours due to a young naturalist. At intervals, Uncle John writes a letter to his young friends. These letters are full of charm. Teachers' leaflets and a " Nature- Study Monthly" are issued in connection with the enterprise. The number of children enrolled is over 35,000. There can be no doubt that a pioneer work of great importance is being done, on which it will be possible to build in the future. It is not possible now to discuss in any proper way the method of teaching adopted. I desire to say everything in its favour, feeling as I do that the object in view is all important ; but I am satisfied that the work lacks depth and that those engaged in it are not yet aware of the extent to which it is possible to introduce exact method into such studies ; they need to be more fully acquainted with the practice of scientific method and with the art of discovery. It would be more nearly correct to speak of the movement as one for the promotion of Nature-love rather than as Nature-Study. At present it involves far too little real study and concentration of purpose ; which is unfortunate, as rural children particularly need training in exactness. One branch of work initiated in the Office of Experiment Stations at Washington of extreme importance, to which reference should also be made, is that relating to the nutrition of man, which has been carried out in various parts of the States under the super- vision of my friend Professor Atwater a fellow student with me in Germany in years gone by who initiated the inquiry in 1877. The scope and results of the investigation are described in the report of the Director of Experiment Stations for the year ending June, 1901. Undoubtedly the most important and valuable part of this work has been that done during recent years at the Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., where a large respiration chamber has been erected and brought to a remarkable state of perfection by Professors Atwater and Benedict. The installation is a very costly one. It is possible for a man to live within this chamber for days or even weeks and for account to be kept during the whole time, not only of the products of respiration but also of the amount of heat given out and the oxygen consumed, with a degree of accuracy equal to that with which ordinary analyses are carried out in a laboratory. ARMSTRONG.] 24 No better illustration can be given of the amount of thought and care which is now being devoted to investigations of practical importance in the United States. I went specially to Middletown to examine the apparatus and was gratified beyond measure ; to see it alone was worth a pilgrimage to America. The investigations \\liich can be carried out with such a chamber are of far-reaching importance and touch very closely on the domain of household economics. It is much to be desired that we, on this side, should be able to do similar work. The Geological Survey is also a well-organised depart- ment in Washington. The wealth of material at the disposal of American geologists is extraordinary. If opportunity beget supply, we may look to America as the breeding ground of geologists in the future. Besides field work and the attendant office work, the department now carries on scientific research work on geological problems. It has a well-equipped Chemical Department, at the head of which is Professor Clarke, who a few months ago delivered in Manchester the lecture commemorative of the centenary of Dalton's atomic theory. Much valuable work has been done in tbis department, which is now quite the seat of authority in mineral analysis, Dr. Hillebrand, the senior member of Professor Clarke's >tatt, being probably the most accomplished and experienced analyst of the day. Lastly, it may be mentioned that a bureau of standards has recently been established at Washington to do work on the lines of that done by our Standards Department, the Board of Trade and the National Physical Laboratory, but witb a wider outlook than any of these and well provided with funds. When we consider how unco-ordinated our efforts are, how little public appreciation sxists of the value of science to the community, it is impossible not to feel envious of what is going on in Washing- ton. It would well repay us to inquire very fully into the causes which have operated to produce a willingness in America to listen to counsel which here passes altogether unheeded. Something must be done to create a public belief in the value of knowledge, which will lead us to co-ordinate our scattered efforts. So long as our outlook is merely insular the future may appear to afford little promise; but if we consider the possibilities the Empire affords, there is no reason why our outlook should not be as hopeful as that of the United States. The resources at our disposal, the agricultural possibilities within the Empire, may well be regarded as boundless ; but we need to make ourselves acquainted with them and to take concerted measures to exploit them. To this end, it is all- important to constitute effective central organisations in this country similiar to those which exist in the United States. One other illustration may be given. In New York, on the occasion of our visit to the Museum of Natural History, Prof. Bick- more, to whom this magnificent museum owes its origin, favoured us with an account of the manner in which material was provided for illustrated free popular lectures delivered at the museum, for the purpose of making the people acquainted with their country and its resources ; and he delivered a charming lecture to us in illustration of the work. The lantern slides prepared in the museum are placed on sale, so that they can be used for educational purposes all over the country. The lecture we heard was of a very popular character ; it was quite clear, however, that pioneer work of a most 25 [ARMSTRONG useful charact oe. It was impossible n that if the resources of the British Mnaeum W8W made known hy sound popular lectures and handbooks; if the Museum, tin- ' >nr and the Geological Survey Departments, und tin- Colonial < were to co-operate with the Kdiic;itinii I' 'it in making known the conditions whieli prevail throughout our Empire, it would at once be possible to put the teaching of history and ^eo^i-ap a hasis of fact and make these subjects eminently ai gieal Survey exists as a branch of the Education Departm-Tit but its reports are of technical rather than of educational value ; they might well, in part, be so written as to he delightful essa physical geography suitable for school use, if only a little th given to them from this point of view. It is quite clear that the ri^'ht spirit is at work in the I' States ; but the lack of the critical faculty and of depth of purpose, combined with an excessive development of the utilitarian serious drawbacks at present and militate against jv education. Until higher ideals prevail and sober calculation the place of a somewhat emotional and superficial cons; problems, it will be difficult to introduce reforms. Here our ditticulty is to break through academic, conservative traditions and to n an interest in education : that in reality it is the most imi< all subjects to be seriously considered has never yet been n to us either by preacher or by politician the message a delivery and we need more than anything else the man to make it heard. HI;NKV E. ARMSTRONG. 26 fftoselp educational Commission. Report of PROFESSOR W. E. AYRTON, F.R.S. THE EDUCATION OF THE AMERICAN ELECTRICAL ENGINEER. Although I take a keen interest in primary and secondary educa- tion, as well as in business and technical education, and although, therefore, I visited various American elementary schools, trade schools, schools of commerce, and technical schools, in addition to universities, technical colleges, and factories, the shortness of the time during which I could stay last autumn in the United States induced me to devote myself almost entirely to the study of one branch of education, viz., that of the young electrical engineer. And the information I gained during the three weeks, combined with what I have learned during former visits, enables me to state con- clusively that, as far as the training of the young electrical engineer is concerned, the United States are, on the whole, distinctly ahead of Great Britain. It was not because I found some of the electro-technical laboratories in the States larger and better equipped than in my own country, nor because some of them contained full sized machinery, instead of mere models, nor because I saw large numbers of students working in them, that this opinion of the superiority of the teaching of the young electrical engineer was forced on me. Indeed, in New York, for example, I found no electro-technical laboratory comparable in equipment with what may be seen in more than one teaching institution in London. But it was because in this city, as in all other places that I visited in the United States, I saw that there actually existed that close bond of union between the industry and the teaching which only the more sanguine of us have hoped they might, perhaps, live to see intro- duced into our own country, I talked with manufacturers and managers of works, with engineers having a large consulting practice, with engineers having a small one, with municipal engineers, with presidents of engineering societies, with presidents of universities, with professors of engineering, with the staffs in laboratories, with students in colleges, and with the editors of technical papers regarding the relation between a college and a factory. I took down exactly what they said, so that it should be their views, and not the opinions that I have for years been urging in my own country, that should form the basis of this short report. All the people of the classes enumerated above whom I met were unanimous on two points there was not one dissentient voice. Everywhere I was told : An engineering apprentice in a factory should be a college trained man ; an engineering professor in a college should be actively engaged in the practice of his profession. At the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Works at Pittsburg, where some 10,000 men are usually employed, where, in addition to manufacturing all kinds of electrical apparatus and machinery, they turn out in each month about sufficient street 27 AVKTON. railway electro-motors to fit up all the electric tramcars now running in Great Britain, Mr. Downton, the foreman of apprentices, said: "The engineering apprentices, of whom wo have about 150, must !>< first-class graduates of leading technical schools. We start thorn on trial at 8d. (he said, of course, 16 cents) an hour, and if really bright, they may be earning 30 a month with us at the end of eight months. We are always on the look-out for bright men, we co-operate with the professors of colleges to get them. Why, the bosses here are mostly college graduates themselves. There's Mr. Taylor, second vice-president, graduate of Harvard ; t ! Mr. Osborne, fourth vice-president, graduate of Cornell; there's Mr. McFarlane, acting vice-president, he was educated at Annapolis before he taught at Cornell himself; there's Mr. Scott, chief electrician, graduate of Ohio State University ; there's Mr. Lamme, chief engineer, graduate of the same university," and so he went on giving me a long list of the staff and the colleges from which they came. "Now," he continued, "although we pay our technical apprentices from the first day they join, we are prepared to regard them as learners, not as producers, so that we move them from department to department about every three months." The following extract from the printed regulations will show how the old apprenticeship system has been brought up to date in America and applied to the technical education of young electrical engineers. As in so many cases, England originated the system, America then adopted and developed it, and it now only remains for Great Britain to re-import it, modernised to suit present developments : " WESTINGHOCBB ELECTRIC AND MANUFACTURING COMPANY. " COURSE FOB ENGINEERING APPRENTICES. " This course has been arranged for graduates of universities and technical schools. " The company desires to train a skilled force of engineers upon whom it can draw for assistance in the various branches of its industry. " Approved applicants will be given the opportunity of entering the works of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company in order that they may become familiar with the various manufacturing operations and the general construction and working of the apparatus produced. The engineering apprentices will be afforded, in the various departments of the works, actual hop and engineering experience, both mechanical and electrical, and the work of the technical schools will be supplemented by the practical training thus afforded. " COMPENSATION. " The engineering apprentice will be paid 16 cents per hour during the first 2,808 hours, and 18 cents per hour for the second 2,808 hours. Where called upon to work overtime or holidays, due credit will be given therefor, and the rate will be one and one-half time for such overtime work. " APPLICATION. " Application for admittance as engineering apprentice must be made by letter In the handwriting of the applicant, stating : 1 Date of birth. ' School education and where received. ' Name of University. ' Course pursued. ' Degrees received. 1 Reference to Professors or others. ' Statement of any practical experience which applicant may have had." The Westinghouse Company also takes some 80 Norc-teohnlcal apprentices to be trained as machinists, who correspond more with what the English apprentice has become. These start with 5 cents an hour, on trial for 685 hours. If worth keeping, their wage AVHTON.] 28 progressively rises to 8, 10, 12, and lastly to 15 cents (7d.) an hour during the fourth year, at the end of which they receive a bonus of L-20 and a diploma. If they show particular aptitude during their apprenticeship they are given special work, and in some cases they become electrical engineers. Two of the chiefs of the staff visit all the principal universities, colleges, and technical schools throughout the Unites States every year for the purpose of seeing the students, and choosing those who are most suitable to work with the Westinghouse Company. " The Westinghouse Works are the product of the colleges of this country," said the chief electrician ; " we have come to rely on college men, we are now practically all college-bred men ourselves. And yet, when I came to Pittsburg and knocked at the side door of a factory, the fact that I was a college-man counted against me in the mind of the superintendent. Now the same firm sends, each year, to the technical schools asking for their best men, and sometimes, during one yearly visit we take the whole class from a college." This statement was confirmed by what was told me in New York about Professor Hutton receiving letters before Graduation Day engaging 70 of the engineering students at Columbia University. "Talk to some of our employes yourself," said Mr. Scott, and I did. One was a young Englishman, who, after taking his degree at the Victoria University, became a premium pupil at 150 a year with one of the prominent English electrical companies. But he learnt so little that, at the end of the first year, his father determined the contract, and the lad then came to Pittsburg. He gave me a long and detailed .description of the work that he had done there, and ended with : " The apprenticeship system of the Westinghouse Works is simply splendid." Another man, an American, now holding a good position in the Westinghouse Company, and as enthusiastic about their methods as the first, gave me a most pathetic account of how, when a lad on the farm, he had been inspired by the country schoolmaster ; how, to support himself and help his family, he had got up morning after morning at 2 a.m. to milk some 30 cows ; how he got pay in a machine shop right there in the rocky part of Oregon, then went to the Ohio State University, still getting paid work, cooking and cleaning. And I felt that anyone talking to this man and hearing him explain how " the strenuous work on the farms produces the stock from which springs the American engineer," how " seven out of his eight brothers were now employed in Westinghouse interests," would have realised, if he had not done so before, why the Americans were so successful in their commercial invasion of Europe. A third man was a former professor of applied mechanics, who described how he had come to the Westinghouse Company's works at Pittsburg, and was engaged there on a "fascinating problem in mechanics connected with the theoretical and practical determination of the economic electric driving of large machine tools," and so on. Example after example I saw of the college and factory going hand in hand. At the General Electric Company's huge works at Schenectady, hundreds of miles away from Pittsburg, which usually employs some 9,000 to 10,000 men, and is on the same vast scale as the Westing- house Works at Pittsburg, I found the same scheme carried out. The electrical superintendent, Mr. Steinmetz, and the general AYKTON. manager, Mr. Raymond, both spoke of their feeling " th< technical! n in all departments "1 only take for (heir " .'}('.-". luatesof < .f In^'h standing " how "they to<_'.-t her -visit each year all iinji'.rtaiit colic; west as Illinois and Ohio to see the professors, to see the men who contemplate going into practice" so that they may choose some 150 bright college yen; , how they had met on these ar representatives of other large electric works on the same quest, how they all aimed at fostering "a mutual alliance between the factory and the college," how that because a student happened to be good at drawing they did not keep him in their "draughting rooms, but let all students go through department after department tO learn." Mi. Kaymond told me about his company "paying a good smart fellow $18 to $20 (i.e., 3 12s. to 4) a week inside his student's course of two years " one of the half-dozen of my recent students, an Italian, whom I met in the works, mentioned that he sometimes made 9 a week with overtime and how occasionally " they provided a student with a position at $1,500 (i.e., 300) a year after being four months with them " ; and lastly, how on leaving the works, at the end of the two years' studentship, they got outside positions at from 240 to 700 a year. At Schenectady there is a college of long standing called Union College, at which lectures are given alternately by a member of the Faculty and by a member of the General Electric Company's staff. These lectures are open to all whom the Faculty considers suitable, but they are attended mainly by the students and draughtsmen of the General Electric Company. I went to one which happened to be given by Mr. Steinmetz himself it resembled a Royal Society paper, full of original matter, but enthusiastically delivered. " Yes," said the lecturer, when I spoke to him, "we manufacturers here appre- ciate that theoretical knowledge is of enormous value to the engineer." The Union College students have the free run of the General Electric Company's factory. Indeed, I was taken over its many large buildings by Mr. Williams, a teacher at the college. He requires no pass to enter the works, he brings his students for a fore- noon or for a whole day to the factory that is, he uses the factory with its 10,000 workmen, with the 6,600 horse-power combined steam turbines and dynamos in construction, etc., etc., as his lecture apparatus. During the college vacations any engineering student, Mr. Steinmetz assured me, " could come into the factory and get a moderate salary in the testing room, armature winding shop, etc." And to think how my students, failing to induce English firms to let them give their services, their knowledge, and their time gratuitously during the vacations, come to me year after year to help them to obtain permission to work for nothing at these times ! "It is universal to loan modern apparatus to universities free of charge, or even give it it is, to our mutual advantage it helps to make a close connection between universities and factories," added he. And my inquiries at colleges regarding the modern apparatus that had been given them by private firms fully confirmed Mr. Steinmetz' statement, and, indeed, they made my mouth water. I saw 600 worth of electric meters that had been presented to one college by one firm ; some thousands of pounds worth of engineering apparatus given by various firms to one university, etc. AYBTON.] 30 " Thirty per cent, of the students of the General Electric Com- pany are British, and within five months the English students drop into step and hustle." I discussed with a group of former City and Guilds Central Technical College men now at Schenectady how the students at their old college could be made to acquire that alertness and go-aheadness that we saw all around us there, and they advised, " Send as many of them as you can to America." A good example of the advantage gained by college-bred men in the States is seen in the following analysis of the engineering staff engaged in the construction of the " Eapid Transit Eailroad" the new Underground Electric Eailway of New York, costing between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000. The men are chosen by examination, and the selected ones get a salary of 20 a month at the start. I suggested to Mr. Barclay Parsons, the chief engineer, that perhaps the reason why so large a percentage of college-bred men were chosen was because the examination questions were such as a college-trained man could better answer than one who had entered on practical life when quite young. But he showed me copies of the questions, and convinced me that they were such as an applicant for an assistant engineership ought to be able to answer whatever had been his previous training. Now one of the reasons why, in spite of the many places at which electrical engineering is taught in America, the demand for college graduates is still greater than the supply, is because the education which they have received is exactly what the manufacturers desire. It is not given by teachers, the terms of whose appointment divorce them from industry, by men who perhaps even learn to look down upon the manufacturer, the engineer, the manager, and the sales- man, although these people are actually occupied in practising that very application of science to industry which the teacher preaches. No, engineering education in America is directed by those who are doing the engineering work of their country. There is no question about an engineering professor in America being occasionally permitted to do a small amount of outside work, he is practically required by the college authorities to be so actively engaged in practice that he becomes recognised in the world of affairs as the working authority on his subject. " Don't know a successful engineering professor who is not engaged in outside work, who, in fact, is not successful in outside work," was the opinion round the lunch table of those in authority at the Library of Congress, Washington. "The head of every department in a technical college is a consulting engineer in practice," said another. Mr. Barclay Parsons, who spoke not merely as a large employer of labour but as a trustee (a member of the governing body) of Columbia University, told us, " We not only permit outside work, we encourage it in our staff. When Professor Burr (of ' Civil Engineering ') was appointed a member of the Isthmian Canal Commission we gave him long leave to go to Porto Eico." And when I asked, with refer- ence to this and other examples which he gave, "But do the students like such long absences of their professors? " he replied, "Yes, they lose him for days or months, but they gain, for he brings back accounts of the new work he has done." I had a long talk with President Schurman, of Cornell University, where there are some 1,200 students of engineering alone. He considered that there was no question about the importance of the engineering professors engaging in practice, but that when a professor 31 A ^ i 8 8 r <-> " r^ qotunjV o A"nuaA|Ufl \M|waAiun iun s oiqo 0|jv 'Mn'M' '.)hn,> .phomore boys would guy that fellow and make life miserable for him," said one of the engineering professors. "A colle^."' gets :i better reputation if it is known that their professors fees OUtsidf, because they are then better ahle to in>t met," said another. I'r. Humphreys, tlie president of the Slovens Institute of Technology, New Jersey, a college for the training of meeh engineers only, but numbering amongst its staff a professor of Knglish, an instructor in modern languages, a profe-^or and an etrical engineering, etc., told us that, he was ;i partner in Messrs. Humphreys and Glasgow, of New York, of the, same linn in Victoria Street, London, the president of the Buffalo Gas Company, etc., but the trustees thought that in epite of his many business occupations, or rather because he was so occupied commercially, he was the person to appoint as Professor of Business Engineering, President of the Institute, and one of the trustees. "I consider distinctly," said he, "that an engineering professor should be interested in business. If a man is not capable of doing outside work, he is not capable of teaching. The staff does not consult me to get permission about outside work. The Stevens Institute Department of Tests may carry on any outside work in the institute's laboratories, and may retain all but 10 per cent, of the fees they receive. v This large proportion of fees that the staff is allowed to retain is not for the object of curtailing the income they receive from the institute." This extra remuneration has, however, the important result of materially increasing the income of the staff. For my inquiries showed that the fixed salaries paid by colleges to assistants were often allowing for the different value of money not higher in America than in Great Britain. This was attributed, for example by Mi-. Steinmetz, to the "survival of European practice." He looked forward, however, to an improvement in this, since " the main object, the main desire of educational authorities was to get the men who were most up to time in methods." On each of the many occasions that the importance of outside work was urged on me, I pointed out the possible risk of a man becoming so immersed in professional work, and deriving so large an income from his practice that he might come to disregard the salary derived from the university, and neglect his students. Although I remembered that even in Great Britain the teaching of a surgeon was not considered the less valuable because he performed many successful operations, and that a musician was not regarded as necessarily neglecting his pupils because he was paid large fees to appear on the concert platform, still even at the risk of appearing dense I made a point of raising the preceding objection because I knew that it would be the English point of attack. But I was always answered that the risk I referred to was far less serious than the risk of the professor's teaching deteriorating from his losing active touch with the industry. " The man who spends all his time at the college slips behind. If a man is good enough to be a professor he can be trusted to be fair ; if he is going to rob us, he is not good enough to l>e at the college at all." * Principal Humphreys considered 10 per cent, of the fees paid for private outside work, carried oat in the College Laboratories, too small a proportion to re-imburse the Institute (or cost of material, wear and tear of apparatus, etc., but that was the existing rule. A Yin 34 A professor in one of the large cities, whose college salary is G.OOOdols., receives also 4,000dols. a year as the secretary of an ciety. Whenever the society meets away from that i-ity lr;i\c of absence is given him by the university. "He divides hU time at his discretion. The university is proud of his having been chosen as the secretary, the society is proud to have so ngiiished a professor." One of the staff in one of the large laboratories in Columbia University , r u\v me a list of the regular fees charged for the com- mercial tests carried on at the laboratories. " We are encouraged by the university to do outside work ; the assistants are more or less free the half of each day." " But suppose you were asked to carry out during term time a prolonged test at a distance from New York how would you arrange?" I asked. "Engage a staff of suitable outside men to carry on the work under me, and bring them for a day or two into these laboratories if special training was necessary?" " No ! The university would not charge these men a fee for working a day or two in the laboratory for this purpose." And what applies to the staff applies to the students. At the Cornell University " the fourth year electrical engineering students, with some of the third year men as assistants, may go out for some days a week, or for some weeks, with a thousand dollars or more worth of apparatus, lent them by the university to carry out com- mercial tests hundreds of miles away under the professor." Keality is the watchword of engineering education in America, for not merely are the professors on the Faculty of an American college engaged in real outside work, but several lectures are given yearly by engineers who are otherwise wholly engaged in practical work, and not connected with the college. For example, in the last catalogue of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology it is stated : " During the past year the following gentlemen have given instruc- tions of this nature : "Mr. George W. Blodgett, formerly electrician of the Boston and Albany Eailroad, on the Application of Electricity to Eailway Signalling ; Mr. Hammond V. Hayes, electrical engineer of the American Bell Telephone Company, on Telephone Engineering; Professor Elihu Thomson, on Eecent Developments in Electrical Engineering ; Mr. C. J. W. Woodbury, of the American Bell Tele- phone Company, on Electricity in its Eelatioh to Fire Eisks ; Dr. Louis Bell, on the Electrical Transmission of Power and the Application of Electricity to Eailway Transportation ; Mr. S. Everett Doane, of the Marlboro' Electric Company, on the Manu- facture of Incandescent Lamps ; and Mr. Odin B. Eoberts on the Nature and Function of Patents for Invention." " I daresay you think this subversive of all discipline," suggested my host, as we walked through the empty engineering laboratories at Ithaca, the engineering students having decided, without refer- ence to the university, to abstain from college work for two days out of respect for their Dean who had suddenly died, " but our aim is to encourage a division of responsibility, so that the man who is nearest the thing to be done acts for himself, without waiting for instructions ; we hold our students responsible only for the results attained. It is a great advantage for young men in America to get out of the beaten track." Here was one of the causes for the American spirit of initiative, alertness, and enterprise put in a nutshell. In America much less importune. than in (i un. Whether a student is worthy left to the decision of his piv v, ilhout tin- , outside examiners. The\ 'iy inlhienced, they told me, hy then- estimation of tlie value i'n;it ihe student \\oiiM he to the world. On the. other hand, America's jiidgmeir ha si -d on his power of attracting students, on the A MOWII hy the industry for the men he turns out, and generally on th- makes i'or his college. And so far from rnlni/in me. And even during this last visit when, in order to <'htain information, I was compelled to give them much trouble, and when, to avoid deriving an exaggerated impression of the superiority of the young American electrical engineer, I was forced to display a doubtful and critical spirit, they invariably showed that .-weet and lovable courtesy which I have always found so characteristic of their nation. \Y. K. AVHTON. 38 inosclp educational Commission. Report of Mr. A. W. BLACK, The great facts remaining with me as the result of my educational investigations in America are : (1) That public opinion is much more strongly in favour of education than in this country ; (2) That the scholars in America take a keener interest in their studies than is generally apparent here ; and (3) That the teaching given in the elementary schools produces a mental alertness and readiness of mind to a greater extent than is secured in this country. The people of America believe in education and they are willing to pay for it. They regard it as an investment of their money on which they get a good return. The people of England are only half -persuaded of the value of education, and there are still many who regard even the present expenditure on education as extravagant. This is particularly true in the agricultural districts of England, where the opinion is not uncommon that education spoils a lad for work on a farm. / The best teachers in America, in my opinion, are not better than the best teachers in England, but I am satisfied that the ability and qualifications of the average teacher are distinctly higher than in England. The simple explanation is that the average pay for teachers, taking into consideration the increased cost of living, is higher than with us. They pay more and get a better article. The great majority of the teachers in America are women, the proportion being about 13 to one. The chief reason for this great disparity is that women teachers cost less than men, and for the money paid they consider that they get better value from women on the ground that they get a first-rate woman for the price that would only command a third-rate man. I believe it is also generally conceded, both in England and America, that women make the best teachers for the lower grades ; they are more sympathetic, and understand better and enter more fully into the child mind. There are no pupil teachers in America. Only trained teachers graduates from the normal schools or teachers' training colleges, are permitted to teach and considerable care is taken in the selection of candidates ; not only are the academic qualifications considered, but character and personality are regarded as of prime importance. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the latter considerations. A teacher's business is not to teach so many rules of arithmetic, or so many facts of history, but to build character, to develop mental power, and to this end it is possible, while teaching less, to accom- plish more. It seemed to me that American teachers are more successful than our own in training intelligence, in teaching thinking, in bringing out self-expression, in encouraging inquiry. Their pupils are taught to give their views, to offer reasons, and I found that the teachers were willing to regard any suggestion, or reason, or state- ment from the scholars as worth consideration, however crude or 39 P.I untenable it might be, and I never heard a pupil snubbed because he made ;i mistake or said something foolish. Again and again I found the teacher, with a freedom ; md familiarity which would ii England, plaee himself, as it were, alongside his pupil-, and t would work out the problem on which they were el ^;-.gcd. In comparison with Am ducation in England is woefully inadequate and incomplete. In New York and in other 88 it is possible for a child to go from the kindergarten to the elementary school, then to the high school and on to the University, and graduate there without having to pay a single penny for schoo very book, pen, pencil, and school utensil used throughout the course being also provided free. In Kngland the great majority of the children leave school at the earliest possible moment ; they go cut to work to help to increase the family income. In America the children stay longer at school, and one of the leading educational experts in America said to me " \\'e lii id that there is a direct ratio between the number of years spent in school and the productive capacity of the scholars in dollars and cents." This is no doubt true as regards the professions and for those who are designed for the higher positions in commercial life, but experience proves that it is also true that where a boy has to leave school early to go into business, if he has the determination to improve himself and takes advantage of the opportunities afforded by evening schools, he is not likely to suffer any handicap from competitors of his own age who come into the same business three or four years later direct from school. Unfortunately, however, such boys are all too few, and it is not too much to say that any boy in any business or profession who strives to excel and is energetic and persevering will almost invariably come to the top of the tree. This is, perhaps, only another way of saying that the clever enterprising boy can take care of himself. What we need to try to secure is that some of this spirit should be infused into more of the children. I believe that the great mass of the children who leave the English elementary schools, having been taught a smattering of many subjects, see no utility in what they have been taught, and have little or no desire to learn more. If this is true it is a serious thing, and requires looking into. Education cannot be regarded as successful unless it creates the appetite for knowledge, and if a child leaves school with the thirst for knowledge strong within him he carries with him not only the key to success in after-life, but the most priceless gift that a teacher can impart. If we are to secure this we must have intelligent teachers, teaching intelligently, interesting the children in what they teach ; it may be that we should do better if we taught fewer subjects in the elementary schools and taught those few better. I believe also that we teach too much from books ; everything in school tends to become too stereotyped. After all the most important lessons are not learned from books at all, but they may be learned from the character and personality of the teacher. Hence the importance of raising the standard of the teaching profession. We may have all that can be desired in the way of school buildings aad equipment!, our educational machinery may be perfect, but it is the man behind the machine that counts. ARTHUR W. BLACK. 40 rnosclp educational Commission. Report of Mr. ROBERT BLAIR, M.A. (Edin.), B.Sc. (Lond.), Assistant Secretary for Technical Education, Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, Ireland. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. I. The term " technical education " has several connotations : some- times the strictly mechanic arts point of view is adhered to ; sometimes it is understood as that form of education which helps a man to earn a living. In the latter sense there is little that it cannot include : ancient and oriental languages for printers, Latin for solicitors, pharmaceutical chemists, and medical students ; divinity, surgery, engineering, agriculture, hedge-cutting, hair- cutting, car driving, and chimney sweeping. The second is the more popular view. "Technical education" has also been defined in Acts of Parliament, the main feature of the definition being the prohibition of the teaching of trades. The same Acts, however, allowed the inclusion of subjects other than those named in the definition, if approved and " minuted " by the central authority. The authorities, local and central, responsible for technical education being responsive to public opinion, subjects following the lines of the popular interpretation have from time to time been added, and highly ingenious arguments have been multiplied to show that trades were not being taught. The " last ditch " of the defence may be stated somewhat thus : under industrial conditions the worker's operations are restricted in number and character in such a way that he must not only have the requisite skill to carry out the operation, but must repeat the opera- tion so frequently that he tends to become a part of the machine although a self-adjusting part, such as mechanical engineers have not yet been able to make out of wood or metal. Technical education, on the other hand, it is argued, promotes an opposite tendency in the individual ; it affords opportunities for increasing the number of his operations, thus helping him to acquire manual skill of a more diversified character ; and it also gives him the underlying theory of tools, materials, and processes. Such a view, added to the funds available for promoting it, has produced a British system of evening schools without parallel anywhere. I have seen the German evening school system and the American evening school system, and neither is comparable with ours in quantity or in quality. German and American educationists have a very high opinion of our British evening schools, but they look upon them as trades schools institutions for the training of highly skilled operatives. Such is not a wholly incorrect view. Germans and Americans point with no unnatural pride to their Charlottenburgs and then: institutes of technology, and not being able* to see similar institutions with us they form a poor estimate of our system of technical education. They have " sized up" all our evening schools as mere trade schools. They do not see that most of our able and ambitious young men and young women are to be found in these 41 I'.I.UK. institutions adding a school evening to a workshop or counting- house day ; they do not realise, and fn:(|uently we ourselves have failed to realise, that we are in tli<- main trying to do in one institution- the evening school what Gernun^ :m.l \mcricans are in the main endeavouring to do in two. In other words, they sej);i.rato more clearly than we do the education of the " ha: and of the " heads." The complaint as to want of preparation of our evening technical students is, to a considerable extent, evidence of this analytical defect in our educational author not heing clear in our aims we are confusing the issues and are endeavouring to do too much with all the raw material placed at our disposal ; we are endeavouring to use the same process for the production of both " heads " and " hands," and are too apt to apply the standard for " heads " to the recruits for " hands." Hritishers' have held on somewhat tenaciously to the belief that lenders are "born, not made"; they have trusted to the native ability of the " lad o' pairts " ; and they expect him by sheer force of character to learn his trade, attend the technical school, and fight his way to the top of his business or profession. It will be observed that in referring to the two processes, I have said "in the main" on both sides ; for I am not overlooking our day technical institutions on the one hand, nor on the other that the American " lad o' pairts " does "come through " by sheer force of character and ability, and with the aid only of evening technical schools, as ours do. I contend, however, that in the reservation " in the main " I have sufficiently allowed for the exceptions. A few figures will corroborate my statements. In 1901 the total number of British day students of technology was 3,873. Of these 2,259 were engineering students. (See Record of Technical and Seconddri/ Education, Vol. IX., No. 45, page 54.) In the nine German technical high schools (day institutions), there were 14,986 students in 1902 (see page 49 of Report by Dr. Eose) ; and in the scientific colleges and schools of technology (day institutions) of the United States in 1900 there were : students of agriculture, 2,852 ; of mechanical engineering, 4,459 ; of civil engineering, 3,140; of electrical engineering, 4,459; of mining engineering, 1,261 ; making a total of 14,267 students in addition to 10,925 students of general science courses (university and technological), including applied chemistry. (See page 1,875 United States Com- missioner's Report, 1901.) In Charlottenburg alone there were 3,428 day students in 1899 and 4,194 in 1902 ; in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, 1,608 day students in 1902-3 ; and in the same year Sibley (scientific and engineering) College of Cornell University had 886 day students. The numbers become even more significant when it is realised that the British totals include all day technical btudents of fifteen- years of age and upwards who were taking a complete day technological course of not less than '20 hours per week; and that the schools contributing to these numbers varied from those of university standard, requiring a good general education as a preliminary, to technical schools for which the only preliminary was an elementary school education. On the other hand, the German students are not admitted until they are 18 years old; and the statistics of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, which in this respect may be regarded as fairly typical of the United States institutions, contrast favourably with ours. In 1902-3, 22'5 per cent, of the Boston students were between BLAHL] 16^ and 18 years of age ; and 77*5 per cent, were over 18 ; none were below 16i and almost 15 per cent, were over 20. The German and Amrru-an students as a whole have had a much better prepara- tion than ours ; they show their high school (leaving) certificates as admission cards. These figures fully support my view that German and American leaders on the one hand, and British on the other, are prepared in different ways the American and the German mainly in day schools, the British mainly in evening schools. There are, of course, other factors; but I am dealing only with the educational. II. The institutions which I visited, and from which I formed my impressions of technical education in the States, were : The New York City Kvening Schools, including the New York City Trade School ; the Cooper Institute, New York ; the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn; ;md the Springfield (Massachusetts) Trade School; the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia; the Lewis Institute, Chicago; the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (Wharton School of Commerce) ; University of Illinois ; Harvard University ; Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, Boston ; and Cornell University. Sibley College (Cornell) and "Boston Tec." are engaged in the preparation of the leading officers of the industrial world. These two institutions hold a deservedly high place in the public mind owing to their influence on education and on industries. They are the best of the many institutions one sees ; but what is true of them is in varying, though less, degree true of the others. The Pratt, Lewis, and Drexel are institutions of a secondary character. The standard required of entrants and the duration of the course differ considerably from that of Cornell University and "Boston Tec." ; as a rule, they provide the petty q///<.vr.s, men to hold the intermediate positions, below the chief engineer and the general manager on the one hand, but above the skilled mechanic on the other. The evening trade schools train the " hands." The aims of these three sets of institutions are not so clearly defined as I have indicated, but I am confident that this classification does them no substantial injustice. Trade Schools. Let us take the last first. Some of the trade schools have no higher aim than conversion of unskilled labour into partly skilled labour. In one of the most important of these institutions the teaching was trade teaching of the clearest character with little thought of the "last ditch." Some of the instructors were Trade Unionists, and there appeared to be no active Trade Union opposition to the avowed objects of the school. In only one class (painters and decorators) was instruction restricted to students daily engaged in the trade. The other classes were made up of men who were not in the trade, but who, after a session's work, slipped away into the country and gradually worked their way back into the city as recognised tradesmen. Classes met three nights per week, t\\o hours each night; six hours per week for six months. / Attendance is very regular, and the students are very keen ; they mean business. Some of the metal-industry trade schools aim as high as the making of the most skilled machinists and foremen- men who can take work at any hand or power machine, and who can read drawings. The work done in these schools is on a trade scale. BJ nij Technical Schools. Tho school^ /^) of a secondary technical cliar:u-t.-r may b> I ! in the lonship to the front rank institution-, ^uch as a.ml Cornell, as high ><-i:..ols do to colleges They aim at taking students of 10 or 17 years of age who-- ijui- val.-nt to that of the first two y to specialise instead of proceeding with a further course of - of genei: -ion. The following extract from a paper on education by Dr. \Yillistc.n, Director of the D'-p.irin.'-m, and Teclmoloi 'it ute, is well worth seriou> excerpt sets out clearly the ideas which g . . day engineering courses in the 1'ratt In-titute: " Both in the draughting-room and shops of all our mechanical and olo industries is this demand becoming more urgent for men who bavo 1. training in applied science to enable them to grasp and <. the engineer above them, and who have bad sufficient knowledge of practical details to direct the carrying of them into execution. Ami t! 1 is all the more urgent, because for every engineer and master of construction a dozen men of this other type are needed to carry out his plans. "Mathematics and physics are both fundamental to all mechanical pr< and should therefore enter prominently. Design and construction should also be emphasised. Each day, therefore, there should be instruction in mathe- matics, physics, physical laboratory, shopwork, and mechanical drawing. If tho day is divided into eight periods, this gives one period for each of the two recitations in mathematics and physics, and two periods each for laboratory, drawing and shopwork. Add to this two hours and a half for evening study, and you have a day under which any healthy boy will thrive. Such a large part of his time is taken up by work requiring physical activity, that he finds his task a wholesome one. " The mathematics of the first year should include algebra, plane geometry, and elementary trigonometry but not taught from the ordinary text-books. The mathematics will give the best mental training and the broadest, if it is closely allied to the other work, so that it may be more thoroughly understood in its meaning and its application. And as the young men are to enter the field of construction, all their school training will have the greatest educational valur if it is closely allied in purpose and spirit to their life-work, so that the process of thought and education may continue without interruption after they leave school. Therefore, the mathematics should be made practical and constructive. Tho student should be made, not only in geometry but in all other branches, to construct his own proofs and to build up step by step, under close and continual guidance, his own methods of reasoning. " The physics, too, should bo taught with special reference to the work that is to follow. Mechanics and certain portions of heat and electricity should be dwelt on ; the remainder may be pissed over more rapidly. The laboratory process should largely be relied on, and an effort should be made so to equip the laboratory with simple, yet effective, apparatus, that 'every principle of importance either because it is fundamental to an understanding of what is to follow, or because of its application iu practical work may be studied through tho medium of at least one laboratory exercise. The idea is to gain the desired end by constructive steps based upon doing ratlier tlian to at ach it through the application of abstract logic: and many portions of physics which, approached by any other method, would present mathematical difficulties beyond the powers of secondary school students, may thus be studied with considerable success. The experiments should have, wherever possible, a practical as well as a disciplinary value, and the prime requisites for the apparatus designed for the use of technical students of as mature age as those who will satisfy our entrance requirements are : that the apparatus shall not be trivial, but shall be of a character to awaken interest ; that it shall be capable of definite ends and useful purposes, and that it shall give quantitative results that will compare with those used in professional work. " The drawing and shop work shall be as practical as it is possible to make them, and in planning the work and the equipment it should be remembered that much may be left to the imagination of the college student, but for the student of our technical school no equipment is too good and no thought and BL.V 4* care in methods of presenting work to him is too great. In both drawing-room and shop pains should be taken to make use, wherever possible, of what has just been learned in the classes. 14 In the time that is available for shop work, it is possible to give a pretty thorough course in pattern-making, foundry-work, and forging in the first year. The drawing may be made to include geometric drawing or orthographic projection and shop detail and assembly (synthetic) drawings made from student *- k o I f ' ' o .** " The work of the second year may not be so clearly defined, as there is more room for individual judgment to vary the course of study ; but the fundamental idea marked out for the first year will prevail in the second. I would suggest, however, the following : Mathematics every day ; a recitation in mechanism, mechanics, strength of materials, and steam, to take the place of the first year physics ; and the balance of the time divided between machine design, machine construction in the shop, and mechanical laboratory which now takes the place of the physical laboratory. " In mathematics more advanced algebra, solid geometry, and some more advanced trigonometry, with the elements of analytical geometry, may be covered. " In the machine shop ten hours a week may be had throughout the year, which gives a pretty thorough and complete course, and enables a good deal to b done in the way of tool-making, cutter and reamer grinding, etc., in addition to a large amount of machine construction ; and the course in machine design may include design in machine details, and after the strength of materials has been taken up in laboratory and class-room, design involving strength calculations. " In the mechanical laboratory and the class-room work that accompanies it there is more room for variation than in any other point in the course. It may, however, include power measurement with indicator and brake ; transmission of power with belt, rope, gears, etc., measurement of friction losses ; efficiency calculations, hydraulic measurements and efficiency of water-motors; steam experiments on calorimeter ; now of steam ; injector ; steam pump, engine and boiler tests, etc. ; and much time can profitably be devoted to strength of mate- rials tests. Much of this work will be conducted in a less exhaustive way than if it came in the senior year of a college course, but that does not mean that it has any less value in its place. An injector test, for instance, would be run to deter- mine experimentally how much water ono pound of steam would lift, and the results would be checked by the heat balance. The calculations involving the kinetic energy of the steam as it issues from its orifice would be omitted. " It may seem strange that I have not mentioned English in my outline of the course of study for the two year secondary technical school, but I have not intended that it should be omitted from the course by any means. In both years there would be required as a part of the laboratory work a great number of written reports, besides considerable written work in mathematics and other class-room subjects, and from time to time more extended reports from current periodicals on assigned topics. All of these reports would be carefully criticised for expression, style, and good English, as well as for subject matter ; the idea being that the best way to learn English is to write it continually and write on a subject with which one is familiar. These criticisms offer the best kind of instruction. " The following table shows more clearly than I can describe in words, perhaps, just what the proposed two-year course for the secondary technical school would contain, and I have chosen for my unit of comparison the credit hour, which corresponds to one recitation or two hours of laboratory or drawing per week for one term (one-third of the school year). In order that we may better understand the meaning of these figures, I have made comparison with the courses in mechanical engineering in the country, and I have chosen the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Ohio State University as institutions having representative courses in different parts of the country: Secondary Technical M.E. Course, M.E. Course, School. M.I.T. O.8.U. Drawing 30 Crd. hrs. .. 37-5 Crd hrs. .. 23 Crd. hrs. Shopwotk 30 Mathematics 30 Physics 15 Physical laboratory 12 Mechanics, etc 15 22-5 24 135 3 54 23 31 9 4 68 Language and other subjects not included in above .... ,, .. 70-5 48 45 ISi.Aiii. " Tho comparison shows that tho secondary technical school would have about .UK amount of mechanical drawing and machine design as the engineering courses, and considerably more shop w<>rk. It would have tin- same amount of mathematics, but, of course, of lower grade; hut more eid . physical lahonuor-y. It would have only one quarter as min-li lime devoted to mechanism, meehnnics, and other theoretical branches, but it would have as mu< h tune devoted to mechanical laboratory. No time would be available for languages, literature, political science, or Other similar subjects. " It will be noted that the total of time for the two-year course in more than half the t.itilof cither of tho four-year courses, and ii would appear that too much has been crowded into the shorter c\ir~i-. Tho difficulty I from the fact that there is so much larger a proportion of shopwork, laboratory and drawing -r -m \v.>rk in this shorter e..urs< two hours of which not being tho full equivalent of one hour of class-room work in a technical subject that it appears more ditlicult, when in reality it is not." There is no (lay course in chemistry at the Pratt Institute. The evening course, however, de^rves mention both for its intrinsic interest and for the evidence it affords as to the ideas which govern the Institute. The course extends over three years : First i/er : Principles of general chemistry and of chemical combinations, properties of the non-metallic and metallic elements and their compounds. Second year: Qualitative analysis; the separation and deter- mination of the various metals and acids in solution and in solids. Third year : Quantitative analysis by weight and by volume ; ents of assaying. Lectures and laboratory work throughout the three years. An evening certificate is granted upon successful completion of this course. The subject matter, on which the teaching of principles is based, is such as would interest students from "works," the plaii of study being thus similar to that which on this side has been in successful operation at the evening classes in chemistry of Finsbury Technical College, London, for many years. In the first year's class (evening course) there were found 28 students ; in the second year's class 22 who had already done the first year's work; and in the third 20, who had completed the work of the previous two ; and the regularity of attendance was excellent ! I verified the facts. The explanation offered for such a remarkable attendance at evening classes was : (a) the practical character of the instruction, (b) the fact that men holding the three years' evening certificate readily secured promotion in their own works or obtained higher posts else- where. The character of the instruction may be somewhat gauged by the fact that while the head teacher of the department had had the ordinary doctorate course in chemistry, including one year at Zurich, one of his assistants was superintendent of a glycerine factory, and the other was a foreman in the Government laboratory, Naval Yard, New York a combination of talents and experience that generally succeeds. It may not be out of place to refer here to somewhat similar figures of classes (evening) in chemistry at the Cooper Institute. There the chemical department is large and very active ; the course a five years one consists of general chemistry and qualitative and quantitative analysis leading into manufacturing chemistry. Fifty per cent, of a'l the students work through the full five years' course ten hours per week of 34 weeks per year. At the first year's work I found 37 students ; at the second 19 ; at the third 22 ; at the fourth 20. The fifth 1 i. 46 figures were not noted. The eagerness of the students of all years was an excellent feature. As a rule they were in shirt sleeves ; many had also removed their waistcoats. This institute grants iiB.Sc. degree to every student who successfully completes the five years' course. As regards the success of the Pratt students, I was told that thost' who complete the courses secure employment imme- diately. At the close of the session 1901-2, each of the 51 day graduates (students who had completed the course) obtained satisfactory employment in a line of work for which he had been preparing. In the spring of 1903 the superintendent of the Edison Electric Lighting Company visited the institute, and on seeing the second year electrical engineering class at work offered to engage all the students at the close of the session. Statements to this effect may seem somewhat " tall " ; but they are borne out by the long list of former students, with present employment given, to be found at page 158 of the Pratt Institute Monthly for April, 1903. Success has been found to depend on close contact with industrial work ; it has taken the Pratt Institute 16 years to establish the connection now formed ; and the result is seen in a full complement of students and a long waiting (for admission) list. Instances of secondary technical institutes need not be multiplied. There are many of them ia the States. I have outlined what appeared to me to be the leading features of one of the best of them. These divisions of labour and function, i.e., the work of the trade school and of the secondary technical institute, are parallel to some of the changes that have occurred in machine shops ; and they are succeeding and will succeed so far as they maintain the parallelism. Machine tenders are no longer being taken from the ranks of mechanics, but from the ranks of labourers, and mechanics are being elevated to tool builders and tool designers. Each class is being advanced and made more productive, and each shares in the general advance. ikcr Institutions. Sibley College, Cornell, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology may be taken as the leading examples of institutions of the front rank those which prepare the " captains of industry." Let us examine a few of the features of each. Candidates for admission to Cornell must be at least 16 years of age, and must present an accredited high school certificate, the certificate of the College Entrance Examination Board, or submit to an examination. This examination varies according to the depart- ment of the university a student intends to enter. Candidates for the course leading to the degree in mechanical engineering (including electrical engineering, marine construction, and railway mechanical engineering) must offer English history, plane geometry, elementary algebra, solid geometry, advanced algebra, plane and spherical trigonometry, advanced German," and advanced French. An equivalent of any two of the following entrance subjects or groups of subjects (a-k) may be offered in place of either advanced French or advanced German for entrants to the course of study in mechanical engineering. Advanced Spanish counts as two of the equivalent subjects below : (a} elementary 47 MI Spanish, (b) Latin grammar and Caesar, (c) Latin composition and 10, (d) Virgil, (e) Oret-k grammar and Xenophon, composition and Homer, ( TV, (/; ge...lo^y. ij) botany, (A-) drawing. Tin- -landed in tho languages, mathematics, and for sidmission to the university, K r tximum which the better class of high schools and acad> . i. ;:.! to t'urnisli. Students of advanced standing from other u and colleges ai-c admitted on certain conditions. The total yearly expenses of student-; may vary from 00 to 100. Financial assistance is offered in the form of State (New York) and university scholarships and fellowships. Many students support themselves in whole or part by their labour in attending to furnaces, waiting at table, typewriting, and such other work as they can secure at the university or in the City of Ithaca. The State scholarships are awarded on the, result of a competitive examination in English history, plane geometry, algebra and any two of Greek, Latin, French, German, and advanced mathematics. In lieu of advanced mathematics, a candidate may offer physics, chemistry, botany, geology or zoology. stay here. I must speak to your father about it." It is said that the student did not endeavour to explain the " new apprenticeship." * The conditions regulating admission to courses and gradua- tion at the Massachusetts Institute differ in some material yew York Trihunt, No-. ( inl.-r M!I, 1903. BLAH;. 48 respects from those of Cornell. Applicants for admission are required, as a rule, to pass an entracce examination, though exception is made in the case of those presenting satisfactory certificates from the College Entrance Examination Board, or those who have passed entrance examinations at another college. In the case of persons who are past the usual student age, or who have been engaged in teaching or in technical pursuits, admission may be granted at the discretion of the Faculty without examina- tion. No school certificates are accepted a somewhat unusual, if not quite exceptional, rule. The obligatory subjects for admission are : Algebra, plane geometry, solid geometry, French, geometry, English, history. The electives, of which one must be chosen, are : French or German (additional), Latin, English (additional), history (additional), physics,* chemistry, mechanical drawing and mechanic arts (manual instruction). The Statistics of Admission in 1902-3 may be interesting. Of the 1,608 students of that year, 659 were not connected with the school in 1901-2. Of these, 408 were admitted as regular students of the first year upon the basis of their entrance examina- tions. The 251 remaining comprise (1) those who had previously been connected with the institute, and have resumed their places ; (2) those who were admitted provisionally without examination ; (3) those who were admitted by examination as regular second- year or as special students ; (4) those who were admitted on the presentation of diplomas or certificates from other institutions of college grade or from the College Examination Board. In addition to the 408 who were thus admitted to the first year on examination, and have taken their place in the school, 70 were admitted on examination, but have not entered the school. In the case of the 408 persons who were admitted on examina- tion and have joined the school, the results of the examinations, embracing both those of June and those of September, were as follow : Ad nitted clear 316 on one condition! 75 on two conditions 17 408 One hundred and four applicants were rejected. The fees are 50 a year. Forty scholarships are given by the State (Massachusetts), and where capacity and need are shown a considerable number of scholar- ships is awarded by the institute. These scholarships are not in any sense awarded as the result of a competitive examination. Capacity has to be shown by the first year's work, and the need is most strictly investigated. Application is made on a form on which the names of referees are given. These are privately communicated with, and the student's financial position is closely inquired into by two members of the staff. The case is finally presented to the Faculty for consideration and decision. The minimum yearly funds required by a student to provide fees, board and lodging, and all other necessaries are 130. There are 13 possible under- graduate courses, each of four years' duration. ' Physics will be transferred to the obligatory list in 1905 and thereafter t A condition " means that ther was failure in some subject of examin (nation. 49 [BLAIR. I. Civil Engineering. VII. II. Merhniiical Kn^ii!' i ing. VIII. I 'h \sics. III. Mining Kn^inecni:;.' and IX. ( icm-ral Stii'; Metallurgy. < iiemical Kngineering. IV. Architecture. ^anitary \". ( Mn-mistry. XII. < . VI. Electrical Engineering. XIII. Naval Arrhii.-r- The time-table of the first year's work, and especially that of the first term, i-; very interesting he-cause of nil character. It was explained to me that the whole staff was agreed as to the need of an advanced general education as a basis for ilised instruction ; and it was contended that, while no complaint was made as to the teaching of literary and linguistic subjects in high schools, the mind of a youth who had committed his education to the institution was in a more mature and receptive condition for further literary, linguistic, and economic teaching. In this connection the prescribed summer holiday reading of Knglish classics also deserves mention. There is a strong- inclination on the part of some of the staff to strengthen the first year's general course, and, if necessary, to make the course of studies for a degree a five-year one. The laboratories and staff are large, but the large number of students in attendance (1,600) is a subject of great anxiety. Like Cornell, the Institute has, owing to its success, reached a critical period in its history, and new develop- ments may be expected. For the sake of comparison with Cornell and Boston I add a few similar features in respect of the University of Illinois an institution with over 4,000 students, 750 being in the engineering courses. The University of Illinois is a land grant and mechanic arts college, and a " free " university. A schedule of expenses may explain what " free " means. The following are (for students attending at Urbana) the estimated average annual expenses, exclusive of books, clothing, railroad fare, laboratory fees (if any), and small miscellaneous needs : Semester fees $2400 to $24 00 Boom rent for each student (two in room).. 32 00 ,, 60 00 Table board in boarding-houses and clubs . 90 00 ,, 124 00 Washing 18 00 24 00 l"p6 to 232 00 Board and room in private houses per week 4 50 ,, 6 00 i.e., 33 to 47 per annum. The tuition is practically free. Board and residence vary from 33 to 47 per year, according to a student's tastes and ability to pay. The university is situated at Champaign (Urbana), right out on the prairie, and the combined effect of the excellent weather and of the beautiful surroundings on the day of visit induced a desire to see all universities, colleges, and schools placed in the country. There are processes at work which lift such a desire out of the list of those of unattainable objects. Just as in the remote rural districts a process of consoli- dation is now going on, and as in many cities there is a movement to pick the children out of the slums, so I think there is nothing bizarre in the suggestion that Americans will so improve the network of electric cars that they will one day take town children out to schools in the country. The equipment of the technological department is excellent. BLAIR.] 50 III. The numbers of day students in attendance at these technical institutions demonstrate a success beyond anything we know of in this country. The age and number of. the students, their previous preparation, the four years' courses, and the number of graduates who remain to study, constitute a form of preparation for industrial work such as we know little of. After two days in the Institute of Technology and two evenings with some of the heads of depart- ments, I was impressed with the view that the success of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and in varying, though less, degree that of other colleges or institutes of technology is due to the following causes : 1. Success. 2. Hard work. 3. Close touch with industries. 4. Practical character of the instruction. 5. The boldness of the students. 6. Some minor causes. 1. There is little need to dwell long on the success of these institutions. Cornell and the Massachusetts Institute are known throughout the States and Europe as educational institutions of the front rank. Their students are not drawn merely from the States of New York or Massachusetts. Of the total number of 1,608 day students in the latter, Massachusetts contributes 935, or 58 per cent, of the whole ; 164 are from other New England States, 509 are from outside New England. Of these, 47 are from foreign countries. In a few cases they come from Great Britain, the British colonies, and Japan. The fame of the institution is so great that the ablest boys in the States are attracted ; and thus present success is contributing to future success. 2. The work on the part of the students is severe, and especially so in the case of those of the Massachusetts Institute, for the conditions of life in Boston do not lend themselves to the same amount of distraction as at Illinois or Cornell, both of which are beautifully situated in the country and have a corporate life of work and social, athletic, and other clubs. This is on the whole a disadvantage to the Massachusetts Institute, and the staff are endeavouring to improve the social side of the institution for educational as well as recreative purposes. Their graduates must be capable of holding their own anywhere, and this capacity requires a certain amount of social experience. .\L, r ain, there is in each institution a considerable " mortality," or shedding of students. Some students find their general preparation insufficient, some find the pace too gr^at, others find their funds out, and some are advised that they have made a bad selection. 11 ch cases the American student accepts advice and acts promptly. At every step a student's work is known, and the faculty staff of professors in each department every four months discuss fully a student's work. The middle of the third year is the critical point in a student's career. At this stage the Institute's requiiv- s demand a final decision as to choice of work. Fifteen men in one department were at this point recently advised to change courses or to withdraw from the Institute. I was informed that as ;i rule -Jo per cent, of the civil engineering students drop off BLAZB. at tin' saii . t(j be addeu who v " fallen by ' 'I'lio greatest patience is i to tin- students and the best advice is offered to them ; but in the interest of the individual as of the standing of the institute, and of its intlue.ir.e <>n industrial work, such shedding of students is regarded us inevitable and is acqui- in. It does not follow that the men are wit \s a rule, they find employment of a lower character than they were aiming at ; they change the directions of their careers to their own advantage; or they pursue a course of studies on the same lines at a secondary institution -a two-year course school. 3. There are 1S:{ instructors on tho permanent staff of the Boston Institution. Without counting lecturers, the number of lnstr, to that of students bears the proportion of one to nine and s tenths. The following table shows the distribution among the several classes of instructors : I'.'Ol -'. 1902-3. Professors 2!) Associate professors 9 1_! 4ant professors 25 Instructors 50 54 Assistants 36 46 Lecturers .. 40 18 Total 189 183 The salaries of junior instructors vary from about 100 upwards to 200 or so ; assistant professors, 400 to 500 ; and professors, 500 to 700. The distribution of salary-fund over a large number of comparatively young men, rather than the purchase of a great name at a great price, has the advantage of distributing work in such a way that each man is a specialist, and the faculty in conference all-wise. The salaries, however, are not large enough compared with those offered in "works," and the Institute is constantly losing good men. On the whole, the staff consists of young men : academic traditions are consequently not too strong. A- a rule the heads of departments and their "seconds ' are permitted to engage in consulting practice. This holds true generally of technological institutions. Occasionally in such insti- tutions this permission is abused, and the authority of the president has to be exercised ; but the arrangement as a rule works well, and it is regarded as essential to a professor's vitality and a nece and preliminary condition to the success of his teaching. Such an arrangement also brings a welcome addition to his income, and thus induces him to remain at the institution. At Boston one member of the staff of : rtment of Chemistry is engaged three days a week in a research laboratory in "works"; the other three he devotes to instruction at the institution. In his department at the institute seven or eight graduate students (working for a higher degree) were engaged on the same researches as the professor's mind was exercised on at the "works." There were some differences in the presentation and methods of attack, but the problems were essentially the same. Such close alliance with works is regarded as good for the " works " and good for the students. The Department of Electrical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute was recently separated from that of Physics, and the new head, Dr. Louis Duncan, sometime Professor of Electrical Engineering in Johns BLAIR.] 52 Hopkins University at Baltimore, had for a few years past been engaged as a practising engineer in New York City Dr. Duncan retains his office in New York, and works half his time there. Another head of a department had 15 years' experience as a bridge engineer, and is a member of the Massachusetts Kailroad Commission (equivalent in some respects to the Eailway Department of our d of Trade) and other corporations. The head of the Depart- ment of Industrial Chemistry is partner in a firm of consulting and manufacturing chemists. These are but typical examples. ;n tin- alumni of the institute who have established positions for themselves in the industrial world, and heads of great firms or departments of firms, are easily induced to give series of lectures on special subjects on which they are experts. It is considered a special honour to receive such an invitation ; and the work is, as a rule, done without a fee. In this way the institute knows what industry is doing and what it requires. 4. In this way too, a wholesome influence is extended over the instruction ; and the kind and scale of exercises become just such as would prepare a man with some confidence of fitness to tackle industrial problems. Let us look at a few types. In the Depart- ment of Industrial Chemistry, one finds among the earliest exercises of the undergraduate such an one as : " Take 31b. of Turk's Island salt; purify; find the percentage of sodium chloride, discuss the treatment of the filtrate; write up the methods of procedure, and prices of plant required to deal with the problem on a com- mercial scale, taking into consideration labour and interest on capital" ; and so on. Later, the students had to prepare a complete technical report on some manufacturing problem involving prepara- tion of plans of plant, etc. A model report was given to each student as a guide. Such an exercise immediately precedes the thesis for a degree. In physical chemistry the graduates were at work on such problems as (1) An investigation of the properties of a new material for the candles of arc lamps. (2) An investigation of the manufacture of incandescent filaments from a new material. (3) Investigation of insulating material. (4) Investigation of the uses of porcelain in the form of resistance rods. In civil engineering a year's work for an undergraduate would involve (1) Design for a plate girder bridge 60ft. by 80ft. span : complete working drawings to be made. (2) Design for a wooden bridge or wooden roof truss : com- plete working drawings to be made. (3) Design for a typical American pin truss railway bridge 150ft. span : complete working drawings to be made. The student, under direction, of course, makes all his own calculations. (4) Thesis. Lectures, discussions, criticisms, are frequent at every stage of the work. A student thus trained is competent to figure out the stresses and to design a bridge ; but he is not familiar enough with the details to enable him to put them together in the best way. This knowledge comes by experience only. r,3 A valuable addition has been made to the apparatus of the mechanical laboratories at Pmsi MI in the form of a gifi from the, vVestinghoate Air-Brake Company "f an entire air-brake equipment for a freight train consisting of a lor,, motive and 25 cars. Thin makes it possible to investigate practical and important question-, concerning the working of air-brakes. The boiler lc-t- in this institution are never of less duration than 24 hours, and frequently they are continued over a week, night and day, students taking the day and night shifts in relays. The tests, it is maintained, inn- l> 0:1 a commercial scale; it is argued that no other scale gives a sutti<;i:ia guarantee of accuracy for commercial purpos In connection with railway engineering, the railway companies co-operate with both Cornell and the Massachusetts Institute in making provision for tests on a large scale. For example, some of the Boston thesis work has been done on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad, and the following quotation from the report of the director of Sibley College, Cornell, for 1902-3, illustrates in somewhat striking form the kind of work undertaken by students : " Th<- Lacka\\anna Railroad Company has, as usual, given this department helpful aid in its work, furnishing engines and permitting their attachment to any desired trains on that road between Ithaca and Owego for the purpose ot giving practical instruction, training, and experience to students. The work is performed under the supervision of the head of the department by .seniors as leaders and juniors as assistants, and proves most profitable to all, while it is also an important element of the success of the school through its influence upon the officers of the railways. It shows the quality and competence of the sort of young man turned out by the school. Somewhat similar work, in the preparation for writing theses, has been done by numbers of the senior and graduate classes on railroads at a distance, and entirely independently, with great success. In one case the work was performed on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the train at times making 85 and 90 miles an hour, probably the highest speed at which experimental investigation of train performance was ever undertaken." In this connection it may be well to refer to the seminar meetings in the Department of Physical Chemistry. On my arrival in this department on the morning of my second day at the institute, I entered a room where a class appeared to be at work. I sat down and listened for a time to a discussion, which closed in about ten minutes. I was surprised to find two of the professors I was looking for, and to be introduced to other members of the staff. There were seven students and five members of the staff present. They had been discussing a problem of physico-chemical interest ; and I learned that meetings for discussion of researches in progress and of published articles were held at least weekly. At >ueh meetings the whole of the staff and the research students are present ; each contributes to the discussion, and frequently in this way a student who has, so to say, got into a cul de sac in his experimental work is shown the way out. Discussion, criticisms, and the insight and different view-point of new minds must be of great advantage to a student in his research. A thesis always precedes a degree. Some professors assign theses with more freedom for the student than others ; but as a rule it is considered advisable not to put too big a burden on the student's back. As a matter of fact, in most cases the man is known long before he reaches his thesis, which is understood as merely lending him the last helping hand to stand and work alone. B A 54 In even- department of the Institute there is a workshop and also a departmental library. The value of the latter cannot be over-estimated. As, however, its success depends so much on ifpartmi ntal librarian, I have no hesitation in quoting Dr. ilall on the ideal departmental librarian. He is referring to the librarian of a department of educational psychology, but the point " of the quotation is general. " Having once settled thus each to the work which he seems able to do best, the problem of books and apparatus must be disposed of. The librarian with ample funds carefully selects from all accessible sources the title of every book cr pamphlet likely to be of service to each man, and most of the library fund is d for such expenditure. Here the work of the librarian becomes all- important, and is utterly different from that of any kind of public or other librarian. He must be familiar with all the year books and bibliographies, publishers' announcements, etc., and prompt to get in his orders. He must communicate with other libraries, and be as eager to do as to receive favours. He generally finds many otherwise unknown references, and is always running down new material, and bringing forward weekly, if not daily, to almost all some- thing each is glad to get. He is thus a diligent waterer, or the aquarius, of the university garden, and on his efficiency very much depends. His work is not merely to produce speedily what is wanted, but to find out himself in advance what is serviceable. Unlike a public librarian he has at hand catalogues not merely of books but memoirs in many archives, quarterly, monthly, or other occasional publications, so that he can tell at a glance, if he knows either author or subject, the whether and what of the many serial studies, archives, proceed- ings and other special monographic literature. He even provides one or two hundred reprints of all the metre important theses and articles, published at his own institution, in order to utilise them as exchanges for other special matter of similar kind, otherwise unattainable. He is himself a living index of indexes, not so much a bibliophile as a worker, holding books to be not ends but means, or best treated when soonest worn out in the service of those most competent. His pridr is not in the order, number, or small loss list, but rather in the ratio of annual use, or the total number of books per person drawing them. He realises that the library must be a servant and not a master, and that the ideal is to make everything as accessible and tempting as possible." 5. A word is necessary on the boldness and character of many students at American colleges and universities. Cases of the kind mentioned are numerous, but they do not apply to a large Mtage of the whole number of students; they are in sufficient number, however, to show the grit of many of the young men : and the existence of such cases shows up a side of the university character which is long since dead in England, and which I fear is dying in Scotland, where it was somewhat common 20 or 30 years ago. Men maintain themselves by i I for tutoring, for clerical work, for waiting at table, for librarian work, tending furnaces and lawns, acting as tram ictors, lighting street lamps, carrying newspapers, canvassing for city telephones, city directories, or for political campaigns, etc. I saw one student acting as "washer-up" for two coloured purveyors of lunch ; and was informed that his remuneration consisted of his meals. Another case was described to me of three university students who "ran" a laundry, themselves doing the work of collecting the clothes, and of washing, ironing, and redistributing the clean linen. Students when they have settled their careers in their own minds and have definitely fixed their aims will borrow a large part of the necessary funds with the utmost confidence in their capacity to repay within a reasonable time. Such students are the >f the earth, and the nation is robust in health which rears Biu-li virile spirits. Americans respect all who can work, no matter the character of the work, and they have the utmost contempt for (lie idle, and disregard of \\li:it is to become of them. "Work or starve " is a fundamental artiel.- of tin- American c< <;. In a minor degree the success of th institutes is due to the absence of pri/.es and of " ranking." Their catal do not contain tin: lists of pri/e and - .ji winners ; and merit lists an- not to he found on the notice boards. At Cornell a -Indent, may privately ascertain what his marks in any examination are ; at Boston a Student, never knows his marks ; then; HI;- no honours degrees. The rivalry of students is, then-fore, of a somewhat h>-a!thy character. What then are the incentives to hard study'' First, though most remote, the great prizes in the industrial world ; secondly, and intimately connected with the first, the young American se< cannot afford to waste his time; thirdly, the fact that the faculty have it in their power to recommend him into a good industrial linn. At -Boston the managers of linns appear a month he fore graduation, " size up " and pick off the best of the students ; and in Bo>ton, as almost everywhere, there is a faculty Committee which has charge of appointments. IV. -Commercial Schools. The separation of functions and division of labour characteristic of the technical schools is exemplified in the institutions which prepare for the commercial world. In the first place we have the schools which provide instruction in the subordinate mechanical processes of an office copying, filing, etc., and which train the army of office auxiliaries stenographers, typists, and so on. Evening commercial schools and the lower type of business schools are good examples. Next we have the schools in which the production of technical skill is still the predominant feature ; but to which a considerable degree of general education is added. The more liberal training is included to enable the operations to be carried out more intelli- gently, and in consequence with greater economy of time. The Drexel Institute has a two years' day course of this character ; the institute, in this respect, aims at preparing women (and occasionally men) to become secretaries to lawyers, judges, physicians, and other professional men. Students with a more liberal training are quick to appreciate technical terms ; they can re-phrase a sentence ; they can punctuate and paragraph correctly ; they can also keep accounts, look up references and collect information without detailed instructions. These schools stand as it were between Pitman's Shorthand Schools and the university. Comparable to the institutes of technology are the university " schools of commerce," the Wharton School of Commerce in the University of Pennsylvania being an excellent example. The object of such schools of commerce is well set forth in the two following quotations from " Lectures on Commerce," by H. B. Hatfield, of Chicago University : " While a school of mechanical engineering is required to fit a man for the practical parts of rail-roading, there exists in that profession a far more important career for the man who is competent to direct the traffic, classify goods, fix rates, watch the coming financial depression, know the signs of coming prosperity, have insight into as well as experience with the questions of labour and the relations of employers to employes, understands the duties as well as the privileges of corporations, and who has the masterly mind to devise and carry out great financial operations involved in the management of securities on a scale hitherto unprecedented. BLAIK 56 ' To take another illustration. A preparation for banking should not be a drill in technical book-keeping, or teaching a messenger how to carry a bag of Bold in safety from one institution to another. The essential purpose of education leading up to such a profession would be a training in the principles affecting the problems which necessarily arise in local, national, and inter- national banking. There are principles of money and credit underlying these phenomena often not understood even by many bank officials. The man who has been taught haw to approach such problems, to work out solutions, to apply power and grasp of large and important subjects, must, in the end, prove ;m i.-ly better head of a bank than he who has come slowly forward from the window" of an accountant or teller, and whose professional education has con- of the chance events brought to his attention in the round of daily Men of this latter description will become accurate, steady, and useful to the institution in minor positions; but if promoted to high posts they will be found to know really nothing beyond the dry husks of their professional nporicnce or a personal acquaintance with their constituency. The recruiting of high officials in this fashion accounts for the prevalence of so much lagging con- servatism and ignorant timidity in regard to burning monetary questions of ihe day.' The W barton School has 250 students ; the course for graduation involves four years study in commerce, political economy, finance and political science. Just as industries are looking to the institute's of technology for the engineer, the architect, and the chemist, so commerce is beginning to look to schools like Wharton for the material out of which the great managers are made. Similarly, too, professors in schools of commerce are allowed to practice : Dr. Emery K. Johnson, of the Wharton School, acted as one of the United States Commissioners who inquired into the Panama Canal question, and he also codified the laws of Porto Eico. Relation of Technical Education in the United States to Industry and Commerce. The general effect of my visit has been to confirm what I think is the common view, that the American school system, past and present, has not been a large determining factor in the success of American industries and commerce. Such success was due, in the first place, to the virile and enterprising character of the American people characteristics not developed by education in the narrow sense of the schools, but by education in the wider sense of the effect on the American people of two centuries of pioneering in a vast and rich but undeveloped though not uninhabited continent ; in the second place, as in the United Kingdom and in Germany, to great individuals Carnegies, Whitworths, Krupps ; and, in the third place, to the constint contribution to the citizenship of the United States during the middle half of the nineteenth century of much excellent human material from the United Kingdom, and, in a less degree, from the other countries of Europe. But the visit has also produced a strong impression that the future industries and commerce of America are being directly and profoundly affected by the schools of to-day. The last quarter of a century has witnessed everywhere a general process of aggregation in trades, businesses, and industries. The area of operations of these centripetal economic forces is larger in the United States than anywhere else, and it is believed that the only limit to aggregation is the want of men capable of managing the resulting combinations. Further, in addition to the need of capable managers of these organisations, the scale of their operations has often demanded their direction from a distance through subordinates, and that, too, not only on the result of personal observation, but on evidence supplied by reports of subordinates. Able lieutenants have become essential. Urged on by the necessity for quick multiplication 57 [Bl.AIK. of such officers, and guided by the instinctive boldness of Americans in trying new methods, the great industrial and commercial linns are abandoning the traditional methods of waiting for apprentic "come through," and are attempting to manufacture the junior officers, by a rapid process, out of college graduates in technology and commerce. Furthermore, the lads who cam^ through by tho traditional slow process had plenty of will and forcefulness, but the play of forces on them, while emphasising these natural character- istics, did not, as a rule, provide sufficient opportunity for the development of intellect grasp, judgment, ability to apply general principles to details. Such men could in fact apply rules, but not the principles on which the rules were founded. Now the Americans have a way of regarding most things as machines, and they regard the " balanced and seasoned intellect " us a piece of delicate but most efficient mechanism. They look upon the schools as workshops win 're the faculties of the mind can have their qualities developed and strengthened and balanced ju metals with different qualities strength, tenacity, elasticity can be produced from raw materials, the ores. Such a mechanical view of the mind has contributed materially to the American belief in education, and no section of the community has a greater belief in the value of education than the leaders of industry and commerce. These "captains" look to education to make the "cadets," who, with added experience in factory, field, or office, can be employed as designers, engineers, salesmen, and buyers, managers of branches, men who can clearly and agreeably present the firm's views, and who have the ability to extend the firm's business the trusted subalterns from whom later the " captain " will be chosen. College-Trained Men an/I Industry. American experience favours the college-bred man for this purpose and for these posts. The sentiment is, however, not very old ten years at least, twenty at most and possibly was due originally to a few excellent college- trained men who had " come through." One experienced leader disposed to attribute the whole movement to a Zurich Polytechnic man. Whatever the causes, the sentiment undoubtedly exists. Every institute or college of technology gives as an appendix to its report for a given academic year a list of appointments held by ita graduates. These take the place of our prize lists. Naturally, an opportunity in a good firm is the prize en which such men have set their hearts. The lists of the Massachusetts Institute cover 100 closely printed pages, the list of the "1902" graduates alone occupying seven pages. Some of the lists have been analysed, and a few details from them pertinent to the subject under consideration may not be uninteresting. Cornell Cadets. At Corner! University from the inception in 1868 until September, 1902, 598 students had graduated in civil engineering. An inquiry into their present occupations elicited returns which show : I. Presidents of industrial corporations and managers 16 II. Chief engineers, superintendents, and managers 164 III. Assistant chiefs, resident and division engineers 75 IV. Professors of universities 40 V. Assistant engineers 125 VI. Pursuing allied professions 58 VII. Draughtsmen 41 VIII. Miscellaneous business 24 IX. Incomplete returns 7 X . Deceased 48 598 58 The -graduates of Sibley College (excluding civil engineering) about 1,300. Their average age, as alumni, is about 7 years; i.e., they have had, on the average, about seven years in which to establish themselves .and make such advance as they have actually effected. The great mass of these alumni have left college since about 1890. Of these graduates, about 900 have reported their present positions a*d something of their history. The reports from the remainder are slowly coming in. Of these 900, about 250 are engaged in miscel- laneous manufactures, 110 in electrical manufactures, 90 are teachers, 50 are in railway work, as many more in heat-engine construction, and others in heavy machinery construction and the steel manufacture in about equal numbers. Nearly 50 are contracting engineers, 65 in electric railway and electric light work, 35 in telegraph and telephone companies, 23 in consulting engineering and expert work, 31 in naval construction and engineering, and 15 in the super- vision of engineering 'plants.' About 40 have gone into branches of business allied to mechanical engineering more or less closely, and the balance are en^a^-d in a great variety of other vocations, mainly, however, pro- few have found it either necessary or desirable to abandon the Of the total heard from, 10 are presidents of companies, and 500 and mure are in positions of responsibility and control, exclusive of the alumni I in teaching. Of the latter, about two-thirds are professors or principals. :ulit alumni in the army and the navy and revenue marine, and 12 in the U.S. Patent Office. Of the 35 in the telephone business, 21 are engineers or superintendents. In the electrical manufactures, of the 111 , (1 are in similarly responsible places. Of the 30 reporting from the shipbuilding establishments, practically all of whom are recently out of college, f> are superintendents, general managers, proprietors, or engineers, having < >f Nvork. The 44 men in the contracting business are, with the exception of 4, :ill in responsible positions or are members of firms. Of the 250 in miscellaneous lines of business, over 180 arc proprietors or officers of the -Inm-nts in which they are engaged. Of the 50 engaged in railway work, one-third are apprentices, one-third are responsible ofHcers (usually mechanical engineer.-) of the corporations, and the balance are commonly designers and draughtsmen and in positions offering good opportunities to learn the business and to advance. Of those engaged in engine-building, two-thirds have positions of responsibility as superintendents, general managers, designing, and con- struction engineers, etc. The remainder are usually designers and in line for rapid promotion. Those in the steel business are nearly all in positions of^ responsibility. ' ' Boston Cadets. The lists of the Massachusetts Institute have not been analysed ; but it is possible in another way to give some idea of the success of their students from details collected from the men who formed the class of 1893 the class of only ten years ago. The class appears to have consisted of 300 students ; 23 are now deceased. " Of the total replies received, 185 reported their incomes. The total annual income of the 185 men who reported Is 114,050, ranging in amounts from 100 to 7,120. Arranging the incomes in groups we get the following results : Incomes. Number. Less than 200 ............................ 2 200 300 .................................. 32 300 400 ................................ 43 400 500 ............................. 31 500 600 ............................. 20 600 700 ......................... 21 700 800 ......................... 10 800 900 ......................... 6 900 1,000 ......................... 1 1,000 1,200 ....................... 5 1,200-1,400 .................... 1,400 1,600 ....................... 1 1,600-1,800 ..................... 1,800-2,000 ................................ [ ..... 2,000 or more ...................................... 10 185 Bl.UK. " The average annual income is 000. A figure which i* perhaps more repre- sentative la 171, iiMined by omitting the int-omes of live fiurea (in dollars), which are exceptionally large. Of the total, 45 men receive incomes above the average 600, and 1 10 men below the average." These figures emphasise fche ; of ind'. their rapid promotion featured of the American imlu4r: which deserve Hindi serii-us consideration, -..s- of Iiulufitriiil Lfinltirs. As soon as I openings for college-hivd student-; were comm l . I vi>ur to gather views from the industrial 1 from the educational institutions, and 1 interview. -d t ; -uperin- tetideiit. Oi Steel Works, I'lttsbi, l.red man), a leading otVu;er of the VYe-i inghouse ifacturing Company (a Massacln; Mr. -lohnsion, one of the partners in the Baldwin Locomotive \Y and others. At the s; ..... time, with the help British (,'onsul-( ieneral in New York, I was able to address in<| ling business men in the States. The results of such inq , and interviews J have summarised below: In the WeMinghouse shops and offices 160 college-bred nn-- god out of a total of 10,000 employes. At ti Works, where th"re are 7,000 hands, there we>. 100 technically trained men, 7 of the 23 leading officer- being college graduates. Of 118 engineers on the staff of the Kapid '1 ' Railroad Commissioners of New York City, who are construe: city underground railway, 84 per cent, had been college of 75 petty officers 58 per cent, were college-trained. Bald- win Locomotive Works, 43 ; on the Pennsylvania Railway line- of Pittsburg, 52, nearly all being graduates; a- .-tady works of the General Electric Company, 264 ; the Illinois Central Railroad Company employ 200 men "who are either grad technical institution or have had some training in that line " ; the Baltimore and Ohio Railway have employed in their maintenance of way department since January, 1901, 59 graduates of t- -clinical Is and universities, of whom 49 remain; the same company ;his year begun to employ technical graduates in the yard offices of the transportation department, 17 have been thus ^ r ed, 8 remain ;. in the mechanical and electrical dei company have 24 graduates among their 559 appren These figure- represent the specific statements made in some of the interviews and replies ; the othe .-nts were mor !. the preponderance of opinion being in favour of tecl: 1 industrial cade!-. My queries were sometimes differently worded, but they were, to this effect in all cases: " Do you employ technically trained men (i.e., men trained in a school of commerce, in a manual training high school, or in a college like Cornell, or in an institute like the Boston Institute of Technology) ? " (a) On the industrial or productive side ? " (6) On the commercial, or business, or selling side of your firm ; and if so, what proportion do these bear to the whole number ? " (c) Would you be good enough to give your opinions as to the best form of preparation for the industrial and for the business side of your work ? " (d) Are college men preferable to boys who had only a high school education ? " It would appear to me that as the college-bred men must be 22 years of age before they arc ready to enter the ' works ' or the office, they must be considerably handicapped in comparison with the boy who left school and entered the firm at 16 or 17 ? BLAIB.] 60 "If you have a type-written or printed statement of the conditions under which technically trained men are admitted to your firm, I should be glad to have a copy ? " Perhaps you may also find it convenient to say whether there is still considerable room for the boy of ability and character who has not attended a technical institute or college to rise from the ranks to the top of the firm ? " To (a) and (b) the answer was, generally, " Yes." The replies lid not all say " Yes," which is simply evidence that the sentiment in favour of college-bred men is common but not universal; that in i e not face to face with a resultant system but with the incomplete operations of a formative process. This question was too difficult, but a college education is favoured. ( 1 < > K I > . I lospital at Chicago associated \\itii the Uoyal Victoria, Hospital at Montreal, the Vand'-rbilt Clinic in relation with Columbia, \ -\\ York. in a great many hospitals in the Stales and in ( '.inaua tin- cu is in rogue that the members of the visiting stafT are only on duty for a limited period in each \ea < . ioni'-t imes three in on: six months, and at the end of this period the wards ar-' trans: to another physician or surgeon. These regulations are apparently made by the lay bodies governing these hospitals and such con- ditions of service do not obtain in a hospital like the .Johns Hopkins :uil, the stall' of which is entirely recruited fp mi !.!] of the Johns Hopkins University. Where a limited period of service is the rule, the students of any given medical M-houl m association with that hospital hav. access to the wards only during the period of service of their chief. The obvious inconveniences of this system from the point of view of clinical teaching are to a certain extent mitigated by the fact that the teachers usually hold appointments at more than one hospital, and by mutual arrangement and otherwise it comes about that throughout the academic \ear such a teacher is in charge of wards at one or other hospital, and thus his students are able to accompany him at his visits. It will be seen from these statements that the relation of hospitals to medical schools is often quite different in America from what obtains in this country. It might be said that here a me school has, as a rule, grown up in association 'with and as a develop- ment of a hospital, and, in fact, with few exceptions the leading medical schools in London have begun as hospitals, and the medic:il school lias, so to say, grown up secondarily. In America, on the\ other hand, the medical school is an integral part of tiie university and controlled by it, and the hospital is usually an independent institution managed by trustees, the clinical opportunities afforded by it being often shared by several medical schools. A mentioned, there are exceptions to this, as at Baltimore, for instance ; and in many of the cities visited evidence was obtained that changes are imminent, and attempts are bein made, in many instances successfully, to obtain funds to erect and maintain hospitals which shall be available for the clinical teaching, of the students of a single university or medical school. This undoubtedly will remove many of the difficulties that are at pr- experienced by clinical teachers, and will also in all probability- bring the teaching of medicine more directly under the control of the university authorities, and in this way still further promote the : ess of medicine. At the present time it would seem that the medical colleges and universities as such are not directly responsible for the appoint- ments on the staff of the hospitals that are associated with the university or medical school, although in many instances mentioned above, it is the custom to elect members of the university to a certain proportion of the posts at the hospital. The system in vogue in England of clerks and dressers is one which scarcely exists in the United States, although in the Canadian medical schools it is in full operation. At the Johns Hopkins Medical School ward work is done by clerks and dre>- s the universal custom in this country ; but at Baltimore the period of service is three months, and the men filling the posts are in their BRADFORD/ C6 fourth or last year. In other words, the fourth-year men are divided up into four equal sections, each section serving in the office of clerk and dresser for three months. At Baltimore and in the Canadian hospitals the clerks perform much the same offices as in the English medical schools: they take the notes, and they attend their chief in his ward visits, The note-taking is necessarily under the superintendence of senior resident officers, corresponding more or less to house physicians, house surgeons, etc. In most American medical schools there are thus no student clerks or dressers, and the ward work is done by "internes," who may be said to correspond to house physicians and house surgeons. The student only visits the ward with his chief for the so-called "ward walk," or else for systematic instruction under the charge of instructors and assistants of various kinds; and all these periods are strictly limited to a certain, but variable, number of weeks. Apart from Canadian hospitals, the Johns Hopkins Hospital at Baltimore was the only one in the States where the system of clerks and dressers was in vogue. These two points on the one hand the limited period of service of the visiting and teaching staff, and on the other the absence of the clerk and dresser system were those which most impressed an English teacher as indicating the main points of difference in the relations of the hospitals to the teaching medical schools. Many of the American teachers are alive to the advantages of the clerk and dresser system, but they point out that under their system the students get the practical acquaintance with disease subsequently during their period of office as " internes," at a time, moreover, when they are more fully capable of making use of the opportunities afforded them. In the English system the student becomes a clerk or dresser at a period in his career when he knows little or nothing of medicine or surgery, and thus they argue that the great opportunities afforded him are to a considerable extent wasted. With their system the " interne " has already graduated and has acquired a knowledge of medicine and surgery which should enable him to make full use of his opportunities. The great and obvious disadvantage of the American system is clearly the fact that not all students can possibly become " internes," and thus a number of men must start in practice without the advantages that the daily life in the ward in contact with disease imparts. I was informed on numerous occasions that about half the students in the leading medical schools become " internes " subsequently to graduation either in the hospitals attached to their own schools or in some other city or provincial hospitals, so that at least 50 per cent, of the students not only graduate but pass out into practice without this invaluable experience. This is a very striking, if not the most striking, difference between the system of medical education in vogue in the United States and that followed in this country and also in Canada. II. Clinical Laboratories. In most of the medical schools visited well equipped clinical laboratories were a conspicuous feature, and this was more especially the case in the University of Pennsylvania, Johns Hopkins University, the Massachusetts General Hospital, and in the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. The laboratories contained accommodation for chemical, bacteriological, and histological investigations, and were in intimate association with 07 I'.i \.-rORD. the hospitals in relation to tli> .l.u- m. hool. Separate rooms were u uill\ allots separate branches of the work, and there \\ as ample accommodation for worker--; who desired to investigate special problems. In -omc instances, ii, separate rooms were available for properly accredited workers, and, speaking generally, the degree of development <>f this side, ,. instruction and investigation was highly advanced, and might he said to he much greater than in many of the medical schools of this country. It was evident that there was a very general tendency in all the medical schools visited to bring clinical medicine more intirn into relation with the recent developments in the sciences of chemistry, of bacteriology, and morbid histology. Such routine examinations as blood-counts, urine and stomach-contents analyses, Widal reactions and cytological observations on effusions, were carried out with great thoroughness and with very great frequency, so that a very valuable mass of knowledge with reference to these changes in a large number of diseases was being accumulated under the direction of the officers in charge of these laboratories. In other words, blood-counts and other investigations were not made simply in the special diseases where they are necessary from a mere diagnostic point of view ; but these and other elaborate methods, dependent on the recent development of science, were employed in a more or less routine fashion. In addition to this, special investigations on various problems in clinical medicice were being worked out by a number of independent observers, and it would seem that ample facilities both in the way of material, provision of space, reagents, etc., were afforded for these purposes. Every new method of investigation that seemed to be suitable for the purpose was pressed into service. In some universities these clinical laboratories were under t In- direction of the professor of medicine, in others they were in the charge of the professor of pathology. The former system had the advantage of correlating the results obtained more directly with clinical medicine, and it would seem that in some of the universities where this arrangement has been made very notable results have been achieved, quite apart from the bond of union that has been so established between medicine on the one hand and pathology on the other hand. With the great growth of pathology of recent years it lias become increasingly difficult for the clinician to be sufficiently conversant with modern pathology, and yet this union must be maintained, unless medicine is to degenerate. This association of clinical laboratories with the department of medicine rather than with that of pathology affords a most useful means of maintaining the inter-relationship so necessary for the progress of both sciences. Clinical medicine as such has probably in. r. years lost somewhat by the fact that post mortem examinations are becoming more and more the work of the special pathologist, and hence divorced from the clinician. This, although no doubt necessary in the interests of pathology, is not without its dis- advantages, both as regards the teaching of clinical medicine to students and perhaps also the still more necessary point as regards the further teaching of the teacher. For these reasons quite apart from the direct utility of the methods employed the intimate association of these clinical laboratories with the department of medicine is undoubtedly to be welcomed, and the well-equipped \DFORD.] 68 r many of the American universities and medical .Is are thoroughly deserving of imitation. The association of pathology and medicine is also exemplified in some of the universities by the allocation in the pathological department of accommodation in the form of separate rooms for the departments of nu-dicine, neuro-pathology, surgery, and gvn,' In such cases the professor of medicine, surgery, ,-oIogy, etc., is enabled to work up in an extremely thorough manner, \\ith ull the resources of the pathological laboratory, the material of his clinic. In some of the institutions visited large -inns were sometimes expended by the professor in question on the iiineiit and on the researches carried on under his direction in ie rooms. Great facility for work is afforded by the allocation . >f rooms for special purposes like this, and, although such rooms may be situated in the pathological department and be under the charge nominally of the professor of pathology, yet the workers in them were to all intents and purposes under the direction of the professor of the particular department concerned medicine, surgery, or gynaecology. The clinical laboratories where the routine work in association with the hospital patients was carried out wers under the charge of special officers, who in many cases had assistants. In addition to these laboratories, in many instances other rooms were provided with the necessary equipment where the students could perform ordinary analyses. Thus at the Johns Hopkins I'niversity, where the system of clerks is in vogue, a room was provided containing the necessary equipment for ordinary urinary analyses, and also with apparatus for the quantitative determination of uric acid, chlorides, sugar, and the analyses of stomach-contents. These separate sets of apparatus were arranged in lockers. The clerk could obtain the key of such a locker by signing a form and might perform the necessary analyses, but the interne would be responsible for their accuracy. No urine testing was, as a rule, done in the wards, but in a special room provided for the purpose. The interne was responsible for the accuracy of all clinical examinations. Very complete courses of instruction in clinical bacteriology and in clinical chemistry were given as a rule. In some cases the course extended over a period as long as two terms, the class meeting twice a week for three hours. I was informed that as long a period as three months was sometimes spent on blood-work. During the period the student was attending such a class he was given a locker containing the necessary apparatus, and he had access to the laboratory and this locker .during the entire day and even in the evening throughout his third year, so that he was able at any time to carry out any work he desired, or go over and amplify the class instruction. Prior to attending these classes the student would have gone through the regular course of physiology and practical physiology, and would already have acquired a know- ledge of ordinary urinaiy examination. Such is the outline of the system in use at the Johns Hopkins University. In addition to the above arrangement, great stress is laid on the' fact that during the fourth year the student also has a laboratory place and a locker accessible at all times during the day and in the evening, where he may carry out any chemical or microscopical observations he desires to make on the material obtained in the hospital. In other I'.KM'I OKI). words, during the tliii has a in the clinical l.-i. make any observations In-. . I was informed ! : cost in !i: nnum about 100 students at the J i pkin-, rni\ernity. Tlic economy in the cost of conducting these laboratories is no douht in part dependent on the very small number of alien and the small amount 0\ provided. At the i laboratory in question ! wae informed that only one laboratory servant \\ and, speaking generally, it may bo s great deal of the routine clearing-up in laboratories of all kinds in is done by the. students themselves. In some cases the resources of the clinical laboratory were ah entirely restricted to purposes of research by members of the stall' and by properly accredited individuals, no undergraduate :ing being conducted. Where this was the case there was commonly another smaller laboratory available for the routine instruction of students. In some instances a small but fairly- equipped laboratory was also associated with what is usually known as the out-patient department, or, as it is frequently called in the States, the dispensary. A great deal of the instruction of the students in clinical medicine ried out in the out-patiunt or dispensary clinic, and in many of the universities visited the equipment tor teaching purpo- the out-patient, department was of a very high order of excel In some. General Hospital and at the Cornell Medical School in New York City, these out-patient or dispensary departments had only recently been built, and their equipment left nothing to be desired. In some instances, . Cornell, for example, they are built in the college or medical building and not in the hospital ; in others, as at Boston, they are in d ;on with the hospital. provision of. a small laboratory where blood examination, analyses of urine and examination of stomach-contents of an elaborate character could be carried out was a marked feature of of these out-patient buildings. The students \\ho wen- deputed to examine the patient and to record the history and physical signs carried out any such bacteriological, microscopical, or chemical analyses as they might deem \ tor the elucida- tion of the nature of the patient's disea-e. The results wen- controlled by the physician in charge, and he also verified the results of the ph\Mcal examination of the patient. All the fact- were recorded on a suitable card, which was indexed and a special room, under the charge, of a special staff of lay clerks. In such institutions the out-patient clinical material was certainly examined with very great thoroughness, and every possible 'opportunity seized for teaching. The close inter-relationship between the clinical laboratory and clinical medicine, both in out-patient and in-patient practice, and the very thorough and complete manner of preserving and recording the results gained, were among the most striking impressions of my visit. In some of the medical schools visited the record of such clinical examinations as blood counts, urine, and gastric analyses were kept on printed forms, which were of a very elaborate character. These records were bound separately, and would undoubtedly contain a mass of very valuable information BRADFORD.] 70 as regards the elucidation of various pathological and clinical problems. Owing to the records being bound separately the results were readily available if observations were desired on the conditions of any particular secretion or blood condition in a number of different diseases. For instance, a great mass of information on the condition of the blood in a number of separate diseases, or. on the state of the gastric functions, to quote only two instances, was thus rendered available for use. III. The Teaching of Medicine. In all the universities visited a four years' curriculum was in vogue, and inasmuch as a year was not devoted, as is the custom in this country, to the preliminary subjects of chemistry, physics, and biology the four years of medical study common in the States and in Canada are more or less comparable to the four years in this country subsequent to the first. It is very difficult, however, to carry the parallel between the systems of education in the two countries any further, because we are at once met with very fundamental differences both in the methods of teaching and in the curriculum. The most important differences in the methods of education may be summarised by stating that in the States the whole course of instruction is in the first place far more systematised than is the case in this country, and there is probably far more supervision of the individual student throughout the course of his studies. An Englishman is, perhaps, most struck with what I have called the systematising of the instruction. Almost every hour of the student's time is allocated to definite and specific studies, and very commonly these are carried out in very small classes under the direct supervision of an instructor or demonstrator. In the second place, care seems to be taken that each student should at any rate make himself familiar with certain specified things and objects. For instance, in the teaching of medicine it would seem to be the duty of the instructors to take care that each student should see and thoroughly study one or more examples of the most important diseases, and this is carried to a far greater extent than is customary in this country, where it is assumed as a matter of course that the student in the course of his hospital career will necessarily have many instances of the more important maladies brought to his notice. It would seem that in the American schools this is actually made a special point of by the instructors. In the next place great use seems to be made of drawings, lantern slides, models, and, in fact, all measures directed to bringing the objective side of the subject before the student. Perhaps the most striking point of difference apart from the extreme systematising of the work was the diminishing importance attached to lectures formal and didactic in character. In many of the leading medical schools of the country, but by no means in* all, didactic lectures on such a subject as medicine are no longer given, the prevalent view being that the lecturer cannot very well bring before the student the subject matter in a better form than that in which it is presented in the best available text-books ; and thus general medicine is in many of these schools no longer taught by lectures. The abolition of lectures is very general in all the subjects of medical education ; thus, for instance, professors of anatomy may be met who assert that they have never delivered a lecture. In many schools, although the systematic courses of lectures 71 [BUADKOKD. on such a subject as medicine have been abolished, the professor gives an occasional series of lecture-; on some special suhject of general or perhaps of special interest. The abolition < ;u any rate in favour of the curtailing of lectures rather than of their complete abolition, at least in such :i subject as medicine. In some subjects the abolition of lecture-, has been followed by the far greater development of laboratory work. In the case of medicine the place of the lecture is taken by what is called the recitation. This varies enormously in educational value in different schools. In some in the recitation the teacher meets a section of the class and a given .subject is discussed between them, the teacher questioning the and the individual members of the class frequently questioning the teacher. In fact, in many of the recitations it was very striking to see that the ordinary distinction between the teacher and the taught was very largely broken down, and that the teacher was, so to say, almost a member of the class. In such instances the recitation was based on a given subject which the class had previously read up in one or more text-books. It is obvious that such a method of instruction has a very distinct educational value, particularly if the subject is selected judiciously. In other instances the recitation was based on a given text-book, and the class was informed at a previous meeting that at the next meeting pages so-and-so to so-and-so would be considered, and in the course of the academic year the text- book was gone through almost page by page by the class. The attendance at recitations was remark- ably good, and the students were earnest and eagerly took notes. Where the recitation was based on a text-book the recitation was really a means of ensuring that the student had made himself acquainted with the text, although, doubtless, in many instances the experience of the teacher enabled him to add to the information imparted by the book. The recitation in one form or another may be said to be universal as a system of instruction, and has to a great extent, and, in some instances, entirely, supplanted the lecture. Another difference between the American system and the English / lies in the greater sub-division of the subjects and the well-known I large number of specialities. Thus the student will follow courses on medicine, on laryngology, on surgery, on orthopaedic surgery, nervous diseases, electro-therapeutics, diseases of children, skin diseases, genifco-urinary diseases, etiology, ophthalmology, mental diseases, history of medicine, and dietetics. Another fundamental difference, already alluded to in this report, is the absence of the clerk and dressser system in the States, except at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. The student, however, is taught physical signs and the method of taking histories, and has cases of disease demonstrated to him in small classes under the charge of an instructor. The classes for instruction in case-taking, as also those for instruction in physical signs, were quite small in number, and usually may be said to have consisted of some half- dozen or dozen students in charge of an instructor. Even in these classes a certain definite number of hours was allocated to the subject ; thus the class would meet for one hour for a certain .WORD.] 72 number of times. Owing to the large number of students, and the sub-division into these small sections, the number of hours that any individual student could spend in these classes was necessarily limited, but at the same time they undoubtedly gave the opportunity of grounding him, in his work so as to enable him to make more use of his clinical opportunities subsequently. So-called amphitheatre clinics, that is to say, demonstrations on selected cases by the professor, were very largely used, and the attendance on these was large, amounting in some cases to one or two hundred ; in other words, all the students were at liberty to be present. The attendance at the ward visits, or, as they are frequently termed in the States, " ward walks," was more restricted, as it was customary to divide up the students into sections of twelve or 20 or 25 men, and these sections had the right to attend. the visit of the visiting physician or surgeon. Here, again, the attendance was restricted to a certain definite period, as otherwise it would have been impossible for all the students to attend in the course of their curriculum. This, again, is a great difference from what obtains in this country, where it may be said the universal custom is not only for the physicians' or surgeons' clerks or dressers to attend the ward visit, but this is also open to any of the students attending the practice of the hospital. The large numbers of the students in most of the medical schools visited prevented such arrangements as these, and seemed to entail the necessity of section visits. At the Johns Hopkins Hospital these ward visits are attended in the fourth year, and all the members of the section are actually clerks to the cases, but, as already stated, this does not obtain in other medical schools in the States, the routine ward work being done not by the undergraduate students but by the internes. The out-patient practice or dispensary is very largely used for teaching purposes, and it is a common practice for the professor of medicine to attend on certain days and to hold an amphitheatre clinic in the presence of a large class. The patients are out- patients, they come to the dispensary and frequently are examined in small, well-equipped rooms by two students, one of whom takes the history and the other the present state. The notes recorded by the student are written by the student on suitable cards, and are then handed to the professor who examines the patient, demonstrates the signs, cross-examines the student, and points out features of interest, and discusses the case generally. This, no doubt, is a valuable method of instruction, and DUO greatly relied upon for instructing the students in clinical medicine. In other branches, surgery, gynaecology, and the special depart- m.-nts, essentially similar methods are employed, and every student SIM-MIS to have the opportunity, and, indeed, to be compelled, to Attend these special departments in small sections for a certain defmite number of hours spread over a period of the session, and he Ins demonstrated to him and commonly examines for himself also a rcrtain number of patients suffering from particular diseases. In many of the 'institutions visited the equipment in such special Mni-nts as those for otology, laryngology, ophthalmology, was of a very high order of excellence. In some instances, e.g., at the University of Toronto, the pro- fessor of medicine in addition compels each student in the course of his curriculum to make at least 20 examinations of sputum, blood, 73 HADFORD. !cli-ront> 'nina (KIM-;. Thes.- an- k.-pi and : :' the examination for tin- (!; Special instruction in t lirrapeiif :< . ,, j n the department of medicine. \ section or limit.-, I numl i-nt alt. -nil on ceiiain days at the lm-.pit.il and i Q from the professor of clinical medicm This, of course, is quite distinct from - instruction in pharmacolo^\ and the] p. utics, \vh; ,01'S Of these subjects. To sum up, it may he said that the in-truction in the . subjects in medical education, such as medicine and sn their special branches, is much more svstematised than uith us. lectures play a comparatively unimportant part, that clinical lectures and demonstrations on patients in clinical tin large audience are a leading feature, and that the opportum: the students to obtain practical acquaintance with the phenom disease in the wards of the hospitals are not as great in the 8 . \ are with us. This, no doubt, is in part dependent on the large number of students in proportion to the number of ho- ilable, but it depends also on the system of teaching adopted and on the mode of hospital administration in vogue. A still greater difference, however, between the American and the English system remains to be mentioned. In this country it is verv unusual for the student to begin hospital work and to come actually in contact with the facts of clinical medicine and surgery until his third year, or if the preliminary year spent in the study of chemistry, physic?, and biology be counted, until his fourth year. He does not study the final subjects until he has completed the subjects of anatomy and physiology. It is true there are still a few schools, e.g., the University of Edinburgh, where this does not obtain, but, speaking generally, it is almost the universal custom, and there can be little doubt that it will very shortly become quite uni- versal. In many of the leading universities of the States this is by no means the case, and classes for the study of physical diag- nosis are not uncommonly held not only in the second year but even at the commencement of the second year at a time when physiology and anatomy are being studied, so that the student is assumed to begin his third year with a knowledge not only of physical signs but even of such a subject as bandaging. IV. Pathology. The pathological departments in all the universities mentioned were visited. The laboratories were generally fine buildings with very complete equipment, and, especially in those that had more recently erected, ample space was provided. They were well lighted and fitted with all modern requirements. Thus in many cases incubation was done in a "hot room" of the modern rather than in separate incubators, and there were very commonly also installations for cold storage. There were great individual variations as regards the facilities for obtaining post mortem material. In some of the universities the supply of material was ample ; in others difficulties were experienced, and the number of post mortems obtained in the course of the year was not large, and had to be amplified by material obtained from the private practice of various teachers connected with the school. BRADFORD.] 74 Owing to the relationship existing between the hospitals and the medical schools, post mortem material in any one university was not, as a rule, obtained from a single hospital, but from a number. In many of the universities visited the subject of normal histology was placed under the charge of the professor of pathology, and in some instances it was not only under his charge but the instruction was given by him and his demonstrators. The course of instruction in histology was given in the first year, and need not be further considered here. The subject of pathology included morbid histology, bacteriology, gross morbid anatomy, and in some cases clinical pathology, but the last was, as already mentioned above, sometimes placed in the department of medicine. The study of pathology was usually commenced in the second year, that is to say, at a time when the subjects of anatomy and physiology were still being studied. In many universities visited the first branch of pathology considered was that of elementary bacteriology ; in others, morbid histology. When morbid histology was studied in the second year practical bacteriology was sometimes studied in the third, but there seemed to be an increasing tendency to begin the great subject of pathology rather with bacteriology than with morbid histology, and frequently bacteriology and morbid histology were both studied in the second year. In some universities, for example the University of Pennsylvania, bacteriology was actually commenced in the first year, the practical course being conducted from February to March. Pathology in this case was done in the earlier part of the second year. In the Johns Hopkins University bacteriology is studied from October to January in the second year, and pathology from January to June of that year. The course of bacteriology at the Johns Hopkins University is one taking the whole afternoon, 2 to 5, and is preceded by half-an-hour's talk on the life history of the organisms, etc., that are being considered on that afternoon. At Harvard a very remark- able system of instruction is in vogue in such subjects as anatomy, physiology, and pathology, which is known as the " concentration system." Under this system the entire time of the student is devoted to the consideration of a single general subject such as anatomy, physiology, pathology, as the case may be, and the whole course of instruction is carried out in the period of four months. Thus at Harvard pathology is studied in the first tsrm of the second year, and it may 1 e of some interest to give a short outline of the course. The practical pathology is done daily from October to February from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m , and after a short introductory talk at 9 a.m. the sections of the morbid tissues are given out ready for mounting. The gross morbid anatomy is taught from fresh and from preserved material, and small classes or sections of the students are called out in turn from the class and especially instructed in gross morbid anatomy, and this instruction is accompanied by the demonstration of microscopic preparations of the tissues actually examined. At 12 o'clock a lecture on general pathology is given by the professor on five days a week. Students in groups of ten assist at the post mortem examinations at the different hospitals in association with the univir.ity, and they are taken away from the class for this purpose as opportunities occur. A further course of special instruction of two weeks' duration is given on the diseases due to 7~> [BRADFORD. animal parasites, and this cmir.sn consists of lectures and of laboratory work. In addition to these courses other short co on ncuro-pathology and on surgical pathology are held. The riology is studied during the same period as that during which in -iliiil iinatoniy is studied, but in the afternoon i; : the iiioniini:. 'I'lius the whole of the student's time from 'J in th<-, morning until the evening for some four month.-, is devoted to the study of pathology. The subject of bacteriology is taught by a separate p and I was informed that he had seven assistants to deal with a class of some 115 students. In all the universities visited the equipment for the practical instruction of hac-trriology, morbid histology, etc., was extremely good. Thus at Harvard 1 was informed that 175 oil immersion microscopes were available for teaching purposes, and that it was customary for the students to pay a rent for these rather than to purchase their own. Where the classes were large it was the custom to divide them into sections, and hence it was necessary for the course to be repeated in order to lit in with other courses, but in all instances the proportion of instructors and demonstrators to students was approximately one in ten. A most important feature of the system of instruction every where was that a very complete record of the students' work was kept by demonstrators and instructors, and a report made to the professor by these gentlemen. In many, if not in all instances, attendance at these practical s was compulsory, and I was informed at some of the universities that n a student missed three attendances in such a practical class without a legitimate excuse he was liable to lose the ciuire year. Certainly the attendance was remarkably good, and the entuuaiaam and diligence of the student quite remarkable. Another striking feature of the practical instruction, both in bacteriology and in pathology, was the fact that unknown cultures and unknown sections were given out frequently, sometimes once a . and the students required to diagnose the organism present, or the nature of the morbid lesion in the section. This was done Irom quite an early period in the class instruction, and was not used as an examination test but as a mode of instruction. For example, on one day in the practical bacteriological class at Harvard the work for mat afternoon consisted in studying the pneumococcus and the sputum of pneumonia, and in the second place in continuing the work on an unknown organism which had been given out at a previous meeting ; the students were also requested to make cover-glass preparations, and to determine the changes in morphology and spore production in old cultures. The principle of working at an unknown organism as part and parcel of the usual routine instruction was a very general one in all the universities visited. A icinarkal lj instance of the extent to which this method was observed in the pathological department of the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, where I was informed that it was the custom for all the sections handed out to the class of morbid histology to be, so to say, unknown; -that is to say, their nature was not i to the student, and he was expected by examining them and drawing them in the course of the afternoon's work not only to record accurately the minute features of the morbid histology, but also to amve at a knowledge of the nature of the BRADFOUD.] TO Lectures are used to a varying extent in the different universities in the course of instruction of the subjects of pathology and bacteriology. Thus, at Harvard some 50 lectures are given on bacteriology and a larger number in pathology. At Jefferson College in Philadelphia some two lectures a week are given on general pathology, and further lectures in the third year on special pathology. At the Johns Hopkins University the professor of pathology gives two lectures a week on some special subject, such as immunity, from October to January. Eecitations are very largely used in this subject. In some instances no formal lectures are given on pathology. The section method, that is to say, the division of the class into small numbers under the charge of an instructor or demonstrator, is in operation throughout the States for the practical teaching of almost all subjects, and especially in such subjects as bacteriology and morbid anatomy, post mortem work, etc. This system is also hirgclyused in Canada, and in the new buildings of the University of Toronto an interesting development on these lines has taken place in the departments of physiology and pathology. In these depart- ments suites of rooms communicating with one another and capable if necessary of further division or enlargement by the putting up or taking down of partitions have been provided, and the class work of the separate sections is, therefore, done in separate rooms under the charge of a demonstrator or assistant. The main difference of the system of instruction in Canada from that obtaining in the States is that in the former bacteriology and morbid anatomy are studied at the same period of the curriculum as is the custom in English schools, that is to say, during the third and fourth year. In the McGill University, Montreal, the chemistry for medical students is under the charge of a special professor of chemistry, who teaches the subject entirely from the standpoint of medicine. As he is not only a chemist but also a graduate in medicine, the objects of the medical student in studying chemistry are steadily kept in eight throughout the course. The professor of medical chemistry not only deals with elementary inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry, bxit he also gives instruction in applied medical chemistry, and deals with such subjects as the analysis of urine, blood, stomach-contents, practical toxicology, and the chemical side of sanitary work. A considerable proportion of the demonstrators who give the instruction in the practical classes are also graduates oi' medicine. In many of the universities the system of instruction in pharmacology and therapeutics is more specialised and more amplified than is the case in this country. In addition to practical instruction in pharmacy and materia medica, lectures and experi- mental demonstrations are given on pharmacology. The lectures are given to the whole class, but for the demonstrations the class is divided up into small sections, in some cases not more than eight or ten men, and the fundamental experiments of the actions of drugs are shown. Optional or elective classes of a more advanced character where further experimental work is done are also common. Special instruction in therapeutics is given very frequently by a special lecturer or professor, and in some instances ward visits are attended, where the whole clinical instruction is devoted to the consideration of the treatment of the 77 patient. This mother i ' of the courses of instruction that bai 1 to. In addition ID the compulsory con: are a number o!' optional course-, and in i of a limn- given. Not only is this the case, hut frequently students, and ev< n jl oi pieces of ii work under tho direc , of the ssor of the department, and 1 Bather that thi count towards the taking of the degree. In some il .ample, at Harvard a studem it in his fourth y< lake a special subject for research work, as physiolou or bacteriology, and devote a great part of his time to this. If this ! ch work is of a satisfactory character he may receive his .M.I), for it. These students are necessarily unahle to di time as fully to the compulsory subjects, and ('specially to ihe clinical subjects, as is tho case with the or nut it must he, remembered that in the States the M.I), does not give the right to practise, and such men are usually intending to devote -elves to the study of these subjects as t work and have no intention of practising. In the I'nivi-rsity of Chicago, which is undergoing very rapid and extensive development, and has received very large donations, are some differences to be observed as to the regulations affecting the curriculum. The year is divided into quarters of three months' duration, and the academic year occupies three quarters ; in other words, there is a nominal vacation of one qua and each professor is entitled to one quarter's holiday lie max. if he likes, forego this for a number of under which circumstances it accumulates and he becomes entitled to prolonged leave, <>.tf., a year. During the nominal vacation courses of instruction are held, and so the student can if he likes get through a four years' course in three years, and can pass his examinations at the end of the third year, hut he is not, however, tinder these circumstances, entitled to receive the degree until the termination of the fourth year from his entry. Further, the courses are repeated during the academic year; thus, for instance, pathology is repeated three times a year, and hence a student can enter at the commencement of any quarter. The repetition course is not necessarily given by the professor; it may he done by one of hi- its. Further, the University of Chicago will accept students from other app institutions, and if the reputation of these is of a high order tin- course of study at the University of Chicago may be short Thus I was informed that the I'niversity of Chicago is pr.-paivit\, and will be mainly devoted to research work in medicine, or other BRADFORD.] 73 work in what are spoken of in England as the final subjects in medical education. It i- |>roh:ible that sp/rial hospitals in direct relationship with tlu- universities will he established for this purpose, and large funds for these objects have in some instances already been obtained. No very useful purpose can at present be served by comparing tin- examination systems in vogue in the States with those obtaining in this country, as the conditions are so entirely different in that the decree granted by the universities confers no right to practise ; the latter is obtained by passing a State examination under the supervision of a special Board. In all the universities the manner in which the student has followed his courses of instruction is a determining factor in deciding whether he shall or shall not receive a degree. Further, it is very usual for the examination in each subject to take place at the end of the course of instruction in that subject, and hence the examination, particularly in what are called in this country the preliminary and early subjects, is to a large extent a piece-meal one. As regards the final subjects medicine, surgery, and obstetrics, in some instances the student is examined in all at one time. The fundamental and far-reaching difference between Un- American and the English systems lies in the fact that the record of a student's work, recitations, laboratory classes, ward work, is kept, and very largely, and in some cases almost entirely, determines ' the result. A very prevalent custom is not to admit him to the written or practical examination often held at the end of a course, unless the report of his class work is satisfactory. Such written or practical examination when held is conducted by the professor himself, but the report of the class work is made by the instructor or demonstrator in charge. All the student's drawings, laboratory notes, clinical records of cases seem to be marked and pigeon-holed. In many universities if the student is rejected in three branches he loses a whole year and the courses have to be repeated. It is difficult to form an estimate as to the number of students who fail, but in the leading universities the proportion would seem to he small compared with what obtains in England. To sum up the general impressions, it may be said, first, that the i enthusiasm of the teachers and of the students was one of the most striking features of my visit. Secondly, all the leading universities had exceedingly fine and in some cases magnificent laboratories, and the equipment was of a high order of excellence. Thirdly, in the teaching of the non-clinical subjects the laboratory and practical side was especially developed. Fourthly, systematic instruction by lectures seemed not to be in general favour. Fifthly, even in the final subjects, medicine, surgery, etc., the teaching was extra- ordinarily systematised, but, speaking generally, the students did not have the clinical facilities they obtain in this country. Sixthly, the scientific investigation of disease in clinical laboratories had n-achcd a very high order of development. Seventhly, the teachers in this country in such subjects as pathology might well consider whether some of the methods in vogue, such as the early study of bacteriology and the custom of giving the class unknown organisms :in 'l B to identify, and the careful record of the student's work, are not features thoroughly deserving of imitation. J. EOSE BBADFOED. Ittosclp educational Commission. Report of Mr. HARRY COWARD, Head Master of the Knowle Council School, Bristol; President of the National Union of Teachers ; Fellow of the Educational Institute of Scotland ; Member of the Bristol Education Committee. The time was singularly opportune for sending this Commission to visit the schools and other educational institutions of the Tinted Slates of America. The education authorities throughout Kngland and Wales have the power of making new departures, of co-ordinating the work of one kind of school with that of another, of supplying the deficiencies of any hranch of education in their localities, and of furthering and perfecting the training of teachers; an\ knowledge, therefore, which will aid such committ- solving the difficulties with which they are confronted, in continuing what is good and eliminating what is obsolete or had, in selecting fresh departures wisely, is bound to be welcomed by such be Public opinion requires educating so that the authorities may ha\. its weight behind them in resisting short-sighted opposition to the/ improvement of our educational machinery; and knowledge of what) is being done in other parts of the world ought to be a large factor! 1 in producing a sound, healthy opinion in this country. Indications] are not lacking that our leading public men are beginning to realise more and more that there is a close connection between the welfare of the country and education, and that to secure the prosperity of the State the system of education must be made as good, a< complete, as up-to-date as possible. It is also being realised that expenditure of money on education is the wisest investment the nation can make, provided the expenditure be wisely directed and applied. It may not be amiss here to give a few leading facts culled from the latest returns. The total population of the United States is given as 78,544,816 persons ; from 5 to 18 years of ag> 22,261,863 ; and the number of pupils enrolled in the public schools as 15,925,887. This gives the percentage of 71-54 of all persons between 5 and 18 years of age as being in the public schools. In addition to these about a million are said to be educated in private schools, a term in America which includes what would be called voluntary schools and private schools in England. The number of teachers in the public schools is 439,596, of whom 317,204 are women. The total expenditure per pupil is just over _!1 dollars, 4 6s. It is always to be remembered that there : body controlling or financing the education of the United Stat> a whole, each State being entirely independent of any of the o - in the arrangements it makes for education. Thus we find able difference between one State and another in the details of education. Notwithstanding this, however, it is somewhat surpris- ing to find that the school system has become fairly uniform Co \VAUD.] 80 throughout all the States, made up of the kindergarten for children iitiu-y schools for those froni 6 to 14 (this being ly divided into the primary grade for children from 6 to 10 and .uiimar grade from 10 to 14 i. the high schools for children from :nd upwards, followed by the State university. All these instil ui io. isolutely free of expense to the parents for tuition and \\ithveryfew exceptions indeed books and materials are also The Commission landed in New York on October 10th, and the ni.-mbers returned at various times. I sailed again on November 25th, so that my actual stay was six and a-half weeks. My tour ided through New York, Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, ston, Niagara, Chicago, Indianapolis, Dayton, Pittsburg, and back to New York. At most of these towns I was able to make excursions to smaller places within easy reach of them. On the afternoon of our arrival we were entertained at a reception at Columbia University, which "has 5,000 students, and has grown out of the old King's College, founded by Eoyal Charter in George II. 's reign, and on the Sunday many of our party received a cordial reception at several of the big Sunday schools belonging to the various religious denominations, and were struck with the vigour and spirit with which they were conducted. On Monday we were graciously received at the City Hall by the Mayor, Mr. Seth Low, and a visit to the Natural History Museum gave us a good example of how the Board of Education combines with the public institutions to further the cause of education. A specimen lecture illustrated by the most beautiful lantern pictures I have ever seen, such as are uiven weekly free to the public, was given by Professor Albert S. Bickmore. We were told that over a million attended these lectures last winter, the expense of which is borne by the Board of Educa- tion, the museum providing the building, apparatus, etc. The lectures give in a popular form phases of American life, scenery, manufactures, productions, history and geography, not only with a view to increase the knowledge of the people, but with the distinct object of cultivating a high spirit of patriotism. If, however, we may judge from what we see and hear of the New York citizen, he already believes New York to be in all respects the best city in the world. "The best on earth," is the usual description of any article you wish to purchase, or of any building or sight to which your attention is drawn. On the evening of the l'2th we were entertained at dinner by President Murray Butler at Sherry's, where we met many of the public men of the city. Sunning through the speeches was notice- able the high estimation in which education is held in New York 'by the large employers of labour, merchants, and public men in all 'walks of life, all of whom emphasise the importance of maintaining the common school a term used to embrace all schools from the kindergarten to the high schools under the control of the public authority. On Tuesday the work of visiting the schools began, and 1 >hould like to place on record my hearty appreciation of the kindness and courtesy we received at the hands of the teachers of all the schools we visited. \Ve very soon found that the New York schools are very large, the latest opened containing nearly 5,000 scholars, although this is exceptional : the average elementary school usually contains about 81 [COWARD. 2,500 scholars, made up of thr.-e. department, kind' . primary, ammar. Th.- buildings art: on four, 1 a playground in tin; lia^.-iin-iit, and often a u'ood gymnasium mi tli top tloor. No pains seem to In: bo secure good lighting, heat, and ventilation, though in one or two school i the ventilation did not seem any too perf> . Kverybody acknowledges that these huildings are too large, and that the, education of the children would be nnic.li better conducted in smaller huildings. The reason given for these huge structures is tlm enormous price of land, hut I am told that land i> t\\; ir in London as in New York, yet the London School Hoard has not fallen into the same error to any great extent. The huildings of New York are magnificent structures, and no expense has i spared to secure the very hest that can be obtained . We saw some huildings that cost from 10 to 50 per child to erect, a sum which would frighten our school authorities at home. In the equipment of the schools we are also far behind our New \ York friends. Nothing " shoddy" or mean is found inside the New York school. " Whatever is the best, is the best for the school," is the motto carried out regardless of expense. On the front wall facing the scholars, and for some distance down each side, there are tixed slates of an excellent quality for teaching purposes. No easels or blackboards were seen in any school. The walls had an abundance of pictures and illustrations, but no maps were dis- played, each room being supplied with a complete set of maps and a case to contain them. The principal of each school has an electric bell to each room in the school, and a speaking tube to every floor. He is also provided with an office and a clerk. There is a good wide platform for the principal at the end of the main room in each department, well supplied with chairs, tables, etc., of a good hand- some appearance, little things in themselves, but calculated to surround the office with dignity, and consequently influence. Irf addition to the ordinary subjects usually found in elementary schools German is taught to the upper classes. The classes are smaller than we generally lind at home, it being unusual to lind classes with much over 40 in them. In fact, the average for the whole of the New York elementary schools was just 40 children per adult teacher for the last year, not reckoning the head teacher or the visiting teachers, where there are such. In going through the classes one noticed the large amount of time devoted in every ie to teaching the children to talk about and discuss the subject of the lesson, and although, perhaps, less ground is covered, there is no doubt that the children do speak with a freedom and coriec which our children at home often lack. It did not strike me ar visiting a great many schools that the actual vork, the writing, the spelling, the arithmetic, etc, was quite as good as we should iind in the hest schools of a similar character at home, but the com- position and the readiness of the children to talk and furnish th- own ideas were better. One of the great problems the York Board of Education has to face is dealing with the large influx of foreigners Jews, Italians, Kussians, Roumanians, Ci nd many others come every year in large numbers out of wh< American citi/ens have to be made, and it is interesting to n the various agencies employed to bring this about. Tatriotie songs are sung. The American llag is kept well in sight inside every school, and by the New York State Law is COWARD.] flying during school hours over the outside of every school, While every morning the Hag is saluted and a form of words repeated by all the children pledging fidelity to the flag, as a part of the opening service. The authorities claim that in a very short time they turn these foreign children into American citizens, as proud of America and her liberty as those born within her borders. Boston and Chicago have the same difficulties to overcome. It is not only in the schools that the Board of Education instructs the foreigner to love America and American institutions. While walking through the foreign quarter of the city one evening, we noticed an immense crowd round a large screen on which lantern pictures were being shown of American scenes, public buildings, etc., 'and this we found was another way, paid for by the Board of Education, of educating the grown-up as well as the younger foreigners. The salaries of teachers in New York City have been settled by State law, and cannot be altered by the Board of Education. Female assistant teachers begin at 600 dollars (120), and rise to J.lMO dollars (248), though under some special circumstances they may rise to 1,440 dollars (288). Male assistant teachers begin at 900 dollars (180), and may rise to 2,400 dollars (480). Head teachers or principals (women) rise to a maximum of 2,500 dollars (500), and men to 3,500 dollars (700). In the high schools the assistant women teachers may rise to 2,500 (500), and the male assistants to 3,000 (600), while the principal or head teacher gets a salary of 5,000 dollars (1,000). A considerable agitation has lately arisen in New York to get these salaries increased. They, however, arc much better than at any other city in the States, and, even with the extra cost of living, are much higher than teachers' salaries in England. The high schools of New York include, as compulsory subjects, English, history, mathematics, a foreign language, biology, another science, physical training, vocal music, drawing, voice training, and declamation ; outside these there is a wide range of elective subjects, including Latin, Greek, commercial subjects, such as stenography and typewriting, book-keeping, economics, and many others. Although the course is nominally over four years bright pupils often complete it in three and a-half years, while the slower ones t;ikc us much as five, or even six years, the State law allowing free education up to the age of 21. In addition to these general high schools there are one or two, such as the De Witt Clinton High School for boys, where some 3,000 boys are receiving a distinctly commercial education, and the Girls' Technical High School, a special feature of which is a shortened course of two years, intended to equip girls as stenographers, typists, book-keepers, saleswomen, buyers, mid numbers of other wage-earning callings. I spent a morning in the Wadley High School for girls, and found 2,500 girls of from 13 or 14 to 18 and upwards located in one of the best buildings it has been my good fortune to see, which was built at the cost of 140,000. Dr. John Wight, the principal, is aided by a staff of 105 teachers ; all the pupils have graduated from the elementary schools. The principal's salary is 1,000 a year, two of the male assistants get 600 eadh, while the salary for the women assistants begins at 140, rising My 10 increments to 200, then by increments, under certain conditions, of 16, to a maximum of 380. The first woman assistant gets a salary of 400, rising to 500. [Cov Iii most of the schools o siderahle display of the pupils' to Slicli iill extent lli;it It III the possibility tli.it. too much :ii tent ion wa> paid to the kind of work that pi the eye linger work, drawing, painting, and colouring -., and plants, to the ni ' utial suhjecls. The free It hraries of N in providing excelleni m.iterials for ihe childre! . In DIM; depirtinent for \.-2(H) ho\-,. tls p-r annum was the > uin allov. nL in hooks for the school library, and in addition to thi vision, children's rooms and libraries are provided in connection with the lihra m at convenient centres. The 1'ublic Health Department sends a doctor and a nurse to every school each day. Chicago and other large towns have: a similar system, and tlies of how the various public bodies co-ordinate their with that of the Board of Education. It will perhaps be po in our own country, now that the Municipal Councils have cont the schools as well as public libraries, museums, art fallen > parks, etc., to utilise them all in connection with the schools i has been the case in the past. I spent some time in examin- ing the school books used, not only in New York but in the other schools in the States, and here again there is no " cheese-par in-; " policy adopted, but the books supplied in arithmetic, history, aphy, etc., are the ordinary text books of the country, well bound, and at considerable cost, with almost the entire absence ol the cheap flimsy books sometimes forced into the schools in our own country. This docs not apply to reading books. I think the reading books generally in use in our better elementary schools in England are equal to those in America, though the classes have a greater variety than we have. Each child there, however, takes care of his own sets of books, carries them home and uses them there. Indeed, home lessons seem to be general except among the very young children. The City Normal School for the training of teachers had 217 students when we visited it, all having been graduates of ih > high schools before entrance. Of these only six were men. The course extends through two years, out of which the last six mouths are spent as substitute teachers in the schools, a report being furnished each week. In addition to passing the examinations for license to teach, the report on the teaching during these six months must be favourable, or they may be compelled to take another six months before receiving a licence to go out as ordinary teachers into the schools. There is also the Teachers' College at Columbia University, with a four years' course, though t reduced to two for the graduates of the Normal School. This college seems to hold a special place in the system of training of teachers, inasmuch as considerable specialisation takes place, and teachers are sent out to training colleges, normal schools, high schools, as well as elementary schools, as teachers of special subjects, such as manual work, kindergarten, mathematics, pedagogy, and in the course of our travels we found many of the old students of this college at work in various institutions. The Dean is Dr. James C. Russell, with whom I had a long conversa- tion on the work and aims of the college. There are over 600 students, and degrees of 13. Sc. and D.Sc. in pedagogy are granted. Courses are also so arranged that teachers can attend them after COWARD.] 84 the school hours, and I met several teachers who are thus getting advantage of a university course. A similar school of pedagogy exists in connection with New York University, as well as at most of the universities in other towns. Of Columbia University and New York University I must leave my colleagues to speak in detail, as also of our visits to the technical schools and the famous Pratt Institute at Brooklyn. I spent several evenings in visits to evening schools, which are of three kinds elementary, high, and recreative. At one of these, situated in the foreign district of the city, I had a good opportunity of watching how foreign pupils were dealt with. Thirteen hundred boys and men were present, almost the whole of whom could only 6])c;ik a little English, or none at all, and most of the time was spent in teaching the language, coupled with every device to give the scholars a love for, and interest in, America. In one class of 29 there were 18 Russians, five Roumanians, and six from various other countries ; some of these had been only three or four months in New York, others a year or so, while one had only landed the day before. These strangers soon pick up the idea that if they want to do well in New York they must learn English, and it was a good sight to see them all eager to help themselves and one another. From this school it was a great contrast to visit the East Side Evening High School for girls, with Miss Maclay as principal teacher, and a staff of 24 assistant teachers, teaching over 750 young women, from 15 to considerably over 20 years of age, all of whom had graduated in the day elementary schools, but had been obliged to go to work instead of passing on to the day high school. The course of study was distinctly high school work, and so arranged that there was considerable liberty of choice of subject. In two or three rooms I saw no less than a total of 60 typists at work under competent instructors. Another class was studying Knglish literature, which I was allowed to take for about halt-an- hour. There were classes, too, in commercial book-keeping, higher mathematics, German, Spanish, French, chemistry, physics, rhetoric, and drawing. I also visited one of the evening recreation centres, with 700 boys present. Two or three rooms were devoted to all kinds of quiet games, draughts, chess, dominoes. In another room some 40 or 50 were studying any kind of subject they liked, to improve themselves arithmetic, shorthand, foreign languages ; no lessons were given, but two or three teachers walked about and gave help wherever it was desired. In the gymnasium all kinds of physical exercises were being carried on, again with competent instructors ; while in tin- corner of the main entrance hall a lady sat at a table changing books for boys, these books being supplied from the free libraries. Plenty of noise at this centre, but good humour everywhere, and underneath it all education, hardly apparent to the teachers or the lads themselves, of no little value was being carried on. New York City spent last year on evening schools considerably over 100.000, with over 21,000 in average attendance. Its vacation 'schools cost 10,000, and its vacation playgrounds nearly 12,000. Certain playgrounds kept open all the year cost 5,000 in addition. In the day schools the total cost per child was over 9 on the average attendance. I ought not to leave New York without expressing thanks to Mr. EL Rogers, chairman of the Board of Education, who spent one day 85 [Cowvun. in driving the Kev A. \\'. -lephson, Mr. ( i. J. Coekhurn, and myself to several schools, lunched us ;it the Athletic: Club, and !inisli(: now carefully every liranch of the work is organised. Organisation in detail is reduced to a fine art, and there is no doubt t! hools oi York are, at least, not burdened with too little system in their management. The city is suffering, like Chicago, Philadelphia othei towns, from a deficiency of accommodation. In New York many of the schools are working " double shifts, " with, liov. tw.> sets of teachers, to overcome the difficulty of supplying some instruction to the many thousands for whom at present then- ;u . : no school places. It ought to be said, however, that New York has several large; schools in the process of building, the completion of which has been delayed owing to strikes and labour troubles. New York has done but little for the defective class of children, only one centre being opened, and is thus much behind Philadelphia, Boston, and Chicago in this respect, while London, Manchester, .Bristol, and other large towns at home are well ahead of any of them in this particular branch of education. We were very struck in New York with the intense belief that people of all classes seem to have in education, and with the determination to spare no expense in placing a thorough education within the reach of all. We left the city feeling that, although we had learnt much, we could have spent a much longer time profitably in this great bustling, busy, although in some respects ugly, city. A journey of over 400 miles brought us to Washington. This is a delightful city of about 300,000 people, of whom nearly one-third are coloured ; and here we had an excellent opportunity of seeing how the great problem of the coloured citizen is being dealt with. In New York and the Northern States generally the law allows coloured and white children to attend the same schools, and in almost every school a few coloured children may be seen. Separate schools for our coloured brethren, however, are found necessary even there, which the large bulk of them attend. In Washington and generally in the Southern States, the coloured children are not yet allowed to attend the same schools as the whites. While this is the case, the policy has been adopted of thoroughly educating the coloured folks, giving them in their own schools, under coloured teachers, exactly as good an education as they give to the others. To us of course it seemed that the easiest way to do this would be to allow them to attend the same schools, irrespective of colour, but we soon found out that public sentiment, both among the coloured and white population, is strongly against this. Washington does not make so much " show " of its school work as New York, and the schools are much smaller and the buildings not so pretentious ; they are free both for fees and school materials. There are two excellent manual training high schools the McKiuley for white students, and the Armstrong for coloured. No trades are taught, but I gather from the students and instructors that many of the young women can get good employment in dressmaking, millinery, typewriting and office work, while the young men get shortened terms of apprenticeship as machinists, engineers, draughtsmen, architects, and the like, if they have fully graduated through the manual high school. Space forbids me to more than mention the Cow A kindness and hospitality we received in this beautiful city, the great t being our reception at the White House by President Roosevelt on Wednesday, 28th October, who had invited about a dozen of the leading educationists to meet us ; or to more than note the splendid buildings, of which perhaps the Congressional Library, the Government Offices, and the George sington monument are the most striking. Some of our party went from Washington on Thursday night on a delightful excursion, over 200 miles, to visit the Coloured Schools and College at Hampton, rejoining the main party at Philadelphia on Saturday. I, however, went on with a party to Baltimore to see the schools and the celebrated Johns Hopkins University, whose many buildings are scattered over the town. It is said that the post-graduate work of this univei'sity is the finest, most extensive, and best organised of any in the world ; but I must leave some of my colleagues to write a detailed account of the visit. The President of the University entertained us at luncheon at the Maryland Club, inviting a few of the professors and others to meet us. We spent some time in the Boys' High School, or City College, as it is called, and the Girls' High School, the former for 900 boys and the latter for 1,300 girls ; both are fed directly from the elementary schools, and are doing excellent work. The graduation certificate of the former is accepted by the Johns Hopkins University as entrance for the undergraduate course without examination. Everywhere easy co-ordination and co-operation were seen between all parts of the school system. Some of our party remained a day or so longer at Baltimore to further investigate the Johns Hopkins, while the rest of us went on to Philadelphia in the evening of the 22nd October, and spent Friday, Saturday, and Sunday in that historic city, which has ncnrly a million and a-half inhabitants, ranking third in size of the towns of the States. The Municipal Council makes the appropriation of money for school purposes to a Board of Education which has the spending of it, and which takes general charge; of the schools. This latter body is elected or nominated by tlm Court of Judges another" instance of what struck us as strange in a democratic country, the non-popular election of a governing body. In New York and Chicago the mayor chooses the members of the Board of Education. Philadelphia has considerable deficiency of school accommodation. The classes in the schools are larger than in other places ; in one I found classes of 52, 60, and 72. The salaries of the teachers are very much smaller than in other large towns, the result being that considerable agitation has been aroused on the subject. The Board of Education has experienced some amount of difficulty through the Municipal Council cutting down the appropriations for school purposes It possesses, however, many good schools, both elementary and high, though I gather that the supply of the latter was by no means equal to the demand. In addition to the schools, we visited the Baldwin Locomotive Works, said to be the largest in the world, employing over 15,000 men, and turning out about 36 locomotives per week ; the Wannamaker Store ; the Girard College, one of the wealthiest and most noted philanthropic institutions in the United States, providing board, education, etc., for 1,500 fatherless boys up to the age of 18, the value of the property belonging to this institution being estimated at over three millions of pounds. Another interesting institution was the Philadelphia .'. \i;l>. Commercial Museum, open free, established in is!).",, to disseminate knowledge of the products and needs of (lie various pan > of the world, and to encourage the foreign trade of the United States. It includes samples of goods and raw materials arranged according to countries and kinds, testing laboratories, bureau of in: i, and a commercial library. Here is a good iield of work for our Chambers of Commerce at home to establish such museums in our towns. Philadelphia is doing more for the < children than many other towns, seven centres bein.Lj op and the work well begun on similar lines to those at I: The enthusiasm and perseverance of Dr. and Miss Iv forced home the need of this work in Philadelphia, the latter having visited England specially to learn how the work is being carried on. Leaving Philadelphia on Sunday evening, October 25th, we travelled all night in a sleeping car, reaching New Haven early M. morning. Our call at New Haven was to see the famous Vale University, where nearly 4,000 students are taking adv the education provided in the arts, medical, legal, scientific and other schools of the university. A special feature of the university is its attention to the physical well-being of its students. The Director of the Physical Institution is a medical man, Mr. Jay \V. Seaver, M.D., who 'examines every student and prescribes a suitable regular course of exercise to fit the individual requirements. The doctor is assisted by a staff of competent instructors to carry out his directions. We noticed the same system of teaching by discussion among the students in classes carried on in the university which we had observed in the schools, every statement made being critically examined, while the students were called upon by name to discuss any portion of the work. This co-operation between professor and student is very marked at Yale. Some of my colleagues will no doubt give a detailed account of the work of this great university. The President, Dr. Hadley, and his colleagues received us with the greatest possible kindness and after several hours had been spent, in the university, we were entjrtained at lunch by Dr. Hadley at the " County Club," situated about two miles from the university, amidst the most delightful scenery. Late in the afternoon we left New Haven, arriving at Boston about 10 o'clock p.m., pretty well used by this time to the rush of travelling long distances by night or day, though this and the work, added to the very much over much we thought heated rooms at the hotels, proved somewhat fatiguing. By 9 o'clock in the morning of Tuesday, the 27th, we were in the Elliot School, one of the oldest established in the t:>wn, consisting of boys from 9 to 14, and we soon found that the schools generally approached more to our English schools than in the places we had previously visited. They are of moderate size. co-education. extends only to 9 years of age. Manual instruction is given in all the schools, the boys beginning at 12 or 13 age. There are some 35 schools having a manual training room, so that a few of the schools have to send their boys to these for this subject, but the Director of Manual Training informed me that as soon as possible the work will be taken at each school. Here was the first case where we saw woodwork being taught by women to classes of boys, which certainly struck me personally as being unsuitable employment, and too great a strain on a woman. In addition to woodwork, basket work is also taken. Cow A Thf girls in Boston are taught sewing for two hours a week (in "York only one hour is given) ; the ordinary teachers are relieved from teaching this subject, 60 special teachers being engaged iij it. Cooking is taught to all the girls from about 12 years of age,, in classes of 25 to 30 numbers which the teachers consider too large, and I agree with them. As in other towns, Boston possesses a good system of high schools, well equipped and absolutely free of cost to the pupils ; one of these, th.- Aits and Crafts High School, is a manual school of a very hi<;h class, fitted -with machinery of a most elaborate character, and l>i. Parmenter has made this school famous throughout the States by the excellent work he is carrying on. At 18 years of age the young men are eagerly sought for by manufacturers and others, and are allowed a shortened apprenticeship. This school is doing much the same work and in much the same way as many of our technical institutions at home, though we must not forget that Boston possesses the largest, best equipped, and most numerously attended technical college in the world, the :d 1 1 i^i ats Institute of Technology, which would require a chapter to itself, of which no doubt some members of the Com- miion, more qualified than I am, will give an accurate account. HoMoii lias a good system of evening schools, and last year as an iment extended the system of evening school, work in five centres to embrace such subjects as manual training, sewing, millinery, m broidery, domestic science, and singing, and in fact almost any subject which promised sufficient pupils. On Thursday evening the President of the Board of Education, Mr. G. D. Gushing, conducted our whole party to one of these special evening schools, the Bigelowe School. There are 3,000 pupils attending this centre, in two parts, 1,500 in each, for two nights per week; the cost of this one centre for one winter's work is over 2,000 and there are five such at work. While at Boston I was honoured by an invitation from Miss McKay, professor of pedagogy at the Wellesley College, some 20 miles from Boston, to address her classes on some professional topic, and on Wednesday afternoon, in company with the Rev. A. W. Jephson and Mr. Black, I visited the college, and for three-quarters of an hour spoke to the students on our English educational system. This Wellesley College is another example, like Vassar, of what America is doing for the higher training of women; it has over 1,000 students in buildings situated in the most lovely neighbourhood, the whole college estate consisting of over 350 acres. The B.A. and M.A. degrees are granted. Almost the whole of the professors, including the principal, Dr. Hazard, are women. The total cost of board and instruction is about 80 a year, though here, as at Vassar, which we 1 from New York, many girls comparatively poor manage to get through the college by engaging in all kinds of remunerative work while they are students, apparently without losing social castfe by so doing. Of course, one could not go to Boston without visiting Harvard University, where there are over 4,000 students. The invest- ments of the university are said to be worth 3,000,000. It has one of the best libraries in the world, which has been growing for about 250 years. The fee for tuition is about 30, while board can be obtained in the college hostels at 18s. a week, this arrangement being under the management of the students them- selves. The dormitory fees vary from about 9 upwards per [Cov. annum, according to tho tastes and means of the students. It is possible for a student of moderate means to get through Harvard well on a 100 a year, ami some do it on as li Here, as at Columbia, Yale, and the two Chicago universiti' considerable number of the poorer students obtain the money necessary for their university career by teaching, acting as clerks, waiters, barbers, etc., and as far as one can see they do not lose the respect of their fellow students by so doing. In company with Mr. Shepheard (chairman of the Technical Education Commit' tin' I -ontlon County Council), I went some forty miles into the country to visit the Massachusetts State Normal College at Bridgewater, which is one of the three first established State Normal schools in America. It was opened in 1840. There are 254 students of both sexes, though the female largely predominates. We rea there at 8-30 in the morning, in time to see the students nble, and followed tho whole of the work until about 1 p m. Dr. Hoydon has been principal for over forty years, and knows, perhaps, as much about the State training system as any- man in the States. There are good chemical, physical, and biological laboratories. Each branch of work in the college has its responsible teacher, who has prepared a scheme of work which is printed and placed in the hands of every student. In the rooms where they could bo used, each student, was provided with an expensive microscope, and apparently used it well. The practising school is contained inside the college building, and is part of the establishment under Dr. Boydon's control, having 450 pupils, ranging right from the kindergarten up to the end of the high school grade, so that the students get observation and training in the methods of work right through. The classes in this school are small, taught by carefully selected teachers, whose methods are supposed to be models for the students' imitation. In observing the teaching given to the students in the college we were struck with the fact that every lesson was given with a view to its being taught again to children or, in other words, much more attention was paid to the methods of the lesson than to the acquirement by the students of information for themselves. Every student in turn is expected to, and does, stand in front of the other students and give a lesson in every subject, the points of the lesson being freely discussed by the other students. It will easily be seen that with this method of teaching the scope of the work taken by the students themselves is not so great as is attempted in our training college at home. No degrees other than the teachers' diplomas are granted at the college, but some of the students, after leaving college, ulti- mately graduate at State or other universities. Manual instruction in woodwork is given to men and women alike, but no sewing is taught. Young men must be 17 and young women 16 years of age before admission, and the following conditions have to be observed : (1) They must pass a physical examination, (2) present a certificate of good moral character, (3) a certificate from the high school that they have reached a good standard there, (1) a written examination, (5) an oral examination. Tuition is free to residents in the State of Massachusetts, but about 30 a year has to be paid for board and residence, though a large number of students who live near enough on the line of railroad hoard and live at home. There are three sets of students, some being trained for two years, others for three 3, and the remainder for four years. Those who take a full four CO\VAUD. 90 are specially recommended for the higher classes in the J.le,,,. - - assistants in the high schools, and tho principalsiiip-; of small schools, and as expert teachers of special subjects. All the text hooks and apparatus are provided free. ill-' sum of nearly 1,000 a year devoted from State f un ,U to . -'ho cannot otherwise pay their boarding fees. In the State of Massachusetts there are seven of these training colleges, and the total number of such training colleges of the t'nited States is 160, from which about 8,000 teachers graduate annually. In addition to this, every town of any considerable size has its own training college maintained as a part of its school ii, and there are also pedag9gical schools in connection with most of the universities; all these, as yet, do not send out enough tiained teachers to meet the demand, but there is little doubt that the people in the States will ultimately provide training college accommodation enough for all the needs. This is one of the (jue-tions which has to be more seriously grappled with at home. I'.oston possesses the first public day school for the deaf ever opened, the Horace Mann School, with 127 pupils. Miss Fuller, the principal, has given her life to this work, and with an enthu- siastic staff, she is training these unfortunate people as far as possible by the oral method to take their part in the world's work. \Vc saw lessons in algebra, Euclid, and drill. A lad of 16 recited to us, and a class even sang a verse of America, not of course with much tune, but still the words and time were correct. Perhaps the most noted case in connection with this school was that of a girl, Helen Keller, who was both blind and deaf, and was yet taught by Miss Fuller to speak like an ordinary person. Boston is so full of educational activity that it is not possible for me to note all that we saw. Some figures, perhaps, may be given. There are 86,980 children in the whole of the public schools. Of these, 6,555 are in the high schools. There are seven classes, with 87 pupils, for defective children. In the elementary evening schools there are 4,051 pupils, with 192 teachers ; and there are three evening high schools and six industrial drawing schools, with 4,862 pupils and 76 teachers. Boston is an acknowledged centre of culture, with its many historical, literary, and scientific societies and clubs, to all of which we were made welcome during our stay. The town is proud of its culture, and deservedly so, and we left it with much regret that a longer time was not at our disposal to examine what there was there to be seen, though it would not be right for me not to acknowledge the great kindness, hospitality, and services rendered to us by a large number of its prominent citizens. Leaving Boston on Saturday evening, the 31st October, we travelled in a sleeping car to Niagara, which we reached at 7 a.m. the next morning, and spent a quiet Sunday amidst the lovely scenery and the grandeur of the Falls, the day being beautifully fine, and an ideal one for the purpose. It would be foolish of me to attempt to add to the much that has been written about the Falls ; suffice it to say that they quite came up to the most beautiful descrip- tion I have ever read of them. We could well have lingered there a while, but the exigencies of 6ur mission demanded that we should be early on the move, so at 7 a.m. on Monday morning we were in the train again en route for Chicago, and after travelling all day we reached this extraordinary city at about six in the evening, where after dinner Dr. Harper, president of the Chicago University, !M [Cov \vith a committee of the leadh. town, met us and disr-ussed the plans f" >i k during -k we, we Through tin' l'.o:ird of Kducation oiliees we obtained tin' information thai there is a considerable lark of school accommodation, and scv.-ral schools are working "double shifts," one set of scholars attending in the morning ami another in the afternoon. Kvidently th.' city is growing fasier than the provision -holars. The population is o win;.' rapidly. In the common or public tohoolfl : children, \vith many private schools, of which the Roman < cont-ol the lar^'.-si nimihe , : said that th" pupils in : amount to over 100, 000; the 21 members of i . lucation, '., are nominated by the Mayor. The Superiir Kducatii.n i i l"ded for a period of five years, at the end of which re-elected, and great power ov< r the school-, is placed in his hands-. Tin- p"rc;.Mitage of attendance ]\ said to be, 9/5, though I are only 21 attendance oflicers. The salaries of the t rank next to New York, the head teachers of the elementary schools .g 1500 per annum and the assistants may rise to ' Then! arc; !"* high schools with about 11,000 pupils, and in action and equipment they arc very good. There are nearly 9,000 children in th" kindergarten schools. Chicago possesses universities, the Chicago I 'Diversity with Dr. Harp-rat its head. and the North- Western under Dr. James, each with its thousands of students. We visited both, and w. ained at dinner by the students of the former on the 6th November, where we met about a thousand students. All the waiters at the dinner were students, who red their own board free for the work of waiting on their fellow- etudents, another instance of the means by which those unblessed by wealth go through their university career in America. The school buildings in Chicago are not so costly v York. Asa rule they lack central halls, wide corridors on each tloor being id. The maximum number of pupils laid do\vn by the Board of Education for each teacher is 48, but in some schools we found this number slightly exceeded. The first element?! ry school to which we were taken (the Alcott School) had about 1,200 pupils, Mi-s A. Hardinge being the head-mistress with a staff of 25 :ants. We watched the work through all the classes of this school, where the advanced kindergarten work, the drawing and painting were particularly good. In one large room there was an exhibition of pictures, loaned to the school for a month or two. The teachers talked to the children at times about the pictures, and compositions on them were written afterwards by the scholars. Apart from this exhibition the school possesses many valuable pictures which had been presented by private donors, including parents of the children. The walls of the class-rooms were coloured green, and there were other attempts made to care for the eye-sight of the children. There was a good library supplied with books from the public library. Miss A. Hardinge informed us that the attendance for the last month was over 95 per cent. The older children in all the elementary schools are taught German, and we heard a very interesting and successful lesson being given entirely on the conversational plan. From this school we went to the Lake View High School, with over a thousand on the books, of whom about one-third were boys and two-thirds girls, a proportion between the sexes which seems to hold good generally in the high Cow A: schools except in the manual high schools, where the proportion of boys is higher. None of the classes had more than 30 in them. In the laboratories, of which there were three, the class numbered 'J4. \Ve noticed there were 30 microscopes in the biological laboratory. The Latin class was taking the fourth book of Caesar, where translations of a much freer character than would be allowed at home seemed to pass muster. An English lesson was being taken in another class by a lady, exceedingly well. During the week Mr. Jephson and I together visited the Young .Men's Christian Associa^n, and from the courteous secretary who accompanied us through the various rooms, we learned that there were 5,000 members, and the association's activities were very many. This association is said to be the largest of the kind in the world. I ought to have mentioned that manual training is well established in the schools of Chicago, and that shower-baths are provided at most of the schools for the children, which we also noticed in New York. Chicago is the home of the child study movement. There is a distinct department for this under the Board of Education, directed by Mr. Fred W. Smedley and several competent assistants. Several schools have been selected and nearly 7,000 children are being tested at various stages in their school career by every known scientific means for sight, hearing, growth, weight, etc., and for their mental development. It remains to be seen whether the deductions will prove of permanent value in educational science, though already it has aroused considerable attention and many pages of the report on education for the United States issued by Commissioner Harris are this year devoted to reporting what Chicago is doing. The sight and hearing of all the children in Chicago have been tested during the last year. Perhaps in our own country this question of individual child study will in the future receive more attention than has been possible in the past. At all events the subject is worthy of more than the sneer it sometimes receives. Some of my fellow Commissioners will report in detail on the famous Armour and Lewis Institutes, where the most expensive and up-to-date technological training is being given to a vast num- ber of students. There is a flourishing school of education at the Chicago University, with Mr. W. B. Jackman as dean. The students here have either obtained or are working for their university degree, and, therefore, are somewhat in the position of our university day training college students. Most of these on leaving college become assistants in the high schools, though not a few prefer teaching in the elementary schools. We also visited the Chicago Normal School, which has 521 students, a large majority of whom are women. Graduation from the high school is accepted for admission, and there seems to be no lack of candi- dates. Mr. Arnold Tompkins, the present principal, succeeded the late Colonel Francis Wayland Parker, whose educational work is remembered by thousands of educationists throughout the States. Since I described the training college at Bridge water somewhat fully, there is not much need to say more of this one. During the week we had many opportunities of being brought into contact with business men in Chicago, and there again all seemed earnest and sincere in their expressions of devotion to the education given in the public schools. Wi- went over the well-known store of Mr. Marshall Field, which employs nearly 10,000 persons and is a model of careful organisation. On Saturday, in company with other 93 [Cow AK i). members of the Commission, T went over Messrs. Ann huge establishment, \vhn-.- .| :u |y 10,000 pi^ :i,o<" ouo sheep ;ire slaughtered and turned into loud for man all over the world. \Vc learnt that Ho per cent, of all ti !M of this firm is with our own country. The same round of hospitality, greater if anything, marked our stay at Chicago and culminated on Saturday evening in a banquet given to us by a committee of Chicago's prominent ci 1 the hosts being Mr. Armour, Mr. Marshall Field, Mr. M. ' and other well-known leaders of Chicago. The speaking at this - dinner on education and business matters the American's belief in tin; vahm of education in tin- welfare and progress of the country. While at Chicago we visit- d the schools at Evanston, outside Chicago's boundaries, and ther. under the control of Cook County authorities. The school buildings are in many respects better than those in Chicago, the Central High School, under Dr. Boltwood, having quite a \v: popularity. We found in Kvaiiston that the Manual Training School and Domestic Sci liool had been built at expense of Mr. and Mrs. Gross and handed over to the school authorities. Before leaving Chicago two or three of us, guided by Dr. Nightingale, the superintendent of the schools for the county, and his assistant, Mr Downey, visited Palospark District School, Cook County, Illinois, ;i 40 miles from Chicago. Not a house is within sight of this little red wooden building. There were 32 children's names on the books, 24 of whom were present. These children come from one to four miles to school. The mistress, Miss C. McLaughry, gets 130 a year, and has no assistants. She showed us how she managed with this little group, ranging from six to 14 years of age. Of course, the work was not of the highest order, but every child seemed interested and doing his or her best, and it was with much pride that the lady member of the district committee, who accompanied us, told how successful some of the graduates from the school had been when they had gone into the high schools in Chicago. This school was opened the usual ten months in the year, but Dr. Nightingale informed us that there were scores throughout his county, some of them with only eight or ten pupils, which were only kept open the minimum time required by the State law, viz., seven months. Efforts are being made to combine these smaller schools into central larger ones and convey the children to them in wagons. This is actually being carried out in some parts of the States, and is proving more effective and not much more expensive than the smaller schools. Dr. Nightingale showed us many kindnesses during our stay in Chicago, in addition to accompanying us to this village school. From Chicago many of the Commission broke up into parties to visit various towns. The party I was with consisted of Mr. and Miss Mosely, Professor Rhys, the Eev. T. L. Papillon, Mr. J. R. Heape, the Rev. Professor Finlay, Mr. John Whitburn, and Mr. Cowley, and our way back to New York was taken Indianapolis and Dayton, at each of which places we spent one day, and Pittsburg, where two days were spent, reaching New York on Saturday, November 14th. The population of Indianapolis is about 180,000, of whom 20,000 are coloured and about 10,000 are Germans, the latter fact largely accounting for German being taught in all . KD.] 94 the public schools here. There is a superintendent and staff of 42 teachers, five for the high schools and 37 for the elementary schools specially for German. The total number of children on the rolls in the eight grades of the elementary schools is 27,884, and it is said that the percentage of attendance for last year reached 93*9. The truant school had 16 occupants on the day of our visit. Those who are working for smaller classes on our schools at home should note that in Indianapolis the average number of pupils per teacher is 38. All the teachers of the elementary schools are women; the salaries of principals are 300 per annum and of teachers from 100 to 130. On this point the last annual report of the superin- u-mlont to the Board states : " The demand for teachers who are reasonably good far exceeds the supply. The salaries in the elementary schools, averaging 120 per annum, are not sufficient to tempt men to enter the work. There is a demand for more men teachers in the schools, but men will not be found in the rank and file of teachers until the public is ready to pay a good deal more money for the education of children than it is willing to pay now. Elementary schools for the present, at least, will continue to bo taught by women. Many women, however, who formerly as a class became teachers now find open many other avenues of employment not so taxing upon physical strength, which offer as great financial inducements as teaching. I firmly believe that the time will come when the American people will see the necessity of giving the rank and file of public school teachers greater financial remuneration." The schools were open 179 days last year. There are two high schools in Indianapolis, the Shortridge School and the Manual Training High School, together affording accommodation for about 3,000 students ; out of the 1,150 students of the former, over 800 are girls, but more than half of those at the Manual School are boys, attracted by the extensive variety and splendid course of manual training they are offered. Each scholar spends 2i hours per day in manual work, which consists of woodwork, pattern-making, moulding, iron turning, and forge- \\in-k, and if a young man stays through the whole four years' course -he gets instruction in all these,' in addition to a good sound education in ordinary subjects as well. Much of the furniture and a large number of the tools, even including lathes, have been made by the pupils of the school, and would do credit to a first-class firm. For the girls, in addition to the work of the laboratories, there are cookery, needle-work, stenography, typewriting, hygiene, and home nursing, with the same course in mathematics, art, languages, etc., as for the boys. Another feature of the school is the library and reading room, the school work being so arranged that every pupil gets the time of one lesson per day in this room, and we saw 120 students thus engaged at the time of our visit. A librarian was in charge of the 4,000 volumes in the library, i 'rising the best published works on literature, languages, history, and science, all the latest reviews and magazines, several sets of encyclopaedias, dictionaries, and other works of reference, and the best examples of fiction. " A highly organised, well- conducted school " was our opinion, and a good example of hundreds of such in the States, entirely free and open to all as a part of the public school system. The Shortridge High School has no manual training, and is thus able to devote more time to art, literature, science, and languages. The laboratories chemical, physical, and biological are very fine, well fitted, up-to-date. This school claims to be the only one in [Cov the world which publishes a d which is edited, printed, and inarm;: is two cents (Id.), and 600 of the students a as many outsiders. The principal and his able stall' arc justly 1 of this school. So great is the pressure of ; both the high schools that Indianapolis erecting a third. We also visited the Normal Se: college), with 60 women students. In our schools w(! had an opportunity of seeing the physical > Miieh here again have no approach whatever to military drill, but are simple exercises designed to strengthen the muscles and arts of the body. The art work a 1 study of the schools are of a high order, and among the be saw. Mr. Kendle, the courteous superintendent of schools, rs, and many others did all they could to inak in Indianapolis a busy and useful one, and we were entertained at lunch at the I' Diversity Club, where several of the leading men of the city gathered to meet us. Another nigh; in th" train brought us at 7 a.m. to l>ayt.m, Ohio, where on our arrival at 7 a.m; next morning we found t! and the public buildings of the town gaily decorated wii h and American 1': us to the town ho . the head of the Nati Cash Register Company, whose >r the rest o; day. At breakfast we met iMr. \V. F. Chamberlin, the Pres; e Board of Education, Dr. Edwin N. Brown, the S;, , and others, who ace* i us round the schools. a of Dayton at the last c< .is 85,000, though said to be now 90,000. There are 30 ' ary schools with n. 12,000 pupils, a high school with 1,200 pupils, and a school for the The huildi 1 )> fine, and the instrudion com) very favourably with that in the h; .is we visited. > depnr! 1 the elementary schools; 1,036 pupils are attending them. The; percentage of ;i ; i-ndane 'JO'l. Ti iild for instruction (not for buildings, etc.) is 4 12s. The salaries for teachers ; ire slightly higher than at Indianapolis. All ;orning spent in the schools d the works of the National Cash Register Comp which were en fete to mark the. occasion of our visit. The :it buildi. i with ll;igs and b;i',;;ers, among which the I'nion .lack, in our honour, was predomina: all impressed with th >n and the nts made for the comfort. ; being of the empi son from the youngest to the oldest is invited to i. o the br and if adopted they for them. Mr. Patterson entertained us at dinner at his country house and drove us to the station at 9-30 p.m. in another night in the train, and we found ourselves at imrg early next morning, and a long day was spent in vi> the immense Carnegie Steel Works. Nothing on so scale can be seen in our own country, and we were all much i: with the organisation among the men and the use of powerful m No doubt some of my colleagues will report on this visit in d day was devoted to the Pittslmrg schools, under the efficient guidance of Mr. S. Andrews, Superintendent of Schools, and Mr. E. Bynearson, M.A., the director of the High Schools, and several Cow A. 9G others. Pittsburg school government is curious. In addition to the >ral Board of Education there is aspecial sub-board of six members in each of the 38 wards, which builds the schools of the ward, elects or discharges teachers, and controls the schools generally. The Central Board, however, fixes the salaries and also has full control over the high school. This position has led to great differences in the schools in various parts of the town, though generally the rivalry is shown by seeing which ward can produce the finest buildings, some of which are very palatial. The high school is in three ents academical, commercial, and normal. Admission to each of these is by examination, the same for all three, based on the work of the elementary schools, though the classes of study after are different. The academical, in addition to the ordinary subjects, takes Greek, Latin, and German ; the normal prepares young women for teaching, with an appropriate course of study ; and the commercial, which takes the academic course for the first year, and then book-keeping, typewriting, phonography, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial geography, civil government, English grammar, and composition. The great feature of this last department is the " business house " ; portions of the building being fitted up as an American jobbing company, U.S. commission company, students' national hank, union transportation company, post office, and real estates offices. All the pupils in their last year actually do business with all these departments; buy, sell, make losses, become rich, or bankrupt, keep a banking account, draw cheques, etc. The head of this school (Mr. S. D. Evehart) is a remarkable man, carrying on a remarkable work. There are other schools of this type in the States, but this is the only one I had an opportunity of seeing, and, as far as I know, there is nothing like it at home. In the whole of the high school departments there are about 2,000 pupils, but, as Pittsburg has 350,000 inhabitants, it ought to have more high schools to compare with many other towns. Manual training is taught in the elementary schools but not in the high schools. We visited a school or two at Allegheny across the river of the same name a township separate from Pittsburg, the third ward elementary school just erected being one of the finest we have ever seen, with a central hall capable of seating 2,000, and a large room fitted up in every way like a first-class dining room in a private house, where the girls were taught to lay the table, etc. This school had every modern appliance, automatic clocks, telephones, etc. I am sorry that space forbids me to mention by name those who so kindly received us at the Allegheny schools. We closed a long, busy day by a visit to the famous Carnegie Library, where the librarian courteously showed us over the splendid monument of Mr. Carnegie's generosity. Fine as the building is, with its 200,000 volumes, its picture gallery, museum, etc., Mr. Carnegie has just given another million dollars to extend it ! There are several branches of the library scattered over the town. The most interesting portion of the work of this library to me was the "Children's Library," which has separate rooms, with a librarian (Miss Olcott) and a staff to assist her, in providing the mental fare for the little ones. She was pleased to inform us of the success of the "Children's Story Hour," when once or twice a week the children gathered and stories were told them by experts in story-telling ; of the devices for getting the books 97 [Cov into the poorest homes, and the success attending ) ts of the teachers, \vitli the sdm :.! lihrarii-d suppl: the Central Library. The Latest '' it, and to express the liojm that his labours will not be without fruit in helpi: ducation of our country. UAUKV Cov. 100 Educational Commission. Report of the Rev. T. A. FINLAY. The purpose of our Commission in visiting the United States was to study the educational methods of that country in their bearing on its commercial and industrial life, and, if possible, to draw from our observations suggestions for the improvement of our methods at home. It was understood from the outset that in America, as elsewhere, school systems, to be efficient, must be adapted in their details to the particular needs of the community for which they provide, and that in this respect they can furnish but little guidance to educational reformers elsewhere. But it was also understood that certain general conditions essential to industrial success are the same in all countries. How these conditions might be effectively promoted by school systems, one might, it was expected, learn in America. America had risen to a place in the field of industry with unexampled rapidity ; her own people, and foreign visitors notably the Mosely Commission of ]902 attributed that success in large part to her educational methods ; in America, if anywhere, we might learn how the education of a people might be directed with assured effect to the promoting and developing of the national industries. I proceed to state briefly how far in my judgment these expectations have been realised. ) In America there is a universal belief in the value of education, /and a universal zeal in promoting it. The expenditure of money on education is generous to the verge of extravagance. States and municipalities vote funds for the purpose without stint sometimes as much as one-third of their revenue. Religious bodies contribute to their own schools on the same scale, .and private individuals bestow princely fortunes in the endowment of educational institu- tions. The buildings of the elementary schools are prominent in all quarters of the great cities. The site of one of these schools will sometimes cost as . much as 50,dOO, and the building itself as much more. The salaries of the teachers of these elementary schools each of whom will have classes of from 40 to 50 pupils range from 100 to 500 a year. The high schools are equipped and staffed in a proportionately costly manner, and the universities seem but to have to ask for money to get it. Where these institutions are supported by the rates the ratepayers seem to be satisfied they are receiving value for their money, though I have heard complaints of the expenditure on the salaries of the higher officials of some municipal education departments. For the purposes of our inquiry the schools of America may be divided into two classes those whicli provide a general education, and those which are devoted to strictly technical training. In the 101 [FlNLAY. first class are included the elementary schools, tho, high schools, and tin- universities ; in tin; second the trades schools and technical institutes. Of the first class it may \><- -aid that they are e<| >r teach- ing purposes with every appliance tliat r >ply. And of all of tliein, with a eptions, it may he said that their aim is the same to form smart, quick-witted, alert business men and women rather than scholars or thinkers. The curricula of the elementary schools include a wide range of subjects, manual training being prominent in many of them. In the teaching of every suliject the end pursued appears to be a prompt and ready use of the knowledge give.n rather than laborious thought, and personal mental effort on the part of the pupils. The work of ; the school is in fact done by the teacher rather than by the pupils. ' In the public elementary schools the system of co-education of the sexes is well-nigh universal. The majority of teachers two-thirds of the entire number are women ; men with the acquirements necessary for the functions of the teacher, as understood in America, have so many other careers open to them that they do not enter the profession in large numbers. The salaries of the women teachers range, as has been said, from 100 to 500 a year. This remuneration is by no means excessive. The work imposed on the teachers taxes their energies to the full. I found the com- plaint of excessive strain common among them. The school hours are from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m., but the work of preparation absorbs the remainder of the day. In the large cities, wherever the teacher has to retire when she marries, the average length of service in the schools is ten years. For their laborious task the teachers are admirably trained. The efficiency of American scHooIs is due primarily to the professional skill of the teachers. Programmes of study, no matter how well drawn, will never raise education to a high standard unless the teacher is trained for his duties ; even an indifferent programme will become effective in the hands of a teacher who is an expert in the arts of his profession. This the American educational authorities realise thoroughly. Generally speaking, they require that before receiving a permanent appoint- ment the candidates for the teacher's office shall have passed through an elementary and high school course, shall have received two years of training in a normal school or training college, and shall have served three years of probation in a working school, their final appointment being dependent on the favourable report of the .principal of the school in which they have served. These are the requirements in the public schools. The teachers of the parochial schools most of them members of religious associations are for the most part excellently trained. Wherever they are not they fail in the competition with the public schools. The task of the American elementary schools differs in two impor poets from that fulfilled by our schools at home. In the first place, they have to form to American citizenship and to train to English forms of speech the children of the immense bodies of foreign immigrants who are pouring into the country. This they do with remarkable success. The skill with which children, who tn the home circle use only Italian or Yiddish, are brought to employ English as their familiar tongue, and with which they are imbued with sentiments of American patriotism, is beyond all praise. FiNLAY.] 102 In the second place they do not aim at educating the unskilled / labourer for his work in life the unskilled labourer of America is supplied from abroad, from Italy, Hungary, the Slav countries, and Scandinavia, and at present, in diminishing proportion, from Ireland. No boy in an American school looks forward to digging and delving for hire as a means of livelihood, nor does any girl contem- plate domestic service as her future work in life. Speaking to a contractor who had thousands of men employed on the earthworks of an important contract, I asked him how many of his labourers had been educated at an American school. He answered promptly : " Probably not one." On leaving school the American boy enters an office, a store, or a factory, or becomes apprenticed in a skilled trade ; the American girl becomes a book-keeper, a clerk, a steno- grapher, or factory worker. She also finds her way into the skilled trades. In New York there are 250 girl members of the printers' trade union. I saw some of them at work as linotypists. They were earning up to 23 dollars a week, and I was assured by the foreman that they were amongst the best workers in the printing office. I also found girls in charge of the complicated and delicate machines of tool factories. They were paid 25 dollars a week. In America, machinery has been so perfected that dexterity rather than muscular force is required for its use. Where dexterity is the one requirement the girl may be quite as competent a machinist as the man. And this being so, there is no reason why she should not find ready employment, and be admitted into the union of approved workers. It was noticeable in the case of all these girl artisans rthat they brought with them to their duties those habits of clean- liness, neatness and order in their persons and their work, which it is a chief aim of the American school to inculcate and to form. The absence of religious teaching in the public schools has led to . the establishment of parochial schools by the churches concerned for religious influences in education notably by the Catholic Church. The parochial schools are built and equipped by voluntary contributions, on a scale which at times approaches that of the public schools. They follow the main lines of the public school curricula. The competitive examinations for entrance into the normal colleges furnish the only means of comparing their work with that of the public schools. I have it from the head of one of the leading normal colleges of America that in these competitions the children of the parochial schools more than hold their own. The building and maintenance of these parochial schools impose a heavy burden on their supporters, who, besides bearing the whole expense of educating their own children, have to bear part of the expense of educating the children of their well-to-do neighbours. The parochial schools of the city of Chicago educate about 100,000 children, those of New York some 75,000. In Philadelphia and other great cities the numbers are similarly large. The high schools carry the education of children who can afford to continue at school through courses of classics, mathematics, science, and modern literature, to the college entrance examination. The normal length of the high school courses is four years. No general standard of training is insisted on for the teachers of these schools, though the tendency is to require from them a college degree. The education given is of the same kind as that imparted in our own schools, with the difference already alluded to of putting more of the work upon the teachers than is usual with us. 103 -LAY. again, th an educational authorities look for educational results to the trained capacity of : .er rather than to the efforts of the pupil. It i. to I that tin-, high schools are more largely attended by girls than by hoys. This may 1x3 dm- to th<> larger nuinhcr of girls who arc preparing for th-- teaching ssion. Side by side with the, public high schools a numb . utions of the same character, known as "academies," are maintained by private individuals and by religious associations. The American " coll an institution which carries on, through courses of four years' duration, the, work of the under- graduate courses of our universities. Most of them hold a charter from the State in which they are < d empowering th<-m to confer the Bachelor's degree. They differ \videl- "iicy, and the value of the degree depends on the established character of the institution which confers it. The colleges for women are established on a scale peculiar to America. The residential colleges of Vassar, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr, and Smith have no parallels in European institutions. They have been created by private benefactions, they educate women under- graduates only, they are, as a rule, governed by women, their laboratories and observatories controlled by women, and their chairs of classics, literature, and science occupied by women. Vassar and "Wellesley have close on 900 students each, Smith has 1,100. The work done in these institutions seems to be excellent of its kind, and accounts largely for the prevalence of the educated woman in American society, and for the efficiency of womeu ' teachers in the higher gra'des of the teaching profession. It is difficult to define the American " university," as distinct from the "college." The ideal university, according to the American conception, would seem to be an institution in which higher studies, literary and scientific, are carried on by students who have already received a college degree. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, is, however, the only American institution which approaches this ideal. All the others have undergraduate courses, and are, therefore, colleges as well as universities. Even Johns Hopkins has an undergraduate course, but this is kept wholly distinct from the courses of the university proper. The undergraduate courses of the American universities do not differ materially from those of the mere colleges. They differ from our own in this that the undergraduate has in many universities a wide range of the most varied subjects from which to select the matter of his studies for any given year of his course. This system of " electives " has its attractions for the student who wants a degree on easy terms, but it is condemned by many thoughtful American educationists as incompatible with that systematic progress along definite lines wliii-h genuine university education would seem to imply. In the sphere of specialised studies the universities keep them- selves in touch with the industries of the country. In addition to the usual faculties of arts, medicine, and law, they maintain schools of the practical arts, such as pedagogy, pharmacy, engineering, architecture, the mechanical arts, agriculture, and forestry. Besides furnishing trained teachers in these branches, they prosecute research work, and thus put the best thought of the country at the service of its industries. In this respect they resemble the universities of Germany, and furnish a model which our newer university institutions might copy with advantage. FlNLAY.J 104 The technical schools of America exhibit few features which distinguish them from our own schools of the same class. The schools of general technology, such as the Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston, the Armour Institute of Technology in Chicago, and- similar institu- tions elsewhere, differ in no important essential from the corre- sponding institutions of London, Birmingham, Liverpool, and other British cities. Their history, however, suggests a difference between the conception of public beneficence entertained by the wealthy citizens of America and that held by men of large fortunes in Great Britain. The trade schools are of all kinds. For almost every trade there is a school in some one or other of the great industrial centres. The evening classes in these schools are sometimes largely attended by working men and women who desire to become skilled workers. But the opposition of the trade unions to these schools is general, and they have in consequence only a limited success. A way of reconciling trade education with the desire of the unions to restrict the number of competitors in the several trades has not yet been discovered in America. By far the most efficient of the trade schools are those which have been established by certain great firms in connection with their factories, and in which their apprentices receive a knowledge of the scientific principles which they are daily applying in the workshops. To conclude. If I were asked whether the industrial greatness of America is to be attributed primarily to her educational methods I would answer in the negative. America's industry is what it is primarily because of the boundless energy, the .restless enterprise, and the capacity for strenuous work with which her people are endowed ; and because these powers are stimulated to action by the marvellous opportunities for wealth-production which the country offers. These conditions have determined the character of all American institutions the schools included. The schools have not made the people what they are, but the people, being what they are, have made the schools. But do not the schools help to maintain and develop the qualities on which the greatness of the nation rests? Do not the industrialists of the country owe their formation of mind and character to them ? To these questions I would not reply by a mere yes, or no. In the army of industry there are different grades, and each grade has its own requirements. The rank and file must be men of alert brain and deft hands, and must possess an accurate knowledge of nature and her laws. These qualities can be brought out by school training they are well developed by the schools of America by the elementary school most of all ; and, in the elementary school, by the admirable work of the highly-trained teacher. But in the captain of industry, the man who directs the efforts of the unskilled labourer, skilled artisan, engineer, and chemist to the working out of great industrial schemes, another order of qualities is necessary. A comprehensive grasp of economic issues, the power to marshal and control the human forces of industry, the faculty of industrial strategy in face of hosts of competitors these characteristics the successful organiser and leader of industry must possess ; and these characteristics are not the product of the schoolmaster's art. To these qualities in the leaders of her industrial army Ameri owes her pr<> conspicuous are not all of them or even of her eletm nt;iry schools. In 6V6I} most successful employers of luliuur arc. t<> \>c found in from Kn, r land, Ireland, and Scotland, many of \vlin.vid.-d. In the, same school als native-born leader of industry in America receives his best education. T. A. 106 Ittosclp educational Commission. Report by Professor T. GREGORY FOSTER. In issuing invitations to join bis Educational Commission Mr. Mosely stated that his object in organising it was to investigate " the relations between education and commercial and industrial efficiency." From the nature of the arrangements, and still more from the personnel of the Commission, it was clear that he intended to tfive the widest possible interpretation to the words " commercial and industrial efficiency." Besides those whose work connected them more directly with commercial and industrial developments, the Commission included representatives of the humanities on the one side, and of professions not directly connected with commerce and industry, such as medicine, on the other. Thus it was made clear that the scope of the inquiry was not to be a narrow one. It was fortunate, indeed, that the Commission was thus left free and was not restricted in a narrow sense " to find out the educational causes and conditions which have contributed to the rapid indus- trial development of the United States." It would not have taken long to obtain the answer to that reference. Generally speaking, it may be said that the commercial and industrial efficiency on the one hand and the educational zeal and energy on the other are parallel movements, that neither is the cause of the other, but rather that both are the outcome of the same general awakening and the realisation of the possibilities of the country. They are inter-dependent ; if one is more dependent on the other than the other on the one, it is the educational zeal and enterprise that is dependent on commercial and industrial efficiency rather than vice versa. That the commercial and industrial efficiency of the country has led to the widespread belief in education to be found in varying degrees in every State of the Union there can be no doubt. "Without that widespread belief the remarkable zeal and enterprise which characterises the educational institutions of the States would be impossible ; for, except in the older Eastern States, the educational organisation of the country is dependent upon the willingness of the people to spend their own money upon it. The truth of this contention is all the more certain when we remember that the present free school system of the United States did not in any sense become prevalent until late in the seventh decade of the last century, that none of the institutions which are regarded to-day as of first-rate national importance dates in its present form further back than 1880, and that most of them are much more recent. For instance, even the comparatively old universities of Harvard and Yale are as different from the colleges bearing the same names of twenty and thirty years ago as they would have been if they had been entirely new institutions. It is equally true that the great universities of the Middle West States, whether in their external material appearance or in their curricula and spiritual aspects, would hardly be recognised by those who were associated with them between twenty and thirty years ago. The same thing is true, though not to so great a degree, of the great technical institutions, such as the Boston Institute of 107 Technology. It is to be remembered in this connection tha 1 University of \. promh amon^ r America!! institutions and mm by thousands, is only just eleven years old. \Vlien \vo turn from the uni institutions of h: education to the high schools, the truth of this view becomes more evident. The public hi^h school built and n '. witli public niuiiey, controlled and organised by the public > authority of the State or City, is, in a sense, but the growth of rday. In New York City, for example, ii \ ago that the Board of Education were < public money on high schools. The progress that has been made in that short time is evidence of the splendid conviction and zeal which the work has been undertaken, and also evidence that the people, as a whole, believe that the education being provid itutions is a thing to be desired, and, therefore, worth paying for. Educational legislation is a matter for each State and is not determined by the national Senate and Congress at Washington. Upon the local community lies the responsibility of educ its own people. The result of this is that educational institutions, ier elementary or higher, must be in close touch with the aims and ambitions of the community that they serve, or cannot be allowed to continue to exist. That this condition is in the long run beneficial in an equal degree to the teachers, to the people, and consequently to the institutions, I have no manner of doubt. While it often hampers and hinders the progress of the more advanced spirits, it obliges them to obtain the confidence of the people and forces them to make the foundations of their \vi.rk more sure than they probably would have been without this influence. The result is that the teachers are in touch with the I world of affairs to a degree that is quite unknown in Great Britain, j They have their eyes continually turned to the present and they use their knowledge of the past as a means of interpreting and illustrating the present. That this interpretation is sometimes of a superficial and misleading kind is probable, but of its beneficent effect on the life and methods of the teachers there can be no doubt. Perhaps the most noteworthy examples of it are to be found in the colleges and universities where specialism is prone to drive men into narrow grooves of life and though.t. Take him all round, the university professor and teacher of America is (to use a current American expression) a more " live being " than the university professor and teacher of the leading countries of Europe, and as a consequence his influence upon the lives of his students, and consequently upon the life of the community, is more direct. His attitude towards his students is that of a co-worker, not that of a dictator. He is free to be a co-worker because he is free to determine the nature and method of his courses, and he is equally free to decide the times and modes of testing and examining his students. This close relationship between teachers and people which is made necessary by the social and political conditions in the States is a civilising and educative force of extraordinary power. The teacher is bound to obtain the confidence of the people, and the people in their turn obtain a direct and living interest in things with which under other conditions they would not concern themselves. FOSTER.] 108 The truth of this is forcibly brought home in such States as Iowa and Wisconsin. These are mainly, indeed almost exclusively, agricultural States, yet each of them maintains an educational organisation comprising institutions of all kinds, ranging from elementary common schools through the various grades of school to technical and agricultural institutes, up to the State University. The Legislatures of these States, consisting for the most part of agricultural representatives, were at first slow to recognise the value ol the higher branches of education, and were accordingly unwilling to devote public money to them. Little by little the institutions for higher learning have won their way, and have convinced the farmers of the value of their work ; in the first instance, generally liy means of the direct appeal of producing results of obvious utility to the farmer, such as milk testing, methods of preventing and curing disease among cattle, methods of fruit growing, of stimulating, and controlling production. By these direct results the farmers have been led up to a thorough belief in the work of the higher institutions with the consequence that at the present time the applications to the Legislature for an increase in the university appropriations are listened to with interest, and only need to be well founded to meet with adequate response. What is even more striking is the extent to which the belief in the I value of higher education is spreading among people who had no ( opportunity of obtaining it for themselves. So much is this the case that they are prepared to make great sacrifices to give their sons and daughters the advantage of the opportunities that did not fall to their share. Universities and colleges are as a result the resort of rich and poor alike. The poor student who works his way through the university is esteemed and respected by his fellows, and the more so because, as I was informed, he is frequently to be found amongst the first in the graduating class of his year. Whilst, therefore, it may be taken for granted as a starting point, that the present educational methods and organisations of the States cannot be regarded as the cause of the industrial and commercial efficiency that so strikingly characterises them, it must be admitted that the young men and women who go out into the world from the various institutions in the States year by year are well prepared to meet the demands of modern conditions of production and distribu- / tion, because their training has been in touch with the realities of I life, and because it has been a training, not a process of informing \ and filling the mind with information. There is opportunity in abundance for the trained worker in America; there is little or no opportunity 'for the untrained, unskilled worker. The leading men of business in all the great cities that I visited, whether manufacturers or distributors, were agreed as to the value of the higher kinds of education for their employes ; in fact, they all stated that it was difficult to find enough well-trained young men to fill the posts that became vacant and the posts that they are continually obliged to create. One of the professors of mechanical engineering at the Boston Institute of Technology told me that without any effort on his part he had placed all the members of the graduating class of 1903, and could have placed many more, while at the University of Michigan I learnt that one firm had taken the whole graduating class and would have taken twice as many had they been available. The same thing is found in the educational 109 world, but there, unfortunately, the attractions for really \vdl- traincd men < in the eoinnicrcial world. The salaries nu\v ottered in the States to all ranks of from the universities down to the elementary schools inadequate, and unless something to remedy this, the power of education over the nation m 6. In hoth secondary and elementary schools "teacher" has almost become femi and in the newer universities large numbers of women are to be found among the teachers. \Vhile it is undoubtedly a good thing to have women teachers in the ranks of the profession, and while, as one parent put it, "it is better to have one's children taught by first- rate women than by fourth or fifth-rate men," it cannot be desirable, at least in the higher branches of education, that the number of women should predominate over the number of men. It cannot, for instance, contribute to tbe virility of a nation for a large number of its boys to be taught and guided almost entirely up to the age of 18 by women, as is the case in some of the States. Whether ndency is to continue in the States is to be determined by the amount of money that the nation is willing to spend. Whether the similar tendency which has already begun in Great Britain is to develop will be determined in exactly the same way. These general views, together with the more detailed statements below, are based upon my actual experiences in New York, Princeton, Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New Haven, Boston, Albany, Ann Arbor, Chicago, Lake Forest, Iowa, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Madison, Williamstown, Worcester, and New Jersey, which were visited in the order set out. My aim throughout will be to explain those points in American education, both in method and I organisation, which seem to me of special importance in the present I of English education ; in other words, to criticise the English , position rather by bringing out the strong points of the American than to criticise the American by pointing out its weaknesses. The objects I chiefly had in view were : (a) To investigate the organisation and methods of the higher development of general education, more especially in regard to English, history, modern languages and literatures. (b) To inquire into the methods of the training of teachers. (c) To learn something of the methods of organisation and administration, both in a general way and with regard to the relationship of the professional schools in the universities to the faculties and departments of pure science. A. The Universities, Colleges, and High Schools. rcrsities. To avoid misunderstanding, the terms universities, colleges, and high schools require explanation. In giving these explanations it must, however, be borne in mind that the history and conditions of the different States vary very widely, and, while there is active progress towards unification without uniformity in the educational institutions of America, the process has only just begun, and the full results have still to be realised. In general terms the conception of a university in America is that it should provide what is known as the general college course of four years for students between the ages of 18 and 22, by which time they should be ripe to take the bachelor's degree. It also provides graduate courses, which require advanced and research work, and Fosi: HO which may lead to master's and doctor's degrees. Not less necessary than these to the complete university is the provision of one or more professional schools, such as medicine, law, theology, engineering, and teaching. That is the ideal that guides the policy of the majority of the institutions that bear the name and rank of university. It is the ideal of the older Harvard and Yale, which not many years ago provided only a four years' course. It is also the ideal of the newer State universities like Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, and it is equally the ideal of the privately-founded and endowed universities of Cornell and Chicago. It should be noted in this connection that the Johns Hopkins and the Clark Universities were founded to a large extent on the model of the German universities, and were intended to do only graduate work. The Johns Hopkins Medical School which is the only professional school attached to that university admits only those who have gone through a general college undergraduate course of study, including subjects like chemistry, physics, and biology. Clark University has no professional schools in the ordinary sense of the word, but like Johns Hopkins is a training school in the methods of higher work and research, and is mainly resorted to by those who aim at college or university teaching as their life's work. It is, however, important to note that both these universities have instituted since their foundation collegiate departments for the purpose of doing undergraduate work. I ascertained that some of the professors at the Johns Hopkins regard this as a mistake, and contend that for the same man to attempt to carry on undergraduate and graduate teaching is like attempting to live in two hemispheres. On the other hand, it seems that the present distinguished president of Johns Hopkins, Professor Ira D. Remsen, and many of his colleagues, maintain that the existence of the two sides in the one organisation is a strength to each. The undergraduate side makes it possible to keep a larger staff than it would be if the graduate side existed alone. In this way young men are being continually brought into the service of the university, are given opportunities for higher work and research, and live in an atmosphere that tends towards such work. Further, it is admitted that while it may be desirable for some of the staff to be devoted entirely to graduate and research work, they find that the presence of the younger men and the contact that those engaged on research obtain through them with the promising undergraduate both increases their own zeal as investigators and adds to the number of graduate and research men who enter their departments. It is interesting also to note that the final decision to institute a collegiate department at Johns Hopkins was brought about by the pressure of public opinion. This again illustrates the point already referred to (the close contact betweeen the people and the universities), and it is interesting to note that the decision thus pressed upon the university by public opinion seems to be justified by experience, for during the short time that the collegiate depart- ment has existed evidence is to be found showing that it has strengthened the work that the university set itself specially to do. Clark University was from the outset different in character from Johns Hopkins. Its scope was more limited, there being only six departments, namely, chemistry, mathematics, physics, 1 1 1 [FOSTER. biology, psychology, anthropology. The work done in these departments in tho 14 yen: "n is i remarkable, and is a lasting monument of the energy and po- organising as well as of :itaining li, a full report of each of the dep , together with tho history of the development of the I of tho lectures delivered in connection with the celel, : and a list of the papers published by past and present n . felloWH, and . This list fills JOiJ < mt<-d double-column nal sacrifices, but there have always been men found ready to take them. There is in hoth cases, and especially in the case of Clark University, an almost pathetic interest in the struggles that had to be made for the ideal set forth. On the death of the founder of the Clark University (Mr. Jonas G. Clark), the ersity became possessed of a larger revenue. It also was obliged to develop a collegiate department. Mr. Clark left a sum of money for the foundation of such a department in con- nection with his university with the express stipulation that the course should be of three years' duration. By this means the length of the college course, which is one aspect of the question me between the colleges and the high schools on the one hand, and the universities on the other hand, takes a new and practical form. This point is referred to again in the next section. It must be remembered that in a country so new as Am there are many institutions calling themselves unive; that only bring discredit to the name, but the various States are dealing with these rapidly and firmly, and there is no doubt that the abuses that have been made much of in this country will soon disappear. Colleges. The colleges are distinctively American institutions, although modelled to a certain extent after the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge. They are the oldest institutions of higher learning in America, and they were founded in almost every case for the purpose of training men to serve God in Church and State. Like the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, theology, the classical humanities and mathematics were, until a few years ago, the chief subjects of their curricula. The curricula have lately been extended so as to include most of the branches of pure science and in a few cases some of the branches of applied science. The main work of the colleges still is to provide the four years' general course for the bachelor's degree which immediately follows the high school co Some of them have developed and others are developing graduate courses which lead to the master's degree. There is considerable uncertainty about the future of the colleges, more especially of the smaller ones. On the one hand, it is felt that as the high school course is developed the need for FOSTER.] 112 the college course of four years will gradually disappear. On the other hand, it is felt that the great universities will provide in their collegiate departments the parts of the general course that the high school of the future will not be able to provide, so that between the high schools and universities the raison d'&trc of the colleges will cease to be. The supporters of the colleges are very many and strong, among them being many of the leading men of America of to-day who were educated at these colleges. They contend that the character-moulding and character-building that have been amongst the leading features of the colleges, and especially of the smaller ones, can never be effected either by the high schools or by the large universities. An especially interesting point in regard to this is that the issue is being fully and freely faced on both sides, and the subject is being discussed by various educational agencies with a calmness that augurs well for the solution of the difficulty. Princeton University, which is sometimes called an overgrown college, is an interesting example of the influence that the large universities have had upon an institution that still clings to a large extent to the old college traditions and ideals. The work and aims of Princeton are still mainly centred in the college course, but humanities are strong there, and the careful organisation of the graduate school under Dean West promises to lead to the produc- tion of much valuable research work in the ancient and modern languages and literatures. But Princeton is at the crossways with regard to the professional schools. She will have to make up her mind one way or the other within a short period. High Schools. It has already been said that the public high school is a comparatively recent development in America. As in this country so also in the States, secondary education was until relatively recent times provided by private enterprise. In the New England States it was provided by institutions known as academies, where fees were high and education seems to have been as various in its quality as it is in this country. During the last twenty or thirty years the public high school has been gradually developed. It was in the first instance a mere expansion of the elementary grammar school, and was instituted undoubtedly with the view of continuing to a higher stage the education of those children whose parents were able to leave them at school after the age of 14. In the course of time the public high school has tended to supplant the older academy, and has become, except in the older States of the East, the regular place of education for the children of both sexes. Its curriculum occupies four years, and is so arranged as to fit on to the curriculum of the elementary and grammar grades. This is one of the weakest points in the educational ladder that has been constructed in the States. The new public educational authorities of England in organising secondary education will do well to consider carefully how the transition from the elementary to the secondary is to be made. In America where, taking the country as a whole, the children of the rich and poor go to the same elementary school, where the son of the President may be seen side by side with the son of the President's coachman or greengrocer, it is deemed invidious, say, at the age of twelve, to differentiate the education of the boy who will go on to the high school from that of the child whose education will be limited to that of the elementary and grammar school. Moreover, I was told that it was not only 113 ^TLU. invidious, but it was impossible to do this with any satisfaction, as in many cases tho teacher c.-imiot obtain information as to tin: length of tin; duration of a child's school period. Th- doubt that this diiliculty leads to a loss of time, ;is children do not hegin the more difficult and testing subjects that belong to a secondary curriculum until they are fourteen. It leads also to failures that would not occur if the ago of beginning these more difficult subjects were earlier. In the opinion of several members of the Comn. who were especially concerned with secondary education, it was estimated that a loss of at least two years was made it This opinion I can endorse from what I saw in the lower classes of the high schools. Another characteristic of the high school in A: s co- education. Hoys and girls go through the dum, are taught by the same teachers, and sit side by side in the same class- rooms throughout their school careers in nearly all the public high schools. The advantages and disadvantages of tin seem to have been fully discussed and anxiously considered. It is a matter upon which it is practically impossible for the occasional visitor to come to any conclusion that is worth having. I think, however, that one general observation which I believe was made by many of the Commissioners is worth recording, namely, that tho relations of boys and girls in and out of school, of men and women students in the universities, as well as of men and women in the everyday walks of life, appeared to be more natural than in this country. There seemed, for example, to be no difficulty in business houses or in the administrative offices of colleges and universities in having mixed staffs, men and women working side by side without any of the hindrances to work that are heard of over here. That the testimony of the business men on this point was unanimous is shown by the fact that they regarded any question with regard to it with surprise. Among teachers the aspect of the that seemed to be. in doubt was in regard to the influence of the mixture of the sexes on the standard of the work done. Several of the most able teachers with whom I discussed the matter were inclined to take the view that the presence of the girls tended to mal general tone of the work of the class less strenuous than it would have been had there been only boys therein. I cannot say that this impression was confirmed by any experience that fell to me. The work in the schools restricted to boys in Boston and in Lawrence- ville appeared to be on the whole inferior in earnestness and in standard to that in the mixed high schools. The mixed high school has had an important influence in determining the sex of the teache iie schools restricted to boys, both public and private, women teachers are rarely to be found, but in the high schools the women in most cases in the Middle West predominate in numbers, while in the East their number is steadily increasing. The employment of women to the exclusion of men in the public schools is mainly a question of finance, but the demand for men's labour in the industrial and commercial world is also largely responsible for it. From these general explanatory notes on the universities, colleges, and high schools, I pass to the consideration of some detailed characteristics. FOSTER.] 114 A 1. The Curricula of Universities and Colleges. From being originally restricted and rigid the curricula of the colleges and universities have become free and flexible. This great change has been taking place for the last twenty or thirty years, but has been especially rapid in the last ten. Harvard under the influence of its powerful president, Professor Charles B. Eliot, has adopted the "elective system," in which English is the only compulsory subject for the undergraduate course. The other universities and many of the colleges have followed the lead of Harvard, either wholly or partially, many of them adopting the modified elective system which was instituted by Johns Hopkins University in the undergraduate school of that university, and which will now be explained. There are various groups of study, each one having a predominating characteristic, such as classical, historical, linguistic and literary (both ancient and modern), and scientific. ' The main lines of study in each such group are pre- scribed. The student chooses his group and has certain elections within the group. In making these elections he must, at almost all universities, take the advice of the proper professors, and his course must be approved. In the same way, at those universities at which the Harvard system of election has been adopted, the student is prevented in almost all cases from taking as his course a mere collection of odds and ends by the necessity of obtaining the approval of the Dean of the Faculty to that course. Thus the course of study is the fundamental thing. Graduation is a slow process spread over the whole course of study. It is, as its name implies, a series of steps ; these steps are in the American University taken day by day and week by week, and failure in the daily work means either withdrawal from the university or repeti- tion of the work failed in. The course is regarded as a unit, progress in the latter parts being impossible unless the earlier parts have been well and thoroughly learned. The professors and teachers of the universities and colleges con- ceive that their main function is to direct and guide the studies of their students, and not merely to give them formal lectures. The number of formal lectures now given is very small, and the tendency is for them to diminish. Such formal lectures as are given are followed a few days after by what are known as " quizzes." These are conversation classes, in which the professor or one of his assistants converses and discusses with the students the main points of the lecture and of the reading that ought to have been done in connection with the lecture and the difficulties that the students have found. From time to time, within the discretion of the lecturer, and differing according to the need of the subject, written work is set and is carefully gone over in most cases with each of the students. This system, which is becoming the general one, results, when really well worked, in the most perfect control of the student's work, in uniting what have been called in this country the professorial and tutorial systems, and in bringing about fruitful co-operation, between the students and teachers, both senior and junior, of each department concerned. In order to carry this out each department must have a large staff consisting of several professors, one of whom acts as the director or head of the depart- ment, of associates or, as we call them, assistant professors, of lecturers and tutors. The presence of a large staff makes it possible to 1 10 divide the work in a productiv r. Some members ii: devoted entirely t. ork, others prefer to do bot.li graduate and ui: iato worl an devote themselves entirely ! /graduate. 'I kinds of teachers seems to g' ; ty to tho institutions. In practice . thirds of its strength engaged in advanced work ;u oof doing it, while, tin: remaining third la not so engaged, and is not in many cases capable of undertaking it. The Ainenc ; trcatin \t of learning as a whole instead of having, as in England, a number of iors attached to different institutions, c Mg an institu- tional department of his own, is able to organise and develop tho ing much more fully, anil without the strain that inevitably bs from the separate collegiate system, v tutorial, as in our older universities, or professorial, as in some of tho newer. li department is in this way an organic whole. Each teacher has the opportunity of doing that particular piece of work for which he is most suited, though he is not necessarily restricted to one piece. Thus to take the teaching of mathematics, which is with us often a 1 question. Owing to its importance almost every under- late student takes at some time in his career a course of mathematics. By special division of the work among the members of the mathematical staff, the universities are able to ensure that each group of students gets the kind of mathematical teaching that is most suitable to his requirements. For example, one or two members of the staff will be entrusted with the teaching of mathe- matics to engineering students, but will not necessarily be restricted to teaching those students. These teachers are kept in touch through their colleagues with the larger general aspects of mathematical teaching, even though the immediate work that they have in hand may be of a restricted character. The same thing applies to all the departments to a greater or lesser extent according as the staff of the department is large or small. The importance of this unity of departmental organisation in the university is as great for the teacher as for the taught. colleagues exercise a modifying influence on the teacher who is inclined to cranks and fads, both in his teaching and in his examining, and by constant intercourse the work of all the members of the department becomes unified without being uniform. With such an organisation as this the presence of an outside examiner as a means of maintaining the standard is unnecessary, even where the departmental staff is a comparatively small one. it is a fundamental principle in American universities that the man who is fit to teach is also to be trusted to examine his own students. The external examiner and the external examination system is practically unknown in the United States. The teachers are free, and being free they are enabled to give to their courses a breadth and depth that would be impossible were they hampered by the knowledge that their students were to be tested by examiners who knew little or nothing of them. The tests and examinations for undergraduate students leading to the bachelors' degrees are conducted almost entirely by the individual teachers, and with the most satisfactory results. There may be abuses from time to time by individual teachers, but, as far FOSTER.] 116 as I was able to discover, the evils resulting from such occasional abuses are less great and certainly less widespread than the evils of the examination systems of the British universities. In the univer- sities of the States there seemed to be an atmosphere of quiet study and scholarly work which is apparently continuous throughout the session, and remains undisturbed by feverish bursts of cramming such as characterise British colleges and universities. The American system requires elaborate daily care and the guiding, watching, and recording of students' progress, but that care probably does not involve a greater expenditure of energy than the organisation of the unwieldly examination system of this country. Moreover, as it is spread over a large period it cannot involve the terrible weariness that is brought about by the British system. From the point of view of the student, I have no hesitation in saving that the result is far better. When the American scheme is well carried out it ensures continuous and steady work. It makes " slacking" impossible, and thus prevents waste of time during some of the most critical and valuable years of a young man's life. The influence on the teacher is no less salutary ; the American teacher thinks of his functions as a teacher and director of studies, while the British teacher is driven by force of circumstances to con- ceive and direct his work entirely in terms of examination. As long as examinations control the teaching, whether in universities or schools in this country, so long will the teaching continue to be academic in the worst sense of the (word, cribbed, cabined, and confined. From what I saw in America I am convinced that in the free system of teaching that exists there, even the weak teacher gives stronger guidance to his pupils and produces better educational results than he does here. The reason of this is obvious when we consider that in the American system the teacher is judged by the standard that he makes for himself, while with us the teacher has a standard imposed upon him by the external examining body, which is almost inevitably a standard that tests whether the pupils have obtained the information to be found in certain prescribed books. For the English teacher with a prescribed amount of work to be got through in a certain time, whether such work is suited to the ability of the class or to the teacher's powers, life is a continual rush. There is no time to deal in educational fashion with the mistakes of his pupils ; they are simply told that they are wrong and one of the others is set to put them right. For the American teacher life is in comparison a leisurely one. He makes as much if not more educational value out of the blunders of his weaker pupils as out of the correct answers of the stronger ones. He cares for the development of his class as a whole, and not mainly for that of those who will do him the most credit in answering the questions of an outsider. The degree to which examination by external bodies or examiners is regarded as baneful both to the pupil and for educational organisation is shown by the fact that it only exists for the purposes of professional qualifications in certain States and for the purposes of admission to universities and colleges in certain other States. Even where it exists the evils that have been BO strongly felt in this country have been largely guarded against. Thus, an examination board has been formed by the Association of 1 17 Colleges and Preparatory (i.e., preparatory for the colleges and universities) Schools of the Middl< viand for the purpose of instituting a common standard for admission to the colleges belonging to the association and of holding oneexami;; for tlie purpose of that admission. Great care h Q that the examiners in each caso shall he. teachers, and inasmuch as the examination for admission to < the test of the work done in tho preparatory school, ft large proportion of the examiners consist of masters who have been teaching in one or other preparatory schools. The | t by this examination board seem to mo on the whole admirable and well calculated to stimulate good teaching. "While this has been dene in the East in order to obviate a multiplicity of examinations, and in order to remove the difliculties that beset the old-fashioned matriculation examination which was mainly conducted by college or university profe in tho Middle West an even more significant plan, known as the "accrediting" system, has been originated, and tins system is rapidly spreading into the East. The accrediting system seems to have originated at the State University of Michigan, and to bo largely due to the wisdom and foresight of President Angel. Tho old matriculation examination was not only found to be an unsatisfactory test of the pupils, but was found to bo an actual bar to any satisfactory relations between the universities and colleges and the schools. The University of Michigan determined, ti fore, to institute a list of high schools, to be known as "accredited schools," from which school pupils who presented certificates of having satisfactorily passed the full four years' high school course would be received without examination into the university. One of the university professors of education has for his main function the visitation of schools with a view of testing their fitness to be placed on the accredited list. He is from time to time assisted by his professorial colleagues who inspect the schools from the point of view of their special subjects. Schools that are found satis- factory in all respects are placed on the accredited list ; others have their deficiencies pointed out to them, and are told that when these are remedied they, too, will be put on the list. When a school has been placed on the list it is still subject to inspection. It receives a report from the university upon each student that it sends thereto at the end of his first session or first semester, as the case may be. The university reserves to itself the right to refuse a student who is found to be insufficiently prepared to go on with his studies, and also the right to withdraw from the accredited list the name of any school that is proved by the pupils that it sends up to have an unsatisfactory standard. The result of this is that in the States where it has been adopted the whole educational system has been unified and strengthened. The university is looked up to as a counsellor and friend of the schools ; the university teachers learn much by continued inter- course with their scholastic colleagues and vice versd. In this way the barriers that exist in many countries between the various grades of teachers are rapidly being removed, and what is even more important the teaching of all classes of teachers is thereby made more direct, more stimulating and attractive to the students. Here and there I met teachers who disliked the accrediting system and preferred the old examination system, but FOSTER.] US the vast majority were strongly in favour of the former. The view of the majority was that no system that had been, or as far as they could see, could ever be devised, would ensure that all the students entering a given class in a given year at the university would all approximately start with the same amount of training and learning. At the same time the accrediting system, as against the older system, leaves the teacher and the taught free, and thereby stimulates better training. So strong is the feeling in favour of this system in the Middle West that even entrance scholarships to the colleges and universities are awarded by it. The entrance scholarships are allotted among the accredited schools, each school taking its turn and receiving as nearly as possible the number of scholarships proportioned to its own number of pupils and to the number who proceed from the school to the university. The evidence given by President Harper in favour of the system was very striking. He said that when he left Yale to go to Chicago he was opposed to the accrediting system, but that experience in the Middle West had led him to change his opinion, and that now he is a firm believer in it. In order further to extend the system and to prevent needless repetition of work the State universities of the Middle West propose to draw up a list of the schools that can be accredited by all of them. The standard for this joint list is to be somewhat higher than the standard adopted by the universities singly for their several lists. As I have already said, this system is gaining favour in the East, and with the exception of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia universities it has, I understand, been adopted more or less by all the Eastern colleges and universities. This evidence of the value of a course of study of fixed duration carefully graded and carefully watched at every turn is a signal triumph as compared with the sort of racehorse , method that turns our schools into training grounds for the examina- 'tion race that occupies a few days at the end of a boy's school career, and upon which his future is made to depend to an alarming extent. It is perhaps one of the most noteworthy contributions of America to educational progress. Its adoption indicates that America at all events realises that education is a slow process which must be spread over certain fixed periods of time, that there are no short cuts, that even though the boy may have acquired the requisite information to answer the questions of an outside examiner, it does not follow that he has been satisfactorily educated to the standard that that examination is supposed to represent. It is only another instance of the responsibility and consequently of the dignity that is cast upon the teacher. To dignify the teaching profession is a certain way of making it strong. To deprive it of dignity by showing lack of trust in it by all sorts of rules and regulations and by outside restrictions and examinations is a sure way to degrade it, and so to diminish its influence for good in the State. It was delightful to find how keenly the teacher realises the value of this dignity that results from freedom. This feeling was most strikingly expressed at a meeting of elementary teachers in Chicago which I attended, and which was called for the purpose of considering a series of detailed schedules for the subjects of the elementary and grammar school grades. With the exception of one or two teachers who were willing and anxious to have any kind of a sclvdul>- " if only th.-y wen- provi ' as to what fcl Vo'.lld 1;" spirit of determin I . iual initiative to tho work of uni. the value of which it is impossible to e . It ;g with it a true spirit of ivsi-arch, and | :,it spirit run ;h :ill stages of education. There is nothing that for th -ica th:ui th-- vhieli all clas^< : to have gra-'-ped the id. -a th.it resoarc that should he :idopi-d from the earliest stage of M, as to tho method of merely imparting informal, ..M. If Ann-ricaM 'intain this vi"\v the output of original from tlie uni\ vhich is already signil;. 'it, withi. next Lch a very remarkahie standard, especially . iy of the universities are ah iing largely on libraries, on expeditions and explorations, on laboratories for the sole purpose of promoting original research. \Vhen we turn from these general considerations to the con- ition of the teaching of the individual subjects, the val i-eedom becomes even clearer. I propose to deal brielly with the teaching of a few of the subjects to which I gave special attention. A 2. 'The Teaching of Certain Subjects. ilish. There is a growing conviction that for the purposes of culture, as well as for the general purposes of literary and linguistic training, the heart and centre of the education of an American child is to be the English language and literature. This view has been most ably maintained for many years by President George Mac Lean, of Iowa University, and is being admirably worked out by his able staff. What the classical languages of Greece and i were in former times in English education the English literature and language is becoming in American schools and universities. Each of the universities places in the forefront of its entrance requirements a sufficient and satisfactory course in the language and literature, the time given to such course varying three to five hours a week throughout the four years of the high school. The main tests that are given in the progress of the course and after it are those that test the powers of writing English >osition. Compositions on themes selected by the pupil, com- positions on the themes suggested by bocks read in the progress of tho course representing different methods of expression, such as the descriptive, the narrative, the expository, the persuasive, the argumentative, are set at frequent intervals. For all the u: ntsat the universities English is a compulsory subject in the freshmen (first) and sophomore (second) years. In many universities there are five recitations a week, and almost as many written themes, and the results that are being produced are most striking and inter The object aimed at is to enable every ut to express his thoughts and opinions in a clear and intelligible fashion. The object is not to turn them all into men of s, " for men of letters," as a distinguished American professor said to me, " are made by other processes." Fosi: 120 The need for such teaching of English composition is probably greater in the States than in this country, owing to the continual immigration of non-English speaking people. In view of the difficulties that must be caused by the presence of a large number of students whose native language is not English, the results of the present system of teaching English composition are eminently satis- factory, and will tend to become more so as the number of teachers trained for the purpose increases. In the English literature work in universities, colleges, and high schools, while less detailed information is possessed by the students than by English students, there was a stronger grasp and knowledge of the literary subject matter and a fuller appreciation of literary form and of great principles than is usually found in England. In other words, English literature is a humanity, in the large sense of the word, in American institutions. It is possible for it to be so, because those institutions are free from the restrictions imposed by examination papers requiring cut and dried answers. The best things that are to be got .from the study of any literature cannot be tested by written examinations, and least of all by examinations conducted by those who have not taught the person examined. Modern Languages and Literatures. Much that has been said with regard to the teaching of English literature applies with equal force to the teaching of modern literatures. In most of the American [institutions there seemed to me to be a fuller appreciation of the iliteratures of France and Germany as humanities than in this country. As in English so also in these subjects that appreciation was kindled and helped by the use of books, pictures, and illustrations which were often to be found upon the walls of the appropriate class-rooms. I was struck on several occasions by the understanding that both teacher and taught had of the meaning of France and Germany in the periods of history or literature of which they were speaking. For example, a class in a high school in New York that I visited knew not only in an accurate way the main facts of the French Kevolutioh, but was also able to discuss in a most striking manner the meaning and influence of that great movement on European and American politics. They knew,, too, something of the literary aspects of the Kevolution. It was clear that their teacher got them to think on the matter and had directed them to read such books as were suitable to their age. The same class, it must be admitted, was, from our point of view, woefully ignorant of the niceties of ! French grammer, some of the pupils failing even in the conjugation of the verb " avoir." This experience proved to be typical of the Trench and German training in America. At the universities a large amount of work is done in modern languages, and it is of a most varied character. There are classes, for instance, in some universities for the special benefit of science students ; there are others where students who are interested solely in the modern forms of these languages can get full and complete literary courses; there are others in which the earlier periods of the languages and literatures are treated in a scholarly fashion. Most of the men who conduct the courses in mediaeval languages and literatures have been trained in Germany. It is noteworthy, however, that most of them are careful to avoid a narrow philological treatment of their subject, and while they study minutely the language and form of mediaeval works, they do Ul not forget to liandlo and point out the spirit of them. All the other principal mod 1 .ire studied at one or other of the uni . (6 on an ial footing with the other subjects. Tin; number of students ting them '<> depend somewhat upon th-- nature of the Dilation of tin- district that is mainly ;- and to son 10 extent upon the trend of politic at Iowa, when- : t considerable population origin, there is a largo number of students of the N most ably d ny Professor I'lom, while at Yale .in .v of tha conditions in South America and of th recent > wur, a 1 , rracts a considerable number of students, v.ho work under of one of the most distinguished romance scholars of . The heart and centre of the history teaching of America, but by the careful grading of the work in the hi^'h schools, and by the wealth of teaching in this subject in the colleges and universities, the student is enabled to get direction for \vork in almost all branches of history. Here, again, as in the teaching of literature, the methods seem to result in giving to the pupils a truer insight, a wider and larger grasp of historical movements than the methods used in this country. The knowledge of details and of minutue is undoubtedly less exact. Everything that can be done to make the teaching realistic and vivid in the form of models, pictures, diagrams, maps, and charts seems to be done in the best-equipped schools, colleges, and universities. In those that are not so equipped the belief in the realistic and vivid methods is just as real, though the means to carry it out are not at their disposal. Among the various branches of history that known as "civics" receives perhaps the most careful and detailed attention. It is practically the history of the present time. In each State children are taught the history of the constitution of their State. They are le to understand the prevailing methods of government, and to realise the important part that each of them may play in that government. In every State alike great care is taken that the government of the nation shall be understood and realised, and the opportunities of anyone, however poor and lowly, for obtaining a place in that government are emphasised and illustrated from the lives of the great men of the past. It is by these means, and by a ful explanation of the symbolism of the ever-present flag, that they succeed in making into thoroughly good and loyal Americans the most heterogeneous population. This subject of civics in its higher developments is represented by political science, which is most carefully encouraged in all the universities. They are all busy working at their own special problems, and by this means they knit themselves into the com- munities to which they belong. The activity of the universities of the Middle West in this respect is very striking. I was specially interested in the organisation and development of the department of political economy at the University of Wisconsin, at Madison, under Professor Ely. From that department a large amount of valuable work has already been turned out. Psyclwlogy. Another subject upon which large sums of money for equipment are being spent is that of psychology, both in itg experimental and theoretical aspects. Almost all the universities FOST: have carefully-constructed psychological laboratories for the purpose of making minute observations and measurements of psychological phenomena. Professor Tichener, who failed to find means to carry on his work in this country, left England and became the head of the department at the Cornell University, where he has promoted great and important work. President Stanley Hall has given by his researches at the Clark University to the subject a renown and distinction that it did not before possess, while others, like the Professors at Iowa and at Brynmawr College, are conducting important researches in this field. There can be no doubt that for physiologist and for teacher alike the subject is of great importance, but it can only be furthered by men who devote themselves solely to it ; it must not be regarded as a off-shoot of physiology, or a subject that can be dealt with in his spare hours by the professor of philosophy. It is also a subject that in a very special sense requires endow- ment, for the number of students that can profitably take it up as a subject of investigation is necessarily small, though the number to whom that investigation will be useful is certainly large. The subject has been neglected in this country, and even where a professorship and lectureship or readership has been established it is insufficiently endowed and equipped. B. The Training of TeacJiers. As in England so in America, there is no educational subject that leads to greater diversity of opinion than the training of teachers. It is a subject that has many aspects owing to the very various grades and kinds of teaching that are required. The training of the elementary teacher and the grammar grade teacher, of the high school teacher and of the university teacher, must each be so different that it is well nigh impossible to find anything more than the broadest generalities in common to them all. The fundamental 1 conception upon which all teachers are agreed in theory, however divergent their practice, is that every teacher, whatever kind of teaching he may be going to do, should be thoroughly trained and disciplined himself in all those things that belong to a general education before he begins his training ; in other words, that the training of the teacher should occupy the same place in relation to his general education as the training for any other profession. This ideal is being deliberately urged in many of the United States. In some, perhaps, it has hardly yet been conceived, but the existence of it in the others is certain to have its influence. In the more advanced States the conditions of admission to the normal schools require students to have been at least two years in a high school ; that is to say, that the student must be 16 years of age before he begins his training course. The high school is expected to give sufficient general education to those who are about to take up elementary or grammar grade teaching. The normal school gives them their professional training in a course of at least two years. I do not propose to deal with the work in the normal schools, because other members of the Commission made a more detailed study of them than I did. The institutions for training to which I gave special attention were the Teachers' College, with its observation school (Horace Mann), and its 123 [FOSTKK. practising school (Speyer School), under the direction of Dean Eussell, in connection with Columbia University, the School of Education at Chicago, under the direction of Professor Dewey, and the departments of education at Harvard and at the several State universities of the Middle West. These institutions are resorted to by those elementary teachers only who are ambitious enough or who have reasonable expectations of becoming superintendents of schools, by thos> desire to become secondary -, by qualified secondary and by those who look to educational administration as their life work. The most elaborate of these institutions are the two iir^t named. It \- r difficult to appreciate and estimate the value of the y School at Chicago, as it had only just moved into its new and beautiful buildings, so that what I have to say will in the main be drawn from my experience at the Teachers' College in New Ydrk, which is in many ways the pioneer institution, and in the complete- ness of its equipment is certainly unique. It stands just outside the campus of Columbia University, with the Horace Mann School immediately to the west, a fine pile of buildings, as also is the hostel for women students on the east and its practising school a few blocks to the north. To some extent it has a separate staff of its own, but nothing that is to be found in Columbia University is duplicated at Teachers' College. The undergraduates receive the larger part of their undergraduate course within the walls of Columbia University. The work they do at the Teachers' College in pedagogy, in practice and kindred subjects forms part of their four years' course for the degree. Thus a student who aims at being a secondary teacher gets in his undergraduate course some preparation for his work in life. He is not required to take a full undergraduate course with pedagogy and allied work as additional. At the completion of his undergraduate course the student may obtain a special diploma for teaching certain subjects by taking a course in those subjects from the teachers' point of view. In this way the Teachers' College at Columbia trains a large number of high school teachers, sending them out ready to teach the special subjects in which they are interested. It also does a large amount of graduate work. The men and women in the graduate class come from all parts of the States, as well as from other countries (there was one student from Oxford), and there they obtain the training that fits them to be superintendents, whether of elementary or of high schools, head-masters of high schools, and administrative officials. The organisation is very comprehensive, and its results seem to be very satisfactory. Among the undergraduates were students who had resigned good positions to come to the college in order to fit themselves more adequately for some higher office. There was an atmosphere of noble energy and zeal throughout the institution. The Graduate Club afforded me one of the pleasantest evenings I spent in America, and from it I learnt much as to the spirit of the institution. As far as I could gather, the scheme of work at Chicago, though different in detail, is much, the same in its main outlines. The relation of its course to the university seems less clearly defined. By these means it casts its net somewhat wider than the Columbia College, and seemed to include among its students a considerable number of those who are preparing to take FOSTER.] I- 4 up elementary toac-ling. At the other universities to which I have referred, the department of education is more completely an integral part of the university than at Columbia or Chicago, and is organised like the rest of the university departments. "SYhile good work and substantial progress is being made at these universities, it is clear that the work of training, especially that of training to teach certain defined subjects, cannot be altogether met by the ordinary university staff who teach these subjects. But while many in America are willing (and where they are not willing are obliged), as they are in this country, to accept the university degree as an indication of the power to teach, there is, on the other hand, a growing number that believes in the importance of training. In the old and somewhat conservative State of Massachusetts, the training department met for some time with little favour. There were few schools that were willing to be used either as observation or practice f chools, but now the number is steadily increasing and eome that apply are not worthy. In the State universities of Michigan, "Wisconsin, and Minnesota the would-be secondary teacher can include his training in his under-graduate course, and can emerge with the bachelor's degree, together with a diploma entitling him to teach the subjects of his course for two years in the public schools subject to good conduct. These universities are all agreed that this is not quite enough, but it is as much as they could ask for and get at the present time ; they are prepai-ed to ask more when opportunity occurs. The men who fill the lower grades among the university teachers are expected to have gone through some such course of training as the candidates for high school teacherships, while those who look to university professorships have generally been abroad, more often than not to Germany, where they have taken their doctor's degree, or to one or other of the universities at home which are distinguished as research schools, the two most prominent of these being the Johns Hopkins and the Clark Universities. The important fact brought home to one by all this is that very large numbers of those in authority in America have recognised the need for the professional training of teachers of all grades, and that active steps are being taken to provide the training that is deemed necessary. In this way and in others already alluded to, it will be seen that the teaching profession in America is rapidly acquiring a dignity and force that must make it a great national power. C. Methods of Organisation and Administration. There is nothing in which Amei'icans seem to excel more than in general methods of organisation and administration, especially when they have to be applied on a large scale. The constitution of educational government is on the same general lines as that of the national government. The State, or city department of education, the universities, colleges, or high schools, all alike are controlled to an extraordinary degree by the president or director, the theory being that the strong government of one carefully selected man is superior to the best possible government of committees. The director or president has, of course, to refer continually to his board, his regents, or trustees, as the case may be, and, in a sense, to take his instructions from them. In practice, however, he is the guiding and determining spirit of -his organisation. Although here and Vl~> [FOSTEU. then- dissatisfaction wa chief oflir.er, on the win vork well. At most of the universities ami colleges th( ,in^ tendency for the be a-lvic> his professorial coll- in making apj >r other pus-poses, hut only at tin: Vale I ,ity. The >>rt of or^ led to ti .-nts, the ilep.ii-:'ii.-ntal header chi.-i being direotly responsible tin the president for the organisation and well-bring of his own de The power or value of the departmental organisation at the universities a:i,-r years as they reassemble at the university to jjive of their greater wealth for omotion of the welfare of their Alma. Mater. There are many si^ns of this kind that give evidence of a . n the otion of which, it seems to me, the, linger universities are not lagging behind the smaller colleges. All professors and students : ually keen about this. It is manifested in many other ways than tho, mentioned. For instance, at almost all the universities, whether State or otherwise, it is the custom to begin the day with an assembly, at which a hymn is sung, a passage from the Bible is read, and the Lord's Prayer is said or chanted. These exei over, the president or dean, or whoever is presiding, takes advantage of the opportunity to announce matters of general university interest and to speak of matters of general concern. This simple devotional service and the general meeting together is highly valued by students and teachers, and is an interesting evidence of the freedom of the States from sectarian jealousy. The attendance at these functions is, of course, in all the State universities quite voluntary, but as far as I could ascertain it is usually good. It seems that the assembly at Yale was for some reason or other discontinued and was resumed by the express desire of the students. In conclusion, I may remark that the educational organisations of the United States are practically in their infancy. That they are already doing a great work for the country there can be no doubt ; that they possess many of the defects of youth there can ly he no doubt; that they also possess characteristics, of jth I have already shown. Among these character! sties those which specially augur well for the future are the freedom of the teacher and the taught a freedom which makes it \> try experiments, and while it allows the man who is better - for doing so to stick to the beaten path, yet enables the daring explorer to find his opportunity. These tiling, combined with the great hopefulness that naturally possesses a people living in a vast country, the resources of which have only just begun to be developed, make the possibilities of the nation almost limitless. T. GREGORY IV 130 inoscip Educational Commission. Report of Mr. W. C. FLETCHER. The object set before the Commission was to inquire into American education generally, its extent, nature and quality, and the attitude of the people towards it ; in particular its effect upon industrial progress. As I had not the knowledge or experience necessary to form* opinions as to the conduct of industrial concerns, nor even as to the merits and demerits of technical schools, I left this part of the inquiry chiefly to others. While, therefore, I took every opportunity of consulting my fellow Commissioners about these things, and of conversing whenever possible with employers and practical men, I confined myself mainly to what seemed my own proper business inquiry into the secondary schools with special regard to their connections with primary schools and universities, and with the demands of practical life. I came to the following general conclusions : 1. Education of all sorts, but especially higher education, is much more widely appreciated in America than in England, by employers, by parents, and by students themselves. 2. It is, in its higher forms, much more widely spread than with us, and both high schools and universities are growing with a rapidity of which we have as yet no experience, and hardly even the hope. 3. The quality of the work (in the schools) is distinctly mediocre. In some respects probably the average work is better than ours, but I saw little or none that an English examiner or inspector would call good. On the other hand, the discipline and general tone of the schools is excellent. 4. Education is not hitherto the cause of American success. Material and educational progress alike arise from the conditions of the country and the spirit of the people. In some directions no doubt education has already accelerated progress, and in the near future it will probably become relatively more important in this respect. 5. America has realised more widely than we have done that educational short-cuts are a failure. There is a widespread belief in a prolonged course of general study previous to specialised technical work. 6. Educational progress on a large scale is dependent on public support and control of all grades of schools. With these and with some subordinate points I proceed to deal in detail. 1. The evidence of appreciation of education is partly direct, partly indirect. In any country it is possible to find many persons professing to believe in education, others disbelieving. America is no exception. Probably to every profession of the sort quoted on the one side, a counter quotation could be made on the other. Nevertheless, unless those with whom we came in contact were exceptional members of American society, the balance of opinion is I very decidedly much more in favour of education than it is with us, ami much monj in favour of it than it was in the same country twenty years B in engine. fin;,' there seems no question about the matter. I quote the Iron .! liim because of his familiarity with their bu^me or with any ! of their transactions; neither do they want him for the smattering of knowledge he may h'j ahle to devote to their int- They take him solely for the training lie lia^ rou^'h and not for the wisdom that may he stitched in the lining of The consulting engineer of the Rapid Transit Kaih< missioncrs lit" k gives in his report for the. year I the following figures as to his si 'RO -ling* Train. <1. Chief Kngineer 1 100 Deputy 1 100 Division Engineers 5 2 71 aistant Engineers 93 10 Rodmen 33 12 73 men 11 19 37 The Pennsylvania Railroad, I was told, will take none but college men. The manager of the Deer Plough Works takes two college men yearly, in the expectation that at least one of the two will show the adaptability, judgment, and powers of. command that he requires. The same firm will not take boys in the office unless they are at high school graduates. The manager of a great retail store who engages a large number of employes told me that he looked chiefly for boys with bright faces and good mothers. High school graduates of 18 and 19 as well as elementary school boys of 14 he engaged largely ; the former he expected to do much more than the latter. College graduates he was only too glad to get when he coald though, he added, it often took a few years to knock the conceit out of them but found it difficult to get many of them against the competition of wholesale concerns. I give these only as illustrations my fellow Commissioners will have given many others of that which cannot exactly be proved, but which seemed to us all to be the case, that education and high education, whether specialised or not is increasingly valued and demanded in the industrial world. The indirect evidence is far stronger and more unquestionable, i It consists in the remarkable increase of attendance at high ' schools and colleges. This involves a willingness to submit to taxation, not merely for elementary schools as in England, but even for high schools and universities. It further involves a willingness on the part of parents and of young people themselves to defer wage earning to a period much later than is common with us. A readiness also on the part of employers to engage boys of 18 and 19 or young men of 22 and 23 even in some cases of 26 and 27 a marked contrast to the feeling still strong in England that unless a boy begins work by 16 or 17 at the latest he will be of no use. This fact, with its implications being so important and coming again and again under my own observation, I will go into some particulars. FLETCHER.] 132 Attendance at Sccoiidary ScJwols. We have as yet no very reliable figures as to the numbers of boys and girls in secondary schools in England. The return issued by the Education Department in 1898 is confessedly incomplete both by excess and defect. Some schools were probably omitted, many children were certainly included who were receiving only primary education. However, the figures are near enough for a general comparison. In America the high school course begins at about the age of 15 on the average ; in many respects, however, as I have pointed out elsewhere, this corresponds to a stage of development reached much earlier in this country. Not to make, therefore, the comparison too unfavourable to ourselves I will take those over 12 years as really' receiving a secondary education corresponding to that given in the American high schools from 14 or 15 to 18 or 19. Even so the figures seem sufficiently startling. England with a population of 30 millions has 166,000 boys and girls receiving a secondary education, i.e., 5'5 per 1,000 ; America with a population of 78 millions has 736,000, i.e., 9'5 per 1,000. The North Central Division taken alone has 12 per 1,000. Going into detail makes matters worse. I can find in the return of '98 no county borough which shows more than 12 per 1,000; the large cities (except Bristol, which has 11) have very much fewer from 4 to 6 per 1,000. In America, on the other hand, Indianapolis has 17, Denver 18, Kansas City (Missouri) 22, Newton, Mass., 22, Topeka, Kans., 24. Even Chicago and Philadelphia have over 7. To realise fully the significance of this, it must be noticed that it is a new fact even in America. So recently as the year '89-'90 the American figure was much the same as our own viz., 5'9 per 1,000. In the twelve years they have nearly doubled their relative high school attendance. The general increase in attendance at universities is quite as marked as that at schools. From 1873 to 1887 it fluctuated slightly between 7 and 8 per 10,000. Since then it has grown steadily and rapidly to 14 per 10,000 doubling in 15 years. At this rate we should have in England (excluding Scotland and Ireland) over 40,000 students in universities and advanced technical schools and there are still people in the country who think that two universities are all we can possibly need ! These figures do not include professional schools (theology, law, medicine) nor the agricultural and mechanical colleges due to the Land Grant Act of 1862. There is the further fact most significant of all, perhaps, to those who can appreciate it of the rapid development of post-graduate schools in the universities. So marked is this that the terms "college" and "university" are tending to be differentiated in such a way that the latter term almost implies the inclusion of this advanced work as a matter of course. Dr. Harris gives the following as the numbers reported in post-graduate courses: 198 in 1872; 1,717 in 1890; 6,000 in 1900. Hand in hand with this extension of quantity in higher education, there has gone an improvement in quality. On the whole, institutions have tended better to define their position, are either ceasing to use the high-sounding names of college and university where they do not deserve them, or if they retain them are taking the necessary steps to justify their doing so. HBB. We, have then this fu: -.1 fact, that v. 1 we are only just getting ready to think of our higher school ;mn in A more highly or at least more widely -valued than ai-img ourselves. 2. I have practically dealt with my sr>co. . 1 conclusion, it, in fact, as proof of tin .']. Tim work in the schools is mediocre, the discipline excellent. My business was not, of course, to criticise the American schools, hut to see what we could learn from th'-m. This, however, necessarily involves such a consideration of defects as may serve to warn us against certain possible :kes. In estimating the work of a school or class one is mtly exposed to the danger of comparing it with some ideal school (very likely one's own school "as it was m my day") which never existed, but still, making all allowance for the "personal equation," I am satisfied that I saw constantly work done and accepted which few English teachers would accept. I did not, on the other hand, see the gros^h bad work whicli we often get. I concluded that on the whole their average even of performance, certainly of effort was higher than ours, but that there is little or no work which we should regard as really good. I can illustrate this most easily from the Latin. I seldom or never heard an absurd translation ; I often heard very inaccurate ones, not infrequently uncorrected. The translation was generally very fluent, but there was no attempt at elegance, and it was mostly slipshod. As one teacher put it to me himself, " The American boy has the knack of getting the general drift of a passage, but if you cross-question him as to the details he comes to grief." Most of the work I saw in modern language?" and in science was old-fashioned and, I thought, rather barren too much learning of rules and facts, and too little use and thought. The mathematical courses seemed to me very badly planned even worse than our own have been. Much attention is given to English, both to literature and to the art of writing. It was difficult to estimate what the ultimate effect of this may be, but some of the work I saw being done seemed to me most inspiring and likely to be productive of much good. It was not merely that literature was being read, allusions and tricks of style noticed, but the effort was being honestly made to get down to the underlying thought, to estimate its value, and, if necessary, to criticise and modify it. Burke's Speech on Conciliation with America, for instance, is studied as a piece of argument , and constantly I found the effort being made to cultivate accurate and logical thought, and to attain fairness and breadth of mind in estimating motives and character. In the hands of the really fine teachers whom 1 found engaged in this work I felt that literature was being made what it ought to 1> means towards real culture of mind and spirit. Unhappily, fine teachers are not common, and this is work which above all other depends directly on the power of the teacher himself. Most subjects can be systematised so that with some guidance an ordinary man can teach them with some success. I doubt whether TCHEK.] 134 this is the case with literature. However, whether this be so or not we have much to learn from America as to the proper place and use of English in our schools. I have said that the actual quality of the work is mediocre. This is, of course, in part a serious defect arising from causes I shall deal with presently. But in part as compared with our present condition I am not sure that it has not its actual advan- tages. It is partly the outcome of leaving boys to do things for themselves; there is much less "teaching" and more "hearing of lessons" than is now usual in English schools. Even in the discussion of the big questions of history and morals opened up in the literature lessons, the main stress is laid on the boy's own suggestions drawn out, of course, by suitable questions criticised and improved to some extent by the teacher, but chiefly by the class. So far as this is the case the mediocrity of performance is a good sign, implying that the work is honestly the result of the efforts of minds still immature indeed, but active and fresh. Our pestilent competitive examination system has done much harm in destroying this attitude of mind, not in the best students perhaps, but in the second best, who can be loaded up to the requisite standard, but cannot attain it in a natural healthy fashion. The lower standard of American schools as compared with ours is then, I believe, in part a good sign, indicating that more room is given for independence of thought and for real growth. It is to be hoped that in attempting to raise the standard America will not follow us in using examinations for the purpose. However, allowing for this, the work is not as good as it might be, especially considering the advanced age of the boys. On the whole it seemed t.o me, and I found ihat American teachers them- [selves agreed with me, that at least two years are wasted somewhere 'in the course boys of 18 are only where they might well be at 16. This is due I believe chiefly to two causes the fragmentary 1 nature of the course of study and the absence of any real disciplinary work in the elementary schools, up to the age, that is, of 14 or 15. For the most part too many subjects are attempted and each allowed too short a time, with the result that all are done in a very superficial fashion, and all their real difficulties avoided or never reached. A year of algebra, half a year of history, two years or even one only of French, a year of physics, half a year of botany and the like are common allowances. This is less the case than it used to be, and I believe that the remarkable revival in the study of Latin chiefly comes from disgust at the disappointing results of the smattering of many subjects offered in its stead, and the desire to have at least one subject which can be pursued in a thorough and businesslike fashion. Every curriculum should have at least one subject in which something like excellence is aimed at. In many American schools the only subject consistently carried through the four years is English, and while, as I have said, this is good in the hands of really first-rate men, I am sure that in the generality of cases it must degenerate into very poor stuff, with little value either of content or discipline. The greater difficulty of special interest to us in England just now is that of proper co-ordination between the primary and secondary schools. In general, hitherto, America has ignored the difficulty, but is gradually finding out that it is one to be faced and solved. Its efforts in this direction are well worth our study. The high school has grown out of and is simply s 1 ;, upon the elementary school, i. the, high school until he has passed cnmplei.-ly thn.u^h the elementary school, that is not, on the average, till hi- i^ \~> or more. The elementary school .'iglish m > iihmetic. Classes are large, and though tlie general atmosphm- is pleasant, there is no very strenuous work information is given Bui litths serious mental discipline. Entering the high school th almost for the first time --meets difficulties. A great number are soon disheartened and fall out altogether, some are sent back to th>j elementary schools as being in^ufliciently prepared, while others no doubt remain a burden to themselves and to the school. As a matter of fact, more boys leave during the first high school year than at any other stage. I found sometimes that 80 or even 90 and 'J.j per cent, of the children leaving tin- <], -im-niai -y schools entered the high school, but perhaps a third of Un-m dropped out during the first year. It is this, even more than boys leaving for business later on, which makes the first year so disproportionately large in many high schools. On this system a very valuable seed-time in a boy's life is lost. The ordinary boy of 12 is quite capable of facing the difficulties of Latin or geometry, and if he does not do so his mind does not develop as it should if he is going to be fit for serious intellectual study later on. I concluded that for high school and university purposes the time spent in the last two grades in the elementary schools is worse than wasted. Whether the fault lies in those two grades themselves or lower down, I do not know, but it seemed pitiful to see great boys and girls of 14 and 15 doing work fit only for children of 11 and 12. It is quite clear that the American system does not solve the question of co-ordination. By preventing overlapping it merely ignores the difficulty, and until the difficulty is fairly met it will remain a serious impediment to really good work. This difficulty, however, is now being recognised and various attempts are being made to meet it. The most obvious thing to do is to introduce some of the high school subjects into the lower schools algebra, history or Latin. There are two difficulties here : (1) It is hardly possible to obtain sufficiently good teachers. (2) These subjects are not of much advantage to those children who are not going on to the high school and so will only start them to drop them. Of the three subjects mentioned as used in this way, one might note that algebra as taught in most schools is educationally worth- less ; history cannot easily be treated at this age as a discipline ; Latin if well done at this stage would be invaluable. Geometry, if wisely handled, would be equally serviceable. In some places the eighth and even the seventh and eighth years of the elementary schools are transferred to the high school. This does not meet the case of those who will leave early. Further, it is expensive and naturally leads to large classes in the lower part of the high school, and this tends to defeat the object. At Newton, Mass., an almost ideal solution of the difficulty had been found. Some ten years ago the Principal of the High School and the Superintendent of Education (chiefly concerned with the elementary schools) arrived independently at the conclusion that reform wa* necessary. It was decided to introduce Latin into the upper HEK.~ 136 grades of the elementary school. Those teachers who were likely to do well and who had some little Latin were invited to go to the high school Latin teachers to refresh and improve their knowledge and to get some idea of exactly what it was desirable that they should teach. (By degrees as new teachers were wanted, men specially titled were chosen.) The two sets of teachers visit one another's classes for mutual observation and criticism. A formal conference is held every autumn, informal ones more frequently. Every quarter a report is sent to each elementary school of the performance in the high school of its old pupils. The results of this are beneficial all round : 1. Boys are much more advanced on entering the high school they can begin Caesar straight away. 2. The introduction of the harder work and of high school methods has raised the standard of the whole elementary school not merely in the upper grades doing the new work but throughout by a steady downward filtering of its influence. 3. The barriers between the two sets of teachers are broken down, and necessary intercourse brings friendship. The success of the system in Latin has to its use for other subjects algebra and English. It should be noticed that only those children in the grades who intend to go on to the high school take Latin. Conditions at Newton are unusually favourable, and it does not follow that all that is done there could be done elsewhere, but it is, I believe, along such lines as these that the solution of the difficulty may be most hopefully looked for. It will be noticed that here the influence of the high school on the lower schools is not unlike that of a university on the high school under the accrediting system. I have spoken somewhat depreciatingly of the quality of the work of the actual attainment, that is in the schools. It is all the pleasanter to be able to speak in very high terms of their discipline and general tone. In nearly every high school I visited I was greatly struck and pleased with this. I generally went about alone, unannounced and often unobserved in the great corridors and staircases, and am satisfied that in the main I saw just the ordinary everyday behaviour and it was singularly good. Except in Wash- ington where elementary school methods of moving about were observed there was great freedom. A bell marks the close of a lesson. Boys get up and move off to their new class-rooms and are f-ettled there by the next bell, but are free to talk and do as they please in the corridors a freedom not abused. There was almost always thoroughly good order in the class-rooms, and while the appearance was often that of sleepy inattention, a sudden question or interruption often showed that the lesson was being followed steadily if not very keenly. Classes were not interrupted by my entering and leaving the rooms, and when, as often happened, boys were sent to the blackboard to write, the rest of the class went on just as usual. A well-planned and roomy building of course is a great assistance in these matters, and most of the schools I saw had this advantage ; yet even in the Morris High School (New York), as ill-adapted to its purpose as any of our own schools, where narrow corridors and staircases lent themselves admirably to crushing and rowdyism, there was no supervision at all, but the game high standard of good order and self-restraint. The same 137 thing was very noticeable in the h. m In one school ago) for < ,ome 400 ho\ s uvttin^ their lunch Ahout half had hi-onght loud with tl. ;>ing to the counter for p! at ;md potatoes, apple tai t, and soon. Th re were n ""ys, though quite. free and talking aiul coming up as they plcn B notably orderly and husim rem>-mbered, of course, iu Bating the meaning of this, that > are older than ours discipline in an K; tool would be a very different tiling if w had only the 'uh and t'.ih forma > d'-nl with but even so, it ia, I think, not without si^nilie.-r I attrib'. \t these ages ^n'rla nore docile, more con IB, and -. ious to Tartly also to ^, who bring in gentler man, win -a they are good -as they notably are probably win more easily the consideration and good feeling or Still over and above these things (which do not affect all the schools I saw) I think the facts point to a greater average earnest- and intention to get on, which is the dominant impression lef; upon one by America in all directio ^, I think, on the whole take their work more seriously than do ours. No doubt the large proportion of women haa much to do with this matter, and of the men few stay in the profession except those who have a real love for the work or who have power enough to rise to the best positions. On the other hand, it has t that there are schools which suffer from an incessant change of staff conditions not being good enough to retain men. Still, in the schools I saw, the spirit and tone of the staff seemed very high. ' Paradoxical as it may seem, I think the mediocre quality of work has something to do with the general good conduct. An English teacher lives with the fear of an examination in front of him, and often feels that he must get the work into a boy whether the boy will or no. The American, while doing his best to give the boy his chance, sparing no pains to present the work properly to him or to help him over difficulties, does not take the responsibility for him that we try to do. He frankly throw's it where it properly rests on the boy himself and on his parents. Consequently there is not the frequent pulling up to attention, the constant effort to get work out of the idle and unwilling that there is with us. If the boy won't do his part he is left alone ; if he contin .itisfactory the parent is called in; if there still fails to be improvement, the boy must go, there is practically no punishment short of expulsion. This does not mean that expulsion is common, it is apparently very rare, but it does mean that the schools are worked with singularly litfcle friction and waste effort. I can illustrate the American attitude best by an extreme case : I watched a teacher taking a class (7th and 8th grades in a grammar school) in singing. She was doing it well and the class were singing nicely, but nearly half sat dumb, and breaking voices did no* explain the matter. I asked a teacher standing by if no effort was made to induce them all to sing; " Oh no," she said, " the teacher thinks that if they have not sufficient artistic feeling to wish to sing, it is not her business to make them." This may be all very well ic the case of music (cf. Wilhelm Meister), but it is not clear that it ia FLETCHER.] 138 sound, say in drill. We saw grade after grade come out into the hall and do club or bar exercises to music, but the teachers made not the slightest attempt to pull them out of the slack and slovenly manner in which they performed the movements : whether they reconised that the work was poor and didn't see fit to try to drive the children, or whether they simply didn't know themselves the difference between bad work and good, I did not find out ; but in either case I cannot think the results satisfactory. The letting a child find out things for himself, the encouraging him and guiding him to help himself, which one finds is most excellent ; even when it results in mediocrity, there is something to be said for it ; but when it results in contentment with mediocrity, it is fatal. 4. I do not believe that to any notable extent education has been the cause of American industrial success. The great increase of education in America and any progress in quality or adaptation to the needs of the people have been the work of the last fifteen years, and have hardly had time to produce any very general effect. It rather seems to be that the progress of industry has produced a need for men of judgment, insight, and breadth of mind ; and that by degrees men of high education have shown themselves valuable, and that therefore the demand for them has steadily grown. This means that education is a secondary cause facilitating progress, but ia not itself the real driving power. The extent of the country, its great natural resources, a rapidly increasing but still very thin population, the consequent absence of injurious social restrictions and of any large class of unproductive idlers, have maintained unimpaired the energetic and hopeful spirit of the people. The struggle hardly yet over with a wild nature, with wild beasts, and with wilder men, has kept them face to face with the elementary difficulties of life. Work constant, hard, strenuous work has been a necessity; but it has been work which has rapidly brought its reward in improving conditions. Hence it has not been the crushing, soul-killing toil that it too often is in our Eastern World. Nothing is more remarkable in the American than his mingled materialism and idealism. Hence he believes in education, both for its own sake as fulfilling the needs of his higher nature and for its value as making him a more efficient and productive workman. That this is the true view of the matter is, I think, shown by my fifth conclusion. 5. America does not believe in educational short cuts. We think of Americans they seem proud to think of themselves as " hustlers." In the schools, on the other hand, nothing is more remarkable than the leisureliness and absence of hurry. It is quite true that in New York perhaps also in other great cities there are institutions whose aim is to supply technical training of a low grade to young workmen who have only been through the elementary schools analogous to much of the evening school technical work done in England. But while this is useful, even necessary work, perhaps even more necessary in America than here, owing to the total breakdown of the apprenticeship system, it is important to realise that this is not what America understands by technical education. All the really important technical schools are institutions of college or university rank, and demand a full high school education preparatory to entrance that is to say, a boy does not ordinarily enter them till he is nineteen. He then takes a three, or probably a four, years' course of study. He may likely fill in his vacations with work in shops, with the double purpose of helping t< meet his expenses and of widening his bul apart from this, his full time till he is twenty-two or twent\ three is given to study pun- und simpl<\ Furtn Home cases at Princeton, for instance engineering is a post- gradu:' 1 !- course, and a man is not admitted to it until he has oeen through the ordinary four years' academic cour^" H" is thus twenty- two or twenty-three before he even begins his technical study, and spends two or more years at this before he goes out into lii<'. It is claimed that those are the men who rise most rapidly, and it was d to me that these are just the young n u we are surprised to hear of as being at the head of important departments. It may safely he stated that technical education in Aim-nra pre- supposes at least a complete high school course, and that there IB no demand on the part of the technical schools that this high d course should be specialised in a technical direction. It is true that some of the high schools the manual training high schools present to the outsider the appearance of being really iical schools of a low grade, but their advocates (justly or unjustly) emphatically disclaim this, asserting that their boys are just as likely to become doctors or business men as mechanicians, and that the work they do in wood and metal is done as pui ely for its intellectual and moral value as are Latin and pure science. 6. Educational progress on a large scale is dependent on public support of all grades of schools. It is the free public high school and the free or nearly free State University which have rendered possible the great spread of education. While the enrolment in private schools has barely increased with the population (from 145,000 in 1889-90 to 168,000 in 1901-2) that in public schools has increased two and a-half-fold, viz., from 221,000 to 566,000. To quote Dr. Harris: "The enormous increase of secondary instruc- tion .... is due to the policy adopted by large villages and counties to provide for free secondary instruction from public taxation. The number of public high schools increased from 2,526 in 1*90 to 6,005 in 1900, and 6,292 in 1902." In the case of universities, the increase is due partly to the enormous benefactions made to private corporations the gifts reported in 1901 and 1902 were 18 millions and 17 millions of dollars partly to the growth of State-supported institutions. I visited two of these latter Kansas and Illinois and as each presents some features of special interest, and they are less known even by name to Englishmen than the universities of the East, I will dwell a little upon them. Kansas was settled by New Englanders and Pennsylvanians, who brought with them the characteristic New England belief in learning. " This shall be the site of the university," one of the first settlers is reputed to have said as he outspanned on the top of the little limestone hill where the university now stands. Externally, the university consists of eleven buildings, . including a fine library and a museum, and substantial blocks for law, medicine, chemistry, physics, and engineering, besides the central building contaning the large hall, offices, and recitation rooms for arts subjects. Internally, it consists of over 1,400 students, including about 70 post graduates, chiefly in arts, and a staff of 90 professors and assistants. In 1889, the preparatory department was dropped, and the work is now entirely college work. An FLETCHER.] li) unusual feature is the weekly gathering for " exercises " Bible- reading, singing (the hall has a line organ), and possibly an address. Attendance, of course, is voluntary, but very general a high tribute to the personal influence of the Chancellor. We chanced to be present at one of these gatherings, and so had the privilege of seeing the whole body of students face to face as keen and earnest- looking a lot of young men and women as one need wish to see. The buildings are partly the result of benefactions, the current expenses are met by the State. The annual grant has jur,t been raised from 140,000dols. to 200,000dols. This year, for the first time, a small fee has been imposed, with no adverse effect on the enrolment. There are no hostels students live and board where they please in the town. Many get through on lOOdols. a year. A large proportion of them (50 per cent, entirely and 80 per cent. in part, the Chancellor told me) earn their own expenses by working in term or vacation time or both. Evidently, in such circumstances, students come for serious work, not merely to have a good time. That the standard of the staff is high may be ; gathered apart from one's personal impressions by the fact that several have been recently carried off by the new and wealthier Leland Stanford University. It should be noticed that besides the university the State supports a very large normal school, which seems to give a sort of college education to many who cannot afford the university, and a very large agricultural school. Illinois is an older, more populous, and wealthier State, and its university, while it could not well have a higher spirit, is larger and perhaps further developed. The medical and dental depart- ments (which are self-supporting) are in Chicago, and I did not see them ; the rest at Champaign some 130 miles to the south. Beside large and well-equipped buildings for arts, law, natural history, chemistry, library (including a library school), gymnasium, and drill hall, there is a large group of buildings (seven or eight in number) for engineering and another for agriculture. The last biennial grant made by the Legislature was a million and a quarter dollars (including 150,000dols. for buildings and equipment), and went through both Houses without a single dissentient vote. The agricultural department is especially remarkable. Its strength seems to lie in the fact that it is associated with the Government perimental station, consequently a great amount of research work is going on work which the farmers have learnt highly to appreciate and to which they seem to give ungrudging support. The different agricultural societies promote bills in the Legislature for grants to the particular department in which they are interested 25,000dols. for soil, 25,000dols. for live stock, lO.OOOdols. for maize, lO.OOOdols. for horticulture, 15,000dols. for dairying. The investigation work in each of these departments is carried on under the control of the Director and a small committee of the society interested. The department deals annually with a correspondence of twelve or fourteen thousand letters asking for advice. The result of this is that the farmers, finding this experimental work of extreme value, go further and send their sons to take the agri- cultural training offered by the university. The growth of the department during the last six years 20, 60, 90, 134, 250, 300 shows eloquently that here, if anywhere, is a university " broad based upon the people's will." About one-third of these students oome intending to take the full graduation course (four years), and 1 1 1 !IER. these must hn high school gru<' Tt with; others come intending to take short courses only, bat as a ma find tin- uork -,<> beneficial that tip the full time. Tin- stall is very t: Mot all giving their full time), cadi a specialist, in his own sul. r has been a tanner himself, "kv Ml that the I ie,." There is a ^rcat d-mand on the part of large fan aduates as managers and confidential a : ilk of th" men i o out and farm for themselves. The engineering nti;il for his money. Tin- on I'oiind for I the absolute separation of the two types of school was that often j manual work would have had no chance of a fair trial in an ordinary high school where the principal was quite out of sympathy with it. The separation seemed to me on the whole distinctly unfortunate* for both schools, robbing boys in the one of all chance of develop- ment along linep suitable to them, and leading to an exaggerated stress being put on its value in the other, beside very possibly tending to the development of class distinction between the schools. My own feeling was rather confirmed by what I saw and by the opinions of the more thoughtful men I met, that it is better to have a moderate amount of such work compulsory perhaps in the lower s, optional in the higher in all schools, and to leave work ng elaborate mechanical equipment to professedly tech schools. The present system has had also the effect of stereotyping the work on rather narrow lines, and tending to turn out an excessive proportion of mechanics especially unfortunate if, as is alleged to be the case, these mechanics have learnt methods which they subsequently have to unlearn. Co-education. In the Western States co-education (of boys and girls) is general, both in schools and in universities. In the large cities of the East and in the Eastern colleges and universities it is more rare. In the West the system has grown up from the beginning, and I found very' few people indeed who questioned its wisdom and, except at Chicago University, where men and women are now separated during the first two years of the course, heard of no attempt or wish to change it. In the East it was several times said to me that men (and boys) disliked the system, and when they were free to choose would go to a men's college or a boys' school rather than to a co-educational institution. One professor told me that in his opinion it effeminised the men too much occupations and sports in which women could not join were dropped and men took their exercise in dancing instead of cross-country running. Beyond these I got no tangible objections to the system. Morally, I think my informants without exception held it very beneficial. The Head of a university told me that he noticed that class-mates often subsequently married and that these marriages turned out notably well men and women getting to know and understand one another thoroughly in the broad intercourse of university life and choosing wisely. I got some further confirmation of this view from old students who had married in this way. One, on the other FLETI H 1^1 hand (a bachelor) told me that they got to know one another too well that the mystery was too much dissipated, and the attraction to marriage weakened. The two views are not perhaps as inconsis- tent as they seem at first sight. In the schools the girls are notably more mature than the boys, who seem rather to stand in awe of them, and the sex question is in abeyance one might com- pare nature's arrangement to prevent self-fertilisation in flowers where the stamens and pistil develop at different times. There can, I think, be no question that the influence of the girls more diligent and more careful and conscientious in small matters on the boys is good : these work better to escape being beaten. Conversely the robuster, more vigorous habits of the boys, and probably the better work of the best of them, do good to the girls and keep them from sentimental and fanciful ways and give more solidity and breadth to their work. If both necessarily took the same curriculum there might be the objection that the girls were burdened with unsuitable subjects. The elective system of studies meets this difficulty : some -subjects they take easily in common ; others, boys or girls as the case may be, rarely take. I saw no ground for thinking that the girls suffered from too much work to as great a degree as it is commonly alleged that they do in our own girls' high schools. Still, when all is said there remains much doubt in my mind / whether in the long run the system is one to be copied. I asked one Superintendent if he had any qualms about it. I thought his answer significant, " If you had asked me that five years ago I should have said ' no ' very decidedly. To-day I am not so sure. I can't quite say why, but I find my feeling towards it changing." This was not a solitary case, and I think the objection is likely to grow. I should say that the proved benefits of the system are sufficient to give us confidence in adopting it in sparsely populated neighbourhoods where there are not children enough to support two good schools ; but not great enough to cause us to make any effort to overcome the popular objection to it in towns where good separate schools are possible. Quite as valuable, perhaps, as co-education of boys and girls, and more easily and safely adopted, is the mingling of men and women on the staff. The benefits to boys of being partly taught by women and perhaps even more to girls of being taught by men, American experience, I think, shows to be great. Scholarships. There is a notable difference between the common method of awarding scholarships in America and our own. The colleges and universities spend large sums in this way, but for the most part scholarships are not awarded by competition, but by careful inquiry into the needs of candidates and inquiry from the schools as to their character and ability. Some colleges allot one or more scholarships to each of the schools which regularly send them boys or if there are! not enough to go round, allot them in rotation leaving it to the school? themselves to select the holders. Such entrance scholarships are given for a year only, and their con- tinuance depends on the estimate the university itself puts on the holder Whatever the details of method, scholarships are regarded as assistance given to needy and deserving students, not as prizes for special excellence still less as a means for raising the standard of work in special subjects. Besides giving assistance by scholarships, 1 }." most colleges have funds out of which they in ss at : '. to hi- | SOOI1 a!' i'lation as Me. The 1 o i^t was several tim< heads of ;it no deserving and capable student was ever allowed to miss his chance of c< ication thro;:gh financial dilliculties. A few special points of minor interest struck me as wort Americans are notoi-ii.ii-ly u'nvit at laboiir-saviiiu' ! Con- one found the larger and newer M-hoi,U planned but very well equipped internal telephones, a system of connected clocks in all the rooms, automatically sounding 'infortunate absence of playgrounds is to '.jnt corn- '.ed for l>\ excellent gymnasia often with and ing-rooms attached. Corridors are wide and there is a good supply of lockers tall lockers to take coats, prop 1 and sometimes supplied with hot-air draught. The buildings are always well wanned -too well for English taste and for the most part well ventilated artificially. Every school has a library, and there is illy a proper allowance for its up-keep and extension. Every room has its large dictionary on a separate stand, and children constantly consult it. Blackboards, maps, and historical charts are amply supplied. Indeed, on buildings and equipment the expends. ture is lavish : unfortunately there is too often undue parsimony in the far more important matter of salaries, and the supply of adequately equipped teachers who intend to stick to the profession is very insufficient classes too are often far too large. An important point is the universal recognition of the economy of adequate clerical help for the head-master. Nearly always one or more women are engaged who attend to the register, look after late boys, receive visitors, conduct correspondence, etc. they are generally stenographers and typewriters thereby saving much of his time and in fact multiplying his efficiency many-fold. The adaptation of the card catalogue system to keeping the school register is a very valuable economy, enabling the record of any boy, past or present, to be turned up instantly. A notable point is the practice of allowing all teachers a day or a half-day a term, sometimes more, free for visiting other schools ; reports have to be made and discussed with the Superintendent of Education. Also it is universally recognised that teachers should not be actually teaching all through the school day ; 20 or 22 periods of actual teaching out of 30 seem about the general rule. It is a common thing for a teacher to get leave of absence for a year to go through a further course of college study : often, indeed, teachers will throw up their situations altogether for this purpose, expecting, of course, to get better ones afterwards. The training of teachers is not, I think, further advanced in America than with us. All the normal schools of every kind put together can hardly turn out a quarter of the annual supply needed for the elementary schools. Secondary teachers are not, in general, trained at all. Departments for the purpose are, however, being developed at some of the universities. I found them at Harvard and Illinois ; but at present they are small, and seem mostly attended by those who, having had some experience of teaching, come to equip themselves for better positions hoping, perhaps, to become principals or superintendents of education. TCHER.] 146 One point of great importance in the universities should not be overlooked. Professors of technical subjects, engineers, chemists, etc., are by no means debarred from undertaking ordinary pro- fessional work. Bather the contrary a man who is not in demand in the business world is regarded as not likely to be sufficiently strong and up-to-date for teaching. Not only do such men take large retaining fees as consultants, but it is a common thing for them to have leave of absence to carry out important investigations. It is considered, in such a case, that any loss to students con- sequent on their absence is more than made good by the greater freshness given to their work, and by the fact that in this way the services of first-rate men can be more easily secured. I must not conclude my report without expressing my thanks to those with whom we came in contact, not only for their extreme courtesy and kindness to us personally, but for the ready and helpful manner in which they met our inquiries, showing us and telling us freely all we wanted to see or to hear, allowing us absolute freedom to go about as and where we pleased I believe as anxious as we were ourselves that we should arrive at the truth. I cannot hope that there is not much that I have misunderstood, certainly there must be many things whose relative importance I have mis- taken. The time allowed us was all too short really to get to the bottom of things which probably even those most familiar with them do not fully understand. Fellow Commissioners and I often felt that we needed to go on a similar tour of inquiry in our own country. In a country so vast and so varied as the States, generali- sation is particularly dangerous. I particularly hope that any criticisms I have made will not be thought ungracious. Our own educational system is at present unsatisfactory, but we can all the less afford to bow down and admire any other system in a \yholly uncritical spirit. From all my American fellow- workers I had not only extreme kindness, but much personal help and inspiration. The more I saw of their work, the more I felt that our difficulties are essentially the same, our shortcomings and failures much alike any criticism I have passed only amounts to a recognition that they no more than we have attained perfection. W. C. FLETCIIKK. 147 Ittoselp educational Commission. Report of W. H. GASKELL, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. THK Ti;.\< HIM; or I'M YMOI.O., v .\\n ANATOMY : : KS. In many respects the methods of education in the medical studies in vogue in the United States and Canada differ from those current in Ilm:laiid. There is at present a imiest and uncertainty about the best method of instruction. Everywhere I was told that the present time is a period of ition : that a new scheme of instruction was being trii it was difficult to say at present what its results would be. American ideas and methods of instruction have largely been taken from the (ierman universities, largely from the Scotch; now the desire has arisen to work out their own salvation, to start, if possible, some method of instruction that shall be neither German, Scotch, nor English, but American. Each school, therefore, is working on its own lines, so that the relative importance attached to lectures, recitations, and practical work differs markedly in -nt places; while, on the other hand, in certain broad aspects all the schools are alike. I do not propose in this report to discuss in detail the amount and nature of the work demanded of the medical student in every one of the medical schools visited, as that would necessitate a considerable amount of repetition, and also would not be in accordance with the object of this report. As I understand it, this Commission was not appointed for the purpose of comparing and criticising the methods of education in the different educational centres in the States, but in order to point out the differences between their methods and those followed in England, and especially to bring out any new experiments in educational methods characteristic of the United States. However great may be the difference in teaching methods in different places, in one respect they are all alike both in the States and in Canada, and in that respect they form a marked contrast to our English method. In no case are there outside examiners. The question whether or no a student can pass in any subject is decided by his teachers alone, and is decided not only by a separate exami- nation but also by the nature of the work done by the student throughout the term. For this reason, then, every inducement is given to the student to attend regularly and carefully to his practical and lecture work. Every student belongs to a certain year and moves with the rest of his class from freshman to sophomore, sophomore to junior, and , junior to senior. It is considered a disgrace to be obliged to take the work of the year below your proper standing. The work for each year is settled by the teachers of the faculty and the university authorities, and in most cases is extremely rigid; each year there is an examination in the subjects for tha: \vhich takes place immediately upon the termination of each course of instruction ; (i \-KKLL.] 148 the results of this examination, together with the marks obtained during the course, determine whether the student has passed or failed in that subject; if he has failed in only one or two subjects he has a chance of making good those failures by working in the summer and passing a supplementary examination in September. If he fails in many subjects he loses his year and has to take all the year's work over again ; or he may be advised to try somewhere else where it is easier to get a degree. Each course is got rid of entirely as soon as it is linished, and the student can dismiss it from his mind as far as examination is concerned. I think, speaking generally, it may be said that the knowledge of each subject is tested during and immediately at the close of the instruction in that subject without regard to any other subject. Further, a subject is much more split up into sub-divisions than with us. Thus it is almost universal to find under the term physiology, as understood in England, three separate laboratories with separate professors and staff of teachers in each, viz., histology (usually combined with embryology), physiological chemistry, and physiology proper. Each of these subjects forms a separate course with a separate examination. Method of Teaching. In all the medical schools of the United States the teaching in any subject is carried on by means of lectures, conferences, recitations (catechetical classes), and laboratory work ; to which must be added in some cases seminars. Among these methods the greatest stress appeared to me to be laid on the recitations and on the laboratory work. In many cases didactic lectures were looked upon as nearly valueless, on the ground that they were ^>nly a repetition of what was already in the text- book, and were not, therefore, needed. In other cases, as at Harvard, the standpoint was taken that all learning comes best by observation and direct experimentation, and that the principles of the subject are best brought out by the Socratic method of question and answer between the teacher and the student, the foundation of the teaching being based upon the repetition by the student of all the possible fundamental experiments upon which modern physio- logy is based. Each day's work is followed by a discussion between a teacher and a section of the class of the principles elucidated by the experiment what further knowledge it has led to, what are its limitations, etc. a method of catechetical instruc- tion which has for its object not to cram the men for examination purposes but to make them think out for themselves the principles which each piece of practical work elucidates, and its bearing on the science of physiology. Didactic lectures are given on those parts of the subject which cannot be treated by the student in the laboratory, and as far as possible are illustrated by demonstration given during the lecture. The idea underlying the whole system of instruction in these scientific subjects is that they are subjects based on experimental research, that the question which the student ought to be taught to ask from the very first is not, What man is the authority for such and such a statement ? but, What is the experimental evidence which proves the truth of the statement ? Therefore, in every way the student is taught to consider that he himself is undertaking a research, that he is rediscovering for himself what others have found out before him. In accordance with this view no slovenly work is allowed : every experiment must be done as though it was 149 KELL. an actual , time markers, stimulation markers, being used, with the result, so I am assured, that in a very short time it becomes a habit in each man to perform cvi-ry experiment with real care and thoroughness. Such a method of instruction necessarily means a lar-e amount of time given to the subject and a consider- able staff of efficient teachers to supervise the practical work and conduct the recitations, for the latter in order to ho of real good must not be <;iven to too large a class. These results arc obtained at Harvard by the system of concentration, the theory being that when you are conducting a research you want to fill your whole mind with that subject and devote your whole time to it. When then, for instance, the student is finding out the fundamental facts of physiology, the only other subject he is allowed to take at the same time is physiological chemistry, so that the whole of bis morning is taken up with physiology and the whole of the afternoon with physiological chemistry. These two courses last for four months, from February 3rd to May 31st, and the scheme of instruction is given in the accompanying schedule. The period in question is the second half of the first year of medical study, the first half having been occupied by a similar study of anatomical subjects, viz., histology and embryology and anatomy as in the schedule. (See pp. 150-151.) The amount of time given by the Harvard student to histology, physiology, and physiological chemistry amounts to 888 hours, of which experimental physiology obtains 323 hours, prac' ic il physiological chemistry 240 hours, and practical histology hours, a very much longer time than is given in any English school to the same subjects to the whole of the students. Funh ;r, as is seen in the schedule, the student is continually being ttstad by written papers, which are looked over by the instructors and form part of the whole examination system. Another very important feature of the Harvard system, upon which great stress is laid, consists in the preparation by the students of theses, which are read at fixed times and discussed in the class by the students and teachers. A number of subjects are chosen beforehand for such theses, and the literature on these subjects is tabulated by the professor and his assistants. To every member of the class (as many as 120) one of these subjects is allotted for his thesis, and he is supposed to read the scheduled literature in the original languages and write a critical essay on ihose papers. Of the whole 120 theses thus prepared, 50 are selected for public discussion, and the rest are read but not dis- cussed. In addition, each student is expected to prepare himself in two of the theses selected for discussion, so as to be qualified to take part in such discussion. He also has to prepare a biblio- graphical list of the literature on some other subject. The selection of the 50 students whose theses are to be read and discussed mainly depends on the reports of the teachers in the previous half- year, i.e., the teachers in anatomy and histology; those who have done best in those subjects being selected. It was unfortunate that the time of year when the Commission was in America was too early for us to be present at the reading and discussion of any of these theses, as they do not begin until March. I am, however, assured that they have been a great success, and the men them- selves are very keen about them, so keen, indeed, that two or three .of them will club together to pay another student to translate the loO M J S J < a, d .d Z-? is" 8 r ^ ^a fg 5.2 ^- 4 'o o d A >- g r^.afS < 3 S SN I & 1 *d da 3 Sfl 1 Q S X c SES, HARVARD. i'iuary. L. Room C. M>pn&er, December , Dissection. Rooms Histology. Lab. Re tory. Room G. October, January. L. Room C. November, December Histology. Lab. R< Anatomy. Lab. Ro fa" -a a c3 L K 1-4 M . t-H t-S Q NDERGRADUATE COU YEAR First Half- Yea S a a S .2.2 a H (o&er, A r ouei5er, December. Section II., Histology. Labo January. and F. Seotion II., Room G. Section II., Rooms D and F. 65 1 II COW r, November, December. Anatomy. Dissection. Rooms January. Section II., Rooms D and F. 1 and F. Section II., Room G. WKDNT.SDAT. .d as II | ll f g o E Oc, D and F. GO al ! Octobe ection II., .O s al ^ ki a ^fw en rt-T M S [L* O * ag ABULAR VI O ', January. C. r, December. . Rooms D and '. Lab. Room G. Dissection. R rd weeks. Sectir Ith weeks. Secti , January. Q. ; December. Lab. Room G. Lab. Rooms D Lab. Room G d weeks. Sectio .ih weeks. Sectii EH v g _ e , C "-a S a 5 >, || ||| 1 73 c 11 !l II! i ^J ^ r. ~r a m a 2 "*jf o3 .2 "S a 5 j 5a "1 ^H 94 J < K rHN z r r H >> - - i-I tAlA i I II 08 "o *" a o o o CO a a O oJ d a a ! M _o a a 2 'SS Seotion II a'a c a MCO K MM o 1 n o o M n L51 |< lii H ** 1 uxrg 11 I 1 m a 2 - 9 . 5 ooni A. Vednetday. Bzcept Saturdaj 1O M ' M J? o 0- 3 .' . ^ 1 ^ 3 1 2 j 3 a ^ o _ a 1 i ~ = . = . ^ 1= jg e I Half- Year. I Auv.iHna WEDNESDAY. T O _ S O Huoin- 11 iiinl Laborat' \ Ho. in ri t- Is -S3 I - . ^ ^ J - : r> cj 10 n S ; r ~ C c > > 1 ^ -^ j /ft l/J s _; s ^ 3 J C3 ,- | '3 Q 2 a o 1 - .itsLlSG .= ^ MONDAY. Conference lioolll A. ~ 5 B M '"Illl-i H Hll.l in Room A. - r ~ S X IIOIMS !'. :nid r -5 3 |2| | Lecture. Lkboratoi 1 o n e 10 0) 1 w a 04 10 a" CNI w cs O 6 0) 04 6 10 w e w 6 10 M e . n Csi M CJ 10 6 w" GASKELL.] 152 original French and German papers, if they themselves are unable to read them. The teachers themselves take part in the discussion, and often obtain new suggestions and original ideas in the course of the discussion ; BO much is this the case that again and again a student has been set on to a piece of original work which has arisen out of his own thesis, and has been encouraged to do this work during the time of his student career. To all intents and purposes this system of reading theses is an attempt to include the system of teaching by seminars, as they are called, in the teaching of an elementary class. In all advanced work, in all the graduate schools for the degree of Ph.D. and M.A., the seminar system is the principal method of teaching. Such classes are always very small, so that every one in the class is encouraged to take part in the discussion, the subject of which is settled beforehand. In the seminar the teacher frequently opens the discussion himself, but every now and then one or other of the class is requested to get the subject up and discourse upon it. Thus at Johns Hopkins in the post-graduate school of the zoological department each man is expected to take up a particular subject, for instance, a particular portion of Korschelt and Heider's embryology, and treat it thoroughly in a lecture to the rest, which is criticised and discussed. In this way most of the invertebrate series is gone through. In my opinion, this seminar system, upon which the teachers in America lay great stress, is a very valuable one and worthy of greater extension in England ; it is founded on the belief that the best way of learning is to teach, and that know- ledge so acquired is much more lasting than that gained either by book reading or listening to lectures. Whether, however, such a system can with advantage be applied to a large elementary class is, to my mind, very doubtful, and that seemed to be largely the opinion in the States and in Canada, in both of which countries as well as here in England the working of the Harvard experiment was being watched with great interest. On the other hand, it must always be remembered that experiments of this kind may be a success at Harvard and Johns Hopkins universities without being advisable in other places, for it must never be forgotten that the students of these two places start their medical course with the enormous advantage of having already passed through the whole of the academic course in some university or other, so that they are not only older than the majority of students entering the medical schools in other places, but also much better trained how to think and how to work. They are, in fact, in the same position as the students of the graduate schools, except that their subjects are new to them. It is not, therefore, so impossible in these circumstances to conceive of the successful working of the Harvard system, as it would be in an ordinary London medical school. Then also it must be remembered that from his earliest youth the American boy has been taught how to express himself in public, has been encouraged by the system of recitations to be able at any moment to stand upon his feet and argue out a question ; to take part in a discussion with his teachers becomes natural to him, so that a system such as the seminar, which might be difficult to work in England owing to the reticence and shyness often found in 'the English student, is easily and successfully worked in America. As may be imagined, the work entailed upon the teachers during these four months is something enormous, but at the same time every student becomes perfectly well known to tin- instructor, and a fair estimnto is made of his cap: the examination brains. To my mind, two of th -inn about the laboratory instruction of all kinds in > the , and ai-t.ivitv displayed by th- their earnest endeavour to do their utmost without sparing themselves, and the determination of the students to !>< tau^b:. 1 do not think it is only because the practical work c -unts in tln-ir final examination that tin- men attend and work steadily, but because they want to get tbeir money's woith ; they have come to the university to be educated for the medical profession, and the stimulus of want <-! n, ;rs on a lar^e number, with the nefe result that the class as a whole atu-nd- \\eli, works well, and in pience soon becomes thoroughly interested in what must intei <>! e\eryone the discoveries of science. This system of concentration can only be carried out efficiently -.vhen the whole of tl-.e instruction has been planned out carefully beforehand and every detail of the daily working thought out and provided for in advance; this is done at Harvard by providing for every pair of students a complete set of all the apparatus that can possibly be needed for the carrying out of the course of experiments. The whole of this apparatus is made in the workshop of the faboratory by a skilled mechanician, and has been devised by Professor Porter with an especial desire to combine elliciency with cheapness. In all American laboratories, laboratory servants are very scarce, so that in every possible way labour saving appliances are used ; at the end of each experiment the students have to put away their apparatus, clean up their places, and leave everything ready for the next day, sc that it is absolutely necessary that each man should be provided at the beginning of the course with all that he can possibly require. This deficiency of laboratory servants is not altogether an unmixed evil, for it has contributed to force the teachers so to arrange their laboratory work that each student should have his own place and his own set of material during the whole of the time of his attendance at that particular course. In some cases, as in experimental physiology, he shares his place with another student, because in such courses it is better for two students to work together than for each to work by himself. In addition to the times of the regular course, he can come when he has free time, and do what he likes in his own place; he has, in fact, the same privileges and facilities as in England are confined to the advanced students. So, too, from the point of view of the teachers, not only can a piece of work be continued from day to day, but the questions which can be set in the practical examinations are no longer determined by a time limit, but may take many days to answer; thus at Johns Ilcpkins it is customary to expect quantitative as well as qualitative work in physiological chemistry, and the last week of the course is given up to the working out of such problems by the student, and constitutes part of the examination. In very many laboratories it was not possible to give a separate place to every student at the same time, or else the staff of teachers was too small, and it was felt that the teaching would be more efficient with a smaller number. In such cases the class is divided into sections, usually two or three, and the sections are, in many cases, so dove-tailed in with other sections that during the whole GA- 15-i time each section is at work the working places belong absolutely to the members of that section. With two sections, for instance, an alternation takes place between physiology and physiological chemistry ; with three sections and three terms, between physiology, physiological chemistry and histology, or pharmacology, or bacteriology. This system, which is advantageous to the student, necessitates on the part of the teacher the repetition either once or twice of every course, and also implies that it is a matter of in- difference to the student in what order these various subjects are taken. It is possible, by this system of sections, to grade the students, with the result that the section consisting of the better students would be expected to get through more work than the other sections, and I believe that such grading is attempted at Cornell University. If it were possible to differentiate the students at the outset it would largely do away with what, to my mind, is the weakness of the American system viz., that the democratic idea assumes an equality in the students, and, therefoi'e, the same instruction is given to all the same lectures, the same recitations, the same laboratory work. All are supposed to go the same pace, which cannot, therefore, be the pace of the quickest, so that, although the system may mean, and I believe does result in, a levelling up of the lowest class, it must at the same time mean a levelling down of the highest class. In addition to the set courses of instruction, in all the schools more advanced courses are given, belonging to the system of electives, and consisting either of special courses given by teachers who have made some particular part of the subject their own speciality, or of seminars, or of some piece of research work given to the student. This elective system is in considerable favour, but is at present on its trial, and thus varies in various universities. At the Harvard Medical School a new experiment has just been instituted with respect to the medical curriculum in the fourth year. The object of this experiment is to enable those students who are desirous of becoming specialists or teachers in any department of medicine, and do not intend to practice medicine, to spend their last year in elective courses, and still to obtain the degree of M.D. The new course of study is so arranged /that the first three years are devoted to prescribed work, and the fourth year entirely to elective courses. These elective courses consist of advanced teaching in the various departments of medical study, and as far as anatomy and physiology are concerned are divided under the headings anatomy, histology, histology of the nervous system, embryology, physiology, physiological chemistry. Of the whole group of electives the student must take at least two of the subjects and must obtain credit for at least 1,000 hours of work during the year. The student is intended in these elective courses to carry out if possible some original research. Such an experiment is possible in the States, because the degree of M.D. does not in itself give the right to practise medicine; that is given only by the passing of the State examination. It is an attempt to enable a man who desires to become a teacher in some special scientific subject connected with medicine to obtain some knowledge of medicine and the nature of the medical curriculum, and at the same time to make himself more efficient in the subject he intends to teach. In the States even more than in Great Britain l."..j i;i;u,. it would 1)9 impossible to obtain a professorship in sin <-ts as anatomy and physiology without. a tn<-diral degree, while at the same time this very expei imetit indicates D the time spent in the hospitals for B! up such a teaching career. How the i-xp"i intent \\ill turn out it is impossible at present to say, as th> ive curriculum of the fourth year only begins in the autumn of I'.' The courses of instruction in most of th<- ttttivi ' from the beginning of ( )ctober to the end of May, uith a slight Christmas and 1- 1 the year 1 is divided either into tlnee terms of about nine weeks each or into two semesters, the four months of June, .Inly, August, and S.-pteniber being free from ollicinl work except for the examinations in September. Chicago University has started an innovation which is at present in tlm experimental stage but is considered so far to be a ^ .'-cess. The instruction given is on the quarte,!- system, the whole year being divided into autumn, winter, spring, and summer quarters. Each is about twelve weeks in length, and there is a recess of one week between the end of each quarter and the beginning of tin-, next following, except that there is no interval between the end of the spring and the beginning of the summer quarter, and them is a recess of one month at the close of the summer quarter. All of these quarters are available to the student for obtaining credit, but in each year he can only obtain credit during three qua that is to say, he will be credited for a year's work in the medical school whether he attend three or four quarters of the year. The stud-nt can enter at the beginning of any one quarter, and the courses of instruction are repeated where necessary f >r the, convenience of such a system. The staff of teachers is sufficiently large to prevent the necessity of any teacher being on duty during the whole four quarters. Thus in the department of physiology, including physiologicil chemistry and pharmacology, the staff consists of one professor, one assistant professor of physiological chemistry, one assistant professor of physiology, and nine instructors, associates, and assistants, making a total of twelve teachers. In addition there is a separate department with a separate laboratory for neurology, the stafT consisting of one professor, four assistant?, and one fellow, making a total of six. In the department of anatomy, including histology, the staff consists of one professor, and one assistant professor (histology), nine assistants, and two fellows, making a total of thirteen. In the department of zoology, including embry- ology, the staff consists of one professor and one associate professor, one associate professor of embryology, seven assistants, and live fellows, making a total of fifteen. It is intended and hoped that this summer quarter will be an inducement for teachers from other parts of America, and from Europe, to come to Chicago and take part in the teaching. I understand that funds are available for such a purpose, and that one of the purposes of the summer quarter is this infusion of foreign ideas and foreign teaching methods into the home circle. At Harvard, as already mentioned, the student in his first year of medical study begins with anatomy and physiology, because, according to the regulations of the University, he must have taken a B.A. degree before he enters the medical school, and for that degree he must have obtained credit for chemistry and physics ; otherwise GASKELL.] 156 he must pass a preliminary examination in these subjects before he .-titer the medical school. As a rule, also, he chooses com- parative anatomy subjects for his B.A. degree if he intends after- wards to enter the medical school. The only other university in America, as far as I know, where a B.A. degree is essential before uing medical study, is Johns Hopkins. Here, too, the preliminary subjects of chemistry, physics, and biology are cleared out of the way before the beginning of the four years' course of medical study. At Johns Hopkins the plan pursued in the teaching of physiology differs from that of Harvard in that some physiology is taken during the time of teaching histology and anatomy. During this period no practical work is given, but there is a course of lectures, elementary in character, which deals with physiology as a whole, and is intended to aid the student in his anatomical work by giving him elementary notions of the functions of the organs and tissues he is examining. At the same time he obtains a general idea of the subject as a whole, preparatory to the more detailed investigation which is presented to him in the laboratory in the following year. It is clear that a four years' course of medical study in these two universities which does not include chemistry, etc., is not the same as a four years' course in other places where chemistry is included, and in consequence a considerable portion of the first year is taken up in the study of that subject. On the other hand with the academic course requiring four or three years and the medical course a further four years, it is probably eight years before the student obtains his M.D. degree, which means if lie enters college at 18 years of age that he is 26 years old before he gets his degree. The length of time required to obtain both degrees is recognised as a drawback, while at the same time the great advantage of a collegiate course is universally acknowledged, so that the tendency, to my mind, in the States will be more and more to institute a combined course of six years in length, which will enable the student to obtain his academical degree at the end of four years and his medical at the end of six to imitate, in fact, the system in vogue in England and in Canada. This system is already in working order in the more Western universities Chicago, Minneapolis, and Ann Arbor, and it is of interest to give the details of it in these three places as far as concerns the first four years of the conjoint course. As will be seen, this means that the teaching of human anatomy and physiology is included in the scientific subjects for the scientific degree ; in consequence we find that the laboratories for these subjects are built in close connection with those for the other scientific subjects, and not, as in most of the Eastern States, in the midst of the town near the hospital, but far removed from the scientific buildings of the university. In this tendency of the universities of the Middle West not to divorce physiology and human anatomy from a list of subjects belonging to a science school and confine them entirely to medicine, there is, to my mind, one of the most hopeful signs for biological progress in the States. The divorce of the medical and scientific schools, combined with the method of teaching mainly by recitation and practical work, tends to the accumulation of detail in the mind of the student, at the expense of a broad-minded, comprehensive view of the subject as a whole, and in relation to cognate subjects. What is wanted in [GABXSLL. the present day more t! ./nate sub 9 iniicli : !it both of tl: and lldent. Sllcll :i Subject 113 Jill . laiight or studied dose p buildings of chcim Ijotli liunian LVe. All the problems of physiology fail under three IK-:- when; i easy int : the rs :uid thinkers in tli. :: ill be f the broadest views and the m it teaching power. \Yhen ific Ir.iildings of the nui\ 1 many i I'roin tli-- in the latter aloii' and In; tomy, ! ; .d to the detriment of ly that in the new arrangements for the posal to con. ill the preliu. subject-, even up to bacteriology, into one or more scientific schools m the hospitals, will be carried out. In Ann Arbor the student can take physics, chemistry, and biology in his first year, and afterwards take all tli' nary <:ta up to anatomy and physiology in : years, and obtain a degree in the department of arts, literature, and .0, the only obligation being two courses in English during his first year. In Minneapolis the University of Minnesota is offering this a six years' course to give the degrees of B.A. and M.D. at th of four and six years respectively. The outline of this course follows : First Year. Ehetoric (two hours each week throughout the year), German (four hours), botany (four hours), chemistry (four hours), zoology (four hours), plane trigonometry (four hours eaca week for uvelve weeks of second semester). Second Year. Ehetoric (two hours), German (four hours), chemistry (four hours), comparative anatomy of vertebrates (four i, phvsics (four hours). Third Year. Human anatomy, histology and embryology, medical chemistry, physiology, materia medica. Fourth Year. Human anatomy, histology and embryo' medical chemistry, physiology, therapeutics, bacteriology, general pathology. In the University of Chicago the courses for the first t . which are recommended for students preparing to study medicine so as to obtain the degrees of S.B. and M.D. in four and six years respectively are as follow : English, three majors ; French or an, three majors; mathematics, two majors; history, two majors ; philosophy, one major ; these subjects are required for the S.B. degree. Also general biology, one major ; physics, two or three majors; chemistry, three to six majors; general chemistry, qualitative analysis, organic chemistry, comparative anatomy, one or two majors. These 18 to 24 majors will require six to eight) quarters for completion. The history and philosophy, or part of the chemistry, may be taken during the time that the student is doing his first two years' work in medicine. A major is a course of instruction that meets daily (i.e., four or five days a week) throughout the quarter, two hours of laboratory work being con- sidered equivalent to one hour of lecture or recitation. In the next two years the first two years of the medical course are taken. GASKELL.J 158 At Toronto a new science course entitled the honour department of biological and physical sciences, leading to the degree of B.A. at the end of four years, has been instituted, so that at the completion of the fourth year in the arts course the student has already fulfilled the requirements of the first two years in medicine. The . !;ition* for this course are as follow : First I'ftir. Elementary biology with laboratory work; elementary physics (mechanics, hydrostatics, and heat), with laboratory work ; elementary chemistry, with laboratory work ; elementary geology. Also Latin, English, mathematics. ml Year. Zoology of invertebrata, with laboratory work ; physical chemistry; quantitative and qualitative analyses; physics, with laboratory work ; elementary physiology. Also English, psychology. Third Year. Vertebrate zoology with laboratory work; elementary anatomy ; cytology and histology ; organic chemistry with laboratory work ; advanced laboratory course in electricity and magnetism. Also English. rth Year. Embryology of vertebrates, general biology (in- cluding history of biology), bacteriology, physiology, physiological chemistry, advanced anatomy; also English. At the first, second, third, and fourth year examinations the candidate will be required to translate at sight portions of scientific works in French and German. At McGill University, Montreal, the regulations for the combined course giving the degrees of B.A. and M.D. are as follow : First Year. Greek or Latin, English, history, mathematics, physics, French or German. Second Year. English, Latin .or Greek, and any three of the following, of which (d), (e), or (g) must be one : (c) Greek or Latin, or a modern language ; (d) mathematics, including dynamics or elementary biology ; (e) chemistry, with laboratory work ; (/) logic and psychology ; (g) Hebrew ; (h) German or French. The work in elementary biology and chemistry exempts from the subjects of chemistry and physics and biology in the first year of the faculty of medicine. Third Year. (a) Anatomy and practical anatomy, histology, and physiology of first year medicine ; (b) either one or two of the courses which are not placed under the heading science in the arts curriculum ; (c) either one of two hours w r eekly in English composition. Fourth Year. (a) Anatomy and practical anatomy, histology, physiology, and chemistry of second year medicine ; (6) one of the courses which are not placed under the heading science, if only one has been taken in the third year ; (c) one hour weekly in English composition, if only one has been taken in the third year. The courses which are not placed under the heading science in the arts curriculum for the third and fourth years are English, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, French, German, Italian, Semitic languages, comparative philology, history, logic and metaphysics, moral philosophy, political science, economics, Roman law, con- stitutional law and history, art and archaeology, history of philosophy. _ Teaching Appliances. Naturally the greater number of sub- divisions of the preliminary medical scientific subjects universally found in Am-ric;i than is the case in G itesa greater mir i H equipped labm-atones and B of teachers. With respect to th , tht building of laboratories, the activi: . n in the Stat- of one's own c-ju: | that the \vholu country is so impressed \\ith tlie desire for the educational metli< r new buildings are ill.; money is forthcoming for their erection. it is give a munificent donor, or is left by will, or is < alumni and the general j.nhlic l>y the - In the Slain uni\ a hit more slowl;. too, new buildings arise with considerable rapidity at the ind of the faculty. It is impossible to enumerate all the i udeiits and research in the different departments of all the universities visited ; it is sullicient to say that at Harvard and at Philadelphia (' Diversity it was felt that the laboratories for the preliminary scientific medical subjects were not quite i: and in consequence in both places palatial buildings are arising for the teaching of physiology, pathology, etc. The building at Philadelphia, which is nearly completed, will be, I should thini in the world, unless the Harvard building beats it Chicago also there is practically unlimited space for buildings, and also an unlimited purse. All the laboratories are fitted with electric light and with electric power and complete telephone arrangements, so that ever inent can communicate with every other, as well as with the world at large. Many of the laboratories have their own stenographer and their own mechanician.. As to the arrangement of the rooms, there are always certain rooms for research work, and for advanced work, in some cases such provision is ample, in others somewhat scanty. The class-rooms are, in most cases, composed of a single large room fitted up to accommodate as many students as possible in any particular subject. In some cases the laboratory unit system has been introduced and has given great satisfaction. The essence of this system is the limitation of the size of each room in which practical work is done. Instead of one large room holding places for 70 or 80 students, there are a number of small ones, each with places for 25 students ; each room has its own demonstrator, and c very student has his place during the course. The new laboratory for physiology and pathology at Toronto is built on this plan, and impressed me very much. The dissecting room at Johns Hopkins is also divided in the same way, so that each room contains three bodies, and as there are seven students to a body there are 21 students in the room under the charge of a demonstrator. A dissecting room under these circumstances does not give the usual feeling of being overcrowded. There is an air of seclusion and quiet work such as one is accustomed to associate with a class of advanced students in English laboratories but not with a large elementary class. I am inclined to think that one of the most important les> ons we can learn from Canada and the United States is how to treat a large elementary class as though its members belonged to a small select one. In order to carry out any such plan successfully we must not only have the right kind of laboratories, but also a sufficient number of efficient teachers; each unit of the laboratory must have its own demonstrator, while the professor supervises and superintends the whole laboratory. GASKELL.] 160 At Harvard in the department of anatomy the staff consists of one professor, one demonstrator, one instructor, and ten assistants ; in the department of histology and embryology one professor, two instructors, and two assistants ; in the department of physiology one professor, one associate professor, one assistant professor, and one instructor ; in the department of physiological chemistry one professor, one associate professor, two instructors, and two assistants. The number of the class in each year varies from 120 to 130. The scale of payment of the teachers in the States varies considerably, being greater in the endowed universities than in the State universities, so that no definite statement can be made. The highest salary for a professor is 1,500 a year, the more usual one 1,000 or 800 a year. The associate professors get up to 700 a year, and the assistants, etc., begin at 100, and may rise to 500 or 600. In addition, there are often student instructors at from 20 to 50 a year. At Johns Hopkins in addition to the separate small dissecting rooms there was another larger room in which were placed a great number of sections through the body at .different levels. These sections could all be handled by the students, examined and dis- cussed as thoroughly as possible, and whenever required were replaced by a fresh set. Perhaps what impresses one most (especially if one belongs to Cambridge) in passing through the dissecting rooms in the States is the lavish display of material. Nowhere in the States did I find more than eight men to a body, usually only six or seven. The parts were cheap, one to one and a-half dollars a part, and sets of bones were lent to each student during his dissecting course. The remains are either burnt or buried. According to the State regulations every unclaimed corpse goes by right to the dissecting rooms, the number to each school in any large town being regulated in accordance with the size of the school. Many of the anatomical schools have a large plant for cold storage, others prefer other methods of preservation. In connection with anatomy, as already mentioned, there are fully-equipped separate laboratories for histology and embryology, but in no medical school is there any arrangement for comparative anatomy. In fact, except in the cases where the B.A. degree is compulsory before commencing medical study and in those universities where a conjoint course for B.A. and M.D. is offered, the study of comparative anatomy as a preliminary to the medical courses is not insisted upon. Chemistry is the only preliminary scientific subject which is essential ; biology is a desideratum, but not a requirement. For all those who do take the collegiate course in arts and sciences the provision for teaching comparative anatomy and morphology was in most cases excellent ; plenty of laboratory space, enthusiastic teachers, and well supplied museums were the rule. In another respect also the student of medicine who takes both degrees has an opportunity of studying a subject cognate to medicine in a much more thorough manner than is afforded him in the medical curriculum, for psychology in the States is invariably associated with the department of philosophy, and, consequently, the laboratories for experimental psychology are situated in the academic buildings of the university, removed, therefore, in many cases miles away from the physiological laboratory. These labora- tories, and indeed the whole provision made for teaching experimental 101 psychology in tho States, are on a scale the magnitude of which h astonishing to anyone coming from \. . nd knowing ii<:gl< 'cteil this subject is in almost e\ Dumber of students attending these psychological classes was as a ruli! very large, and WHS largely compose. I nut, of nn-n intending to follow medicine us a profession but of those whose futi; to bo that of a teacher in either school or college. Certaii think that the want of provision for the teaching psychology in Midland ought to be remedied as - ile. As the result of my investigation ; iing of ;in:it.omy and physiology in America, 1 would like to make the following suggesti< ' 1. In our medical and scientific schools with a separate staff of teachers ought to he provided for anatomy, histology, physiology, physiological chemistry, exp iology, and perhaps neurology; such laboratories should he, urrai, !io laboratory unit plan and fitted up throughout with electric lighi, electric power, and telephones. 2. ]n cases where there is not sufficient accommodation for the whole class at once, the class should be divided into sections and d that every atudent has his place to hii during the whole of that ecu :>. 1 would not advocate the extreme concentration method of ing a subject, but would rather spread such a subject as physiology (in the English sense) over two years. In the first. I would give a general course in which the subject should be treated as a whole in an elementary way, taking, therefore, together the histological, chemical, and physiological aspects of the subject, so as to give the student a good general view of the subject, and leaving the more detailed study to separate courses in the second year in the separate laboratories of histology, physiological chemistry, and physiology. 4. I am inclined to think that histology should not be connected with embryology and put into the department of anatomy, but thy laboratories of histology and physiological chemistry should be under the control of the professor of physiology, the head of each department being an assistant profe 5. I em not convinced that didactic lectures are in large measure a mistake and that recitations should largely take their place. I think, however, that the system of seminars should bo encouraged as much as possible. 6. A six or seven years' conjoint course for the academic and medical degree should be encouraged as much as possible, and in all universities the preliminary medical scientific subjects should bo included among the subjects for the degree in arts or sciences. 7. There is much to be said in favour of taking into account the work done by the student during the term in his examination. There are, however, so many difficulties in the way owing to our system of examination that it does not seem advisable to lay much stress on this point. W. H. GASKKLL. 1C2 Ittosclp educational Commission. Report of the Rev. HERBERT BRANSTON GRAY, D.D., Warden and Head-Master of Bradfield College, Berks. [The following places and institutions in the United States and Canada were visited by the writer : At New York Columbia University, elementary schools, grammar schools, secondary (high) schools, manual training schools, and technical institutions; at West Point Military School ; at Washington- elementary schools, secondary schools, and manual training schools ; at Philadelphia Pennsylvania Suite University and secondary schools; at New- havcn (Con.) Yale Univer-ity; at Boston Harvard University, elementary schools, secondary schools, manual training schools, and Institute of Technology, engineering works, art schools, and evening schools ; at Buffalo secondary schools; at Ann Arbor Michigan State University; at Chicago Chicago rsity, Nnrth-NVestorn University, and secondary schools; at Toronto Toronto University, Upper Canada Colleae, secondary schools, manual training school, and gills' school ; at Ottawa timber cutting works ; and at Montreal McGill University, secondary schools, and manual training schools.] The terms of reference, on the basis of which the members of the Mosely Commission undertook to study and report on the educational systems in vogue in the United States of America, were to "investigate methods of education in parts of the United State 5 * of America, with special regard to their bearing on commercial and industrial efficiency." To this end, it was wisely determined that the personnel of the Commission should consist of men of very varied educational interests and experience, in order that no important principle or suggestive detail in any department erf American education should escape the eye of some one or other of the members of the Commission. In accordance with instructions received, it became, therefore, the duty of the present writer, as the only member of the Head Masters' Conference on the Commission (though I hasten to add emphatically that my commission did not emanate from, nor was I officially nominated by, that body], to investigate more particularly secondary education in America, including, of course, the relations of secondary both with primary and with higher education. Practically, therefore, my survey was to embrace the whole Held of education in its chief manifestations, inasmuch as, throughout all the three stages aforenamed, manual and technical training in the United States enter largely (as will be seen from the present and other reports) into the organic schemes of the different States in the Union. But it was not the methods alone that were to be examined ; the spirit which animated and permeated those educational systems had also to be taken into account. And here it becomes necessary to anticipate, and to affirm at once that a very slight investigation convinced the writer that in this domain, as in the domain of ethics, ihe spirit has been far more influential than the method in forming the character and enhancing the progress of the nation. mcs of Industrial Progress. It would be contrary indeed to all scientific experience to suppose that such a complex fact as the 163 inrluslrial and commercial advancement of any people nine! the phenomenal progress of tin- States should be, re! to a simple and single cau 1. Climate has much to do with it; the electric atmosphere, which makes of the whole continent a modern Attica, who breathe that air with a restless and, at times, vigour. 2. Then comes in as an essential factor the. -* of , in which men, especially those of the Anglo- ! race, find that scope for energy, which they lack in the limited and overcrowd' of the old contin occss of subjugating tn : purposes, and without let or hindr i soils and bouiv ; mines of a practically unexplored continent. "Tho lntt.il" \vit ; : nature on the froi has be"ii in incalculably large measure the cause of breeding -tern mental and moral stuff which is provocative of success in life. 3. Cognate to this has been the absence of those well-definod social barriers which in England separate class from class, and which. even when broken down in individual cases, are built up again with other material ; and further, the absence of the laws of primo- and of the pre-conceived traditions and " invidious bars," which, abounding unconsciously in our English training, prevents the unrestrained development of even the more ambitious spirits of our own people. Social emergence, often stifled by birth and circum- stance in our close insular atmosphere, is a plant which i been nipped or dwarfed in the ampler oxygen of the 1 4. Last, but not least, the ceasel - of immigration of all races and climes and tongues, which, though polluted to some extent, no doubt, by the scum of "undesirable aliens" a col nm which is responsible for much that is ugliest in American life and manners yet is swelled mainly and far more potently by a flood of the most adventurous spirits of the Old World, who, from the very fact that they have been bold to break away from an ties, are men born to ambition, and are ready for the fierce struggle for bread as assuredly "as the sparks fly upward." Add all these causes together, and it is not surprising that there results as an effect that i^cnomenal development in commerce and industry which is alike the admiration and envy of count r; climate, limitations of area, privilege, customs, permanence of race and caste, present greater barriers and al'l'ord less scope to the naturally soaring energies of man. What part, then, do the )at>thofh of education, as distinct from the spirit pursued in the United States, play in this form process.' Are they to be regarded as contributory causes at all to the Gargantuan progress in commerce and industry and movement generally, which the United States is manifesting a progress unexampled for its rapidity in the world's history a progress which, like the tentacles of some octopus of the deep, bids fair to smother and engulf the industries of the Eastern hemisphere? If the Commission had started on their quest a quarter of a century ago I think that their answer would have been unhesi- tatingly and unanimously "No." The leaders of vast enterprises, the chief captains of industry, have not, as a rule, owed their v.] 164 capacit'rs a:iy endowin -hing staff, wliether of uni . <>ndary schools, echools. Even the Harvard professors ; ; -11 paid. The. case is worse in secondary education. Here the teachers are so poorly paid hy the State that the teaching profession has ceased to he a career at all. The present writ' -e.dibly informed by the- head-master of a well-known secondary school i York that not more than 7 per cent, of the male teachers stay in tho "profession" more than live years, and not more than cent, make it their life's vocation. The result is th it even in the chief secondary schools in the cities there has been a gradual dwindling and elimination of men teachers, and an unhealthy preponderance of women teachers. In the Latin and the English schools of New York, Philadelphia, and Boston, the women teachers are in the proportion of 75 per cent, to 25 per cent, of teachers. These secondary schools, it must be remembered, are for boys and girls from 14 to 18 years of age, so that it is not an uncommon spectacle to find a young woman of 24 or 25, who has just passed the university requirements, teaching English, or even Latin, to youths of 18 and over. I think that it is not straining a point to say that the preponderance of female teachers in the h'gher or secondary schools I say of set purpose preponderance and not presence has an effeminating effect on the character of American boyhood. There is a tendency lor women teachers when dealing with boys of such advanced age to instil (unconsciously, no doubt) sentimental views of facts, rather than to derive principles of conduct from them. This was specially observable in lectures and lessons on English literature and English history, though I hasten to add that, in the former subject, I listened to some remarkably analytical and exhaustive teaching from the more able women teachers. It is a subject in which they excel. There is another cause which destroys the attractiveness of the teaching profession. As the teacher is entirely State paid, there is a cut and dried system by which teachers rise step by step. Exceptional ability is hardly, if at all, recognised, though failure in disciplinary and teaching power is discovered and penalised with greater frankness and frequency than in England. The openness, indeed, in which teaching is conducted in the United States is one of its most pleasing points. Our Commis- sioners, and (I was assured) strangers generally, were welcomed in every class-room. Here master and teachers alike were not only complaisant, but eager and cordial in their invitations for us to listen to any and every exponent of a lesson, however young and feeble. Criticism was coveted ; and the present writer was on many occasions, not only asked to take up a lesson and assume the part of lecturer, but even urged by the teacher to criticise his or her performance. All this is in pleasing contrast with the point of view taken by the teachers in our English public schools. Mr. G. L. Fox, late master of the Hopkins Grammar School, New Haven, Con., told me (lUAV. 1GG that in his visit to the English puhlic schools it was with great difficulty, and then only as a favour, that he obtained the entree to some of the class-rooms at the most famous of our institutions, and some head-masters felt compunction in heing present in classes lp the "'prentice hand" of a raw and inexperienced teacher. Th;it such a barrier of traditional exclusiveness (observable not in educational circles only) is unwholesome and ought to be broken v want of time from carrying out their evident duty in this respect. The avoidance, however, of the policy of the "open door," which is a largrr mutter, results perhaps from the difference between the condition of American public schools, and English so-called public schools (for the title in England is a complete misnomer), the one institutions directly controlled by the State and almost without exception day schools, the most notable of the other being in the hands of trustees, and being non-local boarding establish- ments. It may be pointed out parenthetically here that this difference should be consistently borne in mind in any estimate formed of the work and features of the American secondary school. But to return to the personnel of the teaching profession in the United States. There is yet another and more serious drawback. The insecurity of tenure is one of its most unfortunate features. It is true that there is at the end of a laborious career a chance of a small pittance by way of pension, though here the practice differs iu different States; on the other hand, the head-master and the assistant masters are to a large extent at the mercy of political \viivpuilers, who may for purposes of their own displace even the most successful exponents of the teaching . profession. It can hardly be wondered at, therefore, that the profession, as a whole, attracts very few of the best men, and that there is a tendency for tutorial, and even professorial, work to fall into feeble hands, while there is an ever-growing tendency for women to displace men in all but the highest posts. This preponderance cannot be regarded without alarm. It is an anxious problem to many thinkers in the rn, and still more in the Middle, States as to what effect this preponderance of women teachers will have on the rising generation. It is no exaggeration to say that the expert school- master and character-reader observes a certain highly-strung i us system, a want of power of concentration, and often an i mate appearance, as being characteristics of the American schoolboy of to-day. Co-education. This point leads naturally to the question of ion, which, in practically all the secondary schools of the United States, is carried on up to the age of 18 or 19. Various opinions, no doubt, may be formed as to the moral value, or the reverse, of that system. The present writer, approaching his study of the matter with a very open mind, unhesitatingly declares on the whole, from what he has observed, the advantages of this system in day schools, and (he believes) also in boarding schools (when carried, out under certain well-defined conditions), far out- weigh the disadvantages. The semi-monastic system, under which boys, at the most critical stage in their life, are forcibly separated for nine months in the year not only from the refining influence of mother and sister (as is the case in English boarding schools), but also from free and easy 107 C intercourse -with girls of their own age, has very serious and obvious drawbacks. The present writer lias not '"'ire him evidence contained in the special repor: , on education in the I'nit' published by the r>ritUh Covernment tindi-, editorship of Mr. M. L. Sadler, but also th- own careful observation, ftp convince him that tin- the sexes by t: m of co-education is, on th" wb. beneficial to the Anierieaii !>' >y and girl alike, and is la of (certainly in no way increases) tin- r which t: of th" wont;: producing. There is an absolut-- (I might well add i of sexual strain; I found no trace of the awk- and shyness between 1 which : want of intimacy, and has a tendency to generate rather than to diminish such sexual strain, and which, existing to E nt in Kndand, and accentuated in France, leads in my judgment to artificiality and grave moral dilViculties in the social system. I never observed on occasion when J t command of the highest classes in American secondary schools, where boys and gills were being taught Latin or English together, a single indication, e.g., that, when a girl ;ion to "construe" or to answer, her utterances and her quasi-public appearance before the class was the, signal for any amused recognition of the fact between the boys. On the contrar the girl was regarded as the class-mate and nothing more ; no trace of sentimentalism was ever apparent. I may here add that the girls showed a far greater power of concentration than the boys ; the attention of the latter seems to flag after half-an-hour's lecture, even when given by the more interesting teachers. On the other hand, when there was occasion for display of originality, as in the Lnglish literature lessons, there was no comparison between the two. The boys far outstripped and showed greater interest than the girls. Training of Teachers. This point brings me to a feature on which it is important to dwell. I observed strongly in the elementary schools, perhaps not so clearly in the secondary schools, a grasp on the part of the teacher of the scientific' principle in teaching. I attribute this, of course, entirely to the fact that every teacher has If or herself to go through a complete course of the theory of ;g and of the principles of psychology (in the teachers' colleges or the normal schools, according as the aim is to teach in secondary or in elementary schools) before being permitted to teach at all. And when it is remembered that the teaching profession in the I'nited States is, us has been already pointed out, not compos of the ablest and the more ambitious men (not to mention women), these evident traces of the scientific spirit are the more remarkable. It affords food for reflection, when one remembers that in England the necessity of scientific training for educators has been only recently, and still is, grudgingly acknowledged in the regions of secondary education. The discipline in American schools has a character of its own. There is none of the uncompromising, unquestioni discipline which marks the well-governed English public school, and which sometimes, carried to an extreme, through the ne> of the case, in the non-local or boarding schools, has a tendency to e individuality, and create what is called in cant terms " a tone." Discipline in the American school is essentially a compromise. GRAY.] 1G3 It depends almost entirely on the interest excited by the teacher and the teaching. It is lessened largely by the knowledge that the teacher holds his or her position, not as a right which cannot rudely be disturbed, but on the cufferance of the public of which the boys' and girls' own homes form an integral part. There is more lounging and more freedom of address permitted, and even encouraged, than is the case in the Old World. Pupils cross- examine their teacher, and " argumentation " between each other, and between themselves and the teacher, is a recognised part. of the programme, BO long as such " argumentation" bears on the lesson. The methods of teaching, on the whole, are admirably conceived, though they are often not skilfully carried out. There is no " cramming" ; there is a great deal of " elicitation." Pupils even in classical lessons are taught to ask the reasons why, and their intelligence is drawn out ; facts are not stuffed in. Teaching of Languages. With regard to the Latin teaching I found much inaccuracy and antiquated method on the part of the teacher. Looseness of translation is permitted to a degree at which even our moderately equipped teachers would shudder. Really good scholars in the secondary schools were rare, though I can make one or two favourable exceptions which came under my observation notably a classical teacher in Brookline School, Boston. There is very little exercise in composition, and what there is, speaking broadly, leads to poor results. The teaching of French was more antiquated still. I found hardly any traces of the enlightened modern system which is rapidly coming into vogue in some of our progressive English schools, where the teachers and pupils talk in the language which they are teaching and learning respectively. Teaching of English. On the other hand, the teaching of English was remarkably good, and far outstrips anything of which we can boast. I attribute this to the fact that it is a subject which, from the peculiarity of the component elements of American citizenship, has been emphasised from the beginning. It is inevitable that, when there is a vast tide of immigration daily pouring into the country of all nations, and languages, and tongues, there should be a deliberate and forcible attempt made to assimilate these hetero- geneous elements by all the means at the disposal of the Government. The primary machinery to this end is the study of the English language from the kindergarten upwards, and there has been on the part of the educational authorities a most scientific and com- prehensive scheme for the inculcation of the Anglo-Saxon language in its linguistic, grammatical, and literary aspects. The teaching of English literature in the upper classes of the secondary schools is of the most masterly kind, and I have heard women teachers who are certainly not behind men teachers in the power of exciting interest in this most important subject of education. Mathematical and Science Teaching. The mathematical teaching was, on the whole, good, its success being due partly to the influence of French methods, which had vogue in America in the last decade or two of the nineteenth century. In the better known schools and in the colleges Euclid had been more or less successfully dethroned in favour of the new geometrical methods. The teaching of science in all its branches appeared admirable, being, of course, largely helped forward by the magnificent apparatus 1C9 [GltAY. and liberality of space, which are at the disposal even of tha beginners in this subject in thy secondary schools, while the emphasis laid on tin- subject through all tb ricati education has rescued it from being, as it has been till , regarded elsewhere, the Cinderella of the educational family. In the universities, the same . :i of appliance.-, attracts a hugo number of students, and there is an admirable p-rci'iitage of men who are imbued with a spirit of research ije\und tie- |uire- ment of degrees a spirit which augurs well for the future inventive power of the Ani'-rican people, already pre-eminent as they are in ibis power among tin- nations of the world. On this point, however, the writer leaves other critics more scientifically expert to dwell. He would add, however, one characteristic of American methods in the pursuit of science which may be well commended and emphasised by the general educationist without " travelling outside the record," as it embodies a principle often conspicuous by its absence elsewhere. The professors and assistant professors in science, as distinct from the students, are not forbidden, but encouraged, to unite with their professional duties some practical work in the world outside. Generous allowance of time is given to secure this extramural efficiency. A professor who is simply a professor, and who does not, or cannot, secure employment and emolument in industrial undertakings, is looked upon as a non- efficient ticuilcmic. Hence comes a close touch between scientific theory and commercial and industrial " practice," which has already produced the happiest and the most fertile results in inventive power. The jealousy with which some professional appointments are guarded in England, and which prescribes that no work must be sought or done outside academic walls, is regarded as suicidal .policy in America. Fortunately this narrowness is not true of all academic institutions, even among ourselves. To quote an illustra- tion which occurs to the writer, it is unusual, and would be to the last degree unwise, for the governing body of a non-local secondary school to insist that the medical officer appointed to the institution should not take outside practice. The result of such limitation could only be to make the school doctor rusty and non-efficient, though, on the other hand, it would be wise to insist that the health of the institution should be his primary care, and to that all other " practice " should be subordinated. Manual Training. Any survey of American secondary education would be incomplete without a reference to the manual training, which forms an integral part of the systems in the majority of secondary schools in the United States. The connection between mind and hand is recognised there to an extent which preconceived prejudices have hitherto rendered impossible in England. But instead of manual training being confined to those who are to pursue an industrial or engineering career, or to those who are relegated to " shops " merely as a dernicrc ressource, because they are incapable of the abstractions of book learning, in the United States it is regarded in many of the best developed schools as an integral part of a liberal education. Its importance in this aspect varies indeed in different States, and in different cities, but every- where it occupies an honourable place. It is, moreover, graded on carefully thought out systems from the cardboard "modelling" of the kindergarten to the skilled engineering processes in the colleges GKAY.] 170 and universities. Though space forbids me to enlarge on the value of this feature of American education, my report would lack a com- pleteness satisfactory to myself if I did not pause to emphasise my profound sense of the value of manual training as scientifically carried out in the schools of the United States, leading as it does to the happiest results in promoting that versatility and alertness which is so characteristic of American workers. It is almost im- ible to exaggerate it. But the reports emanating from those of my fellow Commissioners, who have more claim to be regarded as experts in this part of education, will doubtless be more full and convincing on this point. ( 'urricula.ThQ general features of the curricula pursued in different States of the Union next claim attention. It would be impossible in any report to give any comprehensive sketch of the different hours allotted to the various subjects, though the trend is unmistakable. But, speaking broadly, one may observe that English language and literature in the ordinary high schools throughout the four-year course (14-18) get as much consideration as the foreign language -or languages (ancient or modern), four hours a week being devoted to each ; two hours are assigned to ancient, or mediaeval, or modern history, in three out of the four years of study; algebra or geometry occupies four or five hours during the first two years, while the hours are afterwards reduced to admit in the remaining two the physical sciences, to which are assigned six or more hours in the third or fourth year. Physical training is accountable for two hours (drill and gymnastics), and to singing is assigned one hour. The students attend on an average about 20 "exercises," or "recitations" (Anghce, lessons), of about 45-50 minutes each. Home work varies from ten to twelve hours per week. In the so-called Latin schools, where the course (e.g., at Boston) lasts for six rather than four years, the insistence on English and on Latin is greater, French being only taught two or three hours per week in the third, fourth, and fifth years, while to mathematics are assigned only four hours, and to science one to three. The system of " electives," i.e., the giving of " choices " to students as to what particular kind of study they should pursue, is carried to an extent unknown elsewhere. As a protest against the " cut and dried " prescribed course, which is characteristic of the ancient English foundations, where all are driven along a narrow groove (often despite absence of power and proclivity) to a preter- uaturally late period in the student's educational life, the system of electives has its value. It does not disgust or repel. It produces few, if any, " hopeless cases." Superannuation, the artificial means by which these " hopeless cases " of the narrow-groove system are eliminated from the schools, with all its attendant injustice, is unknown. On the other, the system of electives has been allowed at far too early an age (14) in America. Though nominally tho parent has the authority to say what subjects his child should pursue, practically the boy or girl has the power in his or her own hands. There is observable, therefore, a gravitation towards " soft options." The student chooses what he likes because it is easy, and it is easy because he likes it. One looks in vain, therefore, for that " mental gymnastic" which consists in fighting difficulties, and the bracing of the character which ensues from it. There is yet to 171 KAY. be found tho media via between the evils of the tv. i in some States and cities of th the ideal i< nearly appn>ach< -d. Tin-; occurs where " eleol re not permissible till the third or fourth year of tho secondary school < 16 to 17), or even ihetter still) deferred till the university < begii A word or two remains to be said as to the percentage of boys and girls \\lm go through tho wholo educational co'i '.) tho fourth year of the secondary school stage : also as to tin- ] of days in the year during which tho student attends school. r first -in the elementary schools in the Middi 'n Slates the normal attendance may prohably he put at 200 in the year a somewhat lower ;i . ;an that obtaining in Kngland, tho deficiency being attributable largely to tho heat of the summer season and the consequent length of tli iueational mortality," as it may he called, is startling. Jl- istworthy, and the " mortality " ent States and localities ; but it may be said broadly that, of the total number of children to whom tl lii'ers free education in ti as well as in the priiii'irij schools, only 1:' JUT cent, begin the secondary course, only 7 per cent, complete it, while only 5 per cent, carry on their education at the uni\ Irit of Amcricttn 'Kilnci'ti' this sole cause. But tho more the American educational spirit is examined, the more unstinted is the praise which may justly be bestowed. On the part of the teachers (confessedly not men or women as a rule greatly skilled in the art they profess) there is yet an enthu which ignores drudgery and sustains and inspires energy, and this in spite of poor pay, insecurity of tenure, and almost total al> of " prizes in the profession." With the pupils the enthusiasm for ng is not less intense. Nervous, impatient of concentration, independent in discipline as the American boy is, his deficiencies are more than co: 1 for by his desire for education as such. In my examination of schools of different types and proficiency, I never stumbled across' a really idle boy. Even constitutional slack- Deemed to be : ich of ambition. And what is true of the American boy is true also (only that it can be affirmed with still greater emphasis) of the American girl. self-seeking materialism with which the Airerican is often ed has the li to it in the spirit with which the cqui-ition of knowledge for its own sake is viewed (not here or here) but by the universal sentiment of the whole people. Tke GRAY.] 172 almighty dollar cannot be the only god of a nation imbued with such an idealistic view of the end of life, whose favourite text seems to be : " With all thy getting, get understanding." A nation permeated through and through with such sentiments has indeed in it possibilities beyond what it has even hitherto shown, for there works in its midst " the spirit of the mighty gods." Countless stories are told of the sacrifices which young men at college, equally with boys at secondary schools, make in order to pursue their studies at any cost. A little pamphlet put into the writer's hand, called " Self-help at Yale," is eloquent on this point. But written testimony is needless. Cases met the attention of the writer at every turn. Young men will hire themselves out as telegraph operators, as waiters, as postmen, as temporary occupants of any menial post involving work in the evenings, if only thereby they can secure enough funds to pay their lecture fees in the daytime at the universities. Below I give without comment an extract from a newspaper chosen almost at random, which is typical of hundreds of other cases of like character : "BoY IN HARD BATTLE TO GET AN EDUCATION. ' SIXTEEN YEAR OLD LAD TURNED FROM SCHOOLS WHEN HE ASKS A CHANCE TO WORK His WAY. (Special Dispatch to the Herald.) " Poughkeepsie, N.Y. (Sunday). Harold Bember Parker, 16 years old, of Lowell, Mass., applied at police headquarters in this city last night for lodging, and was permitted to sleep on a bench in the city court. Ho told of a hard struggle to get an education. "Young Parker says he is the son of a poor widow, and seeing that he was doomed to work in the Lowell Mills he appealed to Walter Hall, publisher of the Harvard College catalogue. Mr. Hall recommended him to a school at Newton, N.J. He remained at the Newton School four weeks, when it developed that he could not earn money enough outside to keep him in clothes. " He had spent most of his money for football clothes, hoping that he would be able to win a place in school by his proficiency on the grid-iron. "The lad called on Major Joseph Bisbee, of the Riverview Military Academy, in this city, to-day, and was told that, because of the many young men who are now working their way through the academy there would be no room at present for him. He then went to call on Mr. Gaines, president of the Eastman College, who is absent in Virginia. Mrs. Gaines, who is the mother of T. L. Woodruff, of Brooklyn, gave him employment in her home and promised to arrange for a place for him in the college, if possible, when her husband returns. " Parker was delighted with his success, and declared that he would surmount all difficulties in getting an education." Indolence is viewed from quite a different standpoint than obtains nearer home. Of organised idleness there is still less trace. It never enters into the calculations of a people permeated through and through with the earnestness of life that there could exist a class of young men who are sent to " seats of learning, ' not primarily to gain education, but to receive a certain pocial stamp, to make fashionable friendships, and treat the institution which they enter, as a late French writer drily observed, " as a club, or a town, as anything but a school." An American cannot understand that attitude of mind (if mind it can be called), consecrated by centuries of aristocratic " white-handedness," which regards it as "ba^ form " to work, and not seldom seeks in after life to persecu *> jhose who set themselves to master the details of the professk >' 1 73 [GRAY. in which they have undertaken to serve their country. The, Ani'-ricaii lias a scathing name for this class of youn^ men. They arc " tramps" To \\li.r ; icalihy anrl rolcist view of life whi'-h olitains in the student life of the I'nited \vhetl: r freedom from inherited prejndio' ( of strong lines ot linn hetween da 3 and \vhi<-h ma v American hoy feel that nothing in the. future, not e\ louse, is imjnsMhie for him, or \vheti partly due to climatic causes, certain it is that : phenomenon which no critic < < ican education can v disregard ly fail to record in his estimate of th" -- IS which :n-e making for the industrial progress of tlie people of the ^reat ll'-pulil 1 !-. on the portals of whose every temple of learning :is to 1).- Inscribed this stern and unflinching motto: "If thon wilt not work, neither shalt thou cat." 1'or such a nation there would SOPIII to be reserved incalculably great possibilities of future destiny. H. B. GRAY. 174 Ittosclp educational Commission. Report of Mr. W. P. GROSER, Nominated by the Parliamentary Industry Committee. I. EDUCATION AND INDUSTKIAL SUCCESS. Whether here or there, it is easier at present to obtain reliable and comprehensive descriptions of the education of the United States than of England. This report will not attempt to add another, nor will it detail statistics, for these things are available ily elsewhere. Its scope is shortly to consider some of the personal and educational factors which make for industrial success in the United States, to compare with them conditions here, and to suggest in what direction, to what extent, and by what means we can profit by American experience. Many relevant problems have to be entirely omitted or dealt with inferentially. And I am anxious to emphasise that I am { concerned here with the good, and not with the bad. It is the bias of an inquirer abroad to disregard progress at home. But that aspects which contain lessons are more relevant should not sn the absence of many phenomena intrinsically undesirable or unsuited to our conditions. Only where such phenomena are interdependent with benefits- 1 shall try to indicate them. Illustra- tions are selected almost at random from many available. An institution is likely to be singled out more from my better acquaint- ance with it than from any superiority to others. To all whom I met in the States my thanks are due for their invariable kindness and willingness to give me their time and stores of information. My thanks are due also, as well as to Mr. Mosely, to the Parliamen- tary Industry Committee for my appointment as their repri and to the great advantages for investigation which I have con- sequently enjoyed. A. TJie Workman. 1. Primary Education. The workman's is the same as another man's. He sits on the same form as, perhaps, the President's son, and is required to stay at school in most States from the age of 8 to 14, and until 16 in several of the most populous and indust important States (e.g., New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Minnesota). The common schools vary in every way and to every degree, for each State has its own system, and each teacher his or her own individuality. The average of attainment in them is no higher than in England. The progress is slow, the methods are discursive. .But the relations between teacher and p-ipil are much closer, the method of discussion is employed with it benefit to mental development, ihe pupil's mistake is follov up psychologically, and by these means a more inquiring -and critical attitude of mind is produced, with a greater appreciation of the value of education. The anxiety to hold the attention and the constant divergence into related but irrelevant topics possibly cultivate a large sense of 175 [On- importance and an inaccura 1 habit of H ion of the unimpi ta nee '" the utioo of specific knowledge, -'id the all-importance of a spirit of iin|iiiry, indiviihiality and r is general in the United to appr ui of branches i.f l-nowlr.lu'i . His int.-!' D leaving is not developed to a higher a it is of a rnoi 1 1: i r;irt i(,ii in what ii: the insistence with which the nation;:! id.' his mi-id tend to influence; his conception of a : .mil duties. His association with hoys of a. high - i is a fin-tor in ; iction of the democratic spiriv rahle influence on his subsequent relations '.vi-.h his ployers. A v ^ting, though I think uncommon, opinion is that of an authority the general manager of Mwin Locom Works, i Ie prefer . ithout manual training on two ground-. -ix months to eradicate from such ; QOW8. He has to unlearn much, since, his ideas and methods t commercial ; he wants to do things "too well," and to spend undue time on them. Secondly, he has rarely had such a good ;ion, since ho likes the manual training, and for it iileresting work. A further and relevant opinion of i' man is that education should be done once for all. a period of shopwork after leaving school, and sxihsr- quent college training, as well as the " sandwich " system. This course, he holds, wastes the progress made in the shop, for methods change in four years, and gives the man the wrong idea that he is an engineer and not a mechanic. It must never be forgotten that since secondary education is free though not compulsory a vastly higher proportion of the population receive it than with us, and the public opinion in favour of education is so strong that few lose it to whom or to whose parents mainten- ance meanwhile is financially possible. Free libraries are many, largely used and liberally conducted. The alien problem is dealt with most successfully. In common schools and elsewhere the national idea is sedulously cultivated, and instruction is given in the United States in constitution and the rights and duties of citizens. In New York the immigrant quickly imbibes American feeling and sentiment, and the next generation is more American than the native. In spite of preventive regula- tions, it is true to-day that assimilation and not exclusion is the policy. Civics in one form or another is taught at every stage of education. The question is important. In the public schools of achusetts, for instance, 64 per cent, of the children are either foreign horn or once removed. But they are all Americans. 2. Technical Training. I use the term " workman " here to include also labourers, journeymen, and mechanics. A distinction is growing up rapidly between the workmen who have had a tech- course and those who have not, the former commanding i positions at higher wages, and at present a certainty of constant employment. The cry among manufacturers everywhere is for more skilled men. Many of them try to supply their own demand by a variety of apprenticeship systems which are dealt with GROSEB.] 176 elsewhere (D 3). They are anxious to secure educated and intelligent men, even without technical or special knowledge. Mr. Hulburd, the president of the Elgin National Watch Company, told me that he has a standing offer that any graduate of the Elgin High School (boy or girl, probably 17 or 18 years old) may come to the works, , ill be taken on at a wage of a dollar and a half a day (37s. Gd. per week) and regularly taught. Many come. " In the last 13 months," he said, " I have had 30 of them ; six proved not adapted to the work and Were discharged. The others have done splen- didly, though in the final rooms it is six months before they are much good to us." The unions have raised no objection, though they might possibly do so if work were scarce. Mr. Hulburd gave the Jiiuh School the whole of its manual training equipment. The completeness of the facilities for technical training, day or evening, theoretical and practical, we cannot rival. It is not so much the elaboration of the plant and equipment in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, or any distinguished superiority in the methods of instruction, but in the number of such institutions, their completeness, their systematic education, and their determination to teach the mystery to whose practice the students propose to devote themselves. Liberally as our Technical Instruction Acts are construed, the Pratt Institute, the Philadelphia Textile School, a hundred such places through the States would laugh to hear that as a concession to trade unionism the one thing we may not teach is the one thing the students want to learn. In America they know something of trade union tyranny at one of the schools I have mentioned the chief instructor in plumbing is a walking delegate, and no one ia instructed who is not in the trade. We have this restriction, but nowhere, I believe, in America has it been suggested that a technical school must not teach a trade, must give shopwork only as an illustration, must carefully refrain, in the words of the U.S. Commissioner of Labour, " from giving sufficient practice to enable the pupil to acquire dexterity, or in any manner do away with the necessity of a regular apprenticeship in the trade." We may hope that in this matter full scope will be allowed to that substantial reform, which passed almost unnoticed in the shadow of other controversies round the Education Act, 1902. In America most of the technical and textile schools are trade schools, but in the longer courses they combine a full scientific and technical instruc- tion which is education in the highest; sense. To the excellence of their work, its practical and educational value, almost every professor, manufacturer, and graduate will bear witness. As an illustration, I excerpt a passage from a report on the metal trades by Mr. Carroll D. Wright, U.S. Commissioner of Labour : " Of the 80 establishments ia this industry from which schedules were obtained, 8 report that the special training of their workmen in trada or technical schools has resulted in increasing the amount of the product from 10 to 20 per cent., and in one case 50 per cent. ; 25 report improvement in the character and quality of the product, and 20 report that workmen who have the benefit of instruction in these schools receive from 10 to 50 per cent, higher wages than those who have had shop training only." The superintendent of a large metal manufacturing establishment in Massachusetts said : " Recognising the advantage of trade and technical education, a few years ago we adopted the policy of allowing our employes, without lo-s of wages, the privilege of attending an afternoon class which we had succeeded in having 177 established for thr-m in a local trade school. The knowledge acquired by men. ii>c' :h,-r ui'h the training received liy u. iit clauses in tlie pehool, li to our BU un irfl intelligent in; ne trade, and they require far 1< ^< m :h<- perform*] Tin- I" -he-e trained workmen distributed through our shops has had ! bcneiiriul effect upon those with \\lmin they coino in daily contact ; they have stimulated tin- desire fur technical instruction among those who otherwise would iieeii ;i powerful factor in elevating the c 1 our product. The technical training of tin ir previous t mining in the -hop, has made it p, s ible for the CMmp.-uiy. by tip to prointe all irents, w ho often a the- ultra-smart set, or desire special individual attention lor ph or mental weakness, or wUh BO1 :al educational theory applied. In addition, too, a large numh I tho g< individual attention pos>ible as of genuine impoii schools are as costly ae, or more so, than our " h " prepara- ^chools. But the distinguishing feature of primary education ig that the majority of children of all -MM! ho;h sexes ato-nd tin; common school. Its consequences are far reaching and, for America, valuable. _'. . Education. The attendance is for about four years, of 11-3 and 18. Tho private schools are here more important. The two largest, modelled on English public schools, ville, N.Y., and Groton, Mass. In these two, in all others to varying extents, and indeed throughout American educa- tion, tho attention given to physical culture is carried to a degree which seems to me almost excessive. The private schools are expensive: it costs as much proportionately to keep a boy at Lawrenceville as at Harrow. The public high schools are calculated to carry a child from the common schools to the college. They are free, so that as a rule any child who can be maintained for the four years can atl'-ml them. A far larger proportion attends, and whole classes of children get a high school education who with us see the last of direct instruction at 13. I regard the system of high schools as excellent and valuable. But in them, and in the private schools, the standard of attainment is no higher than, if as high as, with us. A striking phenomenon is the great and increasing proportion of children who study Latin, particularly in the West. The same applies, in a less degree, to Greek. Tne subjects are both ele n'ir popularity is yearly increasing ; the same is the case in tho universities, and it seems at present that the United - dis- ing independently the lessons which England is trying to unlearn. In every case I came across the teaching of Latin ;rate and almost slipshod compared with our public school standard. And I think the spirit is even less grasped. Science takes a more important place. Elementary biology, sv, and zoology are generally required subjects. But throughout high school education the same phenomena are apparent which I have noted in the case of the common schools. The excellence of the product depends far less on any particularity in the methods of attainment than on the spirit of inquiry, of interest, of freshness and of earnestness, on the relations between teacher and taught, the open discussions, the apparent recognition by the pupils that their instruction is not the manifestation of an ignoble conspiracy. GKOSER.] 180 From this, and not from the actual knowledge acquired, results the inquiring and ambitious attitude which is at the root of success. The many business and commercial schools present no important .res. The mental training could be better acquired by other means, and apart from shorthand, typewriting, and book-keeping I do not believe that anything is gained which is as valuable to anyone as a high school course. The comparative unimportance of examinations is of great advantage in time and efficiency. It is a popular and well-founded gibe in the United States that we cannot work without examina- tions, prizes, or scholarships. The almost complete absence of emphasis on these points is of great advantage to America. It is possible that a course may be popular which is merely valuable, which neglects entirely the really essential thing the examination or scholarship syllabus. The point is of the first importance, but is so universally recognised in theory that in spite of its complete neglect in practice I shall not devote more space to it. 3. University Education. A few features only can be noted here. The " elective" system is practically universal, within limits. To me it seems that the required subjects in any course are so comprehensive and the advice of tutors so valued, that its effects are greater in sentiment than in practice. Classics, notably in Yale and Princeton, has a growing predomin- ance, but the science schools have not our disadvantage in prestige. Of the instruction all that can be noted here is the greater elasticity and breadth of a system in which results are less measured by examination. Such courses as that of Mr. Woodrow Wilson, President of Princeton, in " politics," ranging over general juris- prudence, constitutional history, ethics, principles of economics, and international relations, lead to no degree, and fulfil only the function of giving the student invaluable training as a citizen. There are many universities with diverse characteristics. But, except perhaps in one, it is not only possible but of constant 'occurrence that men should work their way through from start to finish. It is by no fiction or occasional eccentricity that we hoar of men occupying their vacations in almost every class of labour. There are many instances at Harvard or Yale as well as at Columbia or Chicago ; and though it is obviously unlikely that men to whom this was cecessary would happen to be in the particularly " gilded " set in a large university, it is the fact that such a man does not suffer socially for his circumstances and his industry. An arrangement like that at Chicago, where men get their board and lodging free for performing certain domestic services, such as waiting on the other students at meals, etc., seems to, me likely to bring the system into disrepute eventually ; but there are obvious advantages in the sentiment which enables a man to earn an education which otherwise he would have to forego. At the State University of Minnesota, and at others, the terms are arranged to be in large measure complete and self-contained, so that a student, having spsnt his money, may go away and earn some more, returning to take up his studies with comparatively little loss. The most striking difference in the actual work of the college is the wide choice of courses afforded, and the fact that being applied not to examination standards the student is more likely to combine knowledge with culture, fitness for life with fitness for research. )SEB. Ideas and conditions differ ; it is as a 'a coinn. that I mention thai at Oxfo it of . at Harvard and Yale, Columbia, Chicago, Minnesota, and many others the u college -tin- graduate p ,1s are o: 1)1' their work all 1 can noli: is that it is in many msU "d directly for professional training, (ir in such a law sciiool is, in ei .nvment lur B to the legal profession. In many colleges, schools of " commerce and admin: choose a popular one among various becoming important departments, though none oi ' *h which I am acquainted has existed long enough for its > > be adequately judged. Their syllabus, including commercial hi and geography, economics, linance, distribution of products, railway igriculture, and many other topics, is so con hensive that probably students lose less in general culture than would be expected. The opinion of the general manager of one of rcatest railways, to whose profession these courses are ntly directed, was that their value is no more than their general mental training ; this view was admittedly based rathe*r on theory than experience, and is quoted rather because of its intrinsic authority than its argumentative validity. Under certain con- ditions the course would seem most valuable, but not in the majority of positions for which entrance at the bottom is demanded. For a " missionary " to discover, acquire, and extend markets it would certainly be most valuable, and, adapted to English requirements, it seems to me an experiment worthy of imitation. Whatever be our handicap from university athleiu-^m, America's is heavier. There are differences in method there fewer play, and more bet on the touchline. Their system is commercial and businesslike, and by their failure to recognise that the game's the thing, the result an incident, the true spirit of sport and its great ts are largely eliminated. To them, a fast and fair game s no consolation for an adverse result. At one of the largest tin sities (and I believe similar conditions prevail very generally) the prejudiced mind of a senior professor no sportsman evidently discerned a disproportion in the chief football coach's salary of 750 for six months' work and his of 500 for nine. But some principal professors received 800 or more, so that the dignity of learning was becomingly vindicated. 4. Professional and Technical Education. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology has plant and advantages which no school in England can boast. There are several such institutions in the States, and the completeness of scientific and technical education obtainable in them is an admirable training for the interests they serve. Lavish expenditure in plant and equipment, comprehen ness in instruction, and direct application to appropriate occupations are their notable features. Mr. Swain, professor of engineering in the Massachusetts Institute, told me that he received 160 applica- tions from railways, structural companies, etc., for the 35 men who graduated as C.E. in 1902, the salaries offered averaging ten guinea* a month, with a rapid rise. Low salaries to i .th rapid increases, are almost universal. At the Klgin Watch Works one man is earning about 450 a year and has 200 men under him who three years ago came there direct from the Massachusetts Institute. GROSER.] 182 The textile schools, of which that at Philadelphia is an admirable example, are most practical. Mr. Theodore Search, the founder, president, and principal, is himself a manufacturer. "When I J 17 years ago," he said to me, "1 did not at first know what to teach. Then I thought what I wanted the men in my own mill to know, and gave them that." The remark is illuminating. The course takes three years. All entrants there are now 1,000 must be at least of high school graduation standard, and a number of university graduates present themselves. Everyone takes theory 11 as practice, and beginning at the beginning learns to do ihing for himself. They card the wool, make the dyes, and themselves complete the article. " When our man has finished he knows every process for himself, can be sent abroad to find new markets, knows all the tricks of the trade and the ways of the market." A Harvard man spent eight months in a mill, gave it up, and came to the school. He told me that in a month he discovered many most elementary operations he had never realised, because in a mill, for economy, women and boys do them, and such men are saved the drudgery which often includes important processes. Mr. Search was emphatic on the necessity for a good general education first. " You can't do these things on the three The school's products are sold ; economy in working the plant is effected by keeping the carding machines, etc., running constantly, tended by women, the teachers and students taking over the work within their hours. It is worth noting that originally many manufacturers opposed the school as useless ; this has changed, and there is a big demand for its men. Much of the existing plant is the gift of the worsted yarn manufacturers of Philadelphia. The school is exempt from all taxation, and has a grant from the city. It runs also an evening class attended by some 200 students. On the subject of engineering education, Mr. W. Barclay Parsons gave me some views which are entitled to particular respect. Mr. Parsons is the chief engineer of the Eapid Transit Board of N ew York, and is familiar with the profession in most European countries. Under him is a staff of 322, and some 9,000 workmen. His view of the advantages of American methods is that the young engineer is trained to a general familiarity with the simpler work in every branch, while the Englishman has instead specialised knowledge of a department. The American can, therefore, undertake practical work at once with greater confidence. He knows where to find his advanced knowledge when it is necessary, and the broader training has produced a mind of greater elasticity, adaptability, initiative, and self-raliance. He strongly advises, and gives his sons, a double course first a degree in arts, then a professional course, as giving essential breadth and enterprise. In most universities, by the \va\ , two such courses may be combined in six years instead of the normal seven. He lays, too, great importance on engineering being taught by men actually engaged in the practice of the profession at the same time. 5. Initiative. " My great difficulty," said the manager of a manufactory, " is to keep an office-boy." Some years ago I asked a well-known newspaper proprietor why his personal confidential staff were Englishmen, since he chose none of them for his paper. " I would rather have Americans," he owned, " but if I told them as much as I do my present secretaries I should soon have an opposition [Gn. on my own lines across satisfied with I ';!. it- ind;- enterprise the young American . MHUI set to a pieee of work need oot, I tin:;. :. Hut a young Kn.:.:ii-hm:.n < ist loose into tin- world is hk ly to 1 ihle berth when the American is emerging fron I hankruptev for half-a-million. 1 have quoted Mr. W. B. Parsons on the pi of excef- adherene-j to authorised methods by breadth of educati. this breadth ; 3 the American self-confidence in pur other than his sp viality : he feels less that lie knowledge which it is extravagant not to utilise, and is willing to change his situation, his metliods, his profession itself at a day's A good chance is always worth a bad certainty to a lor. As an example of adaptability, Mr. Hulburd, who, on beco: lent, converted the Elgin Watch Company into a conspi* 3S, had no previous connection with such work, ai; up. >n it after he had retired from sixteen years' practice of law and another business. In the United States I met one largo employer, bin: man, who did not much appreciate the ; training. And on these topics he said, " But 'varsity men as a rule 1. initiative. For 99 per cent, of the non-university men it is hopeless pect to get to the top." ricans put safety high among their desires, and' iy do not say so. Eestless ambition is almost univ. "Of course they're all ambitious," Mr. John Wallace said to "sometimes they're nothing else." They never p schemes. The small boy from the common school, the young from the uni\ re equally unwilling to stagnate on a < potency. Their ambition is, to a certain extent, national, and spirit is carefully fostered. The fact of this enterprise and ambition, produced by broad training, relics of pioneer spirit, the < in his superiority to his neighbours, and ideals of success which le neither leisure nor politics, whatever its influence o: politic, makes him, in his own field, fertile in conception and swift in action a strong competitor to any man. 6. Promotion. Salaries usually begin low, but rises begin r The firm belief of the employed that ho is desired to rise and that his progress is being watched is allied to a recognition by the employers that only on procuring the best men and utilising them in the fullest sphere they can dominate can their success s ncouraged to report ability to do so means re to them also. Mr. Vanclain, of the Baldwin Works, said to me, are always looking out for men who can be promoted. And they know it. Boys will stay all night to finish a job." And in rej a suggestion that ceas -on in shopwork meant loss of I energy " No time for thinking ? NVhy, if a man sits down at a table to invent, he'll spend all his time and money in useless ,t rights." The method, entailing almost universally beginning very low down, is illustrated by the system of tho general manager of a principal railway. The whole of his "operating" depir filled by men beginning as "track apprentices," receiving at first 9 dols. (37s. 6d.) weekly. They are promoted to gauger, foreman, GROSER.] 184 and so up to the highest posts. All subordinate positions in the engineering department are filled by these men. "I call it my " he said; "directors' sons, university men all classes start here together. The drudgery keeps out the man I don't want : the man I do want can rise quickly, and knows the work from the beginning." His experience was that he got few university men :em, for they would not stand the drudgery. But this was in the West, where there are fewer such men and more available posts. In the East, the university men would take such terms. 7. Unirersitii Itcm/lts. Of the importance of university training in commercial as well as in professional life, I shall only give a few examples. Its value is determined as much by the attitude of employers as by its direct benefits. Mr. Roosevelt his said that it is not until he is over 30 that a man finds the full advantage over his fellows which a university education has bequeathed. A student I met at Pennsylvania University found it earlier. He was a man with ample opportunity, who, knowing that he must always start at the bottom, went on a railway at 18 to save time. After eighr, months' work, including promotion, he decided that his chance of high position was hopeless in competition with the university men not through their prestige, but through their knowledge. He came back again for his four years at the university. In America you cannot waste four years more efficiently than by not going to a university. The same is true in England, but for reasons of general culture, not of commercial success. The gentleman I have quoted before, because his enthusiasm for education is comparatively mild, owned that when the university man would fulfil requirements there was no comparison. "A time comes after five years," he said, " when the high school man finds his limitations till then he is ahead. But. after that, the college man scores by hi* deeper knowledge and wider outlook Up to a certain point in life the common school is all right. It is not that I do not value college training I want it. but that I find often that the man who has had it won't undergo the manual drudg'-ry, whose place it can't take." On one of the best-managed and most prosperous railways by a recent regulation every man to be eligible for promotion must have a university or engineering degree. Of 118 engineers in the employ of the Rapid Transit Board of New York, 100 (84 7 per cent.) are "college" men. Of their 75 axemen and rodmen 44 (58-6 per cent.) are college. So that of their total engineering staff 74-6 per cent. are men with some kind of college or university qualification. C. The Employer. 1. Education find Character. At present a large number of the chief manufacturers, merchants, and commercial magnates are self- made men. The very recent development of facilities for higher education alone is almost an adequate explanation. Also pioneer work demands personal rather than acquired qualities. And since com- mercial success is the most envied career, it is often the case that such high natural capacity has been necessary for its attainment as would succeed under any disadvantages. Apart from those excep- tional cases which occur under any conditions, it is a general opinion that the self-made rich man, in the sense of the man lacking direct systematic education, will have disappeared by the next generation. 185 (CKOSER. At present we have no statistics as to the education of the great rity of successful employers. 1 iot the n> instance, that is \ ;o a country ; and commercial notoriety means speculative M as le^itima' In certain broa and persuade him to build in their city. I know of one specific instance in which this was successfully done. 2. Eclat ions with Employed. In very many departments r f labour the United States workman has discovered that the interests of capital and labour are the same. So he welcomes improvements in process and increases output more than the English workman does. The spirit of co-operation is general, and is due to the sense of equality and the attitude of employers. The latter is capable of imitation. The attitude is of personal individual interest. I passed with Mr. Hulhurd, president of the Elgin Company, through a stream of - employes going out to dinner. Women and men alike bowed and GROSER.] 186 smiled as he passed. We lunched in the works hotel with the heads of departments, in a hall where some 800 employes were dining. Several stopped him to speak, and in many instances he knew their names and circumstances. He told me that the majority would come to tell him of important personal events when they intended to marry, and so on. In spite of the numbers and the skilled work and the modern spirit of the place, they seemed in the most matter of course way to look upon the president of the company as their natural friend and official adviser. Such a condition needs careful cultivation, and with many temperaments is impossible. But I have seen that it can be done, and done with gain, not loss, of dignity. The popular notion that respect is incompatible with affection is true only as a rule of natures for which affection is difficult and respect impossible. The same attitude holds good elsewhere. Capital and labour may disagree, but they do it reasonably, as friends might. Everywhere one finds personal and individual interest and knowledge of the men among the employer and officers. It is this that makes promotion possible, that is the secret of big output and of successful dealing with trade unions. Again and again you find a strike ordered by a union refused by the men. For they have found and believe that employers wish them well, know their wants, and recognise that it is only by generous treatment and constant personal supervision that commercial success is attainable. Willingness to discuss grievances has an important influence. The employer is always accessible, and is willing to disclose his methods and reasons far more than we are. In one factory a strike was averted by showing a small committee of those who demanded a 20 per cent, rise the profit sheet, and explaining with figures that a rise in the wages would mean a loss in working and a shut-down. The employer suggested that probably at the same piecework rate they could increase the output if they would. They owned it, but feared "equalising" (lowering rate as output increases). He promised them a stationary rate for a term of years ; they withdrew their demands, resumed work, and the output increased immediately by 30 per cent, with corresponding profit to the men. It is not suggested that this course is always available, but since the whole problem of the manufacturer of to-day is how to increase his output, such an open and reasonable attitude must be of great assistance both to the management of the business and the actual financial results. The workman is well housed, amused, and cared for. At Elgin some hundreds are boarded at three dollars weekly at the hotel run by the company, at a yearly loss of some hundreds of dollars, where are gymnasia and reading rooms, concerts and dances constantly. The employes can join an Aid Fund Society managed by their own representatives, paying 25 cents (12|d.) weekly, and the firm adding 50 per cent. The money is paid out to their own order in case of illness, etc. At this factory the working hours have been reduced from 12 to 11 and now to 9, and more work and better is obtained. 3. Appreciation of Education. On this rests the possibility of successful commercial education. As no manufacturer in England would desire an employe without primary education, so none in America but wants high school education. This is a postulate, 187 [ granted and done with. Of they desire good thorough (duration up to 17 or is, and they see that it. Here is a whole world of difference, HO i , obvious, of ^ imount importance, that it may in this noto be utterly disregard-^], and ihis apparently i- .ttlitudo towards it. What 1 desire to empha^e In re is (heir attitude towards the product of university education whether : . y want here, and whether they prel'i-r it. In 1 the man of comm -i-ee does not love the 'varsity man. nvns tliat such have the right to try and prove that they have not succumbed to their education and are little the worse for it. Naturally he cannot afford to encoiin^e their vagaries, but now nal ^ons induce him to employ them, and ho will be pleased as well -tounded if they prove competent. The Pennsylvania Kailway lately decreed that in future every notable officer must bear a degree. The Baldwin Locomotive Works reports that generally speaking it is the "college men" (which includes technical as well as arts and men) who become leading officers. Dean Penniman, of Pennsylvania Tniversity (1,600 undergraduates), says, "We have constant iications from all the big industries for our graduates e.g., from :np's Shipbuilding Yards, Pennsylvania Railroad, Westiughouse, legie, I'luenix Iron Works. We can't supply men quickly enough. All technical course men are sure of positions immediately. F< >r general commercial life we have similar continual applications for men from our school of finance and commerce. They must I'egin at as low as forty or fifty dollars a month, but they work up nee. We have no similar direct demand for arts course men, who more usually go to law, medicine, etc." Columbia University, indeed almost every university, technical or textile school, tells a similar story. Not only are they wanted for their knowledge. Without any ption at all everyone testifies to their superior initiative, breadth of view, and eagerness. The only objections I have met at ire in a few districts where university men are less plentiful, and -equently are less willing to begin at the bottom on poor pay. This is unimportant ; when demand notably exceeds supply, it is an economic law, not a personal idiosyncracy, that wages ri.se. The condition did not arise in a night. " It took 15 years," the son of the founder of a great technical institute said, " to persuade manufacturers of the value of our men. It was a long hard struggle. But they know it now." By practical assistance to education also captains of industry show their view. Hardly a school but can show plant gi local manufacturers, prizes offered. At Chicago a large firm of security dealers gave a good position as a prize for an essay on " Economics of Finance." The universities and schools are almost invariably begun and carried on from endowments of com- mercial magnates. A constant stream of money flows from industry lucation, because the recognition is universal that thus the power will be returned multiplied. It is easier to get money for buildings than general funds, for this is human nature, but no want of any magnitude can be proved anywhere without a certainty inancial response. One of the latest gifts the two milli< dollars of Mr. Joseph Pulitzer to establish a school of journalism GROSKH.] 188 in Columbia University, New York, admirably illustrates the spirit. It was m:nlc to Columbia as a city college after consultation with President Eliot of Harvard. The suggestion was Mr. Pulitzer's own, and as a great journalist his attitude on the question is of immense significance. The character of the professors is both cause and effect. Men like Mr. Murray Butlsr, of Columbia, and of Mr. Harper, of Chicago, to choose examples at random might, it seems, be railway kings were they not university presidents. The practical, not the scholarly, tone is apparent constantly, and no one will suggest that scholar- ship suffers. Such men are the advisers of statesmen and the allies of industry as well as the friends of undergraduates and the main- stay of education. D. Management. 1. Trade Unions. I shall only mention a few relevant facts. The danger and damage of tyrannical unionism is minimised by four circumstances : the less complete and more local organisation ; the workman's more individual and less docile attitude ; his friendly relations with employers; his personal ambition, which leads to high pressure and big output. Certain trades, such as building and plumbing, which everywhere seem forward in harmful practices, have great power and use it to the full. And the trade union spectre is taking full shape, and menacing every department of industry. But at present in one" big factory after another one finds no fear and no sad experience. Their recipe in every case is good wages and pleasant relations. On these they successfully stake their whole cast, though one can find grim stories of long fierce fights. The secret surveillance of walking delegates is a source of suspicion and constant irritation. Employers often refuse to recognise the unions, but they will always argue with them. And these open discussions, sometimes carried on day after day for weeks, give full play to the influence of good feeling and the remembrance of fair treatment in the past. The men are not so strongly bound to their unions, and the leaven of the highly-educated tends to a reasonable attitude. In one large manufactory, where the hours and price of work would seem abnormal to us, I was told that many men belonged to unions, but chiefly in case of sickness or loss of employment the original conception of a provident society. " But they don't care about its being known. They know we treat and pay them well, and that they can rise, and when they come to us they put their cards in their pocket." Independent inquiries confirmed this statement : similar conditions prevail sometimes in England, but not, I think, to the same extent. The comparative non-interference of the unions in apprenticeship and education is of immense benefit. It may be noted that the enemies of labour methods are accustomed to point to the condition of England as an " awful warning " of the danger of unchecked trade unionism. 2. Labour and Wages Scliemes. The experimental fecundity of America is exercised here as well as in education. Gain-sharing systems, premium systems, differential rate systems of all kinds rjce in operation at individual works. Many are highly ingenious, some have even met with some success. But, to my mind, none can be thought of for general adoption in the present state of 189 USER. civilisation. Simplicity, even with indlii -icm-y, will continuo to Adm: by common piecework wit.h i'lalising by employers. An U shall be isted only at definite .als h:is proved of value. And if by impn >'. the produ .-tudly, since, by increa come 1 1 io best profits, employers may well support the inequality until the agreed occasion of revi "Boss" and "contract" s are often in operation; the is particularly open to the abuse of piece-rate cutting. The boss is usually of a high type, his surveillance encourages zeal and often esprit de corps in his section. Suspicion is some fostered by so much watching. The employment of specialists in organisation and management is favoured. The prevalence of wage schemes illustrates the experimental attitude of employers, who are willing to try new schem considerable cost, and the argumentative attitude of the who will often assist the attempt, frequently with no regard to their union's views. In the Baldwin Works the piece price has not been changed for some years, and the man gets the advantage of constantly improved plant and process. If a workman is paid a dollar a-piece for piston-rods when he turns out 20 a week, he receives 40dols. if he can suggest improvements by which he makes 40. Employers take their profit out of the increased output, recognising the comparative and increasing unimportance of wages. 3. Apprenticeship. "At any rate, I won't be bothered with articled pupils or any pupils in my office. If he's useful I'll pay him what he's worth. If he's not, he's only in the way here." In law, in engineering, in every profession, the articled clerk has almost disappeared. Men recognise that under modern conditions it is almost always unfair to one side. The employer fit to teach has no time to do so. In apprenticeship schemes labour unions interfere comparatively little, and the resulting gain is great. A suitable boy, whether from the common school, the high school, or the college, can earn his living while he learns his trade. The matter is of such importance that I will summarise the Baldwin Locomotive Works apprentice- ship regulations, some modification of which occurs with increasing frequency. Three classes of apprentices are recognised, dis- tinguished by educational qualifications. Class I. includes boys of 17 with a " good common school education " bound to serve for four years, and during the first three to attend night schools for elemen- tary algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing. Class II. must have an advaiu.- ,! grammar or high school training, with mathema- tics. They are bound for three years, with mechanical drawing in niyht schools for two. Class III. includes graduates of colleges or technical schools, over 21, who have taken higher mathematics and natural sciences and desire instruction in practical shop work. They are bound for two years. The rates of pay are as follow : 1st Year. 2nd Year. 3rd Year. 4th Year. Class I., per week ... 11 3 15 9 20 3 24 9 II., ... 15 9 20 3 24 9 III., ... 33 9 42 9 GROSER.] 190 Apprentices of Class I. receive in addition a bonus of 25 and of Class II. 20 at the expiration of their terms. Competent mechanics from each class find positions awaiting them the moment their indentures expire, sometimes even before. Mr. Alba Johnson, one of the partners, considers that the Class III. men, generally speaking, are the ones who become leading men a strong testimony to the value of higher education in practical life. Mr. A. F. Yarrow has established a similar system at his engineering works at Blackheath, with satisfactory results. The benefit to the apprentices is obvious, and it is believed that to the employer also it is of great advantage. A movement for uniform adoption of some such plan is now gaining ground among English engineers. The educational committee of the North-East Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders reported on these lines last December, and there is no reason but possible union objection why it should not extend to other trades. The importance of the principle in equalising opportunity and obtaining competent men can hardly be exaggerated. 4. " Scrapping." This word suggests a whole attitude on a big question. Without exception the American manufacturer believes firmly in the economy of extravagance in plant, buildings, and organisation. He acts on the belief to an extent which keeps him for years in constant peril and often posts his name as a defaulter, for the best principle must be applied with discretion and a due sense of proportion ; but in the great majority of cases the policy has been a conspicuous success as well to the particular industry as to trade in general. A demand for spacious buildings, extended markets, and the latest machinery is at once an indication of present prosperity and of future appreciation. Opinion there universally condemns the conservative attitude of English manufacturers and their complacency in established methods. A Chicago engineer, who can speak with great authority by reason of experience, position, and cosmopolitan knowledge, says that in this matter England is behind all the other leading industrial countries from her " insular prejudice " and refusal to inquire or change. A few years ago, he told me, he was visiting the works of a large manufacturing engineer in England (this is his method of spending his holiday each year) who, pointing proudly, said with infinite satisfaction, " There's an engine that's been running 75 years, and it's going as well as ever to-day." My acquaintance gave his view that this particular machine was never a conspicuously efficient pattern, but in any case elsewhere it has been superseded, not once, but several times. Every revolution, he said, meant a loss of potential output. I came across a biscuit factory where the whole recently-erected stamping plant was scrapped without hesitation for one that would stamp ten buscuits at a stroke instead of eight. Another manu- facturer is tearing down the greater part of his factory to rebuild it in a fireproof pattern at a cost of 65,000. " Surely insurance would be cheaper?" I asked. "But where would my profits be while my machinery was being replaced?" was the answer; "and whose would my market be when I was ready to resume? " Instances can be multiplied indefinitely of costly machinery barely in running order going to the scrap heap to make room for the latest invention. No doubt the habit is part of a general 191 [GKOSEB. financial attitude with disadvantages of risk and instability, but the line should be drawn very much nearer their policy of adventure than ours of timidity. A period of depression closely following expansion may always seem to justify security at all costs in the 18 months ending in June, 1894, one quarter in capitalisation and in mileage of the entire railway system of the United States came by petitions of creditors into the hands of the courts. But security may be dearly purchased, and where competition is keen and markets close present sacrifice is essential to future prosperity, and it is the adventurous policy which will restore, retain, or induce industrial ascendancy in any country. 5. Political Influences. Politics in England take some account of commerce. In the United States commerce as it were in charity takes a variable interest in politics. Government statistics are available freely and lavishly. The policy has never commended itself for the Departments to acquire proficiency in the compilation of information of the first importance and to consign the result to the oblivion of inaccessibility, save with research and at a price. The influence of this stream of information on industrial leaders is very marked in broadening their outlook and suggesting new spheres of activity. Speculation is certainly encouraged thereby, but at least its data are reliable : private enterprise is assisted rather than checked, for unofficial statisticians found their calculations on Government matter, and could not themselves obtain the informa- tion which is furnished with surprising readiness. English manu- facturers would, I am glad to say, refuse to answer the searching queries of the Manufacturing Census. But this is a question of degree only. Consular reports are similarly accessible, useful, and unconven- tional. The methods are open to abuse: the practice of a Consul sending to a manufacturer information as to the local reception of his goods and advice leads sometimes to (politically) improper proceed- ings. Consuls ought not to canvass for orders, and should be impartial to their country. But the United States practice is very effective from the commercial standpoint, and the free circulation of reports and information of all kinds might well be imitated. Conchisions. To imitate the spirit of a nation is a task we have neither the ability nor the desire to perform. England has her own spirit, her own traditions, and her peculiar circumstances. The organisation of bigness is not our ideal of commercial prosperity, nor democracy our means of political salvation. But when every day brings its example of the necessity for new methods and new opinions, it is time to consider novelty as a principle, even though with sorrow. i In methods of education, then, I do not think that we have much \ to imitate. Technical education should be adapted more directly to the requirements of the trade it serves, and should shorten materially and officially the period of apprenticeship. This is a matter for legislation, to which the obstacle is the attitude of trade unions, but much can be done, as something is being done, towards educating public opinion by private experiments and establishing a custom which may induce legislation or render it unnecessary. The movement should include the establishment of a system of paid apprentices on the lines of the Baldwin and Mr. Yarrow's scheme, 192 and by this means the premium apprentice will gradually be elimi- nated. I do not believe that in any profession the articled clerk system can be advantageous under modern conditions in any but exceptional cases. The development of professional schools in and out of the universities is the appropriate means for its destruction. In elementary and secondary schools our need is a change not so much in methods or curricula as in spirit. On our present lines there is room for great improvement in the development of an attitude of inquiry and of individuality. The importance of education up to 16 lies not in the acquisition of knowledge but in the formation of character, and a firmer recognition of this principle would tend to the modification of our examination system, by which greater freedom and less haste would be possible. To this end normal schools and training colleges should be increased, and more attention given in them to principles and less to methods of instruction. I do not think that in the majority of cases the undoubted benefits of manual training cannot as well be secured by other means, which entail less distraction from liberal studies. I have no doubt that valuable results may be obtained from more emphasis on the national idea. " The day is happily gone by when anyone is allowed even to assume indifference about the Empire," but more instruction in the Imperial history and Constitution and in the elements of civics would tend to ally understanding with enthusiasm, and to substitute patriotism for Jingoism. Systematic attempts to assimilate alien immigrants, to induce them to become English in sentiment, would assist the solution of the problem. Not by revolution but by development, it is essential that in universities the idea should command more than conventional absent that their education prepares for active as well as for reflective life. We can no longer afford to allow that their product should tend so often to the learned professions and not to commerce. , American experience, whether in high schools or colleges, does v nothing to impair the supremacy of classics as a formative influence. j but it places alongside adequate economic, historical, and scientific courses, whose aim is to form character by the study of branches of knowledge having close relation to the student's ultimate career. To adapt means to ends, even the end of practical life, is not derogatory to education and should not pass the wit of educators. It is not entirely the fault of education that it is unappreciated. But appreciation is essential, and it must be recognised that com- merce can no more afford to ignore the product of high education than can the Bar, or the School, or the Civil Service. In facilities for education the United States has accepted the consequences of democracy. High school education is free ; to work one's way through the university a task simplified and comparatively easy. In many cases the system is of immense advantage to the country, and equality of opportunity is a sentiment which appeals to everyone. But United States conditions are very different from ours, and I for one am not prepared to say that such a system, were it feasible, is desirable for England at present. We have yet to see how America is going to deal with the problem of the half-educated. England is old, and crowded ; she has much work to be done which demands no high standard of attainment, and many persons avail- able for every position. However ardently we may desire equality of opportunity, however sincerely we may admire the theoretical equity of American methods, we in our different circumstances ,olvc with advantage li<>\v far wo cai; :o sacrifice collecti\< <-y to db-: If, thru, it is neither that we B :ioda of instruction, imr consp'cuoi; >", in ' uch industrial advantage, of 1 ; sonaj qualities '.' It i :tude of the I and illy of the manufacturers and employe; ds wards education. If Kri.ulUh man: a are to succeed tli'-y must look on commerce with a less supercilious gaze. T. I'ni' 3 colonisation has approximately followed parallels of latiltult! from east to west. The ; res of industrial and commercial activity lie we*t of the New England States and of New York. The influence that has radiated from the descendants of the Pilgrim Fathers and the Puritans has counted for very much in all that is best in the United States, and is still a living power. The descendants of these men, witli the adventurous spirits who followed them, and with the English and Dutch who colonised New York, had difficulties to encounter in dealing with the, Indians, in providing for the necessaries of life in food, shelter, clothing, etc., incidental to a new colony; contact with these difficulties developed in a sterling stock qualities that have had much to do with the progress of the United States. The independence, self-reliance, resourcefulness, inventiveness, and enter- prise, which have created the position of to-day, result, it can hardly be doubted, very largely from these causes. In the States there is a wonderful sequence of educational facilities placed within the reach of every child, leading from the primary school to the university, and, excepting in the highest stages, entirely free. The provision would be useless were there not the eagerness of the people to avail themselves of it. But this does exist, and steadily increases. There is now the additional stimulus of assured success to those who persevere. So vast are the natural resources of the Continent, so rapid their development, and so great the consequent industrial progress, that situations of importance leading to positions of responsibility await practically every graduate of a technical college, and to a large extent also of a university, whilst those who leave the high schools to begin work find that the longer they have remained at the school the better is their chance of success. It is quite usual to be told by the pro- fessors at the technical colleges, especially those of mechanical and electrical engineering, that they have, at least, three applications for each of their students who leave on graduating. It is now becoming general for employers engaged in distribution as well as production to insist upon evidence of considerable educational attainment before admitting youths into their employment. At the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia (where over 18,000 men are employed), the greatest emphasis is placed upon the importance of apprentices receiving the best possible education before going to them. They take apprentices at 17 for four years who must have had " a good common-school education " ; they are required " to attend such night schools during the first three years of their apprenticeship as will teach them in the first year elementary algebra and geometry, and in the remaining two years the rudiments of mechanical drawing." An apprentice of the second class "must have had an advanced grammar school or high school training, including the mathematical courses usual in such schools. He must bind himself to serve for three years, and to attend night schools for the study of mechanical drawing at least two years, unless he has already sufficiently acquired the art." There is also a third class of apprentices, in relation to whom it is stated : " The third-class indenture is in the form of an agreement made with persons 21 years of age or over, who are graduates of colleges, technical schools, and scientific institutions, baying taken courses covering the higher mathematics and the natural sciences, and who desire to secure instruction in practical shopwork." The firm is willing to take men I IK APE.] 200 of the third class up to 24 years of age. In Chicago the Bricklayers and Masons' Union have for four years required a considerable basis of educational attainment from those who seek to be apprenticed at 16. It is afterwards compulsory upon them to attend a special school five days each week for three months in the year, January, February, and March, to receive a specialised education in mathematics, mechanical drawing, English, and the construction of language. In fact, it seems to be a generally accepted axiom that educational preparation is necessary to success, and conversely that, given the preparation, success is assured. The American youth is possessed with an intense desire to succeed, the atmosphere surrounding him. is surcharged with a spirit of activity and a tradition of work, and hence there is no wonder that the institutions giving advanced and specialised education are thronged with earnest, hardworking students. There can be no doubt but that all this is telling most forcefully in furthering the industrial and commercial development of the country. And adding to this, the marvellous natural resources of the continent, and the climate which during the greater part of the year seems to stimulate to active exertion, there exists a condition of things highly conducive to material prosperity, and one from which England may well draw the lessons that it teaches, or rather obey the mandates that it issues. England is notoriously behind many other countries in fixing a shorter school life as compulsory upon children. Here a child may leave school at 13 years of age, or, upon proof of attainments in no way extraordinary, may leave at 12. In eight of the United States attendance is compulsory up to 16 years of age, in three up to 15, in 18 up to 14, and in only one is it fixed as low as 13. When the official return was compiled it was stated that in 14 States there was no legislative enactment, and five had furnished no information. In Germany the age of compulsory attendance is also higher than in England, and in addition to the stimulus of industrial success and the appreciation of scientific attainments as in America, a further inducement to going through a course at a secondary school up to at least 16 years of age is provided in the exemption which such attendance procures from one year of military service. There is also the fact that the State is a large employer (not only the army but also the railways and the mines being under the Government), and as high educational attainments are required for all the better positions, this has exercised a stimulating effect upon higher education. Until, or unless, legal enactment in England compels an extension of the period of school age, inducements leading to conviction of its value can alone be utilised as motive forces. Two complaints are frequently made of the results of the education given in the elementary schools in England. One is that boys on beginning work at 13 and 14 have no self-reliance, no originality, are unable to devise methods of doing even the simplest things to which they have not been accustomed : seem to be inert receptacles into which information has been poured, rather than living organisms, which, having digested suitable food, are stimulated into activity. The other complaint is that the average boy is wishful to leave school at the earliest possible moment (a wish too generally shared by the parents), and has no desire whatever to prolong his education, or for mental self-improvement in any way. 201 I i KAPB. Whatever there is of truth in these Indictments points to faults in tin- system which produces such results. Many causes doubtless contribute;, amongst them being the still lingering influence of the baneful methods which wore necessitated by the system of payment by results now happily abolished. These led to cramming inst 'ad of encouraging healthy methods of quiet, unhurried, and systematic training. In the earlier decades of the last century England occupied a peculiarly advantageous position in relation to industrial develop- ment. The steam engine had been invented here, as had also the male and stationary spinning frames. These, with other collateral inventions, had led to the organisation of the factory system, and to remarkable strides being made in the cotton and other textile industries. The juxtaposition of the beds of coal and iron ore, the inventions of Bessemer and Gilchrist and Thomas, and the attention given to all branches of engineering, had also resulted in extra- ordinary progress being made. The nations on the continent of Europe had been impoverished, their resources squandered, and their energies dissipated by a long series of devastating wars. When, sufficiently recovered from the effects of this disastrous period, they turned their attention to manufacturing industry, they found themselves face to face with a full-grown industrial develop- ment already existing in England. This country was, in fact, easily first and the rest nowhere. For a long time England held this supremacy without much effort, the characteristics of her people, the climate of the Northern Counties where these industries were principally located and had been actively pursued for a considerable time, gave her advantages that kept her a long way in advance of those countries who sought to become her rivals. Early in the nineteenth century Germany began to attack the problem from the educational and scientific side. By laws dealing with education in elementary day and evening schools, by fixing the period of compulsory attendance much higher than in England, by making far-seeing provision for scientific and technological teaching in technical schools, by using the resources of the State to develop the nation's economic strength, and by an alert readiness to assist, in any way, the furthering of those industrial interests, Germany has forged ahead, and to-day occupies a strongly entrenched position. America is taking much the same course. In the most pros- perous parts of the United States the compulsory attendance of children at school covers a longer period than in England, while the extensive provision of high schools for secondary education and the remarkable increase in their number within the last few years bear witness to the importance that is attached to this educational foundation as absolutely necessary to ultimate success. Splendid technical schools and colleges, frequently provided and maintained by private munificence, with large universities keenly alive to modern needs and offering at moderate fees abundant choice of studies, afford great facilities to the earnest student. The spirit of the people leads them to utilise these resources, and the various institutions are practically full of earnest, eager students. Has England nothing to learn from all this? Her position is now neither unassailable nor unassailed. Her people are excelled by none in their splendid natural qualities and peculiar aptitude for manufacturing industry of all kinds. But even inherited aptitude HEAPE.] 202 and traditional methods of manufacture will cot now suffice; development proceeds apace, and no factor that makes for success can without danger be neglected. And can it be truthfully said that the education of the artisan, and of those who 'will be the leaders and directors in industrial undertakings, is not a factor of the utmost and the gravest importance ? And does it not, therefore, follow that if we neglect to make this provision, and to do our utmost to bring our people to avail themselves of it, we are not giving them fair play, but are deliberately handicapping ourselves in a race which is vital to our very existence? The rapid survey of some of the leading characteristics of American education in the North and Middle West, which it was alone possible for most of the members of the Mosely Commission to make, was still sufficient to show that great importance is attached, and that increasingly so, to the inclusion of educational handwork in the curricula of the schools, from the kindergarten up to the high school. This is a matter of great significance and importance. There is not now, especially in the cities and large towns, the close contact with the daily difficulties and practical problems which the early pioneers and their descendants were called upon to face, which resulted in their developing qualities which have gone for so much in the formation of American character, but a substitute is being found for this in placing the education of children upon the natural basis of dealing first with the concrete, of bringing them into touch with things, and then leading them to the abstract. This does not merely apply to the kindergarten and early stages of education, but it is continued in a rapidly increasing number of instances up to and through the high schools. There are also a number of extremely fine modern schools in which an elaborate equipment is provided and a great amount of time devoted to the subject ; these are known as manual training high schools. If this is necessary or advisable in America, it is more so for England, where the qualities that this branch of education stimulates are just those in which we are lacking. The subject is not new in England ; educational handwork is given in many kindergarten departments, manual training in woodwork is given in a number of the elementary schools, possibly some 15 per cent., and in a much smaller number there is some work in metal. In the teaching of sewing and cookery to girls we are, as a rule, decidedly in advance of America. But in England there is a most deplorable gap so far as boys are concerned, between the kinder- garten and the commencement of woodwork at 12 years of age ; during this long interval there is very rarely any manipulation of material, and golden opportunities are lost. In a short report like the present, it would be inadvisable to attempt to describe in detail the work done in the direction of educational handwork in the various schools visited, The most that can be attempted is to try to bring into relief a few salient points. First as to kindergarten, all the teachers giving this instruction are specially trained. They go with extreme thoroughness into the work and lay an excellent foundation for the observation and manipulative work to follow. There are two schools of thought in the country as to methods, one adhering almost exclusively to Froebelian developments of gifts and occupations, the other using much of this material but in a freer way, emphasising building and constructive work. 203 H KAPE. In the grades immediately succee in very nuuiy schools most excellent m l<>]>te11.-L"-." in New York, and " Th 1 of Education," under the, general direction of Dr. John Dewey at Chicago, and it is m (he.se institutions that are seen embodied the results of the most advanced thought on educational methods. It is now accepted that the instincts of primitive man are repro- duced, and that in a certain definite order, in a child. These i-ts have an intense interest for him, and by judiciously utilising this interest, and letting him deal with eh-ni'-ntary concrete facts such as faced his progenitors, a very valuable education is given to him. Professor Eichards, of Teachers' College, New York, in con- tion, outlined the method something as follows: "We start with ideas of food, clothing, and shelter, facts which faced the race in primitive conditions. In the first grade* we deal largely with facts of the hunting and fishing stage ; in the second grade with pastoral and agricultural stages ; in the third with the period of trade and transportation. In each of these divisions we consider the facts that are material in the lives of these people ; this means their tool >ns, all forms of constructive activity, and the whole field of the arts grows out from these. We are dwelling more on the development of the Aryan race, and not on the American Indian whose development was arrested. We are pioneering the way, and have not thought out our ideas for adaptation to public schools." This method is worked out in great detail in Dr. Dewey's school at the Chicago University. The school is an experimental one, in which Dr. Dewey has attempted to find out by trying not alone by discussion and theorising whether certain problems, such as the following, may be worked out, and how they may be worked out : " What can be done in the way of introducing subject-matter in history and science and art, that shall have a positive value and real significance in a child's own life ; that shall represent, even to the youngest children, something worthy of attainment in skill or knowledge ; as much so to the little pupil as are the studies of the high school or college student to him ? You know what the traditional curriculum of the first few years is, even though many modifications have been made. Some statistics have been collected showing that 75 or 80 per cent, of the first three years of a child in school are spent upon the form not the substance of learning, the mastering of the symbols of reading, writing, and arithmetic. There is not much positive nutriment in this. Its purpose is important is necessary but it does not represent the same kind of increase in a child's intellectual and moral experience that is represented by positive truth of history and nature, or by added insight into reality and beauty. One thing, then, we wanted to find out is how much can be given a child that is really worth his while to get, in knowledge of the world about him, of the * A grade means a year, and school life begins at 6. HEAPB.] 204 forces in the world, of historical and social growth, and in capacity to express himself in a variety of artistic forms. From the strictly educational side this has been the chief problem of the school. It is along this line that we hope to make our chief contribution to education in general ; we hope, that is, to work out and publish a positive body of subject-matter which may be generally available." In the school " there are three main lines regularly pursued : (a) the shop work with wood and tools, (b) cookery work, and (c) work with textiles sewing and weaving. The various kinds of work, carpentry, cookery, sewing, and weaving, are selected as involving different kinds of skill, and demanding different types of intellectual aptitude on the part of the child, and because they represent some of the most important activities of the everyday outside world ; the question of living under shelter, of daily food and clothing, of the home, of personal movement and exchange of goods. He gets also the training of sense organs, of touch, of sight, and the ability to co-ordinate eye and hand. He gets healthy exercise ; for the child demands a much larger amount of physical activity than the formal programme of the ordinary school permits. There is also a continual appeal to memory, to judgment in adapting ends to means, a training in habits of order, industry, and neatness in the care of the tools and utensils, and in doing things in a systematic instead of a haphazard way. Then, again, these practical occupations make a background, especially in the earlier groups, for the later studies. The children get a good deal of chemistry in connection with cookery, of number work and geometrical principles in carpentry, and a good deal of geography in connection with their theoretical work in weaving and sewing. History also comes in with the origin and growth of various inventions, and their effects upon social life and political organisation. The everyday work of the school shows that learning may, even with little children, lay bold upon the substance of truth that nourishes the spirit, and yet the forms of knowledge be observed and cultivated ; and that growth may be genuine and thorough, and yet a delight." Dr. Dewey aims at developing and educating the child through what he calls his fourfold interests, " the interest in conversation or communication ; in inquiry, or finding out things ; in making things, or construction ; and in artistic expression : these are, we may say, the natural resources, the uninvested capital, upon the exercise of which depends the active growth of the child." The actual manipulation of material is made most interesting to the child. For instance, preparatory to weaving, raw wool is taken, carded in the primitive manner, spun in various ways, dyed by natural dyes which the children gather, and then woven either in small frames, or on a loom which they have constructed. Accompanying all this, very much is done on the art side, where modelling and drawing are looked upon as just as natural modes of expression to a child as is speech. The school is an experimental one. Dr. Dewey says : " We do not expect to have other schools literally imitate what we do. A working model is not something to be copied ; it is to afford demonstration of the feasibility of the principle, and of the methods which make it feasible." Striking proof was given to the writer of the success of Dr. Dewey's methods as proved by the positions that children who had gone through his course took when they went ill forward to more advanced schools, and the progress they made there. Many of the methods usi'enver, Col.; Guthrie and Oklahoma, Okla; Houston and Galveston, Tex. ; New Orleans, La. ; Memphis, Chattanooga, Nashville, and Knoxville, Tenn. ; and Luray, Va. I visited, and was most cordially welcomed with my colleagues, at the following universities: Columbia, New York; Yale, Conn.; Harvard, Mass. ; Chicago, 111. ; Kansas State, Lawrence, Kan. ; Tulane, New Orleans, La.; Vanderbilt, Nashville, Tenn. ; and Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. I have inspected various training schools for teachers, some colleges for the higher education of women, a remarkably fine institution at Hampton, Va., for the industrial training of negroes, one of the U.S.A. schools for the training of Indians at Haskell (Kansas), and the Fisk University for Negroes. I have inspected various techno- logical institutions, commercial schools, and evening schools, besides carefully investigating about 30 high schools and manual training high schools, as well as paying visits to ordinary schools and inspecting them from kindergarten to VIII. grade (about 100 different schools). The first general impression made on me was astonishment that, notwithstanding the lack of a central authority and the almost complete autonomy of the various States and the big cities, notwith- standing the fact that sometimes we met with a law of compulsory attendance and more frequently did not, notwithstanding that the initial age for schooling varied considerably, and the age for leaving school still more so, there was nevertheless a common type of educational methods to which all the States and cities conformed more or less. Briefly speaking, it may be described as a system where a board of business men look after the finances and appoint a superintendent with large powers to carry out school management. The absence (except in the Eastern States) of any leisured class of citizen probably accounts for the adoption of this system of public elementary schools and their related high schools being committed to the practically undisputed governance of a superintendent. Whether the people of Eogland would ever approve of such a system is not clear. It has many and distinct advantages: (1) an educa- tionalist has control of all schools ; (2) changes can be made in curricula easily ; (3) one man gets accurate knowledge of his teachers, and can promote the most deserving at once ; (4) the whole of the schools are easily co-ordinated ; (5) he arranges for the training and examination of teachers ; (6) he inspects and examines the schools when necessary ; (7) he arranges for the transfer of pupils to the high schools ; (8) if the schools are not prosperous the superintendent can be changed. The obvious disadvantage is that JEPHSON.] 212 too much power is placed in the hands of one man, and secondly that thereby worthy people are deprived of an opportunity of helping on elementary education, of whom we have abundance in England. There is a danger, too, of the system becoming stereotyped, as one man is less open to the onward march of progress than a committee. However, in America this system is universal and works well, and moreover the people are all quite satisfied with the results. The second general impression made on me was again astonish- ment at the universal desire for education, and the best kind of education, evinced by all classes of the community. President Roosevelt said to us in the White House : " Education may not have made America, but America without education would be lost. It is the only security in a democratic State." Everywhere the desire for good education exists and grows, with the result that nobody objects to the large sums of money expended in education. In one place we heard of an economising Town Council who, finding monay scarce, abolished the kindergartens and the evening schools. Public indignation was so strong that after a few weeks the schools were reopened and the city fathers had to try another method of saving money. In many cities one-half of the total local expendi- ture was devoted to public education. In the State of Kansas (that huge wheatfield of the States) six-thirteenths of the ^whole expenditure was for public education From the first it was obvious that we were dealing with an entirely different kind of public opinion on education from that which prevails in England. This may be partly accounted for by the fact that the whole community uses the public schools ; all classes meet in the common school, consequently all classes agree in supporting education. This enthusiasm for education in America must be pre-supposed in every remark I may subsequently make. Organisation and method are natural to an American, and the third impression made on me was that their systematic methods were responsible for a good deal of the success which has attended their administration of education. Schemes, plans, programmes, schedules abounded. No fresh subject could be properly taught until a scheme was drawn up fully, touching all the points and parts and properly arranged. In the New York Board of Education the thousands of cards fully indexed containing information about each individual teacher of all kinds afforded a really marvellous instance of the length to which organising might be carried. There is a danger that this may be carried too far, and too much stress laid on the machine and not enough attention paid to the man who, after all, has to work the machine. The fourth impression I carried away with me was the admirable way in which the completely free system of schooling was uo-related and co-ordinated. In every State and city high schools are to be found to which the children, having passed through (graduated) the public schools, are sent as a matter of course. These high schools (there are now 6,000 of them in U.S.A.) take children from 14 years of age for a four years' course as a rule. There are ordinary high f-chools, classical high schools, commercial high schools, and manual training high schools. I append here the courses of instruction in three of the four kinds of school. I omit the commercial high school, as in my opinion too much importance is given to such sub- jects as shorthand, type-writing, and book-keeping, which are, after all, only partially educational. The example given is from Denver, Colorado, and is fairly representative of many other schools visited. 213 .Jl.l'H.SON. .11 B i M Z * JP || 1 z* 1 ! l 5 ca _ 5a ^ -X _ - C! _; ^ 9 m a> "* e. / = a j^ 'a 3 ^ | 1 r o, a s g X j..| 3 |c|| f G . *3 ~ 1* i'l II* ;isa 3- a i cW 2 S- g u3 C3 "- S 10 _ *^3 a! H jQ o ra S S ^ O . . . "25" 1 9 2 g 5 A | a g y H b tf* "* o H) o O - o 5 y. jj- 'S' J 2 eg- - o y i"" JT" ^ s-2 a I S s s isf h5 S 5 ^ | hn Ob 0} Ml 3 S -Sfl o 09 09 - "0 W i-l 10 _. a D 5 ;2 1 II 'c? ill s . HIBTOBT ANT) ENOI.IS Greek History. Writing in English. Roman and Mediaeval tory until r Literature and ( February till June. History January. Hi wlh and stitut: :sh Literature (clei English Literature. English Composition. English History (elect! German begun in High French for History and h for Mathematics, the Itometry in tb lait yea -T -r 16 3 9 ** ill I Jl* fc . cS g "O a fee ^^J3 ! M 0, o S i Z H ^ 3 jP M | i cS fc & o 1 1 | If 0) 1*1? ft R J 1 s *5 S ? 2 1 2 o 11* 1 10 * a ^ K i = p - " . jjjti U I 2 I .. a P m ^ Ic^I 3 I |. i & > 5 -^-2 : i" I " 4 1 8 O 0| 5 o "c ^ E^ *^^ S lllll *-5gn ff c H - t fc. Q Q M f I do CQ ~ -= $ 3 M * o M ^ O 1 i * ~ o e M 03 -J* 5 * s ^ S 3 a ; 'S - g i 2 u 8 u ~ JEPU 214 H oo P O 5 * 5 g CO w o -~ Q I i CT^CT- -H ^> ^. X 43 2 .2.2 p , ci3oo a Sod 8 Sod ii Z S ^ ** 2 Soo S ie ,0* . *O *O *O W3 tc IA s (9 S S S" - S - O j^^~ ~^^~ o3 ca 3 o s o_ i o s ss So. i _c a . cS ^ ii ' Ii 3 8 o Si B a M o , I o 0) a *J il JH 9 m 4 5 S PH K S j - - rf H g H a 5 S w S iS s ^ o !H O t* ^ H I S s s C 3 o W H -^ I 1 u. CO e H M fa 1 1 S I s r 5 -2 .9 M 9 215 IISON. MANUAL TRAINING. HIGH SCHOOL. NOTE. The figures after the studi.^ m*nical English Incidental instruction in such phases as need special emj ).. Second Half (Term VIII.) Liliraturc REQUIRED Shakespeare : Julius Caesar.* A survey of the history of the English language and literature, together with a review of the books for " study and practice.'' Competition (1) Abstracts, summaries, reports on special investigations, etc., all carried on in connection with the work in literature. (2) Optional. At the end of the course in English each student may be required to submit a final theme of considerable length to illustrate as fully as possible his power of expression. Technical English Incidental instruction in such phases as need special emphasis. Books marked with on asterisk are those set down by the College Entrance Examination board (or ttudy and practice. 217 TI8CN* A Foni:; vo Fuu- CHEMISTRY OK , : IlY. The course in chemistry for the fourth year conforms to tho ninatioiL Hoard. It is recommended that the candidate's pr.-parati >r. in ob include : 1. Individual laboratory work, comprising at l.M.st forty exorcivjs sei<- frnin a list of sixty or more. i. Instruction by lecture-table demonstr for questioning upon the general principles of chemistry and applicat i 3. The study of at least one standard to\t-book f pupil may gain a compp -w of the : facts and laws of ele hemistry. ncral tin- work of tho first half-year (Term VII.) should include a study of the laws of chemical combination as illustrated by the non-metal n ind their simpler compound*. Tho -cond half-year (Term VIII ) should include a systematic study of the metallic element-;. their ere mentioned in the syllu!' PnvsiOGiurnv. Bior.oGT. The syllabus of the elective work in biology for this year of th Curriculum sh.ill correspond to the requirements outlined by the College En' unation Board. ANT* AMEUICAN- HISTORY AXD Civics Four Per This course is required throughout the fourth year, four periods per week. < on temporary English history is particularly important in the work of th h.ilf-yoar. Tho r-^ential purpose in teaching American history should be in explain clearly the character, growth, and meaning of American institutions, to create reverence and love for them, to beget a due appreciation of tho right of ^uffrage, and to cultivate power to consider intelligently the problems of tho day. following general topics are sugg< >cing of great impci throughout the iir>t half-year : colonial assemblies and their relations with oval governors ; slavery with its industrial, economic, ami fccial re us toleration; English and French rivalry for colonial posse an industries and commerce ; education. First Half (Term VIZ.) I. Discovery and Exploration. II. Colonial Period. 1. Spanish, French, and English spheres of influence. _'. English expansion. 3. Social, industrial, and political development. III. The Formation of the Union. 1. Breach between tho colonies and England. (a) Theories of colonial administration. (6) Influence of American environment. 3. The final separation. (a) Demand for absolute independence. tb) The European attiti; ienesis of American diplomacy. ritical period. Individualism against federation ; the growth and development of national unity. (6) Territorial policy of the Ordinances, 1787. (c) The work of the Federal Convention. 4. Organisation of the constitutional government. (a) Begun under Federal supremacy. (6) Completed under Republican supremacy. * A student preparing for college, who has already taken two foreign language*, mar substitute a third foreign language for science specified. JfirHSOK.] The following general (opics arc suggested as being of groat importance throughout tin- second half-year : industrial development ; territorial expansion fciid the settlement of new territory; political parties and their platforms; economic and social conditions ; tariff laws and finances ; education. Second Half (Term VIII.) IV. 1 ivi.V.on and Reunion. J. Political and industrial evolution and the resulting problems. 2. Industrial and economic controversies. 3. Development of the slavery question, (a) The spirit of sectionalism as opposed to the spirit of nationalism. (6) The controversy between the slaveholder and the free-soiler. (c) The crystallisation of the spirit of union as opposed to the theory of State supremacy. 4. The Civil War. 5. Period of political readjustment. () Reconstruction in the Southern States and its problems. (6) History of the national debt, (c) Administrative questions. 6. Second era of economic progress. (a) Settlement and development of the West. (6) Financial problems and the tariff. (c) Industrial invasion of foreign markets. (d) Acquisition of new territory. (e) Problems of the day, educational, political, social, and economic. Civics. Fv.oh parts of this subject as can be naturally and appropriately combined with the routine %vork in American history should be taken up whenever they will help to elucidate the matter in hand ; for example, when copies of the original document can be used, as in Group III. of the appended outline, when constitutional questions arise, when new territory is acquired, when new States. are admitted, or when the question of State rights is under discussion. But a generous amount of time should be used in a thorough study of civics with a text-book, in addition to the work suggested above, for which the following out- line is offered. I. Klemcntary Study of the Nature and Origin of Civil Society. II. Origin and Development of Federal Institutions. III. Detailed Study of 1. The Declaration of Independence. 2. Articles of Confederation. 3. Ordinance of 1787. 4. The Constitution of the United States. 5. The Constitution of New York State. 6. Charter of Greater New York. IV. Constitutional Government as a Working System in this and Othei Countries. V. Study of State and Local Governments. 1. Relation of the State to the Federal government. 2. Individual functions of the State. 3. Powers of municipalities and towns. 4. Importance of town government. VI. Political Parties, their Genesis and Operation. ELECTIVES. PHYSICS, AS is THIRD YEAB Five Periods. (;UEEK Four Periods. First Half (Term VII.) HOMER'B ILIAD, Book I. and part of Book II. 1. The greatest care is to be taken that the translations shall be careful arrt adequate. Every indication in a sentence, no matter how minutr, which can aid us in faithful rendering, is to be noted. Matthew Arnold's Essay on Translating Homer is suggested as a guide. 2. Homeric forms are also to be considered in icference to Attic forms. Aim to fix more definitely the Attic Greek by comparison with the epic forms. 3. Scansion. Rhythmical reading with careful attention to the quantities of the syllables. 219 IISON. Half (Term VII.) Con. 4. Mythology. .,\t! .f the principal and most interesting fact- in !;_'. ird to :i. D6U relations. f-. The legandary period of Greek hJ -'d. d. Tin- lexicon in advised. 7. The use nf easts v,h. n posMMe. and of photographs will add materially to ilic interest and comprehension of tin- pupil. The < . liipand love of beauty ran in this way I" 1 made intelligible. d Half (Term Vlll.i 1. The Iliad, Rook II. completed, c.mittm- the catalogue of ships, and otions from Books IV. to VIII., melu.MVc, or from the Ody 2. Bight translation of appropriate pa -ages. 3. Attic prose or Anabasis review, with prose composition. Review of grammar. 4. Supplementary readings from metrical translations of the Iliad or the Odyssey, such as Chapman's, Dryden's, Pope's, Cowper's, and H> are strongly recommended. In this way the sense of the literary value of Homer may be heightened. As the recitation period is short, it is suggested that each teacher plan his work very carefully so that the greatest amount of progress may be made each day. LATIN. Four Periods. First Half (Term VI 1.) VERGIL'S AENEID, the first two thousand lines. Second Half (Term VIII ) VERGIL'S AKNEID through the Sixth Book. 1. Further reading may be done in Vergil, Cicero, or other authors. 2. So much of prosody should be taught as is needed to make clear the structure and quantities of the dactylic hexameter. There should be much practice in metrical reading. 3. Mythology, the geography cf the Aeneid, and the figures of rhetoric and prosody should receive attention. The humanistic and historic aspects also should be studied. 4. Thirty periods should be devoted to the translation into Latin of detached sentences and of connected discourse based on any of the authors read during the course. 5. The additional periods in this year should be devoted to composition, advanced reading, sight translation, or reviews, according to the needs of the class. GERMAN. Four Periods. : meed Course. A. The scope of the instruction. At the end of the fourth year the student should be able to read, after brief inspection, any modern German prose that is free from unusual difficulties. The aim should be to read easily, rapidly, and yet with intelligent, general appreciation, gradually dispensing with formal translation except of difficult passages. First Half (Term VII.) (a) Reading. The reading of about two hundred pages of modern and classic literature with paraphrases and exercises as above. (b) Prose composition. The writing in German of a few short themes upon assigned subjects; independent translation of English into German. (c) Letter writing, including business correspondence. (d) Conversation. At this stage the aim is to make German exclusively the medium of instruction. (e) Supplementary reading. Second Half (Term VIII.) (a) Reading of about two hundred and fifty pages as in preceding terra. (6) Prose composition, conversation, and supplementary reading as in pre- ceding term. (c) Reference reading upon lives and works of the great writers studied. (d) Letter writing as in the preceding term. JEPHSON.] 220 FRENCH. Four Periods. Advanced Course A. The scope of the instruction. At the end of the advanced course the pupil should be able to read at sight difficult French, and to write essays in French on subjects connected with the books read or on some simple topic ; to translate easy Knglish prose, and to carry on a simple conversation in French. He should also have some knowledge of the works and lives of the leading authors of the last three centuries. B. The work to be done. First Half (Term VII.) (a) Grammar. Special study of syntax and construction in the text-books read. (b) Heading and practice. Literature of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (about fouc hundred pages) ; composition and essays. Letter writing. Second Half (Term VIII.) (a) Reading and practice. Literature of the seventeenth century (about five hundred pages) ; reference reading upon the lives and the works of the principal wrtten studied; composition and essays. Letter writing. SPANISH Four Periods. Intermediate Course. THIRD YKAU. A. The scope of the instruction. Afc the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able ti read at sight ordinary Spanish prose or simple poetry; to translate into Spanish a connected passage of English and to answer questions on the rulos <>f syntax. Spanish should be the medium of instruction. B. The work to be done. First Half (Term VII.) (a) Grammar. Passive voice; the word se ; Jiaber used impersonally; peculiarities of the verb ; irregular verbs ; peculiar irregular verbs ; irregular past participles. Easy Spanish composition based on the day's lesson. (b) Reading and practice. Reading of about two hundred pages of easy Spanish prose ; oral and written abstracts of assigned portions of reading matter. (c^ Conversation. (d) Prose composition. (e) Letter writing. Second Half (Term VIII.) (a) Gram m ir. Conversation exercises involving a review of the work of tha preceding term ; special study of prepositions and the verbs sobrar and f altar ; synonyms; idioms; proverbs; syntax and use of prepositions; construction of sentences illustrative of grammatical rules. (b) Reading and practice. Reading of about two hundred and fifty pages of easy modern prose ; oral and written abstracts of portions of the text read. (c) Pros'! composition. y composition, independent of the text read ; letter writing. (d) Conversation. MATHEMATICS Four Periods. First Half (Term VII.) Logarithms, plane trigonometry, or review of mathematics. Second Half (Term VIII.) Solid geometry, higher algebra, spherical trigonometry, or review of mathematics including fifty periods of arithmetic. STENOGRAPHY AMD TYPEWRITING Three Periods. I.JKPHSON. ECONOMICS Three Periods. Tin o 'iirse in economics is an option in tho fourth year, three periods per we^k. Tho scope of the work should include tho followii First Half (Term VII.) 1. Introduction. 1. Human wants and how thoy aro satisfied. ~'. U tilities of goods ; wealth. 8. Consumption as a motive for production. JI Prodi: 1. Historical development of our industrial lif . landwork, guilds, machinery, factories, trusts. 8. Factors in production. (a) Nature. ((>) Capital. lc) Tho entrepreneur. (a) Labour. III. Exchange. 1. Historical treatment of exchange fairs, the rise of the jobber, international trade. 2. Value and price. 8. Money. (a) Its functions, kinds, and value. (6) Bimetallism and monometallism, (c) Monetary history of the Uiiitod States. 4. Credit. (a) Historical comparison of past and present credit. (6) Banks and banking. Second Half (Term VIII.) IV. Distribution. 1. Rent. 3. Interest. 3. Wages and substitutes for the wage system. 4. Profits. V. Governmental Interference. 1. Early English regulations. '2. Taxes. 3. Tariils and bounties. 4. Labour laws. 'overnment control and ownership of natural monopolies. (>. Socialism and Communism. VI. Finance. 2. Public expenditures. (a) National, State, and local. 3. Public revenues. (a) Revenues other than taxes. (6) Taxes. (a 1 ) The principles and incidence of taxation. (b 1 ) Direct and indirect taxes, and classes of each, (c 1 ) National, State, and local t (y (Unbin .oks I. and II., and Lycidas (Sprague) . . 'Plutarch: Lives (Ginn I -36 4105 'Pope: Translation of the Iliad, Books I., VI., XXII., and XXIV. . (Tappan) -20 4382 Scott: Lay of the La-t Mii.-tr.il (Allen) -21 , ntin I'urward (Yonge) -40 4386 Talisman i Holbrook) -40 4727 Shakespeare : As You Like It (Hudson) -36 47-2.1' Hamlet (Hudson) -36 4725 Henry IV., Parts I. and II. (Hudson) each -36 4732 King Lear (Hudson) -36 47^0 Midsummer Night's Dream (Hudson) -36 4723* Richard II. (Hudson) -36 4724 * Twelfth Night (Hudson) -36 4410 'Tennyson : The Princess (Cook) -24 CHEMISTRY. iis and Whittelsey : Qualitative Analysis -80 5457 Williams : Elements of Chemistry -88 5459 ,, Laboratory Manual of Inorganio Chemistry -24 6458 Chemical Experiments -40 PHYSIOGRAPHY. 6538 Davis : Physical Geography 1-00 Goo'J Elementary Physical Geography 1-00 JWard : Practical Exercises in Elementary Meteorology -90 BIOLOGY. 5412 Bergen : Foundations of Botany, with Key 1-20 5413 Foundations of Botany, without Key -96 5414 Teacher's Handbook to accompany Foundations of Botany -24 5415 ,, Key and Flora of Northern and Central States -32 5440 Blaisdell : Practical Physiology -88 5441 Life and Health ' -72 ENGLISH AND AMERICAN HISTORY. 4869 Montgomery : Leading Facts of English History -93 4871 Student's American History 1-12 J Robinson : History of Western Europe (Complete Edition) 1-28 GREEK. 39S4 Homer: Iliad, Books I.-VL, School Edition, with vocabulary (Seymour) 1-28 3985 Homer : Odyssey, Books I.-IV., School Edition, with vocabulary (Perrin and Seymour) 1-00 3986 Homer : Odyssey, Books I.-IV. and IX.-XIL, School Edition, with vocabulary (Perrin and Seymour) 1-20 3979 Homer : Odyssey, Book XII. (Minckwitz) -28 3975 Goodwin : Greek Grammar 1-20 Greek Moods and Tenses 1-60 3976 Higley : Exercises in Greek Composition -80 3977 Kendrick : Greek at Sight -12 3987 "White : Passages for Translation at Sight, Greek, Part IV -64 3978 Xenophon : Hellenica, Books I.-IV., Text Edition (Manatt) -32 5537 Ginn and Company : Classical Atlas 1-00 * In the list of books for supplementary reading recommended by the National Education Association. t Adopted by the Board of Education, July 13th, 1903. See minutes, pages 1607, 1671, 1674, 1676. : Adopted by the Board of Education, July 13th, 1903. Bee minutes, pages 1694, 1634, 1683, S Adopted by the Board of Education, July 13tb, 1903. See minutes, page 1709. JK HI SON.] 224 Supply Book LATIN. Net Numbers. Prices. 4045 Vergil : Aeneid, Books I.-VL, and Bucolics, with vocabulary (Orcenough and Kittrcdgc) 1-28 4051 Vergil: Acncid, Books I.-IV., and Bucolics, Text Edition (Grecnough and Kittredge) -32 4035 Allen and Greenough : New Latin Grammar -96 4030 Shorter Latin Grammar -76 4<)40 Collar : Pratiral I atin Composition -80 4046 Moulton and Collar : Preparatory Latin Composition -80 4050 Cicero : Fifty Letters (Dillard) -32 4043 D'Ooge : Easy Latin for Sight Reading -32 4036 Ovid: Metamorphoses, with vocabulary (Allen and Greenough) .. 1-20 4029 Sallust : Catiline, with vocabulary (Allen and Greenough) -72 4090 White: Latin-English Dictionary .-.. 1-20 5537 Ginn and Company : Classical Atlas 1-00 GKRMAN. 5321 Goethe : Egmont (Winldcr) t3 r>:;i:; Kleist: Prinx Eriedrich von Homburg (Nollen) H) 6324 Lessing : Emilia Gallotti (Poll) -40 5330 Schiller : Maria Stewart (Miiller and Wenckebach) -72 5331 Schiller and Goethe: Correspondence, Selections (Robertson) .... -64 FRENCH. 5119 Hugo : Les Miserables (Sumichrast) -64 * Notre-Dame do Paris ( Wightman) -64 5121 Lemaitre : Morceaux Choisis (Melle) -72 5122 Moliere : L'Avare (Ginn) -:!2 5123 Le Misantrope (Bocher) -16 5124 Los Prccieuses Ridicules (Davis) -40 5143 Sainte-Beuve : Selected Essays from (Effinger) -28 'Sevigne, Madamo de, Letters of (Harrison) -40 SPANISH. 5351 Knapp : Spanish Grammar 1-20 5353 Moralin : El Si de las Ninas (Ford) -40 MATHEMATICS. 4994 Wentworth : Plane Trigonometry with Tables -72 4992 New Plane and Spherical Trigonometry with Tables -M t Plane and Spherical Trignometry with Tables, Second Revision -96 4995 Wentworth and Hill : Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables .... -40 4989 Baker : Solid Geometry -64 4988 Beman and Smith : New Plane and Solid Geometry 1-00 4991 Wentworth : Solid Geometry, Revised -60 4993 Plane and Solid Geometry, Revised 1-00 4949 ,, Higher Algebra 1-12 4973 Beman and Smith : Higher Arithmetic -64 4974 Wentworth : Advanced Arithmetic -80 MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY. 4860 Emerton : Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages 0-90 4ft(',4 Myers: Modia-.val and Modern History 1-20 4866 The Middle Ages -88 } Robinson : History of Western Europe (Complete Edition) 1-28 4872 Parti -80 \Vebster : General History of Commerce 1-12 Adopted by tin- Board of Education, April S2nd, 1903. See minutes, page 717. t Adopted by tin- Board of Education, July 13th, 1903. See minutes, page 16!)0. t Adopted by the Bo;ml of Kduoation, April 22, 1903. See minutes, page 716. I Adopted by the Board of Education, July 13, 1903. See minutes, page 1083. 225 I.JKPHSON. ncntanj Vuth regard to the elementary schools (I purpo the ^li terms) one or two matters stand out prominently. 'I are no infant schools. In many places t. kindergai where ono or two classes of children are taken at si> These kindergartens are hy no means universal, ;ind in many ]> ] aie still maintained by private benefactions, as the local school authority is not yet convinced of their utility. Our system of infant schools, with the methods now almost universal, at least in London, s to me to he a far 1 letter preliminary training for the graded school. Jn America tho work of teaching children of seven the elements of all instruction is very hard indeed. The grading of schools in America is similar to our own method, but the rule of " graduating," i.e., passing through each of tho eight grades and then solemnly receiving a formal certificate of the fact at ;;n annual function, seems to me worthy of imitation, as it emphasises the importance of going right through the school and being able to show the certificate as proof of work done. Moreover a child cannot, as a rule, go to the high school unless he h,".s ' graduated " in the primary school. The importance attached to " graduation" is common throughout America, and even in the Sunday schools maintained by the various religious communities "graduation" is the rule not the exception, i.e., a child must pass through every class in the Sunday school just as he or she passes through pvery in the grammar or common school (elementary school) before the certificate is given. Another fact which impressed me greatly was the obvious intention of every teacher to get each child to do something of itself. Even in kindergarten the little ones were asked to choose a colour and then select beads or sticks of that colour. In grade one the children were given a series of ligures and were expected to make up their own simple sums. Questions from the children were welcomed and were being constantly put even in the presence of strangers. As we went from room to room, in almost every school we visited we were struck by the; large amount of initiative displayed by the children, and this was encouraged by every means in the teacher's power. The children were taught to think, and their studies were intended to train them to observe, to imagine, to reason, to feel, to will, and then to express. One principle underlies the work and determines the method things, not signs for things are the true source of knowledge. Objects, facts, phenomena are observed, but then they are always compared, classified, and related. Analysis and induction are used as a means of training. The child from the first is accustomed to think for itself^. As Sandy McKay says, " A mon kens only what he has learned hisself." I watched with interest boys putting a little original ornamentation into their woodwork, or the girls doing a little }> stitching out of their own heads. The children wen- given a story to read by themselves, and next day one is asked to repeat it, and by means of others in the class to get the whole story straight. Or perhaps half a story is told, and the children are then invited to finish it for themselves. In drawing something is always left for the child's originality. In music (all music is taught by tho old notation throughout America) children were asked to write themes on the musical lines and then the class sang them over in turn. As each tlaild sits at a single desk, order is perhaps more easily obtained, but JEPHSON.] 226 the very friendly relations between teacher and pupil were really delightful to witness. And this, too, is common throughout America. It was the evident interest taken by each in the others. It was the elder sister and the little ones of the family. This was borne in upon me again and again. There are no school prizes in America. Nature-study is made a great deal of, and in as far as it encourages observation and knowledge of actual things it is no doubt a good thing. Yet there is a danger lest the matters treated of should be divorced from their proper surroundings and place in the everyday life of the child. The plentiful supply of books both for teachers and children struck me as remarkable. The amount of home-work done is more than we could obtain in England. Parents in America like to see what the children are doing in school, and make proper arrangements for the child to study at home. Another fact which impressed us all was the teaching of patriotism. The flag of America is made very real to the children. In New York and elsewhere the children daily salute the flag and swear fidelity to it perhaps necessary as thei'e are so many foreigners in the schools and everywhere the history of the United States is fully and completely taught. I was glad to find that the old text books which inculcated hatred to England are being given up, and others substituted which contain nothing to which any sensible Britisher can possibly object. "Civics," as it is called, forms a prominent feature of almost every school, elementary and otherwise. Books are used on this subject in every school, and far better books than any I have seen on the subject at home. The result is that every American child knows the extent of what I may now call the American Empire, Guam and all. He knows the States and principal towns, rivers and mountains, and, better still, he knows how he is governed and why. All the complicated arrangements for the election of President are well known. He knows the Ministers of State and what each is responsible for. He knows all his own State oflicials at least by name and can tell you what they do. This teaching of civics seemed to me admirable and might well be copied. Not that I wish to see the "flagolatry" of New York introduced into our schools, but I am strongly of opinion that the Union Jack ought to be displayed on all national occasions, and the children should know something of its history. The books used for teaching American patriotism would be a revelation to most of our authors, compilers, and teachers. I noted that the classes were smaller than those I am accustomed to see in London. Blackboards, or rather ground glass, went round three sides of every class-room. The floors of the rooms were always polished, and there was no litter to be seen anywhere. There were a few pictures in the class-rooms, not nearly enough, but they were frequently changed. Single desks are universally used. The arrangements for cloaks, etc., are universally faulty, for they are hung either in the corridor or in a room opening into the class- rooms. Halls are seldom found, and all physical exercises are taken in the class-rooms. In New York and Chicago there are few playgrounds attached to the schools. Many of the schools have all their class-rooms with wooden partition walls, which are made to slide back, until a huge open space is made, and this does duty for the assembly hall. In the matter of buildings, I was convinced we at home had nothing to learn from America, either in convenience for teaching or safety in ".i-f o:' lire. America -pen . omldings. and many of them are line ami impo-ini; stniclures, with -in elevation such >rrhilect loves, but which is expensive, to say the least. In OIK; Nc\v York school the cost was S ')) per place. Thero were baths for the children in many schools, and in ,\. Boston school an arrangi-meni WO8 made for every child to have i bath once a week (hot or cold according to the season). In many cities all over the Slates a doctor visits daily, sometimes accom panied by a nurse, to attend to small ailments and injuries. The doctor and the nurse were paid for by the Health Committee of the municipality. In many of the kindergartens visited the school was only open in the morning, and tlh're was always a motherly woman in attendance ;. \\ait on the little ones if they required it during school hours. The teacher of the kindergarten spent her time in the afternoon visiting parents influencing thorn and interesting them in the work of the school. In very few places was there any systematic teaching of the children with defective minds. Boston and Philadelphia had made a beginning. The blind children are cared for by other authorities than the School Boards, and so are the deaf, as a rule. One severe criticism must be made, and that is in the matter of attendance. As I have before stated, some States have adopted laws for compulsory attendance at school and others have not. The American rights shy of compulsion anywhere and everywhere. There is no systematic dealing with absentees. The attendance officers are far too few for the work, and in all the large cities there must be many children who are without education. The spirit of the people is, I know, in favour of sending the children to school, and it is a disgrace to an American citizen not to know how to read and write. Still the fact remains that there is no regular annual scheduling of the children as we have at home, and provision is not made for a place for each child and each child in its place. In New York, in Chicago, in Philadelphia, in Kansas, and New Orleans the schools (or most of them) are worked in double shifts, i.r., one lot of children comes in the morning and another different set in the afternoon. The reason is that there are not enough places to seat the children all at once. But half-time education is a makeshift. No dependence can be placed upon the figures of attendance. Doubtless an accurate record is kept of those who are at school and choose to come to school, but what proportion this number bears to the total of the children living in a city or district is unknown. Unable and unwilling to apply compulsion as we know it, the school authorities assure themselves and us that the public sentiment in favour of education is sufficient to keep the children at school. Whatever that may accomplish in America, it will not be worth much in England. Training of Teachers. With regard to the training of teachers in America our experience varied with the different States visited. Naturally New York, with its boundless resources, was fairly well able to supply itself with the necessary staff for its schools, but the effect of the competition caused by the higher salaries offered by New York than other places, was felt even in Washington, 228 miles away. In Boston and York and several other important centres the training of teachers -ox.] 228 was adequate and admirable. But this was only in a few favoured In Cambridge, just outside Boston, a short stay at a high I, together with some few observation lessons, was deemed sufficient there to constitute training for the teaching profession. \Vc have much to be thankful for ia the fact of our having trained and certificated teachers, who have to pass a standard fixed by a central authority. In some of the places we visited the training was conspicuous by its absence. In fact, in a large number of schools, what are known in England as " Article 68 teachers " were the only ones possible. Owing to the small pay and meagre prospects of the teacher, the number of men employed is getting smaller and smaller. In Chicago the teachers had a meeting and the subject discussed was, " How to- prevent the effeminisation of our school staffs ! " Many a bright young man starts life as a teacher and keeps up his brightness, until he is noticed by some merchant or trader and exchanges the school for the office and often for the manager's office. 1 1 was really remarkable to note how many of the more successful citizens (the wealthy and respected ones) had begun life as teachers. In Kansas this was over and over again illustrated by examples introduced to us. Incidentally it has a good effect, as it causes the profession of a teacher to be considered as one of the best and higbest professions, and that by persons who know what that profession means. In Oklahoma (that new , territory only c'jicned 14 years ago, which will one clay supply all the cotton England needs and nearly all the wheat, when it is properly cultivated) men teachers naturally turn to commerce as being far mere lucrative than school-keeping, and the opportunities in a new country are numerous and valuable. Still it was an object-lesson- in American ways to find in Oklahoma that, notwithstanding the rush and bustle of settling a new territory, the schools had not been forgotten. The high school in Oklahoma city was as good as any we saw, and some of the schools in Guthrie were admirable. And all this has been done in the past 14 years. Some of the roads may be unpaved, some of the streets not in very first-rate order, but the schools are there, the teachers are there, and the whole machinery of primary school, high school, and university i& there, all free to the children of this new community. Several normal schools and teachers' training schools were inspected. The general idea seems to be that young people on leaving the high schools about 18 years of age, are induced to- continue their studies for two, three, or four years longer at the normal school, and then to receive a diploma. This, if carried oufe universally, would be admirable, but inasmuch as each State and many of the cities are independent of all outside control, these ideas do not prevail, and teachers come into the schools with or without training as the case may be, or as the demand requires, or as the euperintendent may think fit. It is not uncommon for the superintendent of even a small area to hold classes for training teachers, to examine the teachers who attend his classes, and then to grant them a diploma as being trained, and set them to work in his schools. One of the most interesting of the teachers' training schools we visited was the Peabody school for training teachers in Nashville, Tenn. I append the scheme of recitations (lessons) published. (See pp. 230-233.) 229 H SON. The tone, spirit, and enthusiasm of the 214 men and the 11 being educated there was delightful, and we carried away from it an intense desire to see institutions of this kind common in our own land. ( >ne other feature of American training for teachers was the wide development of classes held by the various universities in the summer time, at which arrangrmriits were made for giving short courses of instruction on subjects suitable to those engaged in teaching. At Tennessee University at Knoxville some 2,000 teachers attended for six weeks. The subjects of the course included : (1) kindergarten, (2) rural schools, (3) city schools, (4) drawing and art, (5) vocal music, (6) manual training, (7) domestic science, (8) reading, (9) physical culture and children's games, (10) nature-study, (11) English language, (12) English and American literature, (13) literatu the Bible, (14) Latin, (15) Greek, (16) history and sociology, (17) hook-keeping and banking, (18) neurology, (19) supervision, (a) rural, (b) city, (20) library instruction. Evening and Vacation ScJwols. The evening schools of New York seemed to be very well organised and extremely popular with the pupils. The rule of age is : Xo person shall be admitted to an evening school unless his age or occupation is such as to prevent his attending a day school. Some special application bas to be made on behalf of persons less than eighteen years of age to ensure regularity of attendance and good conduct. There are ordinary evening schools, and in addition evening high schools, to these schools. No applicant shall be admitted unless he shall present a certificate stating that he bas completed the studies of the elementary schools or passes an equivalent examination. The applicant must also present satisfac- tory evidence of good moral character. The studies in the evening high schools are similar to those in the day high schools to which reference has already been made. There are also vacation schools, which seem to be doing a wonderful work in the poorer part of the city. These and the recreative evening schools do much to tame and humanise a section of the population which is hard to reach or influence. It was observable that gymnastics and dancing formed part of the work of their schools. Moreover there was no fee charged in any of these evening schools. One other feature of New York work deserves mention. During the winter months lectures with lantern views are given in halls, public rooms, and, weather permitting, in the open air, all without charge. These lectures are attended, by thousands, and form one of the best educational efforts of the public-spirited Board of Education of New York. The lectures are given a prominent place in the newspapers and are well reported and notified. Work of this kind must tell in the long run, even on the inhabitants of tbe Bowery district, while its effect on other people is good, as it interests them in the work of the Board and enables them personally to profit by its action in providing these free lectures. I hardly know where to leave off in describing the work of the various States and cities I have been enabled to visit. The work of the vacation schools is so varied and valuable that it requires a report all to itself. 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O ** COCP OC1 INUJ * *ri d" ""*^ 01 I) ?J H i : : : M : : S o'ajs _s gJa . u O en ^3 2 S3 gll.25 g.a 123 .2 & 2 js >> ^ 3 S >> g * 2 * 3* p< DO 03000-W d ^ js C*-* ODO n-* o 6 *" S "* oo wea 00 t a ! J tf : : . ': : (i : ' : : ;> S ! ; i ta ' o g : ; : a g|j> ^3 s.-sSj J |g : j ; * -3 a 2 0.2 ||H j3 00 S * *O 8 oo |o S oo * So ^S aa o ^ 'So i.S'S : o -g S " : S d dS * s lS^e^ c ^-2 '. : : * 03 : : : : o : : i&! S^Jfl S'oJ au33 WHO ijSMJ i ^ esst . M . t-J - ,*H .1-11-1 .i-il-l H s o I-H o a 233 [JEPHSON, B " o j 1 . 3 04 X 3". ' M !l W0t-<01 9t 71 * * ^ Tl 71 otnooi Hill : M " : M : ' : M 2 ifr 5 >* JW'l fl : : = 3 :H 2. ijjg-g 5 .2 "o o ~ - .- .S >- .3 . * ~ S t-I S O C ~ U ~ fti H ll| ||t| W So 5 o O ^- >>*O > j- ai js - ~ j _- ii o eu 1-1 c C 's; ui f'tSS bU^CU H o* iA CO OS . aoa> 03 o - JJP *l * o net OD 11 ' I II : bo i cn fc. >> o : t f ! "ij fl : > H : a ?! J5 II *" a ' o o'3 g Is a S Is 5 5 S -JT a a> i-3 O CU W EP< u o 00 W j ; As . . 01 -^tio^aa eox . ^ 00 O5 CD ? 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S B = = - I a be j= = .s o H t= 234 In conclusion, I can only add that the spirit of enthusiasm for education common to all classes in America is the really formative cause of the immense strides "which have been made in so many different directions in educational matters. This, alas ! cannot be transported across the Atlantic, and without it I fear all our attempts to improve education will meet with open or veiled hostility. It is only a minority in our own beloved land who really wish to see English folk a highly-educated race. In America it is recognised that the educated man takes in a wide horizon, and puts more, ' soul " into his work. The pushing people out West, even amid all their immediate wants and the stress and strain of getting a living in new and unsettled lands, have never forgotten to provide schools. In fact some of the best schools we have visited were in the W<-i There is prudence as well as wisdom in this, as new settlers naturally turn to districts where they can readily obtain educational facilities for their children, and one of the reasons for the really remarkable growth of Oklahoma territory is doubtless the fact that the schools there compare favourably with any elsewhere. When to the good schools is added the possibilities of a new country for making wealth, there is little to wonder at if the desert does blossom as the rose, and the people of Oklahoma expect to be able to double the export of cotton and wheat in a few years time. It must be again placed on record that the reception we met with everywhere, the cordiality of our welcome, the readiness with which every facility for seeing places and people was afforded to us, must ever remain a pleasant and abiding recollection of a rrost happy time spent in America. ARTHUR W. JEPHSON. IHoselp educational Commission. Report of Professor MAGNUS MACLEAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. For some years past the industrial world lias become increasingly conscious of the fact that American engineers exhibit a certain superiority in their methods over their rivals of other nations, and it is no secret that the Transatlantic manufacturer is capturing the markets of the world. The questions have, therefore, been asked, Is this efficiency due to higher characteristics resulting from the blending of races in the modern American, is it due to the natural resources of a great continent, or i it the result of a better system of education ? A careful review of all the circumstances makes it evident that it cannot have been due primarily to the national education, for these among other reasons : First, the present highly developed educational system has only come into existence within very recent times. The secondary and technical schools, in particular, may be said to date from the period that followed the close of the Civil War, and most of them in their modern form are creations of the last 20 years. The earliest organised and endowed school of science in the States was the Eenselaer Polytechnic Institute, which now devotes itself mainly to civil engineering. It was founded at Troy as far back as the year 1824, and re-organised in 1849 as a general polytechnic institute. Sixteen years later arose the Massachusetts Institute 'of Technology, opened in 1865 as a school of industrial science. Within the next decade a few others sprang into existence, including Stevens Institute in 1871 as a school of mechanical engineering. Since then, numerous technical schools and university departments of applied sciences have been established all over the country, the majority of the latter during the last ten years. By themselves or in conjunction with other educational institutions these cannot be considered the cause of the national prosperity; for the men who have made the greatest impression upon American progress, and those who hold the most commanding positions in the Republic now, received their training before the new order of things arrived. Indeed, so far as the makers of the present industrial success had any higher education at all, they obtained it in schools which were very crude in comparison with the modern ones, or in these while they were still very undeveloped. Massachusetts Institute itself, which stands at the head of the whole system of technical education in the United Stai different from the institution that bore that name in 1870 as anyone can imagine, and the same may be said of the great universities such as Harvard and Yale. Many of the outstanding leaders of industry had not even the advantages to be derived from an education in these earlier institutions. To this day in Pittsburg, that world-renowned centre of activity, there is absolutely no school of any kind that would enable a young man or young woman to acquire the rudiments of a trade none in which science or technology is taught with direct reference to the MACLEAN.] 236 national industries. It is pleasing to know that this want will shortly be supplied by the Carnegie Institute, for which plans have been prepared and which is already endowed to the extent of 400,000. But the fact remains that the greatest feats of engineering and of industrial enterprise have been performed by men who never attended a modern high school or school of technology. Further, it has to be observed that when we come to inquire into the nationality of the inventors and of others who have marked out a new line, they are often to be found men of foreign blood. I was told by President Humphreys, of Stevens Institute, that mills and engineering undertakings in particular are dependent largely upon the direction of individuals of Scottish birth or extraction, and the United States labour statistics show that in New York over 70 per cent, of the men engaged in skilled labour are also of foreign birth ; in Chicago, over 60 per cent. ; while in Brooklyn the percentage is upward of 75. The prospects of America, its immense natural resources and freedom from the trammels of tradition, have attracted the liberty- loving, who are generally the more ambitious and progressive of the inhabitants of other nations. These immigrants have been encouraged to spread themselves over the States whose varied climatic, agricultural, and industrial conditions suit their diverse requirements. It would be folly to deny that race, and such factors as climate and the freedom, isolation, and natural resources of a great con- tinent, have much to do with the making of so alert and aggressive a type as the modern American. I was impressed with this through seeing an immigrant train come into Chicago. Its human freight consisted of men, women, and children of all ages, and generally of fine physique. Such a circumstance in great measure explains the secret of America's success, for the home market is kept up there in supply and demand by no less than 800,000 to 1,000,000 immigrants yearly, and these of the best blood of Europe. In the earlier stages of her history, America got on very well with a general education, not better, sometimes not even as good as that furnished in our own land ; but after the Civil War when the Republic entered upon its career of uninterrupted progress and expansion, the natural resources of the country and its ever increas- ing population called into play vast social, political, and industrial forces which needed all the intelligence, and all the skill and training that the nation could command, to direct and control. Hence, arose the demand for a more perfect system of education, for higher and more technical knowledge to cope with the intricate problems and complicate machinery of the new time. And it is here, in my opinion, that education has steeped in ; not to create the already existing conditions, but to manage and control them, and to carry them to yet higher levels of efficiency. Without the superior intelligence and without the superior training which the new time has provided, the huge mechanism of State and industry must needs collapse, and America could neither cope with her own ever-increasing exigencies nor compete as she is doing with other nations. It is because the educational system she is evolving has so far borne the strain and is proving more or less adequate to the enormous demands made upon it, that it is at present evoking so much interest and attention. 237 [MACLEAN. In many ways the United States has exceptional opportunities for leading the way in new methods of education, and it cannot be denied that the tuition is availing itself of its unique advant One thing, however, must he home in mind, :md that is that, liko our own country, she is still in a stage of transition so far as her educational aims and machinery are concerned. She does not claim to have reached finality in her etlbrts to educate, or to have perfected i.ny one system. She is ju*t feeling her way towards a new and r method of instruction. .But more than we. or any European nation have yet done, she has entered upon many novel and interesting experiments which are gradually revolutionising her teaching. More than we, she takes account of the changed con- ditions in which men live to-day, and seeks to adapt her training to the current need. And more than wo, she is thus attempting to solve the new educational problems that are confronting civilised nations. Hence our mission to America to observe the trend of Trans- atlantic ideals. As a Commission, we wished specially to ascertain how far the educational methods in vogue in the States contribute towards the acknowledged capacity for business, organisation, and mechanics, which the American displays, and to what extent the training in the school and the college helps forward the commercial and industrial efficiency. To this end we .studied education in all its phases, and sought to gauge the present state of public opinion as to the value of the highly specialised instruction now given in the schools and the colleges. The particular part of this investigation assigned to me was inquiry into the conditions of engineering and technical education, and its relations with the various industries for which the students are being trained. Of course, in the time at our disposal, I was able to visit only a limited number of institutions, but those selected were eminently representative ones, and every facility was afforded me in common with others of the Commission to see all we desired to observe in connection with the equipment and v/ork of these establishments. Indeed, I cannot too highly praise the genuine kindness, courtesy, and hospitality with which we were received, and the great willingness displayed by heads of institutes, colleges, and universities, as well as by leaders of industry and their officials, to supply us with every kind of information we wished. The observations I have to make on the subject of inquiry, I propose to group under two heads, in the following order : I. The attitude of employers towards the technically trained students of the higher institutions. II. Features of the technical education given in the best American colleges. I. The Attitude of Employcra. In Britain, owing partly to class and caste distinctions which do not hold to the same extent across the Atlantic, the impression has got abroad that education only spoils the common workman and unfits him for his industrial position. Manufacturers and managers generally seem to look with disfavour upon highly-educated youths and college men. At least, they give no preference or encourage- ment to this class over their more ignorant rivals, and, consequently, MACLEAN.] 238 Hit- youths themselves, finding no advantage in remaining long at school or college, leave early, ignoring the benefits of a knowledge ;u id training which seem to carry them no further forward in the actual business and trade of life. The attitude in the States I found to be exactly the opposite of I this. So far from disparaging education, the American regards it I as the chief national asset, and strains every nerve to render it as I widely diffused as possible, convinced that the increase of intelli- gence thus fostered will be a common gain. The educated youth will not only make a better citizen, but he will outstrip his more ignorant fellow in industrial efficiency, and in the long run leave him far behind. The conditions of American life have not permitted her people to ignore so obvious a fact. There are circumstances and forces, as I have indicated, which have thrust upon them mon- peremptorily than upon us, recognition of the value and necessity of education. Besides the economic fact that the development of the material resources of the country demands the best available intelligence and skill, there are the social and political factors. The nation is a democracy very pronounced in its view of personal rights and personal liberty, and if it is to govern itself wisely, it must mako sure, as far as possible, that its members, drawn as they are from all nationalities, are sufficiently welded together and enlightened to make intelligent and safe use of their voting privileges. Widespread popular ignorance would be a constant menace and danger to the stability of the State, as well as to the industrial interests. In consequence of this more enlightened view of education, manu- facturers and employers of labour are more ready to recognise the superiority of the trained student over the untrained artisan, and are everywhere eager to get technically -trained men to direct their work ; they show their interest in, and appreciation of, learning by founding and equipping institutes and colleges for the technical training of young men in the various industries ; and they further encourage all such institutions by giving the college-trained youths a preference over those who are merely shop-trained. " In all departments where high-class work is done," said one employer, "we pay good wages, and are always anxious to get technical men. They are broader-minded, and have a wider mental grasp than the man who left school at the age of 16 to learn his trade in a shop. In technical or any other kind of work, the young man who has been trained in a technical school very soon overtakes and outstrips the man who has had practical experience only. Their remuneration at first is no greater than that of the others who do similar work, but in almost all cases it increases more rapidly, and there is practically no limit to their promotion, while the man without technical education, unless in exceptional cases, finds his field of operations greatly restricted." I was told on several occasions that ten years ago manufacturers would not take college-men, now they prefer them, because they can tackle new problems. Manufacturing processes are constantly developing, and .there is room for men with new ideas. The cost of construction and commercial value of a machine must be taken into consideration when it is being designed, and the man whose technical training has been supplemented by practical experience in the shop is better fitted to handle these questions than one who has had only a shop-training. MACLEAN. The Pennsylvania Kailroad ('ompa.ny mr.ist on their men being engineers, and a large proportion of them are college men ; while H."> per cent, of those employed by the of the K;ipid Transit, (.'ommission. New York, are also so trained. In an interview I had with the latter, h" emphasised the fact th:it, a youth trained in the office of a civil engineer learned the methods of one man only, wherea- if lie were college-trained before entering he was in a position to do any kind of work, and could solve a problem much more rapidly and with more initiative. At the works of Messrs. ( 'nn-kcr and Wheeler, Ampere, where motors, dynamos, etc., are manufactured, they informed me that they give such a man thirty-two shillings a week to start with, bub in a very short time he receives more than the man who started with them four years earlier, at the time he first entered upon his technical college work. They prefer his class, and readily take in nts in vacation time. In the works of the General Electric Company, Schenectady, I learned that the non-college men who come in from the schools at 16 or 17 years of age receive only twenty shillings to start with. The workmen who have acquired a trade or technical education might properly he divided into four classes : l-'irst. Those who have attended a trade or technical school before entering upon practical work in the industry. Second. Those who pursued their school training in the evening at the same time that they were serving their apprenticeship in the trade. Third. Full-fledged mechanics, who, having learned the practical part of their trade, attended the evening schools to obtain a technical and scientific knowledge which would enable them to make better progress, and advance to positions of responsibility ; and Fourth. Those who secured the technical portion of their training by a correspondence course of instruction. The opinions of the manufacturers regarding the qualifications of these men and the methods of instruction have been summarised as follows : The young men who enter a workshop fresh from a technical school are not practical. As a rule they have had just enough shopwork to make them think that they are practical, when, in fact, they are not. Some of them have exalted ideas of their ability, and, if left to themselves, will waste material, and therefore are expensive to their employers. But after they have been in the shop a few months, and are drilled in shop methods, they make the best class of mechanics, and can be trusted with the most difficult and important kinds of work. Workmen who have had a good technical ition make the most efficient men to fill positions as foremen or superintendents. The best results are achieved in the least possible time by the men who have worked three or four years in the trade before going to evening technical schools, and by the apprentices who attend school while serving their apprenticeship. Of these two plans the latter is considered preferable. It permits the practical and theoretical training to be carried on simultaneously, and is more interesting to the student workman. Besides, it enables him better to appreciate what he is learning, and he develops much faster, and is more valuable both to himself and his employer. MACLI 240 In view of the fact that in recent years manufacturing has tended BO largely towards specialisation that young men apprenticed to mechanical trades have been able in most cases only to learn single processes, and as a result the general mechanic has threatened to become practically extinct, to the detriment of manufacturing interests generally, great establishments like the Baldwin Loco- motive Works, Philadelphia, the Motive Power Department cf the Pennsylvania Kailroad Company, and other firms, have instituted a system of apprenticeship on a basis adapted to existing social and business conditions. Having heard a good deal of these, I visited Baldwin's, and found that their system arranges for three grades of apprentices : 1. Those from the grammar schools who enter under 17^ years of age and serve for four years beginning at 2d. an hour, and rising by Id. per hour each year, with a bonus of 25 at the end. This class have to take one year's course at a night school in elementary geometry and algebra, and the two following years in drawing. Afe the end of the four years they may be discharged from the employ with a diploma, namely, their indenture ; and the bonus which is both their reward and the wherewithal to go elsewhere to seek employment. 2. Those who have had an advanced grammar or high school training, who are not older than 18 when they enter, and who serve three years, beginning at 3id. per hour, rising by Id. per hour each year, with a bonus of 20 at the end. In the case of these, owing to their superior education, the preliminary course in mathematics is dispensed with, but they must attend the night school for two years in mechanical drawing in order to learn to express on paper the ideas they absorb in the workshop. 3. Those who are graduates of colleges, technical schools, or scientific institutes, who enter at 21 or 22 years of age, and who serve for two years, beginning at 6^d. an hour and ending at 8d. These are not indentured, being men, but a specific contract is made with them, and though they do not receive a bonus they get a certificate at the end. It is from this class the firm fills, jn due course, the superior positions in its workshops. Instead of being discharged, they are promoted at the end of their term, as are also any specially good ones from among the rest that the management comes across from time to time. There is no way into the works except through one or other of these three classes. The company has a superintendent of apprentices to look after them in the shop and out of it, to see that they are .taken care of, that the foreman does not take advantage of them, but that as fast as they leavn they are pushed along, and to make sure that they attend the night-school. The firm engages to alter their particular employment every three months, so that they can get practice in all the shops during their apprenticeship. The college graduates are allowed to work for a similar period in any department they may select, and they can get what shifts they want by applying to the superintendent. I was informed that these find the first year very hard, but that afterwards they become leading men more readily than either of the other two classes. The most satisfactory apprentices are, perhaps, the second class, who come in from the high school at 18, and finish at 21. By the course of training provided for in this system, it is believed that a great benefit will accrue to the mechanic as well as to the employer. 241 [MACLEAN. It is worthy of note, with regard to apprentices in the States generally, that no premiums arc charged, and that from the very first they earn what may fairly be called a living wage. What is even more remarkable, the American employer always keeps an door for the technically trained man without setting an ago limit, as in the case of non-college men. While it is very ;onable whether the latter would be taken on as apprentices after 21 years, there is no doubt at all regarding the college graduate, even though he lengthens the period during which he is learning the scientific principles of his profession. The moral influence of this attitude of the employers towards the schools and their graduates is very great. It exercises a telling influence upon education all through, for it gives parents and children an interest in school work from the primary grade upwards. II. Features of American Technical Education. Coming now to the features of the technical education supplied, it has to be noted that the students in the States are not in such a great hurry to get started as in this country. The educational system of the country and the entrance requirements of the institutes and colleges keep them in the public or private schools till they are 18 or 19 years of age, so that they enter two or three years older than is usual with our students, and they are thus, on the whole, better prepared for the work. Of course, it is possible to acquire a certain amount of technical knowledge before reaching the level of the colleges. There are two classes of institutions, in particular, that aim at providing courses of instruction by way of preparation for industrial pursuits : these are the manual training schools established in connection with the ordinary school system, and the trade schools. As a substitute for the old system of apprenticeship which is now practically becoming a thing of the past, except in the new' form in which it has reappeared in Baldwin's and elsewhere, these trade schools are as yet on their trial. The one in New York, which I visited, provides instruction, in which both the practical and theoretical branches of quite a large number of trades are taught. There is, doubtless, a distinct place in the American system of education, both for the manual training and the trade schools if they are conducted on right lines, and can guard against the error of substituting devices for principles. As a high authority remarked, the student ought to " learn how to learn " if his training is to be of any real value to him. All the institutes and colleges and universities have not the same conditions of entrance. In the case of some it is sufficient that the student has graduated in the high school. Others admit by examination. For some time past, following the lead of Michigan, certain universities and colleges have had a method of "accrediting" schools. The system consists in sending a university examiner to vi-it the secondary schools, and if the work done in ihem be found satisfactory, pupils from the schools so approved who are recom- mended by the head-master are received into the university without examination of any kind. Lately, four associations have started to do this accrediting work for all the States, and these keep lists of the schools approved by their visiting officials as of a standard 212 sufficiently high to merit their graduates boing admitted into the higher institutions represented, including the university, without any further tests. Where entrance examinations are held, as at Harvard, Yale, Massachusetts Institute, etc., they usually take place in June iii id September, so that a student failing in June may have another chance in September. Under certain conditions school certificates are accepted in lieu of some of the subjects of examination. At Massachusetts, the certificate of the college entrance examination board alone is accepted as satisfactory evidence of the requisite scholarship to warrant admission to the first year's work. Other than this, no certificate from a preparatory school admits a student without examination. There is ;i committee of the faculty on preparatory schools whose function is to visit such schools, to show the interest which the institute feels in their work, and by consultation and discussion and mutual concession to bring about a high standard of entrance requirements, without imposing undue hardships on the teachers in the secondary schools. At the present time the committee proposes to have occasional meetings of secondary teachers held at the institute from time to time at which the general question of secondary education, with special reference to preparing pupils for their own institution may be fully, fairly, and fearlessly discussed. The purpose of this committee is to convince the secondary schools of the desire on the part of the college for interested, sympathetic co-operation. The usual fee or " tuition " for the universities and institutes ranges from 30 to 40 a year. At Yale and Harvard it is 30, at Columbia 40, at Stevens Institute it is 30 for local students, 45 for outsiders ; a,t Drexel it is only 10 to 16, while last year Massachusetts Institute raised its fees from 40 to 50. There is a very large number of colleges where the tuition is free. In the State universities the fees are low. Michigan imposes 2 for matriculation, 7 for instruction in the case of students from its own State, 9 for others. The courses, as a rule, are laid out for four years, and the session lasts from October till June, allowing three months' vacation. At some of the colleges summer courses are held, which some of the members of the staff conduct at stated additional salaries. The hours at Massachusetts are 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. daily, except on Saturday, when they are 9 a.m. till 1 p.m. Each student has there to attend 720 hours in a session. Degrees are usually given in the colleges, not on the result of a final examination, but on the record or gradually accumulated results of all the examinations, with a thesis at the end of the course on a subject suggested by the professor. Indeed, a final examination, as the basis for degrees, scholarships, and fellowships, is unknown. In the thesis the student is thrown on his own resources both as to the method of treating the subject and the points to be investigated. Evening schools are common, but more elementary in their work and not nearly so well filled. In Boston they are very good, and largely attended by foremen and others. Massachusetts Institute has classes which are small. Members of the day staffs usually act is heads in these schools with outsiders as their subordinates. 243 [MA< Most of the large institutions in the Stat. . -t of different buildings that :ire sometimes ;i considerable di-tanre apart, as at Oxford. The point in which, more than anything they rival, and in many instances far surpass ours, is their excel!- in equipment. No expense seems to i d to make them in this respect as serviceable as possible. Indeed, some appeared tome to be over- equipped, the stock of apparatus being so great that it was not likely to i ! used and much of it was rather a hindrance to the right manipulation of what was essential and necessary. This i-.annot be said of Armour Institute, Chicago, which is well fitted up without being overdone. Nor yet can it be asserted of the engineering rooms of Columbia rniversity, where the equipment is not superior to our own. One thing which impressed me favourably in going through the various institutions was that a deal of the apparatus used was either presented or given at large discounts by outside firms. This, in itself, is a striking udence of the interest which the manufacturers take in the college work. In addition to being better equipped, the colleges have far more instructors than we have. On visiting Massachusetts, I found a teacher (including all professors and instructors) for every 10 or 15 students. In the physics department of Columbia University there are in all 14, consisting of professor, adjunct professors, instructors, tutors, and assistants. Many hold that the colleges should increase their salaries in order to make sure that they attract the very best men available ior this important work. As it is, the professors' teaching emolu- ments are not usually their only income. Superior men are induced to accept collegiate appointments because of the well- equipped laboratories at their disposal, and because as engineering professors they are given every opportunity and encouragement to do outside work. It is believed that thus they keep in touch with the various lines of progress in their profession. In Columbia University, if the work is done inside with the college apparatus, 50 per cent, of the remuneration goes to the professor, and 50 per cent, to the college ; if outside, the professor gets all the fees. In the Stevens Institute the college retains only 10 per cent, of the fee lor inside work, and none at all, as in the other case, for outside work. In universities, the president is a man of affairs, but in colleges he is generally a college-trained man ; in either case he must have administrative ability. The instructors are always practical men. Once appointed, American professors have very considerable authority in matters relating to the curriculum and the work and standard for graduation. As the granting of degrees and scholar- ships depends BO much upon the student's record, the conduct of such class examinations as there are, is practically in the hands of the professors, who are not accustomed to call in the aid of any outside examiners, as in this country. A further privilege they enjoy is their release from duty every seventh year, which is given them as a holiday. The method of teaching, general in the colleges, except those of university rank, is that known as "recitation." It consists in prescribing lessons from a text-book on which the student is examined by means of question and answer, with a good or a bad mark in the record book. I have met professors who do not think MACLEAN.] 244 highly of this system, and who, while they prescribe work out of a book, simply make each question they put the basis of part of an explanatory lecture. Oral questioning and inter-discussion they hold to be the most effective method, more profitable than either recitation or lecture. While the training is of a high order, it did not impress me as better, or in some cases, even as good, as that given in our own institutions. There is one feature of it, however, which is in marked contrast to our practice, and that is, the amount of knowledge of machine work the students get. The aim in every technical college appears to be to have a machine of every kind used in manufacturing establishments, so that the student may have before leaving a certain limited acquaintance with these. Thereafter, when he enters on manufacturing work, he meets no machine with which he is not already more or less familiar. In our own country, on the other hand, manufacturers have hitherto discouraged such knowledge on the part of technical students, and have insisted on the idea that a knowledge of machine tools can only be properly acquired in the workshop, and not in the college. Other pleasing features I noted in connection with the American colleges were the departmental libraries, the gymnasiums, and the study of technical journals. It is usual to have a specialised library, with separate librarian, for every department in the building. This, of course, costs far more money than the method common in this country of having one only for the whole college; but if it can be attained, it is certainly highly desirable. All the scientific journals bearing on its work are received in each department, and distributed among the students for perusal. Once a week the readers meet, and each has to give a summary or abstract of the more important papers in the periodicals assigned to him. At Massachusetts Institute, the electrical engineering students have a society which meets about once a fortnight throughout the season and is addressed at these meetings by engineers and other experts who have accomplished something in any special line of engineering work. Not less interesting, in its own way, is the work of the gymnasium, where physical training is carried on to ensure that the student shall, as far as possible, possess health and soundness of body as well as technical skill. In the Universities of Yale and Michigan, such training is compulsory during the first year of attendance, but is usual throughout the whole curriculum. Exercises with dumb- bells, Indian clubs, pulley-weights, vaulting horse, horizontal and parallel bars, swinging rings and pole vaulting, constitute part of the course in most of the colleges, which have also associations for outdoor games. The correspondence schools are a feature of American instruction of which I heard a good deal. They do not profess to educate a man, but they aim at making him more efficient in his work, and hence of more value to his employer. The Scranton International School of Correspondence, which I visited, began with mining. Now it has on its books the names of 135,000 persons who receive instruction in all sorts of subjects. Mr. Foster, the founder, employs 1,100 in Scranton correcting papers, composing text-books, drawing diagrams and making simple apparatus. He has also a field force of about 1,000. These are travellers catering for students, who are paid a salary and commission in the usual commercial way. The 2 IT) [MACLEAN. students hail from all parts of tli<- world, showing that the s;. appeals to a very lai. This school alone has had about f>U( >.(><>< > sinco it started. The fees ran^- from I- t.. U1H lor a course, which the student must complete in live years. Mr. I fcold me that from October till June the average number of p Purh between employers mid employed, and readiness to act up in the vit!W that capital and labour ha\e, r.ommon and not "iiistio i: . and, I am afraid that \ve Hnglish must add, i'riety of all classes among them these are pushing America to the front. 1 doubt whei her, man for man, the American workman is superior to our own ; Americans, 1 thini . ready to admit that he is not. hut I suspect that the American employer is more up-to-date, more adventurous, more accessible to his men, than employers sometimes are in countries where the social distinctions bet\\ and class affect all relations of life ; for in the States all citi/ens are in theory equal, and in pra have often been educated side by side. They are also I adopt new mechanical improvements than our captains of industry - are. While the Kn^lish manufacturer is considering whether ii will be worth his while to invest in some new labour- saving appliance, the American has discarded his old machinery , put in the new, and begins to leave his rival behind. Education, no doubt, has something to do with this. It quickens the employer ; intelligence, and broadens his view; and it gives him more. intelligent men to deal with. But education in America, as we see it to-day, is of too recent growth to account altogether for the great industrial development that has been contemporary with it, and is largely the work of men to \\hom, in theiryouth, such full educa- tional opportunities were not available. This does not, however, affect the moral for ourselves, that we must " wake up" if we are to keep our place ; and that one very important feature in such awakening must be an all-round improvement of our educational i, not necessarily on American lines, but with a due portion of American spirit. My answer, then, to the general question above stated is that education, though a contributory cause, has not hitherto been the chief cause of American industrial progress. It has shared, and is sharing in that progrees ; and we might answer the question in another way, by saying that the American character is quite as much the cause as the result of educational development in the States.! For the history of educational progress in America, some intanoe with which is necessary to understand its present condition, and the attitude towards it of public opinion in the States, a reference must suffice to Yols. X., XI., of the "Special Eeports on Educational Subjects," issued by our own Board of Education,; and to a portion of the article "Education," in Vol. XXVI 1. of the "Encyclopaedia hritannica" (pp. 677-682). Less accessible in this country, but the fullest and most complete account of American education up to its date, is the scries (in two * This is by no means universally true, us the strike records of New York, Pittsbursr, Chicago, mid other liu tify. Bat it has many , - examples, as, e.g., that of the "National (ash Kegisttr " factory at Dayton, Ohio, visited by Mr. Mosely and some of. the . taken by a high American authority, the President of the North- Western University at rlura^o d>r. K. B. James), in an address delivered at a banquet given < iiiimi>-ion by the leading merchants of that city ; a copy of which he has since kindly forwai . X., the introductory remarks by the late Sir Joshua Fitch; the papers (3-9) on "The ( itv : ms of the United State--." nnd (13-14) on "The Training of ."; and in Vol. XL, papers 1-3, dealing with "Secondary Education"; 6, with "Commercial Education": and I), by Professor M. K. Sadler, on "The Contrast between German and American Ideals of Educati . n "an admirably suggestive paper. PAPILLON.] 248 volumes) of special monographs prepared for the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris Exposition in 1900.* Speaking generally, educational progress in America dates from the Eevolution. The early Dutch settlers brought over with them from the Netherlands ideas of free popular education, which, ?o long as English influence was paramount, bore little fruit. But since that influence has been withdrawn, education has grown and expanded as an expression of the popular will, aided by the encouragement and sympathy of the Federal Government; its administration being left to the Governments of the several States, each of which administers its own educational laws, and levies its own taxes for the support of its schools. Education has throughout had the people at its back and the support of those in authority to an extent long unknown, and still imperfectly realised in England. But -uts greatest development, and all the excellence of its present condition, is subsequent to the Civil War. The common school system of elementary education supported by public taxation, the free public high school system, and the university system, as seen to-day in its chief examples Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, and others; or great State universities such as Wisconsin and Michigan are the creation almost of the last 25 or 30 years. This extraordinary growth and progress quite as extraordinary, in its way, as the contemporary industrial progress has been made possible by the goodwill of the people. There lies the real driving power. If American education is to-day alert, vigorous, progressive, and popular, it is because the " people love to have it so " ; because they have recognised that education is a vital necessity for national well-being, and the most remunerative investment of public money. If we in England still lag behind other nations in educational progress, it is because we have not yet learned to care seriously about it, and grudge instead of welcoming expenditure upon it. This is the first moral for ourselves ; perhaps it is really "the conclusion of the whole matter." But if in popular sympathy and support American education enjoys one great positive advantage, it has also two negative advantages, by no means unimportant. It has no " religious difficulty"; and it is comparatively free from the tyranny of examinations. Religious education has been excluded from the scope of the Mosely Commission, and I, therefore, express no opinion! upon either the causes or the effects of its exclusion from the public schools of America : but the freedom from the examina- tion system, which weighs so heavily upon secondary and higher education in England, is an advantage for which we may well envy Americans. In our elementary schools we have to a large extent exorcised the examination fiend ; but our whole system of public school and university education has got into a vicious groove of incessant competition, which represses individuality on the part of teachers, discourages experiment, and elevates subordinate motives lor industry into undue prominence ; while the strain of constant examination sends many young persons out into life intellectually exhausted, with no conception of seeking learning for its own sake. Examination, useful and necessary within due limits as a test of Published by J. B. Lyon Company, Albany, N.Y., and edited, with an introduction, by Dr. N. Murray Butler, President of Columbia University, one of the first authorities in the States, to whom th<> Mosely Commission is iudebt d for valuable help and guidance. t I have delt with this topic in two papers published, in The Guardian, January 7th and Februa-y 3rd, 1901. 249 progress, is unfit to be the main object of education. It is a good it, but a bad master; and from its tyranny American educa- tionists have wisely kept themselves free. The universal belief in education for its own sake has perhaps made, it easier for them, than for us, to dispense with external motives. It is easier also to forego the ai . tlarships and other pri/.es as an incentive to learning under a system which claims to provide gratuitously for every citizen sufficient education to fit him for life. We who, under the different conditions that prevail in England, limit free education to its elementary stages, must have s ms of assisting those who have the ability to rise higher, but no means of supporting them- selves at school or college. This use of scholarships and prizes is necessary for us, and will have to be considerably developed by our new local authorities. But if the whole system of college and public school scholarships and prizes, involving perpetual examina- tion from the age of 9 or 10 to the university degree, could be dropped into the Atlantic, America would not care to fish it out, and England would be wise to leave it there.* Education in the United States, whatever be the local difference of administration, rests upon the principle that every citizen, male or female, irrespective of class, creed, or fortune, is entitled to equal opportunities, and that it is the business of the State to provide those opportunities by education fitting men and women for life. Free education up to the age of 18 is universal ; for eight years in the " common," or elementary schools, divided into four " primary" and four "grammar" grades; and then for four years in the " high " schools, the close of which is spoken of as " graduation."! Then follows a college or university course of four years, culminating in an academic degree ; this also being provided free in the newer " State universities" of the West, but not at the older universities of the Eastern States. After the academic degree, according to strict sequence, would come the professional course for law, medicine, engineering, etc., but there is a growing tendency, under the increasing pressure of practical demands, to shorten the period of general culture, and to incorporate with it a certain amount of commercial and professional training. American educators, in fact, are confronted, perhaps rather more acutely than our own, with the same problem of reconciling the "humanistic " with the " utilitarian " view of education. To this question I will return in speaking of the universities. At present I would note that the scheme of public education thus briefly outlined seems to be eminently practical and popular. It springs from the people, is directed by the people, and . serves the needs of the people. It rests, as Mr. Choate, the American Ambassador, pointed out in his address to the last summer meeting of University Extension students at Oxford, upon a broad foundation of the common schools, from which rises, co-ordinated in its various stages, culminating with the universities, and including as it rises all forms of manual and technical training, the pyramid of national education. The absence of any horizontal stratification of society into different classes, with strongly marked barriers of habits, ideas, traditions, and feelings, has made it easier * In this paragraph, and in one or two others which follow, I have reproduced the substance, and sometimes the actual words, of communications to The Time* and to the January number of Mr. Murray's new periodical, School, respecting the Mosely Commission. t Full details of the organisation of American schools may be found in the volumei of " Special lieporu " (X., XL) of oar own Education Office, already referred to above. PAPILLOK.] 250 to regard, and to carry out, education as a continuous whole from the bottom to the top. "From the gutter to the universities" is not, as here, an artificial ideal of education ; it is the natural course open as a matter of right to every citizen of the Eepublic. It is agreeable to this democratic origin and constitution of American education that it seems to be trying at every point to come into close contact with life and the needs of life. The "common " schools are, as anyone who sees them at \\ork can tell, a great unifying force in the life of the nation, always engaged in stamping a mass of heterogeneous elements with the hall-murk of American citizenship. Whatever else they teach, they teach patriotism and some knowledge of civic duty*; and we might well imitate them in this, and make national education a corner-stone of imperialism, as Americans make it a corner-stone of their democracy.! The high schools, to which a certain proportion pass on from the elementary schools, continue the process of providing for the youth of both sexes a sound general education as a prepara- tion for life, combining with it in increasing measure the beginnings of professional training. At the " Central High School " of Philadelphia, for example, one of the largest and most sumptuously equipped high schools in the States, educating about 1,600 boys, there is a system of "elective" courses which gives the greatest possible variety of studies. There is a "classical " course; a "Latin- scientific" course, omitting Greek; a "modern language" course, with no Greek, and Latin omitted after the second or " sophomore" year; and a "commercial" course, including economics, political science, and business technique ; while for the Latin-scientific and modern language courses is prescribed a further series of "electives," including mechanical and electrical engineering. How far this great variety of studies conduces to thoroughness in any one study is another question. The average standard of Latin and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes of American high schools is at present below that of an English public school}; nor does the teaching of French and German seem better, or more up to date, than our own. What the case is with mathematics, science, and manual training subjects, I leave others to say. One striking exception, so far as I have seen, is the teaching of English, a subject almost entirely neglected in English secondary schools. I have heard excellent lessons being given by women teachers as well as by men upon such subjects as one of Bacon's Essays, or an oration of Burke ; the author's words being used not merely as a vehicle for linguistic teaching and grammatical analysis, but for drawing out thought and expression ; and the reflection occurred that such a method, if applied to the study of the ancient classics, might revive some of their waning credit. The teaching in American high schools, as well as their discipline, struck me as more informal and leisurely than in our own. I doubt if they get through aa much work as our schools do ; nor do I think that a lad of 18, in See an account of the flag-saluting in New York schools, Times, October 28th, 1903. + An admirable syllabus on " The Life and Duties of the Citizen," drawn up under Mr. Acland's administration, originally part of a now defunct Evening Continuation School < de, is only accessible in a Blue-Book giving syllabuses, etc., for schools other than elemen- tary ; and but little attention is yet drawn in either elementary or secondary schools to the details of our Imperial heritage. ; It should, however, be noted that the study of classics (especially Latin) is making con- siderable progress in Americim secondary schools. See statistics cited by Professor G. G. lUrnsay in his address on "Efficiency in Education," pp. 17-9. (James MacLehose and Sons Ulasgow.) 251 [PAPILLON. the first class of an American high school, can compare in tli3 extent of his reading or the scholarly finish of his work with boys from tho head of Eton, Kugby, or Marlborough. )iut our great secondary schools cater for a select few, theirs for the whole people. They give an equal chance of a sound education to every boy or girl, irrespective of class, creed, or means; and on the whole they are successful. We claim to provide, not always with suce superior article for those who can afford to pay for it. They provide fail I v well for the intellectual needs of the average citizen, hut, perhaps, hardly enough for the training of special ability. We give d education better, I think, than theirs to the few who can r by it, but more or less neglect the mass of ordinary minds. The teaching in the larger American high schools seems to he more professional in character, with less of the tutorial element and personal intercourse of teacher and pupil, and, consequently, less prominence given to the formation of character as a chief aim, than in the traditions of English secondary education. This may be due partly to the influence of German educational ideas, of which many traces are visible ; partly to the fact that, with the great variety of subjects in curricula so much determined by the "elective" principle, the tendency is for teachers to be specialists, each taking a series of classes in one subject rather than, as witli us, one class in the bulk of its work. The lesson for us of the American high- school system lies, as I think, not in methods or quality of teaching, which are not superior to ours; nor in the provision of free education a hove the elementary stage, which is not as yet called for in Kugland ; but in the greater variety of its curriculum to suit the practical needs of life, and in the fact that it places within the, 'i of all a sound secondary education in preparation for special colleges, and for the duties of citizenship. We in England want, our new educational authorities to see that there is gradually provided, under conditions suitable to this country, something analogous to the excellent high schools open to every young American who desires secondary education. I do not, as I have said above, suggest that this provision should be made gratuitously, as in the United States. Nor do I expect that we could attain the same lavish expenditure upon buildings and equipment that is apparent in most great American cities.* We had better first imitate them in making more general provision for the training of teachers ; until it becomes a matter of course . as it is there, that no one shall teach in any public school without p d qualifications, and that a "normal" or training school is an integral part of the educational scheme for every county or large city area. We also need to revise our conceptions of the value of such highly skilled work as teaching. Even with allowance made for the higher cost of living, teache secondary schools are rather better paid in America than in England, with the exception of boarding-housemasters at the public schools.! But the expenditure upon salaries in general is not commensurate * The " Central Iligh School " building at Philadelphia, referred to abov, to have (W.OOOdols. (320,000); and at Pittsbun; we were told that SOO.OtX' led on the purchase of a site for a new hi^h school. figures most inert 1 see from a recent report ol > fur NVw York City that tho cost IK.T pupil of tin- " \V:it>r <>t N.'w YUIK, Mr. Srth Low, the champion of purity of iniinu-ipul Administration against the influence of "Tammany," was previously President of I'oluiiihia University, and li.in one United States A' '.'i eminent educationist. t As expressed, for example in the " Bidding Prayer" used before the University Sermon " That there may never be wanting a due supply of persons qualified to serve Qod in Church and State." PAIULLOS.] 254 them lavishly endowed which have marked and are marking that development, are an attempt to realise one or other of these two conceptions, or, more often, a combination of the two by the organisation of undergraduate and post-graduate study. The former is the function of the "college," the older, typical degree-giving institution, which is the nucleus of nearly all American universities. The latter, with training in "research," is now generally accepted as the true test of a university status. Accordingly, at the older universities in the Eastern States, such as Harvard, Yale, or Columbia ; at the leading State universities of the Middle West, such as Michigan or Wisconsin ; and at great private foundations like the Chicago University (a marvellous growth of only ten yeais) and the Leland Stanford University in California a combination of the college and the university proper, expressing the two main ideals above referred to, is becoming the typical form of organisation for higher education. From the " ruck " of colleges ar,d so-called universities all over the States,* which have in the past brought some discredit upon American degrees, there is gradually emerging a limited number of true homes of learning and research, which satisfy the somewhat exacting definition of " a place where teaching which puts a man abreast of the fullest and most exact knowledge of the time is given in a range of subjects covering all the great departments of intellectual life."t It seems as if the successful organisation of post-graduate study and research will " save the situation " as regards the preservation of a high standard of liberal culture by the American universities, which in their collegiate or ordinary academic function of sending young men into liie with a university degree, are being more and more pressed to make that degree an index of " practical " and professional training. It is here, too, if anywhere in the American university system, that there lies a lesson for our own universities ; but whether it can or will be applied is as yet uncertain. I very much regret that the itinerary of the Commission did not permit me to visit Cornell University (at Ithaca, New York State), or cither of the State universities of Michigan (at Ann Arbor, on the railway between Detroit and Chicago), and Wisconsin (at Madison, the capital of that State). The future of education in the Middle and Further West is likely to lie more and more with the State universities maintained out of public funds, and forming the coping- stone of the system of public education. One especial interest in these State universities of the West, as also at Cornell, is the teaching of agriculture, for which very thorough provision has been made. The Americans (and still more, the Canadians) recognise more keenly than we at present do in England that the highest and most scientific education is necessary for the business of agriculture, the oldest, the greatest, and the most widespread of industries. It is found, too, that the provision made for such instruction e.g., at the University of Wisconsin is gratefully received by agriculturists, and contributes largely in an agricultural State to the popularity of the State university. J * There are said to be 500 such institutions half of them founded since the close of the Civil War. t Bryce, "American Commonwealth," II., p. G07 (rd., 1895). The test would be a severe one for our own great universities : it certainly puts out of count all but a comparatively small number of American institutions which claim that title. t See Board of Education " Special Reports," Vol. XI., p. 420. 2"j."> ITLLOX. To sum up :* what has struck mo most forcibly in a short and imperfect survey of a wide field is first of all the attitude of the American people towards public education as a pi ssity of national life, for which hardly any expenditure can be too great ; and n< ninently practical and popular character. There is more co-ordination of its successive stages than we have hitherto seen in Kngland. From the elementary school to (lie high school, from the high school to the university, and on to special -sional training, the education of the future citi/en is in theory, and to a large, extent in practice, a continuous whole, marked out and provided by the State. Opportunities for secondary and technological instruction are moiv widely diffused and more generally accessible than can at present be said of our own country, though, as I have intimated, neither the methods of teaching nor the standards of attainment are, as a rule, superior to ours. The educational systems of America have the merits and defects of much else in that great but as yet unfinished country. They are full of life and energy; freely, not to say rashly, experimental; innovating, renewing, abandoning, sacrificing, now one point, now another, whether of ideas or practice, in the effort at growth and development. They are less systematically and scientifically thought out, beforehand than the more symmetrical systems of continental Europe ; but they are, perhaps, for that very reason more suggestive to ourselves, to a free people feeling its way along the same road, and realising, as we are beginning to do, that it is not hy transplanting the ideas and methods of other nations, but by improving or creating our own, that England must work out its educational salvation. T. L. PAPILLON. * I have transcribed this last paragraph almost rerbatim (by kind permission of Mr. Murray) from the paper contributed by me to the first number of School, January, 1904, 256 Ittosclp educational Commission* Report of Mr. HERBERT R. RATHBONE, Member of the Liverpool Education Committee, and Vice-Chairman of the Elementary Schools Management Sub- Committee. In the space which it has been found possible to allow each Commissioner, I shall be quite unable to give an account or just appreciation of the educational institutions visited while we were in the United States, or even adequately acknowledge the great kindness and hospitality with which we were everywhere received. It is no exaggeration to say that everyone we met, from the humblest member of society to the President, appeared anxious to do all in his power, often at considerable sacrifice of time and convenience, to facilitate our inquiries and make our tour a success. An attempt to express our great appreciation of this will, no doubt, be made in the general report which is, I understand, to- be signed by all the Commissioners. I trust, therefore, that as the space at my disposal is very limited, the omission of any special reference to those to whom I was particularly indebted will not be considered discourteous nor ungrateful. The great difficulty in writing such a report as this is, that it is impossible, for the reasons I have given, to describe in detail the impressions formed of the different educational institutions visited, and to generalise is dangerous. Although I was in the United States for about ten weeks, travelling as far West as Denver, and as far South as New Orleans, stopping at a considerable number of places for several days, I saw only a very small proportion of all those where the institutions would have repaid a careful study. Even in the towns at which we were able to stop, we could, as a rule, see only a small part of the educational work carried on, and that very hurriedly. For this reason, and also because the organisation and character of the work in nearly every State and city differs widely from that in other States and cities, it is, as I have said, except on a very few points, dangerous to make any general statements. In endeavour- ing to give the impressions I have formed, I do so fully conscious that with a longer and wider study, I might have come to different conclusions, and where I have thought the work was not as fully advanced as I expected it would be, I have probably not fully realised the great difficulties under which it is being carried on, nor fully appreciated its nature and aim. Almost immediately after arriving in America, and still more after travelling in the vast fertile territories in the West and South, I began to realise that I was in the presence of some of the most potent forces which will, in the years to come, shape the destinies of the world. I was much struck with the energy and enterprise of the people, their boundless hopefulness, their consciousness of power and wonderful self-confidence, their ingenuity, resourceful- ness, adaptability, and, above all, the rapidity and decision with 207 [EATHIJOKE which they endeavour to supply deficiencies to meet modern requ.rem. ;hing, howe\ died my admiration and envy as the attitude of the general public- with regard to education. The Americans believe in education, and it would hardly be an exaggeration to say that in most parts of the country thero is no oilier i|iiestion about which they foci so strongly or on the further- ance of which they are so resolutely set. One meets with evidence of this in all directions, in the astonishingly large sums of money which are devoted to education, the readiness with which the taxes ary to raise these sums are paid, the splendid completeness of all the public institutions which have an educational influence, the determination of parents that their children shall take full advantage of educational opportunities offered, the comparatively large proportion of students who go to the secondary schools, technical institutes, and universities, the number of business men and large firms anxious to obtain the services of those who have taken a university, or at least a high school course, the munificent donations which are constantly being made by wealthy business II over the country for educational purposes, and the mass of literature published on educational questions. One can hardly take up a newspaper, periodical, or magazine, without finding in it one or more paragraphs devoted to educational topics. I could give a very t of specific illustrations of this enthusiasm for education which came under my notice during the tour, but as space is limited it will, perhaps, be sufficient if I mention one or two. In a number of States and towns of the West, I found more than half of the public expenditure was on education, and as far as I could ascertain, this was with the entire appoval of the electors. In the Oklahoma Territory, which was only opened for settlement 14 years ago, I found that the first public buildings erected were for the common schools, and already there are established a complete common school system (elementary and secondary), training schools for teachers, and a university, all absolutely free. Go where one will in the States, one always finds the educational buildings are almost, if not altogether, the largest and best in the town or neighbourhood. Th- i'.\ left upon my mind is, that to an extent to which itls hard for an Englishman to realise, the Americans are i lined that their educational system shall be thoroughly . efficient, and that where efliciency and economy are in apparent conflict, it is economy which must give way. The next point wnich strikes one is that education in America is I thoroughly democratic. In every State and town I visited, there are provided for the children of every citizen who cares to avail .fof thorn, elementary and secondaiy schools absolutely free of cost, and in a great many States there are also free universities. where the univeiv the fees for instruction and -re so low as to make it possible for any student, >ints. The view there expressed as to the value of training is as follows : "That teachers are born, not made, has fully the- world's thought, until the prex-nt century, that a study of subjects v. ; y study of principles r methods of teaching lias been deem d quite sufficient. Modern educational thought and modern practice, in ull sections whore excellent H are found. < infirm the belief that there is :i pn> found philosophy on which methods are based, and that careful study of this philosophy and its it ion under expert guidance are essential to making lit the man born to teach." I '.very where I was most favourably impressed with the work of the training schools I visited, and as far as I could judge, the general lence of the teaching in American schools is largely due to the thorough training most of the teachers have received. In the i-i ty of the States, I was struck with the cultivation and refine- of the teachers, their enthusiasm for the profession, and readiness to better equip themselves for their work by private study, by attending classes throughout the year and summer courses at the universities during the vacation. At Chicago and some other , a teacher, without losing her position, can obtain leave of abr-ence for a year to enable her to take some special course which, if satisfactorily completed, will entitle her to additional remuneration. An account of the many ways in which care is taken to secure and maintain ihe efficiency of the teaching staff is given in Vol. X. of the 1 il reports on educational subjects issued by our Board of ;ition, but it may not be out of place to mention, as an illustration of what is being done by the teachers themselves in very many places, the arrangements I found in operation at one of the elementary schools at Brookline, near Boston. Once a fortnight the t( ;i liers meet together, and after discussing the school work, the principal sometimes gives a lesson to illustrate some improvement which she thinks may be made in their methods. After this one of the teachers reads a paper or addresses the others on some topic which they have all studied, but to which she has given special attention. At the beginning of each half-year, the topics for discussion are arranged by a committee of three, and the subjects are then allotted to different teachers for special study. As a rule two teachers take up a subject, each devoting herself to different aspects of the same question. For instance, if the topic is the life and educational work of a man, one will probably take his life, and another will discuss his educational This year I noticed the topics included " Frcebel and the value of his system in modern Boston life," the lives and work of St. Francis of Assisi and several other great moral teachers, "The Italian Renaissance : its History, Art, and Literature, and the educational system which grew out of it," " The place of Wordsworth in the life of a little child." In a great many places, a practice which exists of periodically sending the teachers to see the work done in other towns has been found very beneficial. I am convinced that if this were done more \ frequently in England, great improvements would result. The information which I received from the other Commissioners of excellent work being done in many parts of our own country, of which I knew little or nothing, was by no means the least of the benefits I derived from the Commission. There is, perhaps, no point on which the efficiency of the school- work depends so much as the size of the classes. In Liverpool, the RATHUONE.] 260 city where I reside, I regret to say that it is by no means uncommon for one teacher to have under her charge 70, 80, 90, and, occasion- ally, even 100 children. A class of over 70 is almost unknown in America, even in the southern States, where, since the war, they have had to contend with exceptional difficulties. Superintendents and teachers to whom I spoke on the subject were practically unanimous in considering that the greatest number with which really good educational work can be done is 40, and that anything much in excess of this imposes too great a strain 'on the teacher and makes it impossible for her to do good work. Here I have found that, apparently, it is thought the younger the children the larger the number which can be properly placed in the charge of one teacher. In America, I am glad to say, tho opposite view is almost universally held, and it is there felt that the younger the children the more the individual attention they require. Sooner than have large, unwieldly classes, Americans resort to the expedient of half- day classes ; that is to say, one set of children will come during the morning and during the afternoon prepare their lessons at home, and another set will prepare during the morning and come to school during the afternoon. This, except for the kindergarten children, and, perhaps also, for the first grade, is not considered satisfactory ; but American educators, as far as I could gather, are unanimous in thinking that it is better to have the children well-taught for half a day than badly taught for a whole day. In New York, where, owing to the enormous increase in population, due to immigration, the greatest difficulty has been, experienced in making the school accommodation sufficient, the average size of the class in the elementary school is 43, and in the kindergarten 28. There are, however, no less than 69,063 children attending half-day classes. That the accommodation is so deficient is much deplored, and the greatest efforts are being made to supply the deficiency. During the year which ended on July 31st, 1902, new buildings were erected, providing accommodation for 83,066 children in the elementary schools, and for 11,465 in the high schools. With classes over 30 I found it was almost the invariable practice to divide them into two, so that one-half might be engaged in desk work while the others were reciting (oral work). At New Orleans, the superintendent of education informed me that he had been making inquiries from other, superintendents all over the United States on this point, that in none of the replies he received had the limit been placed higher than 50, and that the majority seemed to be of the opinion it was impossible to do really good work with more than 30. Discipline. As a general rule the discipline in American schools is admirable. In some 1 places it appeared to me to be a little too rigid, the children apparently always move in perfect unison, at a word or signal from the teacher, and although this, no doubt, saves time and greatly facilitates the school work, especially in very large schools, it does not appear to me to be desirable. If the children are never left to choose between the right and wrong ways of entering the class-room or changing from one room to another, if they do the right thing simply because they have been told to do it and have no other alternative, a great opportunity of traiuing the will is lost. Another objection which I feel to the almost military orderliness and precision with which the children are taught to move in these 2(U [BATH i ; schools, is thfit it appear^ to me to impose too great a strain on them. "When in when- this kind of discipline wondered when the children were all ition. Surely, even at the risk of a little noise and , it is well to allow a little freedom of m. hughter, and talking between sessions. Combined movements ar>' undoubtedly useful, but it is possible, I feel, to have them too precise and too often. It is. li. only in the schools of a few places that any objection of this kind is felt. In most American schools, although the children are wonderfully free from any direct control by the IT, there is complete absence of anything approaching disorder, Discipline there is, but it is from within, and not from without. The children do right because they know that by so doing tho school life will be more pleasant and more helpful. In such schools when the teacher directs the children to do anything, it seems as if she is making a suggestion rather than giving a command, and so the children know laughter, talking, and independent movement are not restricted if they do not interfere with school work, they respond to her suggestions eagerly. The attitude of most American teachers to the children under their control seems to be that of a guide and friend rather than a ruler, with the result that the atmosphere of the school approximates to that of a good home, the children look happy, and appear to thoroughly enjoy their school life ; they are cheerful, self-reliant, -and above all, alive and natural. It is delightful to hear, as I often did, the free and ready way in which the children spontaneously ask questions or offer 'stions, and the courteous, tactful manner in which th 3 teachers or them. To encourage self-government, self-expression, and self-activity, is, I believe, the constant aim of the teachers, some- times, perhaps, to an extent which may leave little room for the cultivation of modesty and reverence. Other virtues, however, such as politene.ss, mutual helpfulness, and unselfishness, seem to thrive under the system, and I feel confident that before long, with the deep earnestness and truly religious spirit which actuates so many of the American educators, the only objections which can be raised to this new spirit of school discipline will be removed. There is, I believe, no other department of school work in which we have so much to learn from America as this new spirit of school discipline,! which is most ably described and discussed in the special reports issued by our Board of Education, Vol. X., Part 1, pp. 74-94. Of the tgaching staff as a whole I can speak in terms of great admiration. Of course, there is still great room for improvement, and no one realises this better than the teachers themselves, but the excellent professional spirit which is being created, and the growing recognition by the public of the great importance of the task isted to the teachers, is full of promise. Although the social standing of the profession is higher than with us, it is not yet all that could be desired. For this, the inadequacy of the salaries is, I think, largely responsible, as people everywhere, and not least in America, are apt to estimate the importance of a man's work by the price it commands. That a people who are so generous in their expenditure on school buildings should not be more liberal to their teaching staff is surprising and disappointing. It is to this false economy more than anything else that the difficulty of getting a sufficient number of capable male teachers is due. Again and again I met with men who, because of the inadequacy of the salaries RATHKONE.] 262 and the insecurity of the tenure of office, have left the profession, or intend to do so us soon as a favourable opening in some other walk of life is offered to them. I did not meet a single American itor who regarded with satisfaction the great and growing preponderance of women teachers. Greatly as they appreciate the splendid [RATFIBONB. yet I hardly once heard her express her own opinion, and Bho d Hitherto In- leading the children to themselves. Never h; 11 a cla-s so int'-n-rly interested in their work, :md I am sure there was not a child in the room who was not really sorry when the lesson was over. 1 asked this teacher her views as to direct moral teaching. She seemed to think that in unskilful hands it was almost sure to he mischievous, but that when well done, it was very helpful. She herself made a practice of talking to the children from time to time on such suhjects as self- respect, self-control, selfishness, obedience, love and sympathy, truth, honesty, good temper, courtesy, the home, the school, patriotism, etc. balks, she said, were popular, and if by any chance they were postponed the children were very disappointed. Most of the 'tooks written for children on ethical subjects were, she thought, unsatisfactory; the only one she strongly recommended was 'lies for Young People," by Professor Everett (Ginn and Company, Boston). I have since myself read this book, and agree that, with a judicious teacher, it should be very useful. All American schools begin work by collecting the children ier in the assembly hall. A chapter of the Bible is usually and a hymn or song is sung by all the children together, after which the head teacher, or someone else invited by him to do so, addresses the children. In this way, no 'doubt, some direct ethical teaching is given, hut as to its value opinion is much divided. No doubt the :gs afford valuable opportunities, but the teachers who are capable of making good use of them are limited. Before passing away from this subject, it may be well to mention a point to which many American teachers attach considerable importance, the unifying of the home and school life. In many places I found it was customary to hold one or two meetings each term of the parents of the children at the school, and for the t the homes of the parents, special times being set aside to enable them to do tbis. Teachers of kindergartens, for nee, are, as a rule, only employed during the morning, but are expected to visit the parents during the afternoon. At New York I was able to be present at a meeting of parents held in a school in a moderately poor neighbourhood. About 200 mothers were present. As soon as each parent arrived she was shown where the teacher of the class in which her children studied was standing, and all were soon eagerly discussing with the teachers and with each other the progress, etc., of the children. After general conversation for about half-an-hour, all the parents sat down at the children's desks, and were then addressed by the late head- mistress of the school, who had just IK en appointed one of the ant superintendents of education. On this occasion she began plaining that, as the new course of study had been found too difficult for some of the children, it had been found necessary to put back several into lower grades. The necessity for this was explained with great care, so that the parents of the children might not feel unduly disappointed. She then spoke of the ne< ,r mothers watching carefully the company their girls were keeping, of making their home life happy, and of encouraging them to talk frankly at home, so that the parents might judge of the company their daughters were keeping, and whether they were healthy-minded. KATHBONE.] 266 She referred also to the clothing of the children, the ventilation of the bedrooms, feeding, the importance of checking the use of slang by girls, and of repressing any tendency to flashy dressing. She spoke of everything in a most practical manner with the greatest t;ict, and I could see that the parents were delighted. It is not uncommon for over 85 per cent, of the mothers to attend these meetings, although no tea or other entertainment is provided. At a school at Brookline, where the majority of the children came from a poor neighbourhood, similar work of this kind has met with great success. The principal told me that she always encouraged the mothers to come and see the school, and whenever a new child arrived she sent a special invitation to the mother. Meetings of the mothers are frequently held in the school, when a simple tea is provided by the teachers, and about 400 out of 700 parents usually attend. The children together compose the letter of invitation \vhich is to be sent, and afterwards make the copies, On arriving, the mothers are taken to the desks occupied by their children, on each of which are placed specimens of the work done by the child who occupies the desk. The first half-hour is spent in the examina- tion of the work, and conversation with the teachers of the class and with each other. All then adjourn to the assembly hall, where tea is provided, and as soon as this is finished the principal addresses the parents, and discusses with them topics of common interest. The idea underlying these conferences is that the teachers and parents are in partnership, and must constantly confer together if they are to work with perfect harmony for the end they both have in view. To realise the full effect of these meetings, one must remember that in America the schools are attended by children of very different social standing. The principal told me that it was delightful to see how the parents talked together and discussed their respective children on terms of perfect equality. Sometimes the richest people who made a point of coming in their best dresses, as they would to the smartest society gathering, insisted on helping to wash up. Physical Culture. In most of the schools I visited, physical drill, generally based on the Swedish system, is practised, and in some schools I found excellent gymnasiums, but I venture to think that, in a great many of the elementary schools particularly, hardly sufficient attention has yet been paid to this subject. In the class- rooms great care is taken that the children do not assume hurtful Attitudes, and that the conditions under which they work are healthy. In some cities, New York for instance, a doctor attends each elementary school regularly every week, and a nurse visits daily to carry out his directions. This medical attendance has been found invaluable in checking the spread of infectious complaints, and improving the general health ot the children. In America, as in this country, much trouble has been caused by juvenile smoking, and I was told that in over 40 States it is now illegal to sell cigarettes to children under the age of 16. I have not yet been able to verify this statement, but I have been in several States where the feeling against juvenile smoking is so strong that all sale of cigarettes, even to adults, is prohibited. M'tnnal Training. As the result of my observations and inquiries in America, I am deeply impressed with the importance of a well- considered 'system of manual instruction, both in the elementary lit ',7 and secondary schools. Some of tin- other Conimi considerable time and attention to tliis :id will, 1 ti in it. There is undoubtedly growing up in Ann eling in favour of it town wo visited, splendidly equipped manual instruction high school-; have been civeted, or are contemplated. In th- schools it is not SO universal as I ant ami as far as I e,,dd , it is not much in advance of that given in many of our o. uentary schools. Whenever I found it in op -ra'jon, I used to the principals and other tearhers their opinion as to i: and invariably found they \vere. enthusiastically in favour of it where the training, as far as I was able to judge, was gorxl, but where, as not unfrequently was the case, the training appeared to me to be very indifferent, I found the teachers regarded it a of time. '/Iticiition. In the eastern and southern States co-education that is to say, the education of boys and girls together is not by any means so universal as it is in the western Sta: . As to its lity, the opinions of American educators differ, but I notie that wlienever I met strong opponents of the system, they were :iad not themselves been educated under it. Those who had \\vre almost always strong advocates of the system. As far I could ascertain, the objections which are usually urg"d against it are grouirlless. In the elementary schools, as far as 1 could see, it is attended with excellent results, hut it is not so entirely sat i in the high schools and universities. One master, who has had experience of both systems, objected to it mainly on the ground that, while boys between the ages of 14 and 18 require pressing, girls of the same age are inclined to work too hard without pressure, so that where both classes are mixed one or other of them is sure to suffer. My chief objection to it, however, is that I cannot \ believe that precisely the same education can be an equally good \ preparation for classes whose work in after life will probably be so I different. To give a girl education d to lit a boy lor the work he will have to do in after life must, 1 have always thoug: tend to give her an undue admiration for a man's nature and ideals, and lead her to look somewhat depreciatingly on thos3 of her own sex. I cannot say that anything 1 heard or saw in Amer, changed my opinions on these points. I could not, however, help noticing that the girls in America are, as a rule, more self-reliant and better able to take care of themselves, and are treated with greater respect by men in 'America than they are in this country, and I am inclined to think that this is due to some extent to co-education. Organisation. The organisation of the American citv school m is described in the " Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Education." In the main I agree with the r. mendations made in this report, but I recognise that for many reasons it would be impossible to adopt them in their entirety in this country. The statement of 1'iv-ideut Butler, which appears ou ; seems to me very suggestive of the lines upon which a considerable improvement might be effected in the organisation of our city school systems. I regret space does not permit of i: ^ the nature of these recommen -.tempt to do so briefly would be misleading. 1 must, therefore, leave those who are interested in the subject to read the report. RATHHOXE.] 208 Secondary Schools, Technical Schools, and Universities. I am sorry I have neither time nor space to report my impressions with regard to these most important branches of educational work in America. There can, however, I think, be no doubt that in the provision for secondary, technical, and university education, America is far ahead of this country, and that there is a growing appreciation of its value on the part of the manufacture! s and business men. Museums. Of museums there are not a great number in the United States, but the few which have been established are, I believe, in some respects the finest in the world. The Natural History Museum at New York, of which, as yet, only a small part has been completed, is as large as any I have seen, and splendidly organised. I \vas much impressed with the care taken in this, and other American museums, to make the collections intelligible and interesting to " the man in the street." There is no overcrowding, every specimen is shown to the best advantage, and has a large, clearly printed explanatory label or pamphlet attached to it. The local collections always occupy prominent positions, and everything possible is done to interest the public in the scientific aspect of their environment. I do not think it would be possible for anyone, however limited his scientific knowledge, to visit one of these museums, particularly the Natural History Museum at New York, or the Smithsonian at Washington, without feeling greatly interested, and without learning much that will be stimulating and suggestive. On Sundays, I was told, the museums are crowded mainly by parents accompanied by their children. It is, I believe, difficult to over estimate the educational value of a good museum so arranged. Libraries. The public library system is well developed in America, and in almost every town I visited I found an excellent public library. The Congressional Library at Washington and the Public Library at Boston are in magnificent buildings, and their organisation is far in advance of anything I have yet seen. A full descriptive report of the Boston Library in particular would, I believe, be found very useful to those engaged in carrying on similar work in this country. I paid particular attention to the children's department, and succeeded in obtaining from the lady in charge of that in the Boston Library an account of the work there, of which the following is a copy : A separate department for children has existed in the Boston Public Library fiince May, 1895. It occupies two rooms, one for recreative reading and the other for study, both furnished with low tables, chairs, and bookcases. The reading room has for decoration Howard Pylc's illustrations of the life if Washington, prints of historical and architectural subjects, two casts of Luca Uella Robbia's "Singing C.alliry," and a collection of autographs of persons connected with American history. Fiction and the most used class of books are i-helved here, the fiction being arranged alphabetically according to the authors ; the other books are divided into ten classes, shelved in the same way, with the exception of biography, the arrangement of which follows the usual library method. Books circulate directly from this room, the children selecting them from the open book-shelves at will, or consulting the card catalogue which contains the names of all the books in the department. The amount of fiction in the room comprises less than half the number of books, but it averages 79 per cent, of the entire circulation. In 1902 the issue of bcoks directly from the children's room at the Central Library was about 2G9 [BATH HONK. 64,000 volumes, somewhat less than tho figures for the prcc. : The r is about :'. ' m UK; >nppli.., in them. i ^rious sour' supply for i-lrl.lr. .1! is iin possible to . ' : v th' iiuiu . dra.vii by them in u year from the differ. I iry. Chi dren over the agem 10 years cm he card h draw two books at a time, both of which may be fiction. i> uro, with lihrar, , v, IK. rails at the parent's house. . . be kept for two 1 for longer detention a line of 'J cents a (lav is chargnd. tied from '.) a m. t:) 9 p.m. on week-days, and from '2 p.m. until I) p.m. on Sundays. Four attendants, who are relieved at 6 p in. on Sundays by a separate staff, are assigned to tho two rooms. All routine clerical work and simple mending is done in the department. Books are catalogued by the regular cataloguing stall of the Library. In the i. terence room lr studio^, compositions written, and other preparations for school are done. One feature of the room which is constantly proving its value is the collection of text-hooks used in the Boston public -. This is especially helpful to the many who wish to continue study after leaving school, for students in the night schools, and for teachers from other places. In addition to this, there are ordinary reference books, with a special selection for kindergarten teachers. 1 1 is made, as far as possible, to influence children in the choice of good reading, but personal freedom is not interfered with, and tho result is that the child usually asks of his own accord for help in the selection of books. A bulletin board for the exhibition of picture bulletins is in use, and serves to call ion to current events, or to illustrate some subject which is timely or ting. Pictures used in this way are cut from periodicals and mounted in the room, or they may be 1'errv pictures, and tho like. Mounted photographs and half-tones loaned by the Kin.; Arts Department are also exhibited. The picture bulletins are . often as once a month, and many of them do not remain posted as long as that. They are sometimes accompanied by lists of books relating to the subject illustrated, and frequently the books themselves are placed on adjoining shelves. Organised woi k with schools is carried on in the children's room as well as through the branch departments. The special accommodation for students (mentioned above) is appreciated, and opportunity for help in looking up school topics is always oj>en. Talks to the upper grades of the elementary schools are given in the reference room whenever a teacher desires. This is done as a school exercise, classes meeting at the Library for this purpose. Several talks on tne use of the Library, tho catalogue and reference books, are prepared and given as occasion or the attainments of the class demand. Besides the direct information thus received, these talks are valuable in giving the children an acquaintance with the Library, which makes it easier for them to come alone and to feel free in asking information or assistance. Teachers are invited to come to the Library with classes, and {]< give instruction or make use of books reserved for them as they may request. Books are sent to the schools by the branch departments, which has a special collection for deposit. Application is made to this department, either at the Central Library or the branches, by teachers who may furnish the titles of the books which they wish supplied ; or, if they prefer to send a subject merely, the books are selected by the librarians. Complete freedom is allowed teachers to make their own choice of books, no record of circulation is required, and the books may be kept weeks or months as desired. The feciture in connection with the work of the children's depart- ment,, which seemed to me specially commendable, is that they are always in charge of a sufficient number of educated women to enable the children to get good advice and assistance in the selection of books suitable for them, and that in various ways the co-operation of the teachers in the schools is secured, so that the work of the library is kept in touch with that of the school. Some special mention should certainly be made of the Hampton Institute for Coloured People, Virginia The interest of the work R.VTHBONE.] 270 done here is by no means confined to the effect it is having on the solution of the coloured problem. The principle of "learning by doing" is there applied throughout the whole of the work of the institute, from the kindergarten upward, with a completeness to be found in very few if any other places. The results, so far, have been very satisfactory, and have met with the approval of the public in the South as well as in the North. We were received by Dr. Frissell and other members of the staff with the greatest kindness and hospitality, and spent a busy but delightful day in going over the buildings and inspecting the work done there. As I was one of a party of five who continued the investigations of the Commission in the West and South, and as this was by no means the least satisfactory and instructive part of the tour, I trust I may be allowed to make some special reference to it. Before leaving Chicago I was able to visit the works of the Inter- national Harvester Company, the largest concern engaged in making reapers, binders, etc., in the world. I was greatly impressed by the completeness of the works and the rapidity with which the different operations were conducted. The comfort of the employes in these works is by no means neglected, excellent dressing-rooms, lavatories, and dining-rooms being provided for them. Strikes, I was assured, are almost unknown at these works, and excellent relations exist between the employers and the men. If I recollect rightly, it is this firm which, I was informed, take on five college men in each year with a view to their occupying positions of responsibility in a short time. During the vacations, numbers of college students are engaged at the works, and are paid for their services, the company being glad to get them. Our first stop after Chicago was Rock Island and Moline, two towns of 20,000 inhabitants each, which are so near each other that they cannot well be distinguished. At Moline we visited the John Deere Plow Works, which, though not so large, are in every way as complete and remarkable for the rapidity with which the work is executed as the Harvester Works at Chicago. In both these works the managers attributed their success in no small measure to the fact that all their employes fully recognise they will benefit, and not lose, by improvements in machinery. The men, consequently, are eager to suggest improvements, and owing to the excellent education many of them have received are not infrequently able to do so. The provision for elementary and high school education in these towns, as in all those we visited through this part of the West, was upon a most liberal scale. More than half the public expenditure is upon education. The school buildings are very handsome and well planned, and the educational work, as far as I could judge of it in theshort time we were there, was distinctly good. At Kansas City the recent school buildings are very good, but there are several old and not very satisfactory buildings in use. The level of attainment in the schools was, I thought, exceptionally high 4 but I am not satisfied that this apparently satisfactory result is not being obtained at rather a high cost in the elementary schools, as in some of the schools the younger children, in particular, appeared to me overstrained. I missed the bright, happy, alive look I had hitherto found in the best American schools. The children, also, did not appear to me as healthy as one might have reasonably expected in a town so well situated as Kansas. [BATHHOKE. From Kan-;: ! w-- - the kind \\ the superintendent and tin- other school ottici i that, which had li'-'-n extended to us in other places. The school work at Topeka was, 1 thought, admirable throughout. An excellent. spirit seemed to exist in e\fi\ s hool we visit. -d, and it would, I think, lie difficult to find :inyv. hen- a more alile and enthu^ of teachers, or a brighter, healthier, more intelligent-looking & children than those wo saw in ti ools. These results, however, have not been obtained without a considerable sacrif'x the part of the parents, as here again, we were assured, more than half the public expenditure is on education. Our next visit was to the State University at Lawrence, which is splendidly situated at the top of a hill overlooking the town. The buildings are handsome and admirably adapted for the purposes for which they are required. The university is absolutely free, and a large proportion of the students maintain themselves out of their own earnings for work they do at the university or in the tov/n during their spare time and vacations. The university is well equipped in every department, and has a large staff of professors of high standing. Co-education is universal in the West through all stages, even to the university. The museum, for the accommodation of which a line building has been erected, is exceptionally good, will, probably, before long take a high position among such institu- tions in America. In the afternoon we visited the Haskell Institute for Indians, where a large number of Indian girls and youths are being admirably educated and trained in different handicrafts, agricultural work, and domestic arts. From Lawrence we travelled to Colorado Springs, passing through immense tracts of fertile territory which appeared to be mainly devoted to wheat growing and cattle grazing. On all hands we heard most glowing accounts of the fertility of the soil, and even the farmers, a proverbially difficult race to please, seemed entirely satisfied. We arrived at Colorado Springs on a Sunday, and the schools were not, therefore, in session. We visited some of the buildings which, in my judgment, are the best I saw in America. Of course, Colorado Springs is, comparatively speaking, a small place, and has many advantages such as, comparatively speaking, cheap land, and a fairly prosperous community, not possessed in an equal degree by some of the larger towns. I am sorry I have not the ability to describe the beautiful country wo saw while at Colorado Springs, but, perhaps, it will be sufficient if I say that the day we spent there was to me one of the most enjoyable of the tour. At Denver, again, we were received with the greatest kind and hospitality I was most favourably impressed with the work in the schools, particularly that of the Manual Training High School. From Denver we passed to Guthrie, our first stop in the Oklahoma Territory. It is now 13 years since this huge territory, consisting of 24,000,000 acres, was thrown open for settlement, yot it has already more than half-a-million inhabitants, and boasts of s towns, two of which we visited. Of the fertility of the soil and excellence of the climate it is apparently difficult to speak in too high terms. An amazing variety of crops has already been produced, and as soon as a sufficient supply of labour has been obtained it bids fair to become one of the greatest cotton-growing States in the world. When one recollects how the already congested populations of the East are being flooded every year witii RATHUONE.] 272 immigrants one cannot help thinking it would be greatly for the bent-fit of all parties if some steps could be taken to divert the stream of immigration into this as yet scarcely populated region. Astonishing as is the rapid growth of the towns, even more significant of the enterprise and excellent character of the inhabitants is the development of their educational institutions. A complete system of free education, from the common school to the university, with a training school for teachers, has been established, and already the people residing in the State can make the proud boast of the highest percentage of school attendance of any pioneer fanning community. We visited several schools at Guthrie and Oklahoma City, and found it difficult to believe that so much had been done in so short a time. From Oklahoma City we went to Houston, from which we made a flying visit to Galveston. In the South, as we anticipated, the schools left much to be desired, but one should never forget the exceptional difb'culties with which, since the war, they have had to contend. With the wave of prosperity which is spreading over the South there is already an educational awakening, and as in other parts of America, one of the first uses to which the public will put their money will be the improvement of their schools and other educational institutions. My feeling as I left this part of the country was, that in the not far distant future there would be a development there which would compare favourably with that which has already taken place in the Eastern States of the North. The recent growth of the Tulane University at New Orleans is an indication of the growing appreciation of the value of education in the South. The new buildings, which are already erected, present an imposing appearance, and plenty of land has been secured for future extensions which are contemplated. At Nashville, a comparatively speaking small town, a very large number of educational institutions have been established, including several large private schools. We first visited the Vanderbilt University, which is splendidly situated and has a large number of line buildings. Although provision is made for engineering and scientific courses, the work of the university is mainly academic. Considerable difficulty has been experienced during past years in consequence of the insufficient secondary education of many of the students who came to the university. Frequent unsuccessful attempts have been made to induce the university authorities to modify the courses so as to enable a larger number of students to come to the university. The refusal to lower the requirements has been fully justified, >as the work of the secondary schools has been greatly improved, and the university has now as many students aa can be accommodated there with the present staff and buildings. We also visited the Fisk University for coloured students, and were greatly interested with the work done there. The Peabody Normal College, to which we next went, is a fine institution for the training of teachers. We inspected a number of elementary schools, but there is nothing in the work being done there to call for any special attention. At Knoxville we were shown over the State University of Tennessee, and were delighted with the excellent work it is doing. We had seen many universities with more elaborate buildings, but in none did it appear to me there were more signs of vigorous life. As a rule, in the South, there is not the same enthusiasm for 273 [RATHUONK. education as in the North, hut we saw no sign of any lack of it at Knoxville University. No less than t',0 i ,/f the students, wo were told, were maintaining themselves \vliil.: ;it the university from their own earnings. Jn eomieetion with this university tliere are two experimental farms where most valuable educational and done. The excellent results which are being obtained from the employment of scientific methods on these ; have already impressed the farming community, and every year an increasing number of those who intend to take up agriculture are coming to the university. I regret it is necessary for me to deal in such a cursory manner with the work of this university and other educational institutions in the South, as although they are not so advanced as some of those we saw in the North, they are as interesting when the difficulties with which they have had to contend are considered. UEKBEBT R. RATHBONB. 274 rnoselp educational Commission. Report of Professor H. R. REICHEL. Manual Training. Manual training in all its branches forms one of the most remark- able features of contemporary education in America, and is exciting special interest in Great Britain. Having myself given particular attention to the subject for several years, I devoted much of my time to it, and especially to the manual training high schools. This institution is a characteristic American development. It is tially a city school, and has two objects educational and ional sometimes one and sometimes the other of these being the more emphasised. Educationally, its function is to train a side of the mind which would otherwise be left undeveloped ; vocation- ally, to fit boys to enter into the industrial and commercial life of the great cities after prolonging their school attendance to the age of 18. Brooklyn Manual Training High School. The principal began life as a telegraphist, saved money and went to college, and has worked 25 years in high schools. He is not himself a manual train- ing expert, but has visited all the existing manual schools, and his opinion should be of special value, knowing, as he does, the prac- tical as well as the academic side and viewing the academic from the practical standpoint. He expressed a strong opinion of its educational value. The pupils have to pass the city superinten- dent's examination in the ordinary book subjects, and they take as high positions in it as pupils from the academic high schools who have no manual training. Besides pointing to its value in vitalis- ing abstract subjects like mathematics and creating an intelligent interest in outside life, he dwelt specially on the power it seemed to develop of following out in the mind the whole line a problem would take before putting pen to paper. After 16 or 17 its function was purely vocational. There was also some danger, unless it were restricted in time and correlated with the book subjects, that mechanical interest might swallow up every other. Of the boys, half go into technical work, three-quarters entering college ; of the girls, three-quarters become teachers. The course, as in all high schools, covers four years from 14 to 18. The school time-table embraces 30 hours a week, of which six are given to manual work. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Fourth Year. Boys.... Joinery .. Forging .. Printing .. Machine Fitting Girls Sewing .. Cookery .. Millinery .. Domestic Science These subjects are combined with drawing, both freehand and mechanical, and with certain variations (e.g., the substitution of foundry work for printing) may be taken as typical of the manual training high school. The manual work, apart from drawing, thus takes up one-fifth of the school time. One foreign language is taught Latin or German or French but no Greek, and, by means of a considerable latitude of option, courses are provided suitable for the university on either the arts or the technical side, for the normal training college, and for business life. 275 [EEICHBL. Visiting the d\ uck by the high artistic and educa- tional value of tin- melalwork in t Qg). The room was full of life, tin- work astonishingly good, and fro- beginning based largely on original design and five from the ling effect of mere ,-\. Mirk, on the contrary, was tame and uninspiring. Both the principal and the instnu-ior -a man of marked originalit \ and ar .who had begun as an artisan were of opinion that the manual instructor should, as a rule, be a teacher \vlio lias subsequently received technical training rather than an artisan \\lio ha- trained to teach. Since the mechanical operations are quickly learnt and make no 8 demand on the intelligence, the value of the printii to lie mainly in its correlation with the book studies. It is u encourage original composition and esprit de corps by the publica- tion of a school maga/ine entirely written, illustrated, set up and printed off by the boys themselves. I'nitt Institute Hiokin77 BED. \ ebmpfl i : n MI \\ irh the- ' b New 1 ork shows that, though occupying fewer hoin irried to a I point and clearly presupposes a higher stage of attainine- entrance. It is significant that no f>i/s attfinl ' ill nni/ ntlii'r. The siil)s.'<|iiciit. cai I in tin- t ! - 1S'.)7 to 1'JOO is shown as follov I niveraity technical courses and technical institutes . . 23 Engineering and machine shops .. .. .. .. 16 Commerce and professions 14 53 Only -\'2 per cent. go on to universities, and these all for tech 1 omrscs, \\hile from IJruoklyn the percentage is about 70, so< whom take literary work. The principal thought that the educational trend was towards specialised high schools; he insisted strongly at the same time that the object was general training, not trade teaching. The work done in the workshops seemed much more technical than at Brooklyn, being based on exercises and class teaching, and starting with lathe work. The head of the manual training department a graduate of a technical institute main- tained that the object was more directly practical, adding : "These boys are better mechanics than the Brooklyn boys; the Brooklyn system kills blacksmithing." A doubt expressed as to the educational value of the method elicited the reply: " That is what those educators say, but if you want to make a good mechanic this is the way to do it." The atmosphere was more purely industrial than at Brooklyn or Pratt, the artistic element being conspicuously absent. The culture element is provided by I English (including history) five hours a week, which is admirably taught, the head of the department being a specialist trained in the Post-graduate Seminar of the Johns Hopkins University. German is taught on the old-fashioned dead language method. Hampton Institute for Coloured Students. No educational insti- tution that I visited in the States impressed me so strongly as Hampton ; but it has been so admirably described by Mr. Sadler (Special Reports, vol. xi. pp. 546-555) that a detailed account would be superfluous. It is remarkable as the school that has (a) solved the problem of industrial education for a rural population ; (//) initiated the movement that forms the most hopeful element in the formidable race question of the Southern States. It is rather an industrial community with a strong educational side than a regular school, and the essential principle of the training is the union of literary and religious culture, with industrial work. Miinual Training tit Boston. The system adopted in those of the Boston elementary schools in which manual training is given may be illustrated by the work done at the Dwight School. Here card- board work is carried out in Grades 4, 5, 6 (age 10 to 12), and > woodwork in the highest grades, 7, 8, 9 (age 12 to 15), all the work being under the Sloyd teacher, a graduate of the Sloyd Training School. The class contained 30 too large a number for ,-eally effective individual teaching. The Brookline High School is an academical high school, but with a manual training department. In the latter there is no Latin or Greek. The manual training consists of three hours a week drawing nd three hours a week benchwork. In all other subjects EEKMEL.] 278 pupils of all departments take the same classes. The exclusion of I ,atin is not deliberate, but accidental. The school day closes at 1.30, and then* is no compulsory afternoon work as in New York; hence time-table difficulties make it impossible to allow the manual training pupil this option. The manual training for the boys consist ^ in the first year of tool woodwork, in the second of wood turning, in the third of forging, and in the fourth of machine fitting. For the girls corresponding feminine occupations are arranged. The instructor explained that the system originally adopted was one of exercises, but it had been recently greatly influenced 1>\ Swedish educational ideas, and the tendency was steadily in tin- direction of substituting " models " for exercises. He believed him- self that this was educationally better. In the wood turning of the second year the attempt is made to counteract the purely mechanical tendency of this work by encourag- ing original design. The feature of the manual work on the girls' side was the way in which the art work was brought to bear upon the needlework and millinery. The method of teaching colon r in tlir art department by coloured diagrams, starting from neutral tints, and of developing original design, seems to me worthy of stiuh by experts. This art work is compulsory the first year and optional afterwards, when it is largely dropped by pupils preparing for the university. There is no copying from other drawings every draw- ing is done from the natural object; this I find to be almost universal, both in the United States and Canada. Principal Sandford hopes ultimately to bring original design into the sai in- close relation with manual training on the boys' side also. In a mechanical drawing class which I visited, of 24 who were working five had in view the Institute of Technology, six the Science School of Harvard University ; in other words, 45 per cent, in their second year already contemplated going on to college. In the Rindge Manual Training High School, for boys only (total number, 349), the principal stated that from 20 to 25 graduated every year. The percentage of boys who had completed the elementary school course entering the school had risen from 33 per cent, in 1898 to 57 per cent, in 1903. The quality also had steadily improved. There used to be an idea that manual training was for the stupid boys ; this was now completely dead, and the most vigorous and enterprising boys chose the Manual Training School, with the result that in the English High School the girls outnumbered the boys by three to one. Of the boys who graduated nearly half went on to the university technical school ; the rest either entered engineering officf draughtsmen or became assistant superintendents in offices involving mechanical knowledge. The school was in no sense a trade school ; the boys did not become mechanics, but supervisors of mechanics. They got posts at commencing salaries of 7dols. to 12dols. a week, and rose in these posts to about l,200dols. a year. The demand was greater than the school could supply. Large manufacturing linns had asked for " all the boys you can send qualified for our work," at 9dols. a week. Other graduates held higher posts of various kinds running up to 3,000dols. Repeated cases had occurred of boys who had failed in the ordinary high school achieving marked success on being transferred to the Manual Training School. The principal believed that in the university engineering department his old boys beat those of the ordinary high 27'.) obtained in that depart nn-nt itsel the pi'";. engineering considered that the manual training high schools did excellent work in turning out foremen for industrial work, hut d as preparatory for the technical COOTSe at the univer- sity. The hoys did heit.-r at first, l>ut fell back later on in the higher abstract work essential to make a first-class engineer.) He considered that manual training should he up to a certain point compulsory, and alter that optional, and preferred a single high school with a manual training department to independent speoiab'sed schools. /><"'v// Experimental School. This school forms the practice school of the training department of the University of Ch > Professor I >ewey began as a philosopher, and took up the work of education with the view of putting in practice certain educational ideas to which his studies in psychology had led him. The school method throughout is based largely on manual work on the i'ro-belian principle. This, however, is not all ; it embodies the idea that the individual passes through the same stages of growth as the race, and that the child therefore is in a sense analogous to the savage. Ilis knowledge of life should therefore begin with the simple forms of life found amongst savages, their pursuits, in- dustries, and so on. Thus, the children are taken through course-. of weaving, rude woodwork, etc., not so mtich to give them manual 3 as to enable them to realise the gradual development of human culture. This idea, attractively explained in Professor l>e\\e\'s " School and Society," may sound far-fetched and unwork- able, but a visit to the classes will show that in practice it is comparatively simple. The work in one of the higher classes iag- 11 to 12) struck me as an ideal form for the Nature lesson. The subject was the growth of sand dunes, which had been suggested by a visit to the shores of Lake Michigan some weeks before. The children were encouraged to ask questions about what they saw and to mark the point on a small tree up to which it had been alreadx buried in the sand. On the return, the questions asked were discussed in class ; c.if. : 1. Why do some places when trodden on make a different sound from others '.' 2. How did the sand duties get there? 3. Did the water make the mounds'.' On a subsequent visit to the shore the growth of the mounds and the rise of the sand up the tree were observed and measured. Then it Was pointed out that the rise could not possibly be due to the action of water, and the angle at which the sand rested was taken by a simple clinometer made by the children, who found they could not pile it up at a larger angle than 32deg. On the r- ool they dr-w in coloured chalks their recollection of t- and, lifter describing and discussing their experiences, concluded thai the most probable explanation was the action of the wind. This I thesis was then tested by experiment, and it was found that with a bellows, sand, and a few obstacles the same formations could be produced in the schoolroom. Tlioe visits to the shore were also for making collections of stones and plants, which were dealt- with in clas. f the stoi found to be arrow-h- and the children, who had already learnt something about Indian life, formed the conclusion that Indians had left them there, and REICHEL.] 280 lietween the two visits they had been uncovered by the action wind. Here we have the true Nature-study no text-book, but the questioning of Nature herself by the children themselves. In the German class German was being taught in the direct method from action, and taught well. This was, however, the only school I visited in the States in which the direct method of modern language teaching seemed to be used. Professor Dewey is very modest about his work, and claims for it only that it is an interesting and possibly a valuable experiment. He thought that the kind of manual training which gave the best educational results in the school was the basket and textile work, but this might be due to the excellence of the teacher. He laid great stress on the necessity of constantly experimenting and striking out new lines of work. A gifted teacher forms a method for himself others then take it up, follow the details mechanically, and all the life goes out of it. Com- paring the position of the children when they go to the high school with those from the ordinary elementary schools, he thinks that their knowledge is, perhaps, less extensive and accurate, but that tlicy work more intelligently, and certainly with more interest. In short, he considered them inferior in technical skill, but intel- lectually superior, and believed they had a distinct advantage when the higher work preparatory to the university was reached. Indianapolis Manual Training High School. This school was built and organised as the latest and most complete type of secondary school, combining the good points of the academic and the manual training high schools ; and the claim is apparently admitted by many competent authorities in different parts of the States. Strictly speaking, it is rather a high school with a strong manual training department, than a manual training high school, pupils having the option of following a purely academic course, but the manual training department bulks much larger than (e.g.) at Brookline. The pupils have t increased from 526 to 1,200, the staff from 22 to 38. The boys slightly exceed the girls in number. Greek, Latin, French, and German are all taught, but Greek and French only for two of the four years. Manual training pupils inay take Latin, and 25 per cent, of them actually do ; another 25 per cent, take German. Of the graduates about half go on to college, and half enter industrial or commercial employment. Of the former, four-fifths pursue technical and one-fifth academical courses. Several who have taken manual training throughout the four years follow literary degree studies. The Atlas Engine Works (Indianapolis) gives the preference in selecting apprentices to graduates of the school, and eight or nine other firms apply for them. As at the Eindge School, the demand much exceeds the supply. The workshops seemed of the general high school type, but unusually large and splendidly equipped. The work, however, struck me as more purely technological than in some other schools I had seen. With the exception of one artisan who took the forging, all the instructors were graduates of technical institutes. The lathes used in the wood-turning room were all made by fourth-year pupils in the machine shop. On the girls' side the practical subjects were sewing, cookery, hygiene, and nursing. As in other high schools, there were several alternative courses. Manual training ne-half of tin- \vlmlc 'MIC, hut, as it invoh. preparal ion, counts onl\ ;. :ilh. Tin- school superintendent of Indianapolis, 'idall, is inclined to think that, tin- c\p.-ndit lire on inaniiiil training high schools is disproportionately nd that, the of the fourth year, which swallows up the latest pail, should fcher dropped or considerably curtailed. The same subsequently expressed to me by Principal L. II. Jones, of the Vp>ilanti Normal College. He had liimself had ;i large *hare in the original establishment of this school, and disapproved of the. reoent development. As he had planned it. engineering shopwork entered in only just enough to enable a lad to interpret justly industrial life." The change was due to ou t si do pressure. \Vhen school superintendent at Cleveland, it was all he could do to keep down the proportion of time given to manual work to one-third ; it had since risen to one-half. Some technical institutes take the Carding the inordinate growth of engineering work in schools as an encroachment on their own domain. There seems ibt that this is the section of manual training in which th of boys becoming completely absorbed in mechanical detail, to the exclusion of all interest in abstract studies, is greatest. I>ti!iniinlix Piihtic School. Here the head mistress dwelt on the wholesome effect of manual training on ordinary schoolwork as raising the level of accuracy in all subjects, but very markedly in arithmetic, and as fostering a healthy social attitude towards labour. The manual instructor is a young graduate of Columbia Training College, full of ideas arid educational enthusiasm. The method is that of making whole objects, but on a somewhat special plan. The "project," as it is called, is selected thus : The class having been invited to suggest objects, a debate is held on their com- parative merits, and finally one is chosen by formal vote. Ageneral scheme for constructing it is then elaborated by question and answer; the details of this individuals are allowed to vary within limits. The advantage of this method is that the boys are required to think out and thoroughly understand the problem before starting to work upon it. On the other hand, it possesses the serious defect of all systems of class teaching in manual work, that the class lias to be kept together, and the individual cannot therefore be allowed to work at his own natural pace. eland Cnircrsit// School. The interesting feature of this school is that it is one of the first, it not the first, of the private Is preparing the sons of the well-to-do for the old universities and corresponding to the English public schools, which has organised manual training as an essential part of the school curriculum. The idea developed out of a small class in physics organised by a previous master of which manual work formed a special feature. The parents were so pleased at the effect on their boys that they clubbed :?riu 1890 to build a complete school on the manual training principle. Originally a day school, it has with the growth of its reputation developed a boarding side, there being 190 day boys and 40 boarders. Like most private schools, its course covers the upper grades of the elementary as well as the four years of the high school (age 9 to 18). The present principal, Mr. Pettee, whose own training had been purely classical, came to the headship from one of the old classical schools, Andover, being convinced that the educational principle the school embodied was the right one. BEICHEL.] 282 Physical training and manual training are compulsory on all. I'll \sical training is on the Yale University system, and under the direction of a medical expert. It embraces partly gymnastics, partly games and athletics ; the aim, however, is not athletic dis- tinction, but healthy physical development. The method is largely ivmiulial; boys have come with serious defects, and left school sound and strong. In the lower forms (9 to 14) the manual training course consists of clay modelling, wood carving, Sloyd carpentry. In the upper forms (14 to 18), for the first year there is advanced carpentry ; for the second and third years, mechanical drawing and machine fitting ; and for the fourth year, forging. The forging has been placed last out of the usual high school order, because it involves the heaviest physical work. The apparatus for machine fitting is restricted owing to the great expense it entails, and much of the apparatus has been con- structed by the boys themselves. From what has been already said, this will appear rather an ^advantage than otherwise. The carved desks in the school chapel have also been made by the boys, and a large wooden room for school games (120 ft. by 40 ft. and 30 ft. high) has been constructed and completed by them entirely, each part, after being passed, having the initials of the boy who made it stamped upon it. Up to the age of 15 manual training is compulsory ; by that time a boy has completed the whole of the woodwork course. At 15 he elects for a classical or a scientific course at the university ; in the former case he drops manual work and takes Greek, in the latter he goes on to metalwork. Thus up to 15 manual work is regarded as educational ; after 15, as professional. Of those who enter, 50 per cent, complete the whole school course, 50 per cent, from four to six years. Of the graduates, 95 per cent, go to college. The prin- cipal is convinced that the manual work does not interfere with scholarship " The boy does his Greek better, not worse, for the manual training." The school has this year and two years ago divided honours in classics at the Yale Entrance Examination with the Hill School, Pennsylvania, one of the most distinguished of the purely classical preparatory schools. Though the school is apparently the first of its kind, ,two others Detroit and Ashville have already been founded on the same lines. Training Schools for Manual Work. The opinion is general in America that effective manual training cannot be carried on with- out a supply of educationally trained specialists to act as organisers and supervisors, and, where possible, as teachers. The ordinary teacher who has taken manual training as one of a number of subjects in a training college curriculum may do useful work in the subject, but only if there is a specialist supervisor behind. There are several training colleges which provide such specialised courses, especially the Teachers' College, Columbia, the Pratt Institute, and the Sloyd Training School at Boston. A certain supply also comes from technical institutes and colleges in which mechanical work forms a part of the course, but it is doubt- ful whether the subject would retain much educational vitality, especially in the lower grades, if these formed the only source of supply. When the courses of these training colleges are examined, it will be apparent that nothing corresponding to them at present exists in Great Britain, and that the first thing to be done in this country, if real effect is to be given to the recent decision of the 283 [REICHEL. 1 of Education, which makes manual training a necessary part of the elementary school curriculum, is to organise such manual courses in connection with our existing training colleges. The Tcarhrrs' Training rW/ci/f, ('n//nnl>i/i, is an integral part of the Columbia I'niversity, Nc\v xbrk, and i-> _' ner;i||v recogni the highest training college at present existing in tl Amongst the specialised courses it pm\idesare t \vo in manual training for primary and secondary teachers respectively, in each case of two \ears' duration, and requiring as a ])reliminary condition four years in a high school, followed by two years' academic c iii-^ed college, o|- t\\u \ears' teaching experience. The time -table is roughly as follows: First year : Manual Work 12 hours per week Mechanical Drawing .... 2 Fine Arts 2 Educational Lectures 6 Second year : Manual Work 10 Mechanical Drawing .... 2 Fine Arts 2 to 6 hours per week Educational Lectures .... 5 hours per week The lectures for the primary and secondary teachers are the s; the V&riation being in the manual work. Primary teachers do the light work used in the lower grades of the elementary school- weaving, clay modelling, paper cutting, etc. and the Sloyd wood- work used in the upper grades and the advanced woodwork of the dary school. The secondary teacher confines himself entireh to the woodwork and metalwork used in the secondary schools. Jn either case a certain number of extra subjects may be selected, ,ind students are encouraged to cm-relate mechanical with art work. At the Pratt Institute the course is for elementary teachers only, and lasts two or three years. Candidai* be graduates of a high school. First year: The Light Manual Work of the Lower Grades .2 afternoons a week Mechanical and Architectural Drawing .... 1 day a week Fine Art, including Freehand Drawing, Clay Modelling, History of Art, etc 2$ days a week Educational Lectures and Practice Half a day a week (The first year is thus mainly given to Art.) Second year : Woodwork for Upper Grades 1 day a week Lighter Work for Lower Grades Half a day a week Designing for Manual Training ,, Wood-carving and Leatherwork 1 day a week ( ieneral Art 2 days a week Theory and Practice of Education Half a day a week compared with the Columbia course, it will be seen that it much greate upon art work, and that the m training is confined to the kin- in the eli m school.) The .S7-I//J Training CoHi-ije, lloslon, is conducted by a > teach-!-. Mr. Larsson, an alumnus of the famous seminary at N in the south of Sweden, and the course consists of bench woodwork, based on Sloyd principles. It is exclusively educational, and lias no direct industrial aim. The ^\>tem has been generally ad for use in the elementary schools of Boston, and. in a mo moditied form, prevails widely in the American elementary -< The woodwork courses for upper grades at Columbia and 1 though differing considerably in detail, largely express the same educational idea. REICHEL.] 284 The course lasts one your of :U weeks. Manual training occupies _!;j hours ;i week ; educational lectures and practice, about eight hours a week, the lectures being partly given by the Harvard Pro- i of Physiology, and partly taken at the Massachusetts Institute. Twice a week the students teach in the elementary schools. As originally established in 1891, the course was a mixture of the Russian or exercise method and the Swedish, but by 1897, with the growth of educational interest, the former element had luvii completely dropped. The principal proposes to develop a further course for high schools to replace the technological wood course of joints, etc., which at present, except where art study has a modifying influence, is the prevailing system. No text-book is published, the principal holding that the rigidity of detail which would inevitably be involved would injuriously affect the educa- tional value. Only trained teachers or college graduates are admitted to the course. Visiting the class, I found one student who had taken a year's course at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology admittedly the most perfect institute of higher technical training in the States his course including carpentry and joinery. He compared the work in the two schools thus : At the Institute the pieces of wood handled were larger and heavier, the w T ork rougher and less exact, making less demands on the thinking power, but probably more useful for trade purposes. The work at the Sloyd school taxed the skill and intelligence more, and the physical strength less, and was, therefore, much better suited, in his judgment, for use in a school. The school is in dingy surroundings, and the accommodation quite inadequate to turn out the number of teachers required. With 60 applications for admission, there is only room for 20 students, and there can be no doubt that under the present conditions young men of enterprise would be more attracted by the finely equipped Institute of Technology. It excites some surprise that a city like Boston, justly proud of its achievements in education, should allow the training school from which nearly all its elementary teachers in this important department are derived to work under such adverse conditions. The school has turned out 200 graduates, who instruct 50,000 children. On a comparison between the three colleges, it is significant that the institute (Pratt) founded originally to aid industrial work lays the greatest stress upon art. Perhaps this is due to the influence of the Paris Exhibition of 1867, in which English and American manufacturers were severely handicapped by the lack of the artistic element in the workman. Professor Hanus on Manual Training. Professor Hanus is the head of the Education Department of Harvard University. He expressed himself to me as strongly in favour of manual training on the following grounds : 1. Educational value and toning effect on both intellect and character, lasting up to 17 or 18. 2. Vocational value, the work being continued up to the industrial level. " In cities boys will never learn to use their hands unless they learn it in school; country life, on the other hand, is a life of 'chores.' ' 3. Social value. " Nothing else will give sympathetic insight into the industrial life on which modern society is built." 285 Ki. 1. i aptitude ami t.rainin^ in choice. The modem high school should ha\' ; de (if woil , jo as to discover latent talent which might otherwise lie nmle\ doped and he lost to the (omnium: \ . He holds, further, ihat noi merely educational manual training but, industrial manual training should find a place in the high school. The high school, he thinks, is developing into an ei> institution with many ill-part ments, including manual training, and he hclieves this is B oltltion than separate special!:- because! 1) Specialised schools would tend to become daB8 schools, and (2) a general school maintains a wider outlook and better of proportion. The, culture element is not excluded b;. developments, unless by culture be understood classical culture. (' id t urc is not u />;/ hnnjiKujr- xtmlij l>ut hi/ literature st/itudy. The annual expenditure is books, 3,600; management (including salaries, etc.), 5,000 ; maintenance of building, heating and lighting, etc., 3,400. Independent of the seminar rooms there is reading accommodation for nearly 500. The university also possesses a geological collection of rock lamina? (20,000), which the authorities claim to be; the largest in the world. The two chief technical schools are those of agriculture and engineering. The former has been remarkably successful in securing tbe confidence of ;he farmers, and thus, to use the words of its head. " contributes to carry the rest of the university in tin; State Legislature." In the the students have grown from 242 in 1896 to 725 in 1903 exactly treble. When it is remembered that the university is barely 50 \ears old, and that the bulk of its revenue is derived from the taxation of a district whose settlement goes only a few years further back and which is still in the main agricultural, these figures are sufficiently astonishing. The university at Minneapolis, Minnesota, is still more r. and has not therefore reached the same position as Madison. The university buildings cover ground which 40 \ears airo was the of an Indian massacre. The students number 4,000, of whom 1,300 are women. The funds are derived from the same source as those of Madison, but the income is not so large, tbe difference being discernible in the payment of ti;e teaching statV. There is therefore less actual research or post-graduate work, and the. seminars are used for senior undergraduate study. The mofct im- portant technical schools are those of agriculture and mining. As in the other mining schools (Queen's. Mc(. On the whole, the private schools, so far as ! levi- able to learn, favour tin- examination method, on tin- -round tliiit ii is a stimulus to work, and provides a ii-i-ful standard. At a conference held at lialtiinoiv in 1'JO'J by tin- colleges and prepara- ' the Middle Stati - ami Maryland, the suhj.-ci dehatedai length. l''ive of tin- Must thcexamina- tion ->\Mem. including .lames I-!. Kui-ll, tin- Dean "I Columbia k, and only t\so in favour of ii . Tin' balance of argument was overwhelmingly against, the main points being : 1. That the head of a school must he a hetter jud^e of the. sities of liis pupils, \vhose work he has seen for years, than an examiner who views it on a single, occasion and under ahnormal lit ions. 2. That the preparation for outside examinations has a ruinous effect on the system of instruction. The arguments of its supporters, on the other hand, implied incapacity, or slackness, on the part of the school teacher. In Minnesota the work of inspection is carried out, not by the university, but by a State High School Board, of which the university president is chairman, and which appoints a high school ctor. This system is closely parallel to that of the Central Welsh Board in its relation to the secondary schools of Wales. The attitude of the private schools may be explained by the fact that their pupils are largely the sons of rich parents, and less prone to exertion, and that outside pressure is therefore welcom an ally. At a juncture when new universities and new 7 secondary schools an- being called into existence in England, no feature of American education seems to offer more helpful suggestions than the accrediting 11 of the Middle West Seminar System innl Johns Hopkins Unirt'.rsiti/. The university was founded 'by private endowment (1,400,000) in 1876. The firs't president saw that there were plenty of universities and colleges of the ordinary undergraduate type, and that what the country needed was a university for the 4< graduate study," which at that time could only be secured by going to Germany. The method is based on the (ierman seminar, of which it has adopted the name, but provides for more constant and systematic intercourse between student and professor. ^A'hile the German seminar meets weekly, the American meets every day, and the student receives far more individual attention. The course, again, is more exacting, the minimum being three and the average four and a half years. The aim is to train in methods of original investigation in short, " to transfer to literary studies the methods of higher work in science." The work is based on the preparation of the student's dissertation for the doctorate. At every stage, first in outline and subsequently in complete form, chapt- chapter, this is considered and criticised. Kach department has its own seminar room furnished with a departmental reference library, not arranged with benches for a lecture audience, but with a single table and chairs for common work. This was at lirst the sole and is still the main work of Johns Hopkins. An undergraduate college, chiefly for the locality, has since grown up in the university. The effect on higher study in BSICHEL.] 290 America has been rapid and fur-reaching. Not only have a large* number of distinguished specialists been produced, who have tended to raise the level of American learning, but post-graduate study has- become the ambition of the American university and that which, differentiates it from the mere college. Few universities now but have their seminar rooms and departmental libraries, though it must be admitted that in many such cases they are at present only utilised for undergraduate work of the third and fourth years. But the growth in post-graduate work since Johns Hopkins was founded lias been enormous. In 1871 there were only 198 post-graduate students in the States ; in 1896 the number had risen to 4,919, or very nearly one-quarter of the total number of university students of all stages in Great Britain and Ireland. The following list shows the subsequent careers of men who have taken the Johns Hopkins Ph.D. degree from 1878 to 1899 : Professors and lecturers at universities and colleges 359 Professors and lecturers at higher technical institutes 30 Masters in secondary schools and professors in training colleges. . 30 Government service (Geological Survey, Statistical Bureau, etc.). . 30 Professional men 42 No record 23 Total 514 The great bulk take up university teaching, but there is an increasing demand for them from the high schools, the feeling being that the man who knows most is likely to prove the best teacher, and that lack of pedagogic skill at the start will be made up for b\ greater inspiration. The evidence both at the schools and univer.- sities supports the view that the Ph.D. candidate for a school post would have the advantage over a B.A. who had also been through a course of training, and W 7 ould command a higher salary, and that this tendency is on the increase. On the other hand, it mus-t be remembered that the American high school is organised on the basis of specialist teaching in each department. The system of our own older universities at least, of Oxford- is less favourable to post-graduate work. The explanation is to be found in the difference of the undergraduate course. The American university has no " honours" schools for the initial degree in which the energies of the best men are devoted rather to cover an immense extent of ground amassing the results of other people's investiga- a than to cultivate the power of acquiring knowledge by thdir own. Thus while the actual attainment at the initial degree is by / no means so high as with us, at all events for the best students I there is a truer conception of learning, and a far greater proportion go on to higher work and research. The question has repeatedly IH en asked of me, " What kind of men should we select for Ehodes scholars? \Ve should, of course, prefer to send graduates, but no encouragement seems to be given at Oxford to post-graduate work." In reply, I have pointed to the research degrees recently established at Oxford, and to the existence of a body of professors who cannot under the " honours " system get men to attend their lectures, and would, no doubt, regard a supply of keen students anxious to learn, and not to "get their first," as a godsend. An Oxford man who ii -sires to see his old university resume the place it once held as tho centre of learning for Great Brita n may be allowed to hope that this will be the solution adopted. 291 Hi KMKI.. The Sclwols of Applied Science are in closest touch not only \\itli the professions but with the great, industries not only lav, and medicine, hut dentistry, pharmacy, etc., mining, engineering (electrical, mechanical, civil, etc.), agriculture. For example, the >t school of dentistry in the world is a department of the : era University* Ohioago. ('lose connection is maintained with the industries (a) by encouraging the professors to take private practice within reasonable limits; (6) by encouraging and, to a certain extent, requiring the students to take industrial work during the vacations. Thus, in mining and agriculture about a year's work of this kind is necessary for the degree. The result is a very living connection between the academic and the practical, and more and more the industrial leaders look to the technical department^ of the universities to supply the higher kinds of skilled direction. It is in the engineering schools that the growth has been most remark- able : at Madison (Wisconsin) the number of students has trebled in i years. (h-tlhntry Undergraduate Course. The normal length is univcrs;dl\ four years. The arts course varies greatly in character from abso- lute " freedom of election" at Harvard, where it is possible for a student, to select t .he 17 units composing it from 17 different subjects, to the "group" system of Yale. Some universities, like Chicago and Minnesota, prescribe a rigid course fpr the first two years, but allow "free election " for the third and fourth. The weak point appears to be a tendency to scrappiness. There is too little con- tinuity of study from year to year, and in some universities Chicago) the study unit is a half or even a third of a session. The. science course is comparatively free from this defect. The absence of honours courses has already been noted. Morlern. Lain/uages.- There is a growing tendency (still more discernible in Canada) to require a reading knowledge of French and German from seminar students and studentsof science, in order that t hey may be able to consult monographs of foreign scholars. As in the schools, German is regarded as the more important. Both points deserve our attention. There is a real -danger lest in the reorganisation of Knglish secondary schools German may disappear -chool subject. Where a curriculum prescribes one modern language, as it so often does, the school naturally selects that which is moat easily taught -viz., 1-Yench; in this way German has been practically banished from the Welsh secondary schools, to the serious prejudice of higher study in the Welsh University Collt r tin- maim. of such ;i stall. .ii. At first tip 'I from lack ot' competent men to manage them ; now there an- O- . tin- dir- being partly men of science and partly practical fanners who have graduated in agricultural collet influence is i" 1'irifit/lui-f, irt rilmtion of Government reports in popular form. .!. The growth of fanners' institutes, which have educated the farmers up to reading and making use of these reports, and which are largely due to the influence of the State agricultural colleg The following are instances of the way in which the department has helped to develop the agriculture of the country : 1. Beet. The national crop has gone up from 8,000 to 400,000 tons in consequence of the publication by the department of a research map showing the districts in which it could be profitably grown. 2. Macaroni Wheat. Introduced three years ago by the depart- ment ; crop, first year, 35,000 bushels; second year, 2,000,000 bushels ; third year, 10,000,000 bushels. . -Introduced six yean ago. Crop now 400,000,000 pounds ; land formerly 2s. per acre, now 10. A large part of the work consists in tha production by cross- fertilisation of new crops suitable to soils hitherto undeveloped for farming purposes. The secretary laid great stress on the fact that tJie department took the initiittirc nn/l did not trait fur applications. The use of new crops must be. started and pushed by the department the farmers would never touch them otherwise. Here is an essential difference between the attitude of Government department-- in (iivat Britain and in the United States. When the former print valuable information persons interested are left to find out the fact for themselves, and to make application for copies, for which they usually have to pay ; an American Government department considers that the printing of such information is merely a step towards its real object, which is to put it into the hands of every per-on in the country to whom it is likely to be of value in conducting his business. Nor does the department limit itself to supplying the information ; 60,000 is spent annually on supplying seed specimens to farmers in different parts of the country. The experimental farm stations and schools which 1 were those of Madison, Minneapolis, (iuelph, and Ottawa. ifadison.The farm is part of the Uni\v icultural Department. The work of this department is divided into two courses: (i) the short course of two years for lads who are going RBICHKL.] 294 to be farmers ; (ii) the long course of three years fo^ students and teachers. It is the short course, in the opinion of the professor, which forms the life of the department. Through it the university gets in touch with the farmers, and makes them feel that it is their friend. The students are in constant touch with the experiments on the farm, the work of which involves an expenditure of no less than .'6,000 a year 3,000 from the Federal Government and 3,000 from the State. Much of the investigation on the farm is devoted to the discovery of the kinds of grain best suited for grow- ing in the State. In connection with it are 20 different centres throughout the State at which subsidiary experiments are conducted. A good example is the experiment with different kinds of oats, conducted over several years, which proved that Swedish oats would yield in Wisconsin from eight to ten bushels per acre more than any other variety. The acreage available for oats in Wisconsin is over two million, so that if this discovery were fully taken advan- tage of the agricultural produce of the State would be increased to Hi million bushels, which at the low average of 15 cents a bushel would give an annual increase in the value of this crop in the Shite of 2,400, OOOdols., or nearly half a million pounds. The informa- tion thus gained is disseminated by printed circulars, no less th-m eight million being sent out free in the year. The growth of varie- ties thus selected is promoted by a system of supplying seed to leading farmers, who sign an engagement to grow and sell it in the neighbourhood at a reasonable price. In addition to the two courses mentioned above there is a special dairy course for training dairy superintendents, cheese factors, etc., attended mostly by men. The numerous creameries now existing in Wisconsin have developed out of this college course. The growth of the department has been from 26 students in 1890 to 500 in 1903. Considerable original ,vork is done, and the inventions of one of the specialists, Dr Babcock, are in use all over the world. The department is -warmly supported by the farmers, whose associations frequently ask for State appropriations to strengthen special parts of its work. Minneapolis. -- Here again the experimental farm and the University Agricultural Department form one organisation. There is, however, this difference, that the latter is of high school and not of college grade ; the students, boys and girls, are mainly of the high school age 14 to 18 and the course is purely technical, embracing not only dairy and farm work, but, as at Hampton, manual trade work of various kinds, blacksmithing, etc. The only culture element provided is civics. This omission is a grave defect, and makes the training distinctly inferior to that at Hampton. About 10 per cent, of those who complete this high school course go on to the college. The technical work itself seemed very good ; an interesting feature was the practice in planning farms. A student is given a ma}) plan of a piece of land, and required to plot it out for farm work to the best advantage, indicating the rotation of crops six years ahead. The scheme thus drawn up becomes the subject of class criticism. In addition to the college course there are also short courses for farmers of from four to eight weeks. The same kind of work also is dona for the farming industry by means of experiments, as at Madison. (iuflfth. In my visits to agricultural authorities in the States I was strongly advised not to leave America without seeing the college at Guelph. More than one of the experts at the State Ul.l. I1KI.. colleges described it as the hiv of agricultural r i he ( '..ntim nt. ( )ne used th )i ; it is the Mecca of Ami (iiirlpli is tin- agricultural department of the i y of Turi'iito, but situated separately 40 miles to the west Us remark- able AO causes : I. The rapture by the staff of the fanning population through t.he organisation of tanners' institir _'. The insistence upon a sound basis of exact science in tho ;n the ver\ lifst. In 1SS4 the college, was reorganised; up till then it was ut distrusted by the farmers. Students could only be secured by ]ta\ ing the:n to attend, and the agricultural influence in the State lature was hosti'c. The new principal saw that nothing could be done till the confidence of the farmers had been g-iined. the first \ear or two, accordingly, he devoted several weeks each winter to visiting the; difl'erent rural centres and holding public meetings. Three visits were pa'd each week ; a day and a half was spent in eae.li place, with a succession of meetings, in which short speeches were made leading up to discussion, the object being to get " warm " fanners to take part. The result was a rapid and complete revolution of feeling ; the farmers found that the pro- fessors were practical agriculturists, and eager to discuss practical .)ii< -tions with practical men like themselves. In each centre farmers' institutes were established to continue the debates, and as the work grew competent lecturers and speakers were enlisted from outside. Out of these meetings grew also the women's institutes ; it was found that women came in large numbers to the m-etings ; many questions arose hardly suitable for discussion by a mixed audience, and separate meetings with women speakers began to be held dealing with home life and domestic management. These were so well attended that it was felt they supplied a real want, and separate women's institutes were established. Now the two organisations work together; when meetings are held in any place t.he two institutes meet separately in the afternoon, but combine their forces in a joint evening meeting. The membership, etc., of the institutes now stands as follows: Farmers' Institutes. Women's Institutes. 1. Members 23,754 .... 4,505 2. Meetings 837 619 3. Attendance 126,459 .... 22'013 4. Papers and addresses 3,377 .... The interest thus aroused lias been maintained and developL-d by means of the college experimental system. Like the agricultural colleges in the States, Guelph maintains an experimental farm \\ho-e work is largely directed to the improvement of stock and the discover) of varieties of crops specially suited to the district, 'i experiments c.ctcml over at least ficc ijcnrx, and the co-operation of the farmer is invited and secured in the following way : Of oats .!_'") varieties were grown for five years in experimental plots on the farm . six which showed the best results in yield of grain, length, and weight of straw, etc., were selected for further t- with the co-operation of the farmers. Circulars were then sent out inviting OO-Operation farmers receiving the seed with directions how to carry on the experiment, and giving a written <: taking to follow those directions, to watch the results, and to KKUHEL.] 296 in a careful report. These experiments are not supervised; i he farmers take a far greater interest in them because they are entirely their own (I saw a letter from one farmer stating that 4,000 people had been over to see his experiment in the course of tlie season). At the same time, no practical difficulty exists in estimating the value of the results. Dr. Zavitz, the head of the experimental section, assured me that it was quite easy to tell from the way in which the report was drawn up whether its contents could be relied upon for scientific determination. The results thus obtained are compared with those of further experiments on the college farm, and a final selection of one or more varieties made accordingly. Thirty experiments are carried on in the spring and five in the autumn each year ; a farmer may select any one of the experiments he prefers. He gets the seed, but carries on the experi- ment otherwise at his own cost. The arrangement has thus the additional recommendation of economy. Every summer members of the institutes are encouraged to pay visits to the college and the college farm, the greater part of the month of June being devoted by the staff to receiving them and showing them over the place. Only parties connected with the institutes are received, and the number of visitors last June reached the huge total of 40,000. The department keeps its eye upon those who send in good reports, and draws them in as much as possible to its work in connection with the farmers' institutes. The growth in the influence of the college through these experiments may be gathered from the following figures : No. of farmers experimenting in 1886 ...... 12 1887 ...... 60 1888 ...... 90 1903 ...... 3345 In December a conference is held at the college to discuss the reports, to which are invited the experimenters, old students of the college, officers of the college, and speakers of the farmers' insti- tutes, the expenses of the last being paid by Government. A report of the conference is afterwards printed and sent out free to these and to the farmers' institutes (about 40,000 copies). The report, it should be added, goes out as the report of the Agricultural Union, and not of the Agricultural College. By this means the collabora- tion of the whole countryside is secured. There are two main college courses : 1. The short course of two years for lads who are going to be farmers, success in which leads to the associateship of the college. 2. The long course of four years, leading to the university degree of B.S.A. (Bachelor of the Science of Agriculture) for pro- fessors of agriculture, Government organisers, etc. The feature of the short course is that, while laying stress upon practical agricultural work from the very first, it contains a solid foundation of pure science. If only a smattering of applied science were given, as in the short course of some other agricultural colleges, the student at the close of the course would be unable to face the heavy scientific requirements of the third and fourth years of the long course, from which the supply of students would thus be cut off. It is the success of this long course that gives Guelph its special position amongst agricultural colleges. Only picked men of the honours stamp are allowed to go on to it ; they must possess 297 KI.I. IIKL. pr imising ability, a good general education, and a sound pra- training; a d< m any one of th< -; entails Thus the problem for the authorities is not how to induce students to stay on for the higher work, hut how to se! nl\ ahont I o allowed to go on. The long course contains throughout a strong culture element in the study of Lnglish I ture and attendam , ,i,rv and debating sodetii'-i, which I a compulsory part of the curriculum. French orderman is also compulsory. Thus the 15. S. A. graduate is really an honours man, who can be recommended as qualified for responsible positions by (1) general education, (2) scientific and practical knowledge, (3) r of presenting it. In going through the laboratories and class- rooms I observed that for the advanced work the seminar and thesis system was in operation. Between 10 and 15 graduate from this course each year, and it is not too much to say that Guelph graduates are getting hold of the whole public machinery of scientific farming ma da, besides furnishing a large supply of professors to the United States. The following list (not exhaustive) shows the positions held by them at the present moment. 1. Professors and heads of agricultural depart- ments in universities, Government organisers, etc. : In Canada 10 Outside Canada, chiefly United States 26 36 2. Assistants and demonstrators 24 3. Editors and assistant editors of agricultural papers .. 8 68 A graduate has just been selected as the Government Organiser of Agricultural Education for the Orange River Colony. There is also a three months' practical dairy course, and various short courses of two, three, or four weeks for farmers in stock and grain judging, etc. The majority of the students come from the province of Ontario, a considerable number from the other Canadian provinces, and a few from the States. The wide reputation of tin- school is illustrated by the presence of 23 students from Argentina (the result of the (loveniment action in sending seven three 5 ago) and 12 from the West Indies. The distribution of the students is as follows : 1. Two years' course 270 Four years' course 20 290 2. Daily course 109 3. Specialised courses 25 4. Farmers' short courses 248 5. Domestic science courses (for girls) 96 768 Great importance is attached to the library, which is open ten hours a day, and is managed by a librarian and two a Two hundred periodicals are taken in, mainly scientific, and from 400 to 500 a year spent in the purchase of books, a grant which many university college libraries in this country might envy. The expenditure in round numbers is 11,600 on the college, and 2,400 RKI.-HKI.. 298 on the experimental farm a total of 14,000 which is about half rhe cost of the agricultural department at Minneapolis. Of the income, about 3,000 comes from fees, board of students, etc., the remaining 111,000 from the Provincial Legislature. A \\ omen's department for training teacners for rural schools has just been endowed by Sir William Macdonald, the wealthy Montreal philanthropist. The Lesson for Great Britain. -The conclusion to be drawn from the foregoing facts is unmistakable. The success of agricul- tural colleges depends on the confidence of farmers; the confidence of farmers can only be won by conferring direct and obvious benefit on their industry ; such benefit can only be conferred by means of experimental work ; experimental work entails substantial expen- diture ; such expenditure can rarely be derived from local sources, and both in America and in Canada is provided by Government grant. Our own Government grants for experimental farms (200 a year to each) can only be termed grotesque. If the agricultural colleges and departments of this country are substantially to influence the agriculture of their districts, they must be given the means of con- ducting experimental work as it is conducted on the other side of the Atlantic. Until this is done the sums at present spent in maintaining teaching staffs, etc., will be largely wasted. General Impressions of the Schools. Teaching of Patriotism. All countries use their schools to train citizens. In the United States this object assumes a special import- ance owing to the enormous influx of immigrants Germans, Scandinavians, British, Italians, Hungarians, Bohemians, Bussians, most of them ignorant of English. Patriotism is, therefore, almost a school subject, ,and the success with which it is taught is extra- ordinary. To quote one racy speaker, "The public school is the stomach of this nation, and digests everything that is put into it " ; and another, " The public school is the laboratory of our national unity, the guarantee of our national future." This patriotic training may in its details seem at times overdone and theatrical, but there can be no doubt that it helps to create and foster a high ideal of American citizenship in the rising generation. Some of the quietest and least chauvinistic people I met, while prepared to admit that it had a weak side, were yet profoundly convinced of its value. In [America patriotism belongs to the schools, and everyone is proud |of it ; in England it is left to be desecrated by the music-halls, and a large section of our best social workers are ashamed of it a con- dition of things neither wholesome nor safe. Canadian schools in this respect resemble the American. Both teach a lesson to this country. Relation of Teacher and Pupils. There is far more co-operation between teacher and pupil than with us. The master, indeed, is much more a class leader than a class driver, and in no school did I observe the British tendency to regard each other as natural enemies. The result is unusual quietness and docility in the classes, and quietness of manner in the teacher. I often noticed that directions were given, even in a large room, without raising the voice. General Level of Interest. There is, on theonehand, a higher level of interestandintelligenceinanAmericanclassthaninanEngdsh one ; on the other, the standard of attainment of the best p apils is not so 2M [RKICMKI.. hi<,'h. This, indeed, applies to educational institutions of all ranks. To quote President Uoo-,,-\elt, " America has th^ advantage in a broader and sounder base of general 3s is supplemented by written descriptions on REICHKL.] 300 taken from home or school life. Thus is provided a valu- able means of correlating school studies ; e.g., one boy described the woodwork and exercises of the manual department, and at the cud of the session gave a summary of the whole illustrated by drawings. History, too, is largely drawn upon for subjects, that of the first year being exclusively American. These written themes are discussed in class, W 7 ith the object of producing " oral fluency " in simple narration and description, it being held that oral work provides better mental training, because all the parts of the subject have to be kept in the mind at the same time. The training is supplied by the study of the set author with analysis of chapter, paragraph, and sentence. If history be the material used, it is not a chapter but a "topic" that the pupil is set to prepare, the aim being not instruction biit the development of the j)o\\<-r of self-instruction. At the end of the first year the pupil should be able to present in oral description a coherent picture of some definite subject. In the second year exposition and discussion come to the front, and with them what the American teacher calls the " brief" i.e., the logical skeleton of the " topic." The subject matter is now Kiujlish history and literature. No study of a text is begun till the whole of it has been privately read through. Thus, if "The Tale of Two Cities" be the selected texc, the class is given all the English preparation time for two weeks to read it in, simple short stories being meantime taken in class. The texts to be read fall into two classes : 1. The study list for minute study, considerable portions being memorised : e.-hiiig tin- pupil how to :lt. lihraries and find out things for himself; (teri liini a taste for good literature. As regards (c) and (." In this there is probably some truth. Too little importance is attached in the States to foreign language study. In several manual training high schools many of the pupils go through the whole course without learning a word either of Latin, French,' or German, though the authors of the educational report on which this admirable English scheme is based were careful to point out that " the best results in the teaching of English . . . cannot be secured without tho aid given by the study of another language." Setting Latin com- position aside, however, I doubt if our own secondary schools have any siibject which can compare with tbat of English as taught in the States for training the reasoning powers and cultivating accuracy of expression. The essence of the difference seems to lie in this that the American high school is primarily a finishing, and the English secondary school a preparatory, institution. The former turns out boys better equipped for understanding the life around them and carrying on self-culture, the latter gives a better grounding in those subjects the real value of which only emerges at the university stage. The one excels in all-round training, the other in specialised instruction. The Predominance of Women as Teachers. In the elementary schools this predominance is overwhelming, the,re being six or seven women to one man ; in the high schools the proportion is about three to two. It is the feature that strikes one at once when visiting either a school or a training college. In the Jersey Training College at Trenton, when the students assembled to receive the Commissioners, the bulk of the hall was filled with women, between 300 and 400 in number; on one side there sat by themselves, looking very much like fish out of water, ~2S men ! The salaries offered, as a high school master in New York explained, will secure first-rate women, but only third-rate men, the competition of well-paid business employments being so great. In the elementary schools, at all events in the lower grades, this is probably an advantage, but there seems a growing opinion that as a boy gets older masculine control for the ful* development of character is desirable, and a half-conscious sense of this is pro- bably one of the causes why the manual training schools appeal so EEICHEL.] 302 strongly to boys. Indeed, where they exist side by side with the ordinary high schools, it is not impossible that the latter may be ultimately monopolised by girls. Growth of Secondary Education in Recent Years. The number of public high schools in 1860 was 40; in 1870, 160; in 1880 r 800; in 1890, 526; and in 1900, 6,005. The private schools, which were formerly three times as numerous as the public schools, are now less than a third of their number with about one-sixth of the pupils. The total number actually attending secondary schools, public and private, amounts to the astonishing proportion of 55 per cent, of those who are qualified by age to be in high schools. The system is spreading to the country districts, where the small village schools are being replaced by the consolidated high schools, the children being transported by electric tram or other conveyance. Canadian Universities. I visited the Universities of Ottawa and Toronto ; Queen's University, Kingston ; and McGill University, Montreal. Toronto, Queen's, McGill, with Laval University for the Roman Catholics of the Quebec Province, and Dalhousie, at Halifax, the intellectual centre of the mai'itime provinces, are the five chief universities of Canada. Apart from Laval, they are organised in the main on the Scottish model, and, like the Scottish universities, owe their foundation to religious effort. They resemble the States univer- sities 1. In the freedom and self-government of student life. 2. In the custom of students earning the means of keeping them- selves at the university by working in the long vacation. , (They work on farms, mills, surveys, etc., or act as pursers and stewards on the river-boats, waiters at the hotels, bagmen, etc.) 3. In the development of schools of applied science. They differ in having a greater rigidity of curriculum, and the division with which we are familiar in this country into pass and honours courses. The pass course seems, if anything, too exacting, requiring a number and variety of subjects which it must be diffi- cult for the ordinary student to assimilate. They also differ in having provision for theology, which holds a recognised position either in the university itself (Queen's), or in constituent colleges (Toronto), or in affiliated colleges (Me(iill). Canada is every whit as democratic as the States, and no social disqualification is created by honest work of any kind. " The best students 1 have come across in twelve years' experience of Canada," writes Professor MacNaughten, lately of Queen's, now of Mcdill. " have almost without exception been of this class." . The seminar system exists, but really effective post-graduate work is confined to biology at Toronto, philosophy at Queen's, and physics, chemistry and applied science at McGill. The three universities require a modicum of science from art students, and either require or recommend a working knowledge of French or German in the case of students of science. The course is four years, as in the States, but high school pupils who pass a higher matriculation examination are excused the first year. Toronto offers an interesting example of the federal system. The original university Trinity was connected with the Episcopalian :{o:{ 'Hi Church, and d on somewha ive lines, other churches accordingly developed den<.Mii)iiitional univ. colleges of their o\\n. With the growth of academical feeling and 'he decay of sectarian bitterness these have -rad nails < 'her, merging their anting p tor theology, in a joint imiser-it \ . There ure live such colleges, and, in addition, an undenominational university college supported by the State in ordei topro\ide teaching in the subjects for which the denominational college-; are not equipped. There are 2,000 student s, of whom 700 belong to the medical and 100 to the engineering school. 'I he staff numbers l',s n't was founded and is still, though there 'are no tests except for the theological faculty, largely governed and supported by the 1're-byterian Church. Its whole lite and tone recall the old -It academical ideal of plain living and high thinking. Of all the educational institutions 1 visited on the American continent none left on me so strong an impression of doing high-class work with scanty resources, lo is the one university which has a real faculty of theology, the course being, as in Scotland, post-graduate and involving three years' study after the four years of the 1 1 ha^ no direct Government grant like. Toronto, no millionaire patron like McGill, but has displayed a striking power of attaching its students and securing the loyal support of its constituents. It is essentially a people's university. In 1869, when the Government grant was withdrawn, a public appeal resulted in a sum of 20,000, contributed by 6.000 subscribers. In 1887-88 a similar appeal produced 50,000. In 1902 the students spon- taneously raised 5,000 for a convocation hall in memory of Principal Grant, and did this in live months. The significance of this will be seen when it is remembered that 70 per cent, of the students work during the long vacation in order to support them- selves in college. There are faculties of medicine and law, and a school of mines supported by the State, all doing good work, but the strength of the university lies in the literary and philosophical subjects. It possesses in Professor John Watson the most dis- tinguished representative of moral philosophy on the continent, and boasts of being the one American university in which Aristotle and Kant are studied in the original languages. The buildings, successively erected to meet the growth of the university, offer another example of what can be effected with narrow means. They are substantial and well adapted for their purpose, and the; architec- ture, though simple, has dignity and proportion. There are 850 students, 6 professors and lecturers in theology, 20 in art- science, 15 in applied science, and 19 in medicine. Mi-GUI Collr,/,' was founded in the isch century by a bequest of a nan of that name, and owe-, its growth, as well as its found; 1 wealthy benefactors (notably Lord Strathcona and Sir William Macdonald). The st udents number : in arts and pure science, :51.j : in applied science (mining, engineering. '< ; in law, 40 ; in medicine, 4-'M. The number of professors and lectm-- arts and science, :>-2 ; in applied science, 11 ; in law, 11: and in medicine. 76. While thoroughly equipped and doing excellent work' on the literary side, Mcdill \a particularly rich in science and applied science, and p in physic-, chemistry, engineering, and mining a staff and laboratories which arc un- i by those of any in university. BI:ICHEL.] 304 Tlie work is carried on in three extensive and splendidly equipped 1 uildings, appropriated respectively to engineering, clu'imstry :ind mining, and physics, all the gift of Sir William Mat-donald. The scale may be gathered from the fact that in the chemical department there are six large laboratory rooms for different kinds of work, capable together of accommodating over 250 students. They are specially equipped for advanced students, and the university claims that more original research is carried on in them both in pure and in applied science than in any other American university or school of science. The engineering building contains, in addition to other equipment, the Reuleaux Museum of Kinematic Models, believed to be the most complete in America, and largely consulted for purposes of reference by inventors. Each department is provided with its own reference library, which in engineering amounts to 6,000 volumes (100 a year being spent in additions) and in physics to 5,000. In architecture and in engineering a regular year of post -graduate study has been organised, and graduates from other universities, especially those in the States, have for several years resorted to the laboratories for research work. The method of thesis upon a special piece of experimental work is largely used for fourth year students. In engineering this takes the form of the working out of a complex practical problem, for which general data are given e.g., the designing of a bridge to suit certain topographical conditions, to bear certain strains, and not to exceed a certain cost. The importance attached to this is shown by the fact that it is a " failing " subject ; if the bridge fails to bear the strains, the student fails to pass his examination. One of the chief bridge constructors has given it as his opinion that there is no place in America where this kind of work is done so well. The careers of graduates form a remarkable testimony to the quality of the work. The management of the Anaconda Mines, Montana ; of the United States Zinc Co. and the Pueblo Smelting and Refining Co., at Pueblo ; of the American Refining and Smelting Co., at Aguas Calientes, Mexico ; and, most striking of all, of the Rio Tinto Co., in Spain, whose mining works are perhaps the. largest in the world, are in the hands of McGill graduates. Of 332 bachelors of applied science, 16 are university professors, 18 presi- dents, managers, or superintendents of large industrial firms, 51 hold subordinate posts in such firms, 31 are in the State service, 14 on railways ; total, 130. The remainder are largely civil or mining engineers in private practice. In short, McGill holds in engineering and mining much the same position that Guelph enjoys in agricul- ture. As South Africa came to Guelph for a director of agriculture, so the Chinese Government is applying to McGill.for a field geologist. It is significant that the most remarkable token of confidence in the value of academical work to industrial development has been fur- nished in connection with McGill University. The decision of two great railway companies to establish and equip a department of railway engineering at McGill is one of immense importance to Canada. Not only will the new school enable these companies to push on their work in the North-West Provinces, but it will also furnish, in the staff of officials of real scientific attainments whom it will train, a body of men who will serve as centres of industrial development of all kinds in the new districts. : ',().") KI:I< ii The main library of the university, apart from departmental collections, contains about 100,000 volumes, an< for 150 readers. The annual expenditure mi hooks is comparatively small 500 hut this is augmented by occasional gifts for special purposes; e.g., 1,000 was received for the cla-^ical department the other day from Sir William Maedo-iald. The library posaesaee one special feature in a travelling section, embracing not only books but pictures and lantern-slides, intended to encourage the study of both of literature and art in schools clubs, etc. The w'mle institution leaves a strong impression of academic statesmanship and |>owi'r of growth. It is to he hoped that the ion of a department of education and of a higher training college for Canada comparable with the teachers' college, Columbia, may soon engage its attention. Canadian .sv//r>o/.s-.- 1 \isitedatTorontotwocollegiateinstitutes (secondary) and one elementary school ; at Brockville, a collegiate institute ; at Hamilton, a secondary training college and collegiate institute ; at Ottawa, an elementary school and normal college ; and a: Montreal, two high schools, one girls' private high school, one elementary school, and a normal college. Broadly speaking, the Canadian school system displays the characteristics of British rather than of American education: 1. The primary and secondary schools are under different authorities, with the necessary result of lack of co-ordination. (At Toronto a single authority is on the point of being established.) 2. Rural and urban schools are more on an equality. The urban schools are not so well equipped nor the teachers so well trained as in the States ; the rural are, on the average, distinctly better. In the States only 2 per cent, of the rural teachers have been pro- fessionally trained ; in Ontario, though the training is leas thorough, it is equally insisted upon for rural teachers. 3. The prize system seems more in use, with the natural accom- paniments the predominance of examinations and the tendency to emphasise instruction rather than education. (At the Jameson Avenue Collegiate Institute, Toronto, this was not the case : there were no pri/es. and the school gave its own diploma, based not on examination but on general work.) 4. The co-operative attitude of master and pupil and the quietness and docility of the classes, which form such marked features of the American school, are almost as little apparent in Canada as in Kngland. 5. The schools do not suffer, for the present at least, from the predominance of women teachers, nor from the leakage of boys in the higher classes. In those which I visited the bulk of the .'.ere mtn and the proportion of boys and girls remained about equal up to the top of the school. 6. The secondary schools seem more traditional in tone and method than the primary or than the high schools in the States, which may be attributed to their classical heritage. At the same time, the compensating advantage given by classical study is largely being lost. (I reek has been practically dropped, and after 1906 a regulation will come into force in Ontario which will apparently have the effect of killing out Latin also, except for entrance to the university. The secondary schools, in short, are in a state of transition, and there would seem to be some danger that they may fall between two stools, losing the intellectual grit of the old British RIUIHL. 306 -lammar school without gaining the spontaneity and vigorous life of the American high school. ('.. Manual training is only just beginning in Canada, and, so far, is almost confined to the elementary schools. The only city in which I found it permanently organised was Ottawa, but Toronto is on the point of introducing it. In Montreal, in the eastern pro- vince, it has been introduced into all the schools, not by the educa- tion authorities, but by the foresight and liberality of Sir William Macdonald, the good genius of education in that district. Where introduced it has almost invariably been in the form of Sloyd woodwork. The principal of a collegiate institute in Toronto expressed to me a strong opinion in favour of introducing the work into secondary schools also. He believed that the boys would do t heir literary work with more spirit, and would have a larger and freer choice of careers. . At the Hamilton Training College (for secondary teachers) the vice-principal, who was also the principal of the Collegiate Institute, expressed the view that manual training should be compulsory, and co-ordinated right up from the kinder- mrten through the elementary to the secondary school. One of the ablest and most convincing statements of the case for manual training I have seen is a short pamphlet by the principal of the same college, Dr. J. A. McLellan, an authority of weight in the philosophy of education. 7. French is the one book subject which is taught superlatively well, in this respect holding the same position in the Canadian that Knglish holds in the American school. The cause is difference of environment. In Canada, English and French live side by side, and have to understand each other ; for the American school, engaged in assimilating foreigners and inducing them to drop their own languages, English is the obvious and supreme instrument. The language method employed is the "direct" i.e., through French itself, the meaning of words being explained, not by their English equivalents, but by pictures, movements, etc. Nothing could have been better than the lesson I witnessed at the McGill Normal School, Montreal. s. It is in training colleges that the weak spot of the Canadian system shows itself. The length of training for the highest certifi- cate is only a single year, and the lowest certificates available for the elementary schools can be got on six or even four months work. This places the Canadian schools at an obvious disadvan- tage as compared with the American. The ordinary normal course in the States for elementary teachers lasts two years ; the higher training colleges e.g., Columbia, Ypsilanti- extend the course for secondary teachers to three or four years. A comparison between Ypsilanti and the chief training college of Canada- at Hamilton will bring out the difference. Ypsilanti possesses a " college " organisation of its own, and has a practice high school under its >\vn control. Its heads of departments are men or women having in most oases the higher degree of M.A., and in some the doctorate. At Hamilton, instead of the college possessing and controlling the practice school, it is the practice school which virtually possesses and controls the training college. The one member of the staff who is independent of the school is the principal ; the rest are merely members of the school staff taking duty for one hour a week each in the training college, and the principal of the school is the lice principal of the training college. Such an arrangement 307 inevitably subordinates the roll.-.;.- to the. school. K.K-H ti works for about -I hours md onh given to tin- college. h i, principal naively informed me. " our polirs to put our te.ichers into tin: college morn than is absolutely " Nor is the Muff. admirable as it no loubt is for secoii': >1 work, of quite the same stand a, college organised lik.' that of Vpsilanti can secure. This deficiency in training colleges is aggravated by an en absence in the Canadian universities of any faculty of education. It is dillicult ; rate the inspiring influence on the teaching ssion in the States which is exercised by the various university < duration departments, directed by such men as Kussell, of < 'olumbia ; J I anus, of Harvard ; Whitney, of Michigan ; and Dewey, if Chicago. This inspiration the Canadian schools lack; there M no chair of education in the universities of Toronto, Mcdill, or Queen's. In the organisation of the other normal colleges this ike has not been committed of making them appendages to a practice school, but neither in equipment nor in completeness of course can they be placed on a level with the corresponding institu- tions in the States. In comparing them with England it must, a 1 ; i he same time, he borne in mind that every training college student in Canada has spent at least three years in a secondary school. The Relation of Education to Industrial, and National Progress. On the whole, tli3 general opinion, bobh amongst teachers and industrial leaders, seems to be that education is not the prim *. of the remarkable progress of the last .'JO years, but a rful contributory cause, and the essential condition of its main- tenance. Americans are keenly alive, as one head-master put it, to the danger of foreign industrial competition, and are convinced than it is vitally important to raise the general level of intelligence. The p'oneer spirit developed in the struggle with savage man and savage n iture was the moving force education is its most powerful instru- ment. A prominent speaker at the dinner of welcome given to the Commission in Nev? York expressed it in this way : " The indus- tries have been developed by men of business genius, who have only had elementary school training, but college-trained men have been their diamond drills." President Murray Butler points out "Where the public school term in the United States is Ion, there the average productive capacity of the citizen is grea' President Eliot, of Harvard, in a speech at Boston, thought the influence of the educational system on national vigour and enter- prise was rather indirect ; that those qualities sprang from the original Puritan spirit of social and religious freedom, and the. mobility f society which resulted from them. President Angell, of Michigan University, a former Ambassador , at Constantinople, whose name is a synonym for knowledge of the world and shrewd common-sense, maintains, on the other hand, that education has had an enormous effect. The great gi of industrial prosperity, he pointed out, had been in the la? years, and the great growth of schools and universities had been in the same period. The raising of the level of intelligence had greatly advanced both the efficiency of the worker and the adapt- ability of the individual citizen on which the mobility of society ultimately depends. The statistics, both from the schools and th;5 universities, point in the same direction. Both the manual training M 308 school^ ..ml the university technical departments and institutes of technology which I have visited are unable to supply the demand <>: the great industrial firms for trained workers, super- intendents,- and managers; c. be tilled by a college graduate. All the great bridge builders now," lie added, " are college graduates." The same change ie observable in commercial business. At Boston I heard of the head of a woollen firm who a few years ago would not allow his son to go to college, but now would take no men for the higher posts in his business but college graduates. Wisconsin University also reports the growing demand for college men as business agents. The reasons given were :-- 1. That the college training was now more practical. 2. That business managers \vlio have mixed with other men at the university have a great advantage over others in pushing and ding the influence of their firms, particularly in fina: 309 :HKL. I hn of ;ill < natural differences of opinion hind of edurat 1 have ne\ ,in.L;lt' in;iii \\h'i did not, think education ' vital importance to tin- national in industrial Kiial. Tlic \\oids oi l'i ii : > niN-elf "The pussion for < i i -. 1>\ !.. : h- * .ion;: >n,L, r st Americans of th<: West and Middle West," and th Murray P>iul perhaps hest sunnned up in the pn^nant phrase of I'r.-sirlent l!oosr\vlt addres->r.i to the Coninii "Education will not save a nation, but no nation ea wi> tioui lucal ii. aio iRoselp Educational Commission. Report of Professor RHYS. By way of introduction to the following remarks, I wish to state as briefly as possible wbat one may call my personal equation : The first day school which I attended consisted mostly of big boys and big girls, taught promiscuously by one man in the empty parlour of a farmer's house during the winter months ; later 1 became a pupil-teacher in a similarly mixed school, and then successively a normal student and a country schoolmaster. I left that employ- ment in order to study at Oxford and in Germany. In the latter country my stay was briefer than I had intended owing to my being appointed a Government Inspector of Schools. So I took a part in administering for five years the sterile code of Kobert Lowe, then I was elected to the newly established Chair of Celtic at Oxford. Since that time I have, besides maintaining intimate relations with education in Wales, served on five Government Commissions, of which two were educational. One of the latter, to inquire into- Irish university education, only issued its report the other day. The other, presided over by the late Lord Aberdare, began its work of inquiring into the state of education in Wales so far back as tin year 1880, and to its influence may be largely ascribed the establish- ment of the University of Wales, and of a system of secondary education which has become the envy of the advocates of secondary- schools in England. For the last 30 years I had heard so much talk of education, about it and ever about it, that my interest in education itself was becoming jaded, like a cook's appetite spoiled by the odours of his kitchen. This was my state of mind when I was pleasantly roused by Mr. Mosely's unexpected invitation, and to him I tender my first and most cordial thanks for the immense treat which our tour in the United States has been to me. M\ thanks are also due to my fellow Commissioners for having put up with me, and, above all, to the American people for not having quite- undone us all with their hearty hospitality and the warmth of their lion Throughout our tour nothing impressed me more than the earnestness with which the citizens of the great Republic, of every description, have taken to education. Not only is it the conviction of all the more thoughtful men and women in the States that the people having all the power of the State in their hands must be educated in order to secure and preserve political and social stability, but a belief in the necessity for education so pervades all the ma 1 - that the evening schools are crowded in all the large towns. This wholesome contagion spreads even to the motley crowds of immigrants who arrive every week from the Old World ; no sooner do they find some sort of a home and something to do than they call on the heads of the public day schools to arrange for the education of their children, and for their own attendance in the evening. I have heard of instances of the parents having called on the school teacher before they had even laid down their packs or 3ll - found lodgings for their families. To prompted l>y cornmunicai ions from their relatives and friends :ilre;i' i in the Ne\\ World ; they had been prepared 1,. hand for a new order of things, aiming which the desirability, doubtless, of mustering the Knglish language loomed largo in their minds. Another aspect of this educational earnestness may bo contem- plated from the, point of view of the public expenditure on school buildings and educational equipment generally, by communities voluntarily submitting to be taxed for the purpose, and by the princely gifts of public-spirited individuals, both men and women. The figures usually reach so many hundreds of thousands of dollars, and very frequently millions, that one grows dizzy in the contem- plation of the totals of American benefactions even when one has reduced them to pounds sterling. One of the results which stare you in the face wherever you go is the fact that the school buildings form one of the most notable features of the architecture of American cities. I have not attempted to make a list of such cases, as I found it too much the rule to be described in detail ; but I may mention that at Pittsburg one of the stateliest buildings in the whole place is what we should describe in the United Kingdom as a public elementary school. It is such and so stands, that, taken merely as a building, it would have done credit to Oxford or Edinburgh ; but it is only one among many fine school buildings with which Pittsburg and its immediate! surroundings are dotted, not to mention such other buildings there as that of tin; Carnegie library and art galleries, on which, as I was told, some five million more dollars are about to be spent. Pittsburg lies enveloped in the smoke of its great steel works, and reminds me of the appearance presented years ago by Merthyr Tydfil and Dowlais in Glamorganshire. But what had the two or three families that had made colossal fortunes there left behind them in the shape of public buildings ? To their everlasting shame the echo from the scarred 1 meadows and disfigured hills dolefully replies, " Only rubbish heaps heaps heaps ! " As a comment on such a state of tilings one may read the portions in point of the evidence taken some years ago at Merthyr by Lord Balfour of Burleigh's Com- mission on Sunday closing in Wales, and scan what it has to say on the subject of drink and intemperance in that neighbourhood. So much as to what is visible in the case of American school buildings to the passer-by ; but the equipment of the institutions in those buildings is on a corresponding scale of completeness, with which ours, whether public or private, cannot with few exceptions stand comparison. It affords a rough and ready estimate of tho st which men feel in any concern if we are told to what depth they are ready to feel for it in their pockets, and, measured by that intelligible standard, the interest taken by the citizens of the Republic in their educational institutions vastly transcends anything known in England at the present day. For I should be sorry to suggest that the great Englishmen of ages gone by had been as sterile in the matter of educational help as the bulk of wealthy Englishmen in recent times. Witness the great benefactions out of which have grown the colleges and the university of Oxford, where it now seems impossible to find a benefactor willing to put down the modest sum of 50,000 for the building and equipment of a physical laboratory, though we have ready to hand an excellent site, En-' 312 ung professor full of aid, what is more, pupils for that \ . ..-ssor to ie,ach. It. has not always been so, as testified by the ios of VYnlsev, r>odiey, Radcliffe, , and a galaxy of others too numerous to mention. At the present day our successful man is !: MIS too much bent on founding a family to bequeath his wealth to education : he leaves to his eldest son the land into which he has taken pains to convert his pile of money, but in the matter of his intellectual balance the son very possibly starts with a miserably overdrawn account, owing to the reserve fund of mind and virility having been used up in the process of making the imperial fortune of the family. Thus the old law of primogeniture with the family traditions inseparable from it comes in to aggravate personal vanity in a way hardly calculated to serve the interests of i ln race. The successful American, with more rational hopes and (complete belief in the maxim that " Providence helps those that help ilicniselves," is confident that his children, having had education, will, if there is anything in them, get on in the world ; but for the perpetuation of his name he prefers to rely on institutions which he founds or aids for the benefit of his people. Even from the low standpoint of personal vanity he proves himself the shrewder man : he secures for his name such immortality as he covets, if not the natural term of the nation's lease of life, at any rate that of the city or the State to which he belongs. The grand exception of Cecil Rhodes and that of one or two lesser benefactors only help to prove what may be considered the rule as to Oxford at the present day. Perhaps in a democratic society it is more natural for an individual to take pride in doing more than his share, that is, more than the average of the individuals forming the community rated or the state taxed, whereas we have inherited a way of thinking (not yet forgotten) that the individual and the Government, or any legally constituted authority acting for the Government, have so little in common that what the one does the other need not be interested in, that is, if the one graciously abstains from trying to thwart the other. This state of things is passing away, it is to be hope'd, even in Ireland, but in the States you set out from the people, and whether you take the people in the aggregate or as individuals, everthirig is done by the people for the people, and that seems to take place without creating an unpleasant feeling of being patronised by the individual citizen who is disposed to do more than the average for the advancement of all, whether in education or industry and material progress generally. It is impossible, on the other hand, to exaggerate the evil done in our country by the feeling that education is a boon graciously bestowed on us by our well- meaning grandmother, (she Government, or else a something doled out to us by our betters, the squire and the parson, who condescend to' do for us what is best for our welfare. That is a very different tiling from our doing it ourselves, however badly v*a might blunder, and it is to be hoped that this lesson will, among other things, be < -IT' Actually inculcated by the way in which the last Education Act lays the responsibility for public education on the County Councils of England And Wales. To whatever criticism that Act is open, tin- direct responsibility for the education of the people is placed on the people themselves acting through their representatives on the County Councils ; but it becomes more important than ever that the burden of that responsibility should be adequately realised here as it seems to be in the United States. [Ri; To : .idling sights was to v. :.,irly American police: ;ied with his baton devised to defy riotous crowds, doing gentle dnt\ nioinnu and afternoon M the 'tor of the infant citi/ens trying to cross the terrible stre< their native to\vns on their way to and Iron, school. Shakes | alludes to the Hnglish schoolb" ing like snail unwillingly to school, and the American child would seem to leave him far behind, less about truants in bis country than in England, though they are by no means unknown there tikewi con lined to the rougher sex. 1 ;emember hearing at one oi the schools of two girls who had quietly slipped away to enjoy them- selves for the day eating chocolates. But on the whole the' American child is distinctly fond of going to school, and the ; explanation is partly the following : it is the place where he exj to meet his playmates, and there he is given nice rooms in which he may hold his in imitation of men and women ol a matin Altogether, he is treated more as an adult than is usual with us ; he regards school to some extent as the grown- up man regards his club, and there he transacts a good deal hat he regards as business. Along with this may also be mentioned the fact that the gulf between the teacher and the pupil is usually much narrower there, if it exists at all. This is to be noticed throughout from the kindergarten up to the college and the university. In the younger classes the inti- macy between teacher and taught is facilitated by the circumstance, that the teacher is usually a woman, whose better understanding ol' infant life and readier sympathy with its troubles tend to render the relation between them closer and friendlier than where the teacher belongs to the other sex. However, I have not been able to detect that the distance is any greater between teacher and pupil in the higher classes of secondary schools ; and as for college, there it. becomes merged readily into the sen/ '>,. o method of teaching. In one case which I have in my mind, the professor was a man well- known both in America and Europe as one of the foremost repre- sentatives of the department of philosophy, which he has made his own. On the occasion to which I refer he conducted himself not so much as a professor teaching his pupils in any direct way as a jpn /,'.; pares directing a subtle discussion in which the members of his class took part by asking questions, criticising the views of their fellows, and otherwise expressing themselves with the utmost freedom. This I felt to be in part at least the working out of the democratic axiom that " one man is as good as another," and my enjoyment of the half-hour I spent in that class would have perfect had not the subtleness of some of the questions asked kept prompting my Celtic mind on the lines of a well-known story regardless of logic, to add to that axiom just the words " and better, too." Needless to say, the method here in question is not relied on alone, but allowed to alternate with more formal teaching. It is lit and thoroughly to be recommended. From this subject of the close relation between the teacher and the taught, I proceed to mention a feature of some schools in which the pupils to a large extent discipline themselves under leaders or captains of their own, and the teachers have next to nothing to do by way of checking noise or rowdiness. This state of self-acting discipline seems to be secured by appealing to the better nature of the pupils, and by inculcating in them early ideas as to the RHYS.] 314 duties of good citi/ens : they are taught how the reputation of the State depends on the behaviour of its individual citizens, and they are encouraged to work that out in their conduct in the miniature city which they regard themselves as forming. They naturally look at the whole as culminating in what is to them the ideal Republic, a state of mind aptly illustrated by a little story told us on the way out. It is to the effect that a mother having occasion to flog her little boy, he cried bitterly ; but as soon as he was able to recover the use of articulate speech he assured her that be was not crying on account of the pain, but because of the shame and insult which she had heaped on a free and independent citizen of the United States. The sentiment Civis .liomanus sum blossoms early in the States, and is ready to the teacher's hand at an age when our little barbarians give no sign of the awakening of corresponding possibilities, and I fear that this kind of treatment would only make of our children some young bullies and a host of little prigs. It is right, however, to say that I did not discover evidence of any such a result in the American schools in point. All that I noticed was that the American child is inclined to adopt the phraseology of adults, and to be what we should term old-fashioned in his ways, as is observed with us in the case of an infant that always associates with grown- up men and women from the lack of opportunity to play with friends of his own age. Perhaps one might say generally that the American child is comparatively assured and self-confident, not to say perky, when a British child is as yet the victim of shyness, or else behaves like the little savage that he is. Possibly the American child develops quicker than his British cousin, but whether he attains also to full maturity of mind earlier I cannot say : at all events, we seem to have here to do with one of the results of climatic influences rather than any deeper difference of race. Whatever it may be, there is nothing to show that one would be acting wisely in dealing with American and British children quite in one and the same way. In connection with the incipient citizenship to which I have alluded, it is hardly necessary to add that no opportunity is missed of displaying the American flag, which is very much en evidence when the public schools assemble in the morning. This is in sharp contrast to our case, which I have heard briefly described to the effect that in England our educationists never think of the flag, while those who do, never think of education. The more sane attitude would be one approaching that of the Americans, but avoiding every extreme of the nature of jingoism. With an Empire so scattered" as the British one it is all the more important that unity of purpose, unity of interests, and unity of ideals should be taught the young without, however, effacing the characteristic features which give the Anglo-Celtic peoples of the British Isles their respective individuality and perhaps a good deal more. Before leaving the question of discipline I may mention that in some American schools the teacher has no legal right to inflict corporal punishment on his pupils under any circumstances what- soever; but that is not found to work satisfactorily, and there is an agitation among the schoolmasters to have the power given them of inflicting such chastisement. As a matter of fact, corporal punish- ment appears to be comparatively little resorted to, even where it is permitted, in American schools ; but it is argued that it makes a, 315 | Rnvs. considerable difference to the t- adier if IIP lias not the right to inflict it. In the case of persistent had behaviour on the part qf a scholar, the usual course is to send him home and to prevent him from joining his classes till the parents ha\e called ;md promised to do their part in inducing their child to behave properly. The threat, to exclude him permanently from his clas.-es proves as a rule effective, the parents being duly impressed by the gravity of such a step and what it would mean with regard to then- chdd's future. In a country where the parents are frequently indifferent as to their children's equipment in the matter of education,' or are slaves to habits of intemperance, as happens often enough in England, this would hardly work. So here emerges again the importance of educating the parents to realise the heavy responsibility they incur in allowing their offspring to grow up in ignorance and heavily handicapped in the race of life. In many of his doings the American is inclined to hurry : he is in a hurry to enter on the business of his life, and he is in a hurry to make his fortune, but I have noticed no signs of undue hurry in the schoolroom. There the teacher is in no hurry to have done with his class : he seems to set himself to do his work with deliberation. He has the leisure to give his pupils the best teaching of which he is capable ; he is not prevented from doing so by any pressure like that exercised in England by the ever-growing dimensions of our cramming system, which, like an octopus, threatens to strangle in its ubiquitous coils all that deserves to be called education. So far this most serious evil has been successfully resisted in the States. The moment you establish scholarships and prizes, to be awarded on the bare results of competitive examinations, the way is open for cramming and all its concomitant evils, among which may be mentioned this : the machinery of the school is directed to turning out one or two prize pupils who, by their success, are to advertise the school that has produced them. This process means more or less neglect of the rank and file, not to mention the discouragement which it must be to the ordinary boy, for, however meritorious his work may be, he knows that the distinctions concerning which he hears so much are not for " the likes of him." The case is even worse if the school has to prepare for a variety of examinations at the same time, for the teaching becomes dislocated and its general efficiency lost sight of in a multiplicity of minor issues determined by the special demands of individual pupils, who in their several ways are expected to advertise the school. The same remarks apply to a certain extent to our university colleges. The late Walter Pater used to tell me that the only men he cared to teach at Oxford were the passmen ; for the undergraduates reading for honours had no time for education and the improvement of their minds, but had to be crammed in order to yield the sort of mental pate de foic gras which the examiner demands at a certain season determined by the university. But hitherto American educationists have jealously and successfully preserved their liberty of action and of doing the best they can for each school or college as a whole ; and this has been facilitated by the fact that from the infant school up to the closing year of the secondary school there is no fee payable by the pupil for either tuition or books, an exemption carried to the colleges in the State universities of the West. When, however, a boy or girl wishes to leave the secondary school for a college where a tuition fee has to be paid, it may be necessary that, the candidate should have pecuniary aid beyond the means of the parents, and it may be th^t the college has a certain number of scholarships to give away. It can give them away by examination it' it chooses, or else on the school record of the candidates, or partly on the one and partly on the other. In any case the inducement to cram the pupils -is kept down, and the leading educationists of the States keep a sharp look out in the direction I have indicated, as they see what the evils of the cramming system would be and how it would inevitably stifle their liberty of teaching as it is doing in England more and more. For the States the problem is to keep out cram, and for us in England the much harder one of lopping off the hydra's heads and so reducing its dimensions as to make it innocuous. It is beyond doubt one of the greatest difficulties which our grammar schools and our colleges have to face. In the States the democratic and all- pervading atmosphere is not likely to prove favourable to the secondary schools becoming machines for the production of a few prize scholars rather than aiming at a high level for all. Here may be mentioned the fact that the schools of the United States are very little influenced by considerations of social status. In i, wealthy quarter of an American city the children are, as a matter of course, those of comparatively well-to-do and educated parents, but no distinction is recognised. That is a wholesome state, of tilings which one has often heard of as prevailing in the old-fashioned schools that have made the fortune of Scotland. Here, again, England with its pernicious legacies from the feudal system, together with its plague of castes and cliques, is disposed to lag .behind, though some progress has been made. This is more especially to be noticed in the case of our high schools for girls, which are now attended in some English towns, such as Oxford, by the daughters of tradesmen and shopkeepers, as well as by those of professional men and university professors. With regard to boys' schools, the case is rendered somewhat different by the existence of the old grammar schools and the great public schools of England, on all of which the democratic idea has for some time been making some impression. Moreover, if the secondary schools to which the country is looking forward are to be a success, the English people will have to back them with one accord, regardless of invidious class distinctions, just as the citizens of the Eepublic do with theirs. Besides the public schools, elementary and secondary, there are private schools in the States, but I do not happen to have found any evidence that they are on the increase, either in point of attendance or of importance, but rather the contrary. Whether the growth of wealth promotes the growth of what some would call snobbism I cannot tell, but so far as regards the schools in question they seem to yield no evidence for any such an inference. But intermediate between private schools and the public ones come, educationally speaking, the parochial or Catholic schools, which, like the private schools, receive no direct help from the State. They seem fully to maintain their ground, 'and those of them which I have seen appear to be very efficiently managed. Now should the Catholic portion of the population of the States find itself one day, whether owing to proselytism or to race productiveness, or to both, a preponderant element there would be the possibility, it would seem to me, of a religious question of the greatest gravity. I have, however, found no layman who will admit this: the thought 317 -:vs. ; he State should contribu: hat we should call a denominate to the : lile of Americans so preposterous that they can hardly be induced iss the point. Nay, in tho Sta 1 - >!ic laymen an- absolutely >ne wilb tin wilb ie--ii(l to i and so far the hierarchy of tin; Catholic (Iliurdi have not combined to assn:. there anything like the no ions attitude in which the prela' of : ii^ion in Ireland insisted with de ness in the case of the Queen's Collect s. More might b- : on this subject, but I will merely emphasise li. ist between the peace reigning in America as regards religious ediieat.on and the deplorable differences which prevail in this country so tly to the prejudice of the hopes which some of us build on our schools. As the object of these remarks is mostly to call attention to such features of American education as seem deserving of being imitated . in the Old Country, 1 have not thought it necessary to describe / the whole system or to criticise in detail any defects that may have/ i noticed by me; for these latter purposes gem rally let it suflice to refer the reader to Mr. Sacilcr -, Spec-Mi !;>-por;s on Educational Subjects," Vol. X., part 1, Vol XI., part 2, published by the Boa id of Education, and the two volumes on " Education in the United edited by President Nicholas Murray Butler, and con- sisting of monographs prepared for the United States exhibit at the Paris Exhibition of 1900; also the various writings of Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, whom we visited at the Bureau of Education at Washington, D.C. He is not only ready with all kinds of information and statistics, but withal one of the most thoughtful and suggestive critics of the system of education in America. One may, however, be told that there is no such system, and for that view a good deal might doubtless have been said some years ago ; but it is no 1< so. Public education in the States has already shaped itself into a system, and that system is rapidly taking a very well- defined form. No other country in the world offers such a i vast field for educational fads, and there are some to be found there; j but I have been surprised to come across so f. v, . In order to jue secured in the work- ing of it, and the crudeness occasionally 10 be detected will bo eliminated. An American who understands the character of his countrymen well places to the credit oi that cb.. ertness and RHYS.) 318 adaptability, and against it a lack of thoroughness ; but that lack must be a far greater and deeper one than I take it to be if American educationists do not succeed in making an impression on it by improvements in the direction which I have indicated, and that in *,he immediate future. At any rate, nothing that can be done will be left undone by the shrewd and thoughtful men who may be said to direct the working of the system. Besides Commissioner Harris and President Murray Butler, one need only mention, among many others, such men as President Eliot, of Harvard, President Harper, of the University of Chicago, Professor Andrew F. West, of Prince- ton, and Professor Perry, of Columbia University. To pursue the subject of the schools, it is necessary to distinguish between them in their relation on the one hand to commerce and industry, and to the professions and the colleges on the other. The discussion of them under the former head I must, for lack of competence, leave to other members of the Commission, but I may mention that I have often asked Americans how far American progress in commerce and the industrial arts is due to American education, and I have found that the most thoughtful hesitate to trace it to their system of education. They prefer to regard both their industrial progress and their system of education as equally the outcome of qualities inherited from their pioneer ancestors, among others the adaptability and alertness to which I have already referred. "The men," said Dr. James, President of the North- Western University,* " who have made this country and are making the great things we see about us to-day, could not be the product of this system simply because it did not exist at the time when they received their training." But Americans, one and all, are of opinion that to maintain the state of industrial and commercial eminence which they have reached, it is impossible to give too much attention to the education of the young of every class in the community. The general belief was well expressed by President Eoosevelt when he did Mr. Mosely and his Com- missioners the honour of receiving us " Education is not everything," he said, " in the prosperity of the Eepublic, but to neglect education would be the ruin of the Eepublic." This is a lesson which Scotsmen have long ago learnt, and there is no difficulty in teaching it to the Celts of either Britain or Ireland, but there is a type of Englishman, the undiluted Saxon, who cannot realise it, or form a correct idea of the nature of the modern competition for the trade of the world : so he consoles himself with the old-fashioned maxim that trade will always follow the British flag, and he fails to recognise that the flag, to be so followed, must in the future be the symbol, not merely or mainly of brute force, but of brain power. A word now concerning the schools as showing the way to the colleges and the universities. It is needless to say how few of the children in the public schools of America reach the secondary schools, for besides the failures dropped on the way, so to say, the majority go off to manual labour or to other occupations of different kinds. Nevertheless, the way upwards is always open, not only to the secondary schools but also from them to the colleges. Now the public schools that send a number of their pupils in due In a speech made by him at a banquet given to Mr. Mosely and his Commission at the Auditorium Hotel, Chicago, November 7th, 1903. cour indary schooK are thereby kept in touch with them. In their turn, the secondary schools are influenced and moulded, one may -ay, by tin- coll. ''>, to which a. Mgent of their pupiU look forward for Admission at the thcii- school career. Tin- influence of tin- college- on the secondary schools is exercised both directly and indirectly, admission to the colleges being sometimes by examinations held by th-' coll. , and someiini' - regulated by the pupil's record at school. In the La . the college must have confidence ia the school, :uid the scliool h;i> to maintain its character for efliciency in order to con- tinue that confidence. It is becoming the practice for the academical body or college to depute some of its professors from time to time to visit the school and inspect its working ; thus a regular system is established of permitting the school to accredit its pupils to the college with which it has linked itself. In this kind of way such a body as Harvard Cniversity connects itself in a very living fashion with a number of accrediting schools ; and so it may be said that the directing power resides in the college or academical body above and works down into the secondary schools. Thus the strongest intellects which American universities can supply are placed in a position to mould and regulate the work of the schools in so far as those schools look up to the colleges and universities as the goal of the educational career of their pupils. Perhaps I ought to touch in passing on the subject of the jco-education of the sexes, though I have no original con- tribution to make to the discussion. As a Welshman I have been acquainted with co-education from the days of my child- hood upwards, and the University of Wales recognises it to the fullest extent. It is right, however, to say that the. constituent colleges of that university have now and then had trouble from the presence of young men and young women in the same clas.^e-,. but never anything so serious as the newspapers would lead one to' imagine. On the whole I am inclined to regard co-education as offering young men and young women useful oppor- tunities of sounding one another's character and temper : the comparatively few premature engagements to which it may lea-i I imagine, far more than counter-balanced by the number of u: marriages which it prevents. At any rate, the prevailing sense of America seems to favour it, especially in the Central and States. But I am at a loss what to say cf the extremes to which the discipline which co-education implies is sometimes believed to be carried. To explain what I mean, I may mention that the principal of a very important high school in one of the large t of America assured me with no little satisfaction that in the whole of that school no youth ever looks at a girl because she is a girl. I had not the courage to ask him if he really thought that quit.- desirable. When studying in Germany more years ago than I to remember I picked up the rhyme " YWr nieht liebt Wcin, Wdb and Gesang, Dei- bleibt ein Xarr sein Loben lung " ; and I am inclined to accept the two latter thirds of that c; which German students sing as the sentiment of no authority than Martin Luther. How the discipline in question would, if it became general aim I itself to all the coll affect the continuity of the existence of the people of the I" RHIS.] 320 States, I cannot say. But the question must always be a com- plicated one, and, as things are, it is rendered all the less urgent by the rate at which Europe keeps pouring her surplus crowds into the territory of the Republic. It has, perhaps, another and a subtler aspect : how far those successfully subjected to the dis- cipline instanced would have been thereby handicapped for any t-t tort to excel in the line arts, where the passion of love is supposed to count ? Even though you interfered with nature only so far as to put respect, the sincerest respect imaginable, into the place-; of love, the believers in the dictum " Cherchez la femme" would still argue that you had done harm perhaps more harm than good. Would they be wrong ? Here I wish to touch in passing on a somewhat kindred subject, namely, that of the predominance of women as school teachers in America. It is universally admitted that this works excellently in the younger classes, and women might perhaps be more largely employed in the same way in England ; but when we come to classes containing older boys the wisdom of having them entirely educated by women is beginning to be questioned in America, and sooner or later this state of things will, doubtless, be modified. At present it is tolerated partly for reasons of economy: women teachers work for less pay than men, so they hold possession of nearly the whole field. This is the only serious kind of parsimony which I have noticed in connection with the management of American schools. Thus far my remarks have had to do mainly with the schools as distinguished from the college, which is, roughly speaking, similar to the colleges of an English university. The college as it exists in America has been described by one who knows it well, Professor West, of Princeton University, as " the place of central importance in the historic outworking of American higher education," and it remains to-day, he says, " the one repository and shelter of liberal education as distinguished from technical or commercial training, the only available foundation for the erection of universities containing faculties devoted to the maintenance of pure learning, and the only institution which can furnish the preparation which is .'always desired, even though it is not yet generally exacted, by the better professional schools." The course at an American college leads to a bachelor's degree and extends regularly over four years, but owing to an increase in the age of entrance and other reasons it is sometimes cut down to three : in the case of the older and stronger colleges Professor West mentions the average age of entrance as 18. On the other hand, it would be well for us in connection with our technical schools to ponder over the following words of the same authority : " There is a noticeable tendency, growing stronger each year," he says, " to draw a sharp line between liberal and technical education, and to retain undergraduate college education in liberal studies as the best foundation for technical studies, thus elevating the latter to a professional dignity comparable with law, medicine and divinity." Lastly, he believes that the true American is to be found in the Republic's college halls, and he writes as follows: " Scarcely one in a hundred of our white male youth of college age has gone to college. But this scanty contingent has furnished one-half of all the presidents of the United States, most of the justices of the supreme court, not far from one-half of the cabinet and of the national senate, and 321 [Riivs. almost a third of the house of representatives. No other single uf i t|ii;il numbers has been so potent in our national ; What a slight mollification would make those words applicable to the colleges of our older universities and the groat leaders of thought educated in them ! Next to the colleges ami above them come the univn-sities, as to which one has to say that, though there is a iiuiltitin: institutions which call themselves univer-ities, only a few of them need be treated as such namely, the well-known universities of the Atlantic States and the neighbouring ones, to which must be added the universities of the Centre and the West, which are of a more purely American growth, and are mainly supported by their respective States. All these are real universities, arid Un- importance of most of them is growing every day. Besides t however, as already hinted, the States are dotted with other institutions calling themselves universities, some of which never were or attempted to be universities in any proper sense of the word, while others have settled down to honest college work. " Among the scores of titular universities," says Professor Perry, of Columbia University, " in this country most are merely colleges, some good, some indifferent, some so badly endowed and organised as to be not even good high schools."! Most of those of this class are practically unknown to the world of letters ; but in England, oftener perhaps in Wales, one is reminded of the existence of some of their number by the occasional fact that a minister who has made a preaching tour in the States comes home triumphantly dubbed D.D. and exhibits himself resplendent in robes of many colours. But the mighty growth of higher education in the States may be said to have steadily shed such institutions as mere excrescences, just as American Christianity is destined to rid itself of religious eccentricities from Mormonism down to the ravings of the last prophet to rise and draw away much people after him. In America it is hardly ever possible to separate the university proper from the college, and Professor Perry writes as follows on this point : " There are still but two institutions which may be called even fragmentary universities entirely unconnected with a college : the Clark University of Worcester, Mass., and the Catholic University of America at Washington. Down to 1876, when the Johns Hopkins University was opened, whatever real university instruction was offered was organised at a college already existing. and even the founders of the Johns Hopkins, though their chief purpose was avowedly to provide for university instruction of the highest grade, felt it necessary or at least advisable to organise a college also."* But it is research that he regards as the mark of an American university, and from Harvard to the Golden Gate on the Pacific, from Minneapolis to New Orleans, he treats as universities the " many institutions which offer training in the methods of scientific research, opportunities for the prosecution of such research, and abundant facilities in the way of libraries, museums and laboratories, to those individuals who have had such See Professor West's paper on "The American College," in President Murray Butler's " Series of Monographs," Vol. I., pp. 209, 212. l!15, 238, rt ; a**tin. t Murray Butler's " Series of Monographs,'' I. 254 ; see also the like opinion quoted by Professor Wrst at p. 23'J of the same volume. J Ibid., p. 365. BHVS.] preliminary training as to be able to profit fully by these advan- tages, and which certify by the formal bestowal of a particular degree or degrees that the individual receiving one of them has proved himself or herself to have acquired the methods and habits of such scientific research." In other words, these would be described in the technical language of the States as institutions which " offer to graduate students courses leading to advanced or higher degrees." "Where such courses," he goes on to say, "are well organised and equipped and successfully maintained, there is a university at least in part, and, it may be, in the whole." Whether the institution do only this, or this and many other things besides, and whether it be called university or college, may be important questions from some points of view, - : but for the purpose of these remaks I accept the existence of such organisation for research work by graduates as the test of an American univer- sity, and by means of that test you sweep out of consideration the greater number of titular universities in America, which one may regard as separable accidents of the superabundant energy attending the giant growth of a young nation that as yet hardly knows her own mind and fully realises no limitations. So I return to the smaller number, the universities properly so called, but not in order to sit in judgment on them. Suffice ic to say, that their professors are known to form a class of men second, probably, as scholars and researchers to no similar body in the Old World. As regards some of the departments under their charge, I have the following points to mention, beginning with Greek, as to which I have not directly heard of any remarkable increase in the numbers of the students who take up that depart- ment of study. But even a decrease would not necessarily mean a falling off in real Greek scholarship, merely a diminution in the number of those acquiring a smattering of the language. There is probably a better time coming for Greek, for when the rush to become rich has somewhat abated, and when many more fortunes have been made, there will be a larger class, probably, of cultured families who can afford to let their children learn to enjoy the master- pieces of the literature of ancient Greece, and study at first hand the influence of Hellas on civilisation throughout the Aryan world. As to the teaching in this department, I noticed that Greek words were always pronounced with a stress on the syllable indicated by the grammarians, and not simply accented according to the laws of the accent in Latin, as is done in England, though there is no more reason for so doing- than for teaching children to read French according to English orthography, itself an exhibition of folly by no means unknown in this country, but hardly likely to be advocated by any man in his senses at the present day. How long is ancient Greek to be treated in that way among us, and the acquisition of conversational facility in modern Greek rendered impossible to a classical scholar it' he happens to be an Englishman taught in his own country '.' Speaking generally, the fate of Greek scholarship may be said to be in manifold ways bound up with that of Greek art and Greek archa'ology. The prospects of the latter, it is needless to say, have perhaps never been better than they are to-day, thanks to the successful use of the spade and the spread of intelligent interest in all that bears on the history of Mediterranean civilisation. Ibid., u. 2oC. The iur (him those oi Greek; amo:i^ other things iii;iy IK- mentioned a most significant ri ipils who take Latin in tin- -<<< .ndary schools, and the revival of this study : do\vii to the eight! < ar of Hi in l he public (elementary) schooU. I these statements on the authority of l>i Hur.i-, of th- Wasln in of Kducation. who proceeds t reasons wliy Englishmen ;ind Americans think it necessary to have Latin taught in their schools, not only to those who are to go to college, hut to numbers of the others who have no intention to go there. ( >ne of the reasons which he nives is that " it will he found t,h;it whatever is precise and technical in expression, us well as whatever contains line discriminations of thought or delicate si of feeling, is expressed in words of Latin origin. I tenoe," he adds, " the people wlio speak English have a specific reason for founding their secondary and higher studies of language on the Latin tongue. This is a reason which derives its cogency from the composition of the vocabulary of the English language; but it would take up too much of the space at my disposal to produce and discuss the more general reasons for continuing the study of Latin in the colleges and the universities. They are well known, and I will only remark in a general way that, while crowds of eager young men hurry to study natural science and to discover more ways of making it remunerative, some will always be found to cherish, at least stealthily, the old-fashioned opinion of Pope, that the proper study of mankind is man, or, at any rate, that man and his ways may deserve some little passing attention. The rush for natural science and mechanics cannot help making the study of the classics, at any rate, more select ; but a good many of our sciei are apt to forget that in a wealthy country like England or the I'nited States there may be young men left who have no cold- blooded curiosity to vivisect a frog, and no irrepressible wish to handle tools or even to build a steam engine. A university ought to room enough for both classes of students without their hustling one another ; and for my part I should like to see our schools giving the students of natural science a better training, for instance, in mathematics, the recognised handmaid of physics and chemistry ; but they must not endeavour to narrow the schools and universities to their own dimensions. To look at a slightly different aspect of the same question, I notice that there is a tendency on the part of some American institutions to yield to the clamour for earlier specialising, with a view to the student's entering on certain professions a year sooner. Practically that means, however you put it, a year deducted from his time for liberal education ; and even if he becomes a successful man in his profession he will hardly feel disposed later in life to bless-those who enabled him to slip away to his own department with only a minimum of culture. The elective system, which, as its name intimates, should enable the student to take only the subjects of his choice, seems to make for a similar result ; but, as a matter of fact, J have never found any American professor who Mtitli-d A Hrii-f for I>atin, -I printed in UK- Educational Review, New York, April, i - iy, of Glasgow, in an address on MO- in Kdm-Htiin; ofessor Hint' remark RHYS.] 324 conld quite explain it to me. So far, however, as I have been able to make it out, its principal virtue for the student is that it gives him great satisfaction in print without really interfering very much with his education. This is due partly to a stipulation that he must choose certain subjects with certain other subjects and in a certain order, and partly to the primordial impossibility of his being in two places at once, either to hear lectures or for any other purpose. So this self-simplifying scheme works out, ^ am told, almost as innocuously as the choice of schools allowed at Oxford. Speaking somewhat more generally of the preference of the majority of the students, Professor West traces it to " their instinct for something useful and immediately available, rather than a desire for things intellectual. This constantly militates," he adds, " against devotion to the intellectual value of their modern studies, and tends more and more to drag them towards technical standards." His words regarding the tendency which the technical aspect of the sciences has had to create a growing demand for strictly tech- nological instruction to the exclusion of the theoretical and non-technical aspects are even more explicit : " It is this cause more than any other which has tended to restrict the energies of schools of science to the production of experts in the various mechanical and chemical arts and industries and has caused them to do so little for the advancement of pure science. Conscious of this difficulty, many schools of science," he goes on to say, "have been giving larger place in the curriculum to some of the more t available humanistic studies. Fuller courses in French and German have been provided for, and the study of English has been insisted upon with sharper emphasis." :; Similar remarks have been made to me in conversation with American educationists, one of whom contrasted what he termed the comparative stagnation in physics and chemistry with the increasing popularity of Latin, which he ascribed partly to the fact that people were beginning to find out the value of that language as a means of culture, and also to the teachers of Latin knowing what to teach and how to present it. Thus from the two sides of the American case one learns a lesson deserving of the special attention of a certain class of advocates of natural science in this country, whose academic ideal would seem to be a university of illiterates. For even if they succeeded in squeezing Greek and Latin out of the curriculum there would be no certainty that the technologies which they might have to admit into the place of the classics would greatly help the advancement of science in the most truly academical sense of that much-abused term. These remarks, suggested to me by the departments of Greek and Latin, apply, in a measure, also to those of French and German as well as to English and English literature. As regards the teaching of French and German in American schools, I have detected no tendency to scamp the work, as used to ba notoriously the case in England. One of the reasons for this in England was doubtless the lack of Englishmen trained at once to teach a modern language not his own and to maintain discipline in his class ; the unfortunate foreigners who tried to fill the gap were only too often incapable of doing either the one thing or the other. The lack to which I have alluded is still perceptible in England, while in the States I have *Ibid., pp. 216, 217. [B noticed no preponderance of foreigners engaged in tliis part of the school work. I must admit, however, that in some instances the f 1'Vench pronunciation, for example, were sadly to seek; the case of a more rugged language like German could not torture one's cars so acutely. Whether the growing friendship bet Fiance and England \\ill make the study of 1'Yenrh more common in our country remains to be seen, hut certain it is that in some quarters the study of German has been set back by the unfortunate success with which the (lerman name has made itself odious to Englishmen. One of the most effective remedies for the dishonesty with which these languages are still sometimes treated in English schools would be the passing of a brief statute by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge making a minimum knowledge of those two languages obligatory in Responsions. It would soon be discovered how to teach them with as much earnestness of purpose as in the States, and the result would be a boon equally to scholars and to students of natural science, to youths destined for the professions, and to those trained for business alike. Tt might, in fact, help to make the so-called modern side of English schools the scene of some definite study instead of being, as it only too often is the case, a sort of a castle of indolence to receive a motley crowd of neglected pupils. In American schools I noticed nothing corresponding to the division of an English one into the two sides known as the classical and the modern, a division which practically seems to imply that classical scholars have no need to learn modern languages, and to ignore the fact that the student of Latin is exceptionally well fitted for learning them, especially French, Italian, or Spanish. In the States a great deal has been made of the study of English, and of English literature, its history and sources. Not only has that produced excellent results but, owing largely to the fruitful labours of the late Professor Child, of Harvard, and the capable men trained by him, it has influenced the study of other literatures, notably those which have helped directly or indirectly to enlarge the scope of authors whose own language was English. Thus it has given a new impulse to the study of French and old French literature, and iu some measure also to that of German, owing to the importance of the matierc de Brctagne and the Arthurian romances in the development of English literature. Nay, the impulse from that quarter extends to Celtic and Celtic literature as supplying in many instances the key to the origin of the romances. The result is marked by the publication of original work in the form of mono- graphs and dissertations on subjects selected from those suggested by French romance or Celtic story. I have made inquiries of tke late Professor Child's distinguished pupil and successor at Harvard, Professor Kittredge, and of others occupying similar positions in other American universities, and some of them described to me how men engaged in the teaching profession would return to the university to take the degree of Ph.D., and would choose themes for their dissertations from the store-house of old romance. The selection would be effected with the belp of the professor, who would also watch more or less closely over the candidate's study of it and the progress of his work of research generally. The direct object of the candidate is to improve his position as a teacher, let us say, of French or subjects connected with that language ; but even when his eye is not exactly directed to French he has distinctly in view Kin 326 the improvement of his own position, and American feeling in matters of this kind is such that, apart from his love for the line of study he adopts, he will be rewarded by the improvement for which he looks. Disappointment has sometimes of late been L-X pressed in this country at our not having any results to show corresponding to the productions to which I have referred from Aim rica, for instance, in a letter from the pen of Mr. Nutt in " The Athenaeum " for the 22nd of August last. It is now possible at Oxford, for example, for a man to take in connection with the school of English, or that of modern languages, a degree analogous to the American Ph.D. ; but before he elects to offer a dissertation on a Celtic subject he may have every reason to consider whether that would help him in any way to earn a livelihood in the United Kingdom ; it would probably not satisfy him to be told that it would help him in the United States, if he has no intention of migrating there. As a matter of experience, I find no great difficulty in bringing together a small class of Welshmen to read the Mabinogion, but it is seldom possible to turn out a Celtic scholar, as no one has the time to study a new subject, such as Irish and Irish literature. My countrymen are usually not blessed with private means, and their energies have, therefore, to be directed to acquiring command of the English tongue, and above all of the classics, of mathematics, or of such other subjects as are likely to help them to earn a liveli- hood by teaching, preaching, or doing something else. Could Celtic, for instance, be relied on to advance a man's prospects in the British Empire results might be expected in time to follow similar to those which have been pointed out on the other side of the Atlantic. As things are, the American system proves here again the more elastic in practice, and public opinion in the scholastic world of the States is more appreciative of scholarship apart from the precise setting in which it is presented. It has been to me an object of considerable curiosity to ascertain on the spot what has been in America the fate in recent years of Sanskrit and comparative philology, for I couple them together as a matter of habit dating from my undergraduate days at Oxford in the sixties. The Sanskrit class, I learn, is now, as a rule, small in America, consisting usually of a few men prepared for the light which Sanskrit sheds on the grammatical forms of the kindred tongues, especially those of Latin and Greek. This is also the case in England, where the class may contain an occasional man pre- paring to work in India, though, owing to the way in which the Indian Civil Service is provided for, this contingent is far from being as considerable as might be expected. Then, if I may treat of comparative philology by itself, it is a very different matter now from what it was in the days of Bopp, or even of Schleicher : the Jungyrammatiker, the Brugmanns, the De Saiissures, and others have quenched with cold water the fireworks of their predecessors, and lit in their stead the flame of the midnight oil. Comparative philology is no longer the word play that it used to be, but serious hard work, involving the tedious acquisition of knowledge of a considerable number of languages, with some acquaintance with their dialects, especially those of ancient Italy and Greece, and perhaps Gothic and Litu-Slavic. Students at any rate falling short in their acquisition of the former languages and dialects would not as a rule be advised by an American professor to attend lectures on comparative philology any more than they would in !',:; i in lioth countries th In Knglai : : -.lord, it .wing tn the very subordmnte pi. ice .iliowd to it in tlie school of / Jfii.niiiniort'a : it should he treated as a seriou-; -it'. ir examinations. philology when it is romp brings ; tudy of languages to a focus, so the coi of m.ui or anthropology does the same thing with the study only more so. Excellent as is t,he teaching of anthropology in the I, I em testify to American anthropologists looking up as to the doyen of their department to Professor Tylor, of who- Oxford has had th.: advantage for many 13ut in one matter at least they are ahead of us: I allude to the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, with its unique collection of Indian antiquities, together with everything relating to the Bed Man and the history of his race, and more especially to the excellent work done hy its Bureau of Ethnology, which has always been the envy of British anthropologists. (Ireatly as the aborigines within the :erritory of the United States vary one tribe from another, it is inconsiderable as compared with the almost infinite varieties of man within the scattered areas of the British Empire, and yet we have never succeeded in getting anything established corresponding to the Washington Bureau of Ethnology. But it is not for the lack of reminding the Government and the public of the desirability of having such a central institution, with an ethnographic museum, in London. When, for instance, Mr. C. H. Read, of the British Museum, presided over the Anthropological Section of the British it ion at its Dover meeting in 1899, this subject very appropriately formed the burden of his address. I am not aware, however, that anything has been done, and we are still, I fear, without any central museum of ethnography to serve as a receptacle for the ample harvest of ethnological data which our vast Kmpire supplies, or any intelligent means of preserving them for the use of future inquiry. For the matter of that I must not ^online it to the future, for I have recently been told with considerable indignation by a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society that before setting out to travel among the natives of distant portions of our Empire he naturally likes to know something about them, but that in order to get the information desired he has to visit either Washington or Berlin. Not only is such a state of things an obvious to us, but it may prove a source both of pecuniary loss and of political disaster. At any rate, Mr. Bead assures us that "the value of such museums is hv no i confined to the scientific inquirer, but they may," he says, "equally be made to serve the purpose of the trader and the public at large." Doubtless he might have added that they are actually ma.de to serve some such a purpose, only not by us but to the prejudice of our i : is that all, for the better the -;ip, ducated mon, ami to lit him ;<> iill :he hie|i< si \vh<-:i tin- op: to'liim. !! Bays tort! the omi--ion of a lr ning may not imp.iir his pmfe-sional efliciency, and is i 'Ugh if he ! to h.- - mployed rather than to h<- un employer, hut it will deprive him of the power and authority which a b education gives, ami will d- mces of filling the li:. I)r. .lam. s II. Caiitield si.it. s that 1 per cent, of the entire .ition of America has received ;L higher education in her colleges and universities, and that this 1 per cent, holds more than -K) per cent, of all the positions of confidence, of trust, and of which it is in the power of American people to grant, ami, further, that as these positions rise in the scale, of importance and ( molument the ]> of college men still further increases. The second c;tu-<- of the keenness for education in America is the freedom of opportunity which awaits all American citizens who the ability to rise and are willing to pay the price in industry and. training. Every youth, be he the son of the President or the Ron of the labourer, knows that there is nothing to hinder his advancement to the highest positions in public, professional, or commercial life, except his own personal merit and ability. To to these qualities he believes an advanced education is :ial, and he is willing, therefore, to do anything to obtain it. When at college his education is a very real and serious thing to him, and he is old enough and keen enough to know that the use he makes of his opportunities makes all the difference between success. and failure in life. As one American college puts it, "This institution is a place for men to work, not for boys to play." There are no scholarships given in America. They say, " We don't believe in the scholarship system. We expect the students who can't afford to pay to do something for their instruction, to take some duty in the college or to earn their privilege in some other way." As an example of the, willingness of the poorer class of student to make sacrifices for his education, the following is taken from a, New York newspaper of October last, showing how students earn their way through college in the vacations: "Reuben A. Meyers, secretary of the Student Employment Committee at Coluinl>i:i. ! his report for t ;mmcr. The. l'J2 students who reported their earnings made .tf'vASG. One man earned 90 as a lecturer in psychology and .moth ,ror in Knglish. By tutoring one student :_17o and a life insurance agent earned 150. A night watchman made ^es, a printer earned t35. and a street car conductor 34. One man made tlO as a harvester in wheat fields, while a "checker" on the Great Among the other forms of employment which the students turned to durinv the summer were newspaper correspondent, teacher in vacation playgrounds, civil service examination mo; tourist's guide, .tsnian and factory .superintendent." Dr. James H. Canfield, speaking to young men, says, " If the applicant is reasonably sure that he may profitably take a college course there is no better undertaking for which to borrow money, nor is there any better investment of borrowed money nothing which pays a larger interest nor makes a more sure return. Box-rowing should be a last resort, but if the choice must be made between entering upon life in the bonds of ignorance or in the bonds of debt, the latter is to be chosen." Kin 336 Said a fine old Scotch resident to the writer : " The one great concern in America is the education of its young men, and I am sorry I can't make you Britishers understand this." Such advice M Dr. Canfield gives seems to fully confirm this statement. Attendance at the Technical Colleges. According to statistics prepared in 1900, there were at that time 89 institutions in America giving professional courses of instruction in engineering of college grade. During the decade 1889 to 1899 the numbers of students increased from 3,043 to 9,679. The course of instruction in these institutions is in all cases for four years, and the students are all over 18 years of age. With regard to the numbers of students given above, it may be well to call attention to statistics recently gathered by the Association of Technical Institutions of Great Britain. These returns included the engineering students in attendance at all the universities, university colleges, and technical schools of Kngland, Scotland, Ireland, and "Wales for the year 1900. It was there shown that the total number of students in attendance was '2.259, made up of 1,141 first-year students, 719 second-year students, 347 third-year students, and 52 who had attended more than three years. But these numbers are obtained by counting students who begin their studies at the immature age of 15, and they are the majority. From the above numbers, therefore, a very large proportion of the first and second year students must be omitted, which leaves a very small number to the credit of the English engineering college. On the other hand, it should be noted that these returns do not include the educational work done by the British Admiralty at the various Government dockyards and at the Koyal Naval College at Greenwich, a work which has been productive of more men of mark and distinction in shipbuilding and marine engineering than that of any other institution in the world. The curriculum of the American technical college consists of about 10 per cent. English and modern foreign languages, 30 to 40 cent, pure science and technical drawing, and 50 to 60 per cent, technical subjects. The fees vary from 6 to 7 a year in the State colleges to 50 a year in such institutions as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The most noticeable features of the various technical institutions visited were the extent of the laboratories, and the excellence, one mi^lit say the magnificence, of their equipment in mechanical, electrical, and physical appliances, the liberal scale upon which these departments were staffed with men of distinction in their various depai'tments of study, and the large numbers of students of an older type than it is usual to see in our own country. The students come from all classes and conditions of life and from all parts of the United States. In one college we were told several of the students were sons of farmers from the West. They sometimes come and apply for admission with only a few dollars in their pocket, but they work their way up through the college by acting as waiters at boarding-houses, attending to heating apparatus, lighting street lamps, selling newspapers, or acting as car drivers and conductors. It must be said that these students are not despised on accouut of filling such positions, but are rather respected by their fellow students, and they often turn out among the very best men of their year. 337 [Rn The efti-rt of of dch - upon the coH<"_ worthy of notice. I' !i that the student who earns his tuition so hardly, and makes so many sacrifices, will w.-mt his money's \v..rth out of the college, and ho will make himself very much h.-anl if he does not get il up with incompet aching, or neglect, or inc! any kind which will piv, .ng full ad\antage out of the resources of the college. This is an important point, as e which tends to develop the efficiency of the college and ; that the fullest use shall be made of its equip s for the benefit, of the student is to he welcomed, nee of such students, therefore, must he a distinct e. A further point is that such students would not l with their studies under such ditliculties for so long a period ,r year-, without good and sufficient prospects that the result of their work will he profitahle to them. What tin' I'nn-ticdl Mitn Tl links of the Collcf/e Student. When- ever we had the opportunity, the question was put : " What is your opinion of the college student? " " \\'hat is your experience of his value as compared with the untrained man '.' " to these questions became somewhat monotonous. "What do I think of the college trained man? Well, I am a. ;ined mati myself. My chief assistants are college men. ated men are undoubtedly essential to the success of our business. " One manufacturer, who is at the head of one of the -t electrical firms in America, said: "Is it any good wasting inswering this question V" We were frequently told that " the American manufacturer 20 years ago, like the English of to-day, thought little of the technically trained man. The difference between us now is," he said, "that the American has changed his opinion, while England appears to be where she was." These, opinions, however, which we invariably met with ually, did not appear to represent entirely the opinion of the American practical man on tins question a few years ago, as will he seen by the following extract from an address given in the summer of 1900 before the American Society for the Promotion of veering Education at New York by Vice-President Robert cher. The speaker said : In c>ni,T to ii>t the sentiment among representative practical men, request ule for an estimate of the professional value of young graduates and for f i cuk criticism of engineering colleges. About 17 - 5 per cent, of the respondents have a high opinion of the graduate, finding him generally well adapted to his work. About 63 per cent, have a low opinion, with modifying statements, such as : he is fitted to begin; has much to learn, especially about i) practical points; knows too little, and that not well; some picked graduates improve rapidly; granted that he has much useful knowledge and training, he ii his knowledge until it is wanted. The remaining 19-5 per cent, wore doubtful or non-committal. Again, in die criticism of the schools, out of a great variety of views, there was a general consensus of 70 per cent, on the following points : the colleges should do more work on the fundamental controlling principles which every engineer must fall back upon; develop practical sense and train the judgment and attend only to such details as .!; avoid >ide issues. About 13 per cent, di that the engineering c undertaking tco much ; that there is too much stuffing with {acts and details and not enough thorough work on eumentary and basal principles. Some further comments are to the effect that graduates should generally be much better draughtsmen, with far more skill to meet immediate demands ; that there is great lack of literary training shown in the inability cf many graduates to write a proper business letter and to observe RIPPER.] the most ordinary forms and procedure of business transactions ; that there is lack of completeness and mastery, even of those things which the graduate professes to know, such as to make a neat and adequate set of notes, proper facility in some of the simplest field routine," etc. The above remarks are severely critical, and have no doubt had their due effect upon the work of the colleges. But these institutions are undoubtedly steadily increasing in efficiency and in public estimation, and there is a growing appreciation of the better educated applicant for admission to manufacturing establishments. Whatever the prejudice may be in some quarters there is no mistaking the fact that, great as is the annual output from the colleges, the demand for college trained men is greater than the supply. The Pennsylvania Railroad, which is the most advanced railroad company in America, has made it a sine qua non that the new appoint- ments to all the executive positions shall be men with an engineering college training, and the majority of the officials on the general staff are men with collage degrees. The example of this company is being followed by many other railroad companies who are in con- stant communication with the colleges for the supply of skilled assistants. In most of the colleges all their graduates at the end of the fourth year are secured by various companies before their college term is completed, and the usual remark on the part of the authorities was, " We could place twice as many men if we had them." Electrical firms especially keenly compete with each other for the best men, and representatives from the firms call at the colleges and select men by personal interview. The manufacturer comes to the college, the college does not go to the manufacturer. All this is in very marked contrast to the condition of things a few years ago. Formerly letters of application for students specified that they must have had practical experience ; now the employers write to say that the student must have had a sound scientific education, they will see that he receives a practical training. In all cases young men engaged from the colleges are started at a living wage, so that they are at least able to maintain themselves at once. Advantage of the Senior and Better Trained Type of Student in Technical Colleges. The students of the technical colleges in America being from 18 to 25 or 26 years of age, and having received a high school and in some cases a college education, it is possible to do much superior work with them than with younger boys. The younger student has generally not received the necessary mathematical training to enable him to do advanced work, he has not a sufficient sense of responsibility in approaching his work, and he does not realise the importance of the issues with which he is dealing, nor the necessity for the strictest accuracy in his work. On the other hand, with a senior type of student there is more strenuous application and earnestness, the work is handled iu a different spirit, and very much sounder and more thorough training may be given. In America at the present time the colleges < are filled with students of a senior type, who are receiving an I advanced and thoroughly sound training, and it is business con- \cerns led by these men with which the British manufacturer will have to compete. The question for our country to ask itself is : 339 Ki ITK K. Are we preparing the British youth of to-day to compete success- fully \vith his commercial riv:il '.' It must D6 confessed tluit, so , far as tlie study of science as applied to indust oerned, our J position at present is inferior to that of Amei intt the Colle>t<'x. The most Mem and cordial relationships appear to exist hetween the I leading colleges and the works, and hetween the professors and the ' manufacturers. This mutual helpfulness is of the greatest value from the point of view of the college, whose usefulness and influence depend so much on the. extent to which it is able to secure the confidence of the public in whose interest its work is carried on. I The college keeps in close touch with the actual practice of the J works. There are periodical visits of the students to the works, \ and similar periodical visits to the college of occasional lecturers j who are distinguished engineers or commercial men, and who give an account to the students of some new development or invention or construction of practical importance, with which they themselves have been associated. Dr. Coleman Sellers, a well- known and successful manufacturing engineer, lectures on machine design and is on the permanent staff of the Stevens Institute at Hoboken. The professors are, many of them, at the same time engaged in actual practice as consulting engineers, and they are given full power to carry on their professional practice as long as it is not allowed to interfere with the claims -of the college. They say if the governing body cannot trust the professor on this point he is not the man for them. It is not so much that the professor in America becomes the prac- tising engineer as that the practising engineer is invited to become the professor, and that as an inducement to him to accept the position he is permitted to continue as much as he chooses of his professional practice. The effect of this is that the college is prevented from becoming a mere book-learning institution. It is considered vital that the professor should be " in the field of practice," otherwise he is liable to become stale and out of date, and to attach exaggerated importance to unnecessary things. Whatever may be thought of these views, there is no doubt that their effect on the constitution of the American college staff has been to the immense advantage of the colleges and of the character and quality of the work done by them. Education of Apprentices. The general practical training obtained by the apprentice in British workshops is unequalled in any other country, and in America the British trained apprentice is a very much valued product, because his training is longer, he is taught more thoroughly and he is a more patient and careful workman than the American. In the American workshop the British trained workman is said to be an easy-going gentleman when he first starts, but he soon settles down to become the same aggressive and progressive person as the rest. The question of the education of apprentices is now receiving much attention in the United States, though by no means more so than is the case in Britain. There is, however, this difference, that the British manufacturer undertakes this work from a sense of duty and patriotism, while the American manufacturer does so as a matter of necessity, to meet the demands of his own business, to equip himself with a better trained class of employes ; in other words, he takes up the question of the education of apprentices RIPPER.] 340 because it pays him to do so. For example, in talking with one of the directors of the Baldwin Locomotive Works at Philadelphia, we were told : " The result of our efforts to train apprentices is beneficial to the works, first because we get a large application of youths for admission as apprentices in consequence of the training we give, and we have, therefore, a better pick of youths. We make a careful selection of the best by means of an oral entrance examina- tion. Secondly, young men who have done well with us as apprentices are nominated by Baldwin's for good positions at home and abroad. These young men are loyal to Baldwin's and look upon it as their alma mater. Many of them reach responsible positions in connection with home and foreign railways, and when- ever they can put work in the way of the firm they do so. They are a standing advertisement for the firm in all parts of the world." A feature which should be mentioned in connection with appren- tices in several large works in America is that an official called a "superintendent of apprentices" is set apart to look after their interests, to watch their work, and to see that they are promoted from step to step so that they may obtain the best possible training in the time. The duties of the superintendent extend also to observation of their health and general conduct, to visiting their boarding houses to see that these are respectable and suitable, to advise them as to attendance at evening classes, and to watch the regularity of their attendance. He also prepares weekly reports of their work and progress which are examined by the heads of the firm, who in some cases arrange for personal interviews with the apprentices at the time of the examination of their reports. In this way the employers are able to keep in close touch with each apprentice. His history, character, and progress are well known to the firm, and a feeling of friendliness and co-operation is thereby secured, with beneficial effects both to the apprentices and to the firm. Evening Classes. There is less organised effort in America for the education of the artisan than we have at home, and evening schools are not a feature of American education. The great State colleges of America were founded by funds granted under the Morrell Land Act, with the object of supplying teaching in " agriculture and the mechanic arts." These colleges have become. however, institutions of the highest grade, and provide advanced training for the leaders rather than elementary training for the rank and file. It was a very general subject of complaint that schools originally intended for the education of artisans, and endowed for that purpose, tended to run away from their task, to neglect their fundamental work, and to become second-rate colleges for advanced students. In some cities numerous evening classes are at work, but there is seldom anything in the nature of technical teaching given in them. There are, however, some important exceptions, as, for example, the Cooper Institute, New York, and the Williamson Trade School, Philadelphia. Several of the colleges also, as, for example, the Lewis Institute and the Armour Institute, Chicago, have important and elaborate evening class arrangements. There is no organisation of evening class instruction comparable with that of the English Science and Art Department. The nearest approach to it was the evening class work of the Young Men's Christian Association, which is a remarkably strong .'ill [KllTKK. organisation throughout the 1 ^tates. Their educational work, however, was chiefly confined to elementary instruct; commercial subjects. Tlu: veiling school education of Britain was spoken of with inm-h disparagement in America. I'.ritain is il.-pi-n.lfnt for tin- technical training of her people on evening class instruction, and that the system had proved a failure. Although it is undoubtedly true that the evening school system of our country is quite inadequate to meet the modern needs of a first-rate industrial nation, yet it /is a great mistake to undervalue the extremely important work that has been done, and is still being done, with so much success throughout the length and breadth of our country, Wherever one went in America, English and Scotch foremen and managers and heads of departments were everywhere to be found. These men were, there because, they i to be there. They are also to be found holding similar positions in every part of the world. They have as their assistants college trained men. They are them- selves, most of them, the product of the evening science class, and a testimony to the efficiency and effectiveness of British evening science class instruction. Correspondence Sclnoh. The enormous proportions which the system of instruction by correspondence has reached in America calls for special notice in this report, especially as the bulk of the work done through that system is concerned with the teaching of technical subjects to the artisan classes. There are, no doubt, instances of unsatisfactory and even fraudulent organisations professing to give instruction by correspondence, but these are evidently the exception and not the rule. One of the most successful of the correspondence institutions, with its headquarters at Scranton, Pa., was carefully investigated. During the past ten years it has enrolled 600,000 students for the study by correspondence of technical subjects. It has offices in 28 different cities, and an organisation of 1,500 agents and interviewers, together with a large staff of instructors and examiners, making up a total of 3,200 employes. The secret of the success of this or. sation is that it meets a real demand, and that it has a definite aim from which it does not allow itself to be diverted to .help the artisan class. It undertakes to teach one subject at a time, and for this purpose it provides special courses of instruction bound up in volumes. The volumes have been prepared with great care, and are written in language suitable for their purpose, with the addition of exceptionally well-prepared illustrations. " We take a man," they said, " engaged in a particular trade, and we teach him the theory of that trade, nothing else, we confine ourselves to that. We set course to fit the man, we don't try to make the man fit the course. We g-.-t'to the point, we don't wander all round it and never reach it." In this respect we have some lessons to learn from them. Industrial Success of America. American industrial success is due to the combination of a large number of contributing cause-, of which education is undoubtedly one. In so far as American e-: tional advantages are superior to our own, to that extent is American industry reaping an advantage. But there are other influences pro- moting American industrial success, among them the following: The great natural resources of the country and the invigorating influence of climate ; the qualities and characteristics developed KIPPER.] 312 through a race of pioneer forefathers who faced tremendous difficulties and won success in a new country; the phenomenal keenness /or business enterprise shown by all classes ; the impatience of slow and antiquated methods and devices, and the intolerance of any method when a quicker or a better can be found; the development of improved systems of works' organisation, and management, including the policy of specialisation and standardisation ; the assistance and encouragement given to trade by the Government; the concentration of capital and ability in great concerns, and a world-wide commercial policy ; the unrivalled railroad facilities and lowness of freight rates, and the high development of system and method in transportation; the versatility, readiness, and resource of the industrial workers, and genius for building up business in new directions ; the constant influx of skilled workers from Great Britain and the continent of Europe ; the sobriety of the Americans as a people ; the attention to small economies, and profits on utilisation of waste products ; the personal and friendly relationships between masters and men, and mutual co-operation for improving the plant, reducing costs, and increasing output ; the attention paid to the comfort of the workers, not from philanthropic motives but as a means of increasing the general efficiency and effectiveness of the workers. Conclusions. In this report a description is given of the present position of educational opinion and aim in the United States, as far as it could be discovered by the writer. On many of the points raised herein, and especially on the question as to the wisdom of adopting American methods in England, there would be great difference of opinion. Each country must work out its own educational problem for itself in its own way, and imitation of one country by another without regard to local conditions would be absurd. Speaking from the point of view of the education of engineers, one would say that from the English standpoint too much importance may be attached to prolonged literary training, and nob enough importance to the practical training of students during the earlier years of their career, nor to the cultural value of a scientific and professional education. For the comparatively few who, by reason of their ability and opportunity, may hope to fill some high administrative position, a prolonged course of training, both literary and professional, such as that recommended in America would be undoubtedly of the greatest value, but English opinion would generally not approve such a training for the great mass of students who are youths of only average ability. In some points, however, the British people might imitito America with advantage. It might do so, for example, in the direction of increased public interest in the subject of education ; in the speedy provision of an improved system of secondary education ; and particularly in the provision of an advanced type of teaching in secondary schools, so as to ensure that the time spent in them by the older boys is spent to the best possible advantage. \Vc should do well also to imitate America in the provision of institutions for carrying on the highest grade of research work in science as applied to industry, and in providing and maintaining them from Imperial funds, and not depend so much as we do at present upon local effort alone. to further points requiring < Million are: (I) the lor encouraging, Strengthening, and developing the work which is being carried on in Ihe Science an-i pan ment I'xm.nl of Education, and of our keeping this tment very much alive, alert, and responsive to the indn of the country; (~1) tlie necessity for improving the curricula of the respective tmde classes for artisans organised by the City and Guilds of London Institute, so as to make these classes more suitable for their purpose, and more attractive and useful to the men for' whom they are intended ; (3) the necessity for a closer relationship between the technical schools and classes and the manufacturers, particularly for the purpose of the most efficient working of schemes for the education of apprentices. W. BlPPKB. 344 Ittosclp educational Commission. Report of Mr. CHARLES ROWLEY. EDUCATIONAL KESULTS. It is not easy to account for the depressed feeling which has come over many of our countrymen on the subject of education and on the question as to how it influences our workmanship and our trade. Germany and the United States are at once in our minds when these subjects are bruited. It seems to be quite clear to those who know most and can best judge, that both those great countries have also their schools of pessimists who deplore their inadequacy in regard to trade output, the quality of their products, their shortcomings in educational matters, and even the quality of their citizens. There are optimists and pessimists in each of these countries, and the doleful or the dismal are usually heard most, being the loudest or most persistent. The sanity of the matter seems to bel stated in the simple truth that we have a great deal to learn from each other, not only in what to adopt but in what to avoid. Coming as I do from the centre of the greatest hive of industry in the world South Lancashire, and the adjoining West Eiding of Yorkshire it would be quite easy for me to piove that for workshop organisation, for expert direction, for the quality of our goods, for a good average of pay to the labourer, for general material advantages of cheap and good food, and for fairly good housing for the vast majority, there is not another six or seven million to match it. Our banking returns, our exuberant growth in a hundred ways, show that prosperity is still with us in spite of growling and sensa- tional statements, and even in spite of trade gambling and of cotton corners. I am bound to say from experiences in Germany and just recently again in the States, that we have workshops in our midst as well thought out, as finely equipped, and as capably run as any that can be found in those great countries. No undue note of depreciation of British methods can be got from me after a careful comparative study of the remarkable modern developments in other lands as well as at home. This is not to utter the childish absurdity that we have nothing to learn, and nothing further to do. It is not even a mild gloat about our noble selves. It is part of the truth of the .situation. As a workshop man I can well remember the days when I could say of a job, " It could not be better done," but it never prevented me from trying to improve on myself and on the work of others. Conceit of that perfectionist sort is surely to be described as " living in a fool's paradise." Truer judgment acknowledges excellence wherever found, but is always ready to go better. That we at home have serious drawbacks is not to be denied. For example, our defective secondary education is a real / danger. The worst is that most people are blind to this serious state of things. In the States we find an enthusiasm for education which we seek for in vain at home. This vigour in the great cause is apparent in all schools, elementary, secondary, technical, and in the universities. The heads of the great universities [EOWLBT. and college wo had the privilege of knowing on our 11 of us as being men of UK- finest type scholar!}, liusKn ,Mikr, enthusiastic. They are one and all true leaders of men. Any nation might he as proud of them as we were. Tliey seem to a practical quality, an ojn manly refinement, alic touch \vhich the. old tu In. me do not i.. produce in anything like ahundance. If the inestimable charm of old foundati < prevail as the one thing, be y functions and sport, in our beloved antiques, if no squaring with modei-n ideas, modern research and methods are possible with must submit to this satisfied, if dangerous, somnolence. The r the most urgent work of the. world will then, of course, have done by .pie. My in the form of observations of results, or products in }. These products arc, men and women first, and then \\hat they are capable of producing in literature, the line arts, the ans and crafts, and in domestic utilities generally. Others will speak of the technique of teaching, and some, doubtless will discuss manufacturing and the rest on the larger scale. With regard to the marvellous growth of material riches in the s, there is only one opinion as to its extent, value, and diffusion. One other thing is certain they are only at the beginning of their material accomplishment, vast as it now is. ;his mighty achievement in less than one century that is the wonder of the world, and which has the obvious tendency of over- shadowing everything else. Having had the honour of being selected for the second Mosely Commission to inquire on the bearing of education in the States on their remarkable success in some industries, I laid out for If this task of studying products as well as schools. As to the technique of education, that, as I have noted, will be left to the experts to report upon. It is, however, surely too early to expect or to trace a definite natural growth of the finest work from their teaching establishments. The last generation has been iy fed, or at any rate vivified, by the influx of foreigners with European training. The energy, the exuberance, of our American brethren permeates everything, and is seen everywhere. I am inclined to think that this noticeable habit of universal hurry is decidedly injurious as regards solid education and workmanship in all schools from the primary to the university that we have seen. It is very engaging to see everybody so much alive teachers, scholars, managers, and pupils. At first blush it makes one feel that we are somewhat slow and sleepy at home. But those members of our Commission who ive a good comparative view of both systems assure me that slow as we seem to be, lesson for lesson, and from results shown, we go deeper and better at home. I notice the same kind of obs tion in many of the written articles by American educationists. There is an educational seethe or unrest there as well as here. It is well that it is so. One writer in " The Forum," December, 1903, page 2;"j(>, says, " psychological dilettantism and speculative experi- mentation have been permitted to work confusion in vain endeavours to find a way out of the present dissidence between school programmes and the m-eds of American civilisation. The trouble is there is among schoolmen no hard and fast agreement even concerning the most elementary details of everyday practice.' 1 ROWLEY.] 346 When we come to the products, especially the arts and crafts, the evidence of haste, of want of real thought, is very marked indeed. I have not been able, for example, to find any real originality in design, in ornament, in anything where the brain, the hand, and the higher emotions work together. That is, in large or small things which are other than mere utilities. Even here, as everybody knows, at the best periods in every country all objects took their quality from the prevailing high ideals of the community at large, a demand assisted to create the supply. Workmanship, not words, are the truest reflex of a people by their works you shall know them. Most American products which are used by the million are of a much lower grade of form, colour, and presentment than our own, poor as many of ours are just now. Here in the States the raw utility of most things comes into glaring evidence, and you find the pottery, cutlery, furniture, and general decorations poor in the extreme. It is difficult to see what influence their universal teaching of drawing in all schools can have had while both makers and users are satisfied with such a flood of solid but ^unshapely articles. In good houses, where money is no object, foreign domestic wares are, of course, used. In the best hotels even, compared with those outside the great cities, the change from moderate goodness to immoderate badness all through the domesticities is very noticeable. I am inclined, or rather am forced to believe, with all the best feeling possible, that the "plantation melodies" of the coloured people is the finest and most original art-product on that great continent so far. Dvorak saw that, hence his selection of some of those folk tunes for his noble symphony "From a New Continent." There is little else that is original, truly of the soil, to the manner born. Even their efforts in sculpture and painting, with few notable exceptions, show a singular lack of original power when we remember that they are the product of a nation so strikingly fine and noble in essentials. With regard to this latter branch of work I am strongly of opinion, after 25 years' study of it, that the prevailing French influence has not been salutary. French genius and American genius are surely anti-racial, and all true art, great or small, must grow out of its own soil or the result is artificial, not genuine. No sane person would dream, for example, of teaching an Anglo-Saxon art craftsman Japanese methods, or of imposing our methods of teaching on such distinguished Orientals as this greatly gifted people. Pending the rise of a school of their own, all true Americans will find the English influences better for them than French they are more in the line of their own thought and feeling, just as our literature is, and must be. The fascination of studying and living in Paris, so obvious in American production, has had the one result of producing work which is imitative in sculpture, painting, in the domestic and decorative crafts. Having been entrusted by my Committee at home with some money to buy examples of American products, I had the greatest difficulty in finding pottery, glass, textiles, or even printed books, which could be put forward as attainments for students to see and to learn from. These remarks are not made in depreciation of American methods. Just the reverse as far as I am concerned, for in each of my three visits I have been simply astonished at what they have done in 347 [Rowr.BY. their sin"le century, and his'.- opportunity of telling them so. The. mellow, matured, inevitable beauty in the noblest work which is seen in the higher craftmanship, will doubtless come in duo course, although then; is no sign of it at present. But to achieve that, they must put more thought in n and work, and above all they must place all their workers in free competition with the best that has been and is being done in y other land. The primary schools everywhere are of great excellence. This is the result of a policy firmly planted from the first. I '.vry child insist must be as well instructed as possible under the circum- es. There are schools of one pupil, and others too large, with four or five thousand scholars. It is not less than heroic we say when we see how they tackle the children of foreign parents. In one school we saw children of 20 different nationalities. The temper and patience and skill of the teachers is beyond praise. The order is good in every case. Discipline is enforced in every school and is bound to have a good effect on the future citizen. Their singing on the whole is good, especially when strangers are present, and they sing their national hymn to the same tune as ours, at least once a een that tliis 7 per cent, is a very considerable average of the stv.dents who can take advantage of the high schools. The school MI, it will be remembered, is as follows : '''Kindergarten, liej/niniMg at 4 or 5 years of age; elementary and grammar, 6 to 14 ; high school, 14 to 1H ; university, 18 onwards. A child, therefore. who has attended the elementary and high school will have had an education of twelve years, and if he attends the university four or five years will be added to this twelve. As to the mode of teaching, this is no doubt rather different from that which prevails in England. It is largely of a conversational nature, and based much more on the deductive than the inductive process. It seems strange to an Englishman when first he goes into a school to hear (instead of a set lesson) the teacher throwing out a number of suggestions to the class for their discussion. I She leads the children's thought over the suggested subjects, and draws from them their own ideas. Her own are kept back, and more often brought out from the children by means of suggestive questions than authoritatively stated. There are, of course, times when books are read and information supplied ; but the main idea of education seems to be to let the children teach themselves. The teaching is always of a very practical nature. It is not only in the matter of manual training (which further on I have referred to specially), but in everything that is said and done that it prevails. For instance, the children in the elementary schools are taught how the Board of Education is controlled, and this instruction would include the constitution of the Board and even the names of its members. The duties of citizenship are very strongly enforced, and everywhere the bearing of education upon business and commercial proceedings is brought out. Excursions into the country for botanical and geological purposes are frequently taken, and these are counted -as school work. And in many other ways this " practical " idea is developed. These remarks as to methods apply mainly to the elementary schools, though to a large extent the same ideas prevail in the high schools. As to the universities, I did not study them sufficiently to enable me to speak v/ith special knowledge. Education Authorities. I propose to describe the system adopted in the City of New York, but, speaking generally, New York in this respect may be taken as representative of other large cities. The education authority is the Board of Education of the city, appointed pursuant to the provisions of State Acts. This Board consists of 46 members appointed by the mayor of the city, solely on his own responsibility. A third retire every year, their places being filled by the person who, for the time being, is mayor of the city. The Board appoints a superintendent, who is the official head of the whole education of the city. The term for which the present superintendent has been appointed is six years. The Board also appoints a number of district superintendents, persons * Although I have given the above statistics of school age there is no hard and fast line drawn, and the children, or young peopltf, pass from one stage to another according to capacity. t Teachers are nearly always referred to in America as females. LBO. who, under the superintendent, ax for and c education in their r< i>f-low these distr .rintendents arc .rs, whoso work is, as their nai. indicat'-s, to supervise th- Next in rank to these super- :"her tiring looke^ in nink than the assistants. The* intendents sit as a Board when the\ pl.-.-iv, the superintendent - hair- man. At this Board they talk over mat)' ting the education of ; and come to any decision they think right. Th> sions have no legal elTect, but they serve; to strengthen the sup' nt iii his work. The, superintendent lias tl: licences, and he is regarded by the official staff, both at. t!u- oilices and in the schools, as their undoubted He presides, as of right, at every school he visits, and his word is law. The practical effect of this system is, of course, that superintendent is tin; real education power of the city. Nominally the Board of Education is this power, but inasmuch ; superintendent is an expert in the matter of education, and has full intormatio!; concerning all matters, and is official head of the oil E and teachers, he is looked upon by the JJoard as so great an authority that they seldom venture to resist his views. The nt to which the superintendent governs the Board depends, no doubt, upon the individual character of the person who for the time ng holds such office. If he is a very strong man he rei^ almost absolutely ; if for any reason he does not wish to assert himself sufficiently to exercise absolute authority, his power is lessened. The ideal superintendent, of course, would be a man who, while stating his opinions with courtesy and force, would leave the Board to make the decisions. But such an ideal character is hard to find. Such is the system generally. In practical working it is fairly / satisfactory, but to my mind it has one great blot, viz., that the * organisation of the education of the States is mainly carried on by paid officials as a business. This may be inevitable, and some m think the system is right. For myself, however, I consider the practical exclusion of the voluntary element in education to be a great loss. I sine. -rely trust that the new educational authorit in England will find some method of throwing upon the voluntary worker, not only a great deal of responsibility in the centre and in the settlement of principles, but also in connection with the details of the various schools and educational institutions of the country. Teachers. The teachers are, as a rule, trained men and women, having, with r\ few exceptions, passed through a normal or a training colle_ Women vastly preponderate, and in the elementary schools t! male teacher hardly exists. This excess of women is apparently more likely to in. ian diminish. I found that in New York City Normal School there were 211 female and six male students. Bridgwater (Massachusetts) Normal School there were only 30 males to 224 females, while at a normal school at Washington I found one male student only out of 86 pupils. Educationalists in England will at once appreciate the disadvantage arising from this position of affairs. In endeavouring to ascertain the American view of the situation, I found some who were prepared to argue that it was no disadvantage, inasmuch as the moral influence of the \voinen teachers on the boys was all for good, while they were, undoubtedly, as good teachers as the men. Many, and peri iaps the majority, of those we met were frank enough to say that it was a question of money only; that female teachers were prepared to accept smaller (say, two-thirds) salaries than the men, and that they were appointed accordingly. The situation was pithily put by one of our Commissioners. " It is apparently thought better to have first-class women than second-class men." Certainly, it seems to an outsider incongruous and undesirable, especially where (as occasionally happens) women are appointed to teach boys wood-working in the school shops ; and also when (as seems to be the case) the practice is creeping up into the higher schools. For myself I trust we shall not find it necessary to adopt the system in England. What the lasting effect in America will be it is too early to judge, time only will show ; but I cannot bring my mind to any conclusion other than that something of true manliness will be lost if boys are left to be educated mainly by the opposite sex. In New York State there are several normal colleges provided by the State and one by the city. The course in all is similar, but the method of application varies at the different colleges. The students are, with few exceptions, persons who have -'graduated" at a high school, and they are given two years' training in the normal school. Such training is, as to about three-fourths of it, theoretical or critical, and, as to the other fourth, practical. If they pass these two years' studies satisfactorily the superintendent grants them a " teacher's probation " licence for one year, extended, if their work is satis- factory, to a second and third year. After this period of probation a full teacher's certificate follows, unless for any reason the super- intendent thinks it right to withhold it. The appointment of teachers to the schools is a matter of auto- matic routine. As soon as the teacher has her certificate she is put down on the list in order of seniority, and as a vacancy occurs is appointed by the superintendent to such vacancy. No exception is made in this mode of appointing to schools, unless, it may be, that occasionally a head teacher asks for a particular teacher ; or a teacher applies that she may be sent to a school in the neighbour- hood in which she lives, when the request may or may not be complied with. This method of appointment is not regarded as completely satisfactory, but it is adopted in order to prevent any political or municipal pressure being exercised. It is further stated that the rule works well in practice, because if an appointment is a bad one, this fact shows itself early, and a change is made. The above remarks refer to the case of the ordinary elementary teacher, but provision is made in some of the universities for the training of teachers on a higher level. This does not necessarily mean that they are trained to become teachers in secondary schools, but that they are trained either for such schools or for the higher positions on the elementary side of education. Amongst such positions would be that of supervisor or supsrintendent or head of a school or college, and it is stated that the ordinary elementary teachers are quite willing to take advice from, and would gratefully attend lectures given by, such specially qualified teachers. To some of these training colleges special elementary schools are attached, avowedly for use by the students in their practical work. This is a distinct advantage to the students, and the principals of rliools state that .. schools to tin- ordinary public :ool, as the ) rts in teaching is found to more than counter- balance any disadva M<-h the children derive from the experimental teaching ol tin- stud. ' Thi! obtaining < i by the universities as a r teachers. I am told In |)r. Jlarris (head of the < iovcriimen! Education Department at Washington^ that there more than 2UO colleges (not including normal schools) which training courses for teachers, and that -2-~> universities and colleges of high standing have pedagogic departments ot' ! arranged for teachers. A few of these CO; the 15.1'ed. 'l'eda_ broad that the student , may earn the regular A.Ji. I may mention that two universities which I visited, viz., Columhia (at New York) and Chicago (at Chicago), grant these special education degrees. At Columbia University I found that the professors were greatly in favour of granting these degrees, stating as their reason for so doing that it was, on the one hand, fair to the teachers to give them a course in which they would have to study subjects which would hear directly on their future work in Jiff.', and that, on the other hand, they would be better teachers for going through such a course. This does not mean that in working for their degree their general education' is neglected indeed, the first part of their four years' course comprises general subjects, while the last part is devoted to pedagogic instruction and practice. I assured, further, that the students \vho work for and obtain these degrees in all respects rank, as well formally as in the estimate of the graduates of universities, on an equality with the other students. It is counted as high an honour to take such a degree as any other degree of similar nominal rank. I venture very respect- fully, but very strongly, to express the hope that the universities of our country will take this matter of a special degree into their earnest consideration. The granting of such a degree would greatly advance the work of the training colleges. It would be an incentive to the students and encourage the staff, and probably would raise the status of the colleges in general estimation. In regard to residence at normal and training colleges, it is optional and the practice varies ; but it seems universally thought that living at a college, or at a hostel connected with such college, o tiers a better opportunity to the students for the pursuit of their studies. Manual Training. It was suggested to me before I left England that I should find that in all the cities of the United States it was theoretically b.-Iievrd that the training by eye and hand was one of the best methods of teaching, but that, as a matter of fact, the theory broke down in practice. For some weeks my inquiries seemed to lead to this conclusion. Wherever I went I found that the theory us a theory was professed by all educationalists. But for a long time I did not succeed in finding a school where the theory was carried out in full practice. I found that what is done in most schools is the following the kindergarten is used for the young children, say, under 6, and manual training, so-called, consists, with children from 6 to 14, in using the hand and eye, in painting SHEPHEAKD.] 356 from nature, in simple clay modelling, or in making of cardboard models,' while in many places wood workshops are to be found at or connected with the schools to which boys in the 6th, 7th, and 8th grades are sent. At Chicago, however, I found at the training college presided over by Dr. Dewey at the University, in connection with which there is an elementary school, a genuine attempt being made to carry the theory into practice. They begin with the kindergarten for the babies, and manual training is continued afterwards right through from the first grade to the eighth in a practical way, the work in each grade being of a more advanced character as the upper grades are reached. The manner and extent to which this is carried out may perhaps be understood from an illustration. I attended the lesson in the second grade, and found that the following work was being done. The children were told to think of a man (> feet 4 inches in height, living entirely by himself on a prairie of America. Having fixed this idea in their imagination, the children were then asked to say what they thought such a man would want. The answers would be various "clothes," "a house to live in," " a canoe to cross the river in," " a plough to work the land," etc. The teacher then would say : " Let -us take the house. What height and size should it be? Ten feet. Very well. Let us design the house." The children, then, are taught to sketch out the designs for a simple house, with walls and roof, windows, and doors, all made to scale, the size being first reduced from feet to inches and then halved. When the designs are completed, they adjourn to the workroom, and cut out and construct the house in wood. Expressing some wonder as to how far this could be done by children of the age of 6 to 8, I was shown into a class where six pieces of wood were produced by six different children, each piece forming part of this house. I brought these specimens away with me. They are very rough, but the model is constructed, and no one would doubt what it was intended for. In doing this work, the children use tools such as a plane, chisel, gouge, and hammer. This is a fair sample of what takes place in all grades in this particular school, except, of course, that as the grade advances the work advances also. Broadly speaking, therefore, it may be said that this school carries out the idea of manual training throughout. The school has not been established very long, and is looked upon as an experiment, but as far as it has gone Dr. Dewey and his teachers are enthusiastically satisfied, and are certain that the idea will shortly be adopted elsewhere. It is impossible to say what effect this idea will have in practical working. It is admitted that a certain amount of book learning will have to be given up; but the contention is that this loss is more than counterbalanced by the practical nature of the teaching, that the children enjoy it more, pay more attention, grasp the following are notes of my observations in a school in New York of " Manual Training " as I saw it : Classes 1 and 2. Next to infants. Folding papers in various forms, copying teachers' drawings. Class 8. Box making in paper. Class 4. Use of flat rulers. Class 5. Bookbinding, i.e., attachment cf two cardboards to size of supposed interior. Class 6. Freehand drawing from objects. Design for pencil box and for article to be made in shops. Classes 7 and 8. Woodwork from objects with ornamentation, etc. Classes 6, 7, and 8. Work in shops attached to schools. Forty minutes a week in the shops, and forty minutes more during week of manual work. work more firmly, and that, above all, th much m. tin- tearing than is tl .vith the children who the ordinary teaching. advocates of the system further maintain thii; work is not "observation and manual training " alone, but that it involves arithiiH tic, geography, geology, physiology, etc., and that the knowledge of these subjects is taught, and enjoyahly iml)il)ud. while the children are only professi M manual work, ft would be presumption for me to express my opinion in any way when the. ad . admit it is only in an utal stage, but I may perh ; quite think we should do well in this country to try the experiment for ourselves, say, in one or two public schools. We should then be able to judge for ourselves whether or no the system should be adopted, and, to what extent. It ins to me that there is enough in the em to justify the experiment. As to the manual training of girls I need say very little, simply because there does not seem much to learn from America in the matter. The girls, of course, participate in the ordinary eye and hand work of the school and in some few places they are found in the woodwork shops. The girls are also taught "domestic science," which includes cookery and dressmaking. Jiut the teaching is not better than ours, and the Americans do not, it seems, attach so much importance to this branch of education as we do. Manual training is carried on in many of the high schools, but a good deal of variation in extent is found. Some high schools do not practice it at all. In some it is played with rather than taken seriously. In others it forms a considerable part of the work of the school, while again, in some schools called " trade high schools," it is the main feature of the school. In these trade high schools the principals of the schools do not put on one side the desirability and necessity of giving the student a general education, but the manual training idea pervades the whole course. It is distinctly stated by nearly all the principals that the object is not to teach the students to be mechanics : they are only taught the principles upon which the work is done. One of ti intendents puts his position thus " As soon as a student begins to know a particular trade, it is time for mm to leave off that trade and to turn to another." Further, tl tion is strongly pressed that the trade is not taught because i\ >ut simp!-. it is the best way of educating the student. It is maintained that the powers of tiie student are more effectively increased, and his general knowledge improved, it manual work and observation are man .. than if he weiv educated in the ordinary way: and. again, th< guments are used as those referred to in the case of 1 >r. 1 )e\vey's school, namely, that manual training is more attractive and more educational than simple book teachir I visited three places in which this idea of trade schoo! specially i Tied out, vi/., Brooklyn (N .), Cambi and Chicago In each case the principal and t were enthusiastic in their belief in the system, and were confident that in time it would be universally adopted My personal feeling is that, although it is not too early to be enthusiastic, it is too early to be certain of the results. There is a great deal to be said in support of the arguments used, and here again, as in the case of manual SHEPHEABD.] 358 training in the elementary schools, I would urge that the system should he tried experimentally in a few schools in England, so that its practical working on English youth could he tested. The ideal experiment would, to my mind, be a grammar school with three sides ordinary, ordinary and trade mixed, and trade mainly. The students should be of the same general standing, and should have the option as to the side they went to. Thus in process of time a definite conclusion could be arrived at. Technical Work. Advanced technical education is found in connection with thp university system in America, and is also carried on at local institutions. Cornell University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at Boston may be taken as examples. The university and college authorities in places like these attach the greatest importance to this particular kind of work, and, without doubt, the results achieved are of the very utmost importance. Students are persons who, as a rule, have come from high schools, and they at once proceed to the study, both theoretical and practical, of subjects which will have a particular bearing on their future lives. The courses (four years, or longer) both at Cornell and Boston are very complete and thorough, and the diligent and capable student emerges from his studies completely equipped for his particular business or profession. Every student before he leaves has found if he desires so to do a situation, as the directors of large establishments throughout the States are very anxious to secure these students. They are appointed to responsible positions, and after they have spent some little time in gaining actual knowledge of the business working of concerns, they (as a rule) take high places in the manufactories in which they are employed. As a practical result, it will be found that hundreds of fully-equipped and well-grounded young men are turned into the businesses of the United States every year. This is a great advantage to the students themselves, but looked at from a general point of view it is of immense importance to the welfare of the country generally. I believe it will be found that every member of the Mosely Commission will have come back with the same opinion that I have, namely, that England is at a distinct disadvantage when the business aspect of education is considered. Where we turn out ten highly qualified men, they turn out hundreds, and their trade reaps corresponding advantage. Undoubtedly we have in England an advantage which the Americans do not possess in our widely scattered polytechnics and smaller technical institu- tions; but I am now speaking of the higher grade of technical work, and in this respect we, as far as I can see, are at present a long way behind the States. Of course, this will be no new thing to thoughtful men, and our country is alive, to some extent, to the need of further action. I rejoice to think there is the prospect of a large institution of this character being started in South Kensington, to be carried on in co-operation with the university and colleges doing similar work, but I should like to impress on any one who may read this report that the subject is of the utmost importance and will not brook delay. 309 i i HI:ARD. Conclusion. In conclusion, I may recapitulate tin- suggestions that I would make 1. Every effort slioukl ! made to increase the desire for educa- tion on the part of children, parents, and the public generally, and in doing this the endeavour should bo made to show the public that better education is essential for the commercial prosperity of our country. 2. The experiment should be tried of carrying on manual training in all standards in one or more elementary schools. 3. A similar experiment should be tried in one or two grammar schools or schools where higher education is carried on. 4. A great effort should be made to increase without delay the number and importance of institutions of university rank at which advanced technical education of the most practical, as well as theoretical, kind should be given. 5. The universities should be asked to consider very seriously whether they cannot institute a degree of education or some degree which will be specially suitable to those preparing for education as their life work. 6. Speaking with great deference to those who have been engaged in the practical work of teaching I would, suggest to them whether it is not possible to learn something as to the method of teaching in the States. 7. Let us never lose sight of the fact that it is most desirable that those who are responsible for public education should make themselves practically acquainted with the teachers and the children and students in the schools and colleges which they control. No one can fully judge of the requirements of educational work unless he or she has a practical and sympathetic knowledge of details as well as of principles. A. J. SHEPHEARD. 360 IHosclp educational Commission. Report of Mr. A. EDMUND SPENDER, B.A. TRUANT AND KEFORMATORY SCHOOLS. The investigation of truant and reformatory schools might, at first sight, hardly seem to come within the province of a specially appointed Education Commission, whose chief purpose was to dis- cover how it was that the American individual rose superior to his English cousin in his intellectual productive capacity. There were even critics who felt that in the humblest walks of teaching it would be impossible to derive any advantage, for, as regards the attention given to the Ismaelites, the United States had made the system of the Old Country their pattern. This is true to a certain extent, but though they had borrowed they had also transformed, and, with that benevolent optimism that is characteristic of the American race, they were eager to return in. full measure the debts gained from the experience of others. In the Transatlantic Republic youth is their creed, and with this end in view they devote a painstaking attention to instructing the young. Until within recent years the unruly class has been some- what neglected, but to-day, however benumbed may appear the finer traits in the precocious urchin, they recognise the soul-inspiring truth sung many ages since by George Herbert " When God at first made man, Having a glass of blessings standing by; Let us (said He) pour on him all We can : Let the world's riches which dispersed lie Contract into a span." Beside the ideal incentive there exists also the practical side in the American's system of dealing with the possibly criminal class. Jie is confident that it is simpler to discipline the young than to condemn the adult ; further, it has this advantage, it provides the hopeful chance that the lad may develop into a respectable and remunerative citizen, whilst (to a corresponding extent) it minimises the unprofitable expense of the maintenance of large State prisons. A certain criminal element will everywhere be an unpleasant factor ; oppressive competition, and the reaping of low moral tendencies will produce their victims ; but if these tendencies can be removed before vices become habits in those whose daily schools lie in the question able haunts of the town, a great constructive work will have been accomplished. This is the accepted view of those sociologists who have a deep regard for the welfare of the Republican race. Their treatment is in no sense stereotyped, and in some instances it would have been easy to have argued against the good judgment of some of their empiric efforts ; but as a whole the framework of their ideas is substantial. SPENDEB. They construe tho term " reformatory " us the means of i: the tone rather than correcting the offence of an individual. Tin; one duty is to draw up rather Uiiin to crush down, to remo\ stigma of disgrace rather than brand perpetually, t'ido a\va;. the lirlot. caste rather thiin to ) .up that would 11. prove a source of danger to the State. Indeed, -o they to attain this end that in some instances they will not attacli the name of reformatory to any particular institution, and certainly the sound of parental school is more musical to t):' In another instance a superintendent appealed t< alter the site of their asylum instead of increasing the buildings that occupied the greater part of an islet, on the score that the evident purpose of the founders to isolate the inmates rather served to tempt the offenders to effect escape. If this may L- regarded as a morbid excess of sensibility, it must be fairly remembered that the American is disposed to rt crime in a juvenile offender as more largely due to extraneous influences than to much inherent wickedness. -tinned as to the general motives that led to the falling into crime, the responses of the superintendents and others were various. A few estimated that an indulgence in cigarette smoking had produced a debilitating effect upon some offenders FO that they Jacked the power of will and concentration. Others found th desire for sweets or the love of music halls to be a more general cause for the early downfall. His Honour Judge Mairs, one of the ablest judges that New York . made very outspoken reference in respect of this claes of temptation, and blamed the parents who too often deprived children of the. opportunity to appreciate the use. of money. The custom that prevails in the Tinted to permit the parents to claim all the earnings of their children until their sons have reached the age of i'l and their daughters of IS. Then- L noteworthy instances where young fellows who have risen in life to an honourable reputation have paid a fine to their is to exempt themselves from handing over their professional earnings. Hut these excuses are, secondary to the all important fault, that of the lack of parental control. This feature may be inten in the States on account of the cosmopolitan nature of the poorer inhabitants. Though the Americans possess a faculty for nationalising a foreigner which in many cases amounts to a p<> s, the fact still remains that the hot-blood temperament of the Southern Italian, the dour intelligence of the Polish Jew, and the mundane materialism of the German, all conspire against an easy education in self-respect or general obedience. Again, whilst nt immigrant may be well disposed in his behaviour, the lir-t struggle in new haunts may be so keen that neither the father nor the mother can afford to stay at home to attend to their children. than once the writer heard the same excuse, and the plea was genuine, that the father had to hawk whilst the mother found what pittance she could, and so the family only saw each other when, exhausted in the hunt for a living wage, they crowded together in a single room for a feverish sleep. The United States lias so constantly been regarded as the world's mint that surprise has been raised at the mention of existent SPENDER.] 362 poverty ; yet Now York, Chicago, and the older historic town of Boston possess tlicir array of one and two-roomed dens where perhaps distress is more abject than in Knglnnd. The surroundings are strange to the newcomers ; their tiny fortune has been spent in heavy rents before they have found an occupation, and, though profitable labour is much more easy to obtain, yet there are many who never seem to reach that margin where higher wages more than cover the higher expenditure. Possibly within a generation a change will be evident when the population becomes more settled. Not many years since the Irish- man was the labourer or street ganger; to-day he controls the saloons or politics or more generally both, whilst the Italian has become the mason or the pavior, and presidents and congressmen are face to face with the fact that poverty needs their attention and direction. Philanthropists have formed the vanguard in the march of reform, but its progress has reached a stage where it is necessary to make demands upon the opulence of public bodies to make the work effective. The measures used for the purpose of reform may be generally summarised under three heads. The first method is one of persuasion, the second of caution, and the third of detention. The third of these systems corresponds more or less with what is in vogue in Great Britain. The earlier plans deserve a close study since their whole purpose is to check, if possible, the necessity of resorting to the final alternative, removing a child from its parental responsibility and sending it away to some home of refuge. When persuasion has proved futile the truant school is the next resource. The trouble that is taken to avoid even this step is in itself an evidence of the desire of the Americans that every child should receive a beneficial training. In Boston the administration is so complete that not a single boy or girl can be absent from school for a day if they are under the statutory age of 14 years without inquiry being made as to whether they can provide a valid excuse for staying away. New York can scarcely boast of so complete a daily survey ; the influx of alien children is so heavy that the building of a new school every year is insufficient to provide accommodation for these prospective electors. These minuter cletails necessitate further amplification, so it is enough at this point merely to mention that New York is no less alive than Boston and other cities to the great debt due to the force and influence of the truant officers. These truant officers who are engaged by the Board of Education are usually men or women especially chosen for their patient tact, persuasive influence, and human sympathy. Each one is respon- sible for a particular district in the town, and every morning receives from the schools within its area the name of every absentee. These names the officer proceeds to tabulate, after which he visits the home of every defaulting child to discover whether he has been detained by the parent for some household work, or on account of illness, or simply because the mother has failed to exercise her proper authority. These " flying buttresses " from the great temple of education have an even higher function to perform. By means of their daily visits they become cognisant of the conditions of the houses ; they can enlighten their inmates ia regard to the laws of health ; they can make them have a horror of squalor and untidiness ; and, further, they can detect when children are poorly treated or improperly brought up. In this last of their duties they an- more or less supplanted by the teachers in the kindergartens, who in Boston, at any rate, confine their mornings to teaching in the schools and spend their afternoons in periodically visiting the homes of their pupils. In this manner they become familiar with the parents, and strive to reconcile them to the importance of a good education, in which a wholesome upbringing must play so important a part. Truant officers act also, in a sense, as missionaries. On several occasions they have discovered in their peripatetic rounds cripples whose infirmity lias prevented them from moving outside their wretched homes, and cut them aloof from the bright society of their f 'Hows. These invalids are generally taken in hand by voluntary organisations, chief among which may be counted the excellent Children's Aid Society, which collects the cripples every morning in an omnibus, as is done in some of our biggest English towns, and drives them daily to the schools providing them with a mid-day meal. Trained matrons are also in attendance throughout the school hours to attend to their temporary wants. But to revert to the truant proper, healthy to all appearances in body and limb, but wilful in mind. A constant cause for truancy is the nagging of a schoolmaster who has taken exception to a particular hoy. This is but the necessary corollary of the faulty system that cannot as yet be prevented, namely, the division of the school into recitations or classes of 50 or 60. The fact that the pupils have their different desks makes them more manageable, but there will protrude the patent differences in the sagacity of the scholars, and the dullard, because he cannot receive adequate personal attention, finds the lesson a burden, and revolts. Americans, however, are now alive to the fact that the dunce may have some physical defect, and imperfect eyesight is a constant cause of backwardness. But so fully do educationalists realise that a defect at this delicate age is capable of being cured, that they are now arranging to have such children medically examined. When all these precautions are of no avail the truant officer is compelled to adopt more drastic steps, and the young offender is summoned. The Juvenile Court, over which a justice presides, is perhaps the most valuable piece of machinery recently introduced into the I'nited States. An institution of scorn at its origin, it is to-day rted as the greatest moral force in nipping the germ of crime, and in the promise of reducing the number of penal settlements which form the blight of every nation. By the establishment of these courts the trial of cases in which children are offenders is entirely dissociated from the contamination and publicity of police courtp. There is no desire to make the boy too early acquainted with the language and devilry that make men beast's. To eradicate the incipient tendencies rather than to condemn hard- set evils is the object of these courts, and the police authorities strongly uphold the benefits thus derived. The system that prevails in the United States is that every child must attend school between the ages of 8 and 14 years SPENDEB.] 364 without option. During the two years immediately following they must be re<-i\ing some instruction or be legitimately employed. Boys who at the age of 1-4 have failed to pass a proper standard are called upon to attend evening schools for 16 weeks before, tli-y have reached their sixteenth year, at which age they are claimed by the State law to have reached the state of man- hood, (iirls, "on the other hand, can be exempted from further study after their fourteenth birthday. Amongst the legitimate callings for children is that of selling papers, though in some States the restrictions vary in regard to this custom. In New York, for instance, an arrangement is made compelling every boy (girls being entirely excluded from selling) to wear a metal badge embossed with a number on its face and with a card on its back on which is written the boy's own signature, BO that the same could be produced when demanded by a constable or educational oflicial. The badge in itself is indirectly a badge of knowledge and of good conduct, for they are presented to the boys through their school authorities, and only to those that have passed a satisfactory standard. A stage further is also reached by this system, which prevents the boy from making his nightly cents without the approval of his parents or guardians. After application for a permit is made in the spring, every pupil is informed that he must bring the written consent of his elders before a certain date. ' Without digressing to any extent, the writer, whilst on the whole endorsing the honest endeavour to raise newsvendors to a higher status, feels that the principle is not without its drawbacks. The poorest boy often has no one who will consider himself or herself responsible for the lad, although this evil is mitigated by the excellent homes established for these Ishmaelites, where it is even possible for the lad to receive sufficient teaching to equip himself for the qualification. Secondly, it may induce parents to sweat their sons for the purpose of their own profit. The badge is not in vogue throughout the States, and the grudge that the boys sometimes have against it is illustrated by the remark of one who had fastened his badge on to his braces under his coat, that it did not pay because everyone stopped him selling so as to look at the badge ! In the main, however, they save a deal of administrative trouble, and the work in the juvenile court is quite ample without boys being brought up who have no technical right to be selling in the streets. There are in attendance at the children's court at New York on behalf of the Board of Education 68 officers, of whom ten look after the offenders from the high schools, and the remainder watch the cases from the elementary schools. Ten more, however, are shortly to be appointed to take charge of the refractory at the night schools. The, writer, through the courtesy of His Honour Judge Mairs, was privileged on two occasions to scrutinise closely the working of the court from the bench. The public were not admitted, only those who were parents of offenders or who were witnesses in a case that was pending being allowed seats at the back of the hall. Oaths were administered even to the culprits, who were generally half in tears and in a penitent mood, though even the stern features of the reproving justice were relaxed when a coal-black, woolly-haired, ivory-teethed negro came up grinning. He had mildly erred, so a paternal reprimand was sufficient. [SPENIiKi:. The word paternal exactly Miour :he defaulter ; t' tin's s;. almost ei pi-nds u))iii this uncertain quantity, this human balancing of the promptings and weaknesses common to every child in the lower < penalty would make them mutinous ; a mistaken leniency would train thorn in the shuilling steps of crime. Firmness without h:irshnf> inces- atti ihute of this Solomon ; to repress but not to destroy is his fun 'tion, to stimulate but not to let self-respect run riot is his act. The task is no easy one, for the spirit of lying is rampant, oftentimes the worst fallacies seem to possess the greater truth, hut after awhile the judge becomes an adept in detecting the flaws, and the grudging confession has even been the instrument for putting an end to a wholesale number of misdemeanours. As an illustration, Judge Tuthill, of Milwaukee, related to tin- writer how two boys had been brought before him for stealing coal, and they admitted that they were only members of an organised gang. The judge advised them to tell their com- rades to come and voluntarily give up their names. During the course of a week about two do/en lads candidly stated that they had boon implicated in the same pilfering, the origin of which apparently lay in a desire to have a collection of marbles. Each lad was reprimanded in turn and was made sensible of the danger that he was incurring by such larceny. To make the child sensible of his fault is the chief object of these courts, and not so much to punish. For instance, a lad was brought before Judge Mai shouting in the streets, and waking up a policeman. " Disturbing a policeman's sleep?" exclaimed his lordship, "why, what a terrible offence ! " The boy went home thinking it necessary to be mere discreet in the future, and the constable in charge was humoured by the amusing criticism. A girl was reproved for using had language and showing ill-temper towards her mother. : was an opportunity for a little paternal rebuke, pointing out to the girl how she was dependent upon her mother, and how the latter -pent so much time and trouble in bringing her up. At the close the girl promised to be well behaved for at least three weeks, otherwise she was told that she would have to be sent to a reformatory school. Another boy for throwing stones in the streets ordered to be shown a cell, and when he was brought back before the judge, he was asked if he would like to be placed in it. The place had its terrors for the lad, and h allowed to return to his parents determined to give less trouble to his neighbours. Another, sheepish at first, was addressed as follows by the judge : " Come a little nearer, my lad. Now look up and he a man ; I always like to look a fellow in the face. You've a bad boy, a very bad boy, and given your poor old father a lot of sorrow. Now just you go home and see what you can do to make him happy, and you must come and see me once a week, and tell me if you have been a good boy during the interval." In other cases, however, the lad is not given the chance of returning home. If the truant officers give an unfavourable report of his home surroundings, the judge may send the boy or girl off to a truant school if the offence has been absence from school, or to a reforma- tory if the case requires a longer separation from the family. Until May of the present year, a child could only be detained at a truant Sri :N DEB.] 366 school during the ordinary school session which ends in July, and is followed by a two months' vacation. This was found to have great drawbacks, as there were frequent occasions when the erring scholar was unable to reap any permanent benefit from a too short stay. In addition to this, it was felt that the vacation season was a very favourable period for keeping boys at the truant schools, as they generally spent a good deal of time in the open and under healthier conditions than they would have to endure at home. This drawback is now obviated by a new rule which permits the sentence to run on continuously and so saves the unpleasant necessity of re-commitment. The judge of the juvenile court can sentence a truant without requiring the consent of the parents or guardian, but when the truant is com- mitted by the authority of the Board of Education the written consent is always applied for, failing which, the parents are committed and fined for non-compliance with the regulations. The great difficulty that is experienced in these courts is the variety of nationalities ; interpreters, therefore, have to be pro- vided, in order that the parents attending may understand the full reason why their child has been brought into court. It is, however, generally found that one of the parents is able to interpret on the other's behalf, thus revealing the number of mixed marriages that take place in these poorer neighbourhoods. Prior to their examination the children are kept in fair sized rooms above the court, where they are allowed to talk quietly, but are kept properly under control. The infants are placed in a separate nursery, under proper charge, so that their little wants may be attended to. As many as 7,447 children were arraigned in one year at the City of New York Juvenile Court, of whom the greater part were Eussian Jews from Eoumania. The Italians were the most difficult to keep in hand, but. whilst there were a few Germans, there were neither French nor Scotch, and the proportion of the United States boy proper was also a low one. The offences may be classified under four heads : 1. Acts purely mischievous, not involving moral turpitude, but violating the laws of public convenience, such as playing games in the thoroughfares. 2. Crime committed for the first time as the result of temptation, generally concluding with a verdict on the parole system. 3. Acts involving criminal tendencies, such as the committing of arson. 4. Acts of parental neglect or abuse ; but if a case of legitimate poverty in which the parents through the misfortunes of circum- stances have been unable to obtain a sufficient return for a liveli- hood, the children are generally handed over to the Department of Charities to be detained in the scattered homes. Occasionally a case is deferred in order that further investigation may be made by the parole officers or through the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, which has a strong establishment in the United States founded on lines identical with the society in England. To be precise in our definitions we ought to dispose of the special schools which come under our supervision into four heads, the truant schools, the schools for dependents, the scattered homes, the eli I'll' head , 'on, institutions \v!:i -!i an with .so of tin Tli" St.-Lii! of NYw 'i hilst one is est.ai> D tin; outskirts of Brooklyn, tin- other is situated in ti- ly because his teacher lias mad" a ist him, or because of his own unpopularity, for endeavours been ni.ido to send him to a school in a fresh district, no matter how great the disia;^- , .-o that he may have the chance of > and new companions. The failure still showing itself, the boy is planted in lields beyond the dismal sidewalks of the city, that out of the frees and open lields he may acquire knowledge of true nature and throw ol! a demoralising impassiveness. 8 maintenance of D T:uant School was originally in the hands of seven aldermen or trustees, but is now dependent upon the Board of Education, which pays for the expenses out of a special school fund. The, current outlay is left to the superin- \vho is obliged to state his requirements six weeks in advance, and there is a cumbersome system by which every bill has to be passed by 20 persons before the City Ta\ allowed to settle the debt. All the teachers must be over 21 years of age and have gained a certificate at tins Civil Service xamination, or they may be more especially chosen on account of their tact. Their pay is slightly in excess of what they would usually receive at a prim:n-y school. The superintendent generally receives a commencing salary of 900dols., rising by lOOdols. per annum until it has reached L,200dols. Though not under the control of the courts, he is allowed a policeman's badge and authority to arrest and. bring back boys who have eseap Drill forms a very general par: in a. i correctional schools, and a uniform is the obvious consequence not to emphasise the oil' but to instil into the individual the idea, of discipline and social unity. One and a half horn's parade seems to be the daily ave marching being varied by rifle practice, and dumb-bells or : .cal drill. Every boy is medically examined on arrival, so th-it his physical development may from time to time be recorded. For punishment corporal infliction is forbidden in some States, bu sufficient incentives for good order are supplied by the different chief among which is that the detention of truants is udeut upon good behaviour. In some instances special icies at table are allowed for good conduct. There are even tal les of different degrees, at the lowest of which bread and v may alone be served. A somewhat dubious penalty is the placing of an offender in a semi-dark room, through the windows of which he can hear the merry shouts of his comrades at football or ball, and in a chamber which is bare beyond the necessaries of life, unless adorned with moral texts. Other rewards are in the shape SPENDER.] 368 of an honour roll list, which is posted weekly, and enables a boy, after his name has appeared on the board, to gain a badge of blue ribbon, the possession of which has the corresponding advantage of shortening the detention, for, notwithstanding the fact that many carp at the readiness of some parents to get rid of the care of their children, a certain stigma is felt, whilst the boy on his part dislikes the restraint and the separation from his family, except for the monthly visits that he is allowed to receive and the monthly communication that he is permitted to send. His detention is indeterminate, so a boy quickly becomes reconciled to the necessity of keeping on his good behaviour, and whilst he is at school he undoubtedly receives a permanent improvement, for if he is back- ward the lesson is made so interesting that his distaste for knowledge is overcome, or if he is physically weak the more open surroundings and the chance of gardening develop his body. Every encouragement is given to the boys to tend the horses or pigs, or failing these to cultivate an affection for the house dogs or cats. One superintendent was so insistent on the efficacy of theso collateral aids, that he urged that every boy should be allowed his own garden and his own pet. When a boy shows ultimately a better disposition, the superintendent reports to the City Superin- tendent of the Board of Education, and if he is satisfied with the report it is passed on to the Judge of the Juvenile Courts, who gives his approval for the boy's removal to his home. For some weeks he remains on parole, and if he fails he returns to the institution. Whether truant, parental, or penal, the writer found that the same ideas prevailed in' regard to the system of housing. The old "barrack" principle has been put under a ban, whilst the "cottage" plan is being everywhere introduced. The superintendent of the Chicago Parental School writes in his report for 1902 : " While the initial cost of reforming boys or girls under the cottage system is a little greater than under the old plan, it is cheaper in the end, since a larger number are reformed and the work is more thorough and lasting." The system is in keeping with the forward ideas of Americans, not to deaden by institutional training, but to regenerate through the family idea. The old conditions are still in existence in the States, and the writer was so imbued with the new spirit that pervades the American reformers that he came away depressed from such institutions as the House of Eeformation, New York, and the John Worthy School, Chicago. In spite of the excellence of those who supervise these great barrack buildings it would be easy to find fault, had not the Americans themselves stifled criticism by admitting the flaws and already determined to provide new buildings as soon as new houses could be erected. Expense is not considered when a rotten manhood can be prevented and an honoured citizen can be matured. As each cottage possesses its own master and matron the personal equation plays a large part in the evolution of reform, and because boys of a criminal tendency require narrower watching, it is possible to give them greater liberty when their training corresponds rather to that of a family than of a regiment. Hygienically the cottage system is a natural safeguard, for whenever infection occurs it can be the more easily stamped out. On entry particular attention is now given to the, physique of the boy. At the Lyman School, lioxhury, two elaborate charts have been prep.-in-il. The first goes into his family history, and the vicinity from which his parents hail, also their habits in the past, further details relate to his school, daily and on Sunday, and refer to the number of commitments before the court, and the names of the judges trying the cases. The latter part of the record, obtained (nun the hoy's own confession, states his work, play, ambition, and personal habits, such as lying, smoking, drinking, disobedience, truancy, and theft. It also contains some valuable accessory questions, as the number in i he, ^'luig with which the boy has been associating, their meeting place, initiation, purpose, and leader's name, with general concluding remarks. On the back of the card a character study is prepared first under the head of "general," such as, trustworthy, deceitful ; shrewd, indiscreet; genial, distant; bashful, impudent; imitative, precocious. ther main heads are sanguine, such as buoyant, ready; choleric, Buch as prompt, responsive, hasty; sentimental, such as emotional, religious, secretive ; and phlegmatic, such as sheepish, backward, and depre^ A second chart enters into elaborate details of height, whether normal or abnormal, and the shape, weight, height or balance of the boy's various anatomical parts, such as head, hands, mouth and hair. These physical tests are. attended to in America even up to the time that a young fellow goes to the university, so much are its educationists impressed with the importance of Juvenal's aspiration, " Sit menu sannal gardener. There were 98 boys here all summer, and they cultivated six acres of land. The land was divided into plots, a tenth of an acre being assigned to one or two boys according to their age. On these plots various kinds of vegetables grown, and in this way a knowledge of the different kinds of plants was imparted, and the spirit of emulation and co-operation was developed." But this practical effort would have been only partially successful had the two months' previous instruction been omitted. At these preliminary classes the lads became acquainted with the different seeds, and the nature of the growth of potatoes, beans, etc. On the window-sills would be seen saucers with sprouted seeds growing in water under a piece of glass with knots of cot iid the root. thus ' noisome ^luin. Til- ge in 'ration of the (simp; I be writ,--! ease I -:it therefrom was iini result, hut the ^indent hn\i::-_ r done nothing all his life e ! habit of loafing, bee ly conscious that he w icer, and the imperfections oi' his early work did not. daunt him, Because tin- hope of new acln Jie, but as many of the Lyman students were Irish, this appreciation may have been in part the result of their religious training, for every Sunday any denomination which can provide a minister is allowed to hold a special service for the children of its own persuasion, and those who perform the offices are invaiiably warmly welcomed by those who are anxious to teach. Religious teaching, however, is not the only instrument upon which American reformers depend fi r the evolution of a sound moral disposition. In several institutions the older boys are set to the task of self-government, and the principal features are sufficiently novel to capture the fancy of the young fellows. At the Lyman School the highest class was under the charge of a lady teacher, but the boys were permitted by her to discipline them- selves. As a consequence, her duty of keeping order was in no sense arduous. A boy who misbehaved realised that he would have to submit himself before his comrades. A disciplinary committee of three is chosen each month by ballot amongst the class, and the judges, as soon as they have been appointed, try every misdemeanour by making careful inquiry into each case. The skeleton of a large tree is chalked on the blackboard, springing from three roots, on the face of which are written the three ideals of Purity, Truth, and Courage. The report of every member of the class is investigated, and if it is proved to be satisfactory his name is placed on one of the branches of the tree ; there it remains for a month, when a frebh inquiry is held. But should boys have been proved delinquents in one of the three virtues required of them, their names are written on a grave drawn in the earth, and for a month they are exposed to the obloquy of being publicly known to have failed in the estimation of their own self-appointed comrades to have reached the necessary standard of uprightness. An offence is often pardoned if a lal confesses his fault to the committee before they have received information of the same, and it at any rate saves him from having his name removed from the branch of honour. The penalty is fixed by the consultant committee, and sometimes it is arranged that another boy should watch the offender for a certain length of time; if, at the end, he can give a satisfactory report of his comrade, the fault is pardoned. By the side of the tree is drawn the outline of a large bcok which, in some ways, resembles the front pages of a family Bible. Within this space are written the names of those who have left the school with the distinction of their names appearing on the tree of honour at their departure. This list is retained unaltered for a year before it is erased for the names of fresh candidates. This theory of the value of self-government is carried out much more elaborately in the institutions known as the George Junior Republic. These schools have only been established a short time ; the first of them was opened at Freeville, some few hours from New York, by a Mr. William George, who exercised a marvellous influence over hoys and girls of a niinal ty| accuracy tin- writer will confine his to tip- National Junior K--publie. which he vUi! 'is Junction near Ural house of two stories, built of wood. About; CO boys h;ul ; by the magistrates, and as they urri\e ID understand that they were ni'-mhers of a little commonwealth of their own, in which, if tli them- selves, they could have as great a voice as any other m'-mh"r. br.>th' UTS. W. and F. Sharp'-, exercised a sort of deliberative Control when the judgment of the boys might provoke unfortunate pi'-noes, but, as a eeneral rule, it was seldom necessary for them to interfere, and they were thus the better able to look the provisioning of the camp, and to counsel the boys lath- On arrival, a boy is introduced to big comrades, and banded ovrr to their charge : they explain the situation to him and show him what will be his duties. Every fresh suit or new pair of boots ii" will be obliged to purchase with the nominal coinage of the iili'\ and such wealth is the reward simply for daily labour. The writer was n mused when he first i the farm ofter an evening tramp. He asked a few of the boys, who happened to be resting in the evening, whether they would care for some biscuits, hut bis offer was declined on the ground that the citi/ens had no money in their pockets to pay. Each week they must contribute 125 cents, in real coinage equal to one shilling, towards the State, and they thereby g:iin the right to vote as a citizen for presid -nt, who is chosen every six months by ballot. His position is one of importance ; to him belongs the right of electing the vice-president, who takes the chair at all meetings, and he nominates the secretary of state, the judge, the court crier, and even the police officials. The power of this executive is not merely nominal: every week a court is held at which the jury are sworn and also the witnesses before they give their evidence. The prisoner is allowed an associate as his counsel, and it was amusing to hear the skilful manner in which some of these professional juniors argued the case on a defendant's behalf, some- vailing on the jury to acquit the case. The punishments nre various, but all entail a deprivation of citizenship until the sentence is completed plainer fare at meals, wearing prison garb, and even sleeping in the amateur gaol until the penalty is condoned. I /xws are made by the republic in general council, and the secretary of state presents those favourably considered to thn -i_riiatun> and approval. The president is relieved of all work, and merely exercises a tacit supervision to see that law and order are maintained throughout the estate. His reward for the. honour achieved is a dollar a day in the commonwealth coinage, and his ministers receive grants in minor proportions. In some institutions such money as the individual might have to his account on his departure is allowed to him in the actual coinage to enable him to make a belter start. Altogether these experiments, which met with a somewhat dubious reception from the public generally when they were first initiated, are being increased, and the magistrates are encouraging the move- ment by ordering boys to be sent to them. To a large extent they 374 correspond to industrial homes where the distances that separate them from the towns serve as walls without making boys dream of lini How far the experiment could be tried in uul with equal effect is a matter upon which one can scarcely se, but the writer, with his knowledge of boys of this cla not convinced that the English boy would have the same faculty for initiative. The most serious question in regard to all reformatory work is, what becomes of the boys on leaving the school ? Every year in the d States it is realised that there can be no final satisfaction until this problem has been definitely settled. When America has found an answer England will still have only half solved the it question, for in the States there lie innumerable acres waiting for the tiller, where homesteads can be established and industries commenced for satisfying the wants of those who first arrived. That is the process by which so many towns have their early start. At the Lyman school the writer was inioimed that over 75 per cent. ,of those who had left were doing well ; a few were lost sight of, and a few were to be found in other institutions. Probation officers are appointed who keep in touch with the lads until they are 21 years old, as up to that age the reformatories are more or less responsible for their actions. The trustees of the school, who hold their office for five years, investigate each case, and consider the reports of the lad on admission more or less in regard to the surroundings of his home. Great pressure is brought upon them by friends to allow the, hoy to return to his home, and they are generally ready to do so if there is a fair chance of his living there steadily. For at times it is possible for the lad to have a transforming influence upon his family, and persuade them not only to live cleaner, but to be healthier in their daily habits. But should one of the parents have re-married, it is generally felt advisable to find a fresbAhome, if possible, on some farm. Three proba- tion is are employed, whose sole duty is to visit every lad on parole, and also to keep in touch by correspondence. At the first their visits are fairly frequent, but, rs a boy settles down, instead of once a month the boy may be seen not more than twice a year. There are always a few who find their way into tho navy or the army, either as apprentices or as combatants, and several of them develop very satisfactorily. The superintendent oi 1'arental School, West Rosbury, stated that he had no difficulty in finding places for the boys, in fact, he had only once been refused. This was, however, an exceptional case, as the employer was a jeweller, and he required a lad whose home influence good. The superintendent added a curious remark, that it was difficult to find employment for the boys in the summer ; the explanation lay in the fact that the two months enjoyed in holiday by the school boys led to a greater number. of applicants for casual work. As a rule, the superintendents endeavoured to find a place for their pupils in places where they could have a chance of promotion. In one of the prominent primary schools the following strange ition is hung from a wall: " We do not give boys a training as if we believed in their nobler nature. We scarce educate their bodies. ' The intention, at the time when it was hung, was to emph :ig, but if we WIT-' to pri'tervl tli;i.t Hie pith ot .i.ning I riminal ' the :mer chanu-t--risties of youth. go forth on tli -rni with a full c-oiilidence tlmt can redeem tin- ninety-and-nine per cent., ami from h-r 'lVa:i-;itlan!i<; neighbour :e of dissociating the inquiry into the delinquenciea of :rial of those who ;>olice court forms a i-egular feature of their daily life ; secondly, certain mid be especially >t.-t aside to adjudge on iho-e eases, Ivea not so much >l tho fatliers to bring the v, MS to tin and parents to a proper idea of their own r"^pon,ibility . finally, :-;h educational committees should exert themselves to the perfunctory harrack discipline that is to- M vogue in our reformatory schools, since it tends to demoral; than to e an impressionable boy. They should also have a care to appoint as superintendents those whose to: -h that private life is a silent testimony that to live truly is to live well. A. r. 376 Iftosclp educational Commission* Report of Councillor JOHN WHITBURN, of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Education Committee. It has been fitly remarked that the work of education constitutes the chief concern of the American people. In order to understand why this is so, and in order that one may rightly appreciate the great efforts which are being made to approximate, as nearly as possible, to a perfect educational system, it is necessary first to understand the nation's aspirations and requirements in this respect. The American people are essentially democratic, and in no other department of their public business is there so much attention paid to the expression of public opinion. Upon entering a grade school in the United States one is immediately brought into contact with the great problem which the nation is called upon to Folve ; .for here are gathered together the children of people of all nationalities. The educational policy has been such as to favour the adoption of all measures calculated to lead to the rapid assimilation of these children, to eradicate their marked racial characteristics, and to turn them, ultimately, into typical American citizens. I have visited very many classes in all sorts of schools, colleges, and universities, in which but a very small proportion of the children bore English names. The children appear to be intensely patriotic, and to appreciate in a very intelligent and remarkable manner the political and social freedom which they enjoy, and the great advantages of the public school system. The whole people appear to regard UK- children as the nation's best asset, whilst the children themselves appear to be animated with the desire to cultivate their powers to the fullest possible extent, because they realise that they can only hope to occupy such positions in life as their education has fitted them to fill with credit. One sees but very few children in American schools who are not well dressed and, apparently, very well fed. : They are generally taller and heavier than British children of the same ages. In every school great attention is paid to physical training, and no effort or expense is spared to obtain the best equipment for the j:\ mnasium. It should be clearly born in mind that " class " distinctions, as. we know them, do not exist in the United States. The children of all the people have the right to a free public school education extending over a period of twelve years. From the age of 5 or 6, to the age of 14 or 15 (and in some States 16), attendance at the primary schools is compulsory. All the school apparatus, including books, slates, pencils, etc., is provided out of public funds. From its first entry into the kindergarten (which is the only infant school It h customary in America for the children to sit at tahle to twke their meals with the 1 rs ol the family. All appear to eat very much more food than is usual in .stain. a), thf child Although the kin in the ordinary way, the. chil'd ; r any in the whole educational curriculum where in t: of time the child obtains, incidentally as much ai.< lable information as he acquires during hi.- year in tin- kin make t . successful industrially ;ind c<>mm things," rather than the cultured g'-ntlfinan of leisure. iir, as if the major portion of the adult population, together with the whole of the children of a high school age, wer> ~.ovt of instruction in one or other of the: training or technological institutions The mn jor portion of the adult population appeared to be seeking ;ction in one or other of the mechanical arts or scici Kvery class in thr- evening schools a] to be crowded out the directors of these educational institution d to be quite unable to receive all those who were willing to enrol themselves as 'its. Manual training, in the opinion of Dr. Jones, of the Lowell School, Boston, awakens the power of concentration in children to a greater degree than most other exercises do. This opinion is held very strongly by all those who ai - as much good work of an academic character as those who do not. The manual and commercial training departments are singi; well equipped. It is not unusual to find in them from 20 to 50 vriting machines, together with all the other apparatus for teaching stenography, book-keeping, and the routine of office work. In some manual training schools there are 50 benches, each one of which is equipped with an excellent outfit of joiner's tools. 1 and handsome workrooms are to be seen in the high schools in almost every town, \\; :t array of wood- turning lathes and patte. g b'-nches. In the ironwork department one ma 20 or 50 vices for benchwork, and from 20 to 50 lathes and mac for all kinds of engineering shop practice. There is invariably a number of forges (in the Indianapolis Manual School there are 21 of It ..ni:ig iu woodwot! .urn. TVi: 382 thn Rturtevant type), and in the foundry there is provision for making fairly large and useful castings. Circular and jig saws and wood-planing and moulding machines are also used in many places. "Wood-carving is taught in every school, whilst special attention is always paid to drawing. I have seen a great deal of most excellent woodwork which has been done in these schools. All the articles which are produced are for use, and students are only allowed to take home those things which have been properly finished. Chainmaking and ornamental ironwork form part of the mechanical course. The students in very many schools do a good deal of screw cutting and machine tool- making, whilst in many instances a number of lathes and machines have been made by the students for the use of those who will follow in their footsteps in future years. I have been surprised and delighted beyond measure at the ability displayed by the students in scores of these schools. It is quite usual for a group of students to combine together to make a lathe, and for every part of the work to be done by themselves, including the designing of the machine, making the drawings, patterns, castings, etc., and finishing and erecting the job. The outline of the course of study of the Indianapolis Manual Training School is a fairly representative one, and indicates the scope of the work undertaken by the students. (See page 384.) The New York High School of Commerce is a public school under the control of the Board of Education. No fees are charged to the students, and all the books and school apparatus are provided free of cost. This is a very different type of school from those excellent high schools known as the De Witt Clinton High School for Boys and the Wadleigh High School for Girls, which are of the ordinary type. The School of Commerce has not one aim, but several. Tha faculty consists of 30 instructors, and the curriculum includes literature, history, art, and music, as well as the more necessary subjects of languages, drawing, economics, mathematics, and general commercial training. As its name implies this school has been established for the special purpose of training young men for business pursuits. The school is designed to supply thoroughly equipped young men for the higher positions in trade, finance, and business management. The widening field of foreign commerce is especially in need of well-trained young men, and this school has been opened for the express purpose of 'affording facilities for even the eons of the poorest in the community to obtain that training. This school has but recently been moved into the handsome new building in West 65th Street, and the most sanguine anticipations are entertained as to the progress which this institution will make during the next decade. The following synopsis of the course of study shows that, whilst not aiming at a general preparation for college, the school has a course of study so broad and full that the graduate who wishes to pursue his studies in a higher institution will find himself well equipped to do so. President Eliot's dictum " that the best school preparation for life is also the best preparation for college " has " influenced the choice and arrangement of the studies in the curriculum of this school." 333 [WHITT.- NEW YORK CITY I Will SCHOOL OF COM M Hi COURSE OF STIDY. T YEAR. 1 ^panish 4. i 4 il reference to in . 1 i Koiiiiin 1 l,.>t<>ry '2 '.Yriting 4 2 Dnuviiii,' 2 2 . 1 :7f>1. Business Arithm Commercial Geography 25 1 . 1 SECOND VHAR. Periods. -h :} !. or Spanish 4 i try 3 C'hcmihtry (with especial reference to i .')..-- 1 val and Modern History (with especial reference to economic history and geography) 3 raphy 2 Drawing 2 _; 2 23 Periods. ID, French, or Spanish 4 Business Forms and 1- :ig .. 3 .1 TIIIliD YEAR. 11 red. Periods. h 3 ^panish I Al_ r ehra and Geometry i Engli ,-ial refer- ence to economic history and geography) ne ... THIKD Y, . ned). . n, French, or Spanish .. Bookkeeping and (;<.: \nth- iii -tic 4 Stenogripliv .md Typi.-writ. Drawing J l-'OUlilll V! Eeqo Kn-liMi 3 f It-rina!!, Fr. n !. or St knish 4 iiics and Kc-onomic Geography 4 History of thr United States (with >cial reference to industrial and constitutional aspcetej .... 4 Physical Training 2 _ German, French, or Spanish A third la: Advanced Chemistry Trigonometry and Solid Geometry Elementary Law and Commercial Law Business Correspondence and Office Practice graphy and Typewriting 17 dfc 4 4 4 4 4 4 Drawing 1 FIFTH YF..VR. :rr<3. Periods. h :i Logic, Inductive and Deductive.... 3 lining 2 8 ives. Period*. A foreign languaRfl Advanced Mail Advanced Physics Industrial (.'hi-ini-lvy ( ieography (19th ' vnd Orient ; Diplomatic Hi-tory, tnitxl States and Modem 4 Banking and Finan ) Including Second half year. " ci ' b t ^ \ o O "5 ~ 2 k is ^: 1 JK ^ i .. ' -5 . .5 v *7 a H 1 1 ^ T c f Drawing ~>rau'in i * t. f. .g -. 10 >f' ? a Jc 5 ' - 1 "5 c ^ 1 ^; * Vk t*i E t> k ^ . ft w S ^ 5 J^ "3 e, 3 G 5 * 5 * s <- E =: .- ffe" "5 c i i | i 1 a X w x .? 1 ! < k 1 1 > ^ g ^ (H o Q 5 ^_'_ .5 t. '> = ~ K > S H JD K 2 - tfi 1 ^ Q 1 ? i u J (3 5 r" c . i' 1 * j "^ ^ S5 I ~ c E ? ^ ^ i "5 | K ^. >> . rt H ^ ~ L- 3 to Jj - 7 > S^ ' = 5 Q s. c- O s *" =i r^ : . u s ~ CQ ENGLISH. "*j 1 CS S i" o '~ s, c j , German. Forging. Mechanical D Freehand Dn < Stenography. criting. ?- w M e H*;(iicne. C 1 2 prescribed an itucly is placed s: r. p j? 'J O c . ;H ^ K \A ID 3 o 3EBRA 1 _. er 1 | c (^ c c e A "K-'C c~ '| 3 1- ^ H - -3 < X. 3 c ^ o V. S *" "c ^i H w 3 T ^J O ;: k 5 S' cq rj H d H -,- ^ .? H ^ s m '^ -^ & f. .H -S a, i ^ e r^- f^ ENGLISH. ALGEBRA I.ahn. Germ in. e 5 Frffhnnd Di St'nojraphy Bookkeeping Ck ~ S c c I a to w i I . - ^ "QJ >> a 1 o ^ i j "o P || d 2 CA t~t ~ 9 & 1 1 to S o .5 co ft III ^ \Yiir: In , >-' p' 1 !' pupil in the publ. Is in Id.), "i Philadelphia 22doh |, Wellington '-'(idol, 20dols. L7c. (4 is. (K : H 34dol polls 19dols. <)>(.-. (4 . Chicago 32dols. 3c. - ' and in I'iUshurg 27dols. 9c. (5 12s. 6d.) These figures are based upon tin; total number of scholars in average daii -elusive of the cost of permanent improvements. In lUvton the cost, including tin- cost of general supervision, music, dra physical culture, penmanship, German, the high schools, n schools, kindergarten, and the manual training school, is 22dols. (LI i In Indianapolis, th> cost of instruction in the high school was 2 ( Jdols. 68c. (6 3s. 8d.), and in the manual training high school 40dols. 20c. (8 7s. 6d.) This statement does not include the expenses for new buildings, sites, interest cha night schools, or new equipment for the manual training schools. There appears to he no difficulty in obtaining ample funds for the erection and equipment of school buildings in any of the large cities or towns in the United States. The expenditure incurred hy the [ndianapolis School Board has necessitated an increased appropriation of 100,000 dollars per year, and this has been granted ungrudgingly and without a dissentient voice being raised against it. Education by Correspondence. \Yliat \ve need in Great Britain more than anything else, and at once, is some system of education for the mechanic and M class, in order that they may be immediately enabled to carry into effect many of the ideas which are now latent in their minds. Much-needed improvements in machinery ought to be most readily brought about in this country as in America, by the man \vlio is engaged with the machines every day. One of the most remarkable concerns that I visited whilst hi the United States was the International Correspondence School, whose headquarters are at Scranton, Pennsylvania. This institution has 28 business centres in each of the larger cities in the United Si and in very many of the capitals of other countries. Started in yrown into a large concern giving employment to 1 people. An enormous building has just been opened at Scranton to accommodate part of the ordinary staff. The schools fill a necessary and unique place in the educational work being carried on in the United States. I have made extensive inquiry, and have been assured by manufacturers, trade union officials, business men, managers, engineers, and foremen that the tion obtained by means of the Correspondence Schools is most valuable, and that their certificates are a sure passport to employment ;dvancement. The enterprise owes its inception to the fact that the president of the schools, who, in the year 1891 was editing a newspaper, devoted a few columns to answering questions of correspondents on matters relating to mining and engineering educational subjects. Before long the questions grew to be so numerous that regular instruction was undertaken, and it became necessary to WHITBUKN.J 386 charge fees and engage expert assistance to conduct the work. Several trade journals were established, notably Mining, the circulation of all of which has gone on steadily increasing. The subjects which were at first most eagerly taken up were mechanics, drawing, steam engine running, and architecture. At the present time there are over 3,200 persons engaged in the woik of instruction at Scranton ; over 650,000 students have graduated in the various courses, whilst over 150,000 new students are being enrolled every year. Many thousands of those who hold prominent positions in the great industrial undertakings of America own that they have been especially well equipped by means of the instruction gained in these schools. Curiously enough, no less than four-fifths of the pupils enrolled in the first two years were British students. Of late years the numbers have dwindled down to a very small quantity owing to the fact that the schools have never advertised in England, whilst probably there has not been that eagerness shown by our mechanics in recent years to get on that there used to be. At one time it was hoped that the University Extension Move- ment would meet all the requirements. Such has not been the case. In America the system of education by correspondence has now come to be recognised as being by far the easiest for the uneducated man, and the least expensive. The distinctive function of these schools is to teach the theory of engineering, and of various other arts and trades to men and women already at work. Notwithstanding the remarkable results that have been accomplished by these schools, there are people who still doubt that proper technical instruction can be given by the correspondence methods. President Foster assured me, however, that six-tenths of their new students take up their courses of instruction because they have noted the remarkable progress made by some student with whom they have been brought into contact. The courses of study are arranged with a view to meeting the requirements of all classes of workers in mechanical industries, from the humblest apprentice to the skilled mechanic and the trained engineer. The correspondence schools appeal particularly to those classes of workers who require more or less of a theoretical and technical knowledge than can be acquired in the ordinary routine of daily work. The theory and technique of most trades are beyond the reach of the ordinary workinginen unless they devote a portion of their time to study. In the vast majority of cases they leave school for the workshop with hardly more than the bare rudiments of an elementary school education, and the need of theoretical instruction in the trades rarely occurs to them until they are brought face to face with the fact that future advancement depends almost entirely upon the acquisition of this knowledge. As a practical engine driver (the American term is engineer), I unhesitatingly assert that the system of education by correspond- ence has resulted in enormously increasing the efficiency and the earnings of the American locomotive and stationary engineers. The average American engineer is without a superior, probably without an equal in general ability, in the world. This, and the superior position he occupies in America as compared with the other workmen, is due (in the opinion of the leaders of the engineer.- : ' ! ly \vhich tin ble th. -in t ;) ji.-i SB tin- -: rirt/ at exc noin ,y tin nce. Schools air i: -imple as possible for the beginners. The student's \\ork is sub-divided into many d lessons, and only the plainest langu.i ike the tacts and principles clear, The instruction and question re copiously illustrated. Kadi pap - m itself, and i nt is led on by very easy stages fr lementary to the more advanced work in whatever course he is engaged in. If the student finds himself in any difficulty, he is encriuiuu'eil to to the central office for assistance. In many cases lie finds olution of the problem whilst stating his difficulty. No effort is spared by the schools in giving the fullest explanation and tance, and special instructors are assigned to students who are particularly backward. The I'nited States Commissioner of Labour, Colonel Carroll D. Wright, in his seventeenth annual report, f-paaks as follows ding these schools : "Although the average age of students in the International Correspondence .:;' jcars, more t !i;m SO per ceM. know nothing of fractions when they be^in t heir studies. For Mich stude; .nary text-book is id difficult. It was obvious at the outset that text-book* for teaching the manual industries by mail must combine simplicity with thoroughness, otherwise failure was inevitable. But no such text-books were in the market. It was necessary to have them written. For this work men strong both in the theory and the practice of each trade to be taught were found. In engaging men to prepare the text-books for any industrial or engineering speciality, the manage ment of the schools state that Uv.i conditions of litncss have been rigidly .1 on : first, that they must have thorough theoretical education in that and allied specialities ; and second, that their education in theory shall have ipplemented by satisfactory practical training. Both the technical school and the workshop must bo i 'juipment. "There are so many cases where the system of instruction pursued by these schools has enabled ihe students to advance from the lower branches of a trade or occupation to a complete mastery of the same that it would bo impossible to estimate the benefits that have accrued to those who have been und-er instruction. In the higher positions are to be found foremen, superintendents, master plumbers and builders, architects, and electrical and mechanical engineers, who bear witness to the work of this instruction. Men already engaged in trades as machinists and patternmakers have been enabled to rise to mechanical draughtsmen and designers; carpenter.*, cabinet- makers, and bricklayers have become architects; miners have been promoted to n and superintendents; and in electrical occupations, linemen, repairmen, and motormen have been advanced to inspectors, foremen, and clectr: There are thousands of students also whose earnings and prospects have beou J to 200 per cent, by the instruction they have received. The y of the students and gr. recognised on every hand, and when it is considered in occupations in which drawing, designing, and lettering are the most important elements, it is possible for the graduates to :1 work without undergoing a period of apprenticeship, there is ample ground for sa>ing that the methods of instruction employed in these schools are productive of practical and substantial benefits to those who are under instruction." That the courses of instruction are thoroughly practical and effective is borne out by the testimony of large numbers of leading manufacturing concerns, such as the Baldwin Locomotive Company, Messrs. Cramp and Sons, the General Electric Company, the nghouse Company, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, and very many others, a number of whom have made arrangements to allow their apprentices who take up these courses to take an hour .) in one afternoon of each week to work up their lessons. In the firms have set aside a suitable room for the use of the stink-UN, and have done much in the way of providing laboratory apparatus where needed. The school runs a railroad train of six cars, which operates on 90 <]it't'.-n-nt railroads. This train is used for the purpose of giving practical instruction in railroad working, and for the delivery of a series of educational lectures to the students who are employed on the lines. The following outline of a course of study shows the comprehen- sive and ambitious character of the work undertaken by this vast institution. The " complete steam engineering course," as its name implies, is a thorough and complete treatise on all subjects :ining to steam engineering, and will qualify a man to become chief or consulting engineer of the largest steam plants, pumping stations, etc. The course is also of great value to designers of steam plants, boiler inspectors, supervising engineers, etc. Supplemented by the necessary practical experience, ifc will qualify students to pass examinations for first grade licences. The subjects taught are: Arithmetic, mensuration, principles of mechanics, machine elements, mechanics of fluids, strength of materials, elements of electricity and magnetism, dynamos and motors, operation of dynamos and motors, heat and steam, types of steam 1 toilers, boiler details, boiler fittings, combustion, firing and draft, boiler design, economic combustion of coal, automatic furnaces and mechanical stokers, boiler installation, boiler management, boiler trials, boiler feeding and feedwater problems, the steam engine, the indicator, engine testing, governors, valve gears, condensers, com- pound engines, engine management, engine installation, pumps, elevators, steam heating, geometrical drawing and mechanical drawing. The method of education by correspondence is very general in the United States. There are large numbers of institutions similar to the one at Scranton, besides which almost every institute of technology, such as the Steven's Institute, Pratt Institute, and the Armour Institute, have each a correspondence department. Evening Schools. "Wherever one may go in the United States, one is impressed with the fact that very large numbers of persons of all ages and both sexes attend the evening classes. In Boston, an evening high school was established in lbb'9, discontinued in 1881, and re-estab- lished in 1882. Two branches of this school have been opened in recent years. In 1888 the school committee adopted a course of iction for each department of study pursued in the school, which included the subjects of English . composition, German, ch, Latin, penmanship, phonography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, book-keeping, history and civil government, physiology, and hygiene. At the same time a plan was adopted for the giving of certificates to pupils satisfactorily completing the course of instruction in the several subjects. In this school the " elective system " is firmly established, and no particular time is required to complete the whole or any part of the courses provided, although a diploma can hardly be earned in less than three or four years. The courses c' the same as ([ in the . "iir I IK):.' r of stude l''oi- tin; tion of 1,000 dollars v. b ng lecture-. \\hilst for the, last year the appropriation for the. -ame ] .is i.Lldl) dob Tlu ~i evening schools, in which there are 219 : average number of pupils belonging to these schools ;iid the average attendance is 4,153. In addition, there awing schools with o9 ( J pupils, and an a 'tendance i.f 41 The evening classes in domestic science provide for instruction in millinery, dressmaking, cookery, needlework, crewel work, and idery. The tuition is all free. I was informed by one of the prim-ipa's thai a lesson in any one of these subjects would cost each student a dollar if they were obtained at any private institution. inquiry I found that there has never been the slightest objection raised by tradesmen or others to the appropriation of public money for these purposes. A unique feature in connection with the American evening schools is that day scholars attend in considerable numbers in order to get assistance with their home lessons. In many eve ools concerts are held on Friday evenings. The manual training, drawing, and commercial classes are al ly attended. The Chicago public evening schools are attended by 9,104 pupils, and of these 4,323 are Americans. Very large numbers of pupils also attend the evening classes at the Athenaaim, v excellent instruction is given in elementary subjects, drawing, stenography, bock-keeping, and domestic science. i ud Industry in America. The supreme test of a nation's educational system is to be found in the quality of the citizens which it produces. That the average American Js more ellicient, industrially and commercially, than is the citizen of any other country is very generally admitted. It m;iy >nrd by some whether the public school system has very materially affected the economic progress of the American nation, but I think the evidence adduced by American businessmen and educators is conclusive upon the point. Professor Murray Butler, of Columbia I'nm rsity, states : "Where the public school in the United States is longest, there the average prod atest. This can hardly be a coincidence. When the of science finds such a coincidence as this in his test tub proclaims it a scientific discovery proved by inductive evidence. The average school period for the whole of the United States was, in That for .Massachusetts is seven years. The pro- portion is as 70 to 4M. It is interesting to note that the proportion "'n the productive capacity of each individual in Massachusetts and that of each individual in the whole 1 .ates is to 37 education 70 to 43, productivity 66 to 37. On the basis of 306 working days, and a population just over two millions, every cit: chusetts is to be credited with a productive capacity of JSS;, 4 dollars i E 9d.) every year more than the average of the United States as a whole." WHITHURX.] 390 President -Tames, of the .North- Western University, appears to entertain a somewhat different opinion. He points out that it was 'the forging ahead of the United States from a position of com- parative unimportance to a position in the very front rank of highly civilised nations, in wealth and population . . . which led foreign cs to ask, what is the real secret of this phenomenon. . . . It is natural that among the explanations of this remarkable fact should be advanced the proposition that the educational institutions of the United States were responsible for a large part of this remarkable prosperity. . . . The men who have made this country and are making the great things we see about us to-day could not be the product of this system (i.e., the remarkable and excellent system of high schools and technical schools) simply because it did not exist at the time when they received their training. Our greatest feats of engineering were performed by men who never attended a really good school of technology. In brief, it is probable that the American school is the product of the American spirit rather than the American spirit the product of the American school." President James does not deny that the future success of the country's industries may be materially advanced by the more liberal training in the arts and sciences of the rising generation. President Eoosevelt said, when addressing the members of the Commission at the White House : " Education may cot save a nation, but a nation would certainly be ruined without it." The student of American business and social institutions is invariably brought to ask himself whether this enterprising and capable people are the product of the national system of education, or whether the educational system is the result of the national spirit ? One may fitly speak of " a national system," for, whilst every State and city has its own special organisation, there is an essential unity in the aims of the authority to make education universally accessible, and by means of it to lift up the whole population. Very many of the great industrial concerns were established by men who received but a scanty education themselves, but who, nevertheless, have steadily relied upon the assistance of expert young men to help them in the development of the great enter- prises for which the country is famed. The " backwoodsman " type of man possessed great resourceful- ness and energy, but the men who have done the great things in American industrial enterprise within the past 30 years have, nearly all of them, received some sort of special training. The men who have climbed to the top by means of intense labour and "burning of midnight oil" have been the first to recognise the advantage to be derived from a sound elementary course of instruction, in which manual training should be made a prominent feature. One need only enter such great concerns as the General Electric Company's "Works, the National Cash Eegister Works, or the Baldwin Locomotive Works, to be amazed at the number of men under 40 who hold very responsible positions. The general manager of the Cash Register Works is only 30, whilst his assistant manager is but 29. I spent some days with the 125 officers of the Cash Register Works, and found that every one had received a good education of some sort. I was assured by the chief of the inventions department 391 [WIUTI of tliat concern that the " best and most of their inventions and improvements of machinery were brought about by those who .(;ited, ;iiid wlio were aide to embody their ideas in a creditable- drawing." This is the sort of testimony one meets with on every band. In the Tinted States, more than in any other country, one finds that the business man is also an educator, and that the educator is a business man also. l>r. Humphreys, the President of tin Stevens Institute of Technology, and several of the brothers Pratt, of the Pratt Institute, are actively engaged in the conduct of large business concerns. Very many of the professors of electrical and mechanical Engineering, of chemistry, physics, etc., are not only allowed but are encouraged to undertake outside work. It is considered that the man who is constantly required to put his talents to practical use in competition with others is much more likely to be up-to-date as the instructor of those who desire to learn. The American business man is more often an educationalist than an active politician. Nearly every large industrial concern has some sort of educational centre, or department, into which is directed an enormous amount of money and personal energy. The money spent on public education by no means represents the whole effort of the nation to raise itself to a higher intellectual level. As the result of his superior education, the American workman requires less supervision and direction than is customary in this country. I have been informed by machinists that they are all required to read drawings, and to work directly from them, instead of having the job " marked off" by an official in the works. The popular notion that the American workman labours at high pressure from very early to very late is altogether erroneous. Machine produc- tion has been brought to such a high state of perfection that the American workman is very seldom or never seen to be in a hurry, and certainly does not perform nearly the amount of hard manual labour which is performed by the average workman in this country. It has been stated with authority that one foreman has been able to take charge of and control the operations of 1,800 men employed in engi neering work. Fortunately, for American industrial enterprise, all positions of responsibility are open to any man of superior ability, and such things as giving leading positions to men because of family or money interest are scarcely known at all. The American employer and the American workman are agreed with respect to one matter, and that is, the advisability of doing by machine production whatever can be done to lighten manual labour. The American is always ready to adopt, or adapt, any new system or method in order to increase productivity with the least expenditure of manual effort. So eager are American workmen to acquire a technical knowledge of their trades that the authorities of the Pratt Institute informed us that they were reluctantly compelled to refuse one-half of those who applied for admission to their classes for engineering drawing. This great institution employs no fewer than 115 teachers, whilst idents themselves have organised what is called a " neighbour- ship association," for the purpose of employing their spare time in giving instructions to others in the courses which they themselves have been instructed in. So far as the Auchmuty trade schools of New York are concerned, I am of opinion that they undoubtedly attempt too much, particularly when they seek to teach a building trades labourer the trades of bricklaying, plastering, and masonry. WH: Ainoriciin industrial progress is due more than anything el-se to the dotcni inaiion shown by the American working classes to equip themselves in the most thorough-going faskion. Hundreds of employers testify to the fact that there has been au improvement in tlic quality of the work and an increase in the quantity of the output as the result of technical education. The labour unions agree with the testimony of the Government Department of Labour that . ve increased proportionately with the increase in produc- Many employers very wisely allow their employes to attend s for trade and technical instruction during the afternoon, without loss of wages, recognising tfeat this ultimately means greater economy in production. Mr. Johnson, director of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, informed me that the trade and manual training schools are indispensable, whilst the technical schools have made the country great. The tendency in these schools is more and more to specialise. In England a little education is regarded as being necessary to equip the youth for some clerical work, but in the, Cnhed States the manual training courses correct this tendency, and there is much greater desire displayed to follow some mechanical employment. The American people are thoroughly progressive and are extremely optimistic. Da*. Sayre, principal of a manual training school in Philadelphia, informed me that he had not a single rule wherein the expression " thou shalt not " could be found. The aim of the Commission was to inquire into and trace, as far as possible, the influence of American educational effort upon the industrial and commercial affairs of the nation. I am convinced, from all that I have seen, that however great the achievements of the past have been, they are as nothing compared with the progress which I believe will be made in the immediate future. On every hand I saw the evidence of a scientific and technical training in industrial operations. At the National Cash Eegister Works I saw machines in operation which take 103 separate cutting and boring tools, and I was assured that these machines were all evolved by their own employes. I believe that the American employers, by the adoption of the wise policy of giving encouragement to men of inventive minds, by rewarding those who suggest improvements in machinery, and by giving increased remuneration to those who operate such machines, have done, and are doing, much to increase their trade and to menace that of British producers who are in any lirouglit into competition with them. So far as I can see, there _ r ent need for all those who are in any way concerned about the future of our industries to give the most earnest consideration to the question of the practical education of our artisan class, for after all the man of science cannot be effective in industrial operations -s there are those about him who can effectively carry out his ideas. ;>ent the last three weeks of my time in the United Stales in ig a large number of industrial concerns, and in studymg the conditions under which the working people of the country live and labour. I have formed a very high opinion of the American workers of both sexes. The men are alert, highly intelligent, sober, and self-respecting in the highest degree. The American workman is invariably courteous and accommodating in a word, a gentle- man. With respect to the women who work for a living, I have '*IN. f the nploym nson, of the National -. oi having p in tli - dining-room-,. Ti<- <\ I-COMOM.IC vain. n wlwch contributes to the intellectual vigour and th mploye. Becv I. The age for compulsory 'attendance in the schools should be d to !") CM- Hi \,'ars. number of children in any one class should not e r facilities for manual instruction should he ]>n>\ i;d attention should be paid to drawing and \vori ice in wood and ironwork for boys, and in the donii^tis sc and needlework for girls. In both primary and secondary schools ;- of money need to be obtained for the equipment of the manual training dcpar t. The (.lablishincnt, out of public funds, of free secon- particularly for manual and commercial training. The development of the evening schools and classes, and their popularisation, so that they become everything that can l> in the way of " continuation schools." The granting of graatcr opportunities by employers of labour for apprentices to receive a theoretical and practical training during the daytime and in the evening. 7. The provision of numerous free lectu ncational character such as would appeal to the artisan and the lab" uirpose all school buildings should ! ,rge. Teachers should " specialise " more, and be re-mired to teach only two or three subjects. JOHN WHITI; 394 ducat!onal Commission. Report of Mr. THOMAS BARCLAY. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION AND AMERICAN PROSPERITY. No branch of education has given rise to more vague and useless discussion than that of commercial education. The assumption is that it has been dealt with successfully in other countries, and that we are lagging behind where others are going more and more briskly forward. The examples of Germany and Belgium and France have been held up to us by reproachful reformers, and we have studied official and other education reports, and tried fitfully to take the lesson given us by the pessimists. We have even tried our own hands at schools of commerce, at a University Commercial Faculty, and yet we are dissatisfied. In fact, we are practically in the same position as five years ago when Mr. Lyulph Stanley wrote : " What is greatly to be feared is that public opinion in the commercial world is at best at the stage of a vague dissatisfaction with things as they are, but does not realise how thorough and how purely intellectual should be the preliminary training of the man of business." The opinions of commercial men, however, are not alone to be consulted on this subject. At the very best, they can only have the value of personal experience. They are necessarily limited by the actual requirements of individual businesses, and what is true of the one may or may not be true of another. Moreover, a distinction must be made between the general or national point of view and the class point of view, and an education which may be extremely useful for the creation of unam- bitious, hard-working, painstaking employes may not favour the training of the men by whom the ultimate national prosperity can best be promoted. It was with these ideas in mind that some years ago I was called upon, as President of the British Chamber of Commerce in Paris, to deal with the question of commercial education. In 1899 I was invited by Mr. Hemelryk, chairman of the] Liverpool School of Com- merce, to lay my views before a number of leading educationalists and public-spirited business men of Liverpool. I think we all felt the truth of Mr. Stanley's observation, and that we were more or less upon a v/rong track in generalising from the analogies of kindred subjects. It had been assumed that commerce is a profession like the law or medicine as if there were a body of principles applicable to commerce and a mass of experimental knowledge based on them which can be classed and taught in the same way as different branches of legal and medical science. When the subject was approached in detail, we found that there were no principles but those of the science of economics, which is not the same thing, and that what was really useful to men in business was a more or less specialised adjunct of secondary education. ' Miiliar with : 'Is in the countrir-, 1 bave I 'all proportion, if any, of their successful business nr-n h tve b>-cn trum-d in hools or faculties, and what a large proportion, on tin: other hand, of In the consular and administral educated in these institutions. Amid all this doubt and hesitation and the unsatisfactory evidence of continental nations, I was glad to accept Mr. invitation to join his Educational Commission for the purpose of examining the subject in a country of our kith and kin, where the circumst,; would probably be more analogous to our own than in continental Europe, and where the question was not complicated, as in .al Europe, by compulsory military service. Those who have had access to the American official publications on commercial education, especially President James's remarkable study on the subject in the two volumes " On Education in the United States," edited by President Butler in connection with the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and Mr. Hartog's valuable monograph on commercial schools in the Cnited States, included in the educational series edited hy Mr. Sadler for the Board of Education, have been able to obtain a very fair idea of the details of the subject. Yet it is only when one comes into actual daily contact with the j, business men, and statesmen of the United States that one really begins to understand the American standpoint, and to see that it, too, is totally different from our own. Elsewhere I hope to discuss, more fully, the objects and ideals of American education as a whole ; butt E may at once say here that American primary .education is complicated by problems arising out of a large alien immigration, for which there is no corresponding element in educational problems in this country, jint as continental secondary . tion is complicated in another way. The necessary broadening of the base of primary education in the United States gives educationalists a weaker foundation on which to build secondary education. They have, therefore, to strengthen the intellectual Jibre produced by the rather loose work of the primary school by throwing a large amount of primary work into the secondary schools. This, again, carries a good deal of secondary work forward to the higher educational establishments. There is no problem of commercial education, in the sense in which we understand it, in a country wh'-iv practically everybody will probably enter a career of commerce or industry. Nor is there ^uch thing know;: in the United States as fixing a child's future in its tender years. The American social idea is to give the chill all the education he or she can use. The boy who feels his fitness for any particular career is provided with the means of obtaining the training for it, and is not in way dependent for obtaining it upon his parents' means. The Hruish. mind must at once disabuse itself of the idea that Harvard and Yale are educational centres for the seventy or eighty millions forming the population of the V States. They are only two universities which have more or lesi resisted the democratic tendencies of the New World. Every State of the Union has its own universities and colleges, and is working out its own problems, the foremost of which is to bring every branch of education within the reach of everyone without distinction of fortune. So much is this felt to be an essential factor in the v that its richer citizens are not only lo willingly give a large proportion of their millions t<. j>rom<.u- this object. facilities for obtaining higher education has grown uily real American problem in connection with commercial education : the problem of what is the proper age for a young man : '-or business, and of whether a college education that is. an education which absorbs a young man's life from 18 or 19 to 21 or 2J years of age is a desirable addition to the mental and moral equipment fitted lor a commercial career, or whether secondary education sulhces. 1 have had rather exceptional opportunities during my four months' stay in the United States of ascertaining the opinions of Americans generally on educational questions I mean, of Americans not delegated specially to give enlightenment and I have made a point of knowing the views of as many business men as possible in regard to education. I may say at once that the id< specialising lor business purposes at school is not current among business men. The only business education that the American business man, so far as I have been able to ascertain, approves of is that given in so-called business colleges special training schools in which lads, having received a high school or secondary education, are rapidly taught a number of matters of routine and conventional knowledge which dispense with the loss of time caused by "rawness" in the apprentice. I venture to say that anything so perfect as "Packard's College" in New York, which has no pretence to do more than this, does not exist elsewhere. All are agreed that high school or secondary education should be made as practical as possible. The reports of my fellow Commissioners on this subject will show how this requirement is being met. There are several secondary schools which are called commercial high schools. Their programmes are simply those of the ordinary high schools with a little specialisation in some, branches for the requirements of business. The differences might be adopted by all secondary schools with advantage in a practical age like our own. The question of whether a college career is desirable in addition to the secondary education which every American citizen considers indispensable is one upon which there is divided opinion. Assuming that a boy gets a good mental discipline by 18 years of age, most business men, however, seem to think that a college education, with its necessarily more or less relaxed personal discipline and its more or less speculative studies, directs into unpropitious currents the most adaptable years of a young man's life, and that a boy of 1H entering business can more rapidly and efficiently adapt himself to its requirements than, as an American said to me, the "top- heavy" young college men of 22. On the other hand, in actual practice most rich business men send their sons to college. This is, of course, explained by the social advantages a college education procures for a young man outside his business, and in many cases it provides what the self-made father may have personally felt the want of. This question, however, has not much practical interest for Englishmen, who will mostly agree to the proposition that three years spent at Oxford or Cambridge do not tit a young man for a commercial career, except that it opens pp a lateral question affecting all educational c> men of ii .1 of the experienc;; of ! r.i Dniversitj, wl Is that the young . \nifi :naii, tli'' school at 1'.) (m th< utal level as the young Ainoricau at 21. ..he case .oung nan aii'; ie former aKo being about I have accounted to s< . :it for ence in the case of Americans. Th<- n of the .-.anlness ; Knglishmen is, no doubt, due to the had ods of in in English schools, and especially to the i bestowed in thorn to sport. Other members of the Mosely Commission will probably deal with these, defective methods. A number of American educationalists are endeavouring to strengthen the mental discipline of secondary education with :able the American, like the (ierman and Scotch boy, to begin his bread-earning work or studies, whatever they may be, at 18. I commend this to ray fellow countrymen, and would suggest that the objects of teaching Latin as training for the imagination, of Greek as an enlargement of the tal vision, of mathematics as promoting concentrated reasoning, .'lunar ;md literature as a discipline in accuracy and precision, are lost sight of in our higher secondary education, which has -elf altogether wrong ideals through a mistaken view of examinations. When we get closer to Americans, we see that, in spite of all their apparent superficiality, their schools are turning out more active, .'ss-like, hard-working, enterprising young men than either the English or the German schools young men with greater ambition and self-reliance, and a greater capacity for development, equally courageous in work, and more sober in their lives, with a higher sense of industrial integrity, an all-round greater pleasure in effort, and better humour in adversity. That this higher social tone in America is among the causes of . ican prosperity must be taken for granted. But there are causes for it. There is : 1. The immense field presented by an under-peopled country for enterprise ; '_'. Tiie gr< at natural resources and variety of climates, which make it p. produce on American soil practically everything 'pulation \\ant-- : i 'he enormous immigration into the country of men who have had the necessary pluck and independence to leave their own country and settle in a new one, men who are increasing the fitness of the population generally for the struggle for life ; i. To some extent the constant increase in demand for every kind of product due to these very immigrant*, who represent a certain of purchasing power from "the fact that everybody coming into the country must have some means of temporary subsistence. ly, there is the variety of the immigrant stocks. All nations some good characteristics, and America has the pick of them. In the Eastern cities and Chicago, whence ray information is derived, all agree in placing foremost among them the Scotch. Their education, perseverance, attention to detail, and all-round capacity B.-.: 398 for grappling with difficulties that require care and forethought have made them unrivalled where these qualities are sought after. rica does not produce quite a similar kind of man. The (uTin;in, with his wide, accurate knowledge, tenacity, and industry, is also almost a unique product which America does not seem to turn out. In the same category must be placed the Scandinavian. Ireland sends over the dominating race, which, with its genius for man aging men, shows the uniqueness of its power by practically governing a large part of the country. All these races, it is true, become American in the second genera- tion, and, in the course of a few decades, it is almost impossible to distinguish the one from the other. Even the names often become merged in English or English-looking names, such as Nilsson in Nelson, Kosenfeld in Eosenfield, and so on. The product of the amalgamation is the ingenious, hard-working, good-humoured, adapt- able being who fits himself into any situation that presents itself, which the American is, but the immigration goes on as ever, filling up the vacancies, from the old sources. The same heterogeneous elements, which have worked themselves into one of the strongest homogeneous types of the world in England, are growing together and making an American type. The energy and enterprise of the immigrant, and his good health which goes with and more or less accounts for them, are seen in the tall muscular frames and massive heads of the men and the erect, handsome, and alert figures of the women. If there is any truth in atavism, the new American type will be a combination of the best that Europe can supply. The dominant feature in it is the Irish, with its enormous vitality, its healthy good humour and buoyancy, and its ingenuity and resourcefulness. It prevails down to the facial expression. What was done in England by isolation from the parent stocks, which forced on inter-marriage, is being done in the United States by statecraft by this education which every politician and every patriot looks upon as the smelting process by which the new people can be made homogeneous on lines of democratic independence and manly freedom, and which gives all in common that English language which is associated with the races in whose veins such ideas run with their life-blood. American education, however, has set itself another ideal the highest any free nation can set itself that of saving the country from the pauperising curse of public charity. In Great Britain we have not always understood Mr. Andrew 7 Carnegie's rule of insisting that whoever asks for help shall also help himself. This salutary rule is not only Mr. Carnegie's. It is American. It is directly aimed against the growth of pauperism and the maudlin public charity which engenders it. The democratising of every kind of education by placing it within everybody's reach free of cost, it is hoped by Americans, will promote adaptability, the absence of which in Great Britain is probably one of the causes of a pauperism which has no parallel in any other country. This adaptability is the second great object of American educational policy. The visitor has only to ask every other native-born American to tell him his history, to see how admirably it works in practice. , I hope I have not in any way produced an impression that I am holding up America as a paradise in all respects. Nearly 399 everything there, political, industrial, and educational, is in an iital condition, and many mistakes have. \>< Thus, an apparently mistakm and in any case uncompromising attitude on the part of the trade unions has probably been at tho root of the remarkable progress in labour-saving machinery which strikes every European. That necessity promotes invention has been proved by an extraordinary activity in the devising of machinery. It seems to me that the future of the Am. working classes lies in a clearer understanding of the fact that there is a point at which it becomes profitable to pay royalties and acquire patent rights and break up existing machinery rather than accept the terms of labour; that, in fact, labour is a commodity, subject to the general laws governing the development of new methoiU. Again, defective political institutions make it difficult to grapple with the situations arising out of the concentration of whelming industrial power in few hands. This financial and industrial dictatorship strikes the European as strangely out of harmony with the political and social ideals of modern democracy, otherwise so consistently pursued on the other side of the Atlantic. It is, nevertheless, certain that public spirit in America is every- where on a higher democratic plane than in Great Britain, and, whatever the mistakes, the widespread nature of the effort to improve everything can only excite the warmest admiration of Europeans. The fact most suggestive for everybody who visits the United States is the extraordinary interest the whole population, from highest to lowest, and richest to poorest, takes in education, not on the question of who is to be the governing body of the school or of who is to collect the money to be applied for its upkeep or what the particular denominational views on church government of the teachers may be, but on the question of how to turn out the most capable and adaptable young men and women and how to train the best teachers for this purpose. Everybody among the adult popula- tion of the country, born within it, is a politician, and the chief point in his political creed, whether he belongs to the one party or the other, is to obtain for the people the very best education which it is possible to procure. The sense of proportion which at one time was characteristic of the British people seems, in some mysterious way, to have migrated to the other side of the Atlantic. It is remarkable, on returning to this country, to observe that we seem to be doing nothing for its own sake and least of all in education. Another point which strikes the British visitor to the United States, in connection with education, is the constant preo of the American educationalist as to certain objects which are not usually considered in this country to be essential to education. Thus, every American teacher, primary as well as secondary, endeavours to infuse a current of good humour, of joy cf life, into his or her pupils, a joy of life which never forsakes them, accounts for the bright, smiling faces one encounters everywhere amongst American children and native-born Americans. The American teacher especially never loses sight of the greatest object of all child-training, preparation for adult life, the development to its fullest possible extent of the child's moral and physical capacities. Just as the children are taught to hold themselves erect and get their full size out of what nature has given them, so it is with their BARCLAY.] 400 moral qualities. The influence of the teacher, moreover, extends to the homes of the children, and parent and teacher are in league the child every possibility of development It would 1, of course, to say that this high tone is to be found everywhere throughout the United States, but it is the growing tendency everywhere. The acquisition of knowledge is becoming of less and less importance as compared with the development of character, health, and adaptability, and with the making of the hamly man and handy woman who can turn themselves to anything Toetrain them to keep out of want is the end to which the teache. stadily applies himself, and educational subjects are selected andr time is given to them in proportion to their value for this purpose. In Great Britain progress in the same direction is noticeable in many of our educational centres, especially in Scotland. Of European countries, Germany, with her primary schools and her democratic university teaching, is at present running almost step for step with America. It is not without significance that these countries are the two which are supposed to be beating us in the commercial race. THOMAS BAECLAY. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. JAN 1 1 MAR 1 8 1961 MAR 31 1981 1 1973 NOV 5 1373 COL UB. SUBJECT TO EL liO RECE1VEO 6 Form L9-50m-9,'60(B3610B4)444 ::_tr 4 LicirtARY UCLA-ED/PSYCH Library LA 209 M85 "V "" """ '""'" ' II I N I'll II III I I I A 000953216 9